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Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames p.t> required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre film6s d des taux de reduction diff6rents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clichd, il est fi!md d partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 « 1 (* Inttrirattonal ^buration Serifs EDITED BY WILLIAM T. HARRIS, A.M., LL.D. Volume A I A'. ELEMP]NTARY PEDAGOGV. !♦ ; CONTRIBUTIONS BY JOSEPH BALDWIN, A. M., LL. D. Volume I. Art of School Man- agement. Kirksville. Missouri Stiit»^ Noriual School, Volume II. Elementary Psychology. Vol. VI, Int. ICd. Ser. Huntsville. Te.xus State Normal School. Volume III. PsYCnOLO(JY applied to the Art of Teaching. Vol. XIX, Int. Ed. Ser. Austin. University of Texas. Volume IV. School Man- age.ment and School Methods. Vol. XL, Int. ICd. Ser. Austin. University of Texas. I. Educational Iiistruiueiitalities and School Hygiene. II. School Organi/.ution and Classitication. III. School Govenunent and Educative Punish- ments. IV. Courses of Study and Programmes. V. Class Management and Methods of Teaching. VI. Examination, Marking, Records, Promotion, and Graduation. VII. Professional Education, School Supervision, and Educational Progress. I. Instinct, Sensorium. Sensation, and Atten- tion. 11. Sense Perception, Self Perception, and Ne- cessary Perception. III. Memory, P''ancy, and Imagination. IV. Conception, Judgment, and Reason. V. Egoistic Emotions, Altruistic Emotions, and Cosmic Emotions. VI. Will— AUention, Choice, and Action. VII. Physiological Psychology and Education. I. Education of the Perceptive Activities. II. Education of the Representative Activities. III. Education of the Reflective Activities. IV. Education of the P'motional Activities. V. Education of the Will Activities. VI. The Art of Teaching and Teaching Methods. VII. Application of Psychology to teaching Con- duct Studies, Language-Literature Stud- ies, Science Studies, Mathematics Studies, and Art Studies. I. Pupil Betterment through Better F^duca- tional Conditions. II. Pupil Betterment throiigh Better Educa- tional Facilities. III. Pupil Improvement through Educative School Government. IV. Pupil Improvement through Educative Cor- relation of Schools and School Work. V. Pupil Betterment through Educative Cla*s Management and Class Methods. VI. Pupil Improvement through Efficient Meth- ods of teaching the Conduct Studies, the Language-Literature Studies, the Science Studies, the Mathematics Studies, and the Art Studies. VII. Pupil Betterment through Educative School Unification and Supervision. ol ll- S- n, ri. 1- B- I 4$ \ w INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES. 12mo. cloth, uniform binding. T"Aira^^^7S?,^^^^^ waa projected for the pur- old.Vpon educational Xb?ct8 and SSenC^rrmnW ^'^ '^'^^l''^^ "«*^"<» training for teachern general y j^Ki^^ United^tates Conimissroner of i:ducation S h^„.^^^ ?\ "a«i"«. lI-D., voIum-8 in the way of introdiictkm a. i vii. „^ ?"" contributed for the different tastefully and eubJtantiSy bSd inZtt «['yd,j;«°>n>entary. The volnmea are VOLUMAS NOW READY '■ 'Dfct^o?Jf?S?o^JJ,^^nSS£f,ro??^ ^•.^' Ro«HNKn.Kz. Translated by Ka C Bhackett *'i?,Sy'i>'''^^"'^y ""^ I^O''iKHbcrg mentary andcomplctoAnalyBle libo ^ '"'°' '«v'««d, with Com- 2. A HIST(JRY OF EDUCATION. Bv f! V N Painter A M Pr«f»oo , 4 TH p' V JSirr" '^"^ HiBtorrorEd'^a^ioXiv'erSit/o'^id'i^^^^^^ ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDITATtniw i.„ r WIN, A.M., LL. D., aullorof 'Tte L„f'8choofM~'mSr™«;fM'* lated by H. W. Brown $10)' ^'^^^^^'^^'^ "^ Physiology in Jena. Trana- EDUCATIO:^^ IN THE UNITED STATPq • in,, tt go?y! SruS4^ n/fr ^' B^o^r rT«^Xsro«fVe^dl- 'S^L^kTa^nI^S^W^^T^e"^^^^^ -«- schools O.GKBHAKX, Xt^l.I?.l.StfcS^e^S^^^^ %«-EnT H,«.BKB, work ai;) rewritten in 18w|i:50.^ ^ authorized edition of the 6. 7. 8. 9. 11 12. 18 14 17, THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIE8.-{ Continued.) 18. 19. 80. 81. 28. 24. 25. 88. 87. \^Sr&Vi!.ilS=KT.?S. ,W"" •^■-"- =•--'• ROU88EAU\S fiMILE : or, Tkeatise on Education. Tranhlfltod «nrt .n nSii'^ 'Ji. qrrnwTiAwv SCHOOLS. By Isaac Shabplk.h. LL. DTPrcaldVJt o^ H^avS^lte??. ^Jii^'^JS ^""^^ "^ NATIONAL STANDPOINT. By ALrnrD Fouil- ^^,^J1^^^ DEVELOPMENT IN THE CHILD. !> V/. Prkyer. Professor of Physiology in Jena. Translated by H. W. BBoim jTl 00 ^^°''*«" ^S!?:irTE?iv^.?^.T^ii^« 2.^«P«Y- By B. A. HxN;i>A.n, Ph. D.. ' IIOTHBR 80 81. 82. 88. 84. 86. 88. 87. 40. 41. LL. D., University of Michigan. $1.50. T.M^^'^'^^^ ^^^^^^^ TEACHING. By Edward Gardnxer Howh. ™L5a^^^^^^^^^ ^^ '^^^ ^^^^^ ™P^=- By Thoiias Davidson. ^laJfo^TS^ ^^ ™*= KINDERGARTEN. By Friedbich Fr.or^Ei.. '^SS)THKR PT AV ^^ COIIMENTARIES OF FRIEDRICH FROEBEL'S MOTHER PLAY. By Susan E. Blow and Henrietta R. Eliot f 1 60 '^^usfKE^IirsS'''^ ""^ FROEBEL'S MOTHER PLAY. By '^oI'tSSS.^^?^! ^^ NUMBER, AND ITS Applications to Methods DbwIt, Ph D K""™' ^ '^*"^' ^- McLellan, A.IJ., and Jora '^Rv «°^I^V^^ LANGUAGE-ARTS. Speech, Reading, Composition. tL?>,'j ^- .^i^^^rf ^=' ^^ ^-J ^h ^-^ Professor of Science knd the Art of Teaching in the University of Michigan. $1.00. THE INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT OP THE CHILD i art I. Containing Chapters on Perception, Emotion, Memory' iMAGWATioN, AND CONSCIOUSNESS. Bv Gabriel CoMPATRfi. Translated PrT^ni^f^ l'^''?^ ^^I^'^^J^.F- W'^«ON, k L. Smith College, Member of thJ Graduate Seminary in Child Study, University of California. $1 50 ^wn^l^'^'Vw^ ^^ SENSE-PERCEPTION, AND INTRODUCTORY u[ *? T?" . By William J. Eckoff, Ph. D.. Pd. D., Professor of Pedaeocv il S^ ^"^^^'^'ty of I"inois ; Author of "Kant's Inaugural Dk.fiSilx?^ ^¥^^?^i%Z L^L^S^^SIS^^^ «^ EDUCATION. By William T. "^T? ?5^^^°^.^^^.'^J=^ O^ ONTARIO. By the Hon. George W Ross LL. D., Mmister of Education for the Province of Ontario $1 00 ' TSi^^^^^ AND PRACTICE OP TEACHING. By James Johonnot. ^^.^'iLM.^"^^^^®^ ^^^ SCHOOL METHODS. By Josbph BAia>. Til^f ?^H^ EDUCATIONAL LAWS FOR ALL TEACHPRS p James L. Hughes, Inspector of Schools. Toronto $1.50 "^'^^- By OTHER VOLUMES IN PREPARATION. Toronto : GEORGE N. MORANG, 63 Yonge St. INTERNA TIONA L ED UCA TION SERIES H PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO THE ART OP TEACHING BY JOSEPH BALDWIN, A. M., LL. D MANAOKMKNT AND " BIJIMENTARY P8YCHOLOOT " WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY JAMES GIBSON HUME. M.A.. Ph.D. Professor of Philosophy, University of Toronto. TORONTO : GEORGE N. MORANG, XOi 97. LB 165/ Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand eight hundred and ninety-seven. by Georok N. Morang, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture. INTRODUCTION TO CANADIAN EDITION. It is said that, in some of the engagements in a war lately waged, tons of ammunition were ued and yet only comparatively few of the comt' ants were killed or wounded. It was not meTelt «n mstance of poor marksmanship on a So scale, or a war correspondent reported that the majonty never aimed at all, and many had even -rnfes^:tr'^" '^•"^ *^'' ^^^^^z veniences. In the great educational army, in its campaign against ignorance, do we no Vnt similar conditions and a like w;ste of the inflnitelv enZfe:"!! 'f '""r""" °^ "^^ forces and t energies, all for want of "aim." This volume i, an end d to assist the young educational rcru^ whle they are engaged in target practice LtT; traming institutes. It is written by one x penenced in teaching and in training tlJZ for" abie to draw up intellig:;^^ own r„ SS: successful prosecution of his calling as an rdudtor INTRODUCTION TO CANADIAN EDITION. This book is not meant to bo <' memorized "—the author insists that it is simply intended to suggest and guide tlie search for self-knowledge, which the educational explorer must conduct for himself. Many young people have read books such as Smiles"' Self-Help," and Blackie's <' Seif-Culture." They will find that the best book to direct them m self-help and self-culture is a good work on Psy- chology properly utilized. Many have consulted phrenologists to discover their capabilities and aptitudes, not knowing that a study of Psychology would enable them to know more about their own powers and disposition than any phrenologist could tell them. Perhaps others have sent for some well-advertised device for memory-strengthenmg, while the only means of training memory is a judicious conformity to the laws of menta acqui- sition and reproduction as they are unfolded in Psychology. To attain to this insight no expensive laboratory, no costly apparatus is required. Psychology while valuable in the education of every one, is of paramount importance to the teacher. . ,.^ An able thinker writes: "There is no question of importance, which is not comprised in the Science of Man ; and there is none, which can be decided with any certainty, before we become acquainted with that science."* •Hume. "Treatise on Human Nature." INTKODUCTION TO CAN..x)IAN EDITION. Wundt says ; « Psychology is in relation to natural science the supplementary, in relation to the mental sciences the fundamental, and in rela- tion to philosophy the propcBdeutic empirical science." \ This is an age of remarkable progress in the natural sciences. For the advancement of natural science itself, psychology is of great service. A scientist with true psychological insight, says that the majority of scientists are teaching their pupils facts, facts, facts, while th ^v should be teaching method, method, method. Let the pupils learn how to discover for themselves. Investigation should not be curtailed ; development should not be curtailed ; development should not be lopsided. For full knowledge and symmetrical growth the psychical enquiries must be conjoined to the physical. This is an age of intense interest in the social sciences. All such enquiries rest upon the know- ledge of human nature. Philosophical and theo- logical problems maintain their perennial interest and importance. The preparation for the examin- ation and comprehension of these lofty themes is through the antecedent study of Psychology The central position of Psychology, and its in- timate connection with all lines of human enquiry r^^^^ inestimable value to the teacher who f Wundt, "Outlines of Psychology." I II INTRODUCTION TO CANADIAN EDITION. desires to co-ordinate all his knowledge into a mutually supporting system, thus making his ex- perience a fruitful starting-point for the acquisition and '^assimilation" of further knowledge. It helps him to understand the educational signi- ficance and value of different studies, and to adopt methods suitable to the subject taught, and ad- apted to the mental cv^nditions of his pupils. It leads him to acquire an absorbing and intelligent interest in his pupils and in everything that con- cerns their physical, mental, and moi .1 well-being. It aids him in avoiding many mistakes on his own part. It enables him to a iist his pupils in guard- ing against many dangers that beset them. It leads to at least the beginning of an acquaintance- ship with many of the highest and most renowned exponents of the intellectual life of the race. Although the history of the science of Psycho- logy still remains unwritten, it has nevertheless had a noteworthy growth, extending over many centuries, and gathering up the wisdom of many of the ablest thinkers of every age. Beginning, as every science has done, in the vague generaliz- ations of ordinary experience recorded in language and literature, passing on to more explicit classi- fications, definitions, aad explanationsof a descrip- tive kind, it has at last become exact, definite, experimental and scientific, at least in aim and method, if not in full accomplishment. INTKODUCTION TO CANADIAN EDITION. A reference to Ward's excellent article on shew that he cites frequently from the following contubuted to the upbuilding of the science of Psychology: Plato, Aristotle, DesCartes, sln Hobbes Spmoza, Uibnitz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Hamilton, Mansel, J S. mTu' Darwm, Jlerbart, Lotze, Fechner, G;een, Ba n Herbert Spencer, Wundt. ' rin.!'^^"°'^"'''"*''"''**'P **'"' '"'S™ may in time tlTof r."'"'" °°'"''''*' """^ intelligent apprecia- h!Ln V r^*^'-P'«^« of the great leaders of human enlightenment. James Gibson Hume, Toronto. August. 1897. Pro/etsor of Philosophy. VniversitY 0/ Toronto EDITOE'S PEEFAOE. In the preface to Prof. Baldwin's Elementary Psv chology and Edneation (Vol. VI of this Education Senes) I have dwelt upon the broad distinction that exists between external observation and internal ob- servation, or between sense-perception and introspec- tion. External observation sees things and records their movements, changes, and inorganic properties Introspection perceives what goes on in the mind- namely, feelings, thoughts, and volitions. There is a wide difference between these two classes of objects Outside things are all related to environments, and Lore or less dependent on them The doctrine of' relativij hods upremely among them; each is what it is only through the relation it bears to something else; on the contrary, the objects of introspection pjtain to inde- self, o that winch is not only an object but also at the same time a subject. «rp ?Tr f ■ "^'^""^ °^ introspection are double-thev are both objects and subjects-they are phenomenal acts or manifestations, belonging to a self-and both are presented in consciousness or introspection. I per ceive my feelings, but not isolately or abstraotly-I VI APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. do not j3erceive feelings detached from a self or subject that feels, but in every case I perceive a self that is in the act or state of feeling. This is an essential distinc- tion to be borne in mind. I perceive not isolated and detached feelings, ideas, or volitions, but the feelings as I — the self — feel them ; the ideas as I think them ; the volitions as I will them. .The feelings, ideas, and volitions are phenomenal or dependent beings existing in and through a self which is their substance ; but the self is known to be a nou- menon, an independent being — a being that can origi- nate activity in itself and others ; it is a free being and a moral personality. We see by this that the act of introspection is worthy of the most careful study, because of the high charac- ter of its object. But the most important thing to no- tice here is that external perception has to be re-en- forced by introspection in order to enable it to perceive organic beings and their phenomena. This is a point which has escaped the attention of many of the stu- dents of physiological psychology. They speak of ob- jective methods of studying the mind, and take fre- quent opportunity to disparage introspection as an old and discarded method of studying the mind. This all comes from ignorance of the history of psychology, and especially from lack of familiarity with the works of the great thinkers in this field. If one has mastered Plato's RepuUio^ Sophist^ Parmenides, The Laws (espe- cially the tenth book), Tliemtetus^ and Timmus, he will never speak disparagingly of the results of inner expe- rience. If one has (not a mere grammatical or philo- logical, but) a scholarly acquaintance with Aristotle's EDITOR'S PREFACE. Vll book on the soul,* he will revere introspection as the eye of the soul itself, which sees not only the divine objects of knowledge, but also interprets for us the vast bulk of our external experience. Such, too, will be his reverence for introspection if he has studied those giaiits of modern philosophy, Kant, Fichte, Schell- ing and Hegel. It was well said of these men by a writer m The Dial fifty years ago: " These four phi- losophers would have been conspicuous in any age, and will hereafter, we think, be named with Plato, Aris- totle Bacon, Descartes, and Leibnitz, among the great thinkers of the world. Silently these lights arose and went up the sky without noise, to take their place among the fixed stars of genius and shine with them -names that will not fade out of heaven until some ages shall have passed away. These men were think- ers all-deep, mighty thinkers They sat on the brink of the well of Truth and continued to draw lor themselves and the world. Take Kant alone, and m the whole compass of thought we scarce know his superior. From Aristotle to Leibnitz we do not find his equal. No, nor since Leibnitz. :t^eed we say It? Was there not many a Lord Bacon in Immanuel Kant?" But the beginner in mental science is excusable if he does not admit the claims of introspection ; for it is a higher faculty which grows slowly with painstaking culture-of great worth, but costing ha^d mental work. Although the weakest mind possesses introspection in tlie fact that it is conscious of itself, it does not vet *Let him use the splendid text-book of Edwin Wallace "Aristofl«u J^sychology in Greek and English." vvauuci, Anstotle s Vlll APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. control it as an instrument of scientific discovery. It must discipline itself in order to acquire this power. The first step in this difficult road is to make an in- ventory of the three great departments oi mental phe- nomena, and the present volume will afford the student timely aid in this work. It will help the teacher in training his pupils into the second order of observation — tlie observation of noumena or self-activities. As I have above intimated, the first order of obser- vation — sense-perception — does not suffice to the per- ception of organic beings ; it can perceive only me- chanical things and movements. The phenomena of plant life, animal life, and human life involve self-ac- tivity, and they must be recognized and interpreted through our consciousness of our inner self, its desires and instincts, its ideas and volitions. We apperceive — to use the new technical word for this act of recognition and interpretation of what is perceived by what is known before — we apperceive plants and animals by referring their actions and mani- festations to inward selves analogous to our own. By no possibility can we perceive through external observation a feeling, a thought, or a volition in any object before us in time and space. The anatomy of the brain does not furnish anything visible or tangible that resembles a thought any more than does a wig- block. There is no known movement in the brain which indicates that any process of feeling or thought or will is going on. By introspection alone we see mind directly, and by its aid we conduct observations on what- ever in nature manifests life and mind. W. T. Harris. Washington, D. C, February h 1892. " AUTHOR'S PREFACE. The hope of producing a book I.elpful to the great brotherhood of teachers inspired this volume. DurirJ four decades these chapters have been given as lesson! o many classes of teachers. The practical resultsT a liou^nd schools have been observed with intense in- terest From year to year, in the light of experience and study and criticism, these lessons have beer^ modeled. They are now submitted in the form which seems to the author best calculated to aid teachers in prepanng themselves for their great work meantlT' " ^" V' l" '^'"''''^' *'"^ ^ook is not meant for you. lou feast on a profounder profes- onal hterature. But you are earnestly asked to fudgl flns work as a contribution to elementary pedaiogT Each paragraph was written to help ti,e teachers - made the difference betwe, '.hi fn °'™'' '" "' """ '^"'"^^>"'' the vigorous pereeivi .gIrt , ^ t ftT'"^ °' "" ""»"' """ this growth, this develtnmo t H, ' °, """"^ ""''^""^ ""«■ of effort. ThodiLvorvoTrh.., , "' discovered the law of promotin, se?;rp:::; r gr^lrf^i wed'™;;:: "' t-"-* step by step until we hml ,-»^ r ! ,''^^'^' ^h us we advanced n^il a daSt;!': T'er''™' T'*' "'^''"" '"'"-^■" - writers who looS a m,p ,* ..r^^u"' P™''"""* ""= »"'»tio„sof .."de.tand thr::r :rf :xxr rih v^"'" r ^^ts^oTth^t:— n -r "'■ ■'— " - - "t taught that the infant sod'i^'e::''::;"^'' T' "' ''■•°*'' "•»" cation develops: or iko /am7Z7ulonuT/T"r "•""" ""- a new psychology to fit L pedagl He ,„???• ll" "l"' ^«'"«' as a simple essence, and of the Sficf. ^ ° ""= '"'""' ^""' taught that "the power of Ilf 2„ ."''''"™' ''"^"'"■°»- "" perception and inel^ld r^n T'""''™', """ *» P"^- "' understand Herbert ipZ^^^^^^ZZT", '''"'' '^'^ ^™'" ' vanced classes to grapple with tht m "'-g^i^ed my ad- ''^^''^ -cental ecoLTmelTtlou/t^''" "' "■" "«"'• '^^' question. To assist us in our eS to Ir T "" ""' ""»'«"« as a whole, we constructed Z u*,"'^ ""= "'^'>"'' ^^'omv psychoiogicil tree and he 1 W«h»l''8ieal pyramid and the ridieuledfbut we to „dth!T "'"'";"" S™'^"". Our brethren We had learned to Sk ofTscl^slat^ t""'^™"^ "^'P'"'- acts different in kind and we t^l . ^ """" """P'^ to do ties as merely the ca^^bimfa 'oT't ^ XT'" "' "T »"*■'• led us to study the relations nt ,T "^ '^ntheses now «.- darkly, b^ut .arstX^- tn:L,estr ^Xd Xll AUTHOR'S PREFACE. tlie deeper insight that each capability of self supplements all his other capabilities, and that education comes of co-ordinated and concentrated effort. These simple, far-reaching truths came to ns like revelations. We could now understand that while the mental powers are elemental, mental acts are wonderfully complex. We could now better understand Uerbart's apperception, and Lewes's assimilation. In the light of these and similar truths we began over again our lessons in psychology and education, and the art of teach- ing. All possible helps were sought. As each improved telescope compels the astronomer to revise his science of the heavens, so this deeper insight compelled us to revise our work. From the history of education, and from the methods of the world's great educators, we gleaned invaluable lessons. We joyously seized upon truth wher- ever found. I would gladly credit each discoverer, but this is now impossible. I can only express my deepest gratitude to educators and to the members of my classes. Everything gained was assimi- lated into these lessons, which have grown into the Applied Psy- chology and the Art of Teaching. Sister, brother, you are a teacher^ or you intend to be one. You will now be my class. Together we will venture anew on these voyages of discovery. Psychol- ogy and education are as old as the race and as young as the latest human consciousness. Through a knowl- edge of self, to a knowledge of others, is the divine law. Each new teacher must create a new psychology and a new education. You are entitled to the thought and experience of the race, but at every step you must build on your own experience and your own insight. I will be happy to lead and to snggest, but that success may attend our efforts you must discern everything, feel everything, do everything, This is no easy task. It will require your best efforts, but you w^ill be rewarded by becoming able to lead others. Joseph Baldwin. University of Texas, Austin, Texas, March, 1892. _^, CONTENTS PART I. c.u...f ''^'^^^^ ^^ ''"'^ P^^CEPTIVE POWERS, I.-PsvciioLouv Applied Psvcholoov, Education. Teach- ''"" INO ' ir-TiiE Perceptive Powers and Percept'ive Knowing * III.-Education of Sense-Perception * IV.-Education op Self-Perception ' • • • V.-Education of Necessary-Perception .* ' * ' VI.-.CULTURE op the PERCEPTIVE PoWERS ' ' * • • • • PART ir. EDUCATION OF THE REPRESENTATIVE PO WERS isentative VII.-The Representative Powers and Reprf Knowing .... VIII.— Education of Memory .' ' ' ' IX.-EDUCATIONAL TREATMENT OfVha'nTAS^ A.— Education of Imagination XI.-CULTURE of the REPRESENTATIVE PoWERS PART III. EDUCATION OF THE THOUGHT-POWFi^S ^Z^Z2T:'r:l'''^^' ^- TnOUGHT-KNOWINO . 3 17 48 68 80 85 95 105 133 135 143 Ai 11.— Education of Conception 155 171 I ^' I m ■ if ru XIV CONTENTS. OBAITKH XIV.— Education of Judgment . XV.— Education ok Reason XVI.— Culture of the Tiiouoht-I'owkrs PAOC 187 2(X) 213 THE ART OF TEACHING. XXVIII.— Laws of Teaching XXIX.— Teaching Processes XXX.— Teaching Periods XXXI.— Kindergarten and Primary Methods of Teach- ing XXXII.— Intermediate Meth(»ds of Teaching . XXXIII.— HiGH-SoiiooL Methods of Teaching . XXXIV.— College Methods jf 'r> «. :iing . . . . 221 22H 240 240 25.-» 2<)4 PART IV. EDUCATION OF THE EMOTIONS. XVU.— The Emotions XVIII.— Education of the Self-Emotions . XIX.— Education of the Social Emotions XX.— Education of the Truth-Emotions XX r.— Education of the Esthetic Emotions XXII.— Education of Conscience PART V. EDUCATION OF THE WILL-POWERS. XXIII.— The Will-Powers 285 XXIV.— Education of Attention, or Self-Concentration . 29?J XXV.— Education of Choice, or Self-Determination . 30J> XXVI.— Education of Action, or Self-Doing . . . =321 XXVII.— Culture of the VVill-Powers .... 333 PART VI. 344 349 354 358 863 306 371. PAOK 187 2(X) 213 221 228 240 240 2.M 204 285 293 300 321 333 PAET I. EDUCATION OF THE PERCEPTIVE POWERS. CHAPTEIi I. -Psychology, Applied Psychology, Education. Teaching. 11. -The Perceptive Powers and Perceptive Knowing. m. -Education of Sense-Perception-Education OP Sense-Intuition. IV. -Education op Self-Perception-Education OP Self-Intuition. V.-Education op Necessary-Perception-Educa- tion OP Necessary-Intuition. VI.— Culture op the Perceptive-Powebs. M w f If! f ' ' , >i I : ' Jii 'i~i^,>l\-r^\-'*f=^:^^\'^y-Z--iri ^ ". --I'J. A^^:^:-'^']}- Ti '':! c1' PAET FIRST. XDDCATION OF TBE PERVMPTIVB POWERS. CHAPTER I. I'SVCHOLOGV, APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATION, TEACHINO. Know Sel£_Psyeliology is the science of self ( psycho + foyy = soul + science). But each self is a type of tlie ■•ace and stands for humanity. When one understands mmseit, he is prepared to understand others. The teacher must know self in order to understand the child helf-knowledge is not only the shortest way to child- knowledge, hut it is the only way. This knowledge nnderhes and makes possible the science of education Educate SeU Education isthescienceofself-devetp. ment (., ou +,;«,,.„, to lead). Self-effort made in ac- cordance with law educates. Around this central 11 are grouped the results of the educational thought ad experience of the race. In the light of the ag The teacher .nu^ study his own self-growth, that \^ nmv understand and foster child-growth. This kn ^-le ge ""derhes and makes possible the Art of Teaching 0UX e SeltEffort-Teaching is the art of fromot- leaciiinpr jg tlie art of st miiloH^o- pt^j . -r aji ir i. T , , ni..i!uitt[ing anu afiiiaiii<>' self- olfort. In the light of education as rscienef, the teacW il' n Ik, --^ ■^■fill 'm !f i M APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. must learn to guide his own efforts, that lie may wisely guide the efforts of others. Manage Sel£ — Management is the art of character- building. Ideas pass over into emotions, and emotions pass over into actions. The teacher controls child ideas and thus controls cl)ild emotions and child acts. When wisely managed, the child builds a noble char- acter. The teacher 7}iust manage himself, that he may manage the child. ART OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT ART OF TEACHING n HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY AND APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY Zl Lead the Child. — Pedagogy includes the professional studies and the training which fit one for an educational leader {pais or paida, child -f- agogos, leading). A slave in the olden times literally led the boy to school ; in our day the teacher leads the child up to a higher and better life, and elevates the individual into the ex- perience of the race. I. Psychology. By this is meant the science of self. I find out all I can about myself. I perceive myself knowing, feeling, willing. I discover my native energies and their laws of acti\.*ty and growth. I systematize this knowledge. I give an account of the ways in which self acts. I have made a science of self — a psychology. 1. Sell — I know, I feel, I will. I am aware that I thus act, and that I am the same I that thus acted last PSYOIIOLOGy. 5 week and Jast year. I am aware that I do tl.e.e acts «_po.,taneously. I determine ; I am free. I am en- dowed with tlie capabilities of self-knowing, self-con- scousness, self-determination, self-activity. I am a self a person. ' 2. Self works in a Physical Orgamsm._My senso- rmm and motonum give me direct connection with tl'e nn.verse I ],ave my headquarters for life in my cere hITnd t," 'T ""'"'°"'" ^''y^ think, love, and decide n and through my cerebral ganglia and their connee- tons I can not comprehend it; this knowledge is too Ingh for me ; but I know that self is generated tith the dea h. I also know that Self can do his best work when his body IS in the best condition, 3 Self has Hative Energies caUed Faculties.-! find tmct ways. I learn to call these energies my powers my faculties my capabilities. Self is endowed with energies to do acts different in kind. My faclhies an. I leain to call my capabilities to know by the group name, /„«.,, i ^„^ ,,,,, j ,^,^^ .^ different waj INTELLECT I gain some notions at once : this is iTrn^ediflf'^ -. r- o^i.e.kno.iny. Then I can make piraga n I" old or new forms, my past acquisitionl ; this is^i?^" m 6 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. Hi aentative-hioioiny. I can also think my intuitions into higher forms, and gain new truths through the medium of known trutlis ; this is mediate knowing or Thought- knowing. I learn to call my capabilities to know, my intellectual powers. Intellect includes Intuitive-know- ings Bepresentative-knowing, and Thought-knowing. Feeling. — I enjoy and suffer. I experience various feelings differing in kind. Some feelings are occasioned by sensor-excitations caused by organic stimuli ; these feelings are organic sensations. Some feelings are oc- casioned by sensor-excitations caused by external stimuli acting through the special senses ; these feelings are special sensations. Other feelings are occasioned by ideas ; these feelings are emotions. Feeling includes organic sensations, special sensations, and emotions. FEELING SPECIAL SENSATION Will — I make voluntary efforts, and I notice that these efforts are distinct in kind. Now I concentrate my efforts ; I attend. Now I determine in view of motives ; I choose. Now I execute my determinations ; WILL CHOICE I act. I learn to call my effort-making capabilities my Will-poimrs. Will includes my capabilities to attend, elioose, and act. PSYCHOLOGY. Tlie native energies of self are termed capabilities, powers, faculties. I do acts dilt'erent in kind ; I per- ceive, I admire, I detern^ine. I learn to call my ener- gies to do acts different m kind my powers, my facul- ties, my capabilities. The name by which I learn to designate each of my capabilities indicates its office in my mental economy. 4. Law reigns in the Self-World.— Deeper insight satisfies me that self acts spontaneously, but acts in uni- fiynn ways. I find that the uniform ways in which self acts are the laws of the mental economy. Self is subject to mental laws just as matter is subject to physical laws. Self must attend, in order to know, ^oiimust ascend through particulars to generals. Self must recall the past through the present. Self must make effort, in order to growth. Law reigns in the mind-world. 5. Self studies Self. — Self is subject {suh, under -{-jactus, placed). Self underlies mental phenomena, causes them. I gain the idea this rose. The rose is ob- ject, but the self that creates the idea is subject. Self may also be object (ob, before -j- j actus, placed) I perceive myself rejoicing. The 1 that perceives and rejoices is subject, but the self that is rerceived is object. Self studies self ; self is both subject and object. I look without and gain a knowledge of plant-life ; I look within and gain a knowledge of self. After I accumu- late immediate ideas of plant-life, I begin to be able to appropriate the experiences of others, and little bv little I create a science of Botany. So, after I have acquired sufficient direct knowledge of self, I begin to be able to appropriate the experiences of the race, and I thus gradually create a psychology. r! i M 8 APrLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACUING. 0. Psychology is the Science of Self.— Knowledge of self is a key to all knowledge. It opens tn us the book of nature, the book of human nature, and the book of Divine nature. One ignorant of self gropes in the dark. A teacher who knows self builds on the rock, but one ignorant of self builds on the sand. The wise physician studies psychology side by side with physiology. The wise minister s^tudies theology in the light of psychology. Everywhere self-knowledge is most valuable, but to the teacher it is the si?ie qua 71071. 7. Youth is the Golden Time to study Sel£— The child and the boy and the girl are busy exploring the great world around them. It is well. But the youth begins to look within, and longs to explore the self-world. Before this, self-lessons have been incidental, but now is the golden time for systematic self-lessons. The study of psychology, until recently, was limited to college seniors and speciali^ts. But educators begin to realize that youth IS the time for elementary mind studies, and that intro- spection and observation are equally essential. Elemen- tary psychology, rightly presented, is found to be as in- teresting to young people as physiology or botany. Our youth are now trained to look within as well as without and to explore the mind-world as well as the matter- world. It is well. The third year in the high school, the second year in the IS^ormal school, and the second year in the college, are doubtless fitting periods for the study of elementary psychology. The foundation is now laid in self-experience for profounder psychological study 8. I study Self directly and indirectly.-I, self, mind, soul, are easy and safe terms. At first we must care fully exclude all confusing and misleading expressions the 1 1 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY. and tlieories. As the cliild studies material things 80 the youth studies self. The one takes object-lessons' tlie other subject-lessons. The youth by diVect insif?ht gains a knowledge of self just as the child by direct experience gains a knowledge of thiiigs. Here and everywhere inunediate experience must precede, accom- pany, and make possible book-work. After one actually studies self and becomes acquainted with his own mental economy, he can re-enforce his own experiences by the experiences of others. An easy elementary psychology will now help the youth to study himself systematical^', help him to appropriate the experience of others, he'lp him to study self through his physical organism, help iim to study self through products of mind in art and language and literature. But mere book psychology is worse even than mere book botany or book chemistry It injures and does not help. II. Applied Psychology. By this is meant educational psychology. AVe speak of pure and applied mathematics, pure ' and applied logic pure and applied psychology. It is true we apply psychology in theology and medicine and law and gov- ernment and literature and art and business; but when we teachers use the expression applied psycJwlogy y^^ do not think of its application in these departments, but of Its application in the science and art of human development. 1. The Facts of Psychology are restated in Terms of Educatioiu-In pure psychology we studv self ; in ap- plied psychology we restudy self from the standpoint of education, and restate facts of the mind in terms of > i! 10 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TfiACUING. i!l education and teaeliiiiff Praoi^onl ^^^^..^ i. J . veiling. j_ /a6^^(?a^ Hiirvevors. archifpr*tc «nde„g,„e,„, ,,k, "IIow can pure .na'thoLaS 5 "8* Ihe answer comes, " I„ every way whe„ the i.ei. n '^'tiJ ; :nr.f ^' "««»• ean botany facts of nl.nt 1 f "^ ' . " '"""•>■ «'*:>'^ w''en the tacts oi pla t-hte are restated in terms of agriculture -Kl are apphed to the art of promoting plant™ " Help us { The same answer comes, " In every wav «• en restated in tern, of education and a^pSo 2 "'•t of promoting mind-growth " Gro^h.^P,'^^''""' Psychology we rtndy Periods of Growth.-! ure psychology asks, " What am I_t],e what IS the young man or woman ? " It furnishes the pnmary teacher a map of childhood ; the intermediate teacher a map of boyhood and girlhood ; Ztl ^chool teacher a map of youth ; and the college X- without It gropes in the dark; but the teacher who is fam.har with applied psychology works in the light 3. Applied Psychology treats of the Growing SeU- llus IS ,ts peculiar province. How does the child be- come the man ? Applied psychology answers in par- ticulars ; the science of education in generals. Applied psycliology states the nature of each capability of self and Its laws of growth, and discusses the means and to thmk of a child as a self endowed with feeble native energies, and realizes that it is the work of the educator I EDUCATION, 11 to 80 guide child effort as to develop these powers. As tlie nuisician so touches every key as to produce thrill- ing music, so the touch of the skillfu, teacher awakens to educational activity each child-capability, producinx.- :i grand and noble life. 4. Pure and Applied Psychology. -We may restate m brief these distinctions : Pure Psychology deals with a self whose native energies are fully active; Applied Psychology deals with a growing self. Pure psycliolog)- asks, "What am I, the developed self?" Applied psychology asks, " What is the child ? wliat is tlie boy « what is tlie youth ? " Pure psychology investigates the capabilities of self ; applied psychology investigates the growth of these capabilities. Pure psychologv ascer- tains and states the laws of mental activity and mental growth ; applied psychology applies these laws to the promotion of human growth. Pure mathematics and applied mathematics, pure logic and applied logic, aud pure psychology and applied psychology are correspond- ing expressions. Applied psychology enters incidentally into logic and philosophy and -heology and law and medicine and science, but it enters into the very essence of education, and is ailed educational psycholocry We do not think of logical psychology or legal psychology, but of educational psychology, when we use the expres- sion Applied Psychology. III. Education. Education is the science of human development. We cultivate plants, train animals, and educate persons t^ducation makes the difference between the feeble in- fant and the strong man. What a change from the ,.;: All w iai: 12 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TKACIIINO. infant Newton uttering its first cry, and Newton the philosopher tren.hh-ng with joy as he grasped tlie ,)roh- ieni of tlie heavens ! ' 1. Education is Self.Evolution.-The bud dcveloDs into the rose; the egg (leveh,ps into tlie eagle; the c'h.d develops into tlie man. TJie process is ter.ned evoluhon. All the native energies possessed by the man Newton were in tlie child; but the child knew and felt and willed feebly, tlie man mightily. The pro cess of the child-self developing into the man-self is called education and is self-evolution. The germ-self becomes the man-self. This hecoming is growth, devel- opment, evolution, education. 2. Self-Effort educates— Nothing else does. The germ-tree m tlie acorn spontaneously appropriates the elements necessary to its growth and so develops into a great oak. The child-self spontaneously makes the efforts necessary to its growth and so develops into a powertul man. The child makes efforts to remember • somehow, its memory becomes more and more vigor- ous. The youth thinks ; somehow, his capabilities to tlnnk become more and more powerful. Self-effort develops yiovfar—eduGates. 3. Lawful Effort educates.-WelI-directed effort de- velops capability. The uniform ways in which self mi..^ act in order to growth are educational laws, feelf-effort, conforming to the laws of growth, educates. Apphed psycliology states the laws of self-growth concreMy, as, "Well-directed effort in gaining sense- iinowledge educates sense-perception." The science of education states the laws of self-p-rnwth in --ne-"l tei-ms, as, "Well-directed effort develops faculty "^^ '" .III I KDL'CATION. 13 ., ; !?' *''*'"'* "' Education formulate, the Educa- tional Thought and Experience of the Eace.-Dovelo,.- n.f,.t through effort is the cc.tral idea. Arou„d thl are grouped tl,e fa.t« of nund, the laws of growth, the means of ed...at,„„, the n.othods of promoti^.g growth and helpful devices and suggestio.is ' We study the story of education and learn from the ".asters^ from Moses and Jesus we learn our hest les- sons. We learn valuable lessons fron. Socrates and t..l ure. Rome st.ll gives us lessons in heroism and law and governn,e„t. We gain much from the thought and experience of gre,t Gcrn.an teachers, great British teach- ers, great French teachers, great An.erican teachers We study sociology, and history, and literature, and gam mvaluable lessons, for we must educate the hild to act well Ins part in the drama of life. The science ot education includes all of man and all of life Edu '^t.on_ IS complete development for complete living i his tn the science of manhood. ^' ..rt T^^^ I-'yohology and Education.-I„ its school sense, education as a science is limited to the develop- '"ent ot the capabilities of self. Applied psycholoX quarries materials for the educational temple. Eal mpabihty of self is studied as to its nature, its relation Us .tages of growth, its means of growth, its laws of giowth, and as to methods of promoting its growth Echication generalizes and systematizes these concrete acts From other sources much is gained; but applied Psychology enters into the very warp and woof of edu- cation It underlies and makes possible the science of education and the art of teaching. To one practically 11 ... ■.. ■ \m m % 14 APPLIED PSYCnOI.OGV AND TEACHING. ignorant of applied psychology, education as a sciencH^ is unmeaning. Here and everjwliere, we nnist struggle up to generals througli particulars^, raising ourselves round by round. IV. Art of Tkaciii N(}. Teaching is the art of promoting human growtii. The efficient teacher understands himself, understands the growing pupil, and understands the subject taught. He completely adapts matter and method, and leads learners to put forth their best efforts in the best ways. To him the physical and mental and moral economy of the child is an open book, lie sees in each pupil a self-determining person, free but loadable. As teacher he largely controls the ideas of his pupils ; but ideas occasion choices, and choices pass over into actions. Through ideas he awakens in his pupils all ennobling emotions and high resolves, and thus leads them up to a higher and better life. This is the teaching that makes for character. This is the art of manhood. 1. Applied Psychology is a Priceless Boon to the Teacher. — The teacher works in the light. He studies each mental ])ower and discovers its nature and rela- tions, its periods of growth, its laws of growth, its means of growth, and methods of promoting its growth. Now he forms a map of childhood, a map of youth, a map of manhood. He beholds in one view the entire mental economy of the child, of the boy, of the youth, of the man. Here he discovers three funda- mental principles : (1.) All the mental powers supple- ment and re-enforce each other, so that educating one power incidentally educates m some degree all the pow- ! ART OF TKACIIINO. 15 eiH. (2.) Ea.,h caimUlUy >« >,u,ceptlM<- of arul renuh-H duHyt and .pedfic acUur.. As each stroke of t e art,, U brush tends to perfect the painting, so each Ics- son l,as .^ specific cnltnre vah.e. TeaJl.ing cdncates. .1) The faculties develop in a dejmite order. Educa- tional ,naps attempt to show the order, and the teacher nersi " T f "-""•'""^' '^ ^""'•'>- ^ «y«'«"""-. persisteat, etheient plan of work adapted to a growing a. Teaching bmlda on Science.- -E.lncation as a sci- ence states in general terms the laws of hm.mn develop- ment; teaching restates these laws in specific forms and ". the terms of art. Education determines what meth- ods must bo; tcacliing applies these methods in the «;tual work ot pron.oting growth. Education is ah- strax^t and deals with genemls ; teaching is concrete and deals with particulars and with individuals. Education gives the theory of human growth; teaching embodies the theory m practice. Education is a science ; teach- ing 18 an art. 3. Teaching is edncating.-Your head may be fnll of theories, but somehow when you stand before your class you never think of tlieories. Yon, like all artists and masters, intuitively discern the fitness of thiZ Deeply interested yourself, you make the lesson intense^ ly interesting to your pupils. You remove unnecessary b.t r h7'/"" '""'"''" *''^ '^^■"-'" «f «™f»^ing de You 1 . r"; fP''' *° ''''"■" ""'y ^I'^* '^ <^«^ential. i ou may not be able to tell how, but in some way you get your pupils to put forth their full energies; and tins is the art that educates. 4. But Teaching must bnUd on the Eock.-The i 1(1- 16 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. lit ill! H great musician does not think of theory when perform- ing; but without the mastery of tlieory the perform- ance would be impossible. Wellington at Waterloo did not think of military science ; but without a mastery of military science the victory could not have been achieved. "Yes," said one of the masters, "I paint under inspiration, but in the mean time I study hard that I may be able to paint when the inspiration comes." The genuine teacher studies profoundly the hest things. He feels at home in educational psychology and the science of education and the methods of the masters. When teaching he does not need to think of theories. He is an artist and teaches under inspiration ; but he does not forget that the science of education makes the art of teaching possible. 5. Teaching is the Noblest Art.— We feel the spell of drawing and painting and sculpture and architecture, for these arts articulate the language of material nature. We are thrilled by eloquence and poetry and song, for these arts express the universal throbbings of the human heart; but we are exalted by teaching, for this is the art of manhood. We are pupils ; Plato is our teacher, Arnold is our teacher, Agassiz is our teacher, Horace Mann is our teacher, Christ is our teacher. The in- spiration of a great teacher thrills through our entire being. Our intellects become penetrating, broad, com- manding ; our hearts glow with all lovely and subHme emotions and exalting impulses ; our wills become high resolves and noble acts. This is the art of teaching. ifiil- PERCEPTIVE POWERS AND PERCEPTIVE KNOWING. 17 9^ CHAPTER II. THE PEECEPTIVK POWERS. These powers are o«. capabilities to know imme- diately. They are eallcd our intuitive powers, because they are our capabilities to see iuiniediately into things In, into + ineri, see.) Tliey are also called our percm> tive powers, our powers of direct insight. (/V bv + oapereto gain.) M^th soine to perceive means only to gam Ideas by the senses; but it is more common to make it mch.de all intuitive knowing. I know at once the rose as sweet-smelling. By direct insight I also know mysel as feeling glad. I likewise know imme- diately that these parts are equal to this whole. This is direct knowing, intuitive knowing, perceptive knowing, mmediate knowing. Our capabilities to gain idef ^mmcd^^M^ are our intuitive ,,owers, our perceptive powers, our presentative powers, our acquisitive powers _ INTUITIVE-POWERS PERCEPTIVE- POWERS SELF— INTUITION rmlxUcs Our native energies to gain elementary no- tions of material things, of self, and of necessary reall iina„,v,^ ,v,i„ intuition, self looks directly into these three worlds. A« sense-intuition, self perceives the 1^ if I m 18 APPLIED PSYCUOLOGY AND TEACHING. i IP { ■i i it iJI I J 1 Vm s i; sense-world; as self-intuition, self perceives the self- world; as necessary-intuition, self perceives the world of necessary realities. This is innnediate knowing, per- ceptive knowing, intuitive knowing. I. Sensorium and Motorium.* Self works in and through a physical organism. All soul activity goes on in connection with this organ- ism. It is a great thing in education to make this or- ganism an ally and not an enemy. The teacher must understand the body that he may understand the mind. Physical improvement makes mental improvement pos- sible. You, as a physiologist, liave studied the body simply as an animal organism. As a psychologist, you must restudy the body from the standpoint of self. You will wisely ignore curious conun- drums and misleading theories, and simply ask "What are the facts?" " What is the plan of the human body?" "How may it be made the fittest instrument of self?" "How does self receive and send messages through the body?" I. Cerebrum.— Every cell in the animal body is a standing miracle. Think what it has to do ! In addi- tion to its specific functions it must grow and produce other cells like itself. The lowest animal consists of a single cell ; but a human brain, it is estimated, contains more than a billion 7ierve-eells.-f These are organized into groups called ganglia. A ganglion is a group of nerve-cells with nerve connections. The structure and workings of ganglia and their connections may be illus- trated by a telegraphic system. Of all physical mech- * This chapter is an attempt to present the essential fact» of the sensor and motor mechanisms, and oi perceptive knowing. You are recommended to read also Chapters V, VI, VII, and VIII, Baldwin's Elementary Psy choiogy, ur simiiur chapters in some other Psychology. t Lubbock. CEREBRAL GANGLIA. jq anisnis, the nervous system is the most wonderful Tlie organisms through wliich self keeps touch with the outer world are the SENSORIUM AND MOTOEIUM. nP SENSOR M ORGANS. r\ 5B — -_ I I q ORGANIC. MUSCLES, STOMACH, LUNGS, HEART, SKIN, ETC. 2 O m m r I a; n From the standpoint of self, the cerebral ganglia art roughly grouped as above. The semor-ganalia, sen- sor-nerves, and sensor-organs constitute a marvelous telegraphic system called the sensorium. Through this^system self receives all messages from the outer The motor-ganglia, motor-nerves, and motor-or- gans constitute another wonderful telegraphic system called he motorium. Through this system self trans- 'Hits all messages and executes all volitions. Intellective and Emotive Ganglia.-Somehow, in connection with the miellecHve ganglia, self perceives, represents, anS th I in JnJ la ar!7n / , "''' '^'"^'"'" ^^'' intellective and emotive .angha are inserted to g.ve a co.nplete view of the cerebral organism. ■I .1 ; t liij m <■!"' ,1 t i ■'ill i 1 il. 20 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. Diagram of the sensori-motor processes of cerehral activity. 1 , optic thala- mus with Its centers and ganglionic cells. 2, corpus stnaium. .3 course ot the propagation of acoustic impressions : these arrive in the corresponding center (4), are radiated toward the sensoHum (6), and reflected at 6 and 6' to the large cells of the corpus striatum, and thence at 7 and 7 toward the motor regions of the spinal axis. 8, course of tactile impressions : these are concentrated (at 9) in the correspondintr ^"/i^I'Tl ^'^^^ thence into the plexuses of th'e «e«WMw(lb")7reflecte3 „> *..„ _-i-/,,x , ,. propagated to the large cells to the large cortical cells (11), and thence prupagatea to cne large cells of iii& corpus striatum, mdi finally to tlie different segments of the spi- nal axis. 13, course ot optic impressions : these nre nonnfintrntpH (at 14) in their corresponding center, then radiated toward the sensoHum (at 15) ; they are reflected toward the large cells of the corpu.^ striatvm Mid afterward propagated to the diflerent segments of the spinal axis.— (Lays, The Brain and its Functions," p. 61. Inserted by permission.) il SENSOR ORGANS. 21 4 the „uait„,v„e.ves,i„ the -at^^Il^gi^t/ oX^^r agitation i„ the ^o,i,.:i::x:o:t:7Tzz^i:T at,o„ tothe museles; the .nuscies respond by7ont e tog nj X ng, thus eausmg motion ; I waft to ehurch. You do nof know W self makes eonneetion with ganglia. No one does, no one e^n Vol must aceept the fact, Plaoe the above cuts on the board tI™ feasor excitation from objects through each Z the specfa. sin" nnes to self and back through motor lines to movements II Sensor.Organi-Tl.ese organs look inward as well a. outward. _ In these organs, .omehm, external molecu- lar motion is changed into internal mdecular motion called nerve-commotion, or sensor-excitation. The sen' sor-nerves convey sensor-excitations inward to sensor- SlT TI r'^'tT' '■"P""'^' '" "^ appropriate stimuli. Thus, through the action of light on the <.ve we see, and we hear when the ear responds to vibrations o sound. The end-,»-gam of hearing are situated in the internal ear, or labyrinth. Here acoustic waves transmitted by the tympanmn are analyzed and changed from a physical molecular process to a nerve commo- tion, called sensor-excitation, which occasions hearing. «,l.„'t' 7!"' ""'■<"■■!«"'« »/«'« are the special mechanisms which are adapted to convert the molecular motions called nerve" imuli into ;tmtTthe" "'M """' ^"'"'"°''^- " '' *" "»-" great mass of the eye to transmit and refract the ravs of lirtt hut tT :mt"d"t7trem'":r^ "/ "■" """" '^"^ '"^ pCioliX;^: phys^gLtltrp'ro'cter ""'^ '"""^ '''-'-' "— '"'» 2. The sole offir'A of thp rowno i-. fu i ■ . processes Tho .Z" ^ ^^^ transmission of neural orZ, T; «ensor-nerm transmit neural processes from end- organs to sensor-ganglia. Motor-ganglia transmute sensor neural if S ' !l« 1 I - i, (! ij Ml , I'f tj'* ^1 22 M APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. processes into motor-neural procosses. The motor nerves transmit motor-impulses to the muscles, and these respond by contracting or relaxing, thus causing bodily movements. 3. Cerehral-sensor-ganglia are terminal organs of sensor-nerves. The sensor-nerves have their roots in the cerebral substance as the tree has its roots in the earth. Here self and the material a-;, v touch. Self consciously feels the neural excitations of his sent ganglia ; these feelings are sensations. Through his sensations seU perceives material objects ; this is sense-perceiving. III. Sensor-excitation is tlie affection of tlie nervous organism by external or internal sensor stimuli. Sound- waves affect the auditory apparatus, producing sensor- excitation. Wherever we find nerves we may infer sensor-excitations when these nerves are acted on by the appropriate stimuli. Light-waves excite the optic ap- paratus ; the agitation caused is sensor-excitation. Sen- sor-excitation is caused by external or internal stimuli, and when transmuted into motor-impulse expresses it- self in automatic or reflex bodily movements. Sensor- excitation occasions sensations when the excitation ter- minates in cerebral-sensor-ganglia. Sensor-excitation is caused by physical agencies and is wholly physical. lY. Unpurposed Sensor Action.— The motorium is the mechanism for bodily movemeiits. It includes the motor-ganglia, the motor- nerves, and the muscles. In motor-ganglia sensor-excitation is transmuted into mo- tor-excitation called motor-impulse. The motor-nerves transmit motor-excitation from motor-ganglia to mus^ cles. The muscles respond to motor-excitation by con- tracting and relaxing, thus causing motion. Unpur- posed movements are usually termed reflex, but are more definitely known as automatic reflex and in- stinctive. REFLEX AND INSTINCTIVE ACTION. 23 1. Automatic Action is rliythmic movement caused by internal stimuli and tending to definite ends Wink- ing, respiring, and heart-tlirohbing are automatic In- stinctive action is largely automatic. Habitual action tends to become automatic, as walking, talking, and singing. Automatic action may be compared to the movements of a pendulum. 2. Reflex Action is reaction from sensor-excitation caused by external stimuli. A movement caused by a sudden noise, an unexpected touch, or a thrill of pain IS reflex action. A large part of walking, mechanical work, talking, and singing, is reflex action. Indeed it enters largely into all habitual movements and instinct- ive acts. Keflex action is response to stimuli ; it is the conversion of sensor-excitation into motor-impulse. Automatic action and reflex action occur in connection with he lower nerve-centers. An animal from which the cerehnThemi spheres have been removed responds to appropriate stim^Twi h aU wa etf\T Ild^' ^'^ r^^^ animalis'eapable; but it L„o hMnan and nro^^hl '" "'"T"^' "^ ""^ ^"^"^^^ ^^<^- Consciousness r bru'^n Wo' f- "' 'T'^^' '^""^ ^" ^^""-^Jon with the with i hi" ^^''^"™^'^^ ^"^ ^«fl«^ movements occur in connection with the lower centers, and are strictly physical. 3. Instinctive Action-Animal life is the vital energy hat adjusts environments to individuals ; instincts are m.2 I T^T '^'"' "^-i"'' individuals to environ- ents. Endowed with animal life and animal instincts, he animal germ builds up a physical organism. In- ^ncts lead to specific ends; they are the regulating impulses. Instincts act automatically through nerve" exci ation, moving and guiding the annual to do the best foi Itself anu for its species. Every instinct is an im- :H A\ m 24 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. pulse. Iii6ti„ctive iuipuLses lie below the realm of con- sciousness ; iustincts are organic and not mental ener- gies, lo speak of religious instincts, mathematical in- stincts, and art instincts, is surely incorrect. Automatic, reflcr, anil tmti,u!tive action are organic and non- voiun ary. Automatic applies to regular movemenfs, as breatto, c» .,ed by nuernal stimuli. JteJIe, applies to reactions fron .tet' tt :!X'z:r'- """"" """'- '° «""""« "-p-'-. - Make your Herrou. Syntem an AUy.-Onc becomes a mental mil- l.ona,re ijy early and always rooting all right and useful ac fon ", o habits. Habitual acts tend to become automatic, and self is left free to expend all his energies i„ making new conquests Mos 1 e mcntsm walking and talking are automatic. A marvelou mech- anism IS the ready servant of self to do the drudgery of li?e Prl ably more than nine-tenths of all our movements' are automa«^ reflex or instinetive. When these are organized into rightTabte there ,s no friction. Only when our habits are wrong do we have to was-^^e our energies in inhibiting these tendencies. aetiv^v Z '"n ''"■~'° "'""'" "" ™^""" "^'"-i'y ""d ""in to B, aUf " T """"'""''' "»" "-'^ rhysical organ- wTth fensor ! t"";'™"' "^J''""' '"''"'""' '' ""' <^«"' ^nceivfble. With .sensor-exeitation in the sensor-cerebral-ganglia the series of physical force, terminates. Self initiates a ,ij«4 Men " 10 establish the theory of one substance and one series the votaries antiflnfo Q^nf i. . Ps,ycnoiogy. helf-serutmy is the antidote. Self, not organism, does all mental aot^ <5«i/ • wills. ' nnknown way, thinks, feels, and 1 THE ECONOMY OF THE SENSES. 26 II. Sensation. Sensor-excitations occur in tl,e cerebrai-seMor-gan- glia. Self feels and is aware of feeling tliese excitations. TJiese feehn^, are sensatimi,. Witl, sensor-excitati.ns n, the cerebral ganglia the physical series of cause an.i effect teraunates. Self transforms these sensor-excita- tions into sensations, and thus initiates a new ske.es, called the mental senes. The term, sensation, is used InT^^'V r ""'"""'^ '" '''' ^''n^-excitltions as well as the leeling. r. Sensor-Excitations-Nerve-comrnotion conditions but does not cause sensations. In the mind series, self causes ; mental acts are occasioned, not caused All connection of self with the outer world comes primarily ^iroughthe sensor-excitation of the nervous organism The excitation of the cerebral-sensor-ganglia is the last link in the chain of physical effects. Self consciously .feels the excitation ; here body and mind clasp hands • here there is a uniform psycho-physical connection be' tween the two worlds ; here self converts physical sen- sor-excitations into mental feelings, into sensations. I he process, like all ultimate processes, is inscrutable to mortal vision. We only know that self consciously tee 8 cerebral sensor-excitations, and that out of these teeimgs he makes his sense-ideas. ^ 11 Sensation.— This is the capability of self to con- sciously feel sensor-excitations. Sensation is also used to designate the feeling occasioned by sensor-excitation |A sensation is the conscious feeling of scnsor-exeitatioil^ i he clock strikes : the sound-waves vibrate through the Hir, through my ears, through my auditory nerves in M i.i!j ill 96 APrt.lED PSVfUOLOUY AND TEACH INO '"-'. "".'"'"'••>■ «'"«!!"• I e„„«.i„„sly Vol the scn-or. ;'xc.t..t„,n : tl,is is *„„„,rf.«,„«,^;„„ Tl,e ,>,o,.m vi^ n,e ,frl,t-w«ve» vihn.tc tl„-o„gl, space, tl„-..ugl, „„■ e.yo8, tl„-„„^.l, ,ny optic nerves, i„ ,ny cptic ,m„„Ii,, • I oonscousiy tool the se.,«..-oxeitatio„ ; \l,is is L^ wiiniition. •' The Economy of the Se,>.o,.-Ji,- sensation we men the resnit in «...sc,onsne« „t any altoolion „r tl,o »e„.onn,n. It i, . fceS „ rasinnod by soraetliing indopondent of self. Throurf, JnL,.i ' P..roeivothcontorw„,.|,l. Each .n.o n.ako/Se^r r.^' "It; :::r; x:'„'„::r "^- ^^- « '^ - ---^^- Cerebral-Sensor-Ganglia.- Sensation occurs in connection with rninate in reflex mnvpmnnf.. c .• , "•"<■.•, (.aii onu fer- ine « '-"^'^ "'o^tments. Sensation and consciousness arc wm.t into sensation,. Tto Ltt . ," r"""°;" """ "•"""'"•■"' """" --— ..citations/srer;rc:-r^^^^^ III. Sensation i, Feeling._I know something I feel ^oinchow, I ,nake son.e effort. Self feels as 'well ^ SENSATIONS knows and wills. Feelings are agreeable or disa..reea ensor e.^itation.,. All sensor-excitations of whicli self of l.ght, sensat,ons of bodily moven.ents, sensatio,,, * ""'"'''"'■ t L»dd. SENSOR OR(}ANS. 27 of pain, flensations of lumber, .cusations of cold, arc si.me ot the myriad HeiiBatioiis tlutt one feels. Tliese teelmgs are grouped as organie and Hpecial sensations. \. Organic sensations arc occHsioiiod l,y internal stimuli THp iu:;^i'rn"^'^'^'" '- ^ '"^^^■^'•^•^ '^"^-"'^^^ '"-^^-^ m tu.ng the bodily organism. Visceral sensations, respiratory son- onsations of hunger, motor sensations, are some of the countless UH nection with the organic sensor organs, thus bringing together e f and his en ire body. The quickening or retarding of the d eu lation caused by different emotions, and the gloom and unrea o . abeness occasioned by dyspepsia are familiar illustrations. Hw "s e igious and philosophic views are strikingly affected by the c^ , « ^H^vt J'^ ''''' """^ i-n^List; tlic'jhl^Z:; a speptic IS likely to bo a pessimist. On the other hand, how aston- ishing the influences of the mind on the body ! Gloom a^d de na . -P vitality, but cheerfulness and hope cure better than medicr .. Special sensations are occasioned by external stimuli and are Uie elements out of which self makes his ideas of material thtgs The special sensor organs are special adaptations to the influences o J external stimuli. The ear is adapted to sound, and the eye to ijl t The eye receives molecular light-waves, and changes these fnt. Z:Z:::^Z:T ''^'''"'^'^' ^'^^ nervleommotlot ata ?^^^^^^ ^' ^"-^ ^^"^ ^-^'^-' ^h- feeling is ligj^^. Special Sensor Organs and Special Sensations. %<^s Light-sensations. ^*^'"s Sound-sensations. Nose Odor-sensations. Mf>"th Flavor-sensations. Skin . . . i Tactile-sensations. I Temperature-sensations. Muscles.. . .Pressure-sensations. L r In 1 "'':: "''^'' "' ^^" ^^ «^^«"^« ««"«"r nerves have their end-organs in the muscles. (See diagram, p. 19 ) ■Mi m rr" 28 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. V. Sensations and Sense-Ideas.— SeiiKations are the Htufl" out of which self makes Heiise-ideas. I am de- pemlent oji sensutious for all I know or can know of the material world. Jjut throu-h sensations I may per- ceive all that the outer world has to })resent. Out of sensations I make sense-ideas and think these into con- cepts and judgments and reasons. But, someliow I must continually go hack to sensations and so keep touch with the nuiterial world. Sensations are funda- mental experiences of self. The infant self, first of all, experiences sensations, and through sensations slowly gams sense-ideas. Material things act on a sensorium, causing sensor-excitations which occasion sensations! Self perceives things, gains sense-ideas. d SENSE— IDEAS SENSATIONS SENSOR— EXCITATIONS SENSORIUM MATERIAL WORLD— SENSOR NERVE STIMULI n III. Sense-Perception — Sense-Intuition. This is the capability of self to gain sense-knowledge. Self lives in and acts through a material organism. ^Vo dwell in a material world. The native energy of self to master the sense-world is termed sense-percep- tion or sense-intuition. Sense-perception is self per- ceiving external objects. It is direct insight into the matter world. It is sense-intuition. Self as sense-per- ception intuitively gains sense-ideas termed sense-per- cepts. I I '1 3 SENSE-PERCEPTS. 20 the de- ^v of I if I- Sen»ata0B and Senae-Peroeption. - 1 .,00 tlu, n,.,,!,. red, a„d feel ,t «,„o„th, a„,l ta»t« it delieious, «„.l « „ ,|| U ragrant. Tl,e .i«l,t.se„.Ui,.,. aad t„„c.i;.sen.at and ta«te.een.sat,o„„ .,,.1 «,Mell-.sen«.ti„„„ are occa»ione,l by tl,e apple-exctatmns „f ,„y «ens.,ri,„n. ()„t „f these sensations, immediate and renuMnhercd, I form the Idea, t us a,,,,lc. My native power to gain sense-ideas through sensations is sense-perception. I an, aware of ,^7 "'Vf "'°"« «f ■»>• """'^orinm, and I l..arn to call these fee hngs sensations. Out of my sensations nnmediate an. revived, I make my notions'of n.aterhd tinngs. Sensation makes sense-perception possible The native energy of self to intuitively perceive sense-ideas thrm^l, sensations is sense-intuition, is sense-perception. 11. Sen8e-Peroepts._Tliese are notions of individual materia things. My notion of this tree, this book, this house, this pencil, or this hand, is a sense-pereept. What I know about a material object is a sense-pii- cept. Sensations immediate and remembered, are the ^ one of the few terms now generally used in tl^ same sense in mental and educational science and in litera- ture. Every one .inderstands by a sense-i>ercept a no- tion of a material thing. A sense-percept is a particular sense-Idea, a notion of a particular sense-object them to deOnite objects is known ns sense-perception To nercciv! »n orange IS to refer orange-sensations to an object cal ed an or«. ^ The complete psychical product is called a sense-percept « * mattLTT?"™ ^'™ "' "'" '<>'"' "' ""ternality. We perceive material objects as out of and independent of self. We percrive * Hopkins. "h wn ilM, l! ^ ij " m V I- '! - 30 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. I ., i m i. things as extended and exercising energy. Sense-perception is a property of the mind just us certainly as gravity is a property of matter. It is the native energy of self to perceive material things. We look directly on material objects.* Smse-percepts do not resemble the material objects ; they are signs which represent to ns the objects. Sensation and perception are sub- jective, but the thing perceived is objective ; hence sense-percepts are said to be objective ; they are notions of things independent of the mind, f Our noiions of things with qualities are sense-percepts. Some writers make unnecessary complexity by calling an idea gained through a single sense, as this red, an individual sense-percept ; and the notion of an object gained through all the senses, as this red apple, a general sense-percept. These distinctions merely confuse and do not help. An idea is either a percept or a concept. My notion of a par- ticular thing, as this horse, is -a percept; but my notion of a class of things, as quadruped, is a concept. There can be no excuse for the niisuse of these terms. A sense-percept is a notion of a material object. III. Self makes Sense-Percepts.— A nervous system intervenes between a self and a material world. An ob- ject having physical properties affects my sensorium and occasions sensations. I feel this orange rongh, I taste it delicious, I smell it fragrant, I see it orange-color, I hear it dull, I weigh it heavy. Out of my orange-sen- sations, old and new, I form the idea, this orange. I discriminate and assimilate; I interpret sensations as the operator interprets the clicldngs of the tele- graph. I gain distinct ideas of individual objects. These ideas are sense-percepts. My power to * gain sense-percepts is sense-perception. IV. Self-Perception. — Sj:lf-Intuition. Tirs is the capability to gain self-knowledge. It is the power of direct insight into the mind-world. I * McCosh. + Compayre. SELF-PERCEPTION.-SELF-INTUITION. 3 j perceive myself reineinbering the diameter of the earth, and I gain the notion, this memm^. As the i-emembering is an act of self, and as I perceive myself remenibering, I call the idea gained a self-idea, a self ^ percept, a self-intuition. Tlie native energy of self to gam self-percepts is called self-perception, self-intuition conscious-perception, and self-consciousness. Self-per' ception or self-intuition clearly expresses the meanL Self^erception u self perceiving himself knowinl feehy, wilUng. It is the mind knowing itself in its knowleage, emotions, and volitions. It is the power of introspection. I. Awareness and Self-Perception. -Awareness of knowing, feeling, and willing is consciousness. I am awai-e of my own acts ; I am conscious. I am aware of leehng sad, of seeing the rainbow, of preferrin^r Chicago to New York. Consciousness is awareness of present mental acts. Out of his awareness, self makes notions of his by instinct! Explain instinctive ac- tion. How do automatic action and instinctive action differt VI. Soiuation.- What is sensation ? Prove that sensation oc- curs always in connection with cerebral-sensor-ganglia. Show the difference betwen sensor-excitation and sensation Jlutrat by the cl.ck.ngs of the telegraph in absence of the operator. Why do you objec to such expressions as unconscious-cerebration f ^ tu-tiJn .';'°"-f;^''«Pf °»--^-Plairi sense-perception and sense-in- -I "tVafe Wtt : ''r '''""" -nse-perception and sensation -Illustrate by the operator interpreting the clickings of the tele- fibrose Wl 7- '"" *'"'" '''^ "^""^ '' ^^"« ^PP^«' this orang!. tins rose. What is a sense-percept 1 How do pi ticular notions differ romgonoral notions I Give five examples. ^ III Self.Perception._Aie you aware of your own acts? Do you perceive yourself perceiving the mountain /what do you niean by self-perception f self-intuition ? self-consciousness f How doe" f-perception differ from awareness ? What is a self-p re p U G ^evei. examples. Are self-percepts general or particular'notion Compare sense-perception and sel f-perception IX. Necessary Perception.- What do you moan by realities? by necessary realities f Show that space, time, cause, mafter, and mind are necessary realities. How do you gain ideas of necessary reall- n::Lr^;r:;t r '"" ''"^ °' ''- '-'''''' "^™^^- ^^^^ - '^ X. All the Capabilities of Self supplement each.-What capabili- ties supplement and re-enforce sense-perception ? self-perception f oTZT'T^f"' Give examples. It is hoped that'the oSe Iv heln r r' .^-'i '?f '' ^'"'P '^'' ^^"t^- This presentation ma help you to think of the entire self doing each mental act. A faculty ,s merely a capability of self to act in a particular way as in sense perceiving, remembering, desiring, choosing. ^' mind woH?"''*7 T^""^-^'"'' ^"'" ^"^^ ^"^^"^1 ^^^e'^rch in the Z;ln heMm '; " ''' -atter-world. You can do same- thmg, and the little you do yourself will enable you to appropriate the expenences of the army of specialists. Sandford saysTAsTng as psychologists live upon the crumbs that fall from the tabl s o1 neurok>gy and physiology they will live in dependencT. ^m" investlfynt*^ fnr fho,«o«l, „- 1^ . f , iiic;' uiiibD • 1 fr . '"" '•''•■'-C''^"— no loss rigorous y and no less brond- m.nd«Uy than others, but from thefr own standpoint, and Zst vTet RDDCATION OF SENSE-PEKCEPTION. 43 what they find in its psychological perspective." But, however fas- cinating to advanced students, and however valuable in some of it« results, the " laboratory methods " are not meant for beginners. Even Aristotle and Hamilton are much easier for young students and more valuable than the " original researches " of Piehte, or Wundt, or Pechner or Meynert, or Spitzka, or Hartwig, or Ilerbart. Intro- spection Id the true experimental method. The student looks with- in, and intuitively gains self-knowledge, just as ho looks without and intuitively gains sense-knowledge. This is the natural method, and must ever precede and accompany the laboratory method. '\ CFIAPTEK III. KDUCATION OF SENSE-PEKCEPTION. The foundation for all forms of mental growth must be laid in sense-activity. Sense-ideas underlie all other ideas ; sense-intuition is fundamental in the mental econ- omy. In the acquisition of sense-knowledge the child begins its education. I. Place of Sense-Perception — Terms defined. 1. delations. Self knows, feels, and wills. All mental energies supplement each other. Self gains a notion of a new material object. In this act revived sensations are assimilated with immediate sensations: there is discrimination as well as assimilation ; there is the desire to find out as well as attention. Then the idea gained is remembered, awakens emotion, occasions choice, and leads to action. 2. Hygiene and sense-perception. Perfect sensa- tions come of perfect health. The body needs to be kept in the best possible condition. Eight hygienic " lit' -HJi .if] 11.1 ', I, 44 API'LIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. ' t It I lia])its are cardinal. Living is a constant joy to the lioalthy child, and its sensations are perfect. Its senses i-equire no culture ; it is the cai)al)ility to gain knowledge through the senses that must be cultivated. 8. Sensation is the ca- pability to consciously feel sensor - excitations. Sensa- tions are sensor-excitations of which self is aware. The term sensation is used to des- ignate the feeling as well as the capability to feel sensor- excitations. 4, Se7ise-percej)tion is the power of self to gain sense- percepts ; sense - perception is also known as sense-intui- tion and outer - perception and sense - presentation. Sense-perception and sense- intuition are synonyms, and are everywhere used inter- cliangeably. 5. A sense^ercept relates to a particular material object. Our ideas -of individual material objects are our sense-percepts. Sense-percepts are particular sense- notions ; sense-percept and sense-intuition are synony- mous terms. 6. Edueation of sense-perception is the development of the power to gain sense-knowledge. The education r to the ;s senses it is the owl edge liat must tlie ca- islj feel Sensa- ations of e. The i to des- ; well as i sensor- on is the 1 sense - 'ception se-intui- 'ceptiou ntation. I sense- ins, and i inter- naterial sets are r sense- *ynony- )pment ucation IMPORTANCE OF SENSE-PERCEPTION CULTURE. 45 of the capability to gain sense-ideas makes the differ- ence between the feeble, halting, imperfect perceivin<. of the child and the vigorous, penetrating, exact obsei^ vations of the scientist. It is not the senses that we educate, but the capability to interpret sensations. IL ImportaxNce of Sense-Pekception Culture. Mental activity l)egins with sensations. Light-waves vibrate through my optic apparatus, bringing to me a world of color and form and movement ; sound-waves vibrate through my auditory apparatus, bringing to me a w()rld of speech and «ong ; excitations of my tactile and olfactory and gustatory apparatus open to me the worlds (»f touch and smell and taste. The importance of sense- perception culture can hardly be too strongly stated. 1. Sense-perception culture gives the mastery of the matter-xoorld We Jcarri to so observe as to become acquainted with the things around us ; step by step we explore earth and sea and sky. 2. Sense-perception culture enables us to build on experience I experience my sense-knowledge. On this rock I build. I am cer- tain; I know intuitively things having properties ; 1 know for my- self. As an educator, I lead the child to build on ils own expe- riences. ' 3. Sense-perception culture gives a basis for clear thinking. It enables me to gain exact sense-percepts. Through these I think un to exact concepts and judgments and reasons. The foundation is JanMn sense-knowing; clear perceiving makes clear thinking pos- 4. Neglect of sense-perception culture. Tn our time, this is inex- cusable; but, alas! the neglect :s still too common. Visit a hundred schools: half ara destitute of the best means for sense-perception cul- »u-e. Neither the teachers nor the pupils seem to realize that the mas- tery of the glorious world all about them is pre-eminentlv their work • nevertheless we have a host of wise teachers who lead their pupils in the conquest of the matter-world and thus educate sense-perception h r "• m 1 Li. '\ 46 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY /'X TEACHING. III. Growth of Sense-Intuition. U n\» \r:i 1 I 00 'J- 7^ The capability to gain sense- ideas is the first cognitive power to become active. Infant sense- perception is obscure and halting. To observe the slowly-developing sense - activity during the first months of life is highly interesting. Taste, touch, and sight seem to be slightly active when the infant is but a few hours old ; hearing, smell, and some of the organic senses become feebly active within a few days after birth. Very early the sensorium seems to respond to all kinds of sense-excitation. The early sense-impressions of the little ones are not ideas, but something lower, such as brutes gain; but before the child can talk it evi- dently acquires many wordless ideas. It is able to understand words before it can say them. Thus the little ones during the first months begin the work of mastering the material world. When the child begins to use words as signs of things, the growth of sense-intuition becomes very marked. By the end of tlie third year the senses are fully LAWS OF SENSE-PERCEPTION GROWTH. 47 active and the child has gained a considerable stock of sense-ideas.* 1. From three to six is now recognized as the Kindergarten peri- od. During this period the growth of sense-perception is wonderful. The foundation of future achievement is now laid in sense-experi- ence. Not the culture of the senses, but of the power to gain sense- notions, is the aim. 2. From six to ten is the primary period. Sense-intuition is now highly active The child is trained to observe closely and to gain and express clear sense-ideas; education is now literally objective woi'k. 3. From ten to fourteen is the intermediate period, coming be- tween childhood and youth. Sense-intuition is now fully active. Boys and girls gain a deeper insight into things having properties '; observation now becomes active and penetrating ; clear-cut sense- percepts are now gained and thought into concepts and judgments. 4. From fourteen to eightep-n is the high-school period. Observa- tion now becomes scientific and the youth learns science. Sense- perception, the power to gain accurate sense-knowledge, is at its best. This is the science period. 5.^ From eighteen to twenty-two is the college period. Observa^ tion is now penetrating, exact, and exhaustive. Nature yields up her secrets to the student. 6. Sense-perception is kept vigorous by use even in old age. The eye may grow dim and the car dull, but the power to interpret sen- sations may grow more and more powerful. The great French chemist Chevreul when a century old .till prosecuted successfully his experiments. lY. Laws of Sense-Perception Geowth. A law is a uniform way in which an energy acts. Physical laws are uniform ways in which physical forces act— as, for instance, the laws of falling bodies. A mental law is a uniform way in which a mental energy •I have found Preyer's Observationa of the first years of child-life vols, vu and ix, International Education Series, very helpful. ' Mill ',! 1, i ( ,a m > i'li r .itj 48 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY vVND TEACHING. acts, as a law of association. An educational law is a uniform way in which a mind must act in order to grow. Some educational laws are common to all our mental powers, and hence are called general laws. Other laws of mental growth are peculiar to certain mental energies, and are termed specific laws. I. General Laws. — The first great educational law is the law of effort — Effort under guidance educates. AiTong the various educational principles lying at the foundation of all true teaching, no one is so universally accepted as this. Education is the development of ca- pability by exercise. But, to make this practical, it is necessary to restate the general law in terms of each mental power : 1. Law of effort. Well-directed effort in gaining sense-percepts educates sense-perception. Such effort develops power. Directed exercise strengthens capa- bility. Endeavors to master the world of material things promote the growth of sense-intuition. 2. Law of means. Whatever calls sense-percep- tion into vigorous activity is a means for its culture. We gain sense-ideas in the presence of sense-objects. The blind gain no ideas of color, because they have no light-sensations. The de..f gain no ideas of sound, be- cause they have no sound-sensations. Sense-experience is the basis of all mental activity. Acquiring such ex- perience by means of objective work educates sense- perception. 3. Law of method. Systematic, persistent, and efii- (jient plans of work, in mastering the matter-world, edu- cate sense-perception. Orderly, continued, and vigorous efl:'orts develop power. MEANS FOR EDUCATING SENSE-PEKCEPTION. 49 11. Special Iaw8.-The following and similar laws relate to sense- perception growth : ^nse- 1. Law of mMiom. A sound sensorium favors sensc-Der<.en .on growth. Perfect sensations co^o of good health as tdf P oveZt The'™- f "T"' -P"™»-' ""denies menta i " hTJene """" ^'''^ «^''"" »"™"™ '» Pn^^^M „„!; "^r "■'' """"''^ Interested attention to material lhin« accelerates perception-growth. Distracted attention blurs sense Z cepts,and no attention means no percepts. Attention is r ndt pensal '.e condition of knowledge. 8. Law of ascent. The object, the idea, the word; this is the natural order of ascent. The child perceives the obje t gli^ h. Idea, and embodies the idea in a word. 4 Olherlaws. You will discover other laws. A few laws aotlv applied are best. When you realize that all good comes from wt^ .ng in harmony with law, you will search for laws as for dlamondt V. Means fok edccatino Sense-Perception. Sense-perceiving is self gaining sense-ideas by means of sense-objects. A world of material things affords nnlnmted means for sense-intuition culture. From this boundless store, wisdom seeks the best A grindstone is a means of sharpening an axe, and U a ml" ' 77 "'■ ""*'™""^ *^ »"• Mathen aties .8 a means of educating judgment and reason. Art is a means of cultivating imagination. In general, what ever tends to call forth normal mental Activity may become a means for culture. I. Educational Values-Studies are valuable for two .it?; T . '"f "■'' **^y ^«°'-^' ^°d for the «,e that can be made of them. By culture here is meant the entire effect of knowledge on th« n^lnd both V a qms tion and possession. The word j^ractical here signifies value for use. hi %n 't u K: 50 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. ^{i » ! ir ;i' i f If Mil ^ Pi I li-ti -17,1 . ^- 1 1 (1. Culture value, i^iducational values : K, t^ ( 2. rractical value. Studies calculated to call forth the most vigorous and discriminating efforts in gaining sense-knowledge are of the highest value in educating sense-perception. When such studies are also of the greatest practical value they become doubly valuable as educational means.* II. Table of Educational Valiie8.~Sonie studies call sense-perception into constant i^nd vigorous activity, and hence are of the highest value in educating this faculty. < SENSE-rERCEPTION CULTURE, VALUE OF Kindergarten work, and general object-lessons. . Botany, zoology, geology, chemistry, geography. Manual art-work, penmanship, drawing, molding. Reading, spelling, language-lessons, vocal music. Physiology, physics, astronomy Objective arithmetic, objective geometry 1 10 10 9 9 8 8 10 10 8 8 7 6 Explanations.— The aim is to give in this table the comparative values for perception-culture of the lead- ing studies preceding college work. The values in col- umn (1) are the estimates of the author. The values in column (2) are the estimates of Dr. Brooks. Each student will place in column (3) his own estimated values, and then in column (4) the averages of columns 1, 2, and 3. Mathematics, Latin, history, efc, are omitted because of their low value for sense-percep- tion culture. It needs to be empha^:ized and stated * I am indebted to L>r. Edward Brooks for valuable suggestions on educational values. i 'm METHODS OP EDUCATING SENSE-PERCEPTION. 51 again and again that the educational value depends largely on the methods of work. Often and often so- called object-lessons are of little value for sense-percep- tion culture, because the work is subjective and not objective. Suggestions.-!. Besides the collections made by the pupils, every school-room should have a cabinet of classified minerals, plants, birds, etc. When suitable cases are prov^ed, these things will gradually accumu- late, and are likely to be kept in good condition. ^ 2. In every school-room there should be a collec- tion of tools. These tools should belong to the school and be under the control of the teacher as a part of the school apparatus. Tools are the means by which man- kind gain a living, and are not to be despised. Tliev are the indexes on the dial-plate of civilization show- ing the advances of the race. The essentials are the hammer, the screw-driver, chisels, planes, borers, saws 3. Every school-room should have a set of weights and measures. The metric weights and measures should be used in connection with the common weights and measures. VI. Methods of educating Sense-Perception. A Imv, a method, a device; these expressions are now specific. An educational law is a fundamental and guiding educational truth. Educational methods are outgrowths of educational laws. Good methods are sjjstematic, persistent, and efticient plans of work An educational device is a helpful educational expedient A true educational method ip a plan of work in har- mony with child-nature and the nature of the subject ' n •'I : M li Ml 62 APPLIKD PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. studied. It is doubtless best to consider methods from the standpoint of the pupil and as adaptations to stages of growth. Kindergarten methods are plans of work adapted to the child from the third to the sixth year. Primary methods are plans of work adapted to chil- dren from six to ten. Intermediate methods are plans of work adapted to pupils from ten to fourteen. High- school methods are plans of work adapted to pupils from fourteen to eighteen. College methods are plans of work adapted to college students. Methods of educating sense-intuition are plans of work that lead pupils to put forth systematic, persistent, and efficient effort in gaining sense-intuitions. I. Kindergarten Method of educating Sense-Perception. — By Kindergarten methods are meant plans of work adapted to children under six years of age. Up to the third year, the mother is the Kindergartner. After tlie third year, the wise mother, when possible," puts her darling into a good Kindergarten. This is the period for sense-growth and for finding out how to gain sense- knowledge. Kindergarten work is admirably adapted to the promotion of these ends. 1. Trying things educates sense-perceptioii. The child becomes acquainted with things through tetling them by his senses. The orange is seen and felt and tasted and smelled and weighed. The blind child can not find out color, but it can try the orange by all the other senses. 2. Doing educates seme-perception. The child is led to do things purposely. It speaks, sings, draws, molds, handles, measures, makes, exercises, combines, builds. Doing such things brings the child into close -iHHiliiiHili MEVHODS OF EDUCATING SENSE-PERCEPTION. 53 and constant sense-contact with objects. It becomes acquainted with tliings-gains sense-ideas. This inti- mate and active contact educates sense-intuition 3. Observing edxicaUx sense-perception. As earlv as the tlnrd year the child begins to hnger over objects It now discriminates more sliarply. It now notices that wlioles have parts. Its notions become fuller and clearer. We say the child begins to observe. Kinder- garten work trains the little ones to so observe as to gain correct notions of things. KindotgMtM Work._Every teacher should study some eood Kiulorgarten ,,,Muul, such as The Mother's Songs and GameTa, well as Froebefs Education of Man. The inslghf thus gainrwU help m any hne oi work. In the near future, our high schools I. wel as our normal schools will give young ladies a short cout Z east mKmdergarten work. Mothers will thus bo bclte r^'Zed to g,ve w,se direclion to the activities of their little ones ™l pri- mary tcchers will be bettor prepared for their work. ' n. Primary Methods of educating Sense-Intuition.- Ihese are plans of work adapted to children from six to ten years of age. Sensation is now at its best. At home in the street, in the Kindergarten, the children have been busy, heretofore, exploring tlie wonder-world around them. It is astonishing to iind what a store of sense-pereepts they have acquired. Somehow, even the ht tie ones most unfortunately situated, have attained considerable sense-perception culture. But how strik- >ng the difterence between these waifs and the cliildren wisely trained from infancy! The Kindergarten gradu- ate enters the primary school with at lea'st twoVrs the start of the less fortunate child. The primary teacher is compelled to do u good deal of Kindergarten work to make up for the lo.ss of wasted years AU{ l\\ m ti ! U u •%. [- 54 APPLIED PSYCIJOLOGY AND TEACUL^fG. ii i If I I'l 1. Acquirimj ftense-intuitions educates sense-per- ception. At 8ix the child liears and ^e*- 1 uiiu tastes and Bniells and touches and weighs ahno{;( as perfectly as tlie adult; but the capability to intori)ret sensations and make exact percepts is still comparatively feeble. This is the golden period for storing the mind with idea« of things in land, sea, and sky. The efforts put lorth in gaining these ideas develop sense-perception. 2. Ohjective experimental work develops sense-per- ception. • The child reaches sense-intuitions through material objects. He continually experiments by sense- tests. This apple tastes sour; this rose smells sweet; this board feels rougli. He discriminates the proper- ties of objects and assim Hates these into notions. Such work educates perception. 3. Doing educates se7ise-2)erception. Notice those children making mud-pies, mud-dolls, mud-houses. How intently they work ! Lead them on to do better things, as molding, drawing, making things ; as reading, talk- ing, singing ; as liandling, comUning, separathig, weigh ing, 7r}easuring. You will thus lead the children to put forth their best efforts in the best ways. They get close to tilings, and thus gain a mastery over them. 4. Teaching well primary arithmetic, primary geography, j^rimary reading, and primary language lessons educates sense-percejHion. These subjects must necessarily be taught objectively. The child per- ceives tliese five apples and these five marbles and these five marks ; it thus gains the idea— /vf. It per- ceives this body of water, and this, -'■m\ this; it thus gains the i^a^—laJce. From things to ideas and to words is the fundamental law. The child is led to METHODS OF EDUCATING SENs;<:-PERCEPTION. 55 perceive tilings having properties. Out of its own experiences, immediate and revived, il makes its nmn- ber notions, and its geography notions, and its notions used in reading aim language lessons. It builds on the rock. It learns how to see and hear and taste and smell and touch, so as to gain clear and full notions of things. m. Intermediate Methods of educating Sense-Percep- tion.— By these we meuji methods suited to boys and girls. Sensations are now readily transformed into sense-ideas. The easy work of childhood does not satisfy boys and girls. Now, book instruction supple- ments oral instruction. Semi-science takes the place of miscellaneous object-lessons. 1. Ohserving ritically educates sense-perceptum. The pupil examines tliing« minutely. He is no longer contented wit)* vague ideas, but wants to know all that can be known about objects. His penetrating scrutiny enables him to gain clear and exhaustive sense-notions, and greatly strengthens .a\ luor. the SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 61 we must appeal to all the senses except hearing; in teaching chil- dren perfectly endowed we must appeal to all senses. SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. At every step the teacher, as well as the student, needs critically to interrogate self. The few hints here given, it is hoped, will prove helpful. Do I fully understand the nature of sense-percep- tion ? Am I reasonably familiar with its growth and its activity from youth to age ? Am I prepared to promote the growth of this power in my pupils ? How can I better qualify myself for this work f Am I thoroughly in earnest ? I. Helpful Books.— You will receive most help from educational journals, from attending summer normal schools, frohi visiting the best schools, and from contact with the best living teachers. The best books are indispensable. As new books are constantly ap- pearing, you need to exercise your book-intuition to discriminate between gold and dross. We live in an age of superior books. II. Letter.— What I knoiv about the education of sense-perception. He who tries to help another helps himself. Giving enriches in the mind-world. Nothing besides, in my judgment, will help you so much as writing a thoughtful letter on the education of sense-per- ception to some earnest teacher who will respond in kind. In the normal school, in the institute, and in teachers' reading-circles, I have found it highly advantageous to have several of these letter.«» read before the class. In writing these letters tell what you think III. Position of Sense-Perception.-In the mental economy where do you place sense-intuition? Why? How is sense-perception re- lated to attention? to memory? to conception ? Distinguish be- tween sensation and sense-perception : illustrate. Why do you use sense-perception and sense-intuition as synonyms? What do you mean by the education of r.ense-perception ? IV. Importance of Sense-Perception Culture.— You may state three reasons why you think this culture vory important. Illustrate by primary reading and primary arithmetic. Why do we call the movement initiated by Pestalozzi and others the New Education ? What do you mean by the old education? Do you class the meth- ods of Socrates and Plato and Aristotle with the new or the old education ? Why ? V. Growth of Sense-Percaption.-Illustrate. Show that it is the ■4 1 62 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. •i ii Ik- I growth not of sensation but of the power to acquire sense-ideas. What is the relation between hygiene and sense-perception culture f Why ouglit every teacher to be familiar with the laws of health t Trace the activity of sense-perception from youth to age. VI. Lawa cf Perception-Growth.— What distinction do you make between general laws and special laws ? What is meant by an edu- cational law ? Illustrate each of the general laws of sense-intuition growth. State and explain two special laws. What distinction do you make between an educational law and an educational principle. VII. Means of Perception-Cultuo.— Illustrate by the grindstone. Explain the meaning of culture value and practical value. Show that botany is a better means of sense-perception culture than algebra. How is it that the culture value of a study depends so much on the method of teaching it ? Illustrate by primary geog- raphy. VIII. Methods of educating Sense-Perception.— Make the distinc- tion between a law, a method, and a device. What do you mean by Kindergarten methods? Primary methods? Intermediate methods! High- school methods ? College methods ? What question does the chilo: ask? the boy? the youth? the man? 1. Kindergarten methods. Who is the natural Kindergartnerf Why is it better to place children after the third year in a well-con- ducted Kindergarten ? How does trying things educate perception ? Explam how doing helps. Illustrate the benefit of observing. What advantage will be gained by priinary teachers who study a good work on Kindergarten ? 2. Primaru methods. What do children of six know? Are their senses at their best? Is it a mistake to keep children out of school too long? Tell some advantages gained by Kindergarten pupils. How do primary differ from Kindergarten methods? Show that acquiring sense-percepts educates perception. Show how observing promotes the growth of sense-intuition. Prove that doing educates perception. Tell how you will so teach the following branches as to educate sense-intuition: Primary arithmetic, primary reading, primary language-lessons, primary science-lessons. 3. Intermediate methods. How do intermediate differ from pri- mary methods ? Show that objective analysis and synthesis culti- vate perception. How will you so teach zoology as to educate senre- intuition? Will manual training help? Would you make this a part of the school-work ? M DELATIONS AND DEFINITIONS. 68 4. High-school methods. Show the diflference between internio- diate and high-school methods. Why is sense-perception culturo made incidental in the high-school ? What do you mean by obsor- XTolc.:;;. '""'' "'^""'^ ' "^"^^^^^^ ^^ ^°^-^' ^y chemiLy; by IX. Oral and Book Work.- -Why must the work be mostly oral m the Kindergarten and the primary school? Show the folly of ex elusive book-work in the intermediate school. Why should inter-' rn^diate pupils be carefully trained to gain knowledge from b "? Which do you consider the greater educational power in the hifh ^ CO GROWTU OF SELF-PKRCEPTION. 67 are few and crude. Here and there we find persons who know the mind-world better than any one knows the matter-world These are the mighty ones-the Shakespeares, the Aristotles, and the Kants In proportion as we become acquainted with ourselves, we rise to the dignity of a grand manhood. 5. Self-perception is the source of self-knowledge. We are de- pendent on self-intuition for our ideas of the acts and the activities of self. A being not endowed with self-consciousness has no mind- world. W e are as dependent on awareness for self-knowledge as on sensation for sense-knowledge. The culture of self-consciousness opens to us a world infinitely grander than the sense-world. " There IS nothing great but mind." 111. Gkowtii of Self-Perception. The feeble awareness of the cliild becomes the clear penetrating self-consciousness of the man. This beconi- iiig, this gradual process is the growth of consciousness, iidncation is the promotion of this growth. The self- notions of the child are few and crude ; but the self- notions of the educated man are many and like polished gems. 1. Childhood Very early the infant feels sensations and is dimly aware. How early it assimilates its sensations into crude sense-no ions, and its awareness into rudimentary self-notio..s we can not know. At first the child is aware of the objects perceived and nothing more. As early as the third year the child uses such words intelligently as /, ,.., m.y. Even earlier it says nL. It mus perceive dimly self knowing, feeling, and willing. But few children give evidence of distinct self-consciousness earlier than the fourth Jinn'« ,^^7'"^";P^"°^ ^^'^ growth is continuous; but self-percep- tion acts eebly lor some years. Its feeble activity during childhood mdicates that -ts culture should be incidental (study cut p. 60) nnifPof'^ T'^-''''1/''^''''^- ^^'^r«n«^^« «f objective knowing is quite active during this period. Now is the time to fix right habits ti^tr^T" ''" "'" ^'"^'^^^ ^"^ P"P^^^ '^ attaii 'certainty in their mental experiences. ' 3. Youth. The youth feels irrepressible desires to explore the .ivU- m '! i Am 68 APPMKD PSYCIIOLOOY AND TJCACHING. innor world. Now sclf-iriliiilion Im'coiih's iidivo and itciu'lrdtiu^'. It«iul sclf-kiitiwlcdp^ lifcoiiics iiiii'iiscly iiilcifsliii",'. TIjiM is pci'iiliiirly llu) 111 tin^f period I'or the ciilliin' of scdr-jw-rccplidii. Ah tlio vhiUi l^aiiKs an oxpcriincntul kiiowlcdpi of tint inalt(>r-woi-ld, so iho youth gains an cxpuriincnlnl luiowlcdf^c of ilic niiiid-worid. This is Iho ^'ohh-ii period for self-pereeptioii eullure. Mducafors l»e;;in to real- ize I ills liicl. Within one or two decutles p'tuiielry, Ixd.any, and cle- menlary psyeholttgy will he studied, side l»y si(h', in all our high schools. -1. Mdii/iootl. Durin;,' early niaidiood self-intuition hiH^onu'.s fidly jietive. It, must he that this eapuhility j^rows more and more powerful as tlu^ years Milviinee. The o<'toj;eimriaii pi/es with in- creasing Wonder into the profounder depths of the si)irit-world. IV^. Laws ok Ski,k-Pku(:i;i"ti<)n (iuowth. The uniform wuys in wliicli self must act in order to the (Icvi'lopmi'iit ol" {'onsciousnt'ss nvv, tho luws of si'lf- }K'r(H'j)tion ij^routli. lU'cjuiso tlicso hiws arc fmidaniontal and »j;tii(linu^ educational tnitiis tliey arc; called educa- tional |)rincij)les. I. General Laws. These look to tlie ^n-owtli of all tlie nuMital powers, l»ut n.'ed to he stated in terms of eacli. What are the great laws ss, and from the con-sequent degradation and dissipation of force, is the most serious : .ss to which the mind is subject in its struggle to gain power. When we consider the time spent in study- ing truths which are not incorporated with the mind, we can see something of the fearful waste of energy that comes from making the aim so narrow that effort is dwarfed, and actual achievement loses its value. The loss comes from ceasing to fight before the battle is finished." * * Palmor. d!' ■ 1 nil iiii •ill lid i: ^: .a>. V^, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1^ I- ... us U 13.2 140 M i.c 1.25 1.4 1.6 = — .i4 ^" _ ► VI & n / 'W Photographic Sciences Coiporation 4^ ^s V ip A % «^ 6^" €> %^^ "% f- V 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^ '% ^ 70 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. i 1^ ' I V. Means of educating Self-Pp:kception. As tlie mastering of tlie matter-M^orld educates sense- perception, so the mastering of tlie mind-world educates 8elf-perce])tion. Each mental act is an event. 8elf stands face to face with his own acts, and perceives himself knowing, feeling, and willing. Man looks within as well as without, and gains self-knowledge as well as sense-knowledge. Each mental act may become the means of self-perception culture. Any study which quickens self-observation and transforms awareness into self-percepts may be made the means for self-perception culture. L For Childreii.-The work during this period is incidental and informal. We do not even mention self, but we lead the child to gain some self-ideas in connection with its daily work. I. Certainty in self-perceiving mid in rememberinq. "Are you sure? 'Ms the best question. Yes or no will not answer this question. The teacher must satisfy himself that the child is really certain. •' jj. Truthfulness in telling. There is no better means than this ior the culture of self-intuition. 3. Forming right habits. This is an admirable means for edu- cating self.perception. Good manners and morals are the results of the formation of good habits. The child contemplates his own acts and learns to be careful. II. For Boys and Giris.-Awareness is now quite active, so far as the sense-world is concerned. Gaining self-ideas becomes more and more interesting. The means for self-perception culture are various and abundant. 1. The^means for educating child self.perception may also be used here, but the field is wider and much more can be done f h.-« r ?^^-^-ll^';''''f'<'^- I^id I intend to do so ? Do I understand this! Was that what happened f Why do J desire to go ? 3 Juvenile literature is a most imr)ortant means. The pupils now begm to understand the experiences of others. METHODS OF DEVELOPING SELF-PERCEPTION. 71 III. For Youth3.-All lines of work may now be made the means of educatmg self-intuition. h Psychology easily Tm],s highest. Introspection characterizes this study Self-percepts become as definite as sense-percepts, and are thought mto concepts. The mental powers are defined and grouped. The youth analyzes his own mental acts with more delight than he feels when analyzing flowers. Soon he discovers the laws of the mental economy and the laws of mental growth 2. mhics has a high value. Character-building develops the power to gain self-knowledge. Sea-examination with the view to better living gives a deep insight into the mind-world h.«t \ ^f ^^^''^.^'^ «f g^-eat value. The Bible is incomparably the best book for this purpose. I place Shakespeare next. But the means of self-intuition culture are boundless-life, history, litera- I UFCj cil La VI. Methods of Di^vELOPiNo Self-Perception. Distinctness, certainty, unity ; these are cardinal in education. Self is aware of his acts as his, but there must be sunlight clearness. Each act must stand out distinctly and doubt must give place to rtainty. Teacher have you developed your power of introspec- tion i Then you are prepared to lead others. You will not need many suggestions. Work on in the li^ht of your own experience. I. Kindergarten, Primary, and Intermediate Methods. -Good teaching educates self-perception as well as sense- perception. So blended is self-perceiving with other mental acts that discrimination is not always easy ; we think of our acts, but not of self doing these acts. The specific culture of consciousness, however, must be kept ever in view. We can hardly begin these lessons too early, but from the nature of the work all details must be left to the teacher. A few general suggestions are all that 16 desirable. Work out your own plans in your own way tf^ occ 72 APPLIED PSYCUOLOGY ANP TEACBING. 1 lui 1. Incidental. At this early stage you give no sepa- rate lessoii.s to educate self-percei)tion, but you do this incidentally in connection with all lessons. You will need to guard against all expressions which the child is not prepared to understand. 2. Accuracy. Lead the pupil to observe accurately. Do you really see and hear and smell and taste and touch these things? Are you sure the clock struck four? The ways are endless of training to accuracy, in observ- ing, in recalling, and in thinking. 3. Distinct memories. Lead your pupil to recall precisely what occurred. Was that what happened? Was that what I saw ? Without thinking of it, the child .Nearly perceives itself remembering. You lead the child to tell just what it saw, or heard, or did, or read. 4. Memory and phaiitasy . Lead your pupils clearly to distinguish memories and phantasms. Children oft- en fail to do this. Much care is needed here. Self as memory recalls actual experiences ; self as phantasy modifies his experiences. The erroneous reports of chil- dren are often the unintentional blending of memories and phantasies rather than intentional falsehoods. 5. Truthfulness. The habit of truthfulness compels introspection. From infancy to age it is of the ut- most importance to have the habit of truthfulness in- grained. 6. Self-examination. Teach your pupils to question themselves. Inculcate honesty here. What did I mean ? What did I intend ? Why do I feel guilty ? What did I do ? These questions become more and more search- ing from year to year. Higher ideals and better living must be the aim. \\\: METHODS OF DEVELOPING SELF-PEKCEPTION. 73 7. Stones and Literature. Lead pnpils to put them- eolves in he place of others. What would you have done i What would you have said? How would you have felt! How wo„M you have acted? The wise teacher w,ll assiduously cultivate this fruitful field so rich in helpful experiences. S. Manners and Morals. Lead your pupils to form morals develops self-perception. You do not need fur- ther suggestions. You will work o-,t your own methods n your own ways. You will lead your pupils to gain self-knowledge as well as sense-knowledge II. Advanced IKethod^-These are plans of work adapted to the high-school and college perio..s. Self- pei-eeption ,s now decidedly active, and seems to reach full ac .vity abont the twentieth year. How may this power be grandly developed ? The answer must always De, 61, mastenixj the mind-world. 1. Gaindng self-percepts educates self-perception. The youth makes, out of his self-e.xperiences, definite elf.percepts Awareness, like sensation, is fundamental ness for all 1 know or can know of tlie mind-world Making sense-percepts ont of sensations educates sense: perception; making self-percepts out of awareness ed- ucate., self-pereeption. We do not educate sensation and awareness, but the capabilities to gain ideas through 1 tn T/r'""rt ^""•"■^P-'^ti"" i^ the capability to deveirn t,f° '^''•- ^^"''^ "' ^^'^^ -If-perc'lpts ■ aevelop self-perception. ° i- f am t * ^%'^"fy off/ educates self perception. What am I i What can I do ? With what capabilities am I 74 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. uiidowed ? How may I make tlie most of myself? I know tliat I am I ; on this rock I take my stand. I perceive a cluircli and gain the self-percept, this per- ceiving, at the same time that I gain the sense-percept, this church. I find that I have the capabilities to gain sense-ideas and self-ideas, and I learn to call my notions of these capabilities sense-perception and self-perception. Thus, step by step, I explore the self-world. My power of introspection becomes more and more vigorous as I make greater and greater efforts to understand myself. My self-ideas become as clear and well-defined as my sense-ideas. The mind-world gives up to me its secrets. 3. Put yourself in his place. I consider this one of the very best ways of cultivating self -perception. To the teacher t\\h habit is invaluable Every year I spend a few days in some school as a pupil. I find that this experience helps me to put myself more completely in the pla"e of my students, and thus I am better prepared to lead them in their investigations. This method of studying the mind- world may be used constantly. You observe the words, looks, and acts of the lover : put yourself in his place and you can understand hiin. Hu- man nature is the same everywhere. Each man repre- sents all men. Thus you have the key to all human na- ture. You can interpret history, and literature, and art. Efforts to understand others educate self-perception, and the knowledge gained is of the highest practical value. You can now look at things from the standpoint of your pupils. You literally take your place beside them and lead them in their work. You can now view history from the standpoint of the actors. You can now contemplate the plays of Shakespeare from the stand- METHODS OF DEVELOPING SELF-PERCEPTION. 75 point of the author. Yon can now admire the Greek felave from tlie standpoint of the artist. ^. Vicarious experiences help. One becomes a men- te milhonaire by appropriating tlie experiences and achievements of others. This is legitimate. Eacli per- son IS entitled to the achievements of the race. But the foundation must be laid in self-experience As I need sense-experience to be able to appropriate the achievements of scientists, so I must have self-knowledge A^ \ ^^ appropriate the self-experiences of others 1 hnd that I am at all times, whether sleeping or waking activo and in some degree aware of my acts. What is your experience ? What is the experience of the race « Hamilton had himself awakened at various times ; he teiis us that self was always found busy and aware. Self- intuition IS cultivated by comparing our own with the conscious experience of others. In literature we study the conscious experience of writers. With these experi- ences we compare our similar experiences. We are en- riched by the experiences of the most gifted. Our hasty inferences are corrected by the common experiences of mankind. Such efforts cultivate self-perception and ren- der the human mind an open book. The insight gained by such efforts is invaluable in practical life. Thus the individual becomes as wise as the race. ^^-^elf -examination cultivates self -perception. From childhood to age the habit of self-examination is of great benefit. As the years go by, self -inspection becomes sys- tematic and penetrating. I count the practice of self- scrutiny invaluable. As at the close of the day the busi- ness man posts his books, so the wise character-builder at the close of each day carefully examines his own acts M 1;:' k'A 1 76 APPLIED rSYCUOLOGY AND TEACHING. K 'i * L iji AVe do iiiorft for our [)uj)ils wlien wo lead them to form tlie habit of careful and systematic self-examination. I have not found formulated schemes advantageous. Very soon they are dropped. Each one will spon- taneously form a plan best suited to his wants. We suggest lines of self-examination, but leave each one to pursue his own method. Self-betterment is the inspir- ing motive. "We strive for perfection. Each day we try to advance. 6. Lead the learners to assimilate awareness into self-knowledge. Pushing awareness into definite, clear, distinct, positive self-knowledge does most to educate self-perception. Failure to do this accounts for the haziness of the self-knowledge of most people Plere and everywhere complete success is reached by working on until the victory is won. First, we must attend so closely to our acts that our self-perception will be complete. Secondly, we must compare the results we reach with the results reached by others. Our self-knowledge will thus become broad, exact, clear, positive. YII. Mistakes in educating Self-Perception. A chief mistake is its utter neglect. Even profes- sional teachers are often poor in self-knowledge. Many teachers make no intelligent effort to increase the self- knowledge of their pupils. 1. Misconceptions. The capability to make self- ideas out of awareness is as certainly a native energy of self as gravity is a native energy of matter. Some think of each mental act as a state of awareness. This misconception, as I think, confuses and leads to the neg- lect of self-perception culture. The gain would surely MISTAKES IN EDUCATING SELF-PERCEPTIOJf. 77 i'Lir/"" "■"''' "" ''^l"-«-'°"» *'«'- "/ -»rf and . f-X ^"'""''"»'"'«« ""e effaced and «c* 0/ mind he a^ staUi of comoioumiess does „ot help, hut hurts snnply wonders what can he n.eant hy shUe,. Each mental act is complex, h„t the native eni,.^ies to do men- tal acts are snnple. It is hecause all our mental powers supplement each, that mental acts are complex. Mul gained and nothing is lost h,y thinking o/consciou n ^ "gloS '''■ '" "^"^"^ -f-membering, reason- as LSTT 7'r ^<'"-'^"«"'<^dg« of teaclier as well as pupil IS ofte,. shadowy, and self-ideas are vague. A What an nexcnsable and incalculable waste to stop short of perfect self-.deas ! Ask a score of well-informed per- sons to g,ve you the distinction between conscisnce and conscwusne^so, between ^pe„ept and a eoncej>t; you nler! 7 *" k"'''" """' <'™'^^ ^"^ ~o- answers. You must begin with the children. Clear self-knowledge comes of culture. 3. Second-hand self-knowing. Nothing develops lint7 ';•'"'•'''*'"' self-perceiving. In hour o^ real mtrospec ion is more valuable than weeks of sec ona-hand work. All knowledge of self must begin Tn self-expenence. Many delude themselves into flunk, ng they are studying self, when they are studying what omebody says about self. Direct self-knowledge i f.mdament.1. You must perceive yourself acting^and must comyonr awareness into self-ideas. « t.ren smnehtnes leconie too subjective. " She 78 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. Ml >{ i i never plays,'' a motlier observed about her daughter, " but she reads so imich and asks such strange ques- tions." This indicates an abnormal condition. The healthy child lives with nature, likes to play, likes to see things, and is as happy as a bird. The old little child is a sad object. Some one has blundered. 5. Egotistic awareness is a misfortune. The big / shuts out real self knowledge and prevents a person thus afflicted from seeing himself as others see him. Inordi- nate consciousness of self produces timidity as well as egotism. You will study to lead your pupils to think of self-acts and self-ideas, but not of self. True self- knowledge makes one modest and courageous. 6. A rnorhid ethical consciousness is a great mis- fortune. AVhy eternally worry over your follies ? Do the best you can, and rejoice always. It is wrong and foolish to make yourself miserable brooding over your sins. Ask, and you will be forgiven. Go and sin no more. Make your life useful, and you will be happy. 7. Failure to develop consciousness into definite ^ clear ^ and positive intuitive-ideas is a fundamental edu- cational error. Mental energy is thus wasted, and the person becomes a dreamer. No mistake in education needs to be more carefully guarded against. 8. Self-concepts hefore self percepts. This mistake is even more common than that of sense-concepts before sense-percepts. It is the violation of the law of ascent. We must ascend through particular notions to general notions. My notion of this memory is a self-percept, but my notion of my capability to recall my past acqui- sitions is a self-concept. 9. Suhstitutmg our own awareness for that of the SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 79 Imnier We thus read into cl.ild-nund what is not there, but in our own minds. Ju.st here we find the source of the failure of the teacher to understand the child. The confusion of his own standpoint with that of the mental fact about which he is making a report. Prof. James considers the great fallacy of the psyeholo^ g St. In studying comparative psychology we fall into tl^ ame error by reading into the brute-mind what is not there but m our own min.ds. In studying the JJible TndV ""° " '''"' '' ""' "'"•''"' '•"'"'"'«"• own anooESTivE study-hints. P».h ^'"^' ""^'-The New Testament is incomparably the best Each one here sees self reflected back as in a mirror Most wri^Tr, have exhausted their energies in discussing sens 'peroepUon andt^ ^J- ^e"e"-Self.PerceptionCulture.-You must look wifhin rr have you managed to gain self-knowledge f How wTu you 1 ad . pupils to explain the mind-world? Write suci though /. ^ n prove suggestive to your friend Be carpfnl T ^^°"^^*V« ^'l* pressK>n the meanin/of which is notZt' ^T ^^ ^°"' ^^ '^^ eral r'pnf ""'"^'r °^ ««"'-^«^««P«0".-Define and illustrate. Give sev- eral reasons why you deem the culture of this power of greatTmnor tion as the power of external observation ? V I. Laws of flAlf.Pai.<.^«4.:.-, n .,, '■I, 1 .. v.p..oii wiowca.— state the three general edu- I ii Y'H n 80 APl'LIED rSYCUOLOGY AND TEACUING. cational laws in terms of consciousness. Give three special laws which you think of f^rcat practical value. VII. Meant of educating Self-Perception.— What means do you es- teem valuable in childhood f in boyhood! in youth f Why do you give psychology the first placet When is the golden period to study elementary psychology! Why should it have a place in every high school t Do you consider ethics a valuable means for this culture t VIII. Methods of educating Self-Perception.— State the distinction you make between a law, a device, and a method. Define Kindergar- ten, primary, intermediate, and high-school methods in terms of self- perception. Can you transmute methods of sense-perception culture into methods of self-perception culture f Try this. Show your plans of work in educating self-intuition in childhood; in boyhood; in youth. IX. MiBtakeB in educating Self-Perception.— How do you account for the astonishing neglect of self-perception culture! Why do most persons count sense-knowledge more valuable than self-knowl- edge ! Why do you prefer the expression, acts of self, to the expres- sions, states of mind and states of consciousness f How do you account for the haziness of the self-knowledge of most persons! Why is it a mistake to trust to second-hand self-knowledge! May the child become too subjective! State your remedy. May young people become too self-conscious ! What remedy do you suggest ! Is it possible to gain sense-concepts before gaining sense-percepts ! Can you gain self-concepts before acquiring self-percepts! Give several illustrations. ) CHAPTER Y. !li' EDUCATION OF NECESSARY-PERCEPTION. By this is meant the development of the power to gain necessary-knowledge. Education makes the differ- ence between the crude, undefined necessary notions of the uneducated, and the clear, well-defined necessary no- tions of the philosopher.* * Kead Chapter VIII, Elementary Psychology ; also, NeceBsarv-intui tion, p. 84. EDUCATION OF NECfcdSiiHY-PERCErTlON. ^i I. Place of Necesaary.Perception in the Mental Eoor- omy.--Nece88ary-iiituition in fundamental. Self as sense, intuition gains sense-knowl- edge and nothing more. Self as conscious-intuition gains self-knowledge and nothing more. A being not endowed with necessary- perception must remain for- ever ignorant of the world of necessary-realities. Nec- essary-intuition is the native energy of self to experience necessary realities. We make our sense-ideas out of our sensations and our self- ideas out of our awareness ; but we stand face to face with necessary-realities and gain necessary-ideas by di- rect insight. II. Definitions. — We need to tread softly here. The mightiest thinkers still falter on this battleground of thought. We must each strive to grasp these profound truths a^ best we can 1. Mcesscpz-realities are the actualities that make possible the physical and the spiritual universes. These realities are termed n^;n.^«; *^«3^ underlie pbenome- ter, mmd, tru h, beauty, duty, are noumena. Eaoh is a n^cesmr?/ reality; each 7nust he. th.i ih^^^. ^.„ u. MA .1 4 1 1 82 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 2. NeGessary-percepts are concrete notions of nec- essary-realitieso Because we gain these notions by direct insiglit they are called necessary-percepts or necessary- intuitions. Like all percepts, our necessary-notions are concrete notions. 3. Necessary-truths are necessary-percepts general- ized. Socrates died from drinking the poison. That this effect had this cause is an intuitive-percept ; but that every effect is caused is an intuitive truth. We gain necessary -per Gej>ts intuitively, but we infer neces- sary-truths. Axioms are necessary-tr iths. 4. Necessary-perception is the capability of self to gain necessary-ideas?. Wp are endowed with the power of direct insight into the world of necessary-realities. We perceive necessary-realities ; we intuitively gain ne- cessary-ideas. Necessary-perception is self perceiving necessary-realities. 5. The Education of necessary -perception^ is the de- velopment of the power to gain well-defined necessary- aotions. All men experience necessary-realities, but the vague, un worded necessary-ideas of children and unedu- cated persons are vastly different from the i\ecessary-no- tions of the educated. Necessary-truths Pre the pillars of science and pnilosophy. III. Importance of educating Necessary-Perception. — Necessary-intuition is a native energy of self, susceptible of distinct and unlimited culture, Necessary-knowledge is the granite of the thought-world. The mathemati- cian builds on necessary-truths. The scientist builds se- curely vvhen he builds on this granite. The philosopher |a o-rander tliaii other men because more than others he deals with these sublime truths. EDUCATION OF NECESSARY-PERCEPTION. IV. Growth Of BTecessary.Perception.— Every one has ^e tinie-idea and the space-idea and the cause-idea How early the child dimly perceives necessary-realities we can not know, but it is certain that child-notions of necessary-realities are dim and vague. The power to gam necessary-ideas acts feebly in childhood, becomes more active in boyhood and girlhood, and becomes vig, orous in youth. It is the latest of all the faculties to reach full activity. While all persons perceive neces. sary-realities, only the few gain clear and well-defined necessary-ideas and the power to use them. Most of us are so interested in phenomena that we fail to investi- gate noumena. V. Laws of Necessary-Perception Growth.— (1.) Well- directed effort in gaining necessary-ideas educates neces- sary-perception. (2.) The mind must ascend through tTuthT'*^"^^'''^^*' to necessary-concepts and necessary- YI. Means of educating Necessary-Perception.— Ne- cessary-realitieb environ us and furnish the means of ed- ucatmg necessary-perception. This space, this time, this cause this truth, this beauty, this duty, are perceived as readily as sense-objects. Gaining distinct ideas of these realities develops necessary-intuition. Studies involv- ing the acquisition and constant use of necessary truths are excellent for the cultivation of this faculty Ge- ometry, ethics, logic, and philosopliy are the best. The wise teacher will find something in each lesson to fa- miliarize the learner with necessary-realities. Phenom- ena touch noumena at every point. yil. Methods of educating Necessary-Intuition.- Mastering the world of necessary-realities educates ne- ' ' iiiij'ijtj.'gi ai m 84 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 3 < i ti cessary-intuition. All have vague notions of these re- alities ; but, to make these notions clear and detinite, and to state and use them skillfully, are only possible to edu- cated persons. Because most persons stop short of this, they are incapable of effective thinking. People wander after every delusion because they fail to master the world of necessary-realities. They build on the sand. 1. Lead the lea?'ner to perceive things haviyig pr^op- erties. Save him from that most hurtful delusion that he can know only phenomena. We know matter as ex- tended. We know material substance as certainly as we know material phenomena. We know directly things in their relations to space and time and cause. 2. Lead the learner to perceive self doing things. Save him from the no-soul delusion. We know the thinker as certainly as we know the thinking. Self loves, self reasons, self chooses. Back of these acts we perceive the self that does the acts. 3. Lead the learner to build on axioms. Necessary- ideas are fundamental. The learner thinks these ideas into necessary-truths. In geometry, at every step, he necessarily builds on axioms. Lead him so to build in all his studies.. This is the climax of educational meth- ods. This is building on the rock. CULTURE OF THE PERCEPTIVK WERS CHAPTER YI. CULTURE OF THE PEKCPJPTIVE POVVKKS. T11K8E are our native energies of direct insight. Self is endowed with capabilities to look immediately into the world of matter, the world of mind, and the world of necessary-realities. Exploring and mastering these worlds cultivate our perceptive powers. Terms used.— Familiar and expressive terms are the best ; but precision is necessary. In some cases we must use technical terms for the sake of clearness. As a rule, it is best to use easy terms. We can then better under- stand ourselves and each other. 1. I^^^rceptive—intuitim— acquisitive— presentative are the common terms applied to our capabilities to know inmiediately. Eu h of these terms is used to ex- press the same meaning. They are the general terms used to designate the powers of self to gain particular notions by direct insight. Each term includes sense- perceiving and self-perceiving and necessary-perceiving. 2. Peroept or intuition is a specific name for a par- ticular notion. Percepts or intuitions are concrete no- tions of materia ' objects, of mental energies and acts, and of necessary-realities. These notions may be sense- percepts, self-percepts, or necessary-percepts. y^\Q\\ I think oi percepts or of intuitions, I think of sense-ideas, self -ideas, and necessary-ideas. When I wish to be spe- cific, however, I designate my concrete notions as sense- mtuitions, as self-intuitions, and as necessary-intuitions. II. Pereeptive-Knowing is Immediate-Knowing.— The practical realization of this fundau" utal fact has revolu- ,nlil iff \ \\ m aan 86 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. I: h if' ' it- I ^ 1 t- i. tionized our methods of teaching. From the Kinder- garten to the university, we lead the learner to acquire directly sense-knowledge, self-knowledge, and necessary- knowledge. From childhood to manhood we lead the learner to build on his own experiences. 1. The learner must actually do the perceiving. The pupil and not the teacher must gain the percepts. This is vital. The art of teaching begins with skillfully lead- ing the learner to look directly into the three elementary worlds and thus gain immediate and clear-cut notions of noumena as well as phenomena. 2. The knowing must not he second-hand. The temptation to substitute book and teacher experience for pupil-experience is greater than some teachers can with- stand. It is much less trouble and requires much less time, but it does not educate. They will build on the sand. At any cost of toil and time you must lead the learner to gain his percepts for himself. The knowing must be first-hand. The experience must be the pupil's. 3. Imagination must not take the place of experience. The learner mast really perceive. Imagination supple- ments experience, but can not take its place. The learner must taste the sugar sweet, and be aware of self rejoicing and perceive this space. Be not deceived. Real experience is fundamental. III. Habits of Exwt Observation.— These habits should be formed in early life. Discriminations and assimilations should be as exact as possible, and this ex- actness should be rooted into habit. 1. Sense-observation. Great attention should be given to educating learners to gain exact sense-ideas through each sense. The power and accuracy of mem- CULTURE OF THK PERCEPTIVE POWERS. g^ ory, imagination, and tliouglit depend largely upon the extent and exactness of our sense-knowledge In prac tical life such culture is invaluable. Merchants nnist be able to test the quality of their goods by their senses. Mechanics, cooks, artists, poets, need to have the power of exact sense-observation well developed. Hal)its of exact observation should be cultivated early in life and maintained persistently. Gazing around at every thinj. and listening to every sound, are not meant by this but a careful attention to details, plans, and purposes.* ' 2. SeJf-ohservation. Man is naturally inclined to look out of himself before he looks within. There is a propriety in this. The mind must have materials of thought before it thinks. But it is of importance that we learn to observe our own activities and thus become acquainted with ourselves.f Great care should be given to the acquisition of exact self-ideas. The habit of ex- act self-observation is of inestimable value. What do I perceive ? What do I remember ? What do I think « What were my motives ? What is my intention ? As we interrogate the outer world and find out its secrets 80 we interrogate self and thus become acquainted with the inner world. 3. Noumenal-ohservation. The habit of exact ob- eervation of noume^ia as well as phenomena is hio-hlv important. All perceive concrete heing. It is This IS all that can be said. Ail perceive concrete good, (^ood is fundamental. It is rights final. We must learn to perceive concrete necessary-realities distincth- and exactly. We perceive that these parts equal thf. whole, ana think these and similar observations into ir. . 41) * Palmer. + McCoeh. 88 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. axioms. Necessary-ideas, self-ideas, and sense-ideas are alike reliable. IV. Assimilation. — This is tb; most fruitful term yet used to express the union of our present with our pre- vious acquisitions. Nothing is more congenial, from babyhood to the end of life, than assimilating the new to the old. The victorious assimilation of the new is the type of all intellectual pleasure. The lust for it is curiosity. The emotion occasioned by discerning the relations of the new to the old is wonder. What we partly know inspires us with a desire to know more. 1. Identification of the new and the old. New ac- quisitions have to be interpreted in the light of former experiences. I see a man near, and I say, " Plere comes my brother." He has changed during our years of sep- aration, but I readily recognize him. The identification of the new and the old is uninterrupted, prompt, imme- diate. The same speed and accuracy of identification occurs in reading. To assimilate wholly new impres- sions is difficult. The mind searches its previous knowl- edge, comparing the new with the old, and in the end finds a place for the new with the old, and thus enriches itself.* 2. Making our acfiuisitions an organic whole. When this is not done, the thinking and acting are fragmentary and disconnected. Things unorganized can grow only by accretion, the simple addition of particles from without, but an organized body grows and devel- ops by an inherent power within. Work of such kind and in such quantity should be given to pupils as can be thoroughly assimilated and combined with previous * Hooper's Apperception. APPERCEPTION'. 89 knowledge, for only in this way find by this means does the mind gain mastery. Many persons who have a vast fnnd of information seem to be lacking in mental power, and the cause of this is that what they know exists in the mind as isolated facts. They do not comprehend and appreciate the relation of one thing to another and of each to the whole. Their knowledge is like useless rubbish, impeding instead of assisting the growth and development of mind. The viewing of each new ac- quirement in its relation to previous ones and in its re- lation to the whole, the assimilation of the new with the old, and its combination with the whole is what makes knowledge of value. The combination of all our acqui- sitions into an organized symmetric unit is the culmina- tion of method in education.* 3. Apperceivrng is the most important idea in edu- cation. " Prof. James, in his Psychology (vol. ii, page 107), says tliat the word apperception has carried very different meanings in the history of philosophy— a true remark, though not true of apperception only, but of almost all words used by philosophers and other people. The truth is that apperception has only two meanings that are worth mentioning, and these are: first, the meaning of perception pure and simple— its meaning in P>ench and the meaning in old Englisli of aperceiv^; and, second, that given it by Ilerbart, which means the assimilation of an idea by associating it with old ideas and thus interpreting it by bringing to bear on it all one's previous experience. Now, this is the most important idea in education, and deserves a new techni- cal term all to itself, if any educational idea deserves * Elliott. 4i #1 90 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. >i f||: I- M mvh an lioiior. In tlie Kantian and Leihnitzian sent^e the word has nearly, if not quite, the meaning given it by Ilerbart. Leibnitz uses it to mean perce})ti()n to- getlier witli memory, and this is in eliect Ilerbart's use of the word. Kant uses it to ex})res8 tlie combination of what is received througli the senses with tlie cate- gories of the mind vquantity, quality, relation, and mode), and this is evidently the inter])retation and recognition of the new perception by the aid of ideas already in the mind. Prof. James thinks that there are a number of words that will serve to render the meaning of Ilerbart— he immes j)Hi/c/n'c reaction, niter- pretatiwi, conception, assimilation, elaboration, thought. It is not one of these words, but all of them taken to- gether, that are required to express the word appercej)- tion whenever that word is used by an Herbartian, for the word calls up not only assimilation, but a si)ecial kind of assimilation, namely, an interpretation of the new by the old ideas, and it implies also explanation, which assimilation does not, for the literal meaning of the latter is digestion, or simply the making-like. The idea of apperception is very complex, containing the fol- lowing elements never synthesized before Leibnitz and Ilerbart so as to be denoted by one word : (1) A train of ideas already in the mind as a result of experience. (2) A new idea which is brought into relation to this train so as to be recognized through it, and (3) inter- preted and explained by it ; (4) this process resulting in a twofold result, namely, a knowledge of the real exist- ence of examples or individual instances of the idea in question; and (5) the subsumption of those particular instances under a general concept aiul the recognition CULTURE OF THE PERCEPTIVE POWERS. that the individual i)ereeived is only a special phane and iiot the whole reality of the general idea." V. Observing Nature.— The children must be drawn toward, and not away from, the woods and fields and waters, and must he led to see more clearly that Is^ature lives and feels and acts, and links itself to human inter- est and sympathy in the strongest and the subtlest ways ; that a man cut off from fellowship with the creatures of the open air is like a tree deprived of all its lateral roots and trimmed to a single branch. He may grow down and up, but he can not grow out. It is not cred- itable that their education should leave our well-bred men and women so blind to the significance and beauty of the world of life. The greater part of the emotional or aesthetic value of zoology is lost, if the door of the class-room is shut. A personal knowledge of the habits and activities of animals, and a habit of sympathetic observation of them, are very valuable elements in the result of the skillful teaching of a well-arranged course.* The best training of the observing powers lies out- side the range of scliool exercises. A habit of close observation of Nature is best acquired in friendly asso- ciation with, and under the guidance of, an observant parent or tutor, in hours of leisure. A daily walk with a good observer will do more to develop the faculty than the most elaborate scliool exercises. The training of the observing powers is indeed that part of intellectual edu- cation that most requires the aid of other educators than the schoolmaster. The young need to mingle with Nature, and should be trained to observe hill and dale, stream and wave; trained to observe the forms and * Forbes. 92 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TKACHING. iiioveinentH of plants and animals, which are the best exercise of the observinj^Maciilty ; and trained for those Hunpler and more attractive kinds of scientiHc observa- tion— e. g., collecting birds' eggs, fossils, etc.— which grow naturally out of children's i)lay-activity.* * Sully. ii|i if iti '11! best those ervu- 'liicli PAET II. KDVCATION OF THE nEPRESKSTATlVK P OWE US. CHAPTER VII.— The Hkpueskntativk Powers and liiipjiw- 8R.NTATIVE KNOWING. VIII. — Education of Memory. IX.— Educational Treatment ok Phantasy. X.— Education op Imagination. XI.— Culture of the Kkpresentative Powers. m m !■ I'll! 1 i '(I I 'f » E!' //aM;a of association and suggestion. Present ideas suggest other ideas with which they have been associated. The five laws of association named in the above cut are the five ways in which self associates his acquisitions, and the five ways in which associated ideas suggest each other. " These," says Mark Hopkins, " seem to me to be original and irreducible ; at least no reduction of thoni can be made that will be of practical value. They will remain the sepa- rate working methods of suggestion and must be studied as such." By five circles we may fitly rer-i-c (.::b experiences as linked together in five distinct ways: by hav.vr *=. jh -rcle cut all the other circles, it is intended to indicate the t.-uth that the suggestion may occur in at least five ways. The possibilities of recalling are thus multiplied many fold. PAHT SECOND. EDUCATION OF THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. CHAPTER VII. THE KEPKESENTATIVK I'UWEKH AND KEPKEHENTATIVE KNOWING. Self as representation makes present again, in old and new forms, his past experiences. Present means to make tilings present originally, but re-preaent (re, again -f prmentare, to make present) means to make present again. Presentative knowing is making things present to ourselves for the first time, but /-^-presenta- tive knowing is making our experiences present to our- selves again ; it is re-knowing. KNOWING Ovir representative powers are our capabilities to make our acquisitions present again in old and new forms. They are our native energies to modify as well as to revive our experiences. Self as memory recalls his acfpilsitions in tlie old forms of experience. I remember the home of Emer- III m m m t if-i :■* 96 APPLIED PSYCHOLOG'. AND TEACHING. 1 eon just as I saw it. Self as lyhantaHy weaves his ex- j)criences into new forms called fancies. We thus re- riEPRESENTATlVE POWERS present our ex])eriences in reverie and dreaming. Self as iwAiginatum ye^-jDresents his experiences in new forms called ideals. AVe so change and rearrange realities as to form idoals. Some psychologists designate these pro- cesses as reproductive imagination, passive imagination, and creative imagination. It '.6 better to retain the old names. I. Memory. This is the native energy of self to reproduce his accpiisitions. That memory is a native energy of self is an unquestioned fact. The expressions " I remem- ber " and " I do not recollect " mean almost as much to the child as to the j^hilosopher. We are endowed with the capability to recall our past experiences. Memory is simply the self remembering. Self as memory does all his recalling. Memory, like awareness and atten- tion, enters into all our knowing, feeling, and willing. I. Memory Products. — Revived experiences are mem- ories, rem (mih ranees, recollections. We s])eak of sweet memories of other days, and cherish the fond recollec- tions of childhood. Our memories are of our emotional and active experiences as well as of our cognitive. We do not recall our emotions, but we recall ideas occasioned by our emotions. The recollection may occasion a new MEMORY. 97 emotion, but the dead emotion is merely a memory Self embalms liis emotions and purposes in ideas ; when recalled, these ideas may occasion new emotions. We recall our impressions and notions of all our experi- ences. Our memories are our lives revived. Memory makes no changes. Attention to this fact may prevent much needless confusion. II. Memory Proce8se8.-My memory is my capability to recall my past experiences. For the thousands this is all that need be said. But you seek deeper insight. I he actual processes of remembering are inscrutable • out we study to know facts about the processes. r.r.L^'^''''''''^'" ^^f ^^«^^«"g:and unitizing our experiences that present experiences will suggest past experiences. This must be the meaning of retention, for it is certain we do not keep our experiences in mind. Suggestion is the key to the storehouse of memory We may be said to retain our acquisitions when we possess the key to unlock our stored treasures. Our memories become retentive when we tiioroughly assimilate and carefully associate our nrquisitions. 2. Rep^-esenUng is restoring the thing remembered with its asso- ciations. In acquisition we assimilate into unity our old and new rronnr'wi''' ^"'"^ '''"'^^*'^ experience groups ; we make picture- groups. When we remember we recollect the group. We represent o ourselves the thing remembered with its enWronments We restore the unity. But all mental acts are marvelouslv complex o"nSnn,r' ''";f * ^^^ ^"^^^'^" enter largelylnto-our rep «; sentations, filling up the outlines of memory 3. Reproducing is bringing back to mind our former experiences, wond fnlT.T'"^^ the meaning of memory. We express this wonderful act by such words as remember, recollect, and represent. You reproduce the problem just as the teacher stated it rpo. ^75 "f "/ '^ identifying oxperionees and memories. You this poem as one you memorized while attending sohool T ^rr^ -ware rlco J^i^ ™'"' p''! ^""' ^^ experiences. This^is what is meant'by recognition. Professor James gives this definition : " Memory is the )'. iipi s I*! 98 APPMED rSYCnOLOGY AND TEACHING. |i M ■ knowledge of an event or fact of which meantime we have not been thinking, with the additional consciousness that we 7iave experienced it before" While this is true of a complete act of memory, we are aware that recognition is wanting ir . large proportion of our acts of memory. As a rule, we do not recognize the memories we build into our phantasms, ideals, and thoughts as former experiences. III. Memory Laws; Laws of Suggestion. — Present experiences suggest past experiences. This is a funda- mental fact in the mental economy. The child for the first time sees a pinea2)ple ; its optic apparatus is ener- gized so that it gains an idea of the object. It asks the name, and is told that it is a pineapple ; its auditory apparatus is now energized so that it gains the word. It associates the name and the object, so that thereafter the name suggests the object and the object suggests the name. Here we certainly have a physiological basis for association and suggestion, but the actual revival is surely mental. We assimilate into unity our experiences. We asso- ciate our acts as parts of related wholes. A present idea suggests other ideas associated with it, and thus self restores the unity of his experience. Memory de- pends on association, but interested attention, systematic arrangement, and determined effort widen and deepen association. 1. Association by resemblance and contrast (see cut, page 91). Similar or contrasted ideas associated together suggest each other. The term ideas is here used to include all our experiences. The lenrner observes and assimilates into groups similar things. The similars associated constitute an experience unit. When we think of one of the similars it suggests the other members of the group. I think of birds, and the idea suggests the whole group of vertebrates. Dis!5lmilar related things suggest each other; joy suggests sorrow, and hope suggests fear. MEMORY. 99 2. Association hy contiguity. Experiences occurring together or in succession suggest each other. This law is far-reaching and explains most of our remembering. A thousand illustrations will occur to you. 3. Association by correlation. Ideas associated as correlatives suggest each other. The word suggests the idea as the idea suggests the word. The sign ( + ) suggests addition. The effect suggests the cause ; the end, the means ; the consequent, the antecedent ; the con- clusion, the premises. Ruler suggests subjects ; father, son ; uncle, nephew. This may be counted the master law oi suggestion, includ- ing all forms of thought association. Other memory laws will be considered in connection with memory culture. When we seek to recall some- thing, we must make search for it just as we rummage a house for a lost object. Success crowns wise and de- termined effort. IT. Memory Cerebration. — In some unknown way mental processes go on in connection with brain-pro- cesses. The mystery of remembering is no greater than the mystery of perceiving. " Conscious memory," says Ladd, " is a spiritual phenomenon, the explanation of which, as arising out of nervous processes and condi. tions, is not simply undiscoverd in fact, but utterly in capable of approach by the imagination. When, then, we speak of a physical basis of memory, recognition must be made of the complete inability of science to suggest any physical process which can be conceived of as correlated with that peculiar and mysterious actus of the mind, connecting its present and its past, which constitutes the essence of memory." u m :il a.: J 100 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHINO< I li t«. 4 II. Phantasy.* This is the native energy of self to weave his ex- periences into new forms called fancies. It is self, spontaneously and without purpose, throwing his expe- riences into the incoherent and grotesque forms of day and night dreams. Memory furnishes most of the ma- terials. Suggestion comes chiefly through association by resemblance and contiguity. Sensations, chiefly or- ganic, strangely afl:"ect our dreams. When all is well, our dreams are pleasant ; but, when the body or the mind is disturbed, our dreams are troubled. Some psychologists treat of phantasy as the passive imagination, as they treat of memory as the reproductive imagination. This no- menclature seems to me objectionable. (1.) We can not think of a passive energy, but we are familiar with unpurposed and undirected activity. (2.) These are not the expressions used in literature or by the people. (8.) These expressions multiply the difficulties of the learner and the teacher. A more fundamental objection is stated elsewhere. It is surely every way better to retain the easy and fa- miliar names of these powers— J/mory, Phantasy, Imagination. The Greeks meant hy phantasia, image-making. Fancy, phantasy, and fantasy are merely the three forms of the word. Phantasy is here used because freer from misleading associations than the other forms. I. Phantf .7 Products.— Self, out of his experiences, immediate and revived, constructs fancies. The pano- ramas we paint for our own amusement, in reverie and dreaming, are called fancies. We can put into our dreams only our experiences. The blind put no color * See Elementary Psycholoory, Chapter XI, also James Mark Baldwin's Handbook of Psychology, Chapter XII. This faculty, called by him Passive Imagination, is admirably treated. As a wonderful exhibition of the play of phantasy, study Sht»kespeare»8 Midsummer- Night's Dream . PHANTASY. beLe t/'«M ■ ""'""^ "'" ''"'^ '-' «'-- hearing E1..I, nn» f ^P''- ^'""eepte are not used i,. our ilreanm exptreer '"" '"^"^- "^^ ""■^'™"- ^^ '- o:: -ne ti.e, our dlr 1' : u'st S ?' "' ''^ and of tife rryiJ.on V'''''"^ '^^' scenes he makes, u,p, T \^ ^"^otions occasioned bv those nict uies. In soundest sleep and evpn ,n ^ r .^J^^^^' -are. The -nse-world^n^'fl " ttTf '™ ceases to be conscious of his own aCs '' '"^^'^ npo . them S: " " ''"' *^^'-""'^"''<^^' •^"' '-"^ F i^ntrn at tlie time as new experienop^ On,. ^„ • enLTphars;T;;ru^^^^^ "■^ for.s of expend forms. ^«piesents our exiDerience in new IV. Phantasy and MesTtipriom Or.>. - etd^t'-B::^"^^^"^^^^^^^^^^^ a>t.on. Phantasy ,s now peculiarly sensitive to sug- 'I'm If! g: I m 1' >> < ■11 VI! t ' 1, Wf| ■MR ipinnvHHai 102 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. gestions made by the operator. Phantasms seem to be rcahties, and the patient acta his dreams. In the same way may be explained many things connected with somnambulism, delirium tremens, and insanity. The play of phantasy is the key to many mysteries. V. Phantasy and Cerebration.— During repose, when phantasy is most active, the blood-supply to the cerebrum is greatly reduced. Perception, and thought, and will are slightly active, and the ex- hausted brain recuperates. Self drifts. Gentle sensor excitations and present ideas suggest other experiences. Self, without purpose and without plan, goes on linking fancy to fancy. This is scrib- bling, not writing ; this is the child daubing, not the artist paint- ing. This is the whirlwind piling up the timbers, not the architect Cvonstructing the mansion. Phantasy is self representing his experi- ences in the grotesque forms called phr^ntasms. YI. Phantasy and Imagination. — A clear distinction betw^een these powers helps the psychologist much, but the educator more. Imagination is purposed and di- rected effort, but phantasy goes on without purpose and without direction. The one is work, the other play. We educate the one and leave the other to roam fancy free. Phantasy is to the imagination what the kaleido- scope is to the designer ; it gives suggestions which the imagination may work up in higher forms. It is thus a helpful factor in creation. Phantasy is active in child- liood. while imagination is feeble and halting. III. Imagination. This is the capability of self to transform the real into the ideal, Beecher, it is said, never made a quo- tation. As the bee transforms sweet into honey, so Beecher transformed everything he touched into Beech- erisms. The materials are realities, but the creations of IMAGINATION. 103 imagination are ideals. Out of your experiences you create an ideal cottage which you hope to make a re- ality. We construct our ideals; this is prose. We form our ideals ; this is poetry. We create our ideals • this is both prose and poetry. Create, as here used' means to make out of our experiences new wholes. ' I. Imagination Products.-These are called ideals. A reality is something that really exists independent of the mind. This school-house, and this, and this, are real school-houses. Out of my experiences I make a plan for a school-house widely different from anything I have ever seen. This ideal school-house is my own creation and exists only in my mind. Imagination modifies experiences, rearranges them, analyzes them, and makes new syntheses. Imagination makes models' constructs hypotheses, forms systems, creates poems! Realities, touched by the magic wand of imagination become ideals. Yonder mountain becomes a mountain of gold crowned with crystal palaces inhabited by an- gels. Ideal is opposed to real, and is used to designate the products of imagination. Ideas are notions of re- alities ; ideals are creations of the mind. Memory rep- resents our acquisitions in the old forms of experience ; imagination represents experiences in the new forms of ideals. gain ideas and construct II. Limits of Imagination. — We ideals. 1. We are dependent on sense-perception for all we know of the material world. Self as imagination is limited to his sense-experi- ences. The deaf put no sounds into their creations; nor do the oiind put color. 2 We are dependent on self-ptrception for all we know of the mmd-world. We can endow our ideal man or angel with our own \4 M I I la i lij, 104 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. ;•■ *'* cupabilities and nothing more. True, we are able to vary the degree of knowing, feeling, and willing almost infinitely. o. We are dependent on necessary-perception for nil we know of necessary realities. We must make our ideals somehow, somewhere, and some ^vhen. We must make our ideals out of matter and spirit. We must construct our ideals in harmony with our axiomatic intu- itions. Even in imagination we can not nuike the whole greater than the sum of all its parts. III. Imagination and Memory.— Self as imagination represents liis experiences in new forms called ideals. But memory furnishes the materials from the storehouse of experience out of which imagination makes his crea- tions, as the hod-carrier supplies the mason with bricks and mortar out of which to build the wall. We asso- ciate and recall our ideals, as we associate and recall our ideas. On the other hand, no one knows how nmch imagination helps memory, filling out to completeness the skeletons of the experiences we recall. lY. Imagination and our other Powers. — As the mas- ter-builder, self, in creating his ideals, commands all his c abilities; memory contributes materials, will contrib- utes purpose, emotion contributes inspiration, thought contributes wisdom to guide and restrain. Thus we create the enduring works of art and literature and life. y. An Ideal is a Working Model.— It is the harmo- nious blending into one mental product the idea and the object. My ideal blackboard is grateful to the eye, free from dust and a perfect writing surface. Here the object is the blackboard, and the ideas are those named. I realize my ideal when I make it a reality. All inven- tion, all progress, all education, come from efforts to realize ideals. To the educator, as to the inventor, the ideal is the working model. We labor here and every- I EDUCATION OF MEilOKY. where to realize our ideals. Our ideals, in this sense are the iinished products of our imaginations. Much of the work of imagination coiisists in modifying and rearranging our acquisitions ; still, it is hest to call even these imi)erfect forms ideals as opposed to reals. CHAPTER VIII. EDUCATION (;F MEMOKY. By this is meant the development of the power to reproduce i)ast experiences. Last year I visited, with friends, Minnehaha Falls and enjoyed its beauties. The friends are scattered, and I am far away from that de- lightful scene. But I now recall it with its associations and I recognize this memory as a past experience' Memory is my capability to reproduce my past acqui- sitions. When I am able to do this readily and accu- rately, my memory is said to be educated ; vou say I have a good memory. I. Relations and Definitions. Memory stands for recalling. Wlien we think of memory, it is always our power to reproduce our past experiences. We think of retention and association and suggestion and recognition as incidents of memory • memory includes these processes. We simply think of Tecallnig when we think of memory. Memory stands lor all recalling. \. Memory is the capability of self to recall his past experiences. Acquisition makes knowledge present/r>r tti m 106 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. the first tim,e ; memory makes knowledge present again. Aequisition presents ; memory ^('-presents. Present means to 7nahe present to ourselves ; re-present means to make })resent again ; to reeollect ; to remoniher ; to reproduce ; to recall. 2. Memories are recollections of past ex[)eriences. Memories, remembrances, and recollections are the j)r()d- ucts of memory, as percepts are the products of percep- tion. We acquire ideas ; these when remembered are termed revived ideas. ]{e- membered percej^ts are sim- ply revived percepts. This is true of all our remembered experiences ; they are simply revived experiences. The ex- perience is merely recalled and recognized. Memory makes no changes. Our re- membrances coincide with our expei'iences. 3. Education of memory is the development of the native energy of self to re- call his past experiences. It makes the difference between the feeble memory of the child and the powerful mem- ory of the man. The ready, accurate, exhaustive memory comes of culture. 4. Relations of memory. In the mental economy IMPORTANCE OF MEMORY-CULTURE 107 meinory stands midway ]>etween i)orcepti(>n and tlionglit. AVe ac(|uire, we reiueniher, we think. Self as memory records and reprodnces liis experiences. Yon know memory is there ; you feel, memory is there ; you will, memory is there. Memory 8Ui)plies imai^^inatic^i and thought with materials. Memory holds up to choice alternatives. Attention and awareness and memory are bosom friends who never sejmrate. This trio accompa- nies all other acts of knowing, feeling, and willing. While \\Q perceive, we attend, remember, are aware; while we tfmik, we attend, remember, are aware ; and while we feel and determine, we attend, remember, are aware. II. Importance of Mkmory-Cdlture. A good memory is a friend whicli sticketh closer than a brother. One with a poor memory gropes in the dark, while one with a good memory works in the hght of all he knows. Millions bewail their weak mem- ories, while thousands rejoice in their strmig memo- ries. 1. Memory makes learning possihle. We can hardly appreciate the importance of a good memory. Without it, skill or progress in any direction would be im])ossible. The teacher bases all his instruction upon the possibilities of reproduction. We test our pupils and estimate men and women by what they are able to reproduce. 2. Memory makes thinking possible. It supplies material for thought. It holds up before conception various objects to be compared and classified. It holds np before judgment two notions, that the agreement -Mil ^^ w ■H-ll: 108 Al'I'MKD PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. if! or diHagrecnient irmy ho discerned. It lioldH up before retiHon the preiiiirios, that the conchision may he in- ferred. 3. Memory inultiplies our joys. It makes a tiling of lM3auty a joy forever. " Pleasures of memory " is classic. True, we do not recall the old joys, but our recollections of our past joys occasion new joys. A good memory l)rings to us over and over again the sweets of life, while forgetfulness drops out of our lives all bitter things. 4. A good memory increases efficiency. The student with a good memory accomplishes many times as much as the student with a poor memory. A teacher with a good memory furnishes his pupils a perpetual feast. A good memory is of incalculable value to the minister, to the lawyer, to all workers. 5. Neglect of memory-culture. May all have good memories % Some are more gifted than others, but all, by culture, may develop vigorous memories. Why is this culture so neglected ? Why is it that persons with excellent memories are so rare ? IIow may we remedy this evil? Better methods of study and of teaching will work wonders. III. Growth of Memory. Macaulay, when a child, remembered the names of his toys ; but, when a man, he remembered the facts of human history. Growth made the difference between the feeble memory of the infant and the mighty mem- ory of the man. Teaching is the art of promoting this growth. GROWTH OF MKMOKY. 109 becomo« activo. When but a few weeks old. the chil.l romcmbera th." face of Its parents and various objects. When hut a few months ohi the child re- members the names of objects as well as the objects. When the child is three years (.Id it uses correctly a considerable number of words to express its acquisitions. Hut infant memory is feeble, and early im- pressions are fleeting. The three years of mfancy are a blank to the adult. An adult puts no color into his memories when sight has been lost before the fifth year. 2. Childhood memories. From the third to the tenth year objective memory is act- ivo. The child associates the word with the object. Words occurring in succession are associated. Stories and pictures are re- membered. Memory is now fresh and act- ive, but comparatively weak. .'{. Memory in boyhood and girlhood. Dunng this period objective memory reach- es full activity and abstract memory be- comes active. Language is easily learned and readily remembered. Semi-science is the delight of boys and girls. 4. Memory in youth. During this period memory becomes fully active. The vigor- ous memory of youth is proverbial. All forms of knowledge are now easily remem- bered. Impressions are lasting. 5. Memory in manhood. Up to the meridian of life, memory certainly becomes more and more commanding. The mem- ones of Webster and Gladstone were vast- ly more vigorous at fifty than at twenty ^.Memory in old age. Atninety Hum- boldt s memory was as vigorous as in youth. Bisma-ck and Gladstone at seventy-fiv, i .'-■Pi 'M' \ ..Vrl :;:i m m i ;■ ■■ '•I W.'^tMJ drt^te -f 110 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. ili gave no signs of memory failure. But, when the old cease to make new conquests, memory begins to lose its grasp. ly. Laws of Memoky-Gkowth. The uniforiu ways in which we must work in order to promote the growth of memory are termed the laws of memory-growth. I. General Laws. — These are here stated in terms of memory. It is well to keep in mind that memory in- cludes association, suggestion, reproduction, and recog- nition. It is the native energy of self to recall his past experiences. 1. Law of effort. Well-directed effort in associ- ating and recalling our ideas educates memory. We assimilate and associate our new and old experiences. We organize our acquisitions into unity, so that a pres- ent notion suggests the entire group of associated ideas. 2. Law of wea, ?. Studies which call memory into constant and vigorous activity have a high memory- culture value. The study of history is an excellent means for improving memory. The study of algebra is not a good means for memory-culture. 3. Law of method. Plans of work which call mem- ory into lawful, systematic, vigorous, and persistent ac- tivity develop this power. The methods of study and teaching very largely determine the value of a study. II. Special Laws. — Many valuable laws relating to the culture of memory have been presented by educa- tional writers. A few of the more important are given. 1. Law of the brain. A healthy and vigorous brain conditions a good memory. It is certain that self works in and through his physical organism. It is also certain that, the better tlie condition of his physical organism, the better he can work. This law empha- LAWS OF MEMORY-GROWTH. Ill to make n order he laws 3rms of lory in- recog- liis past associ- y. We riences. a pres- d ideas. )ry into lemory- scellent ^ebra is 11 mem- bent ae- idy and tudy. iting to T educa- D given. iditions a •ough his condition n empha- sizes the importance of school hygiene. Pupils who take little exercise, and study in a crowded room, poorly ventilated and poorly heated will likely be noted for poor memories. Boys who smoke cigarettes and girls who chew gum nearly always complain of weak memories. Violation of law brings all our woes. 2. Law of association. Vigor of mind, interested attention, rational order, and repetition strengthen association. This law gives us the key to good memory. Complete association makes reproduc- tion easy and exhaustive. No one who observes this law will com- plain of a poor memory. ,J:-^f'" '^r^'"''''- ^'^'Sht in study marvelously strengthens association and suggestion. We rarely forget things which delight us. 1 upils who are deeply interested remember well. 4. Law of determination. Determined and systematic effort to retain and reproduce our acquisitions develops memory. When wo make up our minds to remember, we can usually do so. I will J. thiir Z i'T ^"'^"'^^^'' ^^ ""''"^ *« ^'^'^ ^"d remember many do S "' "'""' "'• ^^t--"-d effort enables us to 5. Law of retentive memory. Self must rrmember in order to knou, as well as to reproduce what he knows. In general we treasure what we understand. But at almost every step L^ mu keep before self words and statements not understood, that he mly nves ^TZc^l^:'!' '"V!i '''^' -mory with unll™ 6 7 In.? V ' '' "" ^"'^damental educational error. 6 Law of tune. Keeping a topic before the mind for a consid arable time and recalling it frequently strengthens memorvT^ leTsurelv Furnll «^-m^/a^ed In acquisition we must hasten c^l r ^' • f f """'^ '' ''^'^' ^'-^b^'- i" education. Knowled^re re called at intervals not too great becomes firmly fixed in The mind But knowledge not recalled soon fades into for/e tfu ness "'' wilderf:"7h:^T^r ^-'^ "^^^^^^^^^ ^^ *^- ^-^-mtely be- wli e wf are tratfur7" 'nT?"^ ^''' ^" ^^"^^^ ^ ^^ ^-o- ^ that hlreT/oro a t\l '^^^'"^ '^''^' ^'^ ^^^"-' ^ ^--^-^ our pupl ^^ '"''^ '" "'^^^°^^' t^« ^"er for us and for Mm H I .■Mil .iMlii )igmaa M ' ■i: ■ 1 vi i: 116 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TPACUINO. The student now thinks his knowledge into systejn, and logically associates his experiences. 1. Lead the student to masUr botany and zoology. For memory-culture these studies are among the best. The student now nmlti plies his own experic \/ aj)- propriating the experiences of others. You .^ him to rediscover the classifications of science, and to con- struct anew his botany and his zoology. Memory is called into constant and vigorous use. 2. l^ad the student to master the Latin la/riguage and Greek and Latin literature. No other work will develop a more vigorous memory. The modern meth- ods of teaching the classics are admirable for memory- culture. 3. Lead the student to study properly history and literature. Facts are grouped and associated by their cause relations. The main events are thought into unity while minor matters are treated as scaffolding. The student toils to make his historic world a history of the race. Such studies grandly educate mo- lory. 4. Lead the student to cidtivate a discriminating memory. To forget is as important as to retain. The important things must be seized and held, and the rub- bish must be rejected and dropped. All our memory energies are thus expended in retaining and recalling our most valuable experiences. For the younger pupils the teacher manages the discriminating, but the learner is gradually trained to select the best things for reten- tion. To remember everything would be to bury self in a sea of details. Selection is the basis of good memory, and forgetfulness is its partner. 5. Train the student to organize his knowledge. -£:_ aj) ^ METHODS OF EDUCATING MEMORY, n^ yelf is not an organism but an organizer. Through organization we gain mastery. Organization means numerous associations; and the more numerous tlie associations tlie greater the power of recalhng. This is why we lead ciiildren to test objects as far as possible by each sense. This is why we must lead the learner frequently to recall his old knowledge and assimilate it and associate it in many ways with his new acquisitions. We forget proper names because we do not thoroughly organize them into knowledge unity. Usually the stu- dent's memory is best in the studies in which he takes the deepest interest, for in these he organizes his knowl- edge most completely. V. General Directions for Memory-Cultnre.— Many lind a few terse rules helpful. These should be so stated as to stir the student like bugle-blasts. 1. Fullers rules. These quaint but unique rules have assisted thousands : (1) Soundly infix what thou wouldst remember. (2) Marshal thy notions into method. (3) Overburden not the memory with details. 2. Colhurn's rules. These rules shine like stars. They have incited countless numbers to study better and teach better : (1) Learn one thing at a time. (2) Learn it thoroughly. (3) Learn its connections with other things. 3. Bules for study. Each of the following rules is a golden link in memory's chain : (1) Take a deep interest in what you study. (2) Give your entire attention to what you stuuy. "^ m ■J P. ft i'fi*J ^M il Hi ill M V f J ^ !i i;i i-: (■ ^•^8 APPLIED PSYCUOLOGY AND TEACIIIXG. (3) Thoroughly asshiiilate and associate the old and the new. (4) Push effort to complete mastery. VI. Control over Memories.— Each person can in a great measure remember or forget what he will. What we wish to remember we study thoroughly, associate in many ways, and recall often. Knowledge thus organ- ized sticks like burrs. We give slight attention to what we wish to forget, and refuse to assimilate it, and when such thoughts occur we refuse to entertain them. Things thus treated, like unwelcomed visitors, soon cease to trouble us. The teacher may, to a marvelous extent, control the recollections, and thus determine the characters of his pupils. 1. The teacher determines the lessons. He con- trols presentation directly and representation indirectly. This far-reaching principle makes it possible to mold races of men, as witness the Jews and the Chinese. 2. The teacher controls methods of acquisition. Thus by keeping the things he wishes remembered before the pupil he makes the memory certain. Do you realize how completely your pupils are in your hands? 3. The teacher controls illustrations. Objects, board work, moulding, charts, maps, experiments, etc., are so used as to impress deeply the thoughts he wishes remembered. Modern methods intensely interest, deeply impress, and secure system. These are the conditions of good memory. 4. J'Jj^, fj^acher controls the physical conditions. The habits of the pupils, the temperature and the ven- tilation of the school-room, etc., are very much under METHODS OF EDUCATING MEMORY. 119 the direction of tlie teacher. These conditions wonder- fully influence recollection. 5. Teachers' responsibilities. Clearly, you largely control the ideas of your pupils. But ideas pass over into emotions, and emotions into acts. Y^u thus de- termine the lives of your pupils. Shrink not, appalled by the responsibility, but courageously ])ress on, leading those in your charge up to a higher and better life. VII. Mistakes in educating Memory. — In our ear- nestness to have our pupils learn the most possible, we sometimes make grievous mistakes. As educators we must try to be law-abiding, and thus avoid hurtful blun- ders. 1. Stated examinations and reviews at long inter- vals. Much waste labor in education is thus caused. During each lesson, true teaching calls up tlie past in connection with the present. The habit of command- ing our knowledge grows. I have not found stated ex- aminations and formal reviews helpful. 2. The Chinese method — words without ideas. This certainly stultifies the mind. No wonder China has made little progress for two thousand years. Do you know any teachers wlio use the Chinese method ? If so, hasten to teach them more perfect ways of education. 3. Memory hefore experience. The arch-enemy could hardly have invented a method more hurtful. Thus are committed unmeaning definitions, rules, tables, classifications, facts. It is infinitely better for the learner to make these out of his experiences. He thus associates and remembers things understood and so grows stronger and wiser. 4. Books in place of Natiire. The sources of kno wl- !H !■!'!.! Mi ft' III I) M I \, ■li" . \ i I; Wi 120 APPLIKD PSYOIIOLOOY AND TEACHING. tid^ii arc all around the child. It has but to look to know. Wliat can be more stupid than to liave it mem- orize the book? This does not even cultivate memory. AVhen you lead the child to gain knowledge directly from nature it will know and remen)ber. Uter it will be able to appropriate the experiences of others as con- tained in books. 5 Indiscriminate re7nem?jerin(j. This crowds the mind with rub])ish, and tends to weaken memory. Not how much but haw little is the safe rule. Selection lies at the base of learning. Lead the learner to treasure only the bed, only the essentials. Memory thus be- comes strong and useful. SUGGESTIVE STUDY-BINTS. Memory becomes retentive, ready, and exact, when experiences are carefully selected and thoroughly organ- ized into unity. Interested attention, intelligent and de- termined effort, and vivid imagination re-enforce mem- ory and make it connnanding. I. Helpful Books.— Next to sense-perception memory-culture has elicited most discussion. Among many excellent works may be men- tioned, Memory, bv David Kay, International Education Series ; Sul- ly's Psychology; Bain, Education as a Science; Palmer, Science of Education ; White, Elements of Pedagogy : Garvey, Manual of Hu- man Culture. The subject is treated at great length in works on Physiological Psychology, by Spencer. Ladd, James, Wundt, et„. You win find it safe to ignore all systems of artificial mnemonics. II. Definitions.— Give your definition of memory; of remem- brances ; of education of memory. Give your views of the relations of memory to perception ; to phantasy ; to imagination ; to thought ; to emotion ; to will. III. Importance of Memory-Culture.— State and illustrate three SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 121 original reasons why you consider tlio education of memory highly important. IV. Growth of Memory.— Trace the growth of memory from in- fancy to the meridian of life. When do you think objective mem- ory becomes fully active! abstract memory! Explain the loss of memory by old people. How may memory bo kept vigorous even in old age f V. Laws of Memory-arowth.— What do you mean by educational iaws! State the liiw of effort in terms of memory ; law of means; law of method. Mention two special laws that you have discovered. Which of the special laws given do you consider most helpful! VI. Means of Memory-Culture.— Tell what you mean by this. What branches do you esteem of highest value in memory-culture! You may mt^ke and explain a table of the memory-culture value of the leading school studies. VII. Methods of educating Memory.— What do you mean by this! Tell how you would manage kindergarten work so as to develop memory ; primary work ; intermediate work ; high-school work. Ex- plain the assimilation of ideas ; the association of ideas ; the organi- zation of your knowledge. VIII. Mistakes in educating Memory.— Why do you think stated examinations a mistake? formal reviews! What are your objec- tions to the Chinese method? to memory before experience! to books in place of Nature! to indiscriminate remembering! You may suggest two additional mistakes which teachers make in their treatment of memory. IX. Control over Memories.— How do you remember ! How do you forget ! Tell how the teacher controls the memories of his pu- pils. To what extent is the teacher responsible for what his pupils become ! X. Letter on Memory-Culture.— Put into your letter to your friend the best things you know about the education of memory. Write what you think. m\ Jflf j I • H n A. ^'^ri U! ^ I m^ i! i.i! Iji l-iHJ IS lAi^.. 122 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. CIIAI»T?:U TX. KDUCATIONAI. TKKATMKNT OF IMIANTAHY. Phantasy is the native ener^fy of self to represent his experiences as fancies, riiantasy is commonly writ- ten fancy or fantasy. In psychology it is often called the undirected imagination. When we rest, it is rev- ery ; when we sleep, it is dreaming. In childhood it makes the stick a horse and the fairy tale a reality. Later, it makes the novel a liistory and the drama real life. It fills the drunkard's boots with snakes, changes the demented w^oman into Queen Victoria, and leads the somnambulist to act his dreams. Surely the edu- cator can not afford to ignore an activity that enters so widely into our lives. I. Characteristics of Phantasy. — These are marked. You can test them for yourself : 1. I^a^ieies seem to he realities. Your dreams seem to be new experiences. At the time you are not aware that you are merely representing old experiences in new forms. 2. Phantasy activity is undirected. Without plan and without purpose self spontaneously links fancy unto fancy. This is the play faculty of the soul. 3. Phantasy disassociates and recomhines. Self as phantasy breaks up his experiences into elements and weaves these into new forms. It never occurs to us, however, that our fancies are made out of our experi- ences. At the time, our fancies seem to be new experi- ences. II. Belations of Phantasy. — While our other powers ; i EDUCATIONAL TREATMENT OF PHANTASY. arc least active phantanj in most active. Memory 8iip- plies materials. The laws of 8ii>'ll ' - "^H 1 lil t' " ■ ,f >'■ !( 'm '1 m ff 128 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 'Iff I! I t. M I in your character-building. Lofty ideals, in every field of achieveinent, lead to high results. 8. Culture of imagination stimulates mental en- ergy. It enables one to do more and better work. New devices, new combinations, new illustr;. ions, and new applications make learning a delight and memory easy. The student with a good imagination easily leads the class. 4. Imagination inspires effort. We can not tell how much we owe to imagination. The despairing Bruce was inspired to achieve the independence of Scotland by the efforts of the spider. One with a cultured imagination never commits suicide; hope springs eternal in such a mind. Every day, every hour, imagination fires our souls and inspires us for achieve- ment. 5. Cultured imagination adds immeasurably to our joys. Even in common life, the ideal gives more pleas- ure than the real. Cultured life is made a perpetual joy by the rich products of genius. A cultured imagi- nation enables us to appreciate and enjoy and create the best things. 6. A cultured imagination is the fountain of per- petual youth. It keeps the x/orld fresh and growing. It keeps us ever young and buoyant. It fills the world with movement and poetry and song. 7. Dangers of imagination. The express train has its dangers ; still, most travelers prefer it to the ox-cart. Stupidity may be safe, but is a stupid life worth living ? Ima^nnation like reason may be misused and so lead to disaster. The educator fortifies against these dangers. Neglect is most dangerous. Education is a positive pro- cess. If wo neglect to so educate the imagination that it becomes the greatest possible good, it may become wayward and produce evil GROWTH OF IMAGINATION. 129 I III. Growth of Imagination. " There is " says Herbert Spencer, " a certain se- quence in wind, tl.e faenlties spontaneously develop a.Kl a certain kind of knowledge which each power re- qmres during its several stages of growth. It is for us to ascertain this sequence and supply this knowledge." liiat the time for culture is during the period of growth, u one of he settled educational principles. I>ut wiien does imagination become active J What are lU stages of growth ? What studies are best during eacli of these periods ? 1 /» ckMood imagmation is moderaiely active. Much of what seems to be imagination is in reality phantasy. Without purpose the child weaves its few expenences into fancies. But the play of imagination also enters largely into ehild-life. The ehild-imagina- writt '' ^"f' r^' '*' "'"'^'^ ''""^«- Compositions written by children best show this. Few poets are proad of poems written in childhood. How early the c .Id imagines we can not know. Currie claims that even infants are strongly imaginative, but he evidently u es imagmation in ti,e sense of phantasy. Madame de Sanssure declares that at the beginning of life imagina- tion IS ull^poy^erful, but she clearly means phanfasy. Similar statements abound in educational works, and apply to phantasy, the play faculty of the mind. As I Tctive' ,•!•,'■;;''' 1',*''^* imagination is undoubtedly active m childhood, but that it acts feebly and gives c.;ude and weak products. Paul might' have lid ^ ii- f! ^ TTaS a ciiila 1 imagined as a child " 2. In girlhood and hoyhood imagination is guile t M Mi m ;'Mi • r^ - -.J^e^lJltSf^tlt^^rS&X. 130 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. i' ill I \\ 1 ; \ :ii actiiie. Compare a composition written by a boy of twelve with one written by him a few years earlier. You will note a marvelous growth of imagination. In- vention delights boys and girls. They never weary of suitable imaginative literature. 3. In youth imagination is marveloitsly active. The man works out the plans his boyish fancy wrought. About the fourteenth year imagination bursts into wonderful activity and becomes more and more vigor- ous as the years go by. Compare the composition of the youth with the composition of the boy. Literature that delights the boy has no charms for the youth. 4. In manhood imagination is fully active and powerful. About the twentieth year this faculty may be said to reach full activity. Compare the essay of the college student with the composition of the youth. You note a marvelous growth of the imagination. This fac- ulty seems to grow more and more powerful to the meridian of life, and may be kept vigorous even in old age. Homer's Odyssey, Tennyson's Locksley Hall Fifty Years After, and Humboldt's Cosmos, show towering imaginations in old age. lY. Laws of Imagination-Growth. Even imagination is subject to law. Here and everywhere growth comes from lawful effort. The great educational laws are in full force in educating imagination. I. General Laws.— These, stated in terms of imagina- tion, are as follows : 1. Law of effort. Well-directed effort in creating ideals educates im.agination. All the new forms into which we purposely mold our experi- (1 ^^"^^ OF EDUCATING IMAGINATfON. ences are termed ideals. Dreaming does not educate Tins law re.jun-es determined effort under gu"' 2. Zaw of means. Studies whicli de,n„nH ^"'^• and vigorous imaginative effort W '"3 I ^ whieh eall imagination into iTwS vigo I, "I/"^'^ eistent activity educate this powe ":?/'" free does not educate. Koannng fancy This law is an attXrsttnenf "wK f '''''*''''''^'''' «'*«''• abstract into a concrl form ft '*^'!' '= "■^'"'' "^ P-^-g the illustrative eample ThuTa ,1 ^r''"™ """""■'' ''>' P""S "" n„.„„„„.,,j™a„'j;r:e:rrb:i;\;~e:^^ -^'"^ Imagination seeks a particular instance ft t,^Z t ^ " "'""'"• writers tlius malte cL tlieir ah,t„t ./"'''' ''^'''"Pks. Good reader to grasp their mo ^^Xretett^^Tno; T' """^ '"^ asks "Why did he not givf an e'lmnle " 3 ^'■^•/''r'"''-' 'deal, educate imaginatimi. This isZ/.f ^ "f '" ""''"" the art of teaching, and of all art work Th.Tf''"''''"'^'''*' <" body his ideal. The teacher Zl^^\ ^ '*"'P""' '""^ ^ ™'- ideal. The inventor Ms to rea i ' .'I^-^f ,"' P"Pils up to his As we advance we make onr l^T ^ .'^""^ '" ""= "" o"?!™- greater and greater etrtstrrealtthlf'""' '"^'■^^' ""'' -"« V. Means of eduoatino Imamnation. meat"Je"rr'r""'^ ""' *'' "'""""P"* - «nd - a xu'ctii itL:.™i:e'rf -'«™«"^ ^-^-o^-- taleiiltnr« „ " "°'™''i«''"ty IS a means of men- tal culture-as geomet,.y is a means of cultivating rla- eupeHor means for its^dX^eS^t CLnel^ 1 H:' m rfi Hi I 132 APPLIED PSYCnOLOGY AND TEACHING. 'i'. m r ^11 i; excellent means for cultivating conception. What lines of work are intrinsically best for the development of imagination ? The educational value is largely depend- ent on methods of teaching and well-guided study, (lood teaching and well-guided study are understood in the following estimates : Table of Educational Valuee.— Some studies call imagination into vigorous and constant activity ; these have a high value in the cult- ure of imagination. Some studies give considerable exercise to the imagination, but not so constant or vigorous; these have a medium value in the culture of this power. Other studies require compara- tively little imaginative effort ; these have a low value as a means for ed'icaiing imagination. In the education of imagination, Dr. Payne counts of high value, geography and history; of medium value, literature ; of low value, arithmetic, botany, physics, physi- ology, and grammar. The estimates in column 1 are the author's ; in column 2, those of Dr. Brooks. In column 3 you will write your estimates ; in column 4 you will write the averages. ESTIMATED IMAGIXATION-Co ..TURK. VALUE OF Language, composition, literature . Drawing, molding, music, elocuti(m, reading Geography, history Botany, zoology, physiology, physics Arithmetic, algebra, geometry 1 10 9 9 7 6 10 9 8 1. Language, compositio7i, and literature. It seems to me that these studies easily rank highest. Imaginative literature, from childhood to age, does most to awaken and educate imagination. 2. Art, as I think, comes next to literature. Drawing, molding, music, and elocution take high rank. Painters, sculptors, and archi- tects are classed with poets in the realms of imagination. 3. Geography and history are entitled to come next. Of all our common-school studies, composition excepted, we rely most on these branches in the culture of imagination. 4. Mathematics. By having the pupils make many of the prob- lems, considerable culture can be given to imagination even in arith- .1 } 4 , , METHODS OF EDUCATING IMAGINATION. 133 metic and algebra. Imagination is only second to reason in the right study of geometry. ^.Teaching is an excellent means. Hence, from childhood up eac-h learner is trained to teach. This is a striking feature of the best teaching. The teacher puts herself in the place of the learner and creates illustrations and invents applications. She leads the pupil to make questions and conduct classes. YI. Methods of educating Imagination. Plans of work that secure well-directed effort in constructing ideals are methods of educating imagina- tion. At this point a radical reform in our educational work is imperative. I. Kindergarten Methods.— Here we find embodied the philosophy of education. Imagination acts feebly but It is cultivated by easy objective work. The child IS led to make new combinations of blocks and sticks and lines ; to make new forms in paper and wood and clay, to make new arrangements in stories and plays and pictures. Every wise mother is a' natural kindergartner and will lead her little ones to do things in their own childish ways. These crude efforts are the beginnings in the development of imagination. II. Primary Methods.— Here too often we find or- ganized stupidity. The child is treated as a repeating machine. All originality is considered pertness and is stifled. The tendency is to make the child a mere drudge. All honor to the noble exceptions now rapidly multiplying ! The wise teacher will gather inspiration from the best teachers and the best literature; and will 80 use art in its varied forms as to permit imagination growth. 1. Zead the child to make neio combinations. You ■!ij '•1 i fill I '■1 P I J' '1 |:;.:f 1^ :i|.i ■ r iTTirtr' - wi i 134 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACIIINQ. can hardly do better at first tlian to adapt kindergarten nietliods to the wants of your pupils. Your drawing, molding, object-lessons, and language-lessons will afford ample opportunities. Only so manage that the child oinginates the combinations and forms his own crude ideals. 2. Ij^ad the child to image what it reads. The I)rimary readers of our times are printed object-lessons suited for child-culture. Good teaching works wonders. Take, to illustrate, a single sentence — " See the pretty snow-flakes falling from the sky." Draw a picture of a snow-flake. Cut out of white paper a figure of a snow-flake. "AVho can make a snow-storm ? " "I can." Mary gathers a handful of the paper flakes and hurls them through the air. Each child now images the above and reads it perfectly. 3. Lead the child to construct Botany and zoology in their simplest objective features are now made a part of the geography work in our best primary schools. The plan of work in geogra- phy with slight modifications applies to th- branches named. Divisions of land and water; of animals, puuits, and minerals; races, states, and nations are splendid object-lessons. The pupils ara led to construct geographical playgrounds, making rivers and seas, making mountains and valleys, making the various divisions of land and water. The pupils are then led to construct in imagination rivers, lakes, and seas ; islands, mountains, countries, and continents. Putting forth these eflforts wondrously increases the vigor of imagi- nation. Hasten leisurely. Remember that the wings of child- imagination are rot strong. The flights must not be high or long. 4. Lead the ehild to drink in the heautiful. Beauty marvelously stirs the imagination. The beautiful world ! We are charmed with the beauty of form, and color and motion ; with beauty of speech and music and so^gs of \ )J \ METHODS OF EDUCATING IMAGINATION. 135 birds; witl. beauty of truthfulness and good manners. Make the surroundings as beautiful as jou can. Always have pctures and flowers in your school-room. Lead the children to draw beautiful objects, and in various ways produce beautiful objects. 6. Lead the child to drink in child literature. Our readers and 6upi)]ementary readers now furnish the best. You can supplement these by stories and suit- able papers and books. Biographical stories and suit- able histories strengthen the imagination. This is 'i most fruitful field, but discretion on the part of the parents and teachers is highly necessary. " Every first- class bit of food for the imagination has become classic. Classical hlerature focused for the imagination alway5 has room for any choice gem. An untrained teacher or parent is safe when he turns to the classics for mate- ml with which to entertain children. Santa Glaus has furmsh(Ml httle people of all climes with healthful in- spiration for the imagination ; has hallowed the pioneer day of winter; has brightened and heightened gift- receiving, by delightfully dissociating gifts and giving from the personality of the donors. Mother Goose Melodies, although nonsense as compared with classic iiterature, have been an acceptable prelude for infantile imagination. The fables season it with wholesome character truths. Fairy-tales, mythologies, and tales of chivaliy, when winnowed, inspire chivalric senti- ments. Who that was brought up on Hawthorne's langlewood Tales can estimate the service they ren- dered him?"* ^ III. Intenaediate Methods.— Boys and girls have * Winship. if t ,1 ii. m II. 1 F-. > 1 ^ I.; ' r. 1 , II II ■ ^ J H' ;■ III Hn t| il iifl li Bm '■im ""---""^••'■- rriiH r mm I 13« APPI.IKD PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 1H II • Jl. ?' vivid iiiia^iiiatiuiiH. Their ideals are not lofty, but they are well defined. Y'ou are often surprised at the materialistic and personal nature of the ideals of this period. P>ut the ex})erience, so far, has been lar^'ely material. The pupil can put nothing in his ideals but liis personal experiences. Vou must not expect too much. Pupils of this age are incaj)able of sustained nights ; this fact indicates the teaching and the litera- ture now demanded. 1. Lea// tkn pupllH to write original cmiij^ositi&ns. Whenever the pupil tells what he knows in his own way, it is original. The ideas are old, but the combina- tion is new. You must not expect too much ; imagina- tion is still feeble and its products crude. Only man- age to have pupils to construct daily, as best they can, brief compositions. No other work gives sucli vigor and discipline to imagination. For detailed methods you are referred to the excellent language-lesson manuals. 2. Lead the pupil to comtruct his (jeofjraphy world. In the primary school a foundation was laid in actual experience. This experience must now be greatly ex- tended. Charts, globes, maps, molding-boards, etc., must be provided. Now the real work begins. Tlie pupil lias never seen a mountain. lie has seen hills of various heights ; out of his hill experiences he must construct a mountain. This is an achievement for the boy as great as that of the creation of Paradise Lost for the man You lead your pupils to victory after victory. Their geography world grows larger and larger. They begin to be able to appropriate the experiences of others. Give them time. For detailed plans of work you are re- ferred to the valuable manuals of methods in geography. II i but METHODS OF EDUCATING IMAGINATION. 3. IntereHt your pupils injimmUe literature. You will do moHt for them in this way. Teuehing ^ohat to read and how to read is the most valuable school work Without (hctating, manage to liave your pupils read' oidy the hest. Take a few minutes daily and read with your pupils some choice book. Robinson Crusoe 18 one of the very best for this ,)urpose, and will in- tensely interest your pupils for many weeks. McDon- |Ud 8 t5ir Gibbie is a treasure, and will enmiffe you dur- ing several months. 4. Lead the pupilto create his hutonj world. Grad- ually you lead your pupils to substitute history for fic- tion. Read with them two or three of the best juvenile histories, such as Dickens's Child History of Endand and Eggleston's United States. Lead them to construct m imagination the geography, the people, the scenes. It will become almost as real to them as if they were actors. In connection with the studies in literature and iiistory you may impress every noble trait 5. Lead your pupils to teach. Nothing is better to awaken interest and strengthen imagination. Have your pupils maJce most of the problems in arithmetic. This doub es the value of the study. Lead your pupils make their own definitions and rules and invent heir own illustrations You must never fail to encour- age ongniahty. You lead each pupil to make his own te^Sft '^"'r' ^^ ^^^'y^^'^^^ the class aL teach the topK3 in his own way. I recommend you to pursue a similar course in each study. ^' Lead the child to idealize charaetPr "Theci^ar—r -r ■ largely consi,lH « f ^^'^ mmginntion should be early and largely considered. Some of the characters in Shakespeare's plays 'Off lift I 1 % f , : ( I - 138 APPLIED PSYCIIOLOCJY AND TEACHING. 4" ■ ami Dickens's novols Jiave such a vivifying elTect that tliey are more real than the historical personages t)f ilunie or Macaulay. In- deed, historic characters are real only through the imagination. Everything that appeals to the imagination ought at a reasonably early ago to move on a plane above mere sentiment. It should be attractive, from its purpose, its earnestness." IV. Advanced Methods.— In youth imagination is very active, and its systematic culture is not less im- portant tlian that of reason. 1. Lead the student to construct science. The fatal error is studying delinitions, descriptions, and classifica- tions in books and nothing more. No wonder that stupidity rather than ])ower is the result. What is the educational method ? Clearly the student nnist begin with realities, and work up to ideals. Books and teach- ers suggest, direct, give information. The student ex- periences everything and images everything. The learner sees, feels, touches, tastes, and smells the plant. He analyzes and synthetizes it. He compares it with other plants. In imagination he constructs the typical plant and associates with it a name. So at every step knowledge is both actualized and realized. 2. Lead the learner to construct history. For the time the student is a Greek. He visits in imagination the cities and valleys and mountains of Greece. He worships at the shrines of the Grecian gods. N'ow he takes part in the siege of Troy, fights by the side of Ajax or Achilles. He helps build the wooden horse. Now he fights, bleeds, and dies at Thermopylae. Thus imagination enables him to put himself in their place and thus understand the Greeks. Greece, Greeks Grecian history, Grecian literature, become a part of of DIRKCTIONS FOR THE OULTUKE OF IMA(iINAT10N. 139 himself. 1„ the same way we study Koma.,, German, ii-nglish, and American history. Z. Uad tlu: shulent at every etep to make concrete iMahstract. Pew can understand thoroughly abstract truths without iirst considering the concrete basis. It is well to say, " Honesty is the best policy " • but it needs to be illustrated. Mr. Jones from boyhood ha been known for integrity. Every one respect/and trusi tan. He has gradually accunndated a competence and s happy. In J„s case honesty proved to be the best pohcy. The habit of illustrating everything is invalu- able^ Only m this way can we build on tl^ rock and nrmly grasp general truths. ../; ^Ti "'" '":"^''* *" '^'"'y '^^fi-om the staml- pomt of the arti^. The artist created these ideals; creating them over again educates imagination. How much more does it develop imagination to create origi- nal ideals and strive to realize them ! 5 Lead t!w etudent to form and try to realize an M character. From the lives of the grand and great of all ages we construct an ideal hfe, our highest conception of a grand manhood. Now we think and feel and will to realize in ourselves the ideal. VII. General Directions fob the Ciiltuee op Imagination. helpfor'"^ ^^^ ^"^ ""iiginationK^ulture may prove a. Create your world of geography. 1. Be original : J *• Create your world of history. c. Create your world of geometry. d. Create your social world. 2. Form high ideals and work up to them. ^'•' Sim f'itji ':n P ! i I 1,'n fib I ; If :ri .!aEa!i'--!*^sti:;ffi i a < ; r 9ft li 'Hi II " If I' i ! n I uo APPLIED PSYCHOT.OCY AND TEACHING. 3. Associate with the i)ure and good. 4. Avoid bad literature : j f " l^''^ "terature. f 0. Weak literature. 5. Head wisely the best literature. Poetry and fiction come first. The real novelist is a genius, a man whose stock in trade is a knowl- edge of men. His story is the portrayal in print of actual charac- ters, idealized and so combined and interwoven as to reveal the mo- tives which actuate mankind. The reading of such an author leaves us richer in the knowledge of men, and enables us to judge, speak, and act more wisely. YIII. Erkors in educating Imagination. We have here errors of omission as well as of com- mission. No feature of our educational work is now in greater need of reform. 1. Repeating instead of memorizing. By dint of repetition, forms and statement are acquired. But the labor is immense and the tendency is to weaken invent- iveness and make plodders rather than originators. Imagining, illustrating, actualizing, enable the learner to realize things. He now feels delight and remembers with little effort. 2. Drudgery instead of mastery. This is the domi- nant educational sin of our times. The student is weighted down with facts. Thus, instead of the pow- erful and fleet Arabian steed we get the stupid dray- horse. 3. Too much explaining. The school of to-day has perhaps no phase more vicious than the habit of explaining everything so fully that the mind has little stimulus to wrestle with problems ; has al- most nothing left with which the imagination can play. From the first hour of school life to the last, the teacher's opportunities for directing and training the imagination are limitless. There is scarcely a fact so patent, a problem so simple, or discipline so trying, that the teacher may not, if she will, enliven the hour and intensify ERRORS IN EDUCATING IMAGINATION. 141 the thought and ennoble the character by an appeal more or less definite to the imagination. 4. Saying instead of doing. Describing a tree helps, but drawing a tree is better. Saying the tables is well' but actual weighing and measuring are better, as the learner is thus enabled to construct tables. Let draw- ing, molding, and constructing take the place of mere saying. 5. Leaving imagination to roam fancy free. The student needs to learn to draw sharp distinctions be- tween reals and ideals. Then he needs constantly to subject his ideals to unsparing criticism. Thus may be prevented a dreamy, sickly, sentimental life. 6. Cherishi7ig or even tolerating loic ideals. " Like gods like people," expresses our tendency to become like our ideals. " Let me write the songs for the people and you may make the laws." Boys and girls saturated with low literature form low ideals, and will likely live low lives. 7. Neglect of imagination-culture. The culture of imagination seems to be more uniformly neglected than that of any other faculty. The ability to represent correctly to one's self a thing, a scene, a person, a story, from a verbal description is very rare. Few pupils in studying history, geography, or astronomy, form any distinct and true pictures of what is described. Fewer still^ are able to create ideal personages and scenes. Training of the imagination should result not only in capacity to receive, but in power to create. ■fit' n ' ■ u pf "^!! r ' 1 ]■ < 'ih •4 ' 'if ; I 142 APPLIED rSYCflOLOGY AND TEACfllNO. SUQOESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. " that tho oJucator has a special work t^ A ? "' '"^'^ '^""J'' ing the imagination of theToulfa foil" '?;"""« "'"' »''"^- t«r, MoCosh, James and nfhpr.^ oomparatively new one." for- gnispo, thesublertlCr a, v ,? """ S"'"=l«''--e'- and your otlier. ' «"' "' y<"" ""'^'npt '<> wake it plain to an- the ^^ZZT:^: S-'Ir-I'^"— -"nd illustrate these names, or renrolctive n " f™'"'- "° ^^ P^""^^ account for the neglect of this culture ? ""^P"'*^"^' ^°^ <^° Y^^ ,.^- Growth of Imagiaation.^Show tho P-rnwfh ^p- • .. md.cated by the compositions of the oli d '„ 7h w 0!^!' "".k" of the man. How earlv flnoc fi,« i,-ij ^ ' ^ '^^^ youth; may be kept vigorous even in old age *"' ""' P°™ in to™; o?rnaSnS"sutf "Tirf "'^ "■" ""-'^ 8--"' >«ws studies d";rosfr°o7fhe*''htT °' i-«t'-«»--wh:t Why, Give^r. p:;^ estimates ''"' ^'"^ '°^ '"' P""-' of Ide^gfC^'mHirodrS' '""'''"•""•-°""'- ^»« ™"0" methods ; ° f highrhoo, mWho/ ^^ T *"'■' ' °' '"termediate ph.nfor;eaohi„^g';t;::r HitU°',;°"!«! -''>°'^«- «'™ ^o" --. -i^a^ U ...... X..^i;rrWbrmistake in ed„- CULTURE OF THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. I43 eating imagination do you esteem most hurtful? Why! May the teacher do too much explaining? Name some errors that you have observed. How do you propose to lead your pupils to form pure and lofty ideals ? ^ CHAPTER XI. CULTURE OF THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. Here representation means memory and ima^na- tion. The earnest teacher asks, How can I so teach as to best develop these powers ? What valuable sugges- tions do educators give to aid me in my efforts to cul- tivate memory and imagination ? This chapter, it is hoped, will help you in your efforts to find answers to these questions. We mean by the culture of our repre- sentative powers the development of our capabilities to represent our experiences in old and new forms. The old forms are memories ; the new forms are ideals. Phantasy is not considered, as it is not susceptible of cultivation. Self m dreams and revery, without purpose or plan, spontaneously weaves his experiences into fancies. This is phantasy. Self is aware of beholding these panoramas, but not of making them ; they seem at the time to be new experiences. Phantasy is active in child- hood and m the weak-minded, and is often mistaken for imagination, 01 called tlie passive imagination. The teacher and the physician as well as the psychologist must needs study phantasy and its office in the mental economy. Its activity affects our lives more than we are willing admit. As the artist gains innumerable suggestions Lnl« pf ^^,°^'«Pt' '" ''' ^^'^^ innumerable suggestions from our fancies. Phantasy, though most active during repose, is certainly n some degree active at all times. Many persons dream away their lives ; they do not think and do not imagine ; they drift. The dreamy eh Id or adult must be awakened. Wc can not educate phantasy, but we can manage it. We accept its hints for what they are worth. ^■1. V'*..-. I I ■'"'i! iiH \H 'ir =Ptirr.M,«jBrf4^i> \i'^ h ''t fi i y. Mr III 144 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. We refuse to dream when awake; we work. We occupy ourselves with good thoughts and high ideals and useful deeds, and thus leave no place for revery. Phantasy is niarvelously affected by the condi- tions of our bodies ; these we can largely control. We refuse to let the vagaries of phantasy mislead us. Early and always we fill our lives so full of realities and ideals and thoughts and deeds that there is no room for vagaries. I. Memory and Imagination.— Deeper insight into the mental economy awakens ever-increasing wonder. Each native energy of self is unique, is elemental. As gravity and cohesion aa-J electricity and the rest are elementary forces in the physical world, so perception and memory and our other powers are elementary ener- gies in the mind-world. As in the matter-world the various physical forces work in harmony to produce physical results, so in the mind-world all the native en- ergies of self co-operate, supplementing and re-enforcing each other in producing mental results. Thus it is that our simplest acts are wonderfully complex. We must learn to think of self as doing each act of knowing, feeling, and willing, and of our capabilities as merely native energies of self. For convenience we personify each faculty, as when we say, " Memory recalls and imagination creates.'' But these are figures of speech. Memory is self remembering and imagination is self iniagining. Psychological insight clears away the mists, and we behold self doing each mental act. 1. Self as memory does all his recalling. Imagination does not recall any more than does reason. Self i:s imagination constructs, but memory supplies imagination with materials, and also stores and ' recalls its products. In the same way memory furnishes reason with materials and also stores and recalls its products. Our experiences die as soon as completed. As soon as we cease to be aware of our CULTURE OF THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. I45 acquisitions they cease to exist. Storing knowledge, retaining ideas, impressing on memory, and similar figurative expressions, mean simply associating ideas. We assimilate our old and new experi- ences into organic unity. We so systematize and associate our ideas that present experiences suggest past experiences. This is recalling this IS memory. We recognize our remembrances as former experi- ences. Eradicate memory and we become incapable of thought or imagination. Memory is the only capability of self to recall, and we embody in this term all processes connected with recalling. Memory includes association, suggestion, reproduction, representa- tion, and recognition. 2. Self as imagination creates all his ideals. All products of imagination are ideals as opposed to reali- ties. Imagination is simply the native energy of self to construct ideals. Because imagination makes present to us again our experiences in new and picturesque forms, we say it is a representative power ; but it must be emphasized again and again that memory recalls the experiences out of which imagination makes the ideals. Culture of memory is the development of our recalling power; culture of imagination is the development of our creative power. II. Ideals.— Ideals are products of imagination, and are our nearest mental approach to perfection. " The ideal," says Fleming, "is to be attained by selecting and assimilating into one whole the perfections of many individuals, excluding everything defective." The teacher and the student gain deeper insight into the nature of tlie producer by studving the products. Thus the psychologist gains many of his best lessons from language and literature and art. Through the study of ideals we become familiar with our creative power and its culture, 10 ' 1 I n ^ 4 ,r I,! I ;'fil ■ill I! I: jlr Mi M ! !,'ll i^'i . lii- i«^ 146 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACUING. 1. Ideals are ideas and objects blended into harmony. Some years since the notion occurred to nio that I might regulate my school by bells that would ring automatically. The programme clock helped me. 1 now invented an attachment to so connect battery and bells with the clock that it would strike my programme. The idea and the object were thus blended in harmony. This was my ideal elec- tric programme clock. I then proceeded to place bells in the various rooms and make the connections as planned. At last I set my clock so as to ring my programme. It worked well. I had realized my ideal. I used this crude invention to regulate my school for nearly twenty years. 2. Ideal of intelleGtual greatness. At certain times we observe ourselves at our best. Now we acquire with surprising ease ; now imagination towers ; now our thoughts are penetrating. We observe ourselves at these supremest moments and learn what high intellectual ac- tivity means. Through reading, hearing, and observ- ing, we appropriate the experiences of the mightiest men at their best. " Then from ourselves as known to ourselves we eliminate all dullness, vacillation, forgetfulness, confu sion, and all other sources of intellectual weakness; while we retain and combine into permanent form all the exhibitions of superior intellectual power that have been revealed to us, and this combination constitutes our ideal of intellectual greatness. This idoal, though composed of what was ultimately experienced in our- selves, is so much superior to ourselves that it perpetu- ally acts as a stimulus to higher intellectual activity." * Our efforts to realize this ideal tend to make intellect- ual greatness. 3. Ideal of moral greatness. We observe ourselves tji • Larkin Dunton. CULTURE OF THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. I47 at oar best moments. Kow our whole being thrilk with pliilunthropic impulses; now we resist fearful temptations; now we discharge trying duties We observe ourselves at our supreme moments and learn what high moral activity means. Through observing and hearing and recalling we appropriate the experi- ences of great moral heroes. Then from our accumu- lated experiences we create our ideals of moral great- ness. These ideals become a perpetual stimulus to higher moral activity. 4. Ideal of teaching greatness. I observe myself at such moments as I excel in teaching. :N'ow I hold the entire attention ; now I lead the pupils to put forth tlieir best efforts; now I inspire my pupils to act nobly By observing myself at these supreme moments I learn what high teaching power means. Through observing p-nd hearing and reading I now appropriate the best experiences of the great teachers. Their experiences become mine. Out of my accumulated experiences I select the best and construct my ideal of teaching greatness. This ideal becomes a constant and powerful stimulus to higher teaching activity. Well-directed efforts to realize this ideal tend to make me a greater teacher. 5. Tlw ideal is a preparation for the actual. Our rational acts are planned. Our plans are our ideals. Ihe general plans to-morrow's battle and thus organizes - victory. The teacher plans her school before it opens and thus organizes success. The bride who went through the marriage ceremony without embarrassment said that she had been married in imagination a thou- sand times. Demosthenes had made his great oration \\\ I--. "t ;ii: 148 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY ANE TEACIHNG. ii many liundrcd times in imagination before ho electri- fied tlie AthenianH. 6. Ideals lead to actJo>is. M lien ideals are piiro and ennobling they lead to pure and ennobling acts ; but when ideals are base and degrading they lead to base and degrading acts. No one goes to the bad whose imagination is not first corruj>tc(;. ilow super- latively important it is that the associations and read- ings of the young should be pure and elevating ! 7. Ideals (jrotc. The artist's ideal is the highest he can now create ; but the widened experiences of other years will enable him to make vastly higher ideals. Child ideals are low and crude ; boy ideals are higher ; youth ideals are vastly higher. My ideal of teaching greatness now is much higher than that of twenty years ago. We make our ideals as high as we can to-day, but to-morrow's experience will enable us to construct liigher ideals. Slowly and little by little the child writes its crude composition ; the man plans his essay in ad- vance, and writes with a master-hand. What are the ideals of your pupils ? How will you lead them to form higher ideals ? You look well to the ideas of those under your care. Is it not even more important that you should look well to their ideals ? III. Time to memorize. — Memorizing in its best sense is the assimilation and association ()f our new acquisitions. Mr. Bain says that memorizing is an exercise which makes the greatest demands upon the nervous energies ; that the use of ideas in the making of new combinations — in new constructions — demands a less degree of brain-vigor, and that writing, drawing, and searching J pure ; acts; [^ad to le bad best new CULTURE OF THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. 149 reference-books for information, and noting what k found, make the least demands upon the nervous power. "There re periods of the day that can bo niost economieally enploj-ed for memorizing and other severe intellectual labor, and others for performing tlie lighter and easier work. The three peri- ods of greatest mental vigor are: (1) in the morning for three or four hours after breakfast ; (2) for two or three hours following a period of rest after dinner; and (3) one or two hours following a period of rest after supper. The adult mind will mo time most economically if he shall employ its periods of greatest vigor in mak- ing new acquisitions, reserving its constructive work for period, of ess mental energy, and setting apart all merely mechanical and routme labor for tho.. portions of the day when the mind is least vgorous. With the child, memorizing is easier than construction opment/'*''''''"''''' ^""'"'' ^^'' ""' ^'' ''^'^'^ '^'''' f"" d«^«i' The elementary school " will always have the char- acter of memory-work stamped upon it, no matter how much the educational reformer may improve its meth- ods. It IS not easy to overvalue the impulse of such men as Pestalozzi aiul Froebel. But the child's mind can not seize great syntheses. He bites off, as it were on y small fragments of truth at best. He ^ -ts isolated data, and sees only feebly the vast network f interre- ation m the world. This fragmentary, isolated charac ttr belongs essentially to primary education. But iust as surely does sc .ndary education deal with relations and functions and pro,, sses. It is the stage of crude generalization But college education stri^.« to induce on the mind the habit of seeing the unity of things." f I^- Conditions of Effective A8SOciatlon.t-There are some well- defined conditions under which ideas may be aecpiired and g:ou;ed • George P. Brown. + w. T. IlarrU. X Larkin Dunton. ! I! h.j*y !!■" ilL U m 160 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. in the mind, which increase the probability that the presence of an idea will be followed by the idea of a similar thing, and that, on the representation of one of a group of ideas, the whole group will be represented. J. The longer ideas are kept before the mind, or the less the lapse of time since ideas were in the mind, the greater is the proba- bility that these ideas will be represented. It is not what we mere- ly see, or hear, or read, that is most likely to bo revived ; but what we rotlcct upon and discuss. It is not what we heard ten years ago that we discuss to-day, but what we have recently heard. Aged i)eoi)le often recall the scenes of childhood with more full- ness than those of recent years. This appears to be an exception to the rule ; but the exception is only apparent, for there are other in- fluences nt work. Hut the exception does not hold in regard to re- cent events. The events of to-day are more easily recalled by the aged than those of a week ago. 2. The more frequently ideas arc present in the mind and grouped together, the greater the probability that they will be rep- resented, and in the order in which they have been arranged be- fore. The parts of our homes which we have known together day after day have left such an impression upon our minds that an idea of one part is at once followed by the ideas of all the parts. It is the presence of ideas, not that of words, which creates the tendency to representation. 3. The more intense the attention while a group of ideas is be- fore the mind, the greater is the probability that one of the group will be represented on occasion of the presence of a similar idea, and that then the whole group will be represented. An hour of intense application is of more value than a day spent in turning from one thing to another. To secure this, require the pupil's eye to be on what is represented, or on the teacher, and often call for an expres- sion of what ought to be known. 4. The greater the interest in the things known during the pro- cess of learning, the more probable is it that the ideas will be repre- sented. y. Good Memory is Discriminating Memory.— A good memory lias its obvious advantages ; but a good mem- ory is something more than merely a retentive memory. CULTUHE OF HIE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. 151 It ifl quite m in.portant to shut one's mc.nory against tl.at wluch 6lu,»ld l,e forgotten, and against tliat wl.ich 18 not worth remembering, as to open one's memory to that wluch 1.S wortliy of hei.ig borne in mind. A mem- ory that receives and holds important facts and truths, while It rejects those which are nnin.portant, is far pref! erable to a inemory tliat is always overloaded with th.ng.s good, bad, and indifferent. ].)eciding what to remember, and remembering that, is better than re- membenng everything. VI. BUokie'. Self-Calturo of M.mory.-It is of „o use Kath.rinr; we can not rctnn. ,„ the memory. H„ppi|y, „( all „„„t„i f„<,„„i„, memory H that one which is most certainly i,npr„ved Ty exe ct bcsKles, there are helps to „ weak memory snch L do not exTs to a pmnts to be atte.ule,l i„ n, securing tho retention of facts are- 11) The d,st,nct,,ess, vividness, and intensity of the original imp" ssion apprehends. It ,s better tor the me.nory to have a distinct idea of one fact of a great subject, than to have confused ideas of the whole Ck^e " "'"' l"° '"""''' '" "■"* "» "*' -"• dassincation to know what ,s most essential in the character of the individual t,m mat:"' ^'1r *^ '"'"""'■ '" ^"«"- (•''> Tl.e next impor: UhavTalo '■'"I"'"" • " ""^ """ ""' "»' eo in at one stroke" let t have another and another. In this domain nothing is denied a hapfstoT. T' ';.• '* ^S""' " ™™--' "^ ™*- ""-"li'V is per! eve"^^i, 1'"" "" "PP"'"' '°-'' '""> " «»' sain. (5) Lastly, what^ . rimn V ' ■ TT"^ ^^ """' P"^*^^' '•"^i^" "»t th'' s" e aids avaZl '^ fF ^'^ ^^ """"" '""""-'l- To retain stores of readily a mln oTomm'"."" *ape of written or printed record, enables whato™ rr T; " "^' "'"''""' "' «'=™»lated materials, at wnatever moment he may require them. ' f| g'l^ i i i !.!' i' I! ^1 Dhf! 11 PART III. EDUCATION OF THE THOUGHT-POWERS. CHAPTER XIL-Thb Thought-Powers and Thougut- ING. XIII.— Education op Conception. XIV.— Education of Judgment. XV.— Education op Reason. XVI.— Culture op the Thought-Powoib. Know THE INTELLECT. COGNITIVE POWEES, COGNITIVE PROCESSES, AND COGNITIVE PRODUCTS. 0-; if.. ffp .-»' REASON, REASONING, REASONS. JUDGMENT, JUDGING, JUDGMENTS. Conception, Conceiving, Concepts. IMAGINATION, IMAGINING, IMAGINATIONS. PHANTASY, FANCYING, FANCIES. MEMORYi REMEMBERING, MEMORIES. NECESSARY N E C E S S^ R V NECESSARY PERCEPTION. PERCEIVING^ P E R C E P T S. SELr-PEHJEPTION, SELF- PERCEIVING, SELF- PERCEPTS. SENSE<--PeRCePTION, SG'NSE-PERCEIVING, SENSE- PERCEPTS. As gravity is the fundamental physical force, so perception is the fundamental psychical energy. Sense-perception is the base of the cognitive pyramid and reason the crown. As we ascend we find that each capability rests on and is chronologically and psycho- logically dependent on all the capabilities below it ; as, for example, imagination could not act but for perception and memory. Tliis psychological insight is confirmed l)y practical experience, as the practice of all educators proves. Teachers now uniformly present the intellectual powers in the above order. The claim that these powers are not elemental, but merely eddies in the stream of thought, forms of consciousness, modes of analysis and synthesis, is based, as T think, on the failure to discern clearly the co-operative nature of the mental economj. When we once gain the insight that each capability of self supplements and re-enforces all his other powers, it is not difficult to gain the deeper insight that the stream of thought and assimilation and analysis and synthesis and apperception are in reality resultant co-operative processes. Each capability is a native energy of self, and is elemental in the mental economy. PART THIRD. EDUCATION OF TEE THOUGHT-POWERS. CHAPTER XII. THE TIIOUGIIT-POWERS AND THOUGHT-KNOWING. Thinking is discerning relations. The relations be- tween things are as real as the things themselves. Our thought-powers are our capabilities to discern these re- ations. Self as thought discerns relations and assimi- lates his experiences into thought-unitj. Thinking is the crowning act of knowing. I. The Thought-Powers. -We discover that some things are related to other things by common proper- ties ; we discern these group relations and think indi- viduals into classes ; our capability to do this is termed conception. We discover that our notions agree or dis- agree ; that they are related as true or false ; we discern truth relations and think our notions into truths ; our capability to do this is termed judgment. Finally, we discover that the universe is a cause-unit ; we discover cause relations and think truths into reasons and sys- terns ; our power to do this is termed reason. THE THOUGHT P0WER3 ARE ' I 166 APPLIFD PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING, ^n m t'l! II. Thought-Processes.— We discern class relations and tliink things into groups. Tluis we tliink our notions of individual birds into the concept bird ; this is Ganceivi7ig. Wc discern truth relations and think our ideas into truths. Thus we tliink our notions, high and mountains, into the truth, mountains are high; >jvH2--- THINKING IS this is judging. We discern cause relations and think truths into reasons. Thus we think our judgments, men have rights and slaves are men, into the con- clusion, sloA^es hme rights; this is reasoning. Dig cerning sameness is the " keel and backbone of think- • « mg III. Thought-Products.— Conceiving is thinking our notions of individuals into notions of classes; group notions are termed general notions, or conceptions, or concepts. Judging is thinking our notions into truths ; sentences express truths or judgments Keasoning is thinking judgments into reasons. Interlocked judg- ments express I'easons. THOUGHT PRODUCTS ARE iV. Thought-Knowing is Mediate Knowirg.—Throuffh the medium of particular notions we reach general no- . i THE THOUGHT-POWERS AND THOUGHT-KNOWING. I57 tions. Through the medium of particular and general notions we reach tniths. Through the medium of related judgments we reach coiidusimis. Perceptive knowing is immediate knowing, but thought-knowing is mediate knowing. Jplies to all knives • it is ""en- eral. You think all knives as one group of things. jl f CONCEPTION AND CONCEPTIVE KNOWING. X69 You call this a class-notion. As you grasp or bind all your particular knife-notions into one notion knife, you call this a general notion, a concept. Conception is the capability to gain concepts. The brute is lost in a wil- derness of particulars. The savage makes crude classi- fications like those of children. The scientist thinks tho wilderness of individuals into a few classes, and thus begins to make science. Coriceiving is discerning class relations; conception is the power to gain class notions ; concepts are general notions. II. Percepts and Concepts.— As we make our sense, percepts out of our sensations, so we make our sense- concepts out of our sense-percepts. As we make our self-percepts out of our awareness, so we make our self concepts out of our self-percepts. Thus, too, we make our necessary-concepts out of our necessary-percepts Percepts are the ^tuff out of wliicli we make our con- cepts. An idea is either a particular notion or a gen- eral notion. Our particular notions are our percepts and our general notions are our conceptions or concepts. When we think oi percepts we think of particular no- tions, and when we think of concepts we think of gen- eral notions. Only when we wish to be specific do we speak of sense-percepts, self-percepts^ and necessary- percepts ; or of sense-concepts, self-concepts, and neces- sary-concepts. divichnf r'^'f °" " "°' * '"'°'*^ I'ioture.-Perceptions relate to in- dividual objects; conceptions relate to general classes or to abstrac Z^7ltl ""T' ^'''""' "^ Psychology-and the mental ^sloh!l^ wf r^ «°"«^i^ing form ^he most important topics of psychology. Whatconstitutesageneral notion or conception? It sWdtnnhTl liT'^'' 'T ^ '^'^"''^*^" '^^^ ^^"^^''^^ '^^tion tree .hould mclude all trees of whatever description, and it is expressed il ■ r Vi:\ 'hi I' 4\ Ml hi m •Hi: t, : 'M \ \{ \- Si »■ \l 160 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. u by a c'efinition. But no sooner do 1 attempt to conceive the notion tree than 1 form a mental image, but the imago is not general enough to suit the notion. No particular image of any object in any class can be general enough to satisfy the definition. Every image must be of an individual, and the definition is broad enough to include all individuals. Tlie definition serves as a rule by which we form an image which will illustrate it. The difference between the conception and the specimen is known to the child and the savage, though it is not consciously refiected upon. Take a differ- ent class of conceptions. Take the abstractions of color, taste, smell, sound, or touch— for example, redness, sourness, fragrance, loudness, and hardness. Our conception includes infinite degrees of possible intensity, while our image or recalled experience is of some definite degree, and does not corresftond to the general notion. " Let us take more general notions, such as force, matter, qual- ity, being. If some image or example of these can be called up, it is' felt to be a- special example that covers only a very small part of the whole field. An image, strictly considered, can not be made of force at all, nor of any special example of force. We can image some object that is acted upon by a force. We can image it before it is acted upon and after it is acted upon— that is, we can image the results of the force, but not the force itself. " If we conceive existence, and image some existent things ; if we conceive quantity in general and image a series of things that can be numbered, or an extension or degree that may be measured ; if we conceive relation in general and try to illustrate it by imaging particular objects between which there is relation — in all these and similir cases we can hardly help being conscious of the vast difference between the image and the conception. In realizing the conception of relation, as in that of force or energy, we do not image even an example or specimen of a relation or force, but we image only the conditions or termini of a specimen relation : but the relation itself must be thought, just as any force must be thought, but can not be imagined. We can think relations but not image them." * ITT. Conceptive Processes. — Conception stands for classification as memory stands for remembering. The II * Dr. W. T. Harris. CONCEPTION AND CONCEPTIVE KNOWING. Steps by wliich we reacli general notions must be counted as merely processes in conceiving ; these are exjjerience, GomparUori, ahHtractlon, generalization clansijicatlon^ and naviing. ' 1. Comj)arisou. That we may discover common properties and discern class relations we must compare things. Comparison here includes experience ; thought deals with ideas, not with things. When we conceive we compare our ideas of things and not the things themselves ; but we gain our ideas through experiences. VVe find that these figures are three-sided and those four-sided ; we find that these apples are red and those white. This is observing and com faring. 2. Attraction. This is leaving out of considera- tion the many properties that we may consider things with reference to a single property. We disregard everything else, and consider these figures with refer- ence to the number of sides and these apples with refer- ence to color. This is ahstracting. 3. Generalization. This is finding a common prop- erty and extending it to many individuals. This figure and this and this are three-sided; three-sidedness is general to them ; we generalize by extending this prop- erty so as to include all three-sided figures. This is generalization. 4. Classification. This is grouping things into classes. We have abstracted nnniber of sides as the basis for classifying these figures. These figures all have the general property of three-sidedness, and we think them into the three-sided figure group ; but those have the general property of four-sidedness, and we think them into the four-sided figure group. As a basis 11 "X % ?f ' .'J ! 1^ m i^'i m 1 162 APPLIED PHYCIIOL()(}Y AND TEACHING. m V for classifying these apples we abstricted color. These apples have the general property red, and we think them into the red-apple grcnp ; those have the general property wliite, and we think them into the white-apple group. We discern sameness as to form, and thus think all figures into a few classes. This is clamifijlng. 5. Namhuj. This is giving names to our geneial notions. We call our thrcc-angled figure group tri- angles and our four-angled group quadrangles. We have reached these general notions and named tliem ; conception can go no further. When we think of con- ception we do not think of these processes, but simply of self thinking his particular notions into general no- tions. Conceiving is discerning class relations, and is the first step in thinking. II. Judgment, Judging, and Judgments. The native energy of self to think his notions into truths is called judgment. We judge when we discern truth-relations. Kant loas a j^hilosopher. We discern the agreement of the notions, philosopher and Kant, and think them together into the truth. Self as judgment discerns and asserts the agree- ment of notions, as, pleasures are fleeting. Self as judgment discerns and asserts the disagreement as well as the agreement of notions, as, teachers are not infal- lible. Judgment is the truth-discerning power of the soul, and is considered one of the most important and fruitful of all our faculties. 1. A judgment is the assertion of a truth. Truth is correspondence with reality, as sugar is sweet. Un- truth is the assertion of agreement which does not ac- JUDGME.VT, JUDGIXG. At^D JUDGMENTS. 1(J3 >rd with reality, as th^ earth is square. Self as ludg- merit discerns the untruthfulness of this proposition and changes it int^ a], by inserting not We express our judgmcxits iu propositions which we call sentences ; hence, judgment is sometimes termed our bentence-m;.'' ng faculty. 2. Synthetic and analytic judgments. Wc embody and treasure our knowledge in ontences, and thus wo connect all our progress in the acquisition of knowl- edge with sentence-n. Mng. Synthetic judgments ex- tend our knowledge by making new predications, as cows are ruminating animals. To hi. previous knowl- edge of cows the learner now adds a new characteristic. Analytic judgments make our knowledge fuller and clearer by predicating component parts or properties, as hirds have wings, or gold is yellow. 3. Processes in discerning truth. The steps in forming judgments are judging processes. Take the two notions sponge and animal. We compare these notions. A douU arrcF^ us. "Is the sponge animal or vegetable ? " We inv. stlgate and find that sponges are really animals. We discern the agreement of the notions, and think of the sponge as animal. Finally we express the judgment in the sentence, sponges are animals. But no one thinks of these processes when judging, any more than the orator thinks of the ele- mentary sounds when addressing his audience. From early childhood we constantly judge, so that an act of judging comes to seem to us to be a single simple step. ^ 4. Percepts, concepts, and judgments. Percepts and concepts are the materials out of which self makes his judgments. Solomon was wise; all men are falli^ 1 ■f el lij m I u lit .^.ii ' 1 1 3MAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) Y /. y. Q.. 1.0 I.I 2.5 biUu 1.8 1.25 1.4 16 - 41 6" ► V] <^ /i "c^l ■c), /^ ^ ^^ 4. "^j Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 "^ ,\ ^V ^•i ^s^ 4h ^.A.^. ^ i% ^':a.'^^'' %^ '% ^^ V Mi/-, ^4s v. # 164 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 111,1' w l'}k > ™' I 1 111 Itf if J^6. In tlie first, tlie subject is a percept ; but in the second, the subject is a concept. In these cases, and in fact in all judgments, the predicates are concepts. Self as judgment elaborates his ideas into judgments. Judg- ing is discerning truth relations, and is the second step in thinking. Kant def nes judgment as the faculty that discerns examples of universals. It is regarded as the faculty that adapts means to ends and discriminates applications. One with a good judgment is called a wise man. From the educational standpoint, however, it is deemed best to treat judgment as the power to discern and assert truth. III. Reason, Reasoning, and Reasons. Reason is the native energy of self to discern grounds and reach conclusions. Whenever we say in- telligently because, hence, therefore, we reason. Rea- soning is grasping the relation of two judgments into a conclusion. Thus : All mammals are vertebrates ; The horse is a mammal ; • . The horse is a vertebrate, reason infers conclusions from premises. Through two related truths we discern a new truth. Reason is the capability to originate a judgment ex- pressing the relations of two given judgments. The constitution of things is such that, certain related truths being known, we can infer other truths. You know that x = y and that y = z', and you infer that x=: z. Reason is the power of inference. Reason in the Mental Economy. — Infinite reason planned the uni- verse. All things from atoms to systems of worlds are unitized by cause-relations. Cause and effect, means and ends, antecedent and consequent, link all into unity. Endowed with reason, we think Self as h Nl '/ I I REASON, REASONING, AND REASONS. 1^5 the thoughts of God after him. Reason, through interlocked j.idg- ment, discerns cause-relations. Self, as reason, lays under contr bu- ion all his other mtellcctual capabilities, and supplementstd re- enforces each. We think our percepts into cZcepts-reason L there; we remember and imagine-reason is there; we form judff! ments-reason is there; we feel emotions of truth and beauty aifd duty-reason is there; we choose and act-behold, reason is there. I Reasoning Forms—Reason stands for the power of inference. Self reasons when he infers a thi^d truth from two related truths. Reasoning as to formiseither lull or abhreviated 1. Informal and for^nal reasoning. Ordinarily in conversation, in books, in science, and in discourse wo reason informally We say, ,nen are happy hecause they are law-aMhng. This is informal reasoning, as the major premise is not expressed. When the aW ment is stated in full it is formal reasoning, as- Beings who are law-abiding are happy • Men are law-abiding ; " ' . • . Men are happy. Rarely do we thus state our arguments in full ; but, in all eases, the omissious are implied, and our infmiaal reaso,,,n.^y be expa.uled mto formal reasons. i. Induction and deduction. These are merely dif- ferent forms of reasoning. Through particular truths we reach general trmhs. This magn'et Tnd this and t IZZ \l "T ^''"" " ""'^"™' '-"^ "'f-- tl'^'t all magnets attract iron. This is ind^u^the reasoning It ;. infernug a general truth from particular truths. Thi s we think up to principles and laws. We deduce pan-n ar truths through general truths. Since al This is ir:''"''' "" .■"'^■" ""*' '"^'"""'^^ g^^-itote- i his IS d^ducUve reasoning. It is inferring a particular ■I'* n 'ii if '■' w ■SI i it! 166 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACUING. \l<: truth from general truths. Keason is simply our capa- bility to discern new truths through related truths. Whatever form it takes it is ever the power of in- ference. II. Reasoning Processes.— These are steps which self takes in reaching conclusions. When we reason we do not think of these processes ; we simply discern through the medium of known truths new truths. 1. Regulative truths. Our notions of necessary re- alities and the eternal fitness of things ^ gained by direct insight, are termed necessary-ideas. Our axioms are owY generalized necessary-intuitions and are Q&WedneGes- sary-truths, first truths, and regulative truths. "Without the idea of causality there could be no experierxce. Experience can not begin until the idea of causality awakens iu the mind. Space and time are primary logical conditions which make an objective world possible. Causality is equally fundamental for the existence of experience. Without the idea. of causality the mind can not recognize itself as the producer of its deeds, nor can it recog- nize anything objectively existing as the producer of its sense-im- pressions. All sense-impressions are mere feelin'js and are subject- ive. We can not derive the idea of cause from experience, for we have to use it to begin experience. The perception of the objective is possible only by the act of passing beyond our subjective sensa- tions and referring them to external objects as causes of them. Whether I refer the cause of my sensations to objects and thereby perceive, or whether I traf« the impressions to my own organism and detect an illusion of my sei; ?es in place of a real perception— in both causes I use the idea of causality. The object is the cause, or [ am the sole cause. ... A real cause is an originator of changes or new forms of existence. It is not something which demands another cause behind it, for it is self-active. The chain of relativity ends in a true cause and can not be conceived without it. The true cause is an absolute, inasmuch as it is independent. That which receives its form from another is dependent and relative. That which is self- active is a true cause, gives form to itself or others, and is independ- Itt REASON, REASONING, AND REASONS. iqj ent of others Our idea of cause, therefore, is the basis of our ideas fi~^l^^^^^^ "^^^""'^^^^'^'' '' ^^^^^-^' ^^ immortality, at: lieason makes necessary-truths the ground and the guide of thought. T/nn^s which are equal to the same t/ung are equal to each other. This truth, in some of Its modifications, doubtless gives form to all our mathe- matical reasoning. The mathemaucal syllogism does not, like the real syllogism, subsume. The foUowinff example illustrates both : y 1,1 ?.i m 'V ;1f- m 172 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. I I m VA: ill I •Hi oiiiy may l)u indicated as in the niarjjin. Its place as one of the thought-powers is lUKiuestioned. 1. Relation to intuition. Conception is dependent on intuition for the materials out of which concepts are made. Sense-intuition gives us ideas of material things liaving properties. Self-intuition gives us ideas of the activities, and acts of self. Necessary-intuition gives us ideas of necessary-realities. But these ideas are indi- vidual concrete notions. Self, as conception, compares individuals, discerns class relations, and thinks particu- lar notions into general notions. 2. delations to inemm'ij and inuKjination. Self as memory recalls his particular notions and keeps them before the mind for comparison and assimilation. We certainly can not picture our concepts, and yet imagination helps us amazingly in our classifying labors. Often we need to create experiences. You have seen but one elephant, but from your knowledge of other animals you can imagine elephants, large, small, young, old, white, black, and gray. Then you think your real and imaginary experiences into the con- cept elephant. In some degree, at least for a time, the learner dimly pictures concepts with particulars blurred or left out of view, as when w^e think triangle, or soldier, or tree. In thinking tree, some familiar tree flits before the mind and helps us to think the general notion. 3. Relations to judgment and reason. In forming concepts we judge. In fact, a concept is a plexus of judgments. Often, too, the learner needs to stop and reason, as when he comes to classifying the sponge. On the other hand, conception furnishes general no- tions to be ai)T)ropriated bv iudcment and reason. IMPORTANCE OF THE EDUCATION OF CONCEPTION. I73 Deflnitioni.-Tcacli«rs, even more than students, need to define their terms sharj.ly, and especially the terms that they constantly use. Conception may be termed the capability to make definitions 1. Conception is the native ene.gy of self to think particular notions into general notions. Self, as conception, thinks the par- ticular notions John, James, and Henry into the general notion hoy 2. Conceu'ing is the act of discerning class-relations and assimli latmg individuals into classes. I discover that some of these apples are sweet and some are sour, and I assimilate all into two classes and call these sour apples and those sweet apples. 3. ^ concepiis a general notion: Boston and Chicago and Nashville are particular notions, but city is a general notion. Class- notions are concepts. Our ideas are either percepts or concepts Our particular notions are percepts, but our general notions are con- cepfs. Percepts are concrete, concepts are abstract; percepts are individual notions, concepts are group noMons; percepts are mr- iicular notions, concepts are gejieral notions. The notions this dog this horse, and this elephant are percepts; the notions quadruped' vertebrate, and mammal are concepts. ' 4. Culture of conception is the development and training of the power to acquire and use concepts. Culture makes the difference between the weak and crude conceptive powers of the child and the savage, and the vigorous conceptive powers of the scientist. II. Impoktance of the Education of Conception. Thinking is discerning relations. Conceptive think, ing is discerning class-relations. As soon as the child begins to observe similar objects it begins to group them. This is the feeble beginning of thought. It is important to so develop the classifying power as to make the student a master. 1. Oulhire of conception greatly increases mental vigor. Uneducated persons deal with percepts, and their thinking is narrow and child-like. Educated per- sons deal with concepts, and their thinking is broad and vigorous. m im A 1 M ? Il \\ .'fl ^w 174 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. Wf 2. Culture of conception conserves mental energy. Percepts not cryBtallizcd into concepts are Hciuaiidered. The complete assimilation of discriminations into a unity is the cuhninatiiig principle of education. We compare, discriminate, and then assimilate ; we think as one class tliin<^s having one or more connnon char- acteristics ; we tliink our notions into larger and still larger mental units; we crystallize our particular no- tions into general notions. Concepts are more precious than line gold. 3. Culture of cmceptim t.^akes science possible. Savages make no science. Persons whose classifying power is undeveloped neither make nor understand science. Science is classified knowledge. Develop- ment of conception ])repares one to make science and comprehend the products of human thought. III. Growth of Conception. The cut illustrates the gradual growth of concep- tion. The child begins its mental life by gaining sense- percepts. Out of these sense-percepts it soon begins to form sense-concepts. The degree of activity indicates kind of culture required. 1. Kindergarten period. Before the end of the first year the in- fant seems to begin to group things. When two or three years old the child makes many amusing classifications. By the end of tha sixth year the intelligent child has roughly classified the objective world around it. Wise mothers lead children to use proper terms to express their concepts. The Kindergartner leads her pupils to crystallize their sense-percepts into sense-concepts. 2. Primary period. From six to ten, verbal memory is decidedly active and objective conception is moderately active. Now is the time for objective language-lessons and classifications of geometri- 'tj GUOWTII OF CONCEPTION. i -r oal forms and colors, as well as for the foundation work in ijeoijrunh v zo.;iogy, and bota.iy. Kasy but, correct names of concepts are ac- 3. Intermediate period. Boys and girls take delight in objective analysis and syn- thesis and in discovering group notions. Their clussilications are bold and striking; obscure and minute groupings arc nmde Inter.' I'upils are led to work up to concepts and make their own definitions. The work of this period is of the utmost importance. 4. Hiyh-school yeriud. During this peri- od conception reaches a still higher activity. This is the science period, an. youths de- light in discovering over again the classiiica- tions of science. 5. College period and afterward. Con- ception is moderately active in childhood. and is highly active from the tenth to the eighteenth year. This is pre-eminently the period for its vigorous use and systematic culture. After the eighteenth year class ifi- cation becomes philosophic and exhaustive. Conception seems to increase in power throughout active life. In manhood our classifications become more accurate and far- reaching. By constantly pushing our re- searches into new realms we may keep the classifying power vigorous even in old a-^e I V . Laws of Conception-Growth. Education is that development and training which fits a man for the highest usefuhiess and liighest happiness of which he is capable. I. General Educational Laws.— It is necessary to restate these laws in terms of concep- -lou ; thus stated thej guide tlio teacher : I I (f: 1 1 i't' in i ■Ifi fit ll i ;: i ll 176 APrLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHINa I 4 1 ii' hi i r. Ill 1. Law of effort. Well-directed effort in conceiv- ing and using general notions educates conception. This law requires the learner to do his own classifying. Kelations must be discerned. Individuals must be thought into groups, and concepts must be incorporated into the mental life. 2. Law of means. Studies wliich call conception into the most vigorous and most constant activity are of greatest value for conception-culture. Zoology and botany rank highest. 3.. Jmv} of method. Plans of work which lead the pupils to put forth, in the best ways, their best efforts in acquiring and using concepts educate conception. It is understood that this work must be systematic and per- sistent. II. Special Laws of Conception-Growth. — The tend- ency to classify is exceedingly human. Children and men feel the impulse to master things by grouping them. The uniform ways in which all must work in order to strengthen the grouping faculty are termed the laws of conceptic . growth. Attention is directed to two or three special laws: \. Aficending through percepts to concepts educates conception. This law re- quires that the learner should m.ake the ascent. 2. Or- ganizing particular notions into general notions edu- cates conception. Object-lessons which stop with per- cepts are waste labor in education. In order to save its particular notions the child must be led to assimi- late them into general notions. Observe critically the classifying efforts of your pupils. How must they make these efforts in order to growth? You will discover other special laws of great practical value. If. IMor; MEANS OF EDUCATING CONCEPTION. 17^ Above all, you will teach your pupils to work iu ae- eorclance with law. V. Mkans of educating Conception. Food is necessary to growtli. Tl,e plant feeds on .-game substances, bnt tlic animal on organic. Knowl- e. "nd by forming easy definitions of the more important concepts gained." * II. Intermediate Methods—Primary and high school methods m our best schools are now excellent, but in- termediate methods are often remarkably defective. Ihis stage of development does not seem to be grasped by the great body of our teachers. The precious years of girlhood and boyhood are largely squandered. This >s the semi-scientifio period. During this period the * Sully. m 'Ti mm 180 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACUING. i : I ii f t 1 t foundation for science work and language work should be deeply laid in experience. 1.^ Zead the learner to make hold hut accurate classifications. Boys and girls take delight in objective analysis and synthesis, and in thus gaining objective concepts. They like to find out classifications for them- selves. These efforts, wisely directed, educate concep- tion. ^ 2. Lead the pupUs to find out the classifications of science. Botany, zoology, and geography furnish am- ple scope fo.' these achievements. As pupils gain per- cepts first-hand, so nuist they gain concepts. They observe that plants and animals are related by resem- blances. Through these common characteristics they think animals and plants into classes. In our connnon schools, it has been found highly satisfactory to devote Jialf the school year to the ordinary geographical work, and one fourth to zoology and one fourth to botany The gam is immense. This course has so much to com- mend it that it is likely to be followed in all our ele- mentary schools. 3.^ Lead the hoys and girls to make outlines and defimtions. At this stage of development, as well as earlier, the pupil needs all possible objective helps, such as the molding board, globes, maps, charts, pictorial representations, and outlines, in addition to the objects themselves. Lead the learner to discover relations between concepts and make the outlines, as of parts of speech, classes of vertel»nites, etc. Concepts must now be defined. Children define percepts by describing ob- jects, but boys and girls define objective concei^ts ])y referring Xh^ notion defined to a higher class and # METHODS OF DEVELOPING CONCEPTION. Jgx giving the characteristic difference. Tlie pupil gains tlie concept quadruped through his percepts of indi- vidual quadrupeds and makes his own definition. It is easy for him to make his own definition when he o-ains concepts for himself. Definitions must be clear-cut 4. Lead hoys and yirls to make tables of weights ana measures. In our transition times, we nmst have both the connnon and the metric weights and measures. Ihe pupils weigh and measure, and thus gain the i)er- cepts which they think into concepts. Reform is needed, and we should hasten the domination of the metric system. III. High-School Methods.— Here but little needs to be said. This is pre-eminently the period to master classified knowledge. Conception is now fully active, and memory is at its best. Science-makiiii? develops conception. 1.^ Lead the student to redlscovei' the dassifiGations of science. He now has access to two sources of infor- mation—his own experiences and the vicarious ex])e- riences of others. He finds the treasured experience of the race in books. He is now prepared to appreciate tins experience and make it his own. Still, at every step, he must go back to Mature and rediscover and verify for himself. Teachers and books give him information, but his percepts and concepts must be his own. 2. Logical diagrammhyg educates conception. The student first masters details. He studies objects in their relations and sums up his acquisitions in logical and ex- haustive diagrams. Diagramming enables'^the student to discern more clearly class limits as well as class rela- :'{| il , ft lilir! I i T 1 182 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHL^G. tions. But mere aggregations are not logical diagrams. Loose diagramming hinders rather than helps. Dia- gramming by the teacher does little good. Only inde- pendent diagramming really helps. Few teachers can resist wholly the temptation to do this work for tlieir pupils. 3. Owing logical defaiitiono educates conception. Thus the student learns to use concepts Muth exactness. Words representing concepts become full of meaning. The student thinks clearly when his concepts are clear- cut. In all cases each one must malce his own defini- tions. Committing definitions or classifications, not grounded in experience, does not develop conception. " A concept is a definition and not a mental image." Clearness of Concepts.—" When we consider that children learn many words before they have a knowledge of the things for which they stand, that adults often learn the use of words in a mechanical way without concerning themselves about the exact notions which the words should represent, that words are applied loosely, some- times in oneway and sometimes in another, that our knowledge of a thing is frequently incomplete and inaccurate, that one man looks at a subject from one standpoint and another from a different point of view, we can not wonder at the confusion and misunderstanding that often arise in the communication of thought. Inaccurate con- cepts, imperfect definition of words, and difference in use of words are the occasion of confusion in the use of language." * 4. Conceiving and using clear-cut self-concepts edu- cates conception. Young people need to explore the mind world as well as the matter world. Here well- defined concepts are even more important than in mat- ter studies. The student must make his self-concepts out of his own self-percepts. The notions I have of this * Jnraea H. Baker. ^ METHODS OF DEVELOPING CONCEPTION. 183 gratitude, and this, and this, are self-percepts ; but my notion of gratitude and of my capability to feel grati- tude are self -concepts. Psychology is now as easy to the student as zoology or botany, and even more fasci- nating. It must be studied in the same way, only the student looks within and observes and classifies his own mental acts and capabilities. 5. Stating clearly and using logioally necessary con- cepts educates conception. Necessary concepts must be thought out of intuitions of necessary realities. I gain intuitions of beauty when I feel the emotions of beauty in the presence of beautiful things. Out of my beauty intuitions I make the general notion leauty. Out of my duty percepts I make the concept duty. I think my intuitions of particular spaces into the general no- tion space. Eules for Educating Conception.— To make these directions for conception-culture striking tliey are presented in this form : 1. Study to comprehend. You apprehend this object when you know it is a sense-object. You comprehend it when you know it in its relations. You perceive this pear— you apprehend it ; but when you think of it as fruit you comprehend it. Perceiving is appre- hending ; conceiving is comprehending. 2. Thi7ik your percepts into concepts. The mind ascends through percepts to concepts. To stop short of this is a great mental waste. Treasuring our experiences in clear-cut concepts is true mental economy. ^3. Make your own definitions. Unless your definitions grow out of your own experience and thought, immediate and appropri- ated, they will prove of little worth to you. No feature of the new education is more striking than this— pupils are led to make their own definitions out of their own experiences. This is Socratic as well as Pestalnzxian. 4. Classify for yourself Through your own experience you may appropriate the experience of the race ; but you are compelled to do ■ f ?1 J 'M :| \ ^^^1 1 '' ^^1 . * n ' \k ^ ^H 1m ^fl 184 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. i J. Hi f ' U 1 I L your own tliinking. No one can discern relations for you. In the light of your own and the appro|)riated experience of others, you must make over again the classifications of science. 5. Create experiences. You will need to constantly sui)plement your experiences by imaginary experience!?. This is a necessity in geography, and to some extent in all studies. You so combine your experiences as to virtually create new experiences. YII. Ekroks in Conception-Culture. Many educational fallacies and blunders occur in our efforts to educate conception. Some leading mistakes are pointed out. The thoughtful teacher only needs to be cautioned. 1. C'o?wej}ts before J)epcej7l9. This group of errors is most connnon and most baneful. The law of ascent is palpably violated. Before the child gains the j?ef^- cepts this lake, and this, and this, it is required to com- mit a definition of the concept lake. Before he gains the concrete notions of numbers he is made to commit the multiplication-table and tin tables of weights and measures. Tliis hurtful error pervades the old educa- tion. This blunder may be said to characterize tho work of teachers ignorant of child-nature and ignorant of the laws of mental growth. 2. Stopping with p)ercept,9. Particular notions are of little value except as they lead up to general notions. Percepts are scaffolding ; coiicepts are completed struct- ure. Object-lessons which stop with percepts are edu- cational mistakes. If all our teachers could understand the mental necessity of perceiving particulars in order to discern generals, and of assimilating particular no- tions into geiieral notioiis, it would revolutionize our methods of teachinir. SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 185 to 3. Exclusive book work. Ju geography the book ia studied, but not the earth and its products and its in- habitants. In botany tlie book classifications are com- mitted, but the student remains a stranger amid the plant world. In all studies definitions and rules are conunitted, but these are meaningless words because they are not rooted in experience. 4. Making for the learner definitions, classifica- tions, and diagrams. Eat the pupil's dinner for him if you will, but I beg of you to let him do his own thinking. Lead him to work up to concepts and defi- nitions and rules and diagrams. ^ 5. Neglect of eoncepion-cuUure. Thinking is con- ceiving, judging, reasoning. Classification, chrono- logically and logically, is the first step in thinking. Few really take this step, few really think. One person in a thousand thinks up to the truth. Is it strange? Do our schools train pupils to think? Do our churches? Do political parties? It need not surprise you to find the unthinking masses drifting along in grooves made by tlicir predecessors. A revolution is demanded The school-room is the place to begin. The great want of the world is flunking teachers capable of educating a race of thinkers. SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. Helpful Books. — Psychologies which will assist you in gaining deeper insight into the nature of conception and its processes and products come first. These, such as Porter's Intellect, Schuyler's Psychology, and Sully's Outlires of Psychology, are now numerous. Helpful works treating of the culture of conception are not abun- dant, but attention is called to Bain's Education as a Science, James Jolionnot's Principles and Practice of Teaching. E. V. De Graff's Development Lessons, and Brooks's Mental Science and Mental Cult- ure. You will find good manuals of methods in science, in lan- guage-lessons, and in objective arithmetic especially helpful. J u ■mmmm-mmm, 186 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHINO. letter on Conception-Ctature.— You have doubtless given some attention to this subject for years ; you have observed much and read much. The best thing you can do now is to put your knowledge into good shape, and embody what you know about the culture of con- ception in a letter to some fellow-teacher or to some young friend who seeks to become a teacher. You may also with great proPt change this letter into a paper for publication. I. Belations of Conception and Definitions of Terme.— Point out in cut (page 2) the position of conception in the mental economy. Show the relations of conception to sense-perception ; to self-per- ception; to necessary-perception. Illustrate. Show and illustrate the relations of conception to memory ; to imagination ; to reason ; to judgment. Give your own definitions of conception ; of conceiv- ing; of a concept; of education of conception. Give and illus- trate the distinctions you make between perception and conception; between a percept and a concept ; between a concept and an image. II. Importance of Conception-Culture.— What is thinking ? What relations does self as conception discern f Do you consider concep- io n^r-nxyA «,«». a j judgment is the ability to see things in their proper relations. i.lti I •' ii \ I I } ■ji t ii>. 188 APPLIED rsyciIOLOOY AND TEACniXO. 1. Relations of Judgment and Definition of Terms. The MiDd i. a Unit.-lts activities ca.i t.ct be sopnrftted by fixed l.ne. ;Vhde the soul's various capabilities may bo stud u^' separately they can not bo thought of as acting sej)arately. The fact of the intera^tion of our various i)ovvers: is fundament- al in educational a? in mental science. Judgment must be thought oj us 6imphj the self-judg. ing. Judgment is re-enforced by all our other capabilities, but an act of discerning truth is es- sentially an act of judgment. I. Eelations.— The po- sitioii of judgment in tlie mental economy is indi- cated by the cut in tlie niargin. Like conception, its place as one of our thought-i)ower8 is unques- tioned. 1. Helations to per- ception mid conception, ^^elf as perception gains ;5 tuitiveiy particular no- tions, and as conception thinks these into general no- tions. Self as judgment thinks his percepts and con- cepts into truths. Particular and general notions are the stuff out of which judgments are made. Then, in the formation of our notions, judgment plays an im- portant part. To think is to judge. 2. Relations to memory. Memory holds up before •'^x^vhi^\:.: KKLATIONS OF JUDGMENT AND DEFINITION OF TEHAIS. 189 the nii.id related n.»tioii8 that self an jud^nuent umy dis- cern agreements and disa-reenients, and thuH discover trurh. Areniurv stores trnths as onr must preeious treasures. Truths, like ideas, are assimilated, asso- ciated, and recalled. ^ 3. lidaHon, to rmson. Keascn takes readv-made judgments for premises and discerns their ground re- lations. Conclusions are simply inferred judgments. Keason contributes largely to tlie work of iudirment- making. * 4. Relatlom to the emotion,. Truths discerned oc- casion truth-emotions. Many of the deepest joys of ite come from finding out new truths. In turn the love of trutli inspires researcli. ' men/'" ^^f''""''-^^'''^ ^"« n^'^kc-^ judg.no.its moment bv mo- ment So fam.har are wo with the sontence-makh.g fact.lty that doflnit:ons are scarcely needed. Man may he called the s nfe ^ feooa sense a. used Jiere good sense characterizes jiuLnnent No ito r T^r'^'r^] ''' ^'^^'"^^--'^ i"cigme'nt;:rio,i:' Th« r '• 7u : ""^ ^"'^^""'^"^ "^•"•'' truth. diseernin^^ power The tota mtellect is used practically in discerning thiniirthd; proper ..,at,ons but the act is essentially an act of J u d^n relat Lnf t^ce^^^^^ '''''''''' '' '''' '^ --- andLert truth- snow md I make the assertion snow is white. As judgment self iS rr;^:^::^ '^"^ '"^''"^""- appncations^^St:' I jZZu th J« . ^ r "' propositions as logical judgments. We jtll when 1 i ' /^'^^^''"'"^ ^'^^ '-^^^e^ting truth-relations. S A llZJ "" '^' ''''''''''' '' disagreement of notions, call a tCtZ '' " P'^^^"'-' '^ J"'^^'"^- When expressed, we fair as yo!?^ Proposition, as, "She, in my judgment, was as 4. mucation of judgment is the development of our power to decern and assert truth. Culture of judgment makes trdiffZic: <^lll ? j,;iHX| i jiiim ! 1 . ;:i|'* r 1 f : 1 i\ : '^1 t ' > I «i^ II }• '1 1, ' 1^1 L a H m lli Hi ,1 i r , 1 ■' • . il h ' 190 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. between the weak, hesitating judgment of the child and the strong penetrat„,g decis ve judgment of the educated ,„an. Judgment f^ our power to judge. The expression of an act of judgraeTtt a proposifon. Judgment implies the presence in the mind o two .deas and a knowledge of the relation between them. So therl are hree elements in the proposition-the subject, the predicate and the relation discerned between these. Predicate, and II. Importance of Educating Judgment. For notliing should one be more thankful than for ^ sound judgment This is the capability to see things 1 their proper relations. As judgment self discerns relations and hnds out truth. It is something much Sli 4 7- P~l--t-n making powef of the logician Sound judgment is the total intellect used practically." Happy is the man who is capable of Z to be desired than kingdoms. _ 1. Jiidgment u our truth-duoei-ning power. Truth .3 more valuable than diamonds. It is the food upon which all great souls feed. The culture of judgmen" increases our capability to elaborate our ideas in truths 3. Judgments enter into onr various experiences. Yon acquire percepts-self as judgment is there. You gam concepts-self as judgment is there. You reason -self as judgment is there. You feel emotions of taith and beauty and duty-self as judgment is there. You choose and act-behold, self as judgment is there. Its culture increases our power to reach truth 3. Judgments are the stuff out of which reasons are made. Reasons are interlocked judgments. Throuffli judgments we reach new truths Ri-hf ,-,H~m,-,f, ,- i correct reasoning possible. "c^ui^f^:rt GROWTH OF JUDGMENT. velops good sense, and we begin to proper relations. 4. Good judgment is the charaG- teristic of the good teacher. The lack of good sense is the most deplorable of all intellectual defects. We say of persons, they have much learning but poor judgment. They seem to lack common sense. The teacher is called upon to decide promptly what is best, what is right, what ought to be. This is essential in the selection of the proper objects of thought for teaching; in their arrangement in the natural and logical order ; in direct- ing the observation, thought, and ex- pression of his pupils ; in the use of motives, in managing the school, in all his dealings with his pupils. If he judges wisely concerning all these matters, everything goes on well ; if unwisely, trouble comes. III. Growth of Judgment. Though feeble in childhood, judg- ment ought to grow more and more vigorous as the years go by. The teacher has special facilities for the study of child-judgment. Each Ian- see things 101 in their gj 00 UJ guage-lesson is a psych olo^-ical study. 1. Judgment in childhood. In its first years the child begins to discern truth-relations but does not assert the agreement of notions. (.1 H^ ■m ■ilH"^ 1 '<■ 'M m jPVKitf^w^J n i 192 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHLXG. At first the child says "hot," "bad," "sweet," merely using predi- hot"'"TwT 1"^ '^'' '"'^■^'^ ""' I-edicate, and says f" Cake hot. Boy bad' " bugar sweet." Evidently the little ones judge. About the h.rd year the child begins to predicate the agreenLt o notions, but its judgment is weak and unreliable. The rapid de- velopment of objective judgment is now remarkable 2. Judgment in girlhood and boyhood. The power to discern and assert objective truth-relations now becomes quite active It curbs the tendency to exaggerate. The boy has his own opinions, and ,s very positive about them. The board is black; the tree ,3 tali ; the apple is sour. 3. Judgment in youth. The capability to see things in their proper relations is now fully active. This is eminently^the period for the systematic culture of the truth-discerning power 4. Judgment in manhood. This faculty certainly becomes more vigorous year by year to the meridian of life. When men woS 7Z on.J.ke Humboldt and Goethe, their judgments keep vigri' et IV. Laws of Judoment-Growtji. Bacon tells us tl.at " reading makes ti.e full man, wnting the eon-ect man, speaking the ready man," and "light have added, thmMny the great mmi Thinking aoeordmg to law develops the weak and tlioughtless child into a Hegel or a Webster. 1. Oeneml Imos. These may be stated in terms of judgment as follows : (1.) Well-directed effort in dis- cerning and expressing trntli-relations educates judg- iiient. (2.) Suehsubjeets as call judgment into constant and vigorous activity are best for its culture. (3 ) Sye- tematic and persistent efforts in making and using judg- meiits develops this power. ^ 2. Special laws. (1.) We must ascend through per- cepts and concepts to judgments, just as we ascend through percepts to concepts. (2.) Seutence-making develops judgment. A sentence is an expressed judg MEANS OF EDUCATING JUDGMENT. 193 ment. All sentence-making consists in discerning and expressing truth-relations, and lience promotes the growth of this faculty. (3.) Perceiving judgments as true cultivates the truth-discerning power. Belief is assent to the truth of a judgment. The habit of mak- mg our own judgments and accepting them as true strengthens the capability to discern truth -relations. y. Means of educating Judgm::nt. All exercises calling into activity the truth-discern- ing power may be regarded as means for cultivating this faculty. No other mental power takes so wide a range. Porter says, " We can not think without judg- ing, and that to think is to judge." At three, Aristotle judged as a child, at sixty as a philosoplier. In child- hood our judgments are simple, and limited to the ma- terial world ; in manhood our judgments are conipro- hensive, and relate to all worlds. Table of Educational Values—Undoubtedly each study educates in some degree all our powers. Still, some studies are better than others for the culture of certain faculties because they call these faculties into freer, fuller, and more constant activity. In making the following estimates this fact is kept in mind. The estimates in column one are those of the author; in column two, those of Dr. Jidward Brooks ; in column three, those of Dr. W. T Harris JUDGMENT-CULTURE VALUE OF Arithmetic Geometry, algebra . .'. Language-lessons, composition . Psychology, logic, ethics, philos History and literature Botany, zoology, chemistry,' geography. ^atin, grammar, and rhetoric Reading or drawing or music .' . ." philosophy. 6 6 9 10 9 6 9 6 8 8 7 10 9 8 9 5 8 3 4 8 10 10 7 9 5 18 HI UP "fl ■ w m i' ii I 'iT ■ ■ '11 fi ■ ■ 194 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. (1.) The study of mathematics gives early and constant activitr to the judgment. Mathematics is a science of related ideas • nearly every process involves an act of "judgment." From the simplest thought (1 + 1 = 2) to the profoundest theorem of calculus the judgment is in constant activity. Every analysis in arithm'etic every solution in algebra, every demonstration in geometry consi' J of a senes of related judgments, and the student of these' sciences IS compelled to use constantly the faculties of relative thought* 2.) Mathematics deals with a low order of certainty, viz. ouantita- tive equality, but it does not deal with the logical j dgmen tat all Forthe ogical judgment subsumes a particular unde^ I gener ' But mathematics does not subsume, but finds dead, precise equality The judgments of quantity are the easiest of all, and do not requii^ much effort ; they do not cultivate judgment. 2 = 2 ; a== a ■ a < 4; express dead equality and inequality. Compare such judg- ments with"Ca)sar was wise in crossing the Rubicon," or "This pic ure IS beautiful," or " This act is good." f (3.) Language-lessons, including composition, analysis, and construction of sentences and ogical definitions, rank very high as means of judgment-culture. (4.) Psychology, logic, and ethics also deserve a very high place Character-building calls judgment into constant use. Yl. Methods of educating Judgment. Under self-teacliiiig and JS^ature's teaching man re- mains a savage. One does not learn to think by mere tliinking. TUnhing under giiidmice develops the jpower to thinh efficiently. Teacliing is the art of training tlie learner to think. Educational methods in- ehide the work of the learner as well as that of the teacher. The teaclier leads the learner to put forth his lest efforts in the best ways. Methods in educating judgment are plans of work that call this power into systematic, vigorous, and persistent activity. I. Kindergarten and Primary Methods.--The child judges, discerns triith-relations, but his judgments are * Dr. Edward Brooks. f Dr. W. T. IlarriB. if'- METHODS OF EDUCATING JUDGMENT. I95 of things objective and obtrusive. At an early age the child begins to use easy concrete sentences. At first both the subject and tlie verb are omitted; later the verb only is omitted, as " Horse black," " Sister naughty." Later the child uses verbs, but continues for some time to use percepts as the subjects of his judgments, as "Eover barks," "This bird sings." Later the child begms to use concepts as subjects, as "Dogs bark," " Birds sing." The teaching must be adapted to these stages of growth. 1. Lead the child to form his own judgments. There is no need to hurry. Lead the child to discern and express obvious truths ; as, the rose is red, the table has four legs, the apple is sweet. Even at this stage the learner must be led to think for himself. However feeble the thinking, and however easy and simple the concepts and judgments formed, well-directed effort educates. 2. Lead the child to prize truth a/nd form the truth-habit. Judgment must express actual relations Is the apple really sour ? Did I in reality recite well ? is the horse m reality a quadruped % The truth-habit is mvaluable. Tlie wise«mother lays the foundation early and fixes the habit. The kindergarten and primary teacher greatly strengthen the hnbit of truthfulness, and m this way promote the growth of judgment and at the same time develop character. 3. Be certain that the child judges. Babblino- is rlonnf wtl. ^^""^"■'^ '"""^ say 3 -f 3 = 6 or the fake ronn„ wi...)out an idea. Lead the pupil throuo-h percepts to grasp the concepts 3 and 6, and to really discern the truth that three and three equal six. Lead 'M )i'» iiV'fi i! U'j 1 li ]]■ (Hi M ^ *! •• ' m ;iti 196 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. the eliild, hy means of concrete examples, to form for itself the concepts lake and round. It can then say intelligently the lake is round. These easy sentences will be its own judgments. II. Intermediate Methods.— From ten to fourteen the judgment is decidedly active. Girls and boys dehglit m forming and using judgments. Under direc- tion they work up to mastery. 1. Zead the learner to constrmt and a7ialyze sen- tences. I count composition and analysis of the English sentence of great educational value, disciplinary and practical. Each step is based on the learner's experience. Truth-relations are discerned and expressed. These sentences are expressed judgments. This is the period to master the English sentence. The old-time manner of parsing hinders, and does not help ; indeed, in our tnne, it is avoided during this period by the wise teacher. 2. Lead the learner to study thwgs in thdr relations. Each step is a judgment, and, when the work is properly adjusted, the pupil may be led to take the successive steps for himself. To make progress, the pupil must judge. 3. Lead the learner to classify and define. A con- cept is a condensed judgment, and may be expanded into a sentence. A logical definition is a judgment asserting the truth-relation between an individual and a species or between a species and a genus. Here we find geog- raphy, botany, and zoology of the highest value. III. High-School Methods.— From fourteen to eight- een the judgment is wonderfully active, and becomes more and more penetrating and reliable. This is the fitting period for its highest culture. ERRORS IN EDUCATING JUDGMENT. 197 1. Lead the learner to judge for himself. Stimu- late to tlie utmost independent effort. At any cost manage to have the learner master problems for him- self. In mathematics see that the student does the work without help. Easy problems mastered by the learner are better than difficult problems which mastc- the pupil. In all studies stimulate students to do inde- pendent thinking. 2. Stimulate vigm^ous judging. Only sturdy effort develops power. Childish thinking gives us effeminate youths .vho enjoy a sensational novel, but are incapable of readmg with pleasure and profit Shakespeare, or Bacon, or Kant. It may be well to dilute lessons for young pupils, but a youth needs to do hard work. Vigorous endeavor gives the penetrating judgment and develops power. Thinking makes the great man. 3. Develop a thirst for truth. Truth is more valu- able than diamonds. Happy the student who hungers and thirsts for trutli. He longs to become acquainted with things in their proper relations. He seeks to strictly conform his judgments to realities. He hates untruths as he hates sin. Love of truth has developed the world's greatest heroes. VH. Errors in educating Judgment. The old sage instructed the teachers to develop judgment rather than cram memory with crude facts. This rule is often reversed. 1. Memory is crowded and judgment neglected. The knowledge of persons thus treated is a crude jumble, a heterogeneous mass, a source of weakness rather than strength. . W f, )'► ii \\\\ •A\l I' i I- 1 (i. H i' I J I ^^* !.i!i 198 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 2. Children are dragged through difficult abstract work. The result is confusion, discouragement, and weakness. Whenever tlie pupil is dragged through arithmetic or algebra or physiology, he is dwarfed, not e(hicated. Only when truth-relations are discerned with sunlight clearness does study develop judgment. 3. Youths are fed with spoons. Too many high- school teachers treat youths as though they were chil- dren. Now is the time for robust work. " Milk for babes but meat for men." ^ 4. The laws of descent and ascent are violated. With many teachers judgments in the form of defini- ^ons and rules come before percepts and concepts. This IS one of the many ways in which these laws are violated and pupils stultified 5. Hasty judgments are assented to as true. We are inclined to accept the opinions of others as true without examination. Then we are so liable to judge as we desire without reference to reality. Prejudices often 80 blind us that we do not discern the truth. We should cultivate honesty and thorougliness in judging. We must really discern truth-relations before we assert them. We must discriminate sharply between opin- ions and truths _ 6. Pupils take the statements of teachers and hooks without thinking. This is a prolific source of error and of feebleness of judgment. In some way the learner must be led to judge at every step. SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. Helpful Book8.-Compayre, in his lectures on pedagogy, treats briefly, but nlMrlv of inrlp-,v>n„f «„.3 ->.. . u ^ , °-'' u- »/ ' . ,^"'7 •" J'^«s^"ent and its culture, as aces Brooks in his Mental Culture. Locke's Conduct of the Understanding is ex- SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 199 cellent. Most writers treat of thought culture rather than of the culture of the thought powers. Letter on the Cultiire of Judgment.— Lend your friend to realize the value of a cultured judgment. Have you well-defined views about the education of the truth-discerning power! Present them in your letter clearly and pointedly. I. Position and Definitions.— Show by the cut, page 2, the posi- tion of judgment in the mental economy. State and illustrate the relations of judgment to perception; to conception; to memory; to reason. Define judgment; judging; a judgment; education of judgment. Illustrate the distinction you make between perception and conception ; between memory and imagination ; between con- ception and judgment. II. Importance of educating Judgment.— Which do you consider the more important, the culture of memory or the culture of judg- ment f You may give three original reasons in favor of cultivating judgment. III. Growth of Judgment.— How early does the child discern truth-relations ? Illustrate the steps by which it reaches sentences. How early does the child intelligently use sentences? What is the golden period for judgment culture ? How may this faculty be kept vigorous in old agef Point out the growth of judgment in several periods, as indicated by the cut. TV. taws of Judgment-Growth.— State in terms of judgment the law of effort ; the law of means ; the law of inethod ; the law of as- cent. Illustrate each. V. Means of educating Judgment.— Place on the board and ex- plain the tabic of educational values. Give your reasons for your estimates. Do you rank arithmetic highest? Why do you place language-lessons so high ? Do you consider botany as good a means as mathematics for judgment culture? VI. Methods of educating Judgment.— Prove that more depends on plans of work than on subjects. Illustrate by your method of teaching history. Give three directions for primary teachei-s; three for intermediate teachers ; three for high-school teachers. Give your method of educating judgment. VII. Mistakes in educating Judgment Show how the law of ascent is violated. What mistake is made about memory ? Explain the mistake of dragging pupils through work which they do not understand. Point out two mistakes that you have observed. r, j .I'i* ' I 'If ('I Jj 'Mm I f;i. ' Vi m ij'* il ! IJ!^ I . ii IJ 200 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACUINQ. CHAPTER xy. EDUCATION OF REASON. By thifi is meant the development of the power to discern cause-relations. Thinking is discerning rela- tions. When we conceive we discern class-relations; as, am7nal, vetjetahle. When we judge we dis- cern truth - relations ; as, God is love. When we reason we discern cause- relations ; as, we are hap- py hecatise we are good. We conceive, jndge, and reason ; thus we elaborate crude notions into science. I. Relations of Reason AND Definitions of Terms. Reason crowns the in- tellectual pyramid (see cut, page 154). We treasure rich stores of intuitions ; we modify our experi- ences ; we think our particular notions into general no- tions, and these into truths, that reason may have mate- rials out of which to make science. I. Eelations,— Self as reason commands all his other intellectual powers. Necessary -intuition furnishes rea- ^^^Mma BELATIONS OF REASON AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS. 201 son tlie necessary-truths as a fulcrum on which to nlace his lever to move the world. JN^ecessary-ideas, gener- alized into necessary-truths, make reasoning possible Judyment supplies the propositions out of which self as reason makes his arguments and in which lie ex- presses his conclusions. Keason serves as well as corn- mands; reason assists in the formation of percepts and concepts and judgments and ideals. II. Terms Defined,— Our faculties are simply our capabilities to do acts different in kind. A faculty is merely a distinct native energy of self. Reason is the native energy of self to infer conclusions. 1. Reason is the capability to discern new truths through re- lated truths. A man is rational because he discerns the reasons of hings. The brute perceives the apple falling, but does not discern the cause; the brute is not rational, 2. Reasoning is discerning ground-relations. Reasoning is In- ferring concisions. Virtue is its own reward; truth-telling is a virtue ; /Wore truth-telling is its own reward. Wh3never we say intelligently such words as hence, because, and therefore, we evidently reason. Reasoning is discerning conclusions. 3. A reason is an inference from premises. You give a reason for inverting the divisor in division of fractions, oi fo'r the ourse you are now pursuing. In all cases a reason includes the premises and a conclusion. One and sometimes both premises are unexpressed, but they are always implied. A syllogism is a formal statement of 4. Education of reason is the development of the power to dis- cern cause-relations and think knowledge into system. It is the culture of the capability to understand the universe. We educate Xd l"2s^' '^^'^^ ''' P°^- '' ^"^- "- ^-ths through 5 Faith or belief is confiding in our conclusions. We invest!- gate to the utmost and reach conclusions. We accent th««. .nnni.,. hi 'if I 'iljj (Si 'I, n h fj. 202 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. If I 4i U ii'l .' » J - f ; is ^: : -i II. Imp()rtan(;k of Rkakon-Culture. Not to educate reason is to limit one's knowledge to his perceptions, and leave liiin to grope his way in a sea of inexplicable mystery. To such a one the universe is a maze without a plan, and life is not worth living. Contrast the vigorous thinker with the dawdling dream- er, and you have a striking ol)ject-lesson. 1. Cultured reascm gives one a rational universe. As reason grows more and more vigorous, all things be- gin to assume proportion and harmony. Substance, en- ergy, law; space, duration, cause; planets, suns, sys- tems ; plant, animal, man-all things fall into system, and make for us the music of the spheres. 2. Education of reason gives independence. The student acquires power, to investigate, and thus to dis- cover truth for himself. He becomes a self-lielper. an independent tliinker, an original worker. He linds out the relations of the facts of history, discerns the logic of mathematics, and penetrates the secrets of cause and effect in the natural sciences. 3. Education of reason gives mastery. Educated reason is the power, and knowledge is the lever that moves the world. Sometimes, instead of mastering them, a student is mastered by geometry and chemistry. To such a student these sciences are a source of weak- ness. Mastery gives strength, and educated reason gives mastery. Knowledge mastered gives increase of power. 4. Culture of reason multiplies the values of re- memhrances. Why is it useful for us to know the past ? As a guide to the future ; inasmuch as the past GliOWTH OF REASON. 203 CO 1— -* 5 has been thus and m, we miKoii that the Kame will be true in the future. Without reason we would be unable to project the future. Many reasons for the culture of reason will occur to you. Does it not seem marvelous to you, this neglect of reason-culture? IIL Growth of Reason. While it is tr:i3 that all the fac- ulties grow together, it is equally true that some faculties reacli full ^ EBH « 8 activity later than others. Of all the intellectual powers, reason acts most feebly in childhood and is the latest to reacli full vigor. The eas- iest problems are difficult for the 5 ^Wj child ; but the boys and girls easily solve much more difficult problems, and youths laugh at problems vastly more intricate. Each one is famil- iar with these facts, and hence with the growth of reason. " The child's first steps toward reasoning consist in making simple deductions or in- ferences from palpable facts by the comparison of two objects, one or both of which are present. This concrete form of reasoning is used by children horn Jive to twelve years of age. But reasoning in a higher form, that in which the mind deals with the relations of facts establislied by observatioTi 1-4 1 ; 9 1 ^H I ,1 9 J 1 ' 1 1 1 •t f ifli ''\, I i^^mm ^fcmm 'j >i^^H Ilii ■ 3 ^ 204 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. II ;!' i * ■ , i ■ ill and experience, and also with the relations of abstract ideas, rareli/ hegins to develop hefore the (Mid attains his twelfth or fourteenth year ; and then several years must be devoted to the exercise of this power before the mind can clearly comprehend that which requires purely abstract reasoning to make it known." * This faculty seldom asserts its predominance before the six- teenth year, nor does it usually reach full activity be- fore the twentieth year. When called systematically and persistently into vigorous activity, reason grows more and more powerful up to the meridian of life, and it may be kept vigorous even in advanced old age. Plato, Bismarck, and Yon Moltke have given evidence of immense reasoning power in advanced life. lY. Laws of Reason-Growth. As reason involves all our other powers, the laws of reason-growth must be studied in view of this fact. I. General Laws.— These laws are the ways in which self must put forth effort in order to growth. These laws, stated in terms of reason, are as follows : 1. Laio of effort. Well-directed effort in discern- ing cause-relations educates reason. Reasoning under guidance develops reason. From generals we infer particulars ; through particular truths we discern gen- eral truths. Thus we think up to laws and create science. 2. Law of means. Studies which call reason into vigorous and persistent activity are valuable means for reason-culture. 3. Law qfynethod. Systematic and persistent plans * Calkins. MEANS OF EDUCATING REASON. 205 of work which necessitate tlie vigorous use of this power develop reason. Herbart speaks of school meth- ods as the well-ordered self-activity of the pupil in in- vestigating under the leadership of the teacher. 11. Special Laws.— Dr. Payne claims that the laws of ascent and descent in the mind-world are as compre- hensive, as well established, and as widely applicable as the laws of gravitation in the matter-world. Around these laws are grouped many of the most helpful edu- cational principles as well as some of the most hurtful educational fallacies. Plato and Aristotle taught in ac- cordance with these laws. The new education embodies these laws in practice ; the old education ignored them both in theory and practice. Working in harmony with the laws of ascent and descent educates reason. Such work calls into wise activity all the intellectual powers and tends to their harmonious development. 1. Law of ascent The mind ascends through par- ticulars to generals. It ascends through intuitions to concepts, through concepts to judgments, through re- lated judgments to conclusions. 2. Law of descent The mind descends from gen- erals to particulars. It descends from reasons to judg- ments, from judgments to concepts, from concepts to intuitions. It descends from aggregates to elements, from the complex to the simple, from the vague to the definite. y. Means of educating Reason. Reason is self reasoning. You infer that the river is frozen because the temperature is below zero. Rea- son is simply your power to infer conclusions from pre- -I I % 1 k ,1; il m ii M II "'■ 'j 1 ii^i ' 1 '^ J ii^^^i ifi , iSH ■.,;■ ''■ :^«a •II '■ ?^ "i I 1 I ; 206 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. mises. Notliing except reasoning can educate reason ; but we reach power by means of knowledge. Knowl- edge is valuable as an instrument of mind, both as a fulcrum and lever : but mind is the power. In educa- tion knowledge is valuable as a means of eliciting men- tal effort, and hence as a means of culture. Table of Eeason-Calture Values.— Such studies as tend to call a faculty into most vigorous activity are the best means for its educa- tion. This we call the specific-culture value of a study. Those studies which call forth the best efforts of self as reason, have the highest reason-culture value. Tlie values in column 1 are the au- thor's, in column 2 those of Dr. IMward Brooks, in column 3 those of Dr. VV. T. Harris. Yoi may put your estimates in column 4 and the averages in column 5. REASON -CULTURE VALUE OF Mathematics Natural and physical sciences Language and literature Psychology, logic, philosophy History, political economy, sociology. 6 8 8 9 9 2 10 8 7 10 10 8 3 5 9 10 9 4 5 " Mathematics is a science of reasoning ; nearly every one of its truths is related to and derived from some previous truth. The pupil can hardly proceed a single step in mathematics, if it is prop- erly taught, without bringing into exercise the faculty of reasoning. This is not true in the same sense nor in a comparable degree of any other science."* " Mathematics is usually ranked first as a means of reason- culture, but only a small proportion of our reasoning is mathemati- cal, nor is that reasoning of a high order. Psychology, moral philosophy, history, biology, jurisprudence, philology are all superior to mathematics for educating reason and good judgment." f " The sciences are the grand instrumentality for the education of reason. There could not be a better school for the culture of the faculties of rcfioction." X * Dr. E. Brooks. f Dr. W. T. Harris. J Gabriel Compayr^. METHODS OF EDUCATING REASON. 207 Methods of educating Keason. Reason is tlie capability of self to investigate. It includes in its operations discrimination and assimila- tion, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction. It calls into its service all our other cognitive powers, and thus descends from aggregates to elements and ascends from elements to systems. I. Elementary Methods.— These are systematic and persistent plans of work adapted to the development of budding reason. They are the methods of our element- ary schools. 1. Lead the child to make easy inferences. Reason acts feebly now, but these feeble efforts prepare for greater things. Dimly the child discerns simple cause- relations in its narrow world ; hence it may' be led to make easy inferences and thus strengthen reason. The child burns its fingers, and thereafter avoids fire, be- cause it infers that fire burns. All real teachers study children with intense interest. Preyer found that his boy used why intelligently when little more than three years old. You will be delighted to observe and foster the budding reason of the children committed to you, 2. Be satisfied with obvious inferences. But see that the pupil actually reasons. Reasoning alone can educate reason. Carefully guard against the hurtful policy of attempting too much. Abstract reasoning and committing logical formularies are very much out of place during this period. In many attractive ways the wise teacher incidentally leads the pupils to make bold and apparent inferences. 3. Lead the pupils to find out. From ten upward .1 .1 m 1 fi I* if a I' -M-" fl 1 ao8 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACniNO. the learner discerns clearly objective cause-relations. Boys and girls are trained to tell why, and say intelli- gently, because. In arithmetic they give a reason for each Step. In history they are led to discover cause- relations between events. In language-lessons they are trained to think and to analyze thought. In botany and zoology they are led to infer for themselves. II. Advanced Methods. — From the fourteenth year upward the student investigates and linds out for him- self. Before this period his questions were : " What is it ? " and " How is it 'I " 'Now he asks also : " Why is it ? " " Whence is it ? " and " What can I do with it ? " Self as reason seeks answ^ers to these questions, and sys- tematic and vigorous endeavor to find answers develops the thinking powers. 1. Zead the student to investigate. This includes all that we mean 1 y methods. You incite a burning desire to know. You lead the learner to form habits of effective penetrating thought. You train him to discriminate and assimilate ; to analyze and synthetize ; to induce, deduce, and reduce ; to descend from aggre- gates to elements and ascend from elements to systems. For some time learners investigate under your leader- ship, but they become more and more independent and self-reliant. 2. Lead the learner to discuss. Discussion is in- vestigating with others. Written and oral discussion develops penetrating and sturdy reason. Ideas fight. Iron sharpens iron. Conflict of minds develops power. Lawyers discuss, investigate in open courts and become an overmatch for other men. The class-room is the place for joint investigation. The teacher presides and METHODS OF EDUCATING REASON. to 209 leads. Each student becomes an aggressive investiga- tor. Each exposes the mistakes of liis fellows, and clearly and forcibly presents his own views. Instead of being a ])lace for stupid rehearsals, the class-room be- comes a i^lace of intense mental activity. The result is marvelous development of thought-power. Discussion calls forth a student's best efforts. An hour of intense conflict often does more to educate reason than years of dreaming. This is the method in which great men and great women are educated. 3 Lead the student to so study mathematics as to develop reason. Mathematics has been considered the best means for reason-culture ; hence Benton reviewed geometry annually for many years to sharpen and keep vigorous his power to reason. For the same purpose Lincoln, after serving as a member of Congress, pro- foundly studied geometry. Mathematics treats of re- lated truths. Each intelligent step necessitates reasoning. Because the work compels the student to constantly put forth effort, it develops skill in mathematical reasoning. But mastery is the essential result of good methods. We must so teach mathematics as to secure mastery on the part of the student. 4. Lead the student to so study science as to edu- cate^ reason. Each one for himself gains elementary ex- perience by direct insight into the sense-world, the self- word, and the world of necessary realties. The student is now prepared to appropriate the vicarious experience of ^ the race. He first thinks his notions of individual things— -e. g., this horse, this memory, this space ; into general notions— e. g., quadruped, memory, space. Now he thinks his general notions into truths, as, man is mor- 14 M I' y a ^.| 111 ; II ..r Wl •y :i 1 fi I .1 I 'iilu,. 210 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. tal. Finally he discerns through related truths cause- relations and infers conclusions. Through particular truths he thinks more general truths, and from general truths he infers particular truths. 5. Zead the student to so study language, literor- tv/re, '■■'■ ^- 'story as to educate reaso7i. History is a record ^/cntG, as causes and eifects. Constructing for one's self a rational history of Greece or Rome or England or France is a tremendous effort of reason, and gives scope and vigor to this power. The investigation method of studying history, language, and literature calls reason into constant and vigorous exercise. 6. The investigatmi method of studying psycholo- gy, logic, and philosophy educates reaso7i. High think- ing is necessary to mastery. These tremendous fields of research demand penetrating and long-sustained thought. In grappling with these mighty themes rea- son attains its greatest power. Aristotle, Bacon, Hegel, stand for the great thinkers. Mistakes in Eeason-Culture. The unthinking masses ! This is the exclamation of all the ages. Individuals think, but the millions drift. " The heights by great men reached and kept, AYere not attained by sudden flight ; But they, while their companions slept. Were toiling upward in the night." Why this dearth of thinkers? The answer comes slowly and sadly, Our schools fail to develop the art and habit of high thinking. 1. Crowding memory and neglecting reason. Even geometry is absorbed rather than mastered. In our MISTAKES IN REASON-CULTURE. 211 eagerness to acquire facts we do not take time to re- flect. Mental indigestion and a race of learned weak- lings must be the result. Fewer facts and m(yre mental force will work a tremendous revolution. 2. Feeble tUnking. The teacher lectures while the students recline on " downy beds of ease." The cardi- nal principle of some school-keepers is, " So manage that the student will be called upon to do nothing that the teacher can do for him." Is it any wonder the world is full of timid and feeble thinkers ? The great need of our times is a host of vigorous thinkers. Bet- ter teaching is imperative. Better teachers is the world's great want. 3. Misty thinUng. Teaching is always misty when the teacher is a misty thinker. ''Possibly 2 -f 2 = 4." " It may be true that things which are equal to the same tilings are equal to each other." To such a teach- ing nothing is clear, nothing is certain. Each study is a jumble. Like teacher, like pupil. Such teaching is a sorrowful failure. 4. Too much mathematics. Mathematics has its place in reason-culture ; but when it assumes to cover all the ground it is time to protest. The culture and knowledge given by mathematical studies are, at most merely the preparations for exploring other fields of research. *The educator must have broad views. 5. Tediousness. " Tediousness," says Herbart "is the great sin of instruction." It is e^en more repre- hensible in the school-room than in the pulpit It is everywhere the deadly foe of thought. Then we have no right to thus afflict our pupils. You will deserve to be called a saint if you can spend a day in some schools 'M '!~j h '> r\ ? ' 1 212 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING and not long to take the wings of the njorning. The tediousness, misnamed thinking, is simply excruciating. 6. Failure to think knowledge into system. Things out of their relations are worthless. A finger discon- nected with the hand is worthless ; a hand disconnected with the arm is worthless ; so also an arm disconnected with the body is worthless. Sensations not assimilated into concepts are wasted ; concepts not assimilated into truths are of little value ; and truths not thought into system are squandered. SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. Helpfal Books.— Principles of Education, Practically Applied and Methods of Teaching Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry by Supernitendent J. M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo., are admirable and helpful books. J. A. McLellan, in his Applied Psychology, gives excellent suggestions in his presentation of the art of questioning. Spencer and Huxley have made valuable contributions along this line. * letter on Reason-Culture.— This is a grand theme. You can aflford to think deeply and write your best. You want to lead your friend to strive more earnestly to educate reason. I. Relations of Reason and Definitions of Terms. — Show the posi- tion of reason in the cut, page 2 ; also in the cut, page 154. Show and illustrate the relation of reason and necessary-intuition ; of rea- son and judgment ; of reason and memory. Give and explain your definitions of reason; of reasoning; of a reason; of education of reason; of faith; of doubt; of unbelief. Ascend the cognitive pyramid by defining each cognitive power and its product. II. Importance of Reason-Culture.— Tell why you count reason- culture so important. Explain as best you can the neglect of rea- son-culture. Should sex he considered in the education of reason! III. Growth of Reason.— How early does the child reason f How do children reason from the fifth to the twelfth year 1 What do you mean by concrete reasoning! abstract reasoning! When does rea- son become fully active ! Show that reason may be kept vigorous :h I I I I CULTURE OF THE THOUGHT-POWERS. 213 rorngVu'piT' ''' ''''■ '^'^ '^ ^°" ^^^"^^^ '^ ^^«^-^ --J' ^- laJ\^^'^ °f ^^^''^^■^^'•^^.-What is meant by an educational aw State "yen„s of reason the law of effort; the law of means; he aw of method. Explain Ilerbarfs definition of method. Sta e the law of ascent : the law of descent. What do you mean by the old education! by the newf Where do you class Squeers arui Gradgrnidf Socrates and Plato? ^ hi.hl' Vvt7 fV'^'^r"''^ Beason.-Why do you place geometry If f u '^T '^^ ^"" ^'^"^' ^'^^''' * Pl^«« «n the board the table of culture-values, giving your estimate in column 4 and aver- ages m column 5. Do you place geometry higher than Latin f the inill ? , '^"""'""^ Reason-Show that you educate all the mtellectua powers m educating reason. What Kind of infer- ences do you lead young pupils to n.ake? Why do you object to young children committing logical formularies ? Can you lead boys «..d girls to investigate for themselves? Is it best to encourage h n to discuss? Explain your notions of advanced methods of hrvtilil'Th't?'' ^""""^^ '''' "^^ ^^"^ -^^' *^« boy Hnw "" ^""^ '"'^^ by investigation? by discussion? How will you so teach geometry as to educa.te reason? sZZl language? psychology? logic? science T VII. Mistakes in Eeason-Culture.-Why do we sav "the un- thinking masses-'? How do great men rea'ch the heghts? Sta^ one of the causes of mental indigestion. Why have we so mlny feeble thinkers^ Can there be too much mathematics ? What does fb^e^diSir ''' '' '-'''---' '^ ^'^^^ ^^« -— - III CHAPTER XYI. CULTURE OF THE THOUGHT-POWERS. " Thinking is discerning relations. We discern class- reations-we think things into gronps; we discern trutA-reMions--^^ think onr notions of things into truths; we discern m....-relations-we think truths into ul su APPLIED PSYCUOLOGY AND TEACHING. U.U 1i 11 1:3 i If ! i '4J I I i i; ■. reasons, Tliinking is indicated by such terms as did- crimination and aftfi imitation, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction. We reflect, vvc consider, we investigate, we think ; we gain insight, we understand, we comprehend ; we Z?}/'^/', we conclude, we reason. Thinking is hiowing things in their relations. A man is endowed with powers of direct insight into the world of things and their necessary conditions ; but to the unthinking man the universe is a maze without a plan. Thought changes chaos into order. Everything takes shape and falls into rhythm. The sciences shine resplendent, presenting all things in their relations. A well-ordered solar system, with the sun as its center, becomes a member of an infinite host of harmonious worlds. God, the inlinite and eternal energy from which all things proceed, becomes the loving Father, and man becomes a candidate for immortality. Thinking educates the thought-powers. "When I was a child I thought as a child, but when I became a man I thought as a man." Culture makes the dif- ference. Child-thinking, under guidance, leads up to profound thinking. "Education implies instruction, which is twofold. On the part of the child, it is the constant building in of power and knowledge in his mind by the systematic right exertion of all his powers. On the part of the instructor, it is the intelligent stimu- lation, direction, and c(mtrol of the activities of the child, with a view to his education. The instructor in- structs only as he secures the upbuilding of the child by the child's own exertions. The two must cordially co- operate. The education of the child should begin with his life, and when, by the aid of others, he reaches that CULTURE OF THE TIIOUOIIT-rOWERS. 215 State in whicli he will make tho belt use of all his powers, he is j)repare(l to carry on his education through life himself." * Good teaching leads to good tlmiking. Is it reason- able to expect the great body of our teachers to become educational artists ? - No, emphatically No," answers one of our ablest superintendents. " All that we can hope for is that the mass of our teacliers will do their work passably well as directed by experts. It is con- summate nonsense to expect the average teacher to learn psychology and the science of education." Is this the lesson of sixty centuries of human experience? Are the educatoi-s of the race doomed to be drudges ? Must they forever grope their way ? Must our teachers be mere artisans, toiling meelianically as directed by masters ? It can not be. The twentieth century has great things in store for humanity. The teachers will work in the liglit of the thought and experience of the race. They will be as famihar with the mind-world and mind-growth as they are now with the plant-world and plant-growth ; they will govern their pupils into self-government and guide them to self-guidance. Even now such teachers are becoming a mighty army. Good teaching is becoming the rule and not the exception. Plain living conditions high thinJcing. Not many rich are called. Nearly all the leaders in the world of thought come from ihe ranks. Luxurious living makes profound thinking impossible. We commiserate the rich mpn, not Lazarus. Lotze and Ladd assure us that dismal failure awaits all attempts to even conceive of cerebral processes as correlated with thought-processes ; * Boyden. f * , m\ 1 If ' > ' St i ■nil i^'lfl 216 AITLIKD rriYCUOLOOY AND TKACIIINO. I'l"operty. r. . , i Knowh i^tsire for j p^^^t^^^^ J Desire for] Beauty [ Esteem. ( Perfect Conten^t^and^ Discontent; Satisfaction and Ke- l ^;;^;;'|;;tya^^U Pride; Meekness and Vanity, etc. Love and JIate; Friendship and Enmity etc '''KtlZ'^ Antipathy;' Pity and Yndii;r- Affection and Disaffection ; Good- Will and Mal- Pv .•/?' «e'ierosity and Envy, etc. Emotions..; ^-'-^titude and Ingratitude; Philanthropy and (Altruistic.) ,, . Misanthropy, etc. ^ ^ Honor ind'i?"'^ H'' ' ^^'''^y ^^^^ ^'^^^^V^ etc. Kevere; ee and"^' ^^^"^"^l^^^y and Confusion, iteverenee and Scorn ; Admiration and Con- . Etc., etc. Social World- Emotions, i (Cosmic.) f Truth- Emotions. (Intellectual.) Beauty- Emotions. (^Esthetic.) Duty- Emotions. ^ (Ethical.) Emotions of Curiosity. Emotions of Wonder. Emotions of Surprise. I Knowledge-Emotions. ' Emotions of Beauty and Ugli- ness. Emotions of Humor and Pathos Emotions of Sublimity and In- significance. Emotions of Right and Wrong Emotuins of Ought and Ought iNot. Emotions of Approval and Re- morse. Emotions of Merit and Demerit. Etc.. etc. PART FOURTH. EDUCATION OF THE EMOTIONS, CHAPTER XVII. THE EMOTIONS. btr , we ^h^feel pleasure and pain. We perceive • we iri r*"'""^ ?' ™p"'^^' ^-^ gain'w,edg: we also hunger and hope and lo.-e and desire We' tei ings, pa,ns and pleasures, feeUru,s. We know ,mne- Th6FeeUiipi.i Sensations, ^^'^ng ».nA iiteX somehow When «. . J T"™'' ^''''''"S' "-^ oceasioned by ailec when fh '"'^ *'"-^ "" '*'"-'' ^^n.atii:Xut scions™ nd Jf ^" "" TT "' "">"'' "^ *" "P"™"™ »' ^on- not caused W "!'''•'" ^'"'''"«- ''"^""SS are o«a.,W,rf, and Tn iZ anflr" "'°"' ''°'""™ -nations, .sensations ^cca ■deas, and ideas occasion emotions. All feelings are charaoter- .. , . r Tone. ™^ ''y 'one. strength, rliythm, and S','^'?",""' J Strength. ™""'"t- y""* refers to the pleasure or "'""^"""■K'. I Rhythm. P"" "^'feelings, «ren^tt refers to I. Content, '"'"nsitx of feelings : now love is gentle t^e tornado. «,.„ ...rs I tlTttf a^:; S TlX^Tl^ ■if I'll] 1 ' ti {• it 1 "11 1 1 1 ^1 'j - m sss 222 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 4. \, lil'fiij Is! , I i ' rises and falls like the waves of the sea. Content refers to the activi- ties oocasioning feelings. The content may be simple, as when we behold a green surface ; or complex, as when we are stirred by pa- triotism. No hard and fixed lines can be drawn about the different classes of feelings. In fact, a strict classification of the feelings from either the physiological or the psychological standpoint seems to be impossible.* I. The Emotions are Feelings occasioned by Ideas. The telegram annouiiciiig the return of your friend occasions your joy. In view of knowing, you feel. Your feehngs occasioned by knowledge are called your intellectual feelings, your rational feelings, your spirit- ual feelings. These higher feelings are known as the emotions. Sensations are never thought of as emotions. 1. An emotional power is a Gopahility for a dis- tinct kind of feeling. I feel grateful to my friends ; my native energy to feel grateful is called gratitude. I love my mother ; my native energy to love is an emo- tional power, but loving is an emotional act. When we think of an emotion we include in the notion both the feeling and the power to feel ; thus, when we think of anger, it means to us the capability to feel anger as well as the angry feeling. It is neither possible nor desirable to define strictly each one of our numerous emotions. We can, however, group our emotions and study these groups. 2. The emotions may he grouped as self-emotim.s, so- Self-Emotions. cial e7notions, and world- (Egoistic.) emotions Self-emotions bocial Emotions. The Emotions. ' (Altruistic.) World-Emotions. (Cosmic.) are our personal feelings ; social emotions are our toward others : feelino's Ladd. THE EMOTIONS. 223 world-emotions are our feelings in view of the true the beautiful, and the good. This ciassilication is easy' and exhaustive, and is considered the best possible for edu cational purposes. We study with interest and prolit the profound theories and complex classifications of Horwicz, Bain, Porter, and others, but we see no way to harmonize or practically apply these schemes. They Hinder and do not help the teacher. 3. Emotions are occasimied hy ideas. The term tdeas, as here used, includes all our cognitions. Experi ences, immediate and revived, awaken emotions We speak of fond recollections as well as pleasant experi- ences. Ideals as well as ideas occasion pleasure and pain. Reasons occasion agitations and impulses It is convenient, however, to designate as ideas whatever occasions emotions; sights and sounds are transmuted into ideas before they occasion hopes and fears. Sensations -These include all feelings which have their origin m the physica organism. The cravings of the appetites and the in- stinctive impulses appear as sensations. These are termed animal fee ings because they are common to man and brute; they are also oM physical feelings, because of their physical origin. Some of these fee mgs are occasioned by affections of the special sensor-or- gans and are termed special sensations; others are occasioned by affections of various organs and tissues of the body, and are termed general sensations. Sensations occasion ideas and ideas occasion emotions. (See Chapter II.) "ccasion II. The Self-Emotions are Feelings occasioned by Ideas pertaining to Self.-These are the emotions that minis- ter to self and look to self-betterment. They are our native impulses to make the most of n^ircelve- and are referred to as the personal emotions, the Jgoistio emotions, the self-emotions. Ideas referring to self i I :! I m m m • 5 J a'-^.v...41l...,-i aa j„ m.jn..., .jj!. » Mi^wM.mi.m mm 224 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. awaken the self-emotions. Praise occasions joy, and blame occasions sorrow. III. The Social Emotions are the Feelings occasioned by Ideas pertaining to others.— The j are the feelings which minister to others and look to social l)etterment ; they are our native energies to feel for and with others ; they are our impulses to do the most for our fellows. These feelings are spoken of as the social emotions, the altruistiG emotions, the symjpathies, the affections. Ideas referring to others awaken altruistic emotions. Kindness occasions gratitude and unkindness strife and anger. ly. The World-Emotions ire the Feelings occasioned by Ideas pertaining to the True, the Beautiful, and the Good. — These are the emotions that minister to cosmic life; they inspire us to mingle with the universe, be- come philosophers, artists, Christians. These are callci the higher emotions, the world-emotions, the cosmia emotions. Ideas referring to the true, the beautiful, and the good awaken these feelings, and hence they Truth-Emotions, are called the ^rw^/i-emotions. Beauty-Emotions, the Z>"'-« -<^ V. Education of the EmotioM._Wl,e„ fostered, an emotmn becomes refined and powerful. Power is de- veloped bj effort. Muscular power is developed by rnnscnlar effort, intellectual power by intellectual effort and emotional power by emotional effort. The esthetic emotions of the arti3t become refined and powerful be- cause they are constantly cherished. An emotion re- pressed grows weaker ; one who habitually represses W fiery temper acquires self-control. In educating ^r ^rr^^'dSi-S;;;-"--'----^^^ ^. Mwwledge and emotion. Emotion k .^„„. sioned by knowlpfl0-p «„„ • i /^"lonon is occa- by special kZlif, ^Tf ""''"''"' •''^ occasioned know Onr . '^"^wledge. We feel because we the Wr? .5 2 lid" t "^r- ^"^ ^™ --'> ened by intellect^ bifnd'ard brutT td T.Sl priate knowleSetn ot ..i: *'" r^"'" «^ "^PP™" Wo .* J "'Buge ail oui better emotions spring forth We tudy to interest our pupils in such knowfed" a' will awaken and cherish the ennobling emotion ^ 2. Mueate the heart as well as the intellect Wbon rk^viSr ;r ''r *"•' ^^^-- stLZi':: ^row into! Id 't ;' '"' "" "^y ^^P^«' -■• P»Pii« to «row into cold, hard, matter-of-fact, unsympathetic, un- ■I."'? 'i,'^ I'lii 1 1 f 226 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. Ill i k ll^ t' '. i- liiihl ! I \f> I eestlietie, and iiiietliical men and women. We starve the liealtliful and ennobling emotions in order to over- feed tlie intellect ; we defraud our pupils out of their birthright to a world of love and beauty and duty. Ed- ucation is the harmonious development of all our capa- bilities. The soul is endowed with emotions and will as well as intellect. A i)erson is educated when his emotions and will and intellect are harmoniously devel- oped. The educator seeks to develop and discipline every energy of the soul, that the person may attain the highest usefulness and happiness of which lie is capable. Heart, as now used, siands for our emotional nature. In other ages, and notably in Bible times, heart stood for the intellect, and, like our term mind, was often used to include the entire self. Bowels, as bowels of mercy, formerly stood for our emotional nature. 3. Emotion-culture conditions intellectual culture. Tlie intellectual emotions, including interest in study, love of knowledge, the pleasure of discovering knowl- edge, the pleasure of pursuing knowledge, the pleasure of detecting logical consistency, and the love of truth, are tremendous forces in education ! Well does Ham- ilton ask, "What can education accompli? :i without an appeal to the feelings ? " And then there are also the various forms of the jBsthetic sentiment and the moral sentiment. How often does the instructor foi-get to stimulate into activity these mighty forces in educa- tion, forgetting that all vigorous self-development of the intellect is based on a large development of the feelings ! 4. The true teacher faithfully roots the emotions i/nto good haUts, "While home, society, the state, and the ill TUB EMOTIONa 227 Church do much to mold the character of the young tlien- «t,ll rcmams a profound responsibility resting upt the teacher. After he linuts the scope of'^his wofk by mil ing due allowance for pre-natal influences and for what IS necessanly done for the child by other agents 1 e^m has an nnportant function to perforn,, whifl/g rows « J of the nature of his office and the continuity ff the ™ Ut.n between him and his pupils. The n.oldTn " ^fll" ence of a good teacher upon the character of his pupil 18 beyond computation. The fundan.ental virtues o inuustry t uthfulness, and justice-are developed and mi.re.sed m a good school as nowhere else. Here thj £". ''="-"^: '« "^ -g"'- i» 1- attendance, punctual L the beginmng and the ending of every duty, silen" when others should speak, obedient to Ihe rightfX conshtuted authority, industrious in the discharge of the d,,ty ymg next, truthful in the scope and the de- tails of wlmtever he undertakes to tell, and scrupulously just in allowing others what of right belongs to them From a man who habitually practices all these virtues what more need be demanded ? And these are pre- eminently school virtues. These it is the business of the teacher more than of any other agent to create. Their constant practice in school is essential to his own sue cess and that of his pupils." * ^ 5. Self-control is paramoimt in education. Sub- mission of the emotions to reason is essential in cliarac ter-bmldmg. We foster and carry over into action all ennobling ii .pulses, but we repress and restrain ^.,- wayward feelings. We cherish and strengthen""gener! * Larkin Dunton. ^ :n a I 228 APPLIED PSYCUOLOGY AND TEAUliIN(J. ii'l!! v 1 1 li- . m^ II E ■ kii osity, but Btifle envj. Education of the emotions u subjugating them to reason. We strengthen helpful feelings by holding in mind the ideas which occasion them, but we weaken hurtful impulses by refusing to entertain the ideas which give rise to such feelings. Emotional education is developing self-control. It in- cludes the rejyression of noxious feelings, as well as the development of elevating emotions. In the culture of our emotional nature we suppress hurtful feelings, just as we suppress hurtful weeds in vegetable culture. We repress and restrain our lawless impulses, while we cher- ish our ennobling emotions. CHAPTER XViri. EDUCATION OF THE SELF-EMOTIONS. By this is meant the development of the feelings that make for self-betterment. Infinite Wisdom has }^;inted deep in evinj human heart the desire for per- fection. Each one feels burning impulses to excel, and to make the most of himself. The individual is cardinal in the mind-world. Society is at its best when it does the most for its individual members. A person, a self, is our highest possible conception. Great men and women are the bright stars in the firmament of iiistory. Education does most when it makes the most out of individnaU, and gives the world its Platos and its Dantes and its Washingtons and its Wesleys. I. Belations of Self-Emotions and Leflnitions.— The emotions stand midway between intellect and will. KELATIOXS OF TUK SEF.F-EMOTIONa 229 liocause we feel iinpulses to act, our emotions are called om- motive powers. Self as intellect hiawe, self as emo- tion deHlreti, self as will does. Eelationa. -Few realize the importance of the ego- istic emotions in the mental economy. Teachers atd parents need to study profoundly the child as an emo- tional being. {In cut, p. 2, point out the podtiiyn of the Helf -emotions. In diaifmm, p. 229, give the self- emotions iiamed, and mention others.) 1. delations to the appetites. The egoistic emo- tions should dominate the appetites. The brute is dominated by its appetites, and lives to eat. The man should dominate his appetites, and eat to live. The appetites are animal cravings, which appear to us as oi-ganic sensations, and which look to the well-being of the body. Instinct guides the brute in the gratification of its appetites, but a man controls his appetites, sub- jecting them to law. We desire to make our bodies the best possible servants of self, and not the 7nasters. 2. Relations of the egoistic emotions to intellect. Feelings not illuminated by intelligence are blind and brutal. Emotions are occasioned by ideas. ^i^Q feel because we know. Intellect is the eye of emotion. As intellect, self finds out the laws of our physical and mental economy, and as egoistic emotion desires to obey these laws. 3. Relation oftJte self -emotions to will. Will is the effort-making power of self. We hnow, we feel, we will. ^ Ideas pass over into emotions and emotions pass over into determinations and acts. Our desires for self- betterment load us to so choose and act as to make the most of ourselves. , !a .If*! 1(1 I! i 1; I i I' * 'Mi ;.' nil aao APPLIED PSYCnOLOOY AND TEACHING. ■II i Definitions.— It is dilHcult to define our feelings. "Wo all know what joy is beeause we experience it ; but U) tell what it is gives us pause, in order to define a feeling it is necessary to translate it into ternm of know- ing. It is doubtless best to think the emotions into groups, and to form clear notions ot these groups. 1. T/te egoistic emotions are our native energies to feel in vi(nv of everything airecting ourselves. Love of life is egoistic. Self-love is the standard. The com- mand is, " Love your neighbor as yourself." 2. The self-emotimis are the feelings occasioned hy ideas affecting self. I desire knowledge : this feeling is a self-emotion. Desire expresses both the feeling and the capability to desire. 3. Education of the egoistic emotions is the develop- ment of the feelings that make for self-letterme7it. The repression of all hurtful self-emotions is implied. We cultivate cheerfulness and repress despondency. We thus educate our emotional nature and gain self-control. II. Importance of educating Self-Emotions.— That ideas may grow into character they must pass over into emo- tions and become resolves and acts. Eight emotions are as important as right thinking. 1. Cidture ofselfemot/ions leads to the f(yrmatim of desirable habits. Hopefulness, cheerfulness, courage, and all elevating egoistic desires, when fostered, grow into right habits. The culture of the self-emotions fosters sweetness of disposition and all noble aspira- tions, and likewise represses and restrains lawless im- pulses. 2. Educated egoistic emotions dominate the appe The body is the organism through which self tiles. GROWTH OP THE SELF-KMOTIONS. 231 works. Tho appetites are cravings for bodily needs, and must be so satiKficd as to make the body the best possible instrument of the mind. Early and always a self must control his body with its appetites. 8. The culture of the self-emotions helps to make life worth living. Our aims in life become exalted. The desire for excellency inspires the best efforts, and lifts one above the low and beastly. A grand life is always worth living. The joys of such a life are almost infinitely greater than the beastly pleasures of one who lives to eat and drink and dance. 111. Growth of the Personal Emotions.— Sensations make up a large part of child-life. The appetites are autocratic. Of all the feelings occasioned by ideas the self-emotions earliest become active. Study the child. You iind that most of the egoistic emotions are active before the sixth year. Some of these feelings, such as the desire for perfection, become active later. These emotions are all very active before the fourteenth year, but some, such as hope and courage and patience, go on developing through life. The early activity of the egoistic emotions indicates the importance of the early culture of these feelings. Even in childhood these emo- tions must be so sti-engthened as to control the ap- petites. IV. Laws of Self-Emotion-Culture.— Many teachers go on from year to year without analyzing the emotions. Their notions about the feelings are vague and shadowy. To such teachers culture of moonshine has as much meaning as culture of the emotions. Long and careful study of the emotion-world leads to iha discovery of laws relating to the development of the emotions. The .|M i^m ^'\\ { 1, ■ 1 mm iiii m laaer. II I Sfii^k'JgWBiJ.''- 1 . ^}i>' ■ mmunfijffi^ iff t h f, l\ iM? 232 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. teacher profoundly studies these, and labors to accjuire skill in their application. 1. Calling the egoistic e /notions into constant, vigm'- ous, and lawful activity educates these feelings. The habit of feeling cheerful and hopeful develops cheer- fulness and hope. An emotion grows strong when cherished, and becomes feeble when repressed. 2. Egoistic knowledge tends to develop the egoistic emotions. Biography and history lead one to contem- plate self in others. The study of the superiority and achievements of great men and women calls our self- einotions into vigorous activity. Egoistic literature fosters the desire to make the most of self. 3. Carrying egoistic emotions over into acts tends to educate these feelings. Emotions not carried into acts are wasted. Our emotions become strong when they habitually become resolves and acts. We stifle wrong feelings by refusing to act on them. y. Means of Self-Emotion-Culture.— Emotions are oc- casioned by ideas. Judicious praise as a means of self- emotion-culture is placed first, and wise reproof next. Judicious praise fosters the ennobling emotions. Wise reproof checks unwholesome and egotistic feelings. Good companionship is of great value. Personal litera- ture deserves a high place, and biography easily stands highest; history comes next, and then come the best works of iiction. Good family and school government ranks highest. Whatever is calculated to work in us high resolves may become a means for the culture of the self-emotions. VI, Methods of ediicatisg the Self-Esnotions. These are plans of work that foster the helpful and repress the 4( •: EDUCATIOxN OF THE SELF-EMOTIONS. 233 hurtful self-emotions. What do we want to do ? We wish to cherish self-respect and all ennobling self-enio- tions, and likewise restrain all wayward impulses We seek to cherish all feelings that look to self -betterment and repress emotions that minister to self -degradation' We stimulate hope and courage, and repress fear and cowardice ; we cherish good-humor and cheerfulness and repress sourness and melancholy; we foster the desire for self -betterment, and stifle low and sinful desires ; we cherish true self-love, and repress egotism and selfishness. How can we best do this ? Kindergarten and Primary Methods.-A\^e spare no eliorts to improve our methods of intellectual culture but we scarcely even think of methods of emotion- culture. Yet who will say that heart-culture is less important than intellectual culture ? 1. Mother influence. As the self-emotion twig is bent, so the self-emotion tree inclines. Here the work of mothers and kindergartners is of the highest impor- tance. In fostering desires for proi^er food and drink to satisfy natural appetites, in cherishing budding self- respect, in stimulating cheerfulness and courage and hopefulness and all uplifting desires, and in repressing all hurtful self-emotions, the mother and the kindergart- ner do untold good and avert incalculable evil. 2. Favoring environments. As we place fine plants and animals under the most favorable influences, so we ought to do with the children. Favorable surroundings, loving treatment, kind words, cheerfulness, and pleasant employment work wonders. But the primary teacher must do the best for her pupils, however faulty their previous treatment. As a diseased body may 'be re- I* if .fti, :1 ii^. tssaseiasesm M ||,ii! !?*;!' J |i- ! 1 i ' 234 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACIHNG. stored to liealth, so a deformed soul may he educated into haririony. 3. Develop self-respect. Show tlie pupil that jou respect him. Train the children to show respect for each other. Your liearty approbation and judicious praise will produce marvelous results. The desire to be worthy, and the hope to merit your loving approval, greatly stimulate self-respect. 4. Develop a good disposition. Hopefulness, cheer- fulness, good-nature, sweetnes.-^, patience, contentment, joyousness, enter into such a disposition. As you pro- mote the development of these emotions you form in the child a good disposition. Embody these excellences in yourself, and they will appear in all your acts and words and tones. Your example will prove magical. You will be able to win back to health the most dis- torted and ugly dispositions, as well as greatly improve dispositions already good. Intermediate Methods.— The egoistic emotions are highly active in boys and girls, and require the most careful direction. Many details here are not needed. You will use a wise discretion, and so do the best you can. Above all, you will deal directly with each pupil, and try to make the most of each one. 1. Develop high ideals. In manhood we work out the plans and work up to the ideals that pleased our youthful fancies. How important, then, that these plans and ideals should be worthy! At this period boundless possibilities seem within easy reach. Wild fancies hold sway. Ideals are likely to be low and sen- sual. If not elevated, they are likely to be realized in depraved and vicious men and women. It requires the EDUCATION OF THE SELF-EMOTIONa 235 utmost skill of the wisest educators to save the boys and girls, and to lift them up to a higher life. Leading pupils to see how ugly and unworthy these sensual and low ideals are does much to remove the rubbish and prepare the way for better ideals. Studying the lives of noble men and women stimulates our desires for supe- riority and greatly elevates our ideals. We need to give the young concrete lessons and line upon line. When each one is led to create for himself a worthy ideal of life, a life full of hope and courage and cheerfulness and patience and high desires and noble achievements, a foundation is laid for a grand life. 'L So teach as to foster manliness. Lead the pupil to conquer for himself. Each victory strengthens hope, self-satisfaction, patience, courage, and the desire for mastery. Pupils thus taught become manly and self- reliant, and grow into admirable men and women. Pu- pils improperly taught lack manliness. They are bullied and belittled for not doinii; impossibilities. Every reci- tation is an hour of defeat and humiliation. They hh- come discouraged and despondent. They lose self- respect and courage and manliness. They become hopeless, dependent, incapable of effort ; and they grow into gloomy, sour, dissatisfied, inefficient men and women. 3. So gomrn as to rightly educate the self-em.otions. Lead the pupil to govern himself. Now his duty-emo- tions are active, and he can be led to do right. Now his affections are also active, and he may be led by sympa- thy. Pnpilfi thus governed are order! v, industrious, cheerful, joyous, sweet, good-natured, manly. Bad gov- ernment mars. Fear takes the place of hope ; force, of fiii li ■ 111 I M ■.-.1 I I & 236 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. ! I ft: 1.: ii I i I I affection; blame, of praise; cruelty, of kindness. Pu- pils are driven, not led. Such government tends to foster every liatef ul feeling ; instead of a burning desire for knowledge, hatred for forced study is created. Pu- j)ils thus governed tend to become everything undesira- ble; disorderly, ugly, morose, sour, cowardly, unmanly. High-School Methods.— Youth is the trying time of life. The destinies of the many, for weal or woe, depend on self-control during this period. The feelings now be- come passions, and, like floods, when uncontrolled sweep to ruin. The educator relies largely on the egoistic emotions to carry the youth safely through this critical period. 1. Stimulate the desire for jyerfectimi. We are placed in a universe wdiere law reigns. Our highest desire is, ^erfeetimi through law. We desire physical perfection through conformity to physical laws. We desire mental perfection through conformity to the laws of mental growth. We desire moral perfection through conformity to ethical laws. Creative Wisdom drafts the plan of each life, and each one is endowed with a burn- ing desire to carry out this plan by making the most of himself. The imperative " J^ xjerfecV throbs in every fiber of the human heart. The youth creates a high ideal of a grand manhood. This becomes his w^orking model in building his character. Appetites and ])as- sions, like steam and electricity, must be so controlled as to make and not mar. Every low impulse must be stifled, and every noble impulse cherished. The burning desire to know the most and be the most and do the most inspires the youth to subjugate his way- ward unpulses. EDUCATION OF THE SELF-EMOTIONS. 237 2. Foster the desire for knowledge. Kindle in tlio hearts of the young an insatiable thirst for knowledge. Lead them to realize that an hour with Plato or Shake- speare is better than years of giddy pleasure. Man is sometimes called the knowledge-seeking animal. The brute feels no desire for truth ; it simply gratifies its appetites and is content. Man desires truth, and counts wisdom the most precious of all things. His appetites are merely his law-abiding servants. Happy the youth that hungers and thirsts for truth ! 3. Cherish a desire for beauty. The universe is full of beauty, and we are endowed with strong desires to enjoy it, to produce it, to be it. Beauty of form, beauty of motion, beauty of color, beauty of sound, beauty of sentiment, beauty of character ; sublimity, humor, beauty ; whatever guise it takes beauty tends to lift us up. Truth and beauty are twin-sisters, and co-workers to refine and elevate. 4. Encourage ths study of personal literature. Bi- ography does most to strengthen personal emotions. History as now written does almost as much as biogra- phy to educate the self-emotions. The best fiction exerts a powerful influence in this direction. Personal essays are of value. Such literature arouses the egoistic emo- tions and stimulates the desire to do what others have done and be what others have become. The youth be- comes saturated with the cumulative lessons that -oble manhood and high succcf^s come through self-denial, self-control, uprightness, earnestness, and perseverance. Lead the youth to look well to the outcome of life. The fool blindly rushes on to ruin. These human wrecks tliat strew the pathway of time were victims of m Mm II Ml -Ji'i'-fel lif, i 238 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACUING. 'U I j I i 'J' uncontrolled appetites and passions. They are the dan- ger-signals. Fortunate the youth who heeds these warnings, and refuses to tread the path of folly and death ! VII. Mistakes in the Treatment of the Personal Emo- tions : 1. Neglect. Few really understand the mighty inllu- ence of the egoistic emotions in the mental economy. KareJy does the teacher even attempt the systematic culture of courage and cheerfulness, and the desire for self-betterment. 2. Mistakes in government. Appeal to fear is all too common. The pupil is treated more as a machine than as a self-determining person. Such management is the worst possible preparation for life. 3. Injudicious praise. Egotism and selfishness come of misdirected self-emotions. Flattery fosters these de- formities. Judicious praise is the pure balmy air, but flattery is the fatal sirocco. 4. Derneaning. The pupil is called a blockhead. Such belittling epithets as take away all self-respect are used unsparingly. This is monstrous. It is a great thing in education to lead the pupil to think well of himself, and inspire him with confidence and courage and the desire to excel. ]» ill W 8U00ESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. Self enjoys as well as knows. What terms designate our abiiitiea to enjoy and suffer ? Wliat does tlie heart stand for? Letter.— Tell your friend about the heart-world. Make for him a diagram of the emotions. Give him your best thoughts about the culture of the egoisuc; emotions: 1. Position of the I'klf- Emotions and Terms defined.— Point out f ( SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 239 the relations between ideas and emotions and between emotions and resolves. Define the emotions ; the egoistic emotions ; education of these feelings. Show the relations of the egoistic emotions to the appetites; to the intellect; to the will. 2. Importance of Self-Emotion Culture.— Why do you count emo- tion-culture important? Is intellectual-culture more important? Show that culture of self-emotions tends to good habits. Ought the egoistic emotions to dominate the appetites ? Why do you consider the culture of the egoistic desires highly important ? 3. Growth of the Self-Emotions.— What feelings are autocratic in childhood? How early do you find the self-emotions active in chil- dren? Before what year do these feelings become very active? What reasons can you give for the early culture of the self-emotions? 4. Laws of Self-Emotion Culture.— Does law roign in the emotion- world? State the law of effort in terms of self-emotion culture; law of means ; law of methods ; law of action. Mention a special law that you have discovered. What do you mean by education and culture as applied to tlie emotions ? 5. Means of Self-Emotion Culture.— Why do you place judicious praise first ? Which do you estimate of highest value for the culture of the egoistic emotions, good companionship or personal literature? Do you find history more helpful than biography ? Give your esti- mate of the value of fiction in the culture of the self-emotions ; of good school government. 6. Methods of educating Self-Emotions.— How do we educate self- emotions ? What self-emotions do we cherish ? What self-emotions should we repress ? Is heart-culture less important than intellectual culture ? What do you mean by kindergarten methods of educating the self-emotions? by primary methods? by intermediate methods? by high-school methods? State and explain four directions for primary work; four for intermediate work; four for high-school work. 7. Mistakes in educating Self-Emotions.— Are these mistakes vital ? Why IS self -emotion culture neglected ? What mistakes are made in government? Explain the danger of injudicious praise ; of demean- ing the pupil. Why should pupils be led to think well of them- selves ? Mention some of the mistakes that you have noticed. u'l k ,'.it M^ I, ii!H ' ill <■ u 240 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. CHAPTER XIX. .* r EDUCATION OF THE SOCIAL EMOTIONS. By tliis is meant tlie righ,; culture of our feeling for otiiers. Our capabilities to feel in view of ideas per- taining to others are our altruistic emotional powers, and these feelings are altruistic emotions. These emo- tions are called fellow-feelings, social emotions, affec- tions, and altruistic emotions. All our emotional en- dowments are God-given capabilities, and their lawful activities are God-approved. But intelligence underlies the rational emotions, guiding these and restraining tliose. Feelings not thus guided are blind and brutal. Restraint is as essential as stimulus in emotional culture. We cherish love and restrain hate ; foster kindness and stifle cruelty; praise generosity and disparage envy. The child thus educated grows more and more lovely. I. Importance of educating the Altruistic Emotions.— Man is pre-eminently a social being. Culture of the social emotions does most to elevate human society. Savages are egoistic ; Christians are altruistic. Altru- istic-culture immeasurably increases human happiness. Each one becomes his brother's keeper, and is happy because he seeks to make others happy. Altruistic-cult- ure makes for the brotherhood of man, and fits man for the companionship of angels. II. Growth of the Altruistic Emotions. — In compari- son with the appetites and the egoistic emotions th.e altruistic emotions are feeble in childhood. Quite early, however, the child manifests in some degree sympathy, jealousy, emulation, affection. Sympathy first appears GROWTH OF THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 241 a^ a feeling of pity or commiseration for otiiers. The pains first sympathized with are of course tlie familiar bodily feehngs, such as cold, fatigue, injury, together with the simple emotional states, as fear and disappoint- ment. A very young child will show unmistakably the 8igns of dejection and sorrow at the actual sight or nar- ration of another child's sufferings; and the lower ani- mals, with their simple, easily apprehended emotional experiences, come in for a considerable share of this early pity. Affection appears first in response to mother- love. Up to the tenth year the child is largely a being of sensations, appetites, and self-emotions. The social emotions become quite active during boyhood and girl- hood. After the fourteenth year the altruistic emotbns begin to dominate, and are fully active by the eighteenth year From ten to eighteen is pre-eminently the period for the culture of the social emotions. III. taws of AltruisticEmotion Growth.-]Vrost per- sons go on from year to year in a hap-hazard way, en- ertaining the most misty notions of the emotions and their culture. But to the thoughtful such culture seems of the highest value. Here, as everywhere, law reigns. To educate the social emotions we must find out and observe their laws of growth. 1. General laws. The great educational laws must be restated m terms of the altruistic emotions. (1) Law ?/#^^^.~Well.directed efforts in cherishing the be- nevolent and repressing the malevolent emotions edu- cate these feelings. (2) Law of ^..^..-Altruistic knowing, feeling, and doing are means of altruistic- culture. (3) Law of m.^/W^._Systematic, lawful, and persistent plans of work which foster all right feelings f i A J t M ri ifh ^1 ml I.' i 242 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. :' l\ and repress all malevolent iuipulses educate the altruistic emotions. 2. Special Imos. Each ^roup of human capabilities has its own peculiar laws of growth which c lucators find out and observe. Attention is called to two im- portant laws looking to the culture of the social emo- tions : (i) Feeling for and with others develops altru- istic emotions. Cherishing all kindly feelings renders one warm-hearted and unselfish. (2) Doing kind a'^ts educates the altruistic emotions. How the mother learns to love her helpless child ! How the teacher learns to love her needy pupils ! lY. Means of educating the Altruistic Emotions. — We feel kindly emotions in view of ideas jXMtaining to others. Whatever tends to call forth such feelings may become a means of aitruistic-culture : (1) FavorabU environments call forth kindly emotions and suppress malevolent f (^clings. (2) Kind companicma do most, as love begets love. Cruel companions arouse all hateful emotions and give us our street gamins. (3) Altruistio literature is invaluable in the education of the social emotions. Such books as George MacDonald's works can hardly be prized too highly. The New Testament is the one perfect book for altrui. ^tic-culture. (4) Al- truistio doing gives the highest culture to these feol- ings. Habitually doing kind deeds levelops all kin tly feelings. Y. Methods of educating the Altruistic Emotions. — Systematically and persistently putting forth kindly feelings educates these emotions. This we can not do by sim-ply willing it, any more than v/e can call back past experiences by an act of will. But we can com- back com- EDUCATION OF THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 243 mand the ideas that occasion altruistic emotions, and hence can systematically and persiHtently arouse these feelings. Well-matured nlans of ^'-ork are essential in the art of promoting character growth. Kindergarten and Primaiy Methods.— From infancy to age all kindly feelings need to be cherished and all unlovely emotions repressed. The utmost skill is needed in the management of little ones. 1. Environments. Throw around the child the most favorable social influences. Surroundings do much to make childit3n kind and generous or cruel and self- ish. Anna has enjoyed from infancy kindly influ- ences—a kind mother, kind teachers, and kind com- panions ; now she is an unselfish, kind, lovely girl. Her brother John, almost from infancy, has lived in the streets, surrounded by all vile influences, and is now a selfish, cruel, repulsive boy. Blessed is the child that grows up in the atmosphere of love ! 2. Management. Wise management educates the altruistic emotions. The rule of love develops love. Kind treatment awakens al kindly feelings. Provoke notth child to anger. Avoid arousing hateful feel- ings. 3. Manners am.d Morals. Cone 'te lessons in man- ners and morals cultivate the altruistic emotions. In- deed, the enduring foundations of noble characters must thus be laid. The teacher finds here a rich and boundless field for altruistic-culture. 4. Doing. Deeds of kindness develop social feel- ings. Little acts of kindness on the ])art of the child develop the kindly feelings. Parents and teachers can so manage that the child will continually feel the im- % ; 'I I 244 APPLIED rsycUOLOGY AND TEACHINO. It pulne to give kind looks, speak kind words, and do kind acts. Intermediate Methods. —Tlic waywardness of hoys and girls iw proverbial. During the period of transition from childhood to youth the social emotions need to be carefully cherished in order tliat they may dominate the appetites and selfish impulses. 1. Alnd treatmeM is alwaijH salutary. But boys and girls must not be babied. The manly and womanly feeling now becoming active must be respected. As the instrument responds to the touch of the musician, so the hearts of the boys and girls respond to kind treat- ment. 2. AUriiistlG literature is exeeedi ngly helpful. The men and women who live in the hearts of the millions are those who love their fellow-men. The best literature is altniistic. Such works as MacDonald's Sir Gihhie, Mrs. Ewing's Story of a Short Life, Dickens's DaA)id Copperjield, and Holland's Nicholas Minturn help won- derfully. The I^ew Testament will always take the first place in the culture of the affections. 3. Life-lessons in manners and morals enter into the fiber of altruistic-emotion culture. In character-building these lessons need to enter into the warp and woof of thought and emotion. Kindly emotions are thus rooted into habits. Boys and girls become gentlemen and gen- tlewomen. 4. HaUtual deeds of kindness immensely strengthen the altruistic emotions. Kind looks, kind words, and kind deeds that flow from kind hearts make the heart doubly kind. Kindly feelings that do not become kindly acts are wasted. EDl;CATIO^f OP TOE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 245 High-Sohool Method.._Voutl, U tl.o danger period Most offenders go a^tmy while i,> their teen! A ?,e tites and ein,)tion8 become seetliing i.aM,ions anH u,«,ed lead to viee and eHnl^Xr i?!" .fo .8 trewn w,th youthful wreelce, who haunt the I loons, the gan,bling.len», and the hou«e of infamy and whommglo >„ .,oeietyhut to corrupt and bhj The anger . appalling, bnt the very ve'ho.uenee youtt ful emotion may prove the anchor of safety. 1. A,y/a thmkhuj Oceanians ny/it feeVmqs, W,. edueate our altrui.stic en.otions when'we thinktvinj; of others. How hou.iteous are the blessings showered upon us by our fellows, our country, ani our God ' 1 hese thoughts arouse within us all kindly a,ul gen: erous nnpnlses. The educator puts forth hisLt eflrU Ltie patr™""""''''""'''^^'""''' "' "'- ■«™'.y»"- a. Oiirryiru, atruutio emotion „„er into altruidie tt7a.S:f r 1 r-"-/-*"^- ti. good sJi tan ca,ned h,s noble sympathies over into deeds of kind- ness^ Jesus wept, but at the same tin.e he called back the dead Lazarus to comfort the weeping sisters Tn suffer our kindly impulses to dissipate f.nlcted'is t! 3. Enlisting all our poioers in the service of a mibU love educates the social emotions. " Love is ti;e cliniax of the feehugs, and it should comprehend all the inter- ests and command all the powers of the mind. To do this the objects of its devotion must be able to unite all 1 it :7'"'*'"" °* *^ '"'"'' ■" ''^™<>"y- and elicit all Its active powers. Love of God, love of humanity ■t^ ).,n I'. 1.;! ,1 I •1 Ifi h'A IIJ III [| j| W''l V . • ■ \4l Ir '111: 246 APPL! . PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. love of country, love of children, has led to the devel- opment of the noblest lives. But when mere pleasure becomes the end of love, itcorrupts all tlic: other powers, and the pleasure itself at last will pa]l. To be worthy to stand at the head of the feelings, love should be pre- ])ared to undertake all duties and endure all sulferinirs. Attachment to anything seems a slight all'air at lirst, but experience reveals the deei)er truth in time." * 4. Love 7iee(Js culti tuition to he at its he,st. Love do&s not reach its best by being left to itself. It reaches its best only by jKU'sistent culture. Youthful love is a feeble Bcntiment and merely a germ of matured love. If a love is not worthy, it wqyo better to neglect it, and so let it die ; but if it be a worthy love, it ought to be cherished and cultivated, that it may become the most enobiing. It is the same with love for God as with love for our fellows ; we can not love (rod as we ought unless we cultivate our love for him. VI. Treatment of the Unkindly Emotions.— Tlie tliouglitf ul parent and the wise teacher will here nuike a solemn ])ause. What must he done with this host of dreadful emotions — anger, envy, jealousy, hate, enmity, malice, antipathy, blasphemy, scorn, cruelty, ingrati- tude, contempt, revenge? Unrestrained, these feelings make for harm. They hurt, and do not help. They are malevolent emotions, which tend to bitterness, strife, revenge, rivalry, murder, war. They fill all lands with wails of woe. No panacea for the treatment of these dangerous emotions can be given, but parents and teachers and society can do much to alleviate the evils. Each one can learn to restrain these feelings : 1. Avoid their excitation. " Parents, provoke not your children to anger." Study how not to arouse hateful feelings. When con- tinually excited these feelings grow in do hateful passions; but when not excited they become feeble by non- use. * G. H. Palmer. EDUCATION OF THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 247 2. Repress mahvolent emotions. We cherish kindly feelings but repress unkindly emotions. We smother anger as we do devouring flames. We stifle malice and envy, and cruelty and selfishness. We discourage in every way all hateful feelings, and thus repress and weaken them. 3. Restrain hateful emotions from becoming hateful acts. These feelings have a rcnuirkablc tendency to become acts, and thus mul- tiply their intensity. Cain's anger became angry words and murder. We can not always avoid these evil emotions, but we can restrain them from becoming acts. Kvery such act of restraint is a victory that tends to weaken as well as curb hurtful feelings. 4. Overcome hate by love. We have a thousand reasons for lov- ing where we have one for hating. Think of these and read of these. I>y cherishing all kindly feelings we overcome hateful im- pulses. VI I. Mistakes in educating the Altruistic Emotions. — Human well-being is promoted by the culture of these feelings. TN\<»;leets and blunders here cause deepest woe, and human history tells the tale. 1. Neglect. Men explore dark contint .ts, but fail to explore the human heart. We take infinite pains to educate reason, v*in'le we suffer the noxious weeds of liateful emotions to grow luxuriantly and smother out love. Surely the culture of the affections is not less important than the culture of the intellect. 2. Misdirection. Even love is degraded by becom- ing a slave to appetite. Thus the most ennobling emo- tion becomes a dangerous egoistic passion. Our affec- tions are most precious, and deserve to be so directed as to work the noblest ends. 3. Waste. Your sympathies do not lead you to action. You sympathize with Lazarus, but leave the dogs to lick his sores. Altruistic emotions which do not in some way become resolves and acts are squandered. 'Ml ■■ 'Ji, 4 4- h i *> 248 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 4. Jieading too much emotiotial literature. Many thus waste tlieir sweetness on the desert air, and become poor indeed in real sympatliy. Expect not kindness from the constant reader of emotional literature. One who lives in an imaginary world and iinds no pleasure in relieving real suffering ceases to be a practical phi- lanthropist. Whenever and wherever you feel kindly impulses, see to it that these emotions become generous resolves and deeds of kindness. SUO GESTI VE STUD Y-HINTS. Letter. The social emotions and their culture is a fruitful theme. Nowhere do we approach closer to the source of human hap- piness. You can write a thoughtful, earnest letter to your friend. The culture of the social emotions demands our best efforts. I. Give your definition of the altruistic emotions; of the culture of these fb?lings. Is sympathy developed among brutes ? Are sav- ages altruistic ? How does altruibcic-culture make for human hap- piness ? Give three reasons for the culture of the social emotions. II. What feelings are most active in childhood ? What social emotions become active earliest t Trace the growth of sympathy. Describe the growth of the altruistic emotions during boyhood ; during youth. III. State in terms of altruistic emotion the law of effort ; law of means; law of method; law of sympathy; law of doing. Tell about a special law relating to altruistic-culture that you have dis- covered. IV. What do you consider the best means for altruistic culture f Give your estimate for this purpose of environments; of companion- ship ; of altruistic literature ; of altruistic doing. What book do you place highest ? Mention other valuable works. V. What do you mean by methods of educating the social emo- tions? by Kindergarten methods? by primary methods? by higli- school methods ? Give some directions for the culture of the social emotions during cl'ildhood ; during boyhoo'l ; during youth. VI. How should we treat the unkmdly emotions ? Why should EDUOATIOX OF THE TRUTH-EMOTIONS. 249 we avoid exciting these feelings! What are the effects of repressing these emotions! Why should we restrain hateful emotions from becoming hateful acts ! VII. Why do teachers neglect altruistic-culture ! Do you con- sider the education of the social emotions as important as the edu- cation of memory! Show some of the ways in which our social feel- ings are misdirected and wasted. Why do excessive novel-readers become hard-hearted! State some of the mistakes that you have noted in altruistic-culture. Truth- Emotions. CHAPTER XX. EDUCATION OF THE TRUTH- EMOTIONS. The student is in love with truth. When we speak of the true, the beautiful, and the good, we mean by the true the realm of knowledge. Truth is agreement Wonder. ^'^^^^ reality— as true biogra- Curiosity. phy, true history, true science. Desire for truth. Wisdom is philosophic truth. Love of truth. tv.^ • t Etc., etc ^^^^® ^^^^^ discerns the deeper truths of life and walks m the paths of wisdom. The fool, though learned, despises wisdom and walks ii; the path.^ of toiiv-. Cult- ure of the truth-emotions is the develorjim "^c of the love of truth. The delights we feel in view of truth are our truth-emotions. We feel joy when we solve the hard problem, for the answer is true. Every step upward is a delight, for it is the mastery of a new truth. We hate the false, and love the true. We de- sire the true, and feel disgust for all shams and pre- tenses and falsehoods. I. Eelations of the Truth-Emotions.— So strikingly r 250 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. are these feelings related to knowing, that they are sometimes called the intellectual emotions. 1. The triith-iilea is intuitive. By direct insight we gain tiie truth-idea. We stand face to face with the true as with all necessary reu'ities. Wo gain the truth- idea just as we gain the space-idea and the time-idea and the cause-idea. Before I can say that this or that state- ment is true, I must have the truth-idea. '^^ 2. Discernment of t/'ufh occasions truth-emotions. We are so constituted that discovering truth and con- templating truth and using truth give us high delight. Open-eyed wonder, intense curiosity, joy of discovery and conquest, desire for knowledge, love of truth, spur us on from infancy to age. 3. The truth - emotions are feelings occasioned hy truths discerned. Emotions are feelings occasioned bv ideas. Th^ peculiar emotions we experience in the presence of truth are termed the truth-en. otions. The child explores the wonder-wo/ld of matter ; the youth explores tlie wonder-world of mind ; the man explores the wonder- world of pliilosophy ; the immortal explores the wonder worlds of God's wisdom. Tlie boundless de- lights occasioned by new discoveries are truth-eiTiotions. 4. Education of the truth-emiotions is the develop- ment of the love of truth. Truth is more precious than diadems, for it is the food of the soul. We do most for others when we lead them to love the truth. This is cardinal in education, and must determine matter as well as method. IT. Importance of educating the Truth - Emotions. — The most despicable of all cliaracters is the man who * See pp. 36 and 80. ii , EDUCATION OF THE TRUTH-E 'OTIONS. 251 are " lovetli and maketh a lie." " You are a liar" is counted the greatest possible insult. We class the slanderer with the murderer. 1. The love of truth characterizes the nolle man. Compare Washington and Napoleon. A truthful man is the noblest work of God. From infancy up the love of the true and the hatred of the false must be in- grained. 2. The love of truth characterizes the science-maker, lie earnestly seeks to know the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. All misleading theories, all bias, .ill lies and half-truths, are torn away. lie seeks to stand face to face with realities, and find out truth. 3. The love of truth is the foimtain of perpetual youth. The joy of finding new truths keeps the soul forever young. This is the pleasure that never cloys. There is an ever-increasing joy in beholding new truths. The pleasures of exj^loriiig an infinite universe, when a billion years have passed, will be but a beginning of the joys in store for those who love truth. 4. The love of trvth emits and ennobles. It leads us to think the thoughts of God after him. It rewards lis as we ascend higher and higher. Think of the joys of Newton, when he discovered the laws of gravitation ; of Copernicus, when he discerned tlie true theory of the solar system ; of Franklin, when he found out the iden- tity of electricity and lightning. Love of truth gives surcease from sorrow. III. Time to educate the Truth - Emotions. — How early the child feels these emotions can only be con- jectured. It is certain that very early the child suffer-: wiien deceived. Equally early it m^.st enjoy in some ;| M S! i ■m' i n M 3i' < V 252 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. de«rreo truthfulness. But truth-emotion is feeble in childhood. Still, the joy ot discovering new truths early fills the cup of the young. In these early years the truth-habit must be developed. As the years mul- tiply the love of truth deepens, and the philosopher feels a boundless pleasure as new and grand truths burst upon him. Clearly, these emotions need to be culti- vated from infancy to age. IV". Laws of Truth-Emotion Culture.— Reasoning edu- cates reason, and enjoying truth educates truth-emotions. 1. Cherishing truth-emotions develops these feelings. We lead pupils to feel joy in the presence of truth, and pain in the presence of the false. 2. Whatever calls the truth-emotions into vigorous activity may become a means for educating these feelings. All studies may be made the means of cultivating the truth-emotions. 3. Systematic and persistent plans of work that call the truth-emotions into vigorous activity tend to develop these powers. 4. The hahit of tnithfubiess fosters th6 truth-emotions. Truth becomes precious, and false* hood hateful. V. Means for educating the Truth ■ Emotions. — The truth-element is coextensive with intelligence. Cogni^ tion is finding truth. Truth-ideas occasion truth-emo tion. Truth in nature, in science, in history, in every- day life, may be made the means of educating these emotions. Character-building is the best means for this culture. The Bible, the wonderful gallery of characters true to the life, is incomparably the best means for culti- vating the truth-emotions. VI. Methods of educating the Truth-Emotions. — Lead- ing the child or youth to systematically and persistently !! ';■ METHODS OF EDUCATING TRUTH-EMOTIONS. 263 seek truth for the love of truth and the enjoyment of truth educates the truth-emotions. 1. ^0 teach as to develop a love of knowledge. Nat- urally, the appetency for knowledge is keener than the appetite for food. How often you have seen a child leave its food untasted to listen to a story or to see the passing show ! Pupils wisely taught, hunger and thirst for knowledge. No grades, or examinations, or threats, or punishments are needed to spur them on. 2. Cherish the pleasure of discovering truth. You remember the story of Archimedes. So teach, that your pupils every hour may feel like crying "Eureka!" This is the charm of the Socratic method. This is the characteristic of good teaching. 3. Cherish truth-telling. Telling lies is cowardly and base and hateful. The pupil should be led to loathe falsehood, and turn from it as from carrion. Truth- telHng is brave and manly and lovely; it should be rooted into habit. The best boys and girls and men and women are truthful. Every day you can press this lesson home. Our school readers furnish cases. Our literature is replete with examples. Do you sincerely love truth \ You will find ways to cherish the truth- habit. 4. Foster truth-doing. Christ said, " I am the truth." The martyr cries, " I can die, but I can not deceive." Paul, the chained prisoner, "reasoned of truth," and made monarchs tremble. How brave, how true was Luther ! We almost worship one who embodies truth in every look and word and act. How noble! how grand ! YII. Mistakes in the Culture of the Truth-Er^^otiors. ;;i \h. rij ^ .'''SM 254 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. ,,m ' '' — All plans of work that suppress or fail to stimulate the truth-emotioas are educational mistakes. 1. Unwilling tasks are educational blunders. When you force a child to prepare a lesson, you foster a dis- taste for knowledge. In giving lessons, lead your pu- pils to feel that you are doing them a favor — giving them the opportunity to gain truths. Work is com- posed of tasks, while play is made up of games. Tasks are as necessary as work, but our pupils nmst be willing workers. 2. Repulsive work is am, educatimial hlunder. In some way you must create an interest. How many girls loathe mathematics because the study was made repul- sive! Even the hardest work may be made interest- ing. 3. Burdensome work is a mistake. Let the child eat too much food, and it will loathe food. Burden the boy's memory continually with undigested facts, and he will come to loathe study. 4. Failure to foster a l(yvefor truth. The student studies for grades and a diploma. How^ few study be- cause they really desire to find out the truth ! Instead of being a perpetual joy, school life, too often, is a grind- ing drudgery. The student has no heart in it. Dear teachers, do you love truth ? Then I know you will so manage as to get your pupils in love with truth. Tell your friend how to do this in your letter on the culture of the truth-emotions. 5. All shams are hurtful. Deceptions and mis- representations are grave mistakes. The deceiver as well as the deceived suffers loss. The faith that trusts comes of truthfulness. JiSTHETIC EMOTIONS IN THE MENTAL ECONOMY. 255 CHAPTER XXI. EDUCATION OF THE ESTHETIC EMOTIONS. By this is meant tlie development of our capabilities to appreciate and enjoy the beautiful, the sublime, and the humorous. As beauty predominates, thgse emo- tions are called the beauty-emotions. Sublimity and humor are treated as forms of beauty. Our capabilities to feel in view of the beautiful, the sublime, and the humorous are .^nown as the aesthetic emotions. Taste is the capability to feel aesthetic emotions. The term taste, used in this sense, occurs constantly in Hterature and life. Self as intellect beholds beauty, and as ajs- thetic emotion appreciates and enjoys beauty. Beau- ty is ever concrete. We perceive * beauty in things beautiful. Self as imagination creates beautiful ideals. Our notions of beautiful things, immediate and remem- bered, awaken our beauty-emotions. We command and educate these emotions by commanding the ideas which occasion them. I. -ffisthistic Emotions in the Mental Economy.— The cut, page 2, and the diagram, page 209, symbolize the position and relations of the aesthetic emotions. Self as intellect creates as well as perceives beauty. Art and poetry and music axo aesthetic creations. Beauty-ideas excite beauty-emotions, and beauty-emotions move self to create and realize beautiful ideals. 1. The beauty -idea is intuitive. When we become acquainted with beautiful things we become conscious of the beauty-idea. Before I can say, " Yonder sunset is beautiful ! " I must have the beauty-idea. The beau- 1(1 I, :. i ip I* I B lii.uij ! 256 APPLIED PSYCHO OGY AND TEACHING. ty-idea in a necessary-idea, and is gained I'V uiioct in- sight. * 2. The heanty't-motions' are feelings oecamrmed hy ideuH of heautiful thimjs. Things aro betiutitul ; we are endowed witli native energies to f -el beauty -emo- tions, and we experience emotions of beauty in tlie presence of beautiful tilings. 3. uEatlietiG etnotions are feelings occasioned hy cesthetic ideas. The testhetic emotions are the beuuty- emotions, aii/;>»«., ues rt to all the gros.ser vices. in. Growth of the JEsthetic Emotion.._The..e feel >ngs -- feebly active in our early childho«.l and grow w:ft our physical growth. Physical beauty attract! the young. Soon the child learns to enjoy simple melodies and s mple poetry. At every step in ed, cation care should be taken to cherish these feelings. From tl^ age of fourteen to eighteen is considctd the per od especially favorable for the development of the i„her aesthetic emotions. Through life these emotions must be kept active. The aged men and women Xse «sthe^.c emotions are active and strong are still young IV^. laws of iEsthetic Emotion.Growth.-As think- mg promotes the growth of reason, so the enjoyment of beai^y promotes the growth of the beauty-emoti^n" in LfZZ^ '^'l-fifnal Imos. These are here stated ;" t™'^^/'"' ^f^^'^" '^-"t--- Wisely enjovin^ the beauufu,, tne sublime, and tlie humorous deWlops the m IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I ■iSIIIIM 112.5 1^ IM III 2 2 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 -■ ■< 6" ► '^^' ^ o;^ Photographic Sdences Corporation m. s V ^,ian.--=id=dno"s of soul-hfe, and the necessity for all-round culture!^ \l {iifj 'ii I I ■ji-'-i 1 m i f. 262 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. ■» -i tellect is often liiglilj educated, to the neglect of heart- and will-culture. In connection with the aesthetic emo- tions many educational mifctakes are made. 1 . Arror of the utilitarian. " Thousands for utility, but not a dollar for ornament !" exclaimed t\\Q practical man of the school board. " Teach my boy arithmetic, but do not waste his time with music, and drawing, and gymnastics," was the injunction of tlie dollar-wise parent. No wonder that the old schoolmaster, thus instructed, tried to crush all the beauty -emotions out of children by mountains of facts. Modern education, with the motto " Utility and beauty," is rapidly remedying this funda- mental mistake. 2. Error of the mthete. Tlie sesthete considers aes- thetic culture the principal thing. Both the ethical and the practical are undervalued. Solid culture is replaced by the study of the fine arts. The old-time " Ladies' boarding-school" embodied this ruinous error. Co- education has worked wonders in correcting these extremes, but very much remains to be achieved by the coming teacher. 3. Frrm' of the mathematician. Mountains of math- matics crush out the beauty-emotions. Sometimes it is grammar, and sometimes Latin. One's specialty is made to so absorb the time and energies of the pupil that no place is left for aesthetic culture. " I have no time to teach music and drawing," said a teacher who required the pupils to devote two hours daily to arith- metic. 4. Error of the Philistine. A teacher who lacks imagination and aesthetic culture trudges on mechan- ically, scarcely aware that there is a beauty-world. Un- SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 263 der such teachers pupils grow up with little poetry to enrich their lives in God's world of beauty. SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS, Helpfal Book8.-0ur literature is rich in works treating of the a^. het.c e.uotions and their culture. Excellent manuals for inusre and drawing and elocution, and gentle manners, are numerous' The teacher who loves the beautiful will work clos to nature and atd ii:::^ '-'' '-- ^-^"^ ^^^^ ^^^ p^^^« ^^ ^-^^^ -d s^biLu' Letter. The culture of the aesthetic emotions is a delightful heme on which to write. Take time and write thoughtfully Try to enlist your friend in this forward movement. ^ nnt^ihf ""T ^^ ^\ "T"''^'' ''"'^'■'''' ''' ^^' ^'^^^«^ '<^o^omy. Point out the relations between intellect and aesthetic emotions ; between nora'irrrr' ""\ ''°"'"" -theticcmture affect mannerri moials? Are brutes endowed with these emotions? Define aesthetic emotion } aesthetic culture ; taste. fcscnetic 2. Importance of msthetic culture. Why do you rank aesthetic cul ure with thought-culture f Show how .sthet-ic culture rffine: exalts, mcreases human happiness; saves from degradation. Give three original reasons for jcsthetic culture tne tttr'of t "'" """T"' ?'''""• '''^^ "^^^^ y°» k""^ -bout ne a^ctuity of these emotions during the kindergarten period ; dur- mg the primary period ; during the intermediate period ; during the hgh-school period; in manhood; in old age. How early do he lit e ones manifest beauty-emotions f What do you consider th golden period for ajsthetic culture ? 4. Laws of mstheiic culture. Illustrate the law of effort • the aw of means; the law of method; the law of creating beauty.' Do Ideas cause emotions ? Is self active in beauty-emotions f 5. Jleans for educating the aesthetic emotions. Place on the board ycnir estimates of the educational value in esthetic culture of draw- ing ; of music ; of good reading ; o: poetry, etc 6. Methods of educating the beauty-emotions. Give four direc cuUuit'' ^'""^^^^y ^'f hetic culture; four directions for primary Wo,';"' ^T T ' ^"^^""^^'-^^ ^"'^"^^ ^ fonr directJons for h.gh-.chool work. How do environments help or hinder f What mi i i\' i ' 1 1 § m 264 APPLIED PSYCUOLOGY AND TEACHING. literature do you count bestf May pupils be trained to write beau- tiful compositions? 7. Mistakes in educating the msthetic emotions. Explain the error of the utilitarian; of the a\sthetc; of the Philistine. What mistakes have you noticed in ajsthetic culture H Im «!| hi ft ' I r. CIIAPTEK XXII. EDUCATION OF CONSCIENCE. By this is meant tlie developiiieiit of the duty-emo- tions. " / ought " is the highest impulse of the soul. " I can starve, but I can not steal." " I can die, but I can not betray my country." " Burn me if you will, but I can not deny my Saviour." Such is the language of the educated conscience. Moral education is the education of conscience. I. Conscience in the Mental Economy. Conscience is to the moral universe ^vhat gravity is to the world of matter. Gravity regulates worlds, and conscience regulates moral beings. In all the arena of human thought no other theme has for us such thrilling interest as the education of conscience. I. Intellect and Conscience.— Self as intellect knows right, and self as conscience feels impulses to do right. Knowing duty occasions duty-impulses. Conscience is the moral impulsion in man. Conscience moves to right as invariably as the needle points to the pole. 1. The duty-idea is intuitive. A moral being stands face to face with a moral universe. We gain the duty- idea by direct insight, just as we gain the cause-idea and CONSCIENCE IN THE MENTAL ECONOMY. 265 the time-idea and tlie space-idea. Bouiid up in ea^h rational act is the duty-idea. Self as necessary-intuition perceives the duty-idea in a moral act, as he perceives the cause-idea in a physical act. We ga:n intuitively the concrete ideas of right and wrong, of ought and ought not, of merit and demerit. These ideas are necessary, self-evident, universal. 2. Self as intellect finds out the right. " I ouo-ht to tell the truth," is a moral judgment. All judgments are intellectual products, and differ merely as to subject- matter. Moral judgments are simply judgments con- cerning right and wrong. We must iind out what is right in the same ways in which we find out what is true ill science. The space-idea is intuitive, but the truths of geometry are thought-products. The duty- idea is intuitive, but ethical truths are thought-products. ^ 3. Self as conseience feels impulses to find out the right. We desire to know duty. " Mud the right " IS the first imperative of conscience. In the search for moral truth intellect is at its best. Be sure you are rtght. This is your highest intellectual duty. Arrive at your moral judgments with the utmost care. Mathe- matical judgments are important, but moral judgments are infinitely more important. II. Conscience and Law.— Conscience is the native energy of self that makes for righteousness. Righteous- ness IS rightness, and, everywhere and always, right is accordance with law. Moral laws regulate 'the moral universe just as physical laws regulate the physical universe. Self as intellect finds out moral laws in the same ways that he finds out physical laws. Intellect finds out the laws of love : " Love God supremely," and i ' i. ■* ■ k II If Ji I ^ i 266 '■.^r it] !f!l ! APPLIED PSYCHOLOOY AND TEACIIINO. Love otl,erK as you love yourself." Vour impulse to obey these laws is an i.nperative of conscience. Self as ■ n e lect njay be .nistaken, but self as conscience infal i Ij feels the nnpulse to do what is believed to be riLH, Consc,e„eo ,s the law-obeying energy of the soul. ' inate !'ll T*'*" ""I <""'"""<'«-J^"tv-en,otions don,- inate all other nnpulses. Conscience is the only in,, perafvo of the soul. JJuty.motions arc impulses to I nght-to do what we think we ought to do Con science comnmnds all our intellectual powers to find out" duty ; commands will to choose and do what we belie ^ we ongh to do. The clamoring of the appetites and passions is hushed in the presence of the imperative of e~:""I '' ■"^r^'"«»— "otlL eonsid- IV. Wm and Conscienoe—Choose and do the right IS the nltimate imperative of conscience. Consden' tiousness is habitually doing what we deem right after the most searching investigation. You have used your ntellect to the utmost to find out the law. You be- lieve It your duty to work for prohibition. Now your conscience moves you to do all you can to abolish the saloon. When you do this you act conscientiously. iiut to close your eyes at noonday and declare there is no sun, IS not conscientiousness but rather willfulness. Parf persecuted conscientiously, but he calls himself the chief of sinners liecause he had refused to investi- gate. When we know we are right, we move boldly forward even ,n the face of danger and death. .« 1 ^ '^ Conscience—Educating conscience is so developing our ethical emotions that n„r duty im ipulse to Self as e infalJi- be riglit. il. )n8 doni- )nly lin- es to do >. Con- find out believe tes and ative of consid- ful im- 3 right, nscien- t after d your ou be' -V your sli the iously. lere is illness, imself ivesti- boldly nee is ty-im- CONSCIENCE, OK THE ETHICAL EMOTIONS. 267 pulses become practically imperative. Between the man who habitually does what he intelligently beheves to be right, and tho pollct/ man, there is an immeasurable dis- tance. Each was endowed with duty-emotions, but the one has educated his conscience, while the other has repressed and dwarfed his moral impulses. Compare Paul with Napoleon, or Luther with llichelieu. VI. Conscience, or the Ethical Emotions.— (Jur feel- ings occasioned by our duty-ideas are called ethical emotions, duti/-Gu\otions, emotions of conscience. Co7i- science is our Gapahlllty to feel ethical e?notions. Self, as intellect, gains ethical ideas ; self, as conscience, feels ethical emotions in view of ethical ideas ; self, as will, does ethical acts in view of ethical id^as and ethical emotions. ^ Strictly, conscience is self feeling duty- emotions, but for convenience we use the term con science to represent ethical emotions, as well as the capability to feel these emotions. We do not think of conscience as an entity, nor of an act of conscience as an isolated act. Eacii ethical act is an act of the entire self. Self feels ethical emo- tions in view of ethical judgments, and, in view of these judgments and impulses, determines and acts. As the impulse to right is the dominant activity, we say that a moral act is an act of conscience. Self as conscience feels ethical emotions, and the native energy of self to feel rightness is termed conscience. In this sense con- science is a capability, a power, a faculty of self. Edu- cation develops but does not create conscience. Culture renders the moral impulses more and more powerful as i-.centives to conduct. However diverse their theories, most writers practically accord with these statements. m m I I \\u I AI-I'LIED l-SVCUOLOOY AND TEACIIINO. II. NkcKNSITV job AIoHAl, (JlI.TUKE. Uea«on may \^ educated, but c,.„.scienco «„,< be cnltuutod. Without «m,e n.omi culture h ,„a„ becomes a niouster. It ,s the chication of conscience that (its ns tor the eoinpuniouship „f ,„en and angels. Aloral education is superlatively important. 1 Con,oien,e-cuUure U,,petites and passions to law. It makes one law-abiding. The Chief-Justice of England says, Temperance, self-control as to the driuk-habit, would close three fourths of all the prisons in the world " belf-indulgeiice makes demons, and fills our prisons, our brother and onr gambling-hells. Conscience-culture gives self-control, and dethrones appetite and ,,assion. S. ^ Comoience-mUure leads to the highest happiness. Happiness everywhere is a result of obedience to law as misery is a result of violation of law. " Happy are the pure in heart." " Happy those who hunger and thirst after righteousness." 4. Comeun<>c-culture makes life worth limnq. It lifts np society, and makes our impulses pure and enno- bling. It makes men and God our friends, and gives us he universe to enjoy forever. " He who overcome, shall inherit all thiiiirs." 'iE TO EDUCATE COXSOIENCE. 269 must he becoinos that fits Mural ^t mail- ng is a i^liteiied duty to i is the '\i\y the iiihjects makes d says, would rorld." ns, our 3ulture sion. 9iness. law, ire tlie thirst gr- It eiino- gives iomes There are men who d,, not know that when tliev tutor the magnetic needle they are tutoring currents that enswathe the globe and all worlds. There are men who do not know that when they tutor conscience they are tutoring magnetisms whicli pervade both the universe ot souls and its author. P>eware how you put the finger of special pleading on the cpii vering needle of conscience, and forbid it to go north, south, east, or west; beware of failing to balance it on a liair's point ; for whoever tutors that primordial, necessary, universal, infallible emotion tutors a personal God " (Joseph Cook). III. GkoWTH of CONSCIKNCE. The brute lias no respect for moral law, for it is des- titute of ethical insight as well as of ethical emotion The child at a /ery early age feels duty-impulses, but these impulses are feeble, and fall far short of being practically imperative. The mass of mankind are eth- ical infants all their lives. Soon the little one sees dimly the law of obedience to parents, and feebly feels the duty-impulses to obey. This is the budding of con- science, and needs to be fostered with infinite care and tact. The duty-impulses become moderately strong during l)oyhood and girlhood, but need constant watchfulness to see that they become acts. Train the young to do habitually what they believe to be right, and conscience will grow strong. ^ Conscience becomes highly active and commanding in youth. This is the golden period for its systematic culture. The youth loves and obeys law because it is right. i h i. I II* • I, i a1- \ I 1 I - 270 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. Ooii8cioiico rightly edumtod -rows more und more powerful to the end of life; it beeonuvs the imperative 80ul-erier-y. Jt makes a man mighty to con,iuer. ( )ne righteous man shall ehase a thousand guilty ones, for— " Thus conscience does uuiko cowards of us all." Good Conscience and Bad Conscieuce.-Thoso arc n,isi,.a,lin. oxi.ros- Mcus. rouscience is always ^n,„d. When J>aul persocited (Jiiristians to tho doa h, 1.0 said, "I di.l it in ,;ood c-onscionco, for I thought I ougI)t. lie snnply acted conscienliously. When we act consx-ien- tiously we say we have a us c,»m-ien<'e, and disohcying then, weakens <-onsc,ence. (2.) W/,atecer femh to strengthen the etidoal enwtums may be made a meam for e^Mvaiuw emi- xc" ""ch attention. A doeZ fasi^hf ! "' ^"^'""^ess and a potency of .vou aself endoXiret .IfdM T'''^"""^ ■•^™'^' '» one of these energies and IS. ' ' "' ^'"^- ^^""eness is you may remembefaid V o„ ! " f °"'"- ^"^ """'"l- 'hat her, huLemorr-^raZtrris'^raCer^-^ — -Choice^the" *"' '"'•"' Energy of Self.Detemination. tho^rof n l'^^-'^™'"«»t will-power, and is usually S /. ^^■y"°°^™ -^f ^vill- "Choice is the ca^ pabihty of free election in view of cognitions and lo. * Dr. McCosh. i , ' SELF IS FREE TO CHOOSE. Xties in mind is liese are it when out dis- luainted step })y ing our change il mas- ;i] it is iesson. direc- annises tiseious- pability )ate the >perties ill need at each mcy of eals to ness IS d, that einem- ition. ually le ca- emo- 289 tions." "Without intellect there is no light; without feeling there is no motive ; without motive there is no choice:' "Choice is the power of rational self-deter- mination in consideration of motives." "When two courses are open to us, choice is our power to decide to take one rather than the other." " Choice is simply the self-determining power of the soul." " Choice is mind in liberty, and is the power of preference." "Choice is the determining power in human action. When but one course is open, self adopts it. When several courses are open, self as choice determines in favor of one." "Choice is the capabiHty to decide what action to take." " Choice is the power to elect one of two or more alternatives in view of motives ra- tionally apprehended." " Choice is the ability to make up one's mind in the presence of rival claims." Thus speak the great psychologists. 1. Self is free to choose. Ideas occasion emotions, and ideas and emotions occasion choices. Self-activity characterizes mind. Mental acts are occasioned but not caused. The idea of personal liberty is an intuitive idea. That we are free to choose is clearly a necessary truth. On this truth rests the science of duty. Per- sons are praised and blamed, rewarded and punished, because they are free and hence responsible. All men know that they can choose as they please. No one ever thinks of choice as necessitated except when constrained so to do by metaphysical dogmas. A being not en- dowed with liberty of choice is not a person. ' 2. Motives occasion choices. Incentives to clioice are termed motives. These include reasons for choice, and are the ideas and emotions which move us to de- 19 %\ m 1 1 'i. I H? 1 * V if!; i i M IS';;, 1! i;^^ Mi . 290 APPLIKD rSYCIIOLOGY AND TKACMING. teniiine. Wliat was your motived Wc often ask our selves as well as others this question. What induced you to pursue that coursed Even the least cultured ask this question. Kati(>nal choice is deliberative self-de- termination. Motives are inducements to choose. 3. Ideas, desires, ckoices. Ideas are fundamental. We must know before we can desire. We keep a thought before our ndnds until it awakens a desire and thus induces a determination. Often ideas light and emotions conflict. The idea of happiness through the lawless gratification of the appetites lights with the idea of happiness through obedience to law. The desire for sensual pleasure contiicts with the ethical desires. The house of mirth allures, wliile the house of mourninir appeals to our noblest emotions. Self as choice termi- nates these fearful battles by determining to do right. Ideas occasion emotions, and emotions as active desires move us to choose. We resist unworthy desires, and determine in favor of ennobling desires. Self DetermineB.— I determine for myself. As I am rational, I de- liberate before deciding. For good reasons I adopt this plan and reject that. I am antocrat : in view of these conflicting ideas and emotions I determine. I am free: lam conscious that I can stay or go. I am master : motives are mere considerations that I make strong or weak at will. I am responsible : I myself, uncompelled, chose to act thus ; I know I could have chosen differently. I am a jierson : I am a self-acting, self-conscious, self-determining being. I am immortal: I am in touch with the Infinite Will. TV. Action is the Native Energy of Self to execute his Determinations. — Volition, executive power, executive volition, action — these are the terms used to designate our power to carry choices over into acts. Rational ask our induced II red Hsk 5 8elf-de- se. iiinental. keep a sire and gilt and ugh the the idea L'sire for !s. The ourning e termi- o riglit. ! desires Tes, and :)iial, I de- plan and ideas and can stay it 1 make onipelled, . I am a being. I ecute his secutive esignate Rational ACTION IS THE NATIVE ENERGY OF SELF. 291 aeH(m h the capability to purpcxselj execute determi- nations. '^ Volition is horn of choice, and is the power to carry out our choices." " Volition is will in action, and is the consunnnation of self-determination." " Ac- tion is the mental execution which follows resolution." '' Executive volition is the ability to carry choices over into acts." '' Volition is our power to command all our capal)ilities to unite in the execution of our pur- poses." " Volition is the overt act of will." "Action is the power to exert force in the line of rational choices." Action is the capability to do what we determine to do. Action is self executing his choices. Eeflex-Acts, Impulsive-Acts, Rational-Acts.-In the animal econo- my inovem(>nts which immediately follow feelings, and where there is no rational choice, are termed automatic, reflex, instinctive, iini)ul- sive. Such acts are unpurposed and non-voluntary. Infinite Wis- dom has so planned that more than nine tenths of our acts are of this kind. Habitual acts tend to become automatic. These unpur- posed acts require comparatively little expenditures of energy. We are thus enabled to direct almost our entire energies to purposed and directed effort. A Rational Act is the Intentional Execution of a Rational Choice.— Vou have before you several interesting books which you desire to road. In what order will you read them ? After careful considera- tion, you determine to read this book first ; this, second ; and so on. You now proceed to execute your purpose by reading the books in the order you determined on. Aetio7i, in its strict sense, is the capabil- ity to execute purposes. Thus, Napoleon was a man of action, and Bismarck a man of great executive power. 1. Self reache,^ the outer world throiiyh his physical organisni. Sensation and movement are the connect- ing hnks between self and the not-self. It is impossible for us to manifest any thought, feeling, or pur])ose ex- cept by bodily movements. The look, the gesture, tlio '14 I :W']. \,' 292 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACUING. spoken or written word, come of bodily movements. Self as action commands all his mental and physical abilities in the execution of his purposes. The reflex organism — marvelous mechanism ! — is the ready servant of the will. You determine to write a letter, and in the execution of your purpose you grasj) the pen and write. Ganglia and nerves and muscles respond to your slight- est volitions and automatically carry ou the work. How? No one knows. Self as will originates move- ments in the motor ganglia ; these movements induce molecular waves, which vibrate tlirough the motor nerves to the muscles. The muscles contract and relax, and thus produce the necessary movements. A mind is self-acting, but how does it create motion ? How does tlie singer call into play the right muscles in the neces- sary degree of tension to produce the song ? How do you converse? We here touch the unknown. Is it also the unknowable ? 2. Repetition co7iverts purposed aotimi into habits. From infancy you have been trained to pronounce cor- rectly and speak properly and act politely ; now you do these from habit, without thought and without pur- pose. Wonderful! Wonderful! Habit is the great conservator of mental energy. 3. Exeoutive power is the Gapability to bring about results. Alexander was a man of wonderful executive power, but Aristotle excelled him. The one changed the map, the other the thought, of the world. Executive power is the ability to achieve. It is the ability to or- ganize and direct. You will demonstrate your execu- tive ability by making the most of yourself and doing most for others. II! EDUCATION OF ATTENTION. 293 '^ernents. physical e reflex servant d in the id write, r sHght- ) work. s move- induce motor d relax, mind is )w does 3 neces- low do . Is it > habits. nee cor- you do •ut pur- e great g about [eciitive ged the :ecutive ' to or- execu- l doing CHAPTER XXIV. EE-JCATION OF ATrp^NTION.* By this is meant the development of our power to devote ourselves wholly to one subject. The fact that we can become able to do this is fundamental in educa- tion. Rosenkranz counts this conception of attention the most important principle in pedagogy. Great achievements are possible to one who can concentrate all his energies upon his wisely chosen field of work. I. Relations of Attention to other Activities.— Will is voluntary and purposed effort. There are clearly three movements in acts of will: (1) Self selects a special Held and devotes himself to it : this is will as attentimi. (2) Self, in view of various considerations, determines : this is will as choice. (3) Self executes his determina- tions : this is will as action. Attention in some form and in some degree enters into each mental act. 1. Attention as related to choice and action. We can study these powers separately, but we know that self attends while he determines and acts. Each of these activities supplements the others, but the act of concentrating your mind on one thing is essentially an act of attention. 2. Attention as related to hitellect. Self as atten- tion concentrates his cognitive energies and thus gains mastery. Effective thought is in the ratio of attention. Compare an act of reverie with an act of investigation. We attend, that we mav know. 3. Attention as Mated to emotion. We attend to * See chapter on Atttr^^'on, in Elementary Psychology. PFf I'ili III ii'H I I , w\ fi'B^B w.* i'H^^M '■\ ' mK I r^^^^^H ^^^H 294 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. M ' 111 I. hi i , things that interest us, and attention intensifies our emotions. Joy and hope grow brightest when we direct our attention to them, and anger quickly dies when we turn our attention to charity. Attention and Consciousness.— Self is ever doing acts of Itnow- ing, feeling, willing, and is ever aware of doing these acts. This con- stant conscious activity is thought of as a mental stream, and is some- times represented as a river. The central current represents the field of clear consciousness; the sluggish stream on either side represents the field of obscure consciousness; the eddies and pools and sprays, along the shore, represent the f'>ld of sub-conscioiimeas ; and the land from which flow innumerable brooklets represents the field of unconsciousness. Could the river contract and deepen its current at will, and constantly change its direction to suit itself, it would admi- rably represent the self-acting mind. Self purposely selects his field of effort, and concentrates his energies upon it : this is the central current, the field of clear consciousness. Self attends indifferently to things bordering the field of clear consciousness : this is the field of obscure consciousness, represented by the sluggish waters on either side of the current. But it is not well to carry the figure too far. It is certain that we are conscious in the degree that we attend. II. Terms defined.— No psychological term is in more common use than attention. Its meaning is clear even to the child. 1. Attention, is the power of self -concentration. As attention, self selects one special field and refuses to he diverted from it. We turn away from everything else, and concentrate our entire energies on the subject selected. 2. Attracted or non-voluntarij attention is the spon- taneous attention given to whatever surprises or attracts us. The child turns without purpose from object to object. 3. Yolmitary attention is determined self-concen- tration. This is attention proper. You inUntirniaUy ft fies our hen we kly dies i of know- This con- J is some- is the field represents id sprays, ; and the le field of jurrent at Lild adral- s his field le central ifferently I the field on either I too far. tend. in more ar even n. As )s to ])e ilse,and iected. e spon- Fittracts •ject to omioen- IMPORTANCE OF ATTENTION-CULTURE. 296 devote yourself to the preparation of the liistory lesson. You purposely tix your mind on the geometry lesson. You voluntarily bring to bear all your powers on the lesson in psychology. Voluntary attention is purposed concentration. 4. Versatility is the ability to change. Napoleon gave himself wholly to tlie business in hand ; when this was finished, he turned instantly to the next business. Thus, he tells us, he was able to dispose daily of a pro- digious amount of work. Self as attention changes the direction of his efforts. 5. Educatimi of attention, is the developme^it of the power to piwposely focalize effort. When a child, you could give slight attention only for moments ; now you can give complete attention for hours. This wonder- ful growth comes of v/ell-directed effort, and is called education or culture. You have developed your power of attention. III. Importance of Attention-Culture. — We are en- dowed with the capability to select our field of work and with the power to concentrate our energies on one point at a time ; we are able to master difiiculties in de- tail. The capability to attend is the exponent of mental efficiency. As we develop our power of attention, we increase in geometrical ratio our mental efficiency. The culture of attention is pre-eminently important, because — 1. Mental growth depends on attention. Dreaming does not educate, Drifting does not develop power. The dawdling student ronains a weakling. As my arm grows stronger and more skillful when 1 use it vigor- ously, so my reason becomes more and more powerful 1:^ Jwi . J 1 . ' t ,1 ■■ m 296 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. pi m. it ?! f Nl ffli.H when I persistently give my best efforts to investiga- tion. 2. Complete attentiop. (jives to each cajpahiUty its maximum of power. It makes perception complete, memory almost infallible, and thought penetrating. Take two persons having equal natural abilities: the one who can give complete attention accomplishes many times as much as the one who can only give partial at- tention. 3. Complete attention illuminates. The lens con- centrates the sun's rays. The focal point becomes the center of light and heat. Attention focalizes thought and emotion, and the mental focal point becomes the center of mental light and interest. Everything in the focal point stands out with sunlight clear- ness. 4. Culture develops attention into a habit. The child attends feebly and but for moments. You lead it to repeat the effort day by day. Soon it develops the power to attend more closely and for longer periods. But, what is more important, it acquires the studious habit. As the years advance the learner habitually de- votes himself completely to the matter in hand. Tliis habit distinguishes students from dreamers, and efficient men and women from triflers. 5. Teaching is the art of educating attention. " If the teacher's art is to be summed up briefly, it may be described as the art of developing the power of fixino- the attention." * Were the object of school the develop- ment of the habit of inattention, some teachers would be a remarkable success. Visit our schools, our lecture * N. C. Eooper. ivestiga- ility its >iiiplet«, .'trating. ies : the es many rtial ai- ms con- Hies the thought )econie8 rything ; clear- . The [ lead it aps the periods, tudious ally de- This ifficient '.. " If may be fixing evelop- would i-x^j.,-, LAWS OF aTTENTION-GROWTU. 297 halls, our churches : you find one man in a Imndred who can give his entire atteiitim for an hour. Fellow- teachers, are we to blame i What can we do for the ninety-and-nine ^ IV. Growth of Attention.— Tho educators who have led all forward educHtionul movements lived for years in the closest relations with children. Teachers, you have studied, day by day, the living, play- ing, loving, learning child. What groat practical lesson have you learned f You have closely observed the budding and growth of each of the intellectual powers. You have watched with profound interest the growth of the helpful emotions. Now you will nuike a special study of the child as will. You find that bright objects and musical sounds attract tho attention of the infant. This is the be- ginning of will-activity. Preyer tells us that his boy gazed atten- tively at his image in the glass when but sixteen weeks old. You find that tho little three-year-old in the kindergarten can attend feebly but for moments ; therefore you try to make the kindergarten work as attractive and almost as varied as the plays of children. At six you find that the child can give moderate attention for a brief period, and hence can begin to study. You find it necessary to con- tinue to attract attention through the primary years; but you notice that attention becomes more and more voluntary. The child begins to attend intentionally, and also begins to resist distractions. You observe that your intermediate pupils can give much closer atten- tion and for a longer time. Voluntary attention is now quite active, and the pupils can really study. You find that the youth who has been properly educated can give almost complete attention for a long period. Hence it is that the high-school student is capable of groat things ; but the college student is capable of deeper and more prolonged attention, and hence of greater things. Finally, you ob- serve that the men and women who excel in every field of high achievement are the ones capable of intense and prolonged attention. Thus you have discovered for yourself the growth of the power to concentrate effort. You are now prepared to study the laws of this growth. V. Laws of Attention-Growth.— The child is led but the man is a leader. Effort made lawfully develops iffll N'd I ,' 1 41 Ri *W' 1 1 >i i\>\ I .J w ? I I ■ iii 298 APPLIED PSYCUOLOGY AND TEACHING. the vacillating child into the man of iron will. You study to express the great educational laws in terms of attention. 1. Zmv of effort — FmcIi act of determined attentimi m.creases the power to attend. Attention is highly de- veloped when one can concentrate all his energies for the achievement of an end. 2. Law of means — Studies which demand close and continued attention are lest for developing the power of self concentration. In the study of mathe- matics the learner m,ust attend in order to make any advancement This is true of all studies, but beginners realize this fact most in the study of aritlimetic. 3. Laio of method— Plans of loorh that secure vigorous, systematic, and persistent concentration of effort educate attention. IsTot much more can be said. You so manage that your pupils habitually do their best, and (Vus develop greater and greater power of atten- tion. Some of the most helpful lessons in teaching may be condensed as special laws of attention-growth. 4. Attrition through interest. Interest is funda- mental in the mental economy. Children and adults attend to the things which interest them. The teacher creates interest and thus attracts and strengthens atten- tion. You find it hard to give attention to what does not interest you. How then can you expect children to do this ? Glad attention educates. 2 Concentrated effort must stop short of exhaus- tion. Intense attention is the most exhausting of all mental activity. The little ones can attend but for mo- ments. In the primary grades lessons must be brief, METHODS OF EDUCATING ATTENTION. 299 and exercises demanding close attention be followed by plaj or restful work. As the years go by, the pupils become capable of greater and more prolonged atten- tion, but at all ages this law must be heeded. 3. Attention ccm he kept fixed only as it is kept moving. Storm-centers, in the mental as in the physical world, are never stationary. You keep your mind on the subject because you pass from point to point. You hold the attention of your pupils because you lead them on step by step. Stationary attention is impossible. ^ 4. Attention through determination. You deter- mine to master a difficult theorem in geometry. To this end you concentrate your energies upon the theo- rem, lou determinedly resist distracting influences. When you find yourself relaxing or wandering, you bend your energies anew to the task. You will not re- lax your efforts until the victory is won. This is atten- tion at its best. VI. Means for educating Attention. -Kindergarten work is won- derfully attractive and marvelously varied, and so is well calculated strengthen the child's attention. Arithmetic is counted an excel- i?rl!^r'' n ^•^"''::*^'"""^^"'' *^^^""^ '^' P'-^^^y ^"d intermediate conSLd f7"^ the high-school period, algebra and geometry are considered the very best means for developing attention. Botanv and zoology deserve to rank high as a means of attention-cultur^. Much more however, depends on methods than on subjects. Each study may become of high value as a means of educating attention. YII. Methods of educating Attention. — These are plans of study and teaching that call attention into vig- orous, systematic, and persistent activitv, so as to develo"^) the fee])le attention of the child into the profound at- tention of the man. Attracted attention is converted into voluntary attention. Voluntary attention is so ■f til '•11 1 hi iiil ' li 300 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. ■;• II I, exercised as to become more and more powerful. Now we attract the attention of the httle ones. Later, we so interest the cliildren that tliey give purposed' at- tention for a little time. . Year by year we lead our pupils to give closer and closer attention for longer and longer periods. Thus we so educate our pupils that they become capable of concentrated thought. Atten- tion becomes a habit, and gives thoughtfulness and steadi- ness to purpose. Our methods are our ways of achiev- mg these results VIII. Kindergarten and Primary Methods of educat- ing Attention.— The child is very lai-gdy a thing of sense and impulse and action. Its ideas are sense- ideas. Its impulses pass over directly into acts. As the bee flits from flower to flower, so the child hastens from object to object. The wise teacher sees the child as it is, and so adapts the work as to develop its feeble powers. 1. Attract attention. To do this will often tax your utmost ingenuity. What ideas has the pupil gained? In what things does the child feel an interest? You begin with these. The little girl loves flowers, but gives no heed to numbers. Ask her to bring you ten flowers. You must manage to connect the number-lesson with these flowers. The little boy seems stolid when you try to teach him arithmetic, but you find that he takes a lively interest in animals. You now give problems about animals, and the stupid boy becomes interested and attentive. Kindergarten work is admirably planned to gain the attention of the children, and to develop attracted into purposed attention. Similar work, to a less extent, is greatly needed in most primary schools. i i m CREATE AND SUSTAIN INTEREST. 391 2. Zead the child to do as well as know. You man- age to have the child try the orange by each sense, and to mold a clay orange, and to draw a picture of the orange, and to make a little composition about the orange. You thus lead the child to fix and hold ite attention upon an object. In these ways you convert attracted attention into voluntary attention. Kinder- garten and primary work must very largely consist in doing. 3. Sustain attention hy constant movement. The orator holds the rapt attention of his audience by pre- senting, in succession, different phases of his subject Successful writers understand and act on this principle Study the lessons given by the Great Teacher ; how perfectly he embodies the law that attention can he kept fixed only as it is kept moving ! 4. Create and sustain interest. The story, the ob- ject, the doing, interest the children when intimately connected with their experiences. Attention through interest ts the great law. Even the most cultured find It difticult to hold the attention upon a subject devoid of interest. How, then, can you hope to keep the attention of the children when your lessons are to them dry and irksome ? It is giving interested attention that strengthens the power to concentrate effort. 5. Make it easy to attend. Look to the physical comfort of your pupils. As far as possible, remove disturbing influences. Take the children when they are fresh. Make the exercises sparkling, lively, short. The earnest attention you thus secure will repay you and will prove invaluable to the children. ' 6. Give yourself wholly to the lesson. So order m. hi m ! F • K? 11 m i' u ,5^t^js- I. ! Ji 1 !■! r 302 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. your school that the pupils will govern theiriselves. Study the lesson from the standpoint of the learner. Throw into the lesson your enthusiasm. Enter into the very spirit of the children. Give the oxercises your undivided attention. You will in this way se- cure the complete attention of your pupils. One such lesson is worth more than a score of the dawdling kind. IX. Intermediate Methods of educating Attention. Attention is now largely voluntary. The pupil inton- tionally attends in order to accompUsh some purposed end. The heart throbs with higher and wider interests. ThougJit and conscience and choice begin to count for nmch in the mental life. Work now gradually takes the place of the plaf/-\essons of childhood. The girls and boys learn to really study. Attention and its cultures mean much more now than in childhood. How can we best promote the growth of attention during the inter- mediate period ? 1. Secure the 7nost favorable conditions. Vigorous health and physical comfort are of Urst importance. Light, temperature, seats, exercise, clothing, food, sleep, greatly affect the capability to attend. Quiet and the absence of everything calculated to distract attention must be secured. Yon retire to your quiet and com- fortable studio to do your thinking. Then give your pupils, as far as you can, the same advantages. You thus make it easy to attend. 2. Create great interest. At no other period is this so essential. Boys and girls are intensely alive to their environments and to their personal interests. You must make the school-work more interesting than all other HIUH-SCHOOL METHODS OF EDUCATING ATTENTION. 303 things. Whatever else you do or fail to do, you must create and sustain interest, and thus secure attention. JNow IS the time to awaken permanent interests by cherishing the eiiobling desires. 3. Cultivate right habits of study. Train your pupils to try to keep their minds wholly on the lesson. They must learn to refuse to turn aside. If the atten- tion wanders for a moment, they must determinedly bring It back. The greatest thing you can do for your pupils at this period is to develop in them right habits of study. The essential feature of all effective study is complete devotion to the subject. 4. Lead your pujpils to victory after 'oictwy. Lead them to run down a truth with as great an interest as they run down a rabbit or a fox. So manage that each one solves the problem and finds out the classification. These victories intensify attention, and change the listless pupil into a real student. ^. Ffilist your pupils in worthy endeavors. Boys and girls without high purposes are apt to be wayward and listless. During this period pupils are liable to squander their time and their energies. A worthy pur- pose, as the purpose to graduate, will often work won- ders, converting the careless girl and the wayward boy into attentive students. X. High-School Methods of educating Attention.— Youths ought to be capable of concentrated and pro- longed effort. The students in the high-school must be able to give determined attention. The youth who can bend all his energies to his studies can accomplish some- thing ; but the youth who can not or will not do this will prove a failure. Above all, the high-school should ttH 804 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. a V 1 I lliji j! ii '■ I Hi develop the powers of attention and investigation. Ex amine the students in a hundred high-schools. You discover that less than half of tiiese give earnest atten- tion to the work, either during recitation or study hours. You find a still sma^cr proportion capable of independent investigation. ? > ' better results may be secured by better high-schoox methods. 1. Educate attention hy clierishing the spirit of mastery. Less ground must be covered. The best must be selected. Each pupil is to be inspired with the spirit of mastery and persistently trained in the methods of mastery. The recitation hour is one of united and determined effort to master the topic. The teacher leads, and the pupils do their best. Each one is deeply interested, and all give the utmost attention. The plan of work wisely leads to mastery, and prepares the way for future and greater victories. 2. Educate Oittention hy fostering wider vnterests. Cherish the longings of youth to explore the world without and the world within. Lead your pupils into the enchanting fields of literatuio and art. Enlist them in work for human good. In a world so grand, in the midst of these boundless interests, with so much to en- joy and so much to do, appetite and passion seem insig- nificant. Mighty resolves now become plans of action. That they may achieve, students now habitually resist distractions and allurements, and focalize their energies on their studies. 3. Educate attention hy holding it in class-work. Good teaching secures and holds attention. The eye must not wander nor the attention flag. Three cent- uries have scarcely improved the plan given by Co- n. Ex You t atten- r study able of Its may irit of he best I'lth. the nethods ;ed and teacher deeply he plan he way iterests. I world lis into 3t them in the to en- ri insig- action. y resist nergies s-worh. 'he eye !e cent- by Co- rules FOR (JAINING AND KEEPING ATTENTION. 395 menius-the greatest educator of the seventeenth cen- tury. He formulated the following : give^r" '"' ^""'°^ """^ ^''^'''^ Attention.-The substance only is i. h f''"'^ f-^"'"' '^' '^"'' ^'"''^^' interesting and profitable. This IS golden, and may well guide the teacher 2 So present the subject as to awaken and sustain interest. You will thus secure and keep the attention. lonf'affn ''"' T '^' ? ''""^^^- ^^" ^^"^ ^^^^ attention so studied. ''''' ^'^ '' '^' ^"'^ °" ^""^^^^^ ^^- °" '^'^ object Mn^th^T'^xf ^T^^^"*-^ ^« t^' ^'^^^es. Place something on the senses ^ '"'' "''" ^^^ ''''' ^" ^°'"« ^^ ^PP-^ ^o the 5. ^6^- ap^roi,na^6 questions. This is indispensable. All attend when any one may be called on at any moment! 6. mid each member of the class responsible, Call on them nro- witnoiit repeating the question. 7 Train the memhers of iU elms to ask questio,is Thev are in terested and vvill naturally seek deeper insight. ^ ,.,/: ^"^•'*/'"' a^fewfeW-cw^tor^.* The capability of SLh '"™??*^"'^ '"^ «««rt» i« strengthened by acts of attention^ How to get and keep attention is (he con- stant etndy of the teacher. How to develop the power and habit of attention is the ever-present thought o «>e ed,,eator. The following brief Aile. may assist W way of suggestion : ^ Child n«r' ''^^'''f "r ^^''"^^ '''^''''^' Y°^ ^^'^^ ^^^^ your pupils subject^ The subject must in every way be adapted to the learner 3. Favor attent^on by good management. Sefure the most W- n ^J^^^"^^'-^-— Have the rules written on the blackboard Arranap f«r 20 m il ! ! ^1 !■ 306 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. able (jonditions for study. Physical vigor is highly important. PVoedoiii from interrui)tions and from distracting influences is necessary. 3. Win attention by good elocution. The orator never needs to ask attention— he wins it. So it should be with the teacher. 4. Hold attention by keeping it moving. Tlie focal point of at- tention is the storm-center of mental energy. Storm-centers are never stationary. The theatre and the circus hold the attention by movement, as do the historian and the novelist and the teacher. 5. Stimulate attention by success. You lead your pupils to so attend and work as to gain victory after victory. Nothing stim- ulates effort like success. 6. Inspire attention by poijiting the way to achievement. The pupils who lead their classes are the ones who give the best atten- tion. The men and women who lead in every field of human achieve- ment are those who most completely concentrate their efforts. Newton assures us that he excelled because he gave his attention ex- clusively to the topic he was studying. Dickens tells us that he owed his success to patient, toiling attention. Napoleon ascribed much of his superiority to the habit of attending wholly to one thing at a time. Attention is the royal road to achievement. hi '' 1 I!' ^ 1: ' u XI. Mistakes in educating Attention. — Attention is intentional concentration of effort. The attentive pupil voluntarily devotes himself to the lesson, and purposely excludes everything else. Attention through interest and interest through determination is the great law of teaching. Violations of this law are educational mis- takes, 1. Compidsory attention does 7iot educate. All at- tempts to force attention are blunders. "Mind your books, or you will catch it ! " was the panacea of the old schoolmaster. •■' Get your lessons, or I will grade you down," is the one expedient of the half-way-teacher. Fear of the consequences of neglect may spur the pupil to voluntarily give some attention, but this is a low nportant. nonces is needs to r. nt of at- nters are ;ntion by her. )ils to so ing stim- mt. The (St atten- 1 achieve- r efforts, ntion ex- 1 that he ascribed me thing itioii is '^e pupil rposely mterest law of lal mis- All at- id your the old .de you beadier, le pupil \ a low A DIVIDED TEACIIEU MAKES A LISTLESS CLASS. 307 motive, and the culture of attention thus secured is comparatively slight. Then fear is a great consumer of the mind's energies. The fear of low marks and of failure in examinations is a source of great educational waste. 3. Doing the work for Ae jpupil does not educate. Self-exertion develops power. Making the work so easy that the pupil does not need to attend closely is a great mistake. At every step the learner should be led to do his best. Aim to secure cmnplete attention. 3. A divided teaeher makes a listless class. It is a mistake to try to do two things at once. You nmst make your school self-governing, so that you may j^ive your entire attention to the class. In no other way^'can you hope to interest your pupils and hold their midi- vided attention. 4. Going on with the lesson without the attention of the class tnjures teacher and pupil. Stop. Now vou have attention. Hold it. You must have resources to meet emergencies. Don't become vexed. Tell some story. Draw something. Enlist your pupils in a dis- cussion. Propose some plan. In no case go on with- out attention. 6.^ Bering satisfied with partial or spurious avten- twn ^s a great 7mstake. This is a disastrous educational blunder. Feeble attention means feeble knowing and feeble feeling and feeble willing. Excellence comes of complete attention. SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. Holpfiil Books.-Our literature is growing rich in its literature of attention-culture. Among many excellent productions may be fi ..!^ if ' h m/nf 308 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. ^^^^H' il.' ^^H '' > t 1 i, 1 ! ! 1 ^^^^B- ^^^^M 1 I '' ■ 1 ■. 1. i mcntionecl : Securing and Uetuining Attention, by James L. Hughes- ('haplers on Att' aon-(;ulture, in Lessons in Psychology, by J. P.' Gordy; Chapters on Attention, in Sully's Outlines of Psychology; Training of the Attention, in James Mark Jialdwin's Handbook on Psychology. Our educational journals probably present the best articles on this subject. I have found the articles by George P. Brown especially helpful. Letter.— You will now present to your friend your plan for educating attention. You have studied the child. You are now familiar with the physiology and the psychology of attention. You have considered what others have said about cultivating attention; now you are prepared to write valuable thoughts to help your fellow-teachers. I. Attention in the Mental Economy.— Show that attention is a will-power. Name and define each of the will-powers. Illustrate by a river the relations of attention and consciousness. Give exam- ples indicating that memory is in the ratio of attention. Point out the relations between attention and intellect ; between attention a:id feeling; between attention and choice. II. Terms defined.— Give your definition of attention ; of attend- ing ; of educating attention. Give the etymology of the word atten- tion. Illustrate the nature of attention by the lens. Analyze an act of attention. Give the distinction you make between attracted attention and purposed attention. Is attention always voluntary ? State the distinction you make between attention and consciousness. III. Importance of Attention-Culture.— Prove that attending con- ditions knowing. What makes the difference between revery and investigation ? Show that acquisition and memory are in the ratio of attention. Does mental growth depend on attention? Why may teaching be considered the art of educating attention ? IV. Growth of Attention. — Have you closely observed the growth of child-attention? How early is attracted attention indicated? How early do children really give voluntary attention ? From your observation describe the growth of attention dn'-ing the kindergar- ten period; during the primary period; during the intermediate period ; during the high-school period. Illustrate growth by ability to master more difficult problems during each succeeding period. May attention continue to grow to the meridian of life ? Mav it be kept vigorous in old age ? Give examples from life. V. Laws of Attention-Growth.— State in terms of attention the EDUCATION OF CHOICE. 809 law of effort; law of movement; law of determination. Give an iJlustrution of each law in terms of your own experience M. Me^iis for educating Attention.-ll„w does kindergarten work strengthen atter.tion f Why do yon count arithmetic of high- est value as a means of educating attention i You may place on the board a table of attention-culture values. Give your reasons for the value you assign to algebra ; geometry ; geography ; language-lessons ; composition; botany; Latin; drawing; vocal music MI. Method, of educating Attention.-Make a distinction between a law, a means and a method ; illustrate. How do Kindergarten and primary methods differ! Give and illustrate three directions for kindergarten work; three for primary work. How do intermediate and primary methods differ! State five directions for cultivating at ention during the intermediate period. How do high-school and intermediate methods differ ! Present five directions for high-school work. Place on the board and explain the rules of Comenius for securing attention during the recitation. State the author's rules. VIII. Mistakes in the Education of Attention.— Show the error in forced study ; in doing the work for the pupil ; in the appeal to fear ; m a divided teacher ; in going on without attention ; in partial atten- tion ; in spurious attention. Mention other mistakes of this kind. :|F I •'■) CHAPTER XXy. EDUCATION OF CHOICE.* By this is meant the development of the power of self-determination. Edncation of the will gives self- control and decision of character. Character is organ- ized choices. Cnltnre of will is character-building, or rather character-growing. Choice crowns the trinity of ^e\i\\oo(i~self -activity, seJf-conscioimiess, and self- determin ation. * See chapter on Choice in Elementary Psychology. '! I i ■l ' « 1 810 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. I. Choice in the Mental Economy. — Will crowrn Trioii- tality. / will is tlio aovereigii act of self. Self as will has for }iis servants his body, his intellect, and his feel- ings. With liis servants thoronghly disciplined, the sovereign self goes forth to conquer a world, a universe. 1. JJellberatiwi. As sovereign, self as will calls into council his intellectual powers, lie deliberates; he in- vestigates ; lie considers. The alternatives are weighed. Self determines in the light of reason. 2. IvipuMon. The feelings impels move^ xirge^ in- cite self to choose. The appetites damor for gratifica- tion. The passions demand. The ennobling desires appeal to reason. Love pleads, ('onscience presses duty. " Peace ! Come into the court of reason," is the mandate of the sovereign. Feelings hnpel but do not compel. Feelings are subjected to reason, and the sovereign self determines. 3. Determination. Self as will determines. We feel impulses; we consider all the inducements; we de- termine. Determination is the sovereign act of self. From the decision of self as choice there is no appeal Reconsideration is a voluntary act ; self is sovereio-n. 4. Action. Self executes his determinations. We carry over into action our purposes. We do what we make up our minds to do. Self as action is the history- maker. The man of action is the man of executive power. II. TemiB defined.— Choice stands for will. You think of atten- tion, choice, and action as the will-powers ; but choice is pre-eminent. Most men think of will as the capability to determine. This is its usual meaning in literature. Will, choice, and power of self-deter- mination are ordinarily used interchangeably ;" but when we nee(^ precision we use the specific terms. IMP0RTAN(;E of educating the will. 311 IS 1. Choice is the power of aelf-dctermination. The following definitions urc all good : " Will is mind in liberty "; "Choice is the power of preference"; "Choice is the capiibility of self to decide in view of motives"; "Choice is the native energy of self to deter- mine." 2. Motives are inducements to choose. Self as intellect considers the motives, and, after deliberation, self as will chooses. A weak motive is a slight inducement to choose, but a strong motive is a powerful incentive to choice. A high motive is an unselfish motive. Motives occasion choices. 3. Freedom is liberty in choice. I am free to choose. Nothing more can be said. Each one is conscious of freedom. But for mis- leading theories, no one would even conjecture otherwise. Circum- stances, feelings, antl considerations occasion choices, but do not cause them ; self is the cause. 4. Education of choice is the development of decision of char- acter. This characterizes all great men and women. The power of prompt self-determination is grand. Culture develops the vacillat- ing child into a liismarck or a Beaconsfield. III. Importance of educating the Will.— We liave tried to realize the need to cidtivate the several capabili- ties of self. The culture of each power is important, but it is safe to consider of superlative importance the development of decision of character. 1. Determination is the secret of success. " What a man achieves is simply a question of will." This utterance of Beaconsfield is exemplified by his illustri- ous career. "The impossible becomes realization to the man of indomitable resolution." The resolute pupil solves every problem. Ciilture of will develops the power of determination. 2. Culture of choice gives decision of character. It develops the hesitating, vacillating, unreliable child into ttje decisive, persistent, reliable man. Culture of choice develops the power to determine promptly and adhere t^ "! m j! ' n APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACUING. firmly to a purpose. These traits grow into habits, and characterize the man. 3. EduGation of will makes f 07^ righteousness. Self as conscience impels to right, but self as will determines. Culture of will develops choosing and doing right into habits. The girl, the youth, the woman becomes strong to resist temptation and do right. Moral character is developed. IV. Growth of the Self-determining Powers.-You remember. You trace the growth of your will from cliildhood to the present An hour of introspection is invaluable. You now observe with new interest and deeper insight others' wills. You trace the growth of the self-aetermining power as seen in others, from infancy to age You now study with absorbing interest the records of the obsei-va- tions made by psychologists of all schools. You try to grasp the facts reached by extra-spection as well as those reached by intro- spection. 1 . Child-will is remarkable for its weakness. The native energy of self-determination is feebly manifested when the infant is but ii few months old. "The first deliberate movements," says Preyer " take place only after the close of the first three months." Many weeks pass before the child manifests purpose and clioice. When three years old, will, as attention, choice, and action, is feebly active In the kmdergarten the child is dependent, docile, tractable, obedient credulous. Kmdergarten exercises are adapted to strengthening the weak will of the child. In the primary period, the child is less docile and less dependent. Purpose and determination are now manifested but the child is vacillating and easily influenced. Primary work must be so adapted as to cultivate the weak will of the pupil. 3. Boy-ivill and girl-ivill are remarkable for ivaywardness. belf-determination asserts itself and resists restraint. The boy has a will of his own, and is not always disposed to listen to reason. Ihough will has grown stronger, the pupil is weak in the power to adhere to a purpose and resist temptation. The wise culture of will is now doubly important. 3. Youth-uHll is remarkable for its vigor. The youth attempts the impossible with the vigorous determination of a Napoleon 10 MEANS OF CHOICE-CULTURE. 313 cross the Alps. The youth enters upon his work with a determina- tion that brooks no failure. 4. Man-will is remarkable for decision a7id tenacity. The man enters upon his life-work with firmness of purpose, and adheres to it with unswerving tenacity. y. Means for Choice-Culture.— From infancy to age, during almost every waking moment, we prefer, we choose, we purpose, we 7nake plans, we decide, we de- termine. These acts tend to develop choice. Whatever calls rational self-determination into vigorous activity may be made a means for strengthening this power. 1. Hard study is doubtless the best means for edu- cating self-determination. Compare the student with the idle youth. The dawdler is weak, incapable, ineffi- cient ; the student is mighty to conquer. Hard study develops will-power and makes men. 2. Discipline, family and school, is of very high value for choice-culture. Self-denial, self-control, and cheerful obedience to law and lawful authority become life-habits. 3. Biography and history rank high as a means of will-culture. The men and women who made history, possessed mighty wills. As the youth studies these records, his determination to excel becomes stronger and stronger. 4. Good literature tends to develop good will, and lad literature tends to strengthen lad will. Good ideas tend to become good purposes and good acts ; lad ideas tend to become lad purposes and bad acts. 5. Good companionship is of inestimable value in will-culture. The friend who leads his companions to choose for themselves, and choose wisely, is a treasure. i'l m m 314 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. §i Hj t Ml The egotist who chooses for his associates, and the per- son who leads them into temptation, are unfortunate companions. 6. MMcs and religion, after all, stand first. Their motives are the higliest. Purposes reach into eternity. Acts of will are infinite in their bearing. Conduct pre- pares the self for a position among the eternal tenantry of a boundless universe. VI. Laws of Self-Determination Growth.— Choosing for one's self educates the capability to choose, just as judging educates judgment. The great educational laws apply to will equally with emotion and intellect, and may be stated in terms of choice. 1. Law of e/or^— Determining with promptness and adhering to purposes with firmness educate choice. 2. Law 0/ mearis— Whatever leads one to habitually determine for himself may become a means of developing choice. A world of possibilities is the unlimited means for will-culture. 3. Law of 7nethnd— 'Plans of work that require constant self- determination educate will. The learner is systematically led to form purposes and to persist in them. Kffleient methods of study are such plans of work. Laws relating specifically to the culture of will are of great prac- tical importance. (1.) Purposed action educates will. A voluntary act is one done with a view to some end. Even in the kindergarten, the child is continually led to do acts to reach ends. (2.) Forming settled determinations educates choice. When everything has been considered, a decision must be made, and must not be changed ex- cept for good reasons. You will discover other helpful laws, but the laws given will guide you in your efforts to educate the will. VII. Methods of educating Choice.— Great attention has been given to methods of educating the intellectual powers, and splendid results are secured. But compara- tively little study is devoted to will-culture. Methods ), I the per- fortunate t Their eternity, duct pre- tenaiitry Jhoosing !, just as )iial laws lect, and adhering determine A world itant self- lly led to of study reat prac- voluntary lergarten, Forming has been mged ex- laws, but ! will. "tention illectual )nipara- lethods INTERMEDIATE METHODS OF EDUCATING CHOICE. 3 15 of educating perception and memory and reason are lessons in every institute, but lessons on methods of developing decision of character are rare. Yet all ad- mit the superlative importance of conduct. YIII. Kindergarten and Primary Methods of educating Choice.— The child is led to deliberate and choose. Its little choices are respected. When the child deliberates and chooses wisely, it is praised and rewarded. When it goes wrong from impulse, it is left to suffer the con- sequences, and so led back to the path of duty. The child is led to assume light responsibilities and to prove itself trustworthy. The little ones are led to try to reach precision in gymnastics, music, drawing, and manners. Kindergarten work is wisely arranged to promote the growth of choice. Primary work may safely follow similar lines. That children may be led to achieve pro- posed ends, the means as well as the ends must be made interesting. IX. Intermediate Methods of educating Choice. — Thchc are plans of will-culture adapted to the intermediate pupils. The wise teacher often stands in wonder before his class of boys and girls. New phases of their nature are constantly bubbling up. This is the most trying period for the teacher and parent, as well as the most critical period for the pupil. Only general suggestions can be given. Each teacher must work out and follow her own plans. 1. Leave the pupil to choose. Ko one but self can choose. You can do much for your pupils, but you can not choose for them : nor would it educate will if vou could. The act of choice must be the act of the pupil. An entire chapter is needed here. .;] ..,.| 1' c ''■I: I Ml. I^!' S' 41 » i it 316 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGV AND TEACIIINO, 2 Tmin impiU to »tudy viyomudy. It beco.ues a Habit to choose study ratliei- than play. Then each mo- ment devoted to 8tn,iy requires a tremendous effort of 3. Leadjmjnh i. oonsule,-. This liabit is invalu- able. Hasty action is responsible for most crookedness and cnme. "I did not think," is the standing excuse of boys and girls. They do not stop to consider b„t act from impulse. Here is the danger. The pupil vvlio thinks before he acts seldom goes far wrong. 4. Trah pupUs to choose the right. There may be more fun in playing truant than in going to scliool, but he one IS wrong and the other is right. By all means the pnpil inust be led to choose the right. 5. Train the pxipU to resist temptation. Tempta- tions will come, and the pupils must be educated to overcome them. The truant is tempted to lie: he must not. In time of peace prepare for war. Prepare the pnp.l for the hour of trial. Boys are sorely tempted smoke and gamble and drink. These habits mean run,. Self^ontro must be fostered and the boys saved. X. High School Method of educating Choice.-Will is inghly active in youth, and this is the time for its higher culture. To control seething appetites and passionf re- quires a penetrating intellect, a heart full of all enno- bling emotions and an iron will. 1. Ilalitually determining in view of high motives Msehlll RESISTING TEMPTATION STRENGTHENS WILL. 317 of conscience commands, " I)o rUjhtr Self as intellect considers. In view of the considerations self as choice determines. In the midst of wise counselors there is safety, and there is safety in deliberate action. Hasty and impulsive action brings woe. We must not yield to the first impulse of desire, nor form hasty resolu- tions, but must reflect, must weigh the pros and com before determining. Feelings must yield to reason. % Habitually subordinating low a/nd selfish im- pucses to the higher emotions and to reason, educates choice. This is self-control. The appetites clamor for strong drink with its Pandora box of human ills. But the brave youth spurns low and selfish and debasing gratifications. The pure, the lovely, the beautiful, the good fill his heart with joy, and lift him up to a higher and grander life. / ought weighs more with him than palaces of pleasure. Greater is the man who controls himself than he who gains battles. It requires more self-determination to resist temptation than to face danger. 3. Resisting temptation strengthens ivill. Yielding weakens. Those poor, weak, fallen wretches can not now resist. There is no safety but in early resistance. The first glass makes the drunkard, for yielding once leads on to yielding again and again, and the youth becomes a slave to his appetite. How difficult the task of lift- ing up the fallen ones ! These unfortunates are slaves to habit. They have yielded until they have lost the power to resist. Must they perir.h ? No ; oh, no ! We must rescue them by removing temptation, and fos- tering the little manhood left. Resisting temptation strengthens will. There is absolutely no safety but in :.' (■ m ii; •!,:•:, .>; k 318 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. Hi lltJj. 1 1' il a," ;| resistance. Resisting once gives greater strength to re- sist again. Habitually resisting temptations to lie and steal and cheat and to unlawful gratification of tlie ap- petites, develops will-power. Contrast a prize-iighter with John Wesley. The one has habitually yielded to every base impulse and is a low and brutal fellow. The other resisted temptation and chei'ished every ennobling virtue, and became a lovely, grand man. 4. Di^clplme resultiny in self-cwitrol educates will The earnest efforts to be regular, prompt, decorous, suc- cessful, and moral, immensely strengthen will-power. These efforts are every way encouraged. To this end school hfe is better than home life. But some one fails. Now the discipline of suffering becomes neces- sary in order to stimulate the power of self-control. _ 5. Persistent effort to realize perfection educates will. Your ideal is a perfect character : to realize this ideal you constantly put forth your best efforts. You determinedly follow lines of work calculated to develop such a character. You vehemently repress thoughts, feelings, and acts calculated to mar your ideal. \he boundless possibilities of self, and the consciousness of capabilities to realize these possibilities stimulate self- determination to the utmost. XL Mistakes in educating the WiU. — Character- building is pre-eminently the mission of the teacher. The Greek educational ideal of cliaracter was the perfect individual ; the Roman ideal was the perfect citizen ; but the educational ideal of the twentieth century will be the perfect individual self and the perfect social self. 1. Neglect. Our normal schools and teachers' associ- yth to re- 3 lie and f the ap- ze-fighter ielded to )w. The nuobliiig c^tes will. 'OUS, suc- ll-power. this end )nie one 38 neces- trol. educates dize this s. You develop lioughts, d. The sness of ate self- laracter- teacher. ! perfect citizen ; iry will t social ;' associ- GOOD-WILL IS NOT CULTIVATED. 319 ations fad to give sufficient practical emphasis to cmi^ duct. Our methods of intellectual culture are becoming scientific and artistic, while our methods of educating the emotions and the will remain crude and inefficient. Folly and crime keep the race in a state of semi-barbar^ ism. Great ciiaracter-builders, like Arnold of Kugby are still phenomenal. 2. Our training is too largely negative. We restrain rather than develop. We teach language positively, by leading our pupils to use our language ])roperly ; we have abandoned the negative, false-syntax method. ' We teach penmanship positively, by leading our pupils to aim at ideally perfect forms ; the 7iegatvve method of parading mistakes has been abandoned. The same is true of orthography and reading and music and gym- nastics. Only in character-building do we retain the ^Id, hurtful, negative met^ -' This, too, should speed- ily give place to positive Wxil-training. 3. The extremes of rigid and loose control are Uun- ders. The rule of " Do as you please" is scarcely less hurtful than the rule of " Must." The child is free, and should be induced to choose wisely. We throw around the young every favoring influence, and do everything to develop the habit of self-control. But, from the nursery to the university, we foster free choice and thus strengthen the power of self-determination. We seek, at every step, to develop the habits of self-control and self-govern inent. 4. Good-will is not cultivated. Napoleon had an iron will but not a good will. Kant tells us that the absolutely go^^ is good-will. Certainly it is good-will that we want to strengthen. School incentives, I fear, l5( ,Ni 320 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. >' r a ft .ii t il i\ I. do not always tend to develop a good will. This is vital. 5. Breakinc/ the child's will is a cruel blunder. This is the mistake of the ignorant and stupid ; and who can tell the ruin it has wrought ? We cherish and strengthen good-will by leading our pupils to choose good. Good ideas awaken good emotions and thus oc- casion good choices. By interesting the young in good ideas we lead them to choose good. SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS Helpful Books.-Libraries have been written about the will "Am I free to choose, or is my choice necessitated ? " This is the question of the ages, and has enlisted the best thought of the race. But these myriad volumes are not calculated to help much in the culture of the will. Education of the Will, in Rosenkranz's Philosophy of Education, is excellent. Many good things may be gleaned from works on ethics. Good articles on will-culture are now beginning to appear in our educational journals. Letter. You may greatly interest your friend by treating prac- tically 01 the culture of the power of self-determination. You will do good by recasting your letter and sending it to some paper for publication. I. Self-Determination in the Mental Economy.— State your view of the relations of will and intellect ; of choice and emotion ; of choice and action. Diagram and explain deliberation, impulsion, determi- nation, action. Are you at liberty to prefer one thing to another? Give some proofs. II. Terms defined.— Give your definition of attention; of choice; of action ; of motives ; of weak motives ; of strong motives ; of high motives ; of low motives ; of freedom. What do vou mean by the education of choice? Illustrate. III. Importance of Will-Culture.-What has determination to do with success? Does will-culture develop decision of character? How does will-culture make for righteousness? State two addi- tional reasons why you consider will-culture superlatively impor- tant. EDUCATION OF ACTION. .821 IV. Growth of Choice.-State your recollections of the growth of your power of choice. Tell results of your studies of will-growth in others. What have you gained from books t Describe child-will • boy-will ; youth-will ; man-will ; will of the aged. V. Means of Choice-Culture.-Explain the value of hard study of discipline ; of good literature ; of good companionship; of bi..g- raphy ; of ethics. Make a table of choice-culture values VI. Laws of the Growth of Choice.-State in terms of choice th. law of effort; the law of means; the law of method. Write out two special laws that you have discovered. VII. Methods of educating Choice.-Describe the kindergarten ways of developing choice; primary ways ; intermediate methods- high-school methods. Should we be as systematic and persistent in' the culture of will as in the culture of intellect? -A 7\^li ""**^" '"^ Will-Cuiture—What will be the educational Ideal of the twentieth century ? Do we neglect will-culture ? Why isnegative will-culture counted a mistake? Illustrate. What is the golden mean between rigid and loose control! Do school methods sometimes develop bad will f Why do you protest against breaking the will of the pupil ? CHAPTEK XXVI. EDUCATION OF ACTION. Action stands for doing. We act when we do what we make up our minds to do. We execute our pur- poses. Education of action means the development of executive power. We have men of thought like Plato and men of action like Hannibal. Our ideal man is at once a man of thought and a man of action. Paul, the peerless thinker, was also the peerless worker. As WiU, Self attends, determines, acts.~We carry out our plans • we execute our purposes ; we make our determinations acts. We are endowed with the capability to make our purposes acts. Action is 21 lii m If 1. -1 I ijiil ill: 322 APPrJED J'SYCIIOLOGY AND TEACHING. the native energy of self to execute hi.s determinations. It is the eiecutive power of the soul. I determine to write a letter: writin^r the letter is self acting. 1 determine to solve the problem : solving the problem is self acting. I deternune to teach a class in Sunday- school : teaching the class is self actiiig. Solf, in executing his pur- poses, commands all his resources of body and mind. I. Action in the Mental Economy. — Mental activity culminates in action. Sensations occasion ideas ; ideas occasion emotions ; ideas and emotions occasion deter- minations; determinations occasion acts. You know, you feel, you resolve, you do. You learn that your sick neighbor is in need : you pity ; you determine to re- lieve his wants ; you now act in ministering to the suffer- ing one. The unity of the self is strikingly exhibited in action. Self determines, and, in executing his pur- pose, he marshals all his energies of mind and body. Like the commander of a discipHned army, self hurls all his forces into the effort to win the battle. Intellect gives wisdom ; emotion gives impulse ; will gives pur- pose and concentration; but in the execution of pur- poses action domimi es. Self is intent on achievement, and exerts all his powers to accomplish his purposes. Purposed Action. — Movement is action in its general sense, but there are many kinds of movement. Mechanical movement is termed mechanical action ; reflex movement is termed reflex action ; impul- sive movement is termed impulsive action ; instinctive movement is termed instinctive action ; and purposed movement is termed pur- posed action. Action, as here used, is purposed action, and includes all intentional doing. Whatever we do in executing our determi- nations is termed willed action. Brute movements are impulsive and not rational acts. Impulse passes over into action without the intervention of deliberative purpose. Only rational beings— self- acting, self-conscious, and sclf-dctermining—are capable of doing purposed acts. It is purposed action that we educate. We develop the energy to execute purposes. It 18 the •: writinf* I : solving n Sunday- g his pur- activity s; ideas n dcter- 1 know, our sick e to re- e suffer- xhibited his pnr- d body. (If hurls [ntellect r^es pur- of pur- vement, >oses. sense, but is termed 1 ; impul- novement ■med pur- l includes determi- impulsive thout the igs — self- of doing e develop EDUCATION OF ACTION. 828 II. Tenni deflned.-A mind is endowed with capa- bihties to act in various ways. The one self does these acts and so we think of a faculty or power as merelv a capability of a self. Self as will executes. 1. Action is the native energy of self to execute hi% determination,. All forms of carrying out plans are termed action. The man of action is the man of execu- tive power. The terms action, execution, volitimi, and executwe power are used interchangeably Action is simply our capability to execute our purposes. I know, 1 leel, I plan, I execute. 2. Education of action is the development of the ex^ ecuhve power. This culture develops the habit of exe- cutmg our plans with promptitude and vigor It makes the difference between the efficient man of affairs and the dreamer. The feeble purposed actions of the child are the buddings of executive power that may rule an empire. III. Importance of the Education of Action.— The road to failure is paved with unexecuted purposes. De- cisive opportunities unimproved are forever lost. The tide must be taken at the flood. The power and habit of decisive and effective execution are invaluable. 1. Action-culture makes the scholar. The boy and youth who continually form projects of study which they never execute are failures. They grow^ up to be men oi pi^ojects and not of deeds. Only students who learn to execute with iron will their plans of study can hope to be crowned. 2. Action eulture organizes success. The pupil who gets into the habit of succeeding becomes the successful man. Doing leads to better doing. /*[ 1 1 i' 824 APPLIED PSYCUOLOQY AND TEACniNQ. 11 w If. ! H*=:t:" -'f' ^hi m ' 11 3. Doi7ig doubles capability. The inspiration of achieveineut works wonders. Inactivity dwarfs, while activity makes giants. Somehow doing what we plan to do makes us mighty to conquer. 4. Action is a large part of life. Much of o.ir lives is physical action, as talking, walking, singing, eating. Physical action is almost the entire life of the child. Most of our adult life is execution of purposes. We can thus realize the immense importance of so edu- cating action as to lead to achievement. 5. "Physical education means an economy of force, for the reason that every movement is intrusted to the muscle best fitted to the end in view. If inaction, or the defective action of an organ, causes atrophy, it must follow that its frequent activity promotes increased de- velopment. This is true of the brain and of all the nervous elements used in physical movement. Not only is it true that the nervous system has a share in the organic changes made by physical exercises, but it is as true that the psychical faculties are strongly in- fluenced. The will is developed and improved by a systematic command of muscle, and this increase of will-power is a large factor in the growth of charac- ter." * IV. Growth of Action.— The child is a bundle of activities. The infant strikes and kicks and sucks and cries. These instinctive and reflex movements prepare the body for purposed action. Preyer observed willed action during the fourth month. Certainly we discover the germs of purposed action before the child is six ♦ Miss Clara Conway, Paper read before the National Coimcil of Edu- cation. GROWTH OF ACTION. ation of fs, while we plan of o.ir singing, e of the 'urposes. P 80 edu- of force, i to the Jtion, or , it must ised de- all the t. Not share in 5, but it ngly in- d by a Base of charac- idle of 3k8 and prepare \ willed iscover is six 1 of Edu- 825 months old. But the remarkable feebleness of child- will is notorious. Hence the surprising credulity, do- cility, obedience, tractableness, and (le[)endence of chil- dren. This weakness also exj)lain8 the impossibility of mesmerizing little children. Hypnotism is condi- tioned by continued attention, which is impossible to the young child. The ciiild acts from impulse rather than from pur- pose, but culture changes impulsive action into purposed action. The boy and girl learn to think before they act. Action is now becoming effective and achieve- ment gives unmeasured pleasure. The executive power is highly active in youth, and reaches full activity in early manhood. From the sixth to the fourteenth year is eminently the habit-forming period. The pupil must be led to do until doing is rooted into habit. V. Means for the Education of Executive Volition.-These ftre so abundant as to embarrass the leacher. We must choose wisely. 1. Kindergarten-work is mostly action. How admirable the ex- ercises are planned to promote the growth of spontaneous action into purposed action! The child intentionally represents realities and works to accomplish something. 2. Gymnastics, school tactics, and good plays, are all valuable for action-culture. Pupils get into the habit of executing purposes, and of working in harmony with others. 8- Molding, carving, making things, drawing, and penmanship are admirable for action-culture. Our manual-training schools em. phasizo the value of these exercises. 4. Music, reading, conversation, and composition, are wonderful promoters of the growth of willed action. Spelling, pronunciation, expression, deserve special mention. 5. Manners and morals justly take precedence during the pri- mary and intermediate periods. 6. Study ranks high during the high-school and college periods. m m it, Ml; i m 326 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. it ' ' n¥ min 'It liiii i '. i 1 * ',1 1 1 , The student works to a programme and continually executes his re- solves. 7. Biography and history are of high value. The achievements of others inspire us for achievement. VI. Laws of Action-Growth.— JSTo one objects when we say, " ^7e learn to do by doing." "Art is long," and only repetition gives skill and forms habits. 1. Exeoutiny jyurposes educates action. Not mak- ing plans, but executiyig plans, develops the executive power. We gain executive ability by determinedly carrying out our purposes. 2. All lines of work that demand the constant eme- Giition of purposes may he made the means of action- culture. We have an infinite store-house from which to select. Doing intentional acU educates action. Exe- cuting determinations develops our executive power. 3. Plans of work that require the systematic, per- sistent, and effective execution of purposes educate ac- tion. " Few things are so repulsive as to see a conceited teacher with some pet hobby trying to convince children that the text-book is, and all previous teachers have been, wrong, and he alone has the 'best' way. There are good ways, there are better ways, but I know neither man nor woman in all my range of acquaintance who has the hest way in education, general or specific. I am quite confident that the best will not be discovered in my day." * However, we may modestly strive after the best. Vanderbilt told the ambitious youth that he had made money by working hard and saying nothing. Teachers may safely pursue this course : seek the best ways, and let results speak for you. *A. E. Winship. LEAD THE PUPIL TO FORM GOOD HABITS. 327 utes his re- liievements 3t8 when •ng," and rot mak- ixecntive 'mined ly ta/nt exe- '^ action- n which 1. Exe- ower. ■tic, per- [Gate ac- onceited children ve been, lere are neither ace who J. I am ^ered in ve after that he lothing. ;he best VII. Primaiy and Intermediate Methods of educating Action.— Tliose are plans of work whicli lead puj)ils to }' .bitiially execute their purposes. Self as action exe- cutes his own purposes. Systematically and persistently executing purposes educates action. Primary and in- termediate methods are plans of school work adapted to pupils from six to fourteen years of age. This is termed the habit-forming period. The right culture of action is now of the utmost importance. ^ 1. Lead the pupil to do. Knowing comes before doing. The pupil, in vie\\ of knowing and feeling, de- termines and acts. A purposed action implies knowing and emotion. Just here we need to pause and try to gain a deeper insight. The child in reality begins to do when its knowledge is shadowy, and when it is not easy to distinguish impulsive action from purposed ac- tion. Doing, it is certain, leads to better knowing and better doing. You lead the child to test the apple by each sense, and to mold it and to draw it. These pur- posed acts cultivate the power to act and also help the child to gain a better knowledge of the apple. May we not thus harmonize, on a higher plain, the expressions, "We learn to do by knowing"; "We learn to do by doing" ; and, " We learn to know by doing" ? 2. Lead the pupil to form good habits. This in- cludes a large section of your work. You manage to have the pupil keep on acting p)'^operly until good manners become fixed habits. You lead the pupil to go on doing right until right doing grows into a firm habit. You lead the pupil to continue spelling correctly and pronouncing correctly and composing correctly un- til these acts grow^ into life-habits. 328 APrUED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. It* • i ! U !' Ili 3. Lead the pxcpil to form the habit of succeeding Give your pupils work that they can do, and tlieii man^ age to have them do it. They wiH tlius get into the liahit of succeeding. You need to foster pluck. Pupils will accomplish what they undertake. They must know no such word as fail. The habit of succeeding now acquired, becomes a life-habit. 4. A2>preciate success. Tlie veteran minister, as well as the infant just taking its Urst step, is strengthened by judicious praise. The little successes of the child de serve warm appreciation, as do the greater successes of the girls and boys. Without this appreciation on the part ot the parents and teachers and associates, few pupils ever amount to much. Care must be taken to praise earnest eifort and real success in such ways as will lead to greater effort and greater success without exciting vanity. » VIII. High-School Methods of educating the Executive Power.-The faltering child has become the determined youth. The aimless boy has become a student with a purpose. ]^ow is the time to develop the iron will. 1 he impulsive and daring youth, amid all tempests, must be educated to adhere firmly to his purposes and determinedly work out his life-plans. How may parents and ministers and friends and teachers help ? How may the youth develop great executive power ? 1. Work to a programme. The railroad has its time-table and the school has its programme. No less does the individual need to have a systematic plan of work. The programme is a wonderful conservator of mental and physical energy. The successful mon that reach a grand old age owe much to system. Working U. i APPROVE GOOD WORK. 329 Gceeding, leii man- in to the Pupils By must iceeding, *, as well lened bj liild de- Jesses of the part T pupils ) praise 'ill lead 3xciting cecutive rmined with a n will, tn pests, ses and parents •w may las its Jo less •Ian of itor of n that :)rking to a programme gives tenacity of purpose and greatly strengthens the executive power. It is the way to suc- cess. The writer has induced hundreds of youths to form the habit of working to a programme. " To this habit I owe my success," is the cheering testimony re- ceived from scores. I see no other way in which you can do so much for your students as in educating them to make and to follow good plans of work. ^ 2. Approve good wo7± This is the teacher's glad office. Many a mother has made a noble man out of her son by her warm appreciation of his achievements. Many a wife has made a great man out of her husband by her approval of his noble acts. Your pupils, encour- aged by your smiles of warm appreciation, will do any amount of work. Hearty approval is better than in- struction. Icebergs may do for lawyers, but they will not do for teachers. 3. Study systematically. Hard study develops will- power as nothing else does. It develops aUentimi be- cause it is the concentration of effort. It educates self- determination because it is the constant exercise of choice. It educates action because it is the determined execution of purposes. But the student must study systematically. Spurts do not help much. Studying vigorously, day after day, and adhering to a well- digested programme, strengthens the executive power as nothing else can. 4. Foster the habit of succeeding. Success is bring- ing about desired results. Every problem the student solves is a success. Every lesson the youth masters is a success. Every temptation resisted or duty done is a .Miocess. It is infinitely important to youths to get into m u, •; !i> I.i > 330 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. the liabit of succeeding. Notliing succeeds like sue ces8. Ihc balkj liorse will not try. The student who failed jesterdaj and to-day will not try to-morrow. 1 lie habit of failing weakens even hope. Our students must not fail. IX. Mistakes in educating Action—The teacher seeks Hisight. (.hild-nature and child-growth are studied with tireless mterest. Everything tending to promote healthy growth IS fostered, and everything tending to retard or mar is avoided. 1. Aetmi-eulture is neglected. The development of rational self-activity is primary. How often this is for- gotten in our zeal to impart knowledge ! Eight habits are more important than a knowledge of fractions studies are means of calling forth effort and thus devel- oping power. Culture must be many-sided. Will and emotion, as well as intellect, must be educated, Each lesson, in some way, must educate the entire child Ex- clusive intellectual culture is a fundamental error 2. />z7. are permitted to fail. In the average school, half the pupils fail day after day. The blun- dering recitations, through which they' are draqged, do not he p. The fatal habit of failing becomes a life: habit. This must not be. The work must be such as the pupils can do, and they mmst be led to do it Sue cess in easy work is immeasurably better than failure m hard work. The ha!)it of succeeding must be in- grained. 3. Action is not rooted into habit. The educational waste resulting from this neglect is enormous. How much of mental waste is saved when the child «arly lorms the habit of truth-telling! What we do habit- like suc- lent who morrow, students ler seeks ied with healthy ?tard or ment of s is for- t habits actions. s devel- 'ill and Each I. Ex- r. Lverage 3 blun- -agged, a life- uch as Sue failure be in- itional How earl y habit- INJUDICIOUS PRAISE IS A WOFUL MISTAKE. 3^1 ually we do easily. How inexpressibly important it is that all right habits be fixed early in life! 4. Bad habits are not eradicated. Girls are suffered to go on sipping wine ; boys are suffered to go on smoking the fatal cigarette. Bad habits are like dis- eases : they must be eradicated before good habits can be formed. We must lead our pupils to stop doing wrong, and thus break up bad habits. We must lead them to begin doing right, and keep on doing right, and thus establish good habits. 5. ^'•Breaking a child's will is not the way to edu- cate it, any more than breaking a stick is the way to bend it ; when it is once broken, there is nothing left to bend. It is never right, whether at home or at school, to make a child give in through mere terror. Education presupposes sympathy. Terror kills sym- pathy. The parent or teacher wlio makes a child afraid of him, puts that child out of his reach. It be- comes forever impossible for that parent or teacher to educate that child. He may force him to recite lessons, and compel him to obey commands ; but that confi- dential leading of mind and will into larger fields and wiser ways in which true education consists is utterly impossible. A rule maintained by terror is a reign of death, whether in home, or school, or state." * 6. Injudicious praise is a mistake. Talented young ministers and teachers are often spoiled by flattery, as are hundreds of bright boys and pretty giils. Un- merited praise is poison, and its product is the vain egotist. Judicious praise is always helpful, and should take the place of sarcasm and fault finding. * President W. D. Hyde. H m 1.1 iuJ m . !: II! !. ;■ i'i ! H:' i i 1'^ i m\ . 1^ If 332 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. SUaOBSTIVE STITDY-BINTS. letter.-Your letter to your traeher-friend about the education l'e"uy ;" r^f '"" ■"' "'"'"" ^"'''«"^"™'- ^™ '-' O-P™ Z Xtigt..;':™!" "" "■'"""^^ °' """""""« ".owi.i"y„u cut pa^et'lndtT" *" '"^ """^ =«»»""y-Point this out in ,^n i„ ! :■ ''"■'""' '"■*" ^'*^- ^'""^ sensations up to ideas up 'o en.ot,o„su.p to ,lotern,i„ations, up to actions. Illusfrate. n. Teim. (ieaned.-aive your definition of action ; of purposed ro"/„::ir"'"" ™"""" ■ "' ''" -^-"'-^ ^"^^ ■• °' "' -='- III. Importanee of Action-Calture.-Why do you consider th« educafon o, ,.tion very important. HoJdces't aCthoIar apabiliW, ,"^ " 1° '°.:'"' ^•'="'="' "°" "^^ " bear on c apability ? How much of life is action f of t^" ,^^7*^.f A«tio^-What kind of activity makes up most of the chad's hfef How early does the child manifest purposed lerioV^ ^."''■^''^'^ °^ '^^'^^^ ^"'-^"^ ^he kindergarten dunnt th "?"^>, , 'r "^' P'"^'^ ' '"^^"^ ^^^ intermediate period ; during the high-school period ; during the college period. What do you consider the habit-forming period ? ^^"acao V. Means for the Education of Action.-Point out how kinder- garten-work helps. What value do you give to gymnastics f to drawingf to music f to manners^ to studyt Placf on "he" ad your table of action-culture values. VI. taws of Action-Growth-State the law of effort in terms of action ; the law of means ; the law of method. What does Dr Wmship say about methods? What does Vanderbilt say was hin method of acquiring wealth t ^ yil. Primary and Intermediate Methods of educating Action.- What do you mean by primary methods? by intermediate methods? by high-school methods? by college methods? Point out the rela- tions between knowing and doing. How will you lead your pupils to form good habits ? How will you get your pvtpils into the habit of succeeding? /low does judicious praise heir-. ? CI, ^u , ""*""" ^'="^""3 0* uducaung Oio Executive Power Show the benefits of working to a programme. How does appror- iL CULTURE OF THE WILL. 333 education deeply the ^ill. You his out in p to ideas, trate. purposed tie educa- ing of good work help! (Jive some of the benefits of studying systematically. Why should the habit of succeeding be fostered t IX. Mistakes in educating Action.— Why do we neglect action- culture f Show the bad effects of permitting pupils to fail. Point out the waste resulting from the failure to root action into habit. Why should bad habits be eradicated! Is it a mistake to try to break the child's will f Mention some of the evil effects of flattery. CHAPTER XXVII. iider the scholar- bear on up most )urposed illed ac- 3rgarten i period ; fVhat do kinder- icsf to 3 board erms of oes Dr. vas his stion. — thodst e rela- pupils ! habit wer. — ppror- CULTURK OF THE WILL.* The purpose of will-trainiiig is character. By char- acter is meant those established and fixed tendencies that are so strong as to give direction to conduct. Loyalty to conviction characterizes high character. " The crown- ing purpose of education is to make the will follow the lead of conviction in all matters involving the idea of duty. The moral will is the significance, so to speak, of all the other activities of the mind. Institutional life is the moral will as it has realized itself. The ethi- cal ideal is actualized in human society to the extent that it is common to the particular members. The principle of conduct in the ethical world is what is known as the moral law. This law is the universal conviction that every act of each particular member of the ethical whole should be such that when it is made universal— that is, becomes the act of all— it will return upon the doer to bless and not to curse him. In this way the institutional world becomes a ministration of * In this ehaptcv quotation-marks arc omitted where changes have been made, as the authors are not responsible for the form in which their thoughts are here presented m i:B il 334 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. f i ' illli III . grace ; eaeli citizen receiving in return for every good deed the good increased a thousand-fold." * ^ 27ie will w the self-determining energy of the sovi.. It is our power to clioose those courses of action which we will follow, and reject those from wliicli we will re- frain. It is the faculty of the soul to initiate activity. Acts of the self as will are volitions; they are choice.'^ when we determine on one of two or r.^oro courses, hut they are executive volitions when we do as we deter- mine. The self i&free in willing ; is endowed with the power of self-determination. Every one is aware of this We are conscious of our own liberty of action. A person literally does as he pleases, and says truly "I wiir' and "I will not." The self can not be com- pelled to will. We are conscious of freedom in will- ing. ^ llie self as will determines in view of motives. The considerations wliich occasion choices are termed m,o- tives. Cognitions and emotions move self to determine. We lead others to determine aiid act by p'acing motives before them. All government and all plans for human elevation are based on the psychological truth that one person can influence tlie voluntary conduct of another. The educator seeks to pi.; .e before his pupils the high- est motives. Cosmia motives are the highest ; cdtruis- tic motives are the next highest ; selfish motives are low ; malevolent motives are the lowest. The hiy doing that which we wish to do when we have loariaul it; wo be- come builders by building, and harpers by harping. And so by do- ing just acts wo become just, and by doing acts of t'-mperanc© and courage we become temperate and courageous. Both virtues and vices result from and are formed by the same acts in which they mani- fest themselves, as is the case with the arts also. It is by building that good builders and bad builders alike are produced ; by building well they will become good builders, and bad builders by building badly. It is by our conduct in our intercourse with other men that we become just or unjust. So, tuo, with our animal appetites and the passion of anger; for by behaving in this way or in that on the occasions with which these passions arc concerned some become tem- perate and gentle and others profligate and ill-tempered. In a word, the several habits or characters are formed by the same kind of acts as those which they produce. Hence we ought to make sure that our acts be of a certain kind, <'or the resulting character varies a.s they vary. It makes no small difference, therefore, whether a man be trained from his youth up in this way or in that, but a great dif- ference, or rather all the difference." f " This is the ineradicable, forever-enduring gospel : work, and therein have well-bemg. All true work is sacred ; in all true work. » Education of the Will, by J. Clark Murray, i* for June, 18U1. t Aristotle, in hia Ethics. Educational Review GETTING noYS AND GIKLS TO DO KIGHT. 337 were it but truo harul-Inhcr. there is something of divineness. Labor, wide as the -urtl., iias its sununit in heaven. Produce: pro- duce; were .t but the p.tifulest inflnitesimal fraction -f a pn dua Foduce.tm God's name. 'Tis the utmost thou has, in tL; out' with ,t then. Up, up I whatsoever thy hand lindeth to du. do it with thy whoh, might. Work while it is called to-day; for the night . omelh wherem no man can work. Two men I honor, and no thfrd. ^ rst, the tod-worn craftsman, that with earth-made implement laboriously conquers the earth and makes her man's. Toil on toil on; thou art in thy duty, be out of it who may; thou toilest fo^ the Turr "^^'^P^^.^'^^^ ^'' '^^"J^ ^'-"'^'l. A second man I honor, and st.ll more highly: h.m who is seen (oili„^, for the spiritually in^ dispensable-not daily bread, but the bread of life. Is not he to(, in his duty f If the poor and humble toil that we may have food must not the high and glorious toil for him in return, that he may have light, have guidance, freedom, imraortalitvf These two, in all their degrees, honor; all else is chaff, which let the wind blow whither it listeth." * Getting hoys and girls to do right. There are two ways by which we may endeavor to ^et boys and girls to do right. One way is to fill their minds with rides • another way is to train the will i„ habits. The second 18 a much harder thing to do, but it is the onl effective way. There is no text ')ook on the subject, and it is nnpossible to write one. The education of the will can not be introduced into the ourricu- tr'n'ed' T. '•'^",^^^"""^ ^' ^^^ ^e entirely freo and uncon- stramed. [Jnless the impulse to do it is already in the teacher's vonril f ^"" ^•^^ *" ^^° '^' Y"^ "^"^^^ ^ork it out for yo selves as opportunities present themselves. I can simply call your attention to its importance, and indicate some very gJneml lines on which you can proceed. ^ ^ The best field for t'uis education of tho yj\\\ is in th- •^— e ■ '- there life is most sim. e and real, contact is most intimate, and de xur .'iri •I 22 Thomas Carlyle. 338 APPLIKD PSYCHOLOGY AND TKA(»INQ. 11 m. I«i]t \K i m sires aiitl passions express theiuselvc!^ witli least restraint. Next to the homo comes the school. Next to father and mother stands the teacher. The pastor, the Sunday-school teacher, the employer, the writer, the lectun.'r, may each do something in this moral training. But the teacher has the best chance of them all, if he only has the will and the skill to use it. The test of a man's education is the quality of work that he can do, not the quantity of information that he can remember. Mere mem- orized information in the mind of the scholar is as worthless as un- digested food in the stomach of an athlete. The development of strong intellectual muscles and steady mt>ral nerves is the end and aim of education. Train the pupils in the schools to do the work there given them to do with promptness, neatness, and order—with all their might and to the best of their ability ; and you will do your part toward fitting them fv)r any sphere of life ; making them ready to take hold of any kind of honest work, and qualifying them to as- sume the duties and responsibilities of membership in the social and industrial order, and of citizenship in church and state.* T^e education of the will. This, in the broader sense, means tlie whole of one's training to moral and prudential conduct. In the narrow sense, it means the development of the power to initiate movements tribu- tary to desired ends and to inhibit irrelevant impulses. The longer one attends to a topic the more mastery of it he has. The power of voluntarily bringing back a wandering attention over and over again is the very root of judgment, character, and will. An education which develops this power is the education par excel- lence. The more interest pupils have in advance in the subject the better they will attend. Induct them in such a way as to knit each new thing on to some acquisition already there, and, if possible, awaken curiosity, so that * The Education of the Will, by President W. De Witt Hyde, in Popular Educator. Next to itands tho iloyor, the 1 training. \y hu8 the he can do, [ere mem- ^ss as un- )j)mcnt of ) end and I ere given 1 all their your part > ready tu em to as- social and broader aral and jans the ts tribu- npulses. stery of back a he very iucation ar exoel- e in the in such juisition ', so that Hyde, in THE EDUCATION OF TUE WILL. 339 the new thing shall seem to come as an answer to a question pre-existing in the mind. I count myself among those who consider will as an original spiritual energy.* '^ Reward, and P,mi.lmient..t-The Father endowed us with th« power of self-determination, and lie always leaves us free to choose. 2!rr'r'°n1 r'lV" ^'"' '^^^''^ ^^ ^^^ ^'^^''' expression of personality. God holds sacred the personality of every man. He sets before us life and death, but loaves us absolutely free in the exercise of our will-power. He has so constituted things that hap- piness comes of right choices, and misery follows wrong determina- tions, rhe rewards and punishments are declared in advance, but we do the choosing. God never forces our choices. As our Father deals with us, so wo should deal with our pupils. 1 he privilege of personal choice should be sacredly guarded While we must use all proper influences to induce our pupils to choose aright, we should never, never, never force their choices. All good comes through right choices, and all evil comes through wronir determinations. The rewards and punishments are declared in ad- vance, but the pupil does the choosing. In training the will we hold out alternatives, but the final responsibility of a choice with Its consequences, rests with the pupil. ♦ Prof. William James. f h. Clay TrumbulL Ijl i iiii M .< I n ■i k PART YI. THE ART OF TEAGHINQ, CHAPTER XXVIII. -Laws op Teaching. XXIX. — Teaching Processes. XXX. — Teaching Periods. XXXI. — Primary Methods op Teachino. XXXII.— Intermediate Methods op Teachino. XXXIII.— High- School Methods op Teaching. XXXIV.— College Methods of Teaching. I [J I :^ >|4\N> X H O o -J < z UJ :^ O a. < PART SIXTH. THE ART OF TEACHING. CO X O cc o -J < I- z UJ :^ O Q. < Teaching is the art of promoting human growth. It IS the art of so guiding effort as to prepare for com- plete living. Teaching is the art of education, and is based on education as a science. Pedagogy is a con- venient general term, embracing both the tlieory and practice of education. We think of teaching as tlie actual work of leading pupils to put forth their best efforts in the best ways. The end is complete develop- ment, and the means is the course of study. Teaching has its laws, its processes, its periods, and its methods. These are the products of the thought and experience of the race. Teaching is a progressive art as education is a progressive science. The new education is the edu- cation of to-day, as the new chemistry is the cnemistry of to-day. Progress comes in two ways : (1) From the discovery of new principles ; (2) from new applications of known principles. Map of Mental Growth.-This device is an effort to symbolize in one connected view the growth of the mental powers. This growth IS certainly continuous from infancy to the meridian of life, but the artist would arrest growth at about the eighteenth year ! Reader I must trust to you to correct this blunder. Send the author a copy of your map, with your suggestions. Future editions will have the perfected map. « i !■ 344 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. Educational Evolution.- Bound up in the human germ are all the possibilities of manhood. Education is the development of the possibilities of this germ Each human germ is a self in embryo. Educational ..0/.^..,, is the development of the native energies of the self. All the capabilities of the man are feebly active in the child ; education develop, native power, but does not creat ,apabili. ties. Each self is c.idoNved with the same elemental energies ; in all the ages no new capability has been added. Education simply means the growth of the feeble child into the strong man, equipped for the battle of life. Teaching is the art of promoting this g owtl. II 3; I CHAPTER XXVIII. LAWS OF tp:aching. All good comes through law. Tlie lulinite Lawgiver i^s the Infinite Good. Tlie wise man is liappy because ho iinds out and obeys law, but the fool is miserable be- cause of his ignorance and waywardness Law voices txie eternal fitness of things, and is the articulatea Ian guage of energy. Growth th'ough lawful self-activity is the central Idea in the science of education. Around the central Idea are grouped the great facts of mind and mental growth. These fundamental truths are termed educa- tional jprmciples and educational laws. These stated m terms of art, are guiding truths, are laws of teaching. Lawful self-eifort educates ; ways of securing^such effort are here called The Nine Laws of Teaching. I. Be what you woiUd have your Pnpils become.- Ihis IS the granite. Weak, wayward, uncultured per- LAWS OF TEACIirNQ. g^g sons though versed in all the methods, can not educate. Teachers of culture and character, of head-power and heart-power, will Und ways to educate. Superior man- hood IS infimtely more important than superior methods Our teaching pyramids crumble because they are not based on the granite. Teachers need to be strong, true manly. They need to be men and women of faith and hope and love. Worthy teachers do everything to make the most of tJier. selves, that they may do most for their pupils. It IS an education to be for years a pupil of a great teacher. r v ^ The Laws of Teaching. HAD THE PUPIUTHHOUGH RIGHT IDEAS TO RIGHT CONDUCT. TRAIN PUPItS TO HABITUALLY DO THEIR . BEST IN THE BEST WAYS. i TRAIN LEARNERS TO ASSIMILATE INTO UNITY THEIR ACQUISITIONS. •-E^D LF^RNERs TO FIND OufTToTELL ANDJLO_DO .^OaXH E M S E L V ES : 6. BY EASY STEPS LEAD THROUGH THE KNOWN '- TO THE UNKNOWN. '^'^"W'^' 4. 3. SECURE ATTENTION THROUGH INTEREST 2 1. USE EASY WORDS AND APT IL LUSTRATIONS. | KNOW THOROUGHLY THE CHILDREN __ SUBJECT. AND THE BE WHAT YOU WOULD HAVE YOUR PUPILS BECOME fnnn l7' ^""^'f "^ «'" ^"^^'^^tecl to Dr. J. M. Gre^sory for the idea. 1 ound iHs Seven Laws of Teaching helpful in my normal classes. The at- tempt is here made to present some of the most important laws of teachino h.?'ln •T?''''-' """ '^'' ^'™ "^ " Py'""'"'^'- ^^'"•- toaeher, reconstruet he py amid to suit your view., and write a paper on eaeh law. What an m,.' osting symposium eould be arranged for a reading cirele or summer normal school by placing the pyramid on the board and havin. T hTit ZL ""' " '"' ''^"' '"^^"^'^^ «"""^"^>' «^'^^^^--^ ar; of great :fii ^ ll li' i^ : ■ i i-' ; 846 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. II. Know thoroughly the Child and the Subject— The first mandate of pedagogy is, ''Know yourself that you may know the child." The teacher is but a child of larger growth. The second mandate is, ''Live close to the living, growing, loving childP With infinite in- terest you BcivJy your growing pupils as the botanist studies the growing plants. You gain insight and in- spiration, which fits you for the joyous work of leading your pupils up to a higher and better physical, mental, and moral life. ''Know thoroughly what you try to teach " is the tliird mandate of pedagogy. You have studied, as best you could, many things. You have tried to gjiin a general view of the realm of knowledge. Now you concentrate your efforts. You aspire to a thorough knowledge of the branches you propose to teach and of their relations to mental growth. Under the guidance of eminent teachers you now study pro- foundly the child and the subject from the standpoint of the educator. Under the direction of skilled teach- ers you gain by practice-teaching skill in teaching. Thus prepared, you will enter the school-room as an artist, and will be able through years of toil to prove yourself a master-workman. III. Use Easy Words and Apt Illustrations.— Sun- light clearness characterizes the best teaching. Sit at the feet of Jesus while he teaches his disciples. Fol- low Socrates through the streets of Athens as he prac- tices the Socratic method. Listen to the masters of assemblies as they hold spell-bound the waiting thou- sands. Read the best in literature. You find that the great teachers of mankind observe this law. Because of the failure to olfserve it, more than half of all at- it— The 'hat you 3liild of close to nito ill- botanist and in- leading mental, try to )u have )u have wledge. re to a ]3ose to Under dy pro- nd point I teach- saching. 1 as an ) prove . — Sun- Sit at 3. Fol- e prac- iters of g thou- liat the Because ' "■'1 -»^ i\,i\. El- laws OF TEACHING. 847 tempts at teaching is waste labor. Could teachers be led to practice this rule, it would almost double the efficiency of the teaching force of the world. IV. Secure Attention through Interest.— Attention is the condition of knowledge as well as of mental growth. We voluntarily attend, but we choose tc give attention to the things which interest us. The efficient teacher in some way awakens and sustains interest, and thus gains and holds the attention of her pupils Her pupils are happy^ and they do more in a week than the un- happy pupils of the stupid teacher do in a month. Herbart counts tediousness the great educational sin. He might have termed the teacher-hahit of stupidity, dullness, dryness, and tediousness, the unpardonable teacher-sin. y. By Easy Steps lead through the Known to the Un- known.— The learner must take tlie steps. The teacher guides effort, but pupils ascend, round by round, by their own efforts. It is a great thing in education to ad.iust and adapt the work so that the pupils cwn take with joy each adv/uiced step. It is a greater tiling to lead them to take these steps. This is the art of teach- mg. You make the learner's present attainments the basis. Through what your pupils know now you lead them to find out new things. This law stands for a large part of the work of the teacher as an instructor. VI. Lead Learners to find out, tell, and do for Them- selves.— Self-effort under guidance educates. The teach- er plans but the pupil does. From the kindergarten to the university, the educator so manages that a pupil dis- covers for himself, tells in his own words, and does things in his own way. Persons thrs tutored become m ■Ill: l)li h ■' I 348 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. independent thinkers, original writers, and self-reliant actors. This law strikes at the roots of some of the worst pedagogical evils. VII Lead Learners to assimilate into Unity their Acquisitions.— Isolated ideas are not knowledge. All tilings are related, and the universe is a unit. From the kindergarten to the university the learner is led to assimilate into unity his experiences. Even the child- world is now wrought into unity. This is a law of the new education, and it is absolutely revolutionary. This unitizing process in our times is called apperceiving. It requires many terms to fully express this very complex process. Apperception stands for psychic reaction, interpretation, conception and assimilation, all taken together. This process involves the fol- lowing elements : (1) A train of ideas already in the mind as a result of experience ; (2) a new idea which is brought into relation to this train so as to be recognized through it, and (3) interpreted and ex- plained by it; (4) this process resulting in a twofold result, namely, a knowledge of the real existence of examples or individual in- stances of the idea in question: and (5) the subsumption of those particular instances under a general concept and the recognition that the individual perceived is only a special phase and not the whole reality of the general idea. VIII. Train your Pupils to habituaUy do their best in the Best Ways.--This is the whole of method. Doing one's best develops power ; putting forth effort in the best ways gives skill and culture. Men become great and reach eminence by habitually doing their best. Winship did his best in lifting two hundred pounds ; but day by day he lifted more and more until he could lift three thousand pounds. Beecher told the students that he owed his success to the habit of always doing his best. Doing things feebly and bunglingly dwarfs. f-reliant ! of the by their ;e. All From 5 led to e child- of the ving. It process. nception, 1 the fol- s a result 1 to this and ex- namcly, dual in- of those ognition not the ir best Doing in the ! great • be )unds ; could udents doing warfs. TEACHING PROCESSES. o.^ We must expeci great things of our pupils, and lead them habitually to umke great efforts. This is the edu- cation that develous superior men and women Condaot-ThiB is the crowning law of teaching. The right mpulses and right acts. The teacher oontroh the puM. ^deas. Biyht ideas are kept before the pupn until they become right acts. The pnpij is led to L have the whole of moral education in a nutsheU CHAPTER XXIX. TEACUINO PROCESSES. The teacher must Imve the pupil proceed in definite ways m order to learn. These ways are termed teach, vn^ processes ; it is equally proper to call them ham. tng processes. We group these processes thus : Teaching Processes. J ( Objective Process. ( Subjective Process. jj ( Analytic Process. ' Synthetic Process. V. Apperceptive Process. in. ^ Inductive Process. / Deductive Process. jy j Empirical Process. i Bational Process. ^- I Subjective Process. -Lnese are the two ways of find- ing out. The first is the process of gaining particular Ideas, and the second is the process of gaining general ideas. ^ "^ r' i i m\ t i. 350 API'LIKD rSYClIOLUUY AND TEACHING. ; If I I ,! ' I i i I u I tli, 1. 27te objective process is the way we gain ideas directly frmti thiiujs. Tilings, as liero used, include material ohject'^^ mental acts^ and necessary realities. At first the mental life is sensation. Through its sensa- tions we lead the child to gain ideas of material things, and we call these lessons sense-object-lessons. Later, the mental self is aware ntss. Througl its awareness we lead the child to gain ideas of its mental acts, and we call these lessons self-object Cessans, l^ter, the mental life is necessary -intuition. Through its necessary-in- tuitions we lead the child to gain ideas of necessary- realities, and we call these lessons necessary-reality object-lessons. 2. The subjective process is the way we gain general notions. Things are related. We discern relations; we elaborate our percepts into concepts ; we think our notions into truths ; we make definitions and solve problems; we write essays and invent machines. We lead our pupils to thinh their notions into higher forms, and we call these lessons subject-lessons. Conceiving, judging, reasoning, are subjective processes. The process of gaining ideas of things is objective ; but the process of elaborating percepts into truths is subjective. W en we study our- selves, self is both object and subject. The self studied is object; but the self that studies is subject. Objective knowledge is the basis of subjective knowledge. The objective and subjective processes go on together and continually re-enforce each other. The objective predominates in early life, but later the subjective predominates. " The mind ever rises from clear individual to distinct general no- tions." II. ] ^ySlf&lFrlZ,. These are the two ways in which we must proceed in order to gain mastery, to conquer, and unite to understand. We divide TEACUING PROCESoES. in ideas include realities. ts sonsa. tliiiig8, atcr, the uess we and we ! mental ssary-in- jcessary- -reality general ilati.^ns ; ink our d solve }s. We r forms, ceiving, he process study our- is object; 3 the basis accsses go objective ominates, neral no- n which B divide 351 t The analytic process is the way w^ tea-h and learn h j separating wholes into parts. e aiv inca- pable .f - isping complex whol'js, so wc divide thorn anu ,.ster puit by part. However we make the divis- ion, we call the process analytic vvhenever we sepa- rate wholes into parts in order to study the parts reaching is analytic when we lead our pupils to sepa- rate wholes into partb for detailed study. 2. Syiithetic process is the way we teach and learn by ui, 'mg parts Into wholes. The parts are consid- ered lii uieir relations to each other and in their re- lations to the whole. ' wt and lohole are used in their widest sensc^ Tlu earth is a part of the solar system, and oxygen is a pai I of water. The synthetic process includes all forms of combining parts into wholes. Teaching is synthetic when we lead our pupils to unitize their knowledge. Analysis and Synthesis must go together.— They are always asso- ciated. Important as thoroughness of anahjsis is, it is worthless unless acc( "panied by a proper synthesis. Analysis is valuable only in its relation to unification. Unless the elements of analvsis are righth/ unified, they lose their importance. Synthesis is made more perfect by making analysis more complete ; but when a proper syn- thesis is completed, there is no need for further analysis. Studies are termed analytic when the analytic process is most prominent, and synthetic when the synthetic process predominates.* TTT ijn<\iictive Process, mi ^i ^^^- (Deductive Process, iliese are the two ways m which we investigate. We seek truth inductively and deductively. 1. The inductive process is the way we proceed in reaching generals tlirough particulars. The child con- * F. r.. Pubiier, in Science of Education. iV\ lifil IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 4 // ^/ .-^'A ^v X" Wr :/. ^ 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■- liM If li£ Uuu 1.4 M 2.2 120 1,6 "/a ^ n. ^m' ^V C^J C}, ^ W * V* s. 'Cm A' >, /A em oS. Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14380 (716) 872-4503 ■^ iV iV \\ '^ 'r\ 1^ >^ i?. '^ \h\^- LiLa i\ 352 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. tinually makes its easy inductions and tlius finds out for itself. You lead your advancing pupils to make larger and still more important inductions. Thus they find out for themselves principles and laws. 2. The deductive process is the way we proceed in reaching particulars through generals. In this way we extend our knowledge ap well as verify our conclusions. The child makes its little deductions as well as its in- ductions. Induction and Deduction must go together.— Induction rises from particular truths to general truths, from fact to law; deduction de- scends from general truths to particular truths, from principles to consequences. Induction proceeds from parts to wholes ; deduction proceeds from wholes to parts. Induction and deduction accom- pany each other and blend together so intimately that it is often difficult to sever them. Like analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction are always associated. I^- I Ratfonaf ProceS*' We gain knowledge through experience and through inference. 1. The empirical process is the way we gain knowl- edge by experience. We find out by trying it that fire burns, and that the way of the transgressor is hard. We lead our pupils to gain knowledge by trying things, and we call this the empirical process of teaching. The pupil learns by experience that ice is cold and that wrong-doing brings remorse. 2. The rational process is the way we gain knowl- edge through inference. The universe is a unit. Laws express relations. We infer laws ; we begin with our individual experiences and ascend through inference to a universe. The child feels its way, but the man finds how things must be. TEACHING PROCESSES. 353 Its in- J The Empirical and the Eational must go together.-It is true that experience does not give fird truths, but without experience we must remain ignorant of these truths. Insight into the essen- tial unity of the experimental and philosophical processes goes far toward reconcihng warring philosophers. Take chemistry, the rep- reseyitative empirical science; even here the rational process con- ditions every step forward. TT (Apperceptive mi • , „ " • ( Process. iins process stands for unitizing our acquisitions. We generalize, we synthesize, we in- duct, we assimilate, we tl.ink into oneness our old and new experiences. Leading our pupils to thus assimilate and unitize their acquisitions is termed the apj^ercejptwe teaching process. The apperceptive process is the most comprehensive form of mental activity. It is the pro- cess of unifying mental data into related wholes. Apperception supplements the other Processes.-" Apperception in- cludes all of that activity of the self which identifies, recognizes ^h^whlT- ""f/'^^f ^ ^^' «°""«^ts the new in the object presented with what IS old or kn. .m to us before, or felt to belong to us before am inclined to think that the term apperception, as'l understand , ncludes or exp ams that activity of the mind which we term interest and ' lively interest.' For just think of it, why is a person one s self with it. The object interests me because I think and feel It Identical with me or mine. Is it not clear, therefore, that the very essence of; interest ' and « lively interest ' is apperception ? Does not apperception therefore, furnish us the supreme category for educa- tion? Education does not educate except so far as the pupil assimi- Jates mental food which he takes. Not perception, as L followers of Pestalozzi proclaim loudly, but apperception, as the followers of choiogy "*""''''"''' '' ^'^ *"" ^^' ^'^^^ ^""^^ ^" educational psy- * W T. Harris. 38 m ii w m 354 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. CHAPTER XXX. TEACIIINO PERIODS. Human life, physiologically and psychologically, is divided into six periods— childhood, hoijhood, youth, young manhood, manhood, and old age. We think of the self as a child up to the tenth year ; as a hoy or girl from the tenth to the fourteenth year ; as a youth from the fourteenth to tlie eighteenth year ; as a young man or young woman from the eighteenth to the twenty-lif th year ; as a man or woman from the twen- ty-fifth to the sixty-third year; and as an aged man or aged woman from the sixty-third year to the end of life. Mankind have recognized childhood, boy-and-girl- hood, youth, and young manhood as the educational periods. The schools of the world are organized with reference to these periods, and methods of teaching are adapted to these stages of growth. The self, it is true, grows right on as the tree grows, and the development is continuous. But the educational periods named have well-defined characteristics. Our schools and our school work are arranged to meet the wants of these stages of growth. I. The Kindergarten Period — The self is an infant for six years. We call this the kindergarten educa- tional period. During all the centuries the mother has been the kindergartner ; but during the twentieth and succeeding centuries trained kindergartners will share with the mother the training of the child from the third to the sixth year. The work initiated by Froebel, TEACHING PERIODS. 355 now 80 rapidly spreading, will go on spreading until it nils tlie whole earth. .u ,'''",'°"*'"*''*™— 'Sec map of infant growth nase 3421 P he Hard to the sixth year the child attend, the lS~, Z throngh ;,to3, learns to u,orlc. These are precious years for "Lth^ irs™7h;riis^rt' htd -sTd'to^Lrr '"'• 7^""^'- beautiful worlrl rr«i f ^ !• ^^® acquaintance of the Dcautiful world. Helpful emotions are tenderly fostered and hurt- u feehngs are gently repressed. The child is kept pure and swelt Its feeble powers develop slowly, healthfully, gracefully. 11. The Primary Period.-The self is a child from the sixth to the tenth :;ear. We call this the primary school period. The chief business of the child is M grow and be happy; but these are precious educa^ tional years. The child's restless activities must be rooted into right habits. Its acquaintance with nature must be greatly extended, and it must begin the mastery ot the book-world. "^ The Prima,7._(See map of child-growth, page 342, also 359.)- From the sixth to the tenth year the child attends the primary school. It now enters upon a larger and even happier life. In the kindergarten it could talk, but now it learns to read and write The primary work of to-day in our best schools is a marvel of adap- tability am efficiency. Nothing is left undone to promote the phys- ical well-being of the child. Lines of kindergarten work are con- tinued. Gentle manners and good morals are woven into the warn and woof of child-life. While all its powers develop healthfully it IS kept pure and sweet and graceful. III. The Intermediate Period.-The self is a hoy or gtrl from the tenth to the fourteenth year. As this stage of growth comes between childhood and youth, the Mitemiediate educational period. During uiiij 856 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. these precious but difficult years mental growth and physical growth are equally fostered. The infant and the child have grown and grown. The weak infant powers have become stronger and stronger. What was hard for the child is easy for the boy. The pupil now enters upon a larger and even happier life. The worlds of animal and plant life are explored with absorbing interest; the wonder-worlds of history and literature begin to open. Self-control is now of paramount im- portance. The Intermediate. — (See map of boy and girl-growth, pages 342 and 365.)— During these difficult years the faithful intermediate teacher co-operates with the parents to promote the heajthy and vig- orous physical, mental, and iiioral growth of the boys and girls. No Froebel has profoundly studied the growing self during this critical period. No master-educator has completely adapted intermediaio work. This still remains the difficult and unsatisfactory educational period. The pupils are wayward and unstudious. Boys become rough and girls become giddy. A deeper insight into the growing self during this trying period, better arranged intermediate work, and better intermediate methods, are great educational needs. Too often our intermediate schools fail to carry forward efficiently and satisfactorily the work so well begun in our kin rgarten and pri- mary schools. But a brighter day is dawning. The Ungraded School of the rural districts includes the primary and intermediate. The school is classified but not graded. One teacher does all the work. The course of study is the same as in the graded school. Elementary schools include all schools below the high-school. ly. High-School Period,— The self is a youth from the fourteenth to the eighteenth year. These precari- ous years usually fix for weal or woe the career for life. Sex is now an important factor in education. In child- hood sex is not considered, and the child is spoken of '"""" "fin III TEACHING PERIODS. wth and ant and c infant hat was pil now 3 worlds )8orbing terature unt ini pages 343 ermediate f and vig- jirls. No is critical jnnedialo ucational 5 becomft growing ite work, ids. Too ntly and and pri- primary ed. One as in the slow the h from )recari- or life. . child- ken of 357 as It. Boys and girls mutually repel each other, and boys associate with boys and girls with girls. In youth the sexes mutually attract each other. Coeducation now becomes a vital question. May it be so managed as to work the highest good of both sexes? It is firmly be heved that it may. The logic of results has in a large measure given an affirmative answer to the ouestion, though separate education is supported by strong physi' ological and psychological arguments. The High.School.-(See map, page 343, and also page 3G7 V-Th« W^ now bocon^es .student, and knoMye becomes .c.eno^ i„ work. The mterests become wide and deep. Each power of the Ihe lugh-school needs to be made as ubiquitous as our elementary schools, so as to place a high-school education within easy rich" f every youth The high-school is still the n.i.ssing link in ouT du cational evolution. The course of study needs to be arranged with th^e^utmost care, so as to best prepare the youth for life and for col- y. CoUege and University Period.— The self is a young man or young woman from the eighteenth to the twenty-fifth year. This is the college and university educational period. These are the years of destiny. The student is at his best. The highest educational ad- vantages are enjoyed and the highest stage of culture reached. The university, strictly, carries the highest culture over into the highest fields of achievement, and embraces special schools, such as law, medicine, divin- ity, pedagogy. The college period proper extends from the eighteenth to the twenty-second year, and the rnii- versity period from the twenty-second to the twenty- iirih year. "^ 858 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACUING. Periods of Culture, not Years.— Some develop earlier than others. Girls (icvclop earlier than boys. Some advance much more rapidly than others. Then the conditions are more or less favorable. Evi- dently our school systems must be made exceedingly flexible. De- velopment and acquisitions, as well as years, must be considered. CHAPTER XXXI. D- PRIMAKY METHODS OF TEACHING. Teaching methods are lawful, systematic, and per- sistent plans of teaching adapted to the several educa- tional periods. We think of teaching methods as kin- dergarten methods, primary methods, intermediate methods, high-school methods, and college methods. As these have much in common, we study merely the dis- tinctive characteristics of each. Primary methods are teaching plans adapted to childhood. What is the child ? How does the child find out ? What plans of teaching tend to promote child-growth ? The primary teacher seeks satisfactory answers to these questions. The Past.— The present looks to the past for instruction and in- spiration. Each age has had its great teachers. From these gifted ones we have much to learn. The world's great teachers penetrated the mysteries of human nature and moved forward the dial of human progress. From these we may learn lessons of wisdom and gain in- spiration ; but from the "old schoolmaster" we have nothing to learn but to avoid his mistakes. Like the ancient mariner, he groped bis way without chart or compass. Like his geography, his child was mapless. We look to the past for warnings as well as for in- struction and inspiration. I. Map of Childhood. — (See map of the mental pow- ers, page 2; map of child-growth, page 342; and map PRIMARY METHODS OF TEACHING. 359 o P Q. LU U CC UJ a .1 O O o X o d a. I O tn z UJ to 0. < z g \- OL bJ o z g I- < z o < z g I- < z LJ CO llJ a. Q. LU O CO S5 o: z UJ Z o o 3 I o O X H U UJ -I J! lU I- uj o I :S I CO z g I- o u I u CO CO z o o UJ I _J < o o CO z o O UJ CO z g I- o UJ I g CO O O z o o < uT g o X o ■£ g h- z UJ \- < to CC o Q. UJ X •aOOHQllHO Nl SU3M0d nVlN3kM 3H1 do AJ.IAI10V 3All\nDa j g Oi ^ > « •^ o o — O *= j^ o •« -S ? s .Si-* o to a. ^ .O ^ S a ^ ■■« cj -2 § 8:5 S 5 "^ C en 0) %^ o ^ "ti .^ 01 • .e -" ►^ S -T—S *^ « §1.2^^ is o «-j jj CO .r- 5j eS -i .^+^ ra CO (7, 1-H o Ut e3 ^ G Q •»-« .— H O) © ' Vj fa -*-? .1 •« CO +J "t; - - =, ^' t^/^ ^ o ■ ' >«^ 'S « t; 2 c E'^ o3t3 " O c wj " O '-' .- =3 a 3 o u i^ a ^ o cs 3 -U OJ ^~' Xa Ti S- o ^ ■^ S ^'IJ ce ^ K J> 3 "^ w J3 H o •3 (U .^ O i) 0} +J H c w ^ w .0 in C i, o s^«H tCO O O JD 300 AITLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. of childhood, page 359.)— "/f/ww' thyself'' expressed the wisdom of the pant '\Knoto yourself mid knmjo the child " exj)russes the wisdom of the premit. Froe- bel's rediscovery of childhood was his greatest work. Each primary teacher must make this discovery for herself. Go back to the sc-ues of your childhood "when fond recollection presents them to view." Live close to the living, loving, growing child. Ask the past and the present for light. Yoxir maps of childhood and child-growth become rei)lete with mean- ing. You feel a boundless interest in the child, for you see in it infinite possibilities. II. Primary Teaching Process.— (See Teaching Pro- cess, Chapter XXIX, and Teadiing Periods, Chapter XXX.)— The child must proceed in specific ways in order to acquire and grow. The processes we use in leading children in these ways are termed primary teaching processes. Primary Teaching Processes. !• Objective P rocess; Subjective Process. II. Analytic Process ; Synthetic Process. III. Inductive Process ; Deductive Process. IV. Empirical Process ; Philosophical Process. V. Apperceptive Process. Explanations.— The child processes are pre-eminently objective and experimental ; this is denoted by the three lines under these processes. Tlie child makes crude analyses and syntheses; this is indicated by one line under these processes. The child begins to apperceive ; this is indicated by one line under the apperceptive process. The child induces, deduces, and philosophizes slightly; this is indicated by the dotted lines under these processes. ( FRIMAljy METH0D8 OF TEACHING. 35^ III. Primary Methods of Culture. - The musician so touches the keys of tlie instrument as to produce Hvveet music. The primary teacher so touches the keys of clii Id-nature as to occasion tlie glad activity of all the child-powers. Sweeter harmony than the music of the spheres is the joyous activity and sym- metrical development of childhood. As each stroke of the sculptor's chisel looks to the bringing out of the angel concealed in the marble, so each primary exercise looks to the harmonious development of child- capabilities. Primary Culture Lessons.- We can not educate abstractions We can cu tivale this rose and this gruue. We can cultivate our mem- ory and our reason. We cultivate o.r nnnds when we cultivate our several activities. In the previous chapters we have studied plans for developing the powers of the child: Sense-perception, page 53 • Self.perceptton,l\; Memory, 114; Imagination, 133; Conception, 1 78 ; Self-emotiom, 233 ; Social-ernotioris, 243 ; Beauty-emotions, 259; Conscience, 272; Attention, 290; Action, 317. The primary teacher will restudy and co-ordinate these lessons. IV. Primary Methods of teaching the Branches.— These include methods of teaching reading, language- lessons, science-lessons, information-lessons, arithmetic, v^cal music, penmanship, drawing, manners, morals.' Tour methods are your plans for conducting the exer- cises. You are entitled to all you can gain from others, but you must create your own methods. You will read the choicest educational literature. You will provide yourself with the best Manuals of Methods for teach- ing each subject. I count these inexpensive helps, products of our times, of the highest value. You will find in these the best things. You will spend precious iioui-s observing the work of superior primary teachers. if ill 869 APPLIED PSYOIIOLOOY AND TEACHING. You will coiitinuully glean frosh suggefitions from your educatioiml joumalH. Each jear you will find new in- Biuratioii at Home good Kuiurner normal institute. All these are merely suggestive helps. Vou must create your own ])lan8 of work. Primary Methods of teaching Beading, Arithmetic, etc.-Dotailod methods of teuchiiig tho bninchos are considered out of place in a work of tins kind. Some of our best works on pedagogy are thus cumbered. Separate manuals of methods prepared by experts arc every way better. Hero we seek insight in(o the me.ital econon.y. and into the laws and means and methods of proraotinfr growth. We try to mjister the essentials. fc b <'"• I CIJAPTER XXXII. INTKKMKDIATIO METHODS OF TEACHING. These are plans of teaching adapted to boys and girls. In the [)rimary, the work for the most part is necessarily oral. In the intermediate, book and oi-al work are about equal. The intermediate teacher studies to incite the self-activity of her pupils. She seeks to lead them into studious habits and train them to think. All her methods look to preparing boys and girls for complete living. I. Map of Boyhood and Girlhood.— (See map of the mental powers, page 2 ; map of mental growth, page 342 ; and map of boyhood and girlhood, page 363.)— Know thoroughly your pupils. This is fundamental. Your own boyhood or girlhood is not remote. Surely you can live over again those marvelous years. Then you have lived very close to impulsive, wayward, prom- INTERMEDIATE METHODS OF TEACUINO. 868 •0111 your new in- utc. All st create — Dotnilt'd place ill a y aro thus xperts oro oconoiny, fr growth. 0J8 and part is .nd oral :' studies jcoks to ) think, iris for of the h, page 363.)— mental. Surely Then , prom- d o c z ■ a. CD Q z < Q O O X I Q. < i I Ui o flC a. • >■ UJ u UJ z o a. ij o a. UJ a I UJ Ui z UJ z g a UI o cc UJ a. z o < z UI CO UJ a: a UJ CC O u -J Ui 111 I- z z 8 13 e z UJ o o 3 z g t- 0. UJ o z o o I I o o I o =:l i < 1 « «1 z z u o h- 1- o o :& z lij UJ h tl. < UI ^ CO CO o o z to z g I- o s UJ I g s CO O O z g o < UJ~ g o I o z" o CO cc UJ o Q. UJ I I- J •aoomdig qnv aOOHAOg Nl SB3M0d nVJLN3W 3H1 do Ai.IAU.OV SAilVlau ■«•»-. n " * o 73 c rr-J fl S c 1^ ^13 i:- O "^ C8 X X3 %i ^V:^ Es-3 i» ^ c£-ix ^ S 2 = 2 s 01 o *-> 5- J-i S — _^ t- >o M a, rj ^, x: 2 0) c3 o ^ ►,0) > t«"o r'C5 O'^ ... ^ f-i (:^ C a tl*^ "^ . C/3 X H fc..5>5 t- 05 d -M O O CO . ► c8 00 Oi a o St; o t* o TS o - >< tt) c S-«a S C8 jrj rrj --i H t.'O ,x 03 3 W B U J^ £x © -^x 0) c a Sc^S ^ "Si) 2 ^ c 0. i ijr i Mi. ij- 364 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. ising boys and girls. You have learned what you could from others. You have gained a deep insiglit into their peculiarities. You now venture to repre- sent as best you can the intermediate stage of mental growth. The maps in the old geographies were very imperfect, but they were vastly better than no maps. Your map of boyhood and girlhood may be crude, but it will nevertheless prove most helpful to you. It is so nmch better than the vague, shadowy views of teachers who make no attempt to grasp the mental economy. II. Intennediate Teaching Processes.— (See Teaching • Processes, Chapter XXIX, and Teacliing Periods, Jhapter XXX.) — Everything unfolds its meaning to its lover. Wisdom says, ''/ love tlmn that love me:' You love the boys and girls, and they reveal to you tlieir inmost selves You know their activities ao the performer knows the keys of his instrument. Their predominant activities reveal to you the intermediate processes. I. Objectiva Procesg ; Sul 3tive Process. II. Analytic Process; Synthetic Process . III. Indnct ive Proc ess; Deductive Process. IV. Empirical Process; Philosophical Process. V. Apperceptive Process. Intermediate Teacling Processes. ■ The objective and empirical processes predominate in intermediate as in primary work. The analytic and S3mthetic processes are now prominent. It is not the exhaustive analysis and synthesis of later years, but the crude efforts cf boys and girls. The apperceptive -i.' - INTERMEDIATE METHODS OF TEACHING. 365 hat you ) insiglit repre- P mental ere very to maps. B crude, to you. y views mental ^eaching • Periods, ning to ve mey to you s as the Their mediate )cess. :ess. )cess. Process. ininate nalytio is not irs, but 3eptive proeess is used more and more. The remaining pro- cesses are used moderately. Teaching Processes are Tests.-You visit the primary or interrao- diate school ; you observe that the teaching processes are subjective and philosophical rather than objective and empirical. It becomes clear to you at a glance that the teacher is ignorant of child-nature and child-processes. You detect erroneous methods of teaching al- most as readily as you detect the mispronunciation of familiar words. Good teaching is as easily tested as good reading. III. Intermediate Methods of Culture.— The develop- ment of power is primary in education. The feeble infant powers must grow into the mighty powers of the philosopher. You have attentively studied intermedi ate methods of promoting the growth of the several mental powers: Sense-Perception, page 55; Self -Per- ception, 71; Memory, 115; Imagination, 135; Con- ception, 179 ; Judgment, 196 ; Beason, 207 ; Self-Emo- tions, 233; Social-Emotions, 243; Truth- Emotions, 253; Beauty-Emotions, 259; Conscience, 274; Atten- tion, 290; Choice, 300; Action,, 317. You are now able to survey the entire mental economy. You study to lead your pupils to so put forth effort as to develop harmoniously all their capabilities. lY. Intermediate Methods of teaching the Branches. —These are ways of leading our pupils to so put forth effort as to develop their capabilities by mastering the intermediate studies. Your methods must be your own. David could not fight in Saul's armor, nor can a teacher use efficiently another's methods. Gain every- thing possible from others, but make all" your own. Procure the best manuals of intermediate methods of teaching reading, aritlimetic, geography, and the other 366 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. tah li^i branchc-8. Spend days in intermediate schools taught by able teachers. Gather information and inspiration from the best educational works. After all, you must create your own methods. CHAPTER XXXIII. HIGH-SCHOOL MKTHODS OF TEACHING. That we may do intelligent teaching we must un- derstand the plan of the subject taught as well as the plan of the mind. True teaching/?!* the subject to the stage of development of the learner. This adaptation of studies to periods of mental growth is what is under- stood by methods of teaching. High-school methods bring together youthful minds and elementary science. " There is a method in the chihl and a method in the subject of study. A complete pedagogy brings these two elements into har- mony—makes them complementary. The method in the subject at any stage exactly fits a corresponding stage of development. The development in the subject must be made at all stages to fit the de- velopment of the learner. In this view of pedagogy the ofiice of the teacher is magnified." * I. Map of Youth. — (See map of the mental powers, page 2; map of mental growth, page 342; and map of youth, page 367.)— From the fourteenth to the eighteenth year is a supremely interesting period of human life. Most of the intellectual powers act vigor- ously. The emotions are highly active. The will-pow- ers are might-forces. The youth is capable of great * Charles De Ganno, in Essentitils of Method, HIGH !00L METHODS OF TKiCHING. 367 >l8 taught ispiration you must must un- 3II as the 5ct to the iaptation is under- methods science. subject of i into ha:- subjoot at )ent. The fit tiie de- e oflice of powers, Liid map to tlio eriod of C5t vigor- v'ill-pow- ji great I 3 O > IX C a < z o I- Ol Ul O a lU O. < z UJ CO Ui (T Q. HI CC h O U -J -I UJ I- z ^ I a o I I- UJ > o UJ a. V) o CC h- lij uT > h o Ul 0. w o CC a. uT < D Ul IS erf z g o ai U. _J UJ CO z o o z UJ J> D O 5: col z g I- o s UJ I o I- g t- < a CO z g H- O UJ I o t- (£ a: O LU ^J < O o CO z O H O u CO o g z g H- O UJ I > Q to Z o o UJ I >• I- 15 CO z g I- o o UJ I g CO O O z o p o < Uj" g o I o z" o p z Ul h- < CO CC UJ o Q. UJ I •H±nOA Nl Sy3MGd nVlN3j^ 3H1 do AitAiiOV HAiiviay ca a! a =« .• o *-• «o 03 q *- S2 5S a c « o ^• ■(-' '-' o Cn 4) I Q, - ai o k. O ■-' /-I *-" " " ,n '^' O »^ t» O ;-. 3 -^ G '/) a> -F^ o 3 OS o 41 -3 a t« rt b t»i •s|ij c o 3" 5, Jh aJ o; -ii o O « ^ . p.,.. § § C ^ fl g >, "ii .x^ > -r G ^i; -•' S - N 'i' '- -I-' «0 •- J O 3 G*-" < ■7; ^ <■ r^ ""^ ^ 'fi a o - C '^' c — o ea tj_3 C Q I -.« cS o -1^ <^ G a> to w to G El I m rf n 1 ' »nm "<» . i W'H«».i i S68 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. things. The great activity of self-perception indicates that the time has come for the systematic study of the self-world. Tlie high activity of imagination and of the thought-powers tell us that the time has come for the mastery of elementary science and elementary math- ematics and departments of history and literature. But, dear teacher, I leave the applications to you. I must not presume to do for you what you can better do for yourself. Your youth comes vividly to mind. You associate most intimately with youths; as you love them, they reveal to you their inmost selves. Litera- ture is at its best when dealing with youth. In view of all, you will construct an original map of youth. II. High - School Teaching Processes. — (See Iligh- School Period, Chapter XXX, and Teaching Proce.^ses, Chapter XXIX.) — In high-school work we use all the processes, as all the mental powers are highly active. It must be true that the growth is continuous, but boys and girls seem to become youths with a leap. High-School Teaching Processes. ' I. Objective Process; Subjective Process. II. Analytic Process ; Synthetic Process. III. Inductive Process; Deductive Process. IV. Empirical Process; Philosophical Procesti. V. Apperceptive Process. ' I: Explanations. — Wide experiences have been accumulated, so that high-school pupils use the objective and empirical processes less and the subjective and philosophical processes more than during the previous periods. The analytic, synthetic, inductive, and deductive are now the dominant educational processes. Youths elaborate into higher forms their old and new experiences. The apperceptive pro- indicates dy of the n and of come for ;ary inath- ire. But, , I must ter do for id. You you love 1. Litera- In view outh. ee Iligh- se all the ily active. but boys Process. HIGH-SCHOOL METHODS OF TEACHING. 369 Process. Process. cal Process. ated, so that isses less and during the id deductive laborate into captive pro- cess enters very largely into the higli-school work. You will ponder these suggestions, but from your own insight you will nuike your map of high-school teaching processes, III. High-School Methods of Culture.— The aim is in- creased energy. The purpose of each lesson is the de- velopment of greater power. Well-directed effort de- velops the capabilities and prepares the student for greater achievements. In the previous chapters we have considered high-school methods of educating each mental power: Sense-Perceptio7i, page 56; Self -Per- ception, 73; Necessaftnj-Perceptum, 83; Memm-y, 115- Imagination, 138 ; Conception, 181 ; Judgment, 196 • Reason, 208 ; Egoistic Emotions, 236 ; AJi/rmstAc Emotions, 245 ; TriUh-Emotions, 252 ; Esthetic Emo- tions, 260 ; Conscience, 276 ; Attention, 293 ; Clioice 303; Action, 320. You will often go back to these elementary lessons, but you now contemplate the men- tal economy as a whole. You think of the self as com- mandmg all his powers in his efforts to achieve. You endeavor to so teach each lesson as lo educate each activitv. IV. High-School Methods of teaching the High-School Branches.~Tlie youth is a student and a science-maker Investigation and systemization characterize high-school methods. The youth now learns the art of searching mvestigation. Through the facts, laws are discovered The youth learns to build science. Central truths are discerned, and around these are arranged systematically the laws .l 1 the facts. Each study becomes to the youth an embryo science. The vernacular, heretofore an art, now becomes also a science. The knowledge of the matter-world, heretofore miscellaneous, is now dif- 24 370 APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACUING. ferentiated into the sciei)ces. Eacli branch of study grows into a science. Mistakes in High-School Methods. — Intermediate work grows into high-scliool work, and liigli-school work grows into college work. There must be no breaks. But high-school methods are well-defined plans of work adapted to the high-fichool period. Two grievous mistakes are r-'de: (1) Many teachers fail to note the gi-owth of boys and girls into youths, and so they carry intermediate methods C-, er into the high-schools. (2) Many teachers carry college meth- ods into the high-schools. They teach as they were taught in the colleges. These mistakes are fundamental and exceedingly hurtful. V. High-Scliool Manuals of Methods.* — You will necessarily create your own methods. Still, you need all the help others can give you. I know some high- school teachers who do wretched work because of a foolish pride to be original. You may gain most valu- able help from books. Many high-school text-books are admirable teaching manuals. Besides these, we now liave excellent hand-books prepared by able educators, full of helpful suggestions for teaching the several liigh-school branches. You will continue to study the best educational literature, }ou will continue to visit good high-schools, and you will continue to be an active worker in the associations of teachers. * Methods of teaching Algebra and Geometry, by J. M. Greenwood ; Methods of teacliing History, by G. Stanley Hall, and similar works, aro strongly commended. ' study •ows into ge work. 1-definetl grievous I'owth of methods ^e meth- it in the ■ hurtful. )U will •u need e higli- se of a st valii- •oks are le now iicators, several idy the to visit a active 'cenwood ; vorksi, are COLLEGE METHODS OF TEACHING. 371 CHAPTER XXXiy. colleop: methods of tp:aohing. College professors of tlie twentieth century will look to their methods as well as to their matter They will be great teachers as well as proficient scholars Ihe average professor in the past cherished a deep con- tempt for methods. He counted it presumption to call education a science and teaching an art. But a marvel- ous revolution is going on. All the great universities and colleges, before the close of the century, will have established departments of pedagogy. Students who elect teaching will be educated for their profession The college professors of the future will be as noted for their great skill in teaching as for their great learning. This work was planned to help kindergarten, primary infor mediate, and high-school teachers. The disfussion Tconege work would be out of place here. But it is thought best to sp ak brTefl v of cole n, ,,,, f,,, the standpoint of'the elen!ena"eher E^en the kindergartner needs to understand in some degree the col lege work. Every teacher should have a general knowledge o thl educational work from the kindergarten to the university I. Map of Early Maiiliood.-(See map of the mental powers, page 2 ; map of mental growth, 342 ; and map of early manhood, 372.)-To trace from infancy to man- hood the growth of each soul-energy is more fascinat- ing han poetry or song. To the teacher it is meat and drink From the eighteenth to the twenty-iifth year tiie sell IS a young man or youn^ woman. Kow ali t'- powers are highly active. The maps given are designed to assist you in your efforts to gain a deeper inSght ! if 372 APPLIED PSYCIIOLOdY AND TEAC^HINO. ■M' O UJ -i m H Z g I- ui o o < uT o o I o z o CO a: UJ O a UJ I o .::; aooHNv^ An«v3 M gj 3 ■u 0) 1 in ^ ^ el O .—4 o bo ft -^ 3 3 O 0) i X ^1 .S ^ tu fl •- ■i-3 ^ • i-« a> -d "So o Xi ai a § 5 § -4^ So C3 ■ f-4 13 s a :a g -a C/3 a ^ ? o a ^1 5 -^ 3 ^ a "5 a « o ^ Xi ^ 3 • o o o 0) 9. Xi O O 03 a T3 s (U T3 -1-3 u tfl iS 0) tn d. s a, a ^ -w 05 bo &> ■^ a, M s H ^ J c3 a • a fi* fcr M CO rr ^ 'w ?^ N fl' ^ nd s -^ g o 08 -M ^ ^ s ^s COLLE(iE METHODS OF TEACHING. 373 into early nianhood, and to help you to construct for yourself maps truer to this educational period as vou understand it. ^ n. CoUege Processes of Teaching. -(See Teaching 1 recesses, Chapter XXIX, and Educatlmial Periods Chapter XXX.)-College work is philosophical work' iiach science now becomes a philosophy. The objective and experimental processes are relatively less used, but the remaming processes are used more and more. The philosophic and apperceptive processes characterize col- lege methods. I. Objectiv e Proceag ; Su^ctive ProceeB. 11. Analytic Procegg; Synthetic Ifao ceJHT III. I nductive Process^ ; Deductive Process. IV. E mpirical P rocess; Philosophical Process. V. Apperceptive Process. College Teaching Processes. You have studied as best you could the ways in which young men and young women proceed when they investigate and create. You will now make a map of the college processes as you understand them. The above presentation must be considered as suggestive but not as ultimate. III. CoUege Methods of teaching the CoUege Studies. —•College instructors in the near future will be profi- cient in the science of education and the art of teaching as well as in their specialties. Each college professor will be an educator. Antiquated and objectionable col- lege methods are slowly but surely giving place to wiser methods. Our great scholars are becoming great teachers. ff « It ^niPttE k SYLLABUS OF BALDWINS APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY. From the International Reading Citcle Course of Professional Study. Pages I to 43. CHAPTER I. 1. The several departments of Pedagogy, as related to each other. 2. The elements of Psychology, as based upon study of self. 3. The Intellect, as having three modes of action or faculties. 4. The Feelings, as arising from three different sources of excitation. 5. The Will, as embracing three distinct kinds of effort 6. Applied Psychology, as determining the right processes in the work of educaticn. CHAPTER II. 7. The physical organism through which the mind acts 8. The relations of ganglia, nerves, and organs, consti- tuting and connecting the sensorium and motorium 9. The sensations produced by external or by internal sensor-excitation. 10. Sense-percept, an elementary knowledge derived from a material object through sensation. 11. Self-percept, an elementary knowledge derived from one's own mental act or state through conscious- ness. 12. Necessary-percept, an elementary knowledge arising from direct insight into realities and relations 375 II f 376 SYLLABUS OF 13. The powers, acts, and percepts of the mind, each de- termined by sense-relations, self-relations, or neces- sary-relations. Pages 43 to 92. CHAl'TKR III. 14. Education of sense-perception consists not in training the sense but in developing the power to interpret sense-percepts. 15. Education of this power fundamentally necessary to knowledge and to clear thought. 16. Only those branches of study that admit of objective work are of value in the education of sense-percep- tion. 17. Primary lesson work should be objective in all the branches of study. CHAPTER IV. 18. Education of self-perception essential, but must be- come specific later in the years of school life. 19. Constitutes the only means of interpreting character, literature, and the social sciences. ^1^ CHAPTER V. 20. Necessary-perception is to be devf^loped by leading the mind from individual necessary relations to gen- eral relations. CHAPTER VI. 21. The perceptive powers can be developed only by one's immediate experience. •■;.? xlabits of exact observation are necessary to the right a. velopment of the powers of perception. 2f. Apperception, or assimilation, is the essential step in acquiring knowledge through perception. BALDWIN'S APPLIED PSVCIIOLOOY. 377 25 20 PiJges 9S to 121. CHAl'TKR VII. 24 Representative knowing occurs as memory, as phan. tasy, and as imagination. Mere memory reproduces the ideas of our past expe- riences without any change, The three steps in the memory process are: i. Re taming. 2. Reproducing or representing. 3. Recog- nizing. * 27 The laws of memory express the relations of associa- tion and suggestion. 28. Phantasy combines the products of memory in new relations. 29 Imagination combines the products of memory in new forms. CHAPTER VHI. 30. Education of memory consists in acquiring ability to readily and accurately recall the ideas of past ex- periences. 31. Thought is possible only as memory supplies its ma- terials. 32. Specific laws of memory development pertain to phys- ical conditions and to mental activities. 33' In school work various subjects of study have differ- ent values as conducing to memory growth. 34. The value of a given study as conducing to memory culture will vary with the method of teaching.. Pages. 122 to 151. 35- Phantasy uses the materials of experience, but com- bmes them into new and purposeless forms. 3J. Imagination differs from phantasy in being subject to the will. *"»imsmmm'e'fv^ 378 SYLLABUS OF 37. The phantasy of childhood gradually passes over into the imagination of maturer years. 38. The power of imagination requires wise culture through well-chosen means. 39. Some subjects of study are of high value, some of low value, in the culture of imagination. 40. The method of work is more important than the sub- ject-matter, as pertaining to the right development of this power. 41. Memory and imagination are the two re-presentative powers, as perception and assimilation are the two presentative powers to be cultivated. Pages 155 to 171. 42. Thiiiking consists in seeing the relations between things. 43. Class-relations lead to concepts, truth-relations to judgments, and cause-relations to reasons. 44. Six several steps in the thought process of conception. 45. Distinction between synthetic and analytic judg- ments. 46. Informal reasoning may be expanded into full formal reasoning. 47. Deductive reasoning is secondary to inductive reason- ing and is the converse of it. 48. The three terms and the three propositions involved in every complete process of formal reasoning. Pages 171 to 218. 49. The education of conception is the development of the power to form general notions from the individ- ual percepts that come to the mind through experi- ence or imagination. 1 BALDWIN'S APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY 379 50. 51- Breadth and vigor of thinking depend upon the power to form concepts. The conceptive power manifests different characteris- tics during the several periods of growth from child- hood to manhood. 52. The three general laws of effort, means and method have their special application in the education of conception. 53- The characteristics of the several periods of mental growth call for methods in education. 54. Most errors in conception-culture are due to antici- pating results before taking the steps that properly lead to those results. 55. Education of judgment is the development of the power to see true relations between things. 56. The several periods of mental growth determine the particular application of general laws in the educa- tion of judgment. 57. Self-activity of the learner's mind is the. essential characteristic of right method in the education of judgment. 58. Work too easy, or too difficult, or poorly graded, is not conducive to right development of the power'of judgment. 59- Education of reason is the development of the power to see the relation of cause and result, or of premise and conclusion. 60. The prime value of knowledge is in the material it supplies for the activities of reason. 61. Good teaching consists in the intelligent directing of the self-activities of the child's mind so as to secure full development of the several powers of right think- ing, and hence of right action. 380 SYLLABUS OF N'l 'i ; Pages 219 to 249. 62. The emotions differ from sensations in being occa- sion jv:^ by ideas, not by affections of the body. 63. The emotions are classified according to the nature of the ideas awakening them. 64. It is the duty of the teacher to stimulate the emo- tional nature into right activity. 65. The egoistic emotions lead the individual to make the best of himself. 66. The emotions must be carried over into resolves and acts or their force is wasted. 67. Self-respect, and the elements of a good disposition and of manliness, should be cultivated in school life. 68. Culture of the altruistic emotions elevates human so- ciety and increases human happiness. 69. The altruistic emotions produce kind acts, and these in turn develop the altruistic emotions. 70. Literature for the young should present right ideas in relation to the egoistic and altruistic emotions. Pages 249 to 281. 71. The truth-emotions are awakened by our recognition of reality in facts and in relations. 72. The education of the truth-emotions is essential in the development of noble character. 73. Right teaching involves the presentation of knowledge in such manner as to awaken the active enjoyment of acquiring. 74. The aesthetic emotions constitute the elements of taste. 75. Esthetic culture is closely related to the development ter in matters of truth and right. uhai ng occa- ly- lature of ;he emo- nake the Ives and sposition hool life, iman so- nd these ^ht ideas •tions. cognition ial in the lowledge ijoyment nents of slopment BALDWINS AITLIED PSYCHOLOGV. 331 76. Kindergarten work furnishes the best means for awak- ening the aesthetic emotions. 77. The spirit of the kindergarten should permeate all the later teachmg in elementary and higher grades 78. The ethical emotions underlie conscience and impel to right action. 79- Conscience is cultivated by training in intelligent ri^rht action. *" 80. Enforced obedience may be, and if necessary should be, the precursor of voluntary right doing. Pages 28 s to 3jj9. 81. Will is the power of self to put forth voluntary effort in the three forms of attention, choice, and action 82. Nonvoluntary or attracted attention prevails in the period of childhood, and education develops it into the voluntary attention of matured will-power. Choice is the act of determining what course to pur- sue in view of conflicting desires or motives Action results from choice, and is the final effort of self in the manifestation of will-power 85. The ability to so educate the attention as to concen- trate all the energies upon a given work determines a fundamental principle in pedagogy 86. The basis of right teaching rests in the development of the power and habit of attention. 87. True attention must be secured through awakened in- terest, not by compulsory requirement 88. The power of choice, or of self-determination, is the fundamental element of strength of character 89. School discipline should aim not merely to restrain evil tendencies but to develop self-restraint and 83. 84. ight ch Dice. 382 SYLLABUS. 90. The power and habit of prompt and vigorous action characterize the person of efficient executive power. 91. Pupils should be trained to do as well as to know. 92. Will-culture along the three lines of attention, choice, and action constitutes character-training. Pages 343 to 373. 93. Teaching is an art, based upon a science, and having its laws, processes, periods, and methods. 94. The central idea in the science of education is growth through lawful self-activity, and teaching is the art of promoting this growth by inducing the appropri- ate self-activity. 95. The laws of teaching are the ways in which the teacher may secure the right self-effort on the part of the learner. 96. The teaching processes are the definite ways in which the teacher must have the pupil proceed in order to learn. 97 Each of the teaching periods— childhood, boyhood, youth, and early manhood-has its special charac- teristics, and requires its special applications of the teaching laws and processes. 111 'sfWi action power. )W. choice, INDEX. having growth the art )propri- teacher ; of the hich the :o learn, oyhood, charac- s of the Abstraction, 139, 161. Action, 286, 290, 331. Acts of perceiving, 39, 40. Actuals and ideals, 145. Esthetic emotions, 224, 237, 265. Altruistic emotions, 240. Analytic process, 351, 360, 364, 368. Applied psvchologv, 9, 11, 13. 324. Apperception, 40, 89, 154, 218, 348. 353. Appetites, 229, 230, 266. Art of teaching, 14, 296. 343. Assimilation, 40, 60, 76, 88, 116, 154, 184, 212, 348, 353. Association, 94. 9% 145. Attention, 286, 288,293, 304, 338 347. Attention und consciousness 287 288, 294. Author's preface, xiv. Awareness, 26, 31. 63, 76. Axioms, 170, 250. 264. Beauty-emotions, 224, 337, 255. Book and oral work, 57, 59, 119 189. Books recommended, 41, 61, 79, 120, 142, 185, 198, 263, 307, 3?0, 370. Boyhood, 46, 67, 109, 129, 175, 192, 204, 231, 241, 352, 357, 269, 280, 297, 312, 324, 343, 363. Brain and mind, 18, 19, 34, 33, 35, 43, 43, 69, 99, 103, 158, 290, 324. Breaking the child's will, 320, 331, 355. Build on the rock, 84. Causality, 166. Cells, 18. Cerebrum, 18, 20, 24, 26, 99. Character-g-owing, 275, 309. 311, 318, 333, 335. Characteristics of necessary - ideas, 37. Childhood, 46, 67, 109, 124, 139, 174, 191, 803, 331, 340, \51, 357, 369, 297, 313, 343, 355, 358. Choice, 385, 388, 309, 310, 334. Cognitive pyramid, 154. College period, 357, 371. Comparative powers, 157. Conception, 158, 171. Conceptions, not mental pictures, 160, 183. 3»3 ;iB4 API'LIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. 1 '''< ; - m i ■I CoiK'cptivc procesi^i's, 161. Concepls, 50, 109, 163, 173, 182, 184, (kmcluet, 187, ia APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING. Ideals, 103, 104, 126, 141. 145, 234. Kinds of knowing, 95 157 Ideas, desires, choices, 290. Know edge and emotion, 235. Illusion, 124. Knowledge of self, 3, 65, 76. Imagination, 102, 125, 144, 172, 201. Immediate and mediate knowing, 17, 157. Importance of educating, 45, 65, 82, 107, 127, 173, 190, 202, 230. 340, 250, 250, 208, 296, 311, 323. Independent work, 181, 197, 202, 235, 347. Induction, 105, 169, 351. Inductive process, 352. Instinct, 23. Intellect and conscience, 264, 279. Intellectual pyramid, 154, 200. Intermediate methods, 55, 72, 'ill 114, 135, 179, 196, 234, 244, 253, 259, 274, 303, 315, 327, 355, 362, 365. Intermediate culture-lessons, 365. Intermediate period, 355. Intuitions, 29, 31, 36, 85, 250, 255, 264. Intuitive knowing, 17, 30, 34, 38, 85, 170. Intuitive powers, 17, 34, 85. Judgment, 162, 187. Judgment and teaching, ^91. Judgments, 163, 107. Kindergarten methods, 52, 71, 113, 133, 177, 194, 233, 243, 353. 350, 373, 300, 315, 327, 354. Kindergarten work, 53, 354. Laboratory work, 42. Language and thought, 317. Laws and conscience, 365, 370. Laws of ascent and descent, 69, 176, 205. Laws of association, 94, 98. Laws of mental growth, 12, 47, 68,83,110, 130, 175, 193, 204, 331, 341, 353, 357, 370, 397, 314, 336. Laws of methods, 48, 68, 176. Laws of teaching, 345. Limits of imagination, 103. Logic and psychology, 157. Love, 340, 345, 346, 364. Manhood, 68, 109, 130, 175, 193, 304, 353, 357, 370, 313, 334, era. Manliness, 335, 368. Manners and morals, 73, 243. Manual training, 56. Map of mental growth, 343. Maps of educational periods, 35D, 363, 367, 373. Mathematics, 194, 306. Matter and mind, 35. Means for educating, 49, 70, 83, 113, 131, 177, 193, 305, 233, 242, 253, 258, 371, 399, 313, 335 Memories, 96, 106, 303. Memory, 96, 105, 144, 150, 17«. Memory cerebration, 99. Memory laws, 97, 98. Men of action, 331, 323. Mental growth, 397, 313, 343. INDEX. 387 C' «; ; ; ^' «|- ^~' -■' "ook w„rk, 57. 309, 3'>2 348 ' ' '""'• ;^'8"""' '""sation, 0, S7, 288. Me„tal phcnomeaa, 04, 385 '*"""'"' *'■ ^*' Mental powers, 8. 284 ^42 p-.^ , « McsmorLm, 101 b'^''''"^'' ''°''"'"'. ^• Methods ot educati„K 51 71 m ^'=™P':"-I CT-//A ICHOOI SYSTEM OF ONTARIO, CANADA. Ross, LL.D., Minisler of Education for the Province of On- tario. i2mo. Cloth, $1.00, C, Jdt f™m%%"Siye"fX'S Ac;°.f'p'°7 "' *.' School Sy„em of Oot.rio. ation, inspection, etc Th*. oi.ai.fi^ot: „ r 1^ • , . ' v' '"''•^^^ O' examin- ational Schools, and Schools and PuSibfaries-' ™^' ^°"^^*' '^e""™"- purpIL'^.-SwevVrL' L'TpJt^ anario°i\trt?t'Srd^rTh°'^"^^^'"°- '>^ --» management of the different deDartm.^t««f Z f ^ *j I*'® organization and been providedfor proSne its r^c;™th^^^^ ^"'^ **'•'' '"''^"'' ^'"■'=h ^are of teachers in bothTuEaf d high SoU "^ uniform examinations, the training Toronto : GEORGE N. MORANG, 63 Yonge St. m: NEW VOLUMES IN THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES r'E ACHING THE LANGUAGE- ARTS. Speech, Reading, Composition. By B. A. Hinsdale, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Science and the Art of Teaching in the University of Michigan. lanio. Cloth, $i.oo. This work is not a collection of "Exercises" and "Composition Lessons," but a clear and Wl discussion of the principles which underlie the acquisition of the language, art /nhs oral and written forms. The book is addressed to Jea'^hers and w.ll prove a valuable aid to them in an important branch ot their educational work. rHE EDUCATION OF THE GREEK PEOPLE:, and its influence on Civilization. By TiiOMAS Davidson. i2mo. Cloth, $1.50. ••This work is not intended for scholars or specialists but for ',';^ '■:;;:f ''^;^V\f teachers throughout the country who are trying to ^^^^ .5;;;;^ J'' >;^ '^.^^^^^ from that want of eiilhus asm which necessarily comes from being unahle ciearij to see"he end and purpose of their labors, or to invest any end with s».bl'«"« '•"Po^t.. ,^ have sought "o show them that the end of their work is th^redfrnp ion of humanity. aresleS part Of that process bywhich.it is ^^9^ g.^'-^duaUy t^ated^^^^^ freedom and to suggest to them the direction in which they ou^ht to turn their cniet iff^rfl I? I r-iii mike even a few of them feel the consecration that comes from Si-indei ct'^^tTcfn U.Tgrearend° I shall hold that this book has accomphshed its purpose."— .J M>■>( 'Mt\ '!!■' Illlr illO linai .' Jjii». linii 1 1 % r a clearer ex- ; made a new r equipped for has attested, ue to mothers, other volume. W}\' St. Sf'Vit. •Vi\ . I