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Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre repr~:-• ' I'll n '^ Oc^/ty C^€/i/^^ec^^ ^ V^n^^ ^ GR OP T / IttilUr & W% m\xamm\ ^tx\t$. SWINTON'S LANGUAGE LESSONS: AN INTRODUCTORY GRAMMAR AND COMPOSHION ADAPTED TO THE REQUIREMENTS OP THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF ONTARIO. BY J. MACMILLAN, B.A., OTTAWA COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE Srd Edition. TORONTO: ADAM MILLER would say, that ^llect from large Julties tliat chil- ng and writing > difficulties by se are the hook and are given H'lON. The at- elicited to these tal following of given is par- t'itten exercises 'apers; 2. The placing of one -1 as a basis of bought neces- icular plan to 7 the method CONTENTS. Lksron I- V. 11 VI. «« VI T. «< VIII. l< IX. as to understand what others say to us, and to make H8 athers understand what we say to them. 120 m n Ttr tences I23 W ^- ^^ can not only speak our language, but we <^^« 124 ■•'^ve made some progress in writing it. We may have 127 written letters and short compositions. nces J32 M g Sentences . 132 J^ ^" ^^^ °"'' betters and compositions are not perfect. m ^ ™^^^ mistakes in spelling and in using capitals ; ^ *'e often employ the wrong word, or we do not put the 145 iiight words together in the Hght way. 4. The most useful knowledge that we can acquire school is the knowledge, in the first place, of how to ixpress in correct English what we have to say ; then ow to say it so that others may understand exactly ►ur meaning : then how to say it so as to give pleasure >y the form in which we express our thoughts. 6. There are persons whose business it is to write ; nd these address a public aiulience, through books lagazines, and newspapers. Now, it may not be our miness to write ; yet we shall all have occasion to andle the pen. even if we only write lettei-s to our friends. 9 lANQUAQE LESSOM. ! 6. It is not verj difficult for a nnniT * i «peak and to write corrpr-tl^ 7 , ^ ^ *° ^®*™ *» will faithfu]]^ worouH ! " "''^- ^^^ ^^^-- the tongue and wTrpeT " ""'""^' '^^^ ^^^ 7. The study thac teaches us to use th« F 7- .. . guage correctly in speakin<, ^ "^'''^ ^«^- ^uglish grammar. ^ ^^ "^ ^"ting is called ir. THE SENTENCE th^riX ?'^^' "^ ''- ^"^^^ ^^^ -ite L 3,ate« or on pape. belKrifrr?d':;^f£eT^^^^^^ The, ea.e to a l were greatly delight -i. TheThaldlv'' "^''^'''y *he bears 1 They began to eaf voraciouslv rlll^ «\erturiied the hive '^ They flew about the bears tL 1 ^^^°"'' ^ith impunitv eara and eyes. The bears t2P' '*""S ^^^"^ «everel/"n the of their nimble foes. ThT^^t^^^tllf^" *° T^^^ the^a Lks s.ffff? '''*^ P.^'" *»d blindeTbv rUe Slfi*^ ''^^''^^t' "^^d! suflFenngs subsided. Thev ha^ ^1£ ^"* after a while their thin jr': :rd- ^°" "^^^ ^"'^^ «■- - 1^.. I. The piece is marked nff ,*«+^ 11 Th. « * / ^'^""'' "'■ f"" Stop- c^m^"" '"" "' "-" =»«'--' begins wit/. caoi.^n:ttTrn^*A'" -e^ statement vrith a 1-cter, anu end It With a period. Oba.^.e paper,, and «ee if thia Laa beeaco„ectly don* Ifl'l » pupil to learn to 'arly. And if you 'es here given, you Trectly, both with , e the English Ian- writing is called > on slates or on paper. ■. They came to a iscovery the bears erturned the hive lowever, were not r with impunity. m severely in the repel the attacks 1 to retreat, mad- "er a while their ■eHect upon their sad experience there are two ^ ite statements I or full stop. begins with a nent with a "iod. ON SENTENCEa 9 8. Each of these separate statements is called a sen- \tence. In the copied story, number the sentences 1. 2, 3, etc. What is the first 'sentence? The second? The third? etc* 4. Definition.— A sentence is a set of words making a complete statement. 5. A sentence is made up of words ; but not words thrown together at random. 6. " The air that we breathe," is not a sentence, be- cause the words do not make a complete statement. They might easily be made into a sentence by saying *' The air that we breathe is sweet," or " The air that we breathe is a fluid." 7. Is this a sentence 1 Little drops of water, little grains of sand, Make the mighty ocean and the pleasant land. 8. Is this a sentence 1 Full many a gem of purest ray serene . Insert such words in the following as will make them sentences: 1. In 1492 Columbus . 2. The life of a farmer is . 3. A band of robbers . 4. The story of Robinson Crusoe ronto. study of giamuiar . 9. gives milk. 10. 5. The City of To- 6. The Empire of China . 7. The — was a great patriot, is the largest city in 8. the world. 11. tells us the time of day. Note to Teachehs — The lessons in the Rea I'jr may be turned to good account in imparting a ivuowlclge of the na- ture of ilie sentence. It will also be found a val;iul)le exercise to place the work of one or more pupils on tlie blackboard, aadmake it the basis of class-criticii^im. i . t$ nrst;B.rKCTANI.PKEBICATE Statement i, „,^ J ^""''"""8 "-.ed ai„„, „,.^, ^^^ Birds %, '-W by tl,e word "t::^;!'; ^'"'»»-' » made feX 3- Iron is ,1, '™« 'oM- ■ 4 tI?.! ?™' ""'"'»' metal. * „*" '"wyer hummed an „u , »■ The sguirrei eyes Te K °''"-*"»«- thing about which tho?* "'' ""^ person or . called the subject "' ^""'"'"t is «ade te The word or words ii..j • "ent are called the preAtle™'"''"^ ""^ »«»"=- ment. ^^ sentence must be a state- .B — The question " JT/n ^ -■" always s,„,est tke^^Z:^.'J '"^^-e, r What ia o.,--j ^ , °i"yect as its nn^^rav SUBJECT AND PREDICATB. DIOATE. important tilings ^^out which the ;he word "fly »» is made is de- en about, and what une. estnuts, person or 's made is the state- set and a e a state- '^tionedr ^i- And '® predi- By means of these questions find out the Subjects and Predicates in the examples given above. Make sentenoea, with anitable pairs, of the following snhjects and predi- ates. Each subject must 1'- paired with the predicate that suits its meaE- Dg ; as, A dog worried a cat ; f a dog, robin, crow, liorse, baby, Subjects -I the boy, the girl, the jock jy, tlie coafhman, the I doctor, the teacher, the musician, f taught the class, will play the fiddle, will win I the race, worried a cat, will sing a song, built Predicates ••-! a nest, upset the carriage, cured the man, I trundles a hoop, will toss a ball, wants its l^rattle, broke the fence. Supply suitable subjects : 1. revolves around the sun in a year. 2. |is thf season of snow and ice. 3. are drawn over ^he snow in sledges. 4. suffer terribly in battle. — is the capital of Ontario. 6. sail across jthe Atlantic Ocean. 7. wrote her exercise. Supply suitable predicates : 1. London . 2. Coal . 3. Sounds of j music . 4. Vessels . 5. The source of the [Nile . 6. The children . Exercise x. A. "Write a sentence on each of the following words. Underline all the words in the subject, and doubly %m- derline all the words in the predicate. Model. Smoke. The smoke curls up from the chimney. """" ' 1. Smoke. 2. Desk, 3. Air. 4. Book. 6. The Steam-engine. 6. The Eagle. 7. Money. 8. Girls. Change papara, and soe if the sahjeots and predicates are correctly ondat* lined. 6 lAN'QUAQE LESSONS. ^oni po.se two '<'"''«"S»..l,jects: '"°'''' ""'""""' "l-™ each of ti,: I- Cotton 2 Dog. , p, by a class of y„„4 3^,;^^^" '-' exerei,ea3„,,ie.o„ E«i-cw 1, page 5. J ""* f'''^ 'he subjects i„ &m^;i 7._T„E Doo. Ilie dog runs fast. Tho rf„„ . sentence bcS wfth T"'* ^^'"^^ ^^^ ^o^'^a.^f '" ^^ -"'' ^«- agreeable to the 1^'' *^' '^"^^ ^«'d«-''the dS"'- fT^ -^^^^ ""6 • tms IB not Na. « upon each of the i 3. Flowers. ':^' ami be made the 'in? directions: lied word. '«tter tJiat should ' small. omitted. SING. 'Criticising sen- 'aults. '^e shall ttvke cise as written ^ subjects in d over by a True, each period, rtut Ji-e 18 no such ',f^w. Each : tins ia not LESSONS ON CRITICISINO. T Example S. — The Doo. A dog is a quadruped with four legs some dogs are irery wild and some are not wild some dogs do not like be tied all day. Here the writer has three sentences, for there are three Isepiirate statements ; yet these are all run together without periods or capitals. Correcting the exercise with regard £h [these things, we have — A dcg is a quadruped with four legs. Some dogs lare very wild, and some are not wild. Some doas do [not like to be tied all day. This makes it better ; but why need the pupil say "a ' quadruped with Jour leys ?" Example 3. — The Doo, I have had some dogs that I have been very fond of. Once I had a big Newfoundland Dog. He would take my Lunch to school. Now I have a little Dog that w'll ^etch me the newspaper when I send him after it. This is much better. The pupil tells something which he knows. Still, there are some mistakes in the piece. The word "dog" is written twice with a capital wliere a suiall letter should be used, and the word " lunch" once. Remark to the Pui'Ils.— When you see what ignorance it shows to make mistakes in spelling, or in the use of capital letters, or in the omission of the period at the end of a sentence, you should be very careful to avoid all such errors. And when you feel the superiority of a piece containing sensible and interesting statements over one that is foolish or coimnonplace, you will surely tiy to do your very beat. Exercise 2. Correct the following with lelerence to — 1. Spelling. 2. Capitals. 3. The Period. 4. Any- thing else that seems to need correction. ^'*^i*mvr;fta£, ?,.«&'■ .-^E^ '!,M t'ASaVAQE LE8SON8. ' 3. The dog is very nref v W^' W,SlSt--'*»'''>^°'K»y. He .,U3 «,„,,,, , »■ The Eagle i, . j„ „, , „ , _ , »■ F>o„ .he «,,„„ p ^-*%3W«h. i ^- ^l^BJ^CT ^ND PREDICATE AGAm. ^iids By. Fishes swim, Carthage fell. ^- Are the words " birds flv" „ because they mak^ . . . ' * sentence? Yes • 2 4re th, T^e predicate? 3NS. ' very nseful they are »d the house. » goo; 5 ^vage He is verj. ].„.^,, ^« made from it ^,,i„ 1 '"«» is made of cotton '"jrket in the world. l>'Ws his nest in ^ ys high. ';je are killed and 'nul^y^"-^ a great "ke the steamboat ' iUBJECT AND PUEDICATB AGAIN. 9 3, "Carthage fell;" is this a sentence? Why? live the subject. The predicate. 4. In each of these sentences the subject consists of »utone word, and the predicate of but one word; lonce these are examples of the very simplest kind of sentences, for each contains but two words. If a set of wrda did not contain a subject and a predicate, would \these words he a sentence i 6. In a sentence that contains but two words— the [subject and the predicate— the subject may be called the simple subject, and the predicate may be called the [Simple predicate. 6. The subject may consist of many words, and the predicate may consist of many words. 7. When the simple subject takes other words with it, we say that it is enlarged. So with the predicate. ILLUSTRATION. fi AGAIN, tence? Yes ; ave a subject ^e predicate ? 'ishes 8wim.'» 1. Bii-dsfly. This is a sentence, with a simple subject, "birds," and a simple predicate, " fly. " 2. Some birds fly swiftly. Here the subject is enlarged by the word "some," aild the predicate by the word "swiftly.'^' 3. Some birds of prey fly very swiftly. Here the words "of prey" are added to the last subject, and "very " to the last predicate: 4. Some birds of prey, having secured their victim^ fly toith it very swiftly to their nests. Here the subject and the predicate are enlarged, by many additional words. 10 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 8. In the first form of the sentence, " birds " is the subject, and "fly" is the predicate. In the fourth form, the subject is " some birds of prey, having se- cured their victim," and tlie predicate is ** fly with it very swiftly to their nests." The firct sentence is simple ; the other sentences are enlarged. Subject. Fredicatei 1. Birds fly. 2. Some birds tiy swiftly. 3. Some birds of prey fly very swiftly. 4. Some birds of prey, having secured their victim, fly with it very swiftly to their nests. In like manner, enlarge the following sentences till yon make them as long as you can. Be carefal to have ouly one subject and one predicate : 1. Boys study. 2. Rivers flow. 3. A horse ran. 9. The principal word in the subject of a sentence is a name-word, because it represents the thing named • the principal word in the predicate is a statement- word, because it represents the thing stated. Name- words are called nouns; statement-ioords are called verba. 10. There are thousands of nouns in our language, and also thousands of verbs. When we take all the words in our language, we find that we can assort them into a few great classes. We shall see that all English words may be grouped into eight classes, and these different sorts of words are called in grammar parts of speech. Now, nouns and verbs are the two principal parts of speech, be- cause with a noun and a verb we can make a seii" teutitib KINDS Of WORDS, 11 i if Exercise 3. A. Write out the following sentences, drawing a single line under the simple subject, and a double line under the simple predicate. Model. — Th e elephan t surpasses all other land ani- mals in size. """ 1 . The elephant surpasses all other land animals in sizs. 2. The cuckoo builds no nest for herself. 3. Vast prairies stretch beyond the Red River. 4. Before our house a prattling river runs. 5. A herd of cattle grazed in a meadow. 6. The timid bird saw the snake in the grass. 7. My father's fields pro- duce com. 8. Those pears may ripen on the waU. 9. Diogenes lived in a tub. B. Write a sentence on each of the following words. Draw a single line under the principal word in the subject (noun), and a double line under the principal word in the predicate (verb.) 1. Face. 2. Crocodile. 8. King. Change papersi and see— 1. Whether the spelling is correct. 2. Whether each sen. tence begins with a capital. 3. Whether each sentence ends with a period. 4. Whether there are any other improvementa that you can make. VI.— KINDS OF WORDa 1. Nouns. — Whatever we can think of or say any- thing about^ has a name, and a na/ms is a noun : Examples. — Hat, thunder, sugar, rose, pain, Hamil- ton, St. Lawrence, Joseph, Harriet, Harry, virtue^ goodness, wisdom, bravery. Now, all these names ar« nouns. ■-"^^^ -^^ '>'a:rrE^J--tre*:*T^*i?cmw-ffa» 12 tANOUAOE LESSONS. 2. Verbs.— But we cnnnot speak about a thing without using anmh^r kind of word called a verb, to express what we mean in regard to the thing named : A desk stands. Thunder roars. London is a city. Temperance bnnr/s health. John beat James. In the following sentenoea, write tla nouns in one column and the verbs in another : 4 Ti!o'''n!""''fl~- Smoke nsc. 3. John broke the window. 4 Iho Ihameaflowd. .'5. I'ans is a city. 6 Lucv viHitPil T.omas. 7, The sun shines. 8. The tei^he, gav^a^o Say. 9. Hubert spuia a top. 10. Mary played a ganie. """"^y* 3. Adjectives.— A mere name is not always a sufficiently definite sign of «he meaning of a noun. Other words, called adjectives, are sometimes joined to it to denote colour, shape, size, kind, quantity, eto. : A blue tie. A black dog. A white swan. A small letter. A capital letter. A round table. A fiiie pear. A sweet apple. Twenti/ dollars. Underlinethe adjectives in the following sentences : The man stole a brown muflF. 2. A fine brown horse won the long race. .3. Many persons saw it. 4. Pleasant weather makes us cheerful. 5. Sweet sleep brings fairy dreams. 6 Three sunny days have followed two gloomy ones. 4. Adverbs. — A fuller meaning is often given to the verb, and also to the adjective, by the use of words called adverbs, to express time, place, marner, and degree : He called yesterday. Go quickly. lio \vlil be here to-day. She sang sweetly. Richard was very angry. He was exceedingly sorry. , Underline the adverbs in the following senfAnoes ; ^ Tu^ /^*^"' ^- ^"*® carefully. 3. You will soon learn. 4 Sb .. jehaves well. 5. It is very easy. 6. Step backward. ?. *i /oudy really tries to write carelessly. > KINDS OP WORDi. i a thing I verb, to g named : Ion ia a xt James, uid tha verbs lie window. icy visited > a holiday. always a f a noun, es joined ■ity, etc. : swan, table, lollars. lorse won it weather reams. 6. given to ) use of marner, i be here ( angry. on learn, ackward. II 8. Pronouns.— A certain kind oi word may be used instead of a noun : namely, a pronoun. The princip; 1 pronouns are : I— me, He— him, She— her, It. We -us, You, They— them. Underline the pronouna in the following sentences : 1" HiTnn^iT- ^- ^?,y«"» 3- It perfumes the garden 4. He told John we would con.o. 6. Tfiey brought us fruit. 6. bhe asked them to let her go. j b « "- un. 6. Prepositions.— Certain words are used to show the relation which one thing bears to another. Such words are called prepositions, because thoy are usually placed be/ore nouns : He placed the boxes on the cart. You came a/ier the time. She runs across the field. Underline the prepositions in the following sentences: 1. The swallows built a nest above the window. 2. The door of the house was shut. 3. We stayed in the garden till evening 4. He sat for some time under a tree. 6. She came before breakfast. 6. The dew is on the grass. "^ Conjunctions.— We sometimes wish to speak of two different things at one time, or to make two UiiFerent statements about a thing. It is then neces- sary lo join them by means of a conjunction, such as and, but, either, or, if. Underline the ooajnnotions in the follow 'n^ sentences; 1. A cat an-l a dmr r^nvpA nrof^-il" on tVi" f — - " rm. - i could write pretty well, but he could not read very nicely. 3. \Ve shall improve if we study. 4. Either Charles or Ed- wiird must go to the farm. 5. John's uncle owns a horse and car», b. lo err is human, but to forgive is divine. 14 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 8. Interjections—Certain words may stand alone to express surprise, disgust, etc.:— fnrf ^/'^""^''"^ ^A/ I wish he had come be- fore. These, re called interjections Jhe Written or printed sign of an interjection or e.cla.a- Exercise 4. Name the hinds of words in the following, thus • 1. A^o.eandadog„akegoo,el;:L^^^^^ ' ^°- 2. They cheer the weary traveller oa a long journey 3. Oh ! do you see the poor starving beggar ' ^* 4. G^ve him a crust of bread from the paftry.' 6. Ihe sheep soon reached the river bat rpf.L^ * VII. NOTJNS. nofrequilTforTo'r/scL^^^^^ and the quantity of drill fn training.^I f no orL tra^nin^^^^'r'" •^•"P""'* o° t^eir previous 1. DEF]NiTioNs.-Nouns are names. ExAMPLES.~Jl/a;i, %, servant, Charles. IJ^planation.~The.e are names of j^ersona. All names of persons are W0M7W. ExAMi.LES.-Z>o^, horse, cow, cat, antelope. yiamtion.--These are names of animals. All names of animals aie nouns. Ti Ti NOUNS. stand alone I come be- or exclama* ', thus : I open I ipato. I Adj. I Noun irney. to cross, ro sleeps, 3p8, [AS MOOBB. 15 of drill in ir previous her should JS0U8. na. All la. Al] Examples.— rou?«, street, city, church. Explanation.— These are names of places. All names of places are nouns. 'RxAHPLES.— Chair, pen, desk, fire, heanty, goodness. Explanation.— These are names of things. All names of things are nouns. 2. There are two kind.s of nouns : 1. Common nouns. 2. Proper nouns. 3. Definition—A proper noun is the name of a person or place; as JoA/i, Wellington, France, Toronto. 4. Proper nouns always begin with capitals. 6. Definition.— A common noun is the name of a class of objects ; as man, hoy, country, city. In the following aentenoes name tha nouns. There are two in oaoh 1. The boys are in school. 2. The gardener cut down the tree. 3. The sun rises in the morning. 4. The minister preached a sermon. 5. Sometimes we see a ship, sometimes we ship a sea. In thefoUowing sentences, name the nouns, andteU Khioh are proper and »moh common: * i-oi auu 1. Wellington won the battle of Waterloo. 2. London is the largest city in the world. 3. In going from New York to San Francisco, we croaspd the Rocky Mountains. 4. We are going to Ottawa next Saturday. 5. Coal, iron, and other minerals, are obtained from Nova Scotia. 10 l^NQUAGE LESSONS. Exercise 5. A. Mention the nam.es ofthmrjs-^ 1. In the school-rooin 4 ■Nr^rr^^^ o T ^1. , ■'^^"^e persons you know 2. n the p ay-ground. 5. Places you have seen T; 3. In the st.eet. i,,^,^ ^^ Tell which of the .ouns you have just given are conunon and which proper. B. Name t^, nouns, and tell whether ^.o;,e. or common. 1. Ihe bee is on the flower o tu^ i • i 3. The cat will be in the Schen 4 Tf* T' '" *^" *"««• VIII. VERBS. 1. DBB.,N.T,oN.-Verbs are statement-words. 2. In sentences like these— Men laugh, Fishes swim, Carthage /e;;, there is but one word in each of the predicates ; and as in every sentence the statement-word must be a verb the words "laugh," "swim," and "fell" are verbs o. In sentences like these— The boy strikes the dog, The child sings a song, there are several words in the predicate. Now in each of these sentences the verb is the particular word used VERBS. J7 you know, ive seen or i which proper. )r common. in the tree, was in Iiis bear roared ran up the 'h. 10. The 12. Paris i3 t. Pitt was •words. tea; and lust be a ire verbs. ■ in each )rd used in making the statement. In the first sentence the predicate is " stiikes the dog," and the verb is '•' strikes;" in the second sentence the predicate is " sings a sonf," and the verb is " sings." 4. Frequently there are many words in the predicate. Thus-^ Some birds of prey, having secured their victim, /y very swiftly with it to their nests. Here the predicate consists of all the words printed in italics ; but the verb is the single word '♦ fly." Name the verbs in the following sentences 1. After school the children went to town. 2. Homo they brought her warrior dead. 3. The wild goats live among the rocks. 4. Some birds fly very swiftly, 6, The camel is the ship of the desert. 6. The little girl said, "We are seven." 7. The moon revolves around the earth. 8. Studious boys become learned men. Exercise 6. A. Add verbs to the following ; 1. The boy . 2. The girl . 3. The birds . 4. The clock . 5 Kings . 6. The sun . 1. The apple sour. 2. The "r.ines 3. James here yesterday. 4. Soldiers — Health . 6. London . 7. T»ie lion npe= 5. * 18 lANGUAOE LEfiSONH E On Nouns a/io? Verbs, 1. Name six things that 2. " " u" ™--- ""...run, 3. « «« « «, S'wm;. 4. T'e?/ «< « « "V-'V *^*^' 6. " u „ „ birds c?o. 6. « « « « torses.... " dogs « 0. Write a sentence on each of the following 8ubier^« t::zr '^' -^^^^ --' --' -<^ ^^'^^^Zz Moi,EL.-The polar bea^li^i,^, arctic ^^gW 1. The polar bear. 2. The rainbow. 3. My cousin OhaBge papers, and correct with reference to- 1. Spelling. 2. Capitals ^ in. Whether the nouns and Ik ^^ P^'^^''- ^^ lined. ^** ^"'^^ ^« «>«ectly under- ^i IX. LESSON ON NUMBER. The river flow& The rivers flow. second, it is « rivers." ' *^® 2. The word " river " <»iVo<, *i, • ^ things called rivers but wl '^'' '^ ^^^ °' *^^^ o u livers, but when we say "rivpr.,"™ getanideaof»»orathanone. ' ''^ « . tESSON ON NU:aBBB. 19 run. grow, bum, do. Jubjects— nes under c regions. y cousin. riod. 4. 7 under- we see in the of the f*," we 3. DEirmiTioN.-Number is that form of a noun which marks whether we are speaking of one thmg or of more than one. 4. There are two numbers of nouns-the dngutwr number, which denotes one object, and the plural num- ber, which denotes more than one object. / 6 RuLE.-Most nouns form their plural by addmg a to the singular; as star, star.; neigh bour, neighbour*. Write the plural of the following nonns : 1. Plant. 5. Reaper. 'L Rainbow. 6. Serpent. 7. Knell. 8. Chestnut. 3. Wall. 4. Danger. 9. Garden. 10. Wheelbarrow, 11. Water. 12. Apple. 6. Now let us take the verbs in the two sentences given above. We say, « The river flows," and We say, « The river* flow." 7. We observe that with the singular, "river," the verb ends m s-^' flow*;" while with the plural form, river*," the verb has not the *. 8. It is not correct to say, " The river flow.- Nei- ther IS It correct to say, " The rivers >«;*.'' Hm.fc''''"^^.^" * ^"'^ ^^"^^'"^ present time IS jomed with a noun subject in th^ «in«.p. ^r number tne verb generally ends in ^V but ZuZ.^^'^tl "^'^^ * "°"" ^"''jec* i" the plural number, the verb generally omits the *. 20 I'ANGUAQB LESSONS. 10. The most important princinlp in *i,« t- v ^ language is tl.at the verb foLZthl I '^''"'^ --a .abject; that is^ "' '^' '^"^^^^ ^' ''^ If the noun is singular, the verb must be singular If the noun is plural, the verb must be phual. n. This is expressed in the following Rule of Agreement. -A v^rh m„c4. its subject in number. "^"^t agree with The horse works. ■Here the verb " wm-l-ci >» , " We » is siujular. '""""" ''«'"■*' The horses work. Here the verb " wnnt " „ "horses." "Work-roIurfT'" """^'^^ ^^^' plural. ^ ^^ ^'"'^"'^ "horses" i^ Are the foUowing sentences good En-Iish 7 1. Some boys writes carefullv 9 TJ,« i , Ml on castle walls. 3. The tons of J '^ "'^'"' ^.ar. above the horizon 4 T T. ''^"''"'^ ''^'• h ir. aoiizon. 4. The houses needs paint- Write the following sentence : The brave soldier falls in battle. Write this sentence: The stars begin to twinkle. Change it so aa to make it speak of but one «tar. i the Ensflish umber oi" its e singular, phual. igree with er with its I' because iber with liorses " is IRRCQULAR NUMBERS, £1 Exercise 7. Tn the following sentences, name the Suljects and iJie Predicates, and change their number. Model.— The gate of the palace opens. 1. The gates of the palace open. 2. The thunders bellow over the waste of waters. 3. The schools re. open in September. 4. The greatest plateaus seem to be in Asia. 6. Little boys drive fat cows. 6. Per- sons become used to hardships and dangers. 1. The industrious boy works hard. 2. A dog knows the master. 3. The flower of the tea plant re- serablos wild roses. 4. The blackbird sings earlier than any of the other songsters. 5. The bee provides against want by making plenty of honey in summer. 6. The apple ripens in the month of August. Change papers for correotion. splendour nasts a])- dn paint- say thafc itar. X. IRREGULAE NUMBERS. 1. We have learned the regular way of forming the plural of nouns. Now we must learn about those nouns that do not form their plural in the regular way. 2. First let us see the most irregular of all the nouns. Singular, Plural. Ox. Oxen. Child. Children. Man. Men. Woman. Women. Foot. Feet. Goose. Geese. Sinrfiilar, Mouse. Tooth. Sheep. Deer. Penny. Plural, Mice. Teeth. Sheep, Deer. Pence. . 2*^ I-ANaUAOE LESSONS. - irregu,a/p,u,^r7«:„: J"!/"' '' "'^^» imgular plurals of ..,.5,. tZ;- "^ ' '"" The plural of e^ is " " " t^asisV.: '^^' " " " has ia.... r^«- A A .. nave. ». As far as regards number in erb« ih. almost the only very irre^rnlnrf 't ' ^'^ *''® in every case to uslf^ ^ ""'• ^' ^^^^ ^^^eful '^V ^-iibt CO use the correot fni'm ^^^i that is, the f„™ that will ^12 t" """'- its subject in „u„,ber. "" ™''' 'S''' "«> Example.— The sentence " The chiMr»n i -hool" is inco„.ect, because tke^tl^Zs^ZT 1 agree m „„„ber with its subject, "childL ° Exercise a . A, Write sentences introducinff man ^hiT^ »^V, geeee, ^ni pence in the u,^uhr. ^ ' ""*' Write these sentences eliflncn'r,™ *i, r.o^/,,^. and verbs ^ ^ *^' ''""^^^^ «f *l^e me^r V'' M*°"* " '•'"">■«' ^-'' ™«"S sweet. 1. Men are mortal. i!in verbs of pre. differs fiom ust as tliere > ai-e a few '..are. '..were, . . have. t these are i^ery careful se words — agree with ^as gone to " does not •en, since nnny^ ox, feet, teeth, )er of the parents. ig sweet- ayed bj IRREGULAR SINGULARS AND PLURALS. 4. Little women aometimee have great minds. 5. Ihege deer roam wild over the mountaina. ino schools are conducted very well An honest man is the noblest work of God. Ihe child hkes to play. The woman washes clothes on the beach A deer is a beautiful animal. The child is father of the man. 23 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. IZ. ilie ox was drawing the cart. XI. lilEEGULAR SINGULARS AND PLURALS. 1. In this lesson will be shown other irrogularities in the number of nouns and of verbs. 2. Ending in Y.-In adding a to a noun or to a verb ending in y, preceded by a consonant, the y must first be changed into ie. «o«?In',J!^'"r'?'"" ^^'''* \'^^ ' '■« *^^^1«^^ *« *he singular of a ZtgJarT ^^ "^' *°'^ ^"^ thep/«,-a/ of a verb to make it ILLUSTllATION. Noun : singular~heQ.Vityj -, plitrac—hcantlca. Verb : i^/wraZ— beautify ; sm^/t^^ar-beautifies. 3. But if the y is preceded by a vowel, the a is added without any change; as: Noun: s^w^ar— valley ; p^amZ-valleys. Verb: />Zum^-survey j singular— surveys. 4. Ending in S haud.— When a noun or a verb ends m s, sh, ch (hard), x, or z, es must be added ; as : Nouns; fi%w/a»-glass, bush, church, fox; plural-^ S4 Language lessons. Slas».e,, bush-e,, church-es, fox-es. Verb, : A™r_ Ejctr' ""- -"'—.. t:;; 8. Ending ,n O.-Some nouns „n,l verbs endin. in o preceded by a consonant take . before addi,'g "is : Singular. Cargo, negro. Plural Cargo.es.. Negro-es. P^am;. Do, go. Singular. Does, goea kiSlLTgvX''"""'" """»'"«' "-'y '-"uoes of the 6. Ending ,N the P so.ND.-Most noun, endin, in /or /. form their plural by changing the / or/« .^to «e and adding s; as: -^ ^ thiti"'"' """'' '"■"' ""'''• -'"^'- ^™™. -ivep. Exercise 9. A. Change the numher of the following nouns r navf [;v '' Dont'''?;if^'"''' ^^''^' ^^""'y^ ^'^y- P^rty, penny leaf, rJ;r pSess TharT wi?^' ..'"rT-V ^^'^' ^^^f- *J»«f A LETTER CRITICISING AN EXERCISE. 25 >rbs : plural-. es, rusli-es, JS i"bs ending in adding » ; as : >-es, Negro-es. iko the 5 with* goes, staunes of the ins ending in / or fe into laveg, v^ives, is: 'arty, penny, !y, chimney, calf, thief, 'c, patriarch, hero, tyro, A^ing verbs opy, fancy, XII. A LETTER ClilTinSING AN EXEnCISE. Note to Teacheks -In the plan of this hook it :, an esscn- tial feature that pupils Hhouhl hecome the critics of one an- other 8 performances. Facility and cricctncss of exMessi..n can be acquired only by frequent and continuous practice and exercises can be made frequent only when the teacher i^ relieved from the task of coirecting masses of iiapeis. N„w one of the best ways of doing this w,.ik is for tlie t.ui.il to make his criticism in the form of a letter addressed to the teacher. It is only by reiterated practice that boys and .'irU attain correctness in the arrangement of the parts of a letter- in the dating, address, paragraphing, etc. Criticisms made in letter form will give the necessary drill, and as the scholars will always have some definite subject to write upon, the task will be done with pleasure and alacrity. The criticism need learned ''^'^'^'''^^ *° «° ^''^'''''^ ^^^* *^e pupil has already We will now write a criticism in the form of o letter addressed to the teacher. Tlie following model will show how this should be done. The Exercise. The sheep is a verry useful animal if it were not for the sheep we should have no close. Some f^imers has them and get there wool. John Smith. The Letter of Oritioism. De^^ g.^^ Toronto, Ont., May 1, 1863. I have to make the following report on John Smith's com- position. ^ There are meant to be '.hree sentences in this composition, . jt It has only two periods. There should be a period after the word "animal," which ends the first sentence a ^^!r^^}'\^' ^ ^,"4 ^^""^^ ^''•■'''■8- "Very" is spelled verry; clothes IS spelled close ; and " their" is spellecf ^Aere. The last sentence contains a blunder in the use of the verb. Ihe writer says " some farmers has;" but the verb should bo have, according to the rule, " Verbs agree with their subjecta in number." Very truly yours, To Mr. Richard Meredith. Gould Brown, 36 LANOUAOE LESSONS. Another Model-The Exercise. ' T/ie oxen of the furmev plows !.;« flu ^ grass Mi88 Florence Nightingale, My dear Teaolier : l!»oli sontunoe ends mth „ period. Yours respectfully, Anne Hathaway. POINTS ,N THE ARUANOEMEKT OF A LETTER 1. The pZac. where it i, written, and the dale. iQe day, month, and vear «.l.«»ij i ' ' y^**^ siiould be given in fuU. 11. n«/om 0/ Address : as Sir Dear <^,V at ^ Teacher, Dear Madam «« ^- "^' ^^ <^ear ^^ Madam, according to circumstances. t'l^FT'h^'' '^^inVoZTolTj^^ ^^*^- P'-'ie the (left-hand side), as in Model 1. "^^ *'*'"^® »* the close ni. 7%e 7iarmewe, or letter proper Be...ltohegine.erynewsnb,eotwi.^ IV. T'^ «a.cn^<^ow.. aa Yours tvul. y. „ fully, lour affectionate puDiJ ^r.A 7, ''' ^""^'^ '*^'^^- the writer. ^^ ' ^^'^ *^®^ *^« 'wme of rcise. >IJ- Oxen eat ' day. Mary Jones. »ry Jones's com. ' oxen plows." 'k. which says have no s. I do not know • Hathaway. 3TTEE. 8 important, •fctended to : 3 date. uU. r, My dear stances. precede the at the close paragraph. ;Ur3 faith- I natne of ADJECTIVEi. ff Exercise lo. Let the pupils write short Compositions on the fol. lowing subjects : The Hurse—Treea— The Dog^Biids — The Sun. The pnpils will change papers, and each pnpil will addrosa a letter to the teacher pointing out the errors- Notice particalarly the foUowinit 1. Spelling. 2. Capitals. 3. The \)enod. 4. The plurals of nouns. 6. The forms of the verbs. 6. OtLer improvements. Note TO Teachers. -The teacher will do well at tho out- set to be particular as to the manner iu which these letters are ri"T^u ^^* '""{ '^« *'»^* **^« mechanical execution isZ. feet When pupils are well trained in this, and eniulatronTn criticism ,8 excited, the teacher will be saved a great amount of trouble, as the pupils will themselves do all the work of looking over exercises. But to be sure of this ma«t desirable set and see that the pupils are wellgrcunded in the prelimin- aries. When the exercises ark corrected, they should BE rewritten by THE PUPILS BiiuULD XIII. ADJECTIVES. 1. Thus far, the only kind of sentence that we really undei-stand is this : Flowers bloom. "Water ripples. Art i-efines. That is, we understand only about the simple sub- ject, which is generally a noun, and about the simple predicate, which is a verb. 2. But it is often necessary to describe or limit the noun in some way, and also to tell something about the statement made by the verb, 3. Thus, we may wish to say — Beautiful flowers bloom ; or, beautiful flowers bloom early. HMM 28 LANGUAGE LES80NS. 4^ minever we employ a word to describe or limit a noun, we are using wlinf ic «„ii j "BeautifnP'io ?• ^'^^^^ ^ adjective. JJeautitul IS an adjective. Whenpvpr ^^ , a word to describe or Lit the TeaZ of ! '7 ^^ are using what is called «. TT^ ''^''^' "^^ adverb. ^"^ '^^'''*- " ^^^ly " is an 6. Write these sentences : 1. A % fire burns brightly 2. rAr.e carts were going al"ong the road. 3. Bring me that book. The word " big " is added to "fire " to f^U v * ^trt:"trteHh'^^'^-°^^"^'^''^"^^^^^^^^^ meant. ° *®" "^^^^^ book is J^^DE™ox.-AdJectives describe or ,i„,it r. Some adjectives show the quality of a thing • Colour.. I ^ '^^f ^ horse. A black dog. A red book ' I A ye/;ow> flower. A mrwZe dress A . //■w/yte areas. A crimson sash. Size.. 8. Some adjectives show the ^nuntity of a thin. • Knmber 2. Uncertain. ^o?/ie persons. O^^gr persons ^« children. ManyoUuZ. Several women. i4 rirls Vo.i ^boys. iV^o persons ^ '^'^' -fi;ac/i individual. ^wr« traveUer Either ra^n. NeUherZm^^^' Mass ( -^^«ernian. NeUher^ora^ ' or^vXt]^^^^ ir.«A sugar. Z*%^e „i]k. ^„y bread. escribe or limit ■ an adjective. er we employ of a verb, we "Early "is an ADJECTIVES. 29 road. to tell what is added to Jre; and the v^hich book is •e or limit a thing : book, crimson sash. broad road. tall chimney. 'k. SoftsAnd, weather. ave heart. a thing : Three cows, i? horse. The •ersons. bildren. girls. Moet y traveller. Oman. ■^ny bread. 9. One kind of adjective serves merely to jt)om< out the thing named. This horse (the nearer one pointed at). That horse (the/arther one pointed at), called)^® ^""""^ ^* particular one to which attention ig A horse (one of that kind of animal). 10. The words a (or an) and the have a particular name of their own. They are called the articles. 11. ^ is called the indefinite article; the, the defi- nite article. 12. An, is used before words beginning with vowel sounds; a, before words beginning with consonant sounds. Examples.—^ man ; a house ; a year ; a wonder ; a use. An art ; an end ; an heir ; an urn. Note.— A, E, I, 0, U, are the vowels. W and Y arn onn sonants when they begin a syllable ; other^I^se vowels 13. Adjectives formed from proper nouns are called proper adjectives. They are illustrated in the follow- ing sentences : 1. The Russian Government is a despotism. 2. The Italian people are fond of music. 3. The British Constitution is a monument of political wisdom. Noitn$, Russia. Italy. America. Aujeciives, Russian. Italian. Americ a.^ . I III, II ii; I i dOf lANGUAGB LESS0N8L 14. As proper nouns are always written with cam Btate the mistakes in the following : The russian government ; The itaUan people. Chinese. ' ^ *^' ^'^^^^^ ^°«^ China is Write the a4,-eotives formed from the following proper nonna : Spam Scotland, Japan, France, Germany Ireland' Afnca. Australia. Turkey, Canada, Paris, Enllanl Exercise ii. A. Select the adjectives : some Sower ia not always a ..S,,-^^'"'*^'^- 3- A hand- providence in the fall of a sparrow « T 1^^^^^ '« » ^Pecial the Spanish nation was one of ST' I. ^ • ^^^ *^*^ <^entury 7. All horned animals are rum nant'^^^T?'"'?^^" P«^«r? Putch dikeg let in the wafmi ^" j^" ^^® cutting of the invaders. ''^^ '^**^'^ *"d drove out the Spanish 1 1' '.I Mo»BL.-Trees..La4etrisg4wi„Oa„U r FI„.,„. , The n.m... 3. A™^. 4. M™«1 Ohiuigo papew for correction. w n a MJUin en with capi- > also written * peopla proper noun oun China is )aiis! iny, Ireland* England. (iOMPARISOir OF ADJECTIVES. a 31 Write sentences introducing the adjective forms of the following proper nouns. Underline the adjectives. Model.— Switzerland : Swiss scenery is celebrated for its beauty, 1. Africa. 2. India. 3. Canada. 4. Japan. Let the teacher read over a short, easy passage, and let the pupils make an abstract of it from memory, , underlining all the adjectives. Change papers, and correct with reference to— 1. Spelling. 2. Capitals. 3. Form of verbs. 4. Whether the adjectives are correctly underlined. 3oa8t. 2, \ 3. A hand- r-. 4. Some 8 IS a special 6th century ean powers, iting of the he Spauiah r subjects, Number 3. mada. Elailroad. XIV.— COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. A tall man. A taller man. The tallest man. 1. Here are three adjectives— " tall," * taller,** '• tall- est." You see that " taller " and " tallest " have a kind of relationship to " tall." You see that " taller " is just tall+er, and "tallest" is tall-fest. 2. When we hear a taller man spoken of, we get the idea that, comparing him with so-ne other man, the taller has more of the quality that we call tallness. Also that the tallest man has the most of this quality. In grammar, such a change of adjectives as from tall to tall&r and tallest is called comjjanson. 32 ( 1 !:'■ 11 ill ii Mill m tANQVAQB LESSONS. the form of an ad7eS?'°" '^ ^ ^^^^«on of in different degrees ° ^^P^^^sthe quality «- is called the .o^^«,,,,,,, ^«^^..^xs called the «.^..,«,,,,,J^^^ ..^^r^'^ ^- °^ ^^-diective^is ealled the b/adSTH?oVh:7osSte" '^^^^^ ^-^ ^--ed by adding EST to the positive. '^'"'"^^ Pontivc. Comparative. ' % 7 . Sharp ctT ^^Perlaiwe. '^"■^rp- Sharper. «!„ Grand. Cr. ^ «harpe^^. Orranden n^o j j^ Grandest. •UOSTBATIOHS. ^'^ ■>■ ^^==not reder, but redOer. Happy + er=not ;„^^,,, ^^^ ^ adjective ends in - fi,„ , • , ""s.— i. w^i,^^ ^^ e, the . « dropped before adding e, or "oubied before j Jfi :;""«'" "°"^""'- « »»«t.er=««,<^, because a!: r--"""."' "•" COMPARISON OP ADJECTIVES. 33 variation of s the quality -is called the e is formed is formed 'aiive, >est. lest ■ioij^of er and •tain changes >Vhen an ding er or onsonant ionant is 'er; but » by two ■:« III. "When an adjective ends in y preceded by a con- sonant, the y is changed to i before adding er or est. Uaiipy + er=hapjner ; but gray + er=grai/er, because the 2/ is not preceded by a consonant. 6. When the addition of er or est would make a word too long to be pleasant to the ear, the comparative is formed by putting more before the positive, and the superlative by putting most before the positive; as beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. Porm the comparative and superlative of— 1. Doleful. 2. Generous. 3. Terrible. 7. There are some old English adjectives whose com- paratives and superlatives are not formed in the ordin- ary way. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Bad Worse Worst. Good Better Best. I^ittle Less Least. Mi^ny More Most. Much More Most. Exercise I2, A. Select the adjectives, and tell the degree of compar- ison : 1. The best exercise. 2. A prudent man. 3. Most ex- cellent advice. 4. A bigger basket 5. The strontest ox. b. Ihe most learned of men. 7. A very elegant dress. 8 A useful invention. 9. A magnificent Italian sunrise. 10. Ine prettiest girl. B. Write sentences containing these adjectives : 1. Brilliant 2. Skilful. 3. Wondfin 4. In^^r^s+Jn" 5 More devoted. 6. Imperfect. 7. Zealous. 8. Most pleas- ant. 9. Pleasant. 10. Worst. ^ Change papers, and write letters of oritioism. 34 I^NGUAGE LESSONS. II \l\k ' ik XT. SEKTENOES WITH ADJECTIVES J- -P«« water is the best. ; Sri 7' ''"*'"^ "■''- '^ '-"^ •>-«. -Thames. '^^^^ ^ud wider than the kind. ^ *'"' *"'^'"«« and ««« of „,„. ^atH^r"^'"^ *-*"«.»•-. and ««,,„„ 2. I^UNCTUATION' Tn i»g to the same noun j;'"''\°^ ^^J«««ves belong. adjective except the l^t CZl '' ''''''' ''*^^ ^*^^^ joxned by and, or or no. ;r ^7 '^ ''"' ^^'j^^^^-es are is omitted. ' ""' '^'^^^ ^^ ^^^^/.^n the comma II-LUSTRATIONa. 'o^rta:;:;:^ ^^^'"-™« — ■ tteTiame3"-,J;,'^;:T " /"^^'- ■""■ "^^ than -t separated bTa^rr^ '"''' "' " "■="■" "»- 3. " Pure, clear. sparHin^ ^.f • , ^-con.^astoaeparLethX^::^:,^-"- tmm ^ SENTENCES WITH ADJECTIVES. 35 to aescribe it, he besfc. n tlie Thames. ^^'^r than -d/' hence best "— i 4. " The St. Lawrence is longer, mider, and grander than the Thames " — two comman used to separate the three adjectives. 3. The sentence— " Bacon was the brightest, wisest, meanest of mankind " may be broken up into the following state- ments : 1. Bacon was the brightest of mankind. 2. Bacon was the wisest of mankind. 3. Bacon was the meanest of mankind. 4. In like manner, a number of separate statements may be combined into one simple sentence by taking out the adjective part from each. ILLUSTRATION. 1. In the morning a sailor came on board. 2. He was a fat sailor. 3. He was a jolly sailor. 4. He was a red-nosed nrilor. Combined : In the morning a fat, jolly, red-nosed sailor came on board. Exercise 13. A. Comhme each set into one single sentence by takint^ out the adjective part from each statement, as in the model above : 1. One day my mother £»ave me an oranj;fe. 2. It was a very large orange. 3. It was a round orange. 4. It was a red oraiigo. 5. It was a sweet orange. 1. Last Christmas my father gave me a dress. 2. It was a new dress. 3. It was a silk dress. 4. It was a costly dresa. 6. Ita colour was blue. 6. xt was a beautiful dreaa. 36 ( i jl K ; i1 ¥ I I-ANQUAGE LESSONS. S^^'^T"^''^^ I She was a true Wend , c. S-^^Was a Joving friend'- ^^^ ^*« ^ "^^^-S^ed Lnd marbles!"l^i^*®^^«8t some marbles 2 tx. ey weio pohshed marbJea. ^""^ "^^^^ wiute cross boy ^ ("" ^^^y from school ve«^« ^ boy. y- 3. He was a quarre^tf ^^- J" ^^ ^as a ^- The speaker had a • ^-^^^asaJazy I Th u- -It was a dis- areWty'Tfe''^*?"^«°'-««s Asia 9 a., «re8noi.capp,S;^«^"»*%asaremafe:g-. '^ ?^ Himalayas -^"^ Himalayas '• Tke »ai,„ ,^ , ^^^ J '»' °-ng parage. . '• The adjectives fl,.* , «- of lav/ beer.!: ': r """ '"' «» no. "oun. they described •'TruL"** '"» J>'--'J«i ^t J- SeautifvJ fl/^«,„-.- , , * '^''"'"^iy 'lines above „,, PREDICATE ADJECTIVES. 87 10 friend. 3. She Je-hearted friend. They were 8maJi TiieywerewWte ■ ^. He was a • «e was a lazy cill voice. 3. It • "Was a dis" ^he Himalayas epnnotnation of ? passages; urned hand. *ifiJ sweet- WeU-speUed ' *nd most w extend I *ken no. ded the 2. Adjectives belong to nouns, but they do not always precede the nouns to which tliey belong. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. The flowers are beautiful. 2. The sky is blue. " Beautiful " and " blue " are just as much adjec- tives in these sentences as they are in the first sentences, and they belong to exactly the same nouns. In both cases " beautiful " describes " flowers," and " blue " describes " sky." But in the last sentences they are in the predicate. 3. An adjective always either accompanies the noun it describes, or else it is in the predicate after the verb be. In the latter case the noun it describes is the subject of the sentence. Thus, in the sentence " The flowers are beautiful," the subject is " flowers," and it is described by the adjective " beautiful." Such an adjective is called a predicate adjective. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. In summer the days are lonff. Here "long" is the predicate adjective, and limitB " days." 2. The Captain was brave, prudent, and unse. "Brave," "prudent," and "wise," are predicate adjec- tives limiting • * Captain. ' * 4. Predicate adjectives are punctuated in the same way as adjectives that precede nouns. Exercise 14. 1. Make a sentence telling three qualities of the ocean — ex- pressing the qualities by predicate adjectives. n ., . "IfOUAOE LESSONS. . -Make sentences tcUin,. ♦„,. ,. . ^ XVir. POSSESSIVE FORM Of NOUNS 2. Compare- """"^^^^^ "<«-'-» ^/i/« coat •,! Alehouse.... ztl" . :°"''"^' tie same use as "this" „„ ^ „ '""* =<'-''a to have for each of these words hJ!!"''"" """' "'=»V -joined. The ..rc^-Z^'^^r^ r.!* -'■-h it -~,ea„ed„ou„sL":iej:^:::r^''^" fe formed by addfne thr"''"' "'"^'" °^« "oun *ov.- po.<,.^Pss;.,. — - "'^."Oun- Thus, siib,ect.form «»««'«; 7*or^''.""!r:.''^''" '^^'*-- possessive case' » ftoriie. possessive case, /*o*-«e'*. POSSESSIVE FORM OP N0UN8.1 39 phof the foUow. — Dog— Wolf— NOUNS. e iu the form adjectives. coafc. shoes. ' house. ohn's " and ^om to have nd "fine/ Ii which it ' father's " '■ase. 3f a noun 5sion. >f a noun d s Cs) to ject-form live case, 6. Rule II.— The possessive plural of nouns that have their plural in a (that is, regular plural) is formed by writing merely the apos- trophe after the s. Thus, plural subject-form, hoya : possessive, 60 ?/s'; ladies: possessive, ladies'. But if the plural does not end in s, as men, then add the apostrophe and s for the plural. Thus, men : possessive, men's. ILLUSTRATIONS. ^orm. i °oss€Ssive Singiilar, Possessive Phirat, Liorr* Lion's Lions'. Scholar. Scholar's. Scholars'. Valky. Valley's. Valleys'. City. City's. Cities'. Wife. Wife's. Wives'. Potato. Potato's. Potatoes'. Fox. Fox's. Foxes'. Calf. Calf's. Calves'. Dwarf. Dwarf's. Dwarfs', Tooth. Tooth's. Teeth's. Brooch. Brooch's. Brooches*. Sheep. Sheep's. Sheep's. Child. Child's. Children's. Moses. Moses's. (No plural.) Davis. Davis's. (No plural.) Jacobs, Jacobs's. (No plural.) James. James's. (No plural.) The pnpils may give the reasoa for tne gpellin^- of all the possessive plu- rals in the above list Exercise 15* A. Put the following expressions into the possemvi form : I: IK. 40 tANOUAOE LESSONS, Jacobs. 5 Th« ^o^ • . '^^ Jacob. 4 tHa k . '^*®- the Duchesa.^^'7 lSTh« ^ *L'" ^^'"I''-^^^ « n^'r ^^'-i sheep. 9. Theta.L *^® "'*'''* "^ P'tv 8 T w ^."'^^ ^^ oxe:.^ ThetaUa of several aheep^ ^0. Thi'L^^/S^ & rJ^^' '°"°^''"^" -o-^- Possessives in the^.. Phymnl^'TTlTi 2-, The deer'a horns. 3 The Vu- greatest desire 8 a .^"'f^'er's gun. 7 o. r +" u f nest. 10 ih!\rJ'fi ^ ^.""'-'^'« '^avour. Thf *^^<'J'e'-8 ' ■^^'' gentleman's umbrella. ^® sparrow's ^^«P^-°t-King-Sheep--Lady. ■V-1 'I ^Vril. ADVERBa ^e big fire burns 5n>;^,?y. That l^ok is ea^ceedingl^ dear. Some bn-ds fly ^^ry ^w/^/^,. theJJlr;:' ?"^^^«^" -oclifies the .ean,V, .. ^^ Of the ^:,i.. ::^::^-!;c "^°?- ^^-i- aear, " ver^ " xaodifies the ssessive form— hnrch of st. Ste. ae house of Mr ■ rj'o tail of the The hoofs of the ^es in the jo/m- ,3- The child's I' 8 Jute. 5. ^ t>ur teacher's xae sparrow's ^e following ngular with 1 in the pJu- lecher, pointing ^da the noa^fg. leaning of the mean- li£es the ADVERBS. 4i aieaning of the adverb " swiftly." "Brightly," "ex- leedingly," *' very, " are adverbs. 2. Definition.— An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, of an adjective, or of another adverb. 3. When, where, or how a thing occurs can be ex- pressed only by the words called adverbs. For exam- ple: I saw my uncle [When ?] lately. Time. I met him [Where?] here Place. He spoke to me [How ?] pleasantly Manner. Words that express time, place, and manner are ad- verbs, because they are used with verbs in the same way as adjectives are used with nouns. 4. Adverbs lay stress on adjectives : This ink is black Simple quality. This ink is wrw blacJf ,_ That ink is too black } 1?®^®^ , S^PT,®.?^®? ^1, That ink is rather l,lack ( ^^^y* *oo," "rather." 5. Adverbs of degree may also be used to add force to other adverbs : She plays nicely She plays very brilliantly. He talks hastily He talks too hastily. Thebii listh' 3 The bird is fixac'd,sweet, bit- 1 ^, fins, biue. Using the verba come, go, call, walk,runjtmip fly, sing, cry. manner as IV e. reetly. •atWy. 3. I did it. 4. aright. 6. xceedingly .U not fall, aen .are al- fectly pre- XIX. PHRASES. 1. The armoured man. 2. Our sea-side cottage. 3. A beautiful thing. 1. In these expressions the words ' armoured " "sea« side," *• beautiful," are adjectives. 2. We may give the same idea by saying, 1. The man in armour. 2. Our cottage Jy the seaside, 3. A thing of beauty. 3. Take tliese beautiful words of the poet Shellev : Liae a glow-worm goldda In a dell of dew, Scattering unbeholden Its serial hue. ii LANGUAGE LESSONS. The woz^s " in a dewy dell " would convey the same senseas"inadeIlo/rfeM,." ^ sesame of beauty," " armour," " sea-side," and '' beauty " a e InTee :^-^«:-"-d "of" are^.;,^... " in ''^^^^^^^^^ *'r, "^" '" ™"^'" *^^ P-P-tion bl % ^ ;^"**"S^- ^^ *h« expression "a thing of beauty,'^ the preposition "of" joins " beauty »%o 6. DEFiNrTioN.-A preposition joins a noun or pronoun to some other word, and shows thi relation which one thing bears to anotSen tions. Six of the most used are .o,o/;/o.,/.o^,^,;^, 7, Definition.-A preposition with its ac- companying noun is called a phrase ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Brevity is the soul of wit. 2. There is no terror in your threaig, 3. For I in spirit saw thee move Through circles of the hounding shy. S%!e Wml,. ^^^ i ;i vey the same the sea-side," beauty " are prepositioTis. i preposition e expression joins "sea- " a thing of beauty" to 1 noun or hows the )ther. ise preposi- 9om, vnth, its ac- PHRASES. Exercise 17. 45 ardedjhe i into a hou/r. Name the prepositions: 1. The sheep are in the meadow. 2. The room 's full nf vu ^'?-^ \ ^f ^""'^ '"^ *h« ol'l cottage at theToot of the h,ll 4 Mybookisbelowyours. 6. ^ou came afte?the lim. 6. The dog runs across the field. B. Select the phrases : flnia ,^ • /i'^'^y /,'■«'» our house to the church. 3 The river flo^ .; . u .i^ valley 4 The boy in the boat LuulZl TV.i „H ' ' ..^- ^ ^^'\*''* ** ««* ^ooks hopefuUy for land 6 The cnua met me on the road. C. Change the italicized words into phrases : 1. It is pleasant to lie on a floweru ht^A 9 tv,- »-^, j vanced Aa.Jj7^. 3. Jenny LincfsaT^iV \ tS ^it sometunes differ in opinion. 5. There were no raSsX D. Supply appropriate prepositiom. Tell what words are joined, and name the phrases formed. Example.— The visitor passed tlirmigh the gate. '• I saw a man a long, white beard. 2. Swallows build cl^ds 4 Thfi'"''''- r^- J\" "^'^h^y A'^^*" rise — the aw aisJc 6. The orator was received applause. E. Make sentences with the following phrases : MoDEL.~The horse stands in his stall. i, !i ^'"^ 'f7 ^*"°^^ "" the 5. C.s5r returned in ST„,"*'^2'X;^:"JifI^ interesting. * *"• ■'^"''^'' ^^ t^'^vel are very B. Chanffe the fnllowin" i>lit'jjc:oe( iv>f j- .• » -L ui^ V^^^^^^^ mUy adjectives ov ad- verbs : "* 1. In a hurry. 2. In rags. 3. A chain of silver. 4. Grapes 48 tAKQVAQE LESSONS, c^TL'ZVZ """""• "' ^'^'"« ^»**-- *« tl'e teacher oritl- XXI. LESSON IN MAKING SENTENCES WITH PHRASES. 1. Tlie Professor o/-rture amidst tfe tea™ 6. m^ Yosemite Valley is noted. This valley ia in California. It IS noted for its magnificent scenery. ^^"^o™a- anfwSnrf "°™'*'°''- Seeifoachsentenoeisasimple sentence, B M.W!t*-SP^arat3Y u 50 ItANGUAGE liGSSOMIL XXII. NOUNS IN APPOSITION WmUm, th> llackmith, shoes horses. i.''?^A^,^.'.^" -'"<"'«•" "Wmi.„.,.. ttepreOic, 2. What effect have the wor^la " /x. ^7 7 . , The, e.p,.(„ „,^, .. williaJ-l: .tt """"*'" A noun thus used is called a noun in appo^thn. aestted";":"adtt^'''^'°'^ "-« "'^ "-""« » by » ph,^ "'•"""'"' "' " -"»'- of adjectives, ILLUSTRATION. ■ "^ °" °* .)' » oomma or by commas oneMtnt"^^ '''**™-"' "»^ >« -»"-«• -to 1. Howard was loved by all. 2. Howard waa a philanthropist, 3. He was a distinguished philanthropist. th^tiovXll."^^ <^tin.^ed philan- ▼«»B8 WITH OBJECM. Exercise 20. A. 61 Combine into ^ngle sentences, using the noun print- td in Italics m appodtim with the noun which t ex plains. * Itawr.7™"?IXj''''i""=f W»t™»«». Verbs that take objects are called transitive verbs. a complete not make fnU ^t '! We are 18 diboovered. Q this way: liat was "in- ;s by them- Bments by Qplete the which all '^erbs. ;ompleted bought a ve verbs. ' of noun- 1 the same lildren re- VERBS WITH OBJECTS, (JQ 8. The verb he is generally an incomplete verb : and Its meaning may be completed either by nouns or by aJjectivea. 9. Do the words " Gold is " make a full Htatementl Am. No. Do the words *' Wellington was ?" We may com2)lete the sense in this way ; Gold is yellow. Gold is a metal. ^ Wellington was prudent, Wellington was a general. 10. In the sentences "Gold is yellow," "Welling ton was prudent," the verbs "is" and <« was " (parfs ot the verb be) are completed by adjectives-'^ yellow " and "prudent." 11. An adjective that completes the sense of the verb he is called a predicate adjective. 12. In the sentences " Gold is a metal;' " Wellinff- ton was a general," the verbs "is" and "was" are completed by nouns-- metal" and "general" A noun that completes the verb he is not called its object, but IS called the predicate nominative. This means that the noun m the predicate means the same person or thing as the noun forming the subject. Exercise 21. A. Name the verhs and tell which are complete, ana wJuch are incomplete: 54 I-ANOUAOB LES80X8. Fill out the blanks • Aik,* u ^i^on b, . ,,,,,,,,, ,, 4.«-^ ^7 a ^,,,,, „^^^^^ two m one sentence. « ''^' "^^^« 'he Example.— Iron is t- »tc'^ouns, J' ^^r Y^ ""^^ ^'^^'^ ^°^*^«' '^e should be forced to say, Charles went to Paris with Charles's mother and Charles came back without Charleses mother 3^ De™ok.-a pronoun is a word that stands for a noun. 4. There are two leading kinds of pronouns • per. sonal pronouns and relative pronouns. ^^ ■■•*-T.-.'.»Wvts,J«»«ilt following sub, subject form ; le third, in its anatory form rrounding the Jr been found "-ean. 4. That [lobe. 6. The 5. Paper. 6. Tiger. md hs came 1 be forced aother, and ord that luns : per' PRONOUNS. gy said. 6. A tree fs known k5^/ f ^i' "V ^°''*»°«' si^. sAe death of the r?ghLou« S ^^ ' ■^™'*- ^- ^^* "^« ^'^^ the ^'Aey say that .Ae.Vh%fstU?.£.""""^"^^^^^ ^^- ^ 5. In these ten sentences we have written the per- Bonal pronouns most used, and their various forms.' 6 /and we are called the personal pronouns of the Jirst person. nL.^l\t':J*'r^*^'"y^'^'^^^^^ the personal pro- nouns of the third person. ^ 9. The Jirst person denotes the speaJcer. The second " « « ^„„ The^^eV^ « « ^^P'^-^'^'PoIrento. person spoken of. 10. Pronouns as well as nouns can be used in the following positions ; that is- loleJ''''''^^ ^ *^« *«*i««^ of verbs; as. re love ; M. w "■ J^*^ '"^y ^" "««<* «« i'^«'^'''««« no^^ma^m.; as, That III. They may be the objects of verbs ; as, John loves me ^ird<^''^'"*y^«"««d«««^^'-^--; aa,if^h,t,;i.-.ooat; Rilw M^ed i; A?^!" ^'^«^-' -»' M-y goes .v^A .« ; I !^ 58 LANGUAGE LKSS0N8. 11. But there is this difference between nouns and pronouns, that while nouns used as objects and in phrases have the same form as nouns used as subjects, the personal pronouns have generally distinct forma for each use. PKRSONAL PRONOUirS, FIRST PERSON. Singular. Plural. Subject form, or Nominative Case I. We. Adjective form, or Possessive Case My. Our. Object; and Phrase form, or Objective Case Me. Ua . 'PERSONAL PRONOUNS, SECOND PERSON. Simju lar and Plural. Subject form, or Nominative Case You. Adjective form, or Possessive Case Your. Object and Phrase form, or Objective Case You. PERSONAL PRONOUNS, THIRD PERSON. Singular. Plural for all. Males. Females, Things. Subject form, or Nominative Case He. She. It. They. Adjective form, or Possessive Case His Her. Its. Their. Object and Phrase form, or Objective Case Him. Her. It. Them. 12. The various/orws taken by a pronouuare called its cases. The form of a pronoun used as the subject of a verb is called the nominative case. The form of a pronoun used to limit a noun (that i«, adjective form) is called the possessi.ve case. The form of a pronoun used as the object of a verb, or with a preposition to make a phrase, is called the objective case. act of a verb FROKOUNl M NOTES. The pronoun my has another form .... tn?n« our «« «« Mi-no. your " u o"i-«- " " their " .. y«"."- " " her " a *^ei". hera. the^Je'S^rThusT^ ^^'^^^^ "''"^^ '° the predicate after My friend has arrived T)in+ i,„* • • Owr house is lar«e ^f ?* ^^t »s?»»««- Tour house is large li"' ^"""'^ ^« °"^«- Their coats are torn." T. Thf^/""? TAis is her doll ri/'.^^^/^fts are ^Aeira. iOis doll 18 /ier«. 13. The chief use of personal pronouns is to prevent the repetxtion of nouns. Here is a composition on iiie i.ion, written by a young pupil. isIpi^filSmr' T^«l--- large animal. The lion By using the pronoun he, instead of the second and third hon, we should improve these sentences : The lion is an animal. He is large. Ha is powerful Or, Tho lion is an animal. He is large and powerful. Exercise 23, A. Tell the person, number, and case of the personal jf ronouns in the following sentences : 1. We have just received our presents. 2. Tell him what you thmk of yours. .S. My letter has not r.a'hPd ''™ * He haa coiue to live with us. 5. Your aunt has lost her glove 6. The children have brought their prizes to xu/ 7 ThL iir 60 LANGUAGE LESSONS. B, See if you can improve these sentences by nsin" vronoum in place of nouns. Make any other improve" ments you can ; but do not change the sense. 1. The camel is called the ship cf the desert. The camel is 2 Holland is helow the level of the sea. Holland is de 1 *■ ?^®i crocodile lives in large swamps. The crocodile be- longs to the lizard kind. The crocodile is an.phibious 5. /lexander was an ambitious man. Alexander conquered the whole world, and then sighed because Alexander hid not more worlds to conquer. XXVI. RELATIVE PKONOUKS. 1. This is the man who called on you. 2. I have lost the book which 1 bought. 3. The house thut you saw is sold. 4. Tell me what you did. 1. In the first sentence, the pronoun " who " stands forthe word "man," and connects the second state- ment, "called on you," with "this is the aa " 2. In the second sentence, the pr nour. 'which" stands for " book," and connects the two statements " I bought " and " I have lost the book. ' 3. In the third gcntence, the pronoun " that " con- nects the statements " the house is sold " and " you saw." '"^■^^vimmm ;es by using her i iraprove- ens; The camel is days witliout Holland is de- f Hollaud are In Egypt. The jsert are well e crocodile be- libious. der conquered ander had not VS. ou. iglit i^ho " stands jcond stafce- r*. * which " statements ' that " con- and " you RELATIVE PKONOITNS. ^J 4. In the fourth sentence, the pronoun "what" means the same as "the timer wlnV-b " ..^ i ., '"'' ''""'o ^villcll, and connects the two statements " tell me " and " you did." 5. Definition.-A relative pronoun stands sentience"' ^""^ '^^""^^^s two statements of a caiLdt:;:i;r''^^^^"^^^^--"-^-^^ reads '"^V'T"' "1' "' '"''''''' ' ^'' *^^ -«» -^^ reads. Which is used of things, or of the lower aui- ^^IVis'oV "f/'"' '^"^ ^he c/.^ which barks. That IS often used for either who or ^^i.cA ; as, the man M.. .eads fused fc ^.Ao]; the table .Aa/ fell [used for which], 9. There is only one of these pronouns that has a separate form for the nominative, possessive, and o),jec- tive cases. •' Nominative . (Subject lovm) ^j^ Possessive. . . (Adjective form) . .\\ ^j^^^^ Objective. . . . (Objective and phrase form)! WW Whom.' .uSns;l-£^:^i,:^;^^^^ -^ - as. hy/iat do yon say ? Beilrc^TnStt^otHvr''^"'^^'^^^^ ^^^ r«^..ro,a^m terrogation. marked t^usJ ""'""'^ ""^^ ^'^^ '"^ P«^* «f i«- 'iWWmim^n:,,, 62 LANOUAOE LESSONS. Distinguish the pronouns, iellin ■ whelher tliey are ve^ativa or interroei^ tive. ° 1. Who has b'f ,1 iu the > > „i> ? 2. The man who was here yostoraay has ha.-v in the loaui. 3. London, wh ';h stands vi the riiame;i, id the capital of Eu.':7aud. \. v\niich of tba boys will be present ? 5. I have t,cen Ihu i u-gest lion tha*; Wiis e\':'i' brought to tliis country (J Whos." doii, is that' 7. This is the man whom you want 8 T will tfijl'^you what i want. 9. Are tlicse the d<)gs which your fas. i. or had with him? 10. Every pdi-son that saw it was" pleased. 10. The ohiof use of relative pronouns is to connect 3ii1eineat4, so as to make one statement out of whut vould otherwise be two statements. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. We saw a man who killed a doer. The two statements in this sentence are, 1. We saw a man. 2 This man killed a deer. 2. The teacher whom we loved is deact The two statements aro, 1. The teacher is dead. 2. We loved him. Tell the two statements in this sentence : High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormus oi of Ind, Satan exalted sat. 1] Tt is a very pleasant ex'^rcise , take two or more : ^ tements and combine tl • ,i go one sentence by using a relative pronoun to c^i ect the statements. Thus; "vrti'iifMimr atiVB or intenogi" who was here 'h,';h stands o'j V\niich oi tl\a rgest lion that ts do.s; is that ? tfl)l yuii what atlitr had with is to connect out of whut VERBS — SIMPLE TENSES. 63 d. aich far .f Ind, ake two or )no sentence statements. «!««««-*- ( ^" '^^^•^,'^°^^eriesof Livingstone have taught aeparate l us much about the interior of Africa Statements j 2. Livingstone was one of the greatest trav- [ ellers of modern times. Combined. ( The discoveries of Livingstone, who was one < of the greatest travellers of modern times, have ( taught us much about the interior of Africa. Exercise 24. Combine each of the following groups of statements into one sentence in the manner shown: 1. We get silk from a caterpillar. This caterpillar is called the silk- worm. 2. The doctor saw the patient. He was dying. 3- ,y,"P"S ^"'^'^ "^t°n attach themselves to some older boy Ihis boy they imitate in everything. 4. I thrice presented him with a kingly crown. This crown he did tlirice refuse. 6. The engine killed the workman. He was the only support of a large family. 6. The officers pursued the lion. It had destroyed the cattle. 7. Milton was blind. Milton wrote "Paradise Lost." 8. We all love Queen Victoria. She is now " Empress of India." TLd teacher should add many other groups of statements tc be coidI ncd. XXVII. VERBS— SIMPLE TENSES. 1. What is the definition of a verb ?— ^ verb is a stdtement-word. Now, a statement may be made in various ways by changing the form of the verb used. 2. Suppose we say, Pauline stands there. 64 LANGUAGE LESSONS. The verb " stands " expressos that she is now in the place referred to. However, we may wish to state, not that this is the case at the present time, but that It was so yesterday, or last week or month. And this we express in the following nuinner : Pauline atood there. 3. We may say, I Jiope to see you ; or, I hoj>ed to see you. 4. The difference between the two statements is one of time. " Pauline stands " refers to present time, and " Pauline stood" refers to time past. " I hope" time present ; " I hoped" — time past. In like manner the verbs in these statements ex- press past time — Steamers sailed on the ocean. The fire burnad brightly. The ancient Greeks admired fine statues. The Germans loved in- dependence. 6. Here are some lines by the poet Longfellow, with the verbs changed : — I shoot an arrow into the air, It falls to earth, I know not where ; For so swiftly it flies, the sight Cannot follow it in its flight. Write the pp,Bsage, making all the verbs refer to past Tiim 6. This change of form is called in grammar a change of tense, and " tense " means just the same thing as time. 7. The form of the verb denoting time present is called the present tense; that denoting time past is called the past tense. '■•"a"WS(l*IIKHI«» now in the h to state, c, but that And this ents is one time, and *pe" — time omenta ex- ightly. The QS loved in- ongfellow, I ■> VERBS— FORMATION OP THE PAST TENSE. 65 8. The present tense is the tense in which we state what is now going on. The past tense is the great tense of history, because history tells us what took place in bygone times. Thus : 1. The Greeks conquered the Persians. 2. Columbus discovered America. 3. The Prince of Wales visited ladia. 9. Besides the present tense and the past tense, there is the future tense. We form this by using shall or will. ° 10. The future tense is the tense which we use when we wish to foretell anything. Thus— 1. We shall goto Europe next year. 2, The hunters will kill the lions. Exercise 25. Write sentences, usiugeach of the following nouns as subject with a verb— first, in the present tense; sec- ond, with a verb in the j>ast tense; third, with a verb in the future tense. Queen — River —House— Horse. Change papers, and write letters of criticism. ^^ a change thing aa )resent is ) past is XXVIfl VERBS— FORMATION OF THE PAST TENSE. I. We have .-a that it is very easy to form the future tense: f.,r all we have to do is to use shall or loill with a verb. But it is more difficult to form the past tense. 63 LANGUAOB LE880N8. 2. Here are some of the verbs we had in the last lesson : — Present Tense, Stand. Hope. SaU. Burn. Admire. Shoot. Fall i Know, Flv. Past Tense. Stood. Hoped. Sailed. Burned, Admired. Shot. Fell. Knew. Flew, 3. A number of these verbs form their past tenses V adding the suffix ed to their present tenses. fMen tion some that do so.) Others do not form th.ir past tense m this way. For instance, stand has for its past tense stood. ^ What has "shoot?" "fall? •• "know ?" "fly?" 4 We hav. in En 'ish several thousand verbs, and all these verbs, with the exception of about .one hun- dred and fifty, form their past tense by adding «ci to the pu.en. tense, ii . oordingly this is the regular way of terming the past tease, and such verbs are called regular verbs. ^ 5 The few ve> h«^ do not form V ir past tense m this way are c.. di ^ular y^vhn. (Which of the verbs m the list are regular ? Which a. irregular ?) 6, The past tense of I love is I loved. We can ex- press the same thing by saying I did love. ^ 7. When we add ed to the present of a verb to make Its past tense, great pains must be taken to have the spellixig correct sa> id in the last mse. i. 3d. d. led. ired. > (V. f past tenses ises. (Men m their pagfc 3 for itB past I verbs, and it, one liun- dding ed to ihe regular h verbs are past tense 'hich of tlie irregular ?) Ve can ex- rb to make liave the f VKUBS — COMPOUND TENSES. Exercise 26. 67 Combine the following verbs in the present tense, with ed, and be careful in regard to the spelling :— Hate, leap, blot, love, spy, prefer, cry, survey, stop, obey. '^ Change papew, and correct spbllino wTien needed. Tell which vferbs are regnhr, and wliich irregular : 2. My father sold his farm when he went to Manitoba. 3. The sun shone brightly yesterday. fa^'he^^^""^ *^^ ^"'"'^ ""^ footsteps, we resolved to go no 6. Shakespeare wrote many dramas. 6. Wf ped you wouUl visit us when the leaves fell. XXIX. VERBS— COMPOUND TExNSES. 1. The three tenses that we have thus far consider- ed are— 1. The present; 2. The past ; 3. The future. 2. Now, as present, past, and future are the three great natural divisions of time, it would seem that these must be all the tenses that there can be. 3, Compare I ^oalk " I tvalked " I ahull Walk. with I have walhed. " I had walked. " 1 shall have walked. 4. I have walked is a kind of present. We may say / have walked a mile to-day ; but not / have 68 , tANOUAOE LESSONS. wal/cer! a mile vrntcr<1mi T* • ... year, etc. B, 1 1 Zf T', ""' ^""""""y' l««' fore ,<,m„/,/»^ ehe do,,, in the jit '^ *" 6- I »/«!« have walled is callwl tl,« t . tense. It makes a ,»,,„,, ! i *^"'"'''' Perfect bedonei„ref„turlt, "' °f™-"ethi„g that will T1...3, 1 .'<^« w::r;'t::n^ ::rir '•'^=°- will arrive. ^ °^ ^'^^^^e *Jie train 7. The six tenses are— I. Presenf • 9 t> . „ ture ; 4. Present Perfect ; 5 S P ' I f'l ' t ^''^ Perfect. ' *^' ^^'^^«* i 6. Future Present . . . Prt-s^ Call or calls. Future '*.* Called. Present Perfect ^^^^ or will call. Past Perfect... ^'^^^ ^'^ ^^^ called Future Perfect "ad called. -, _,, Shall or will have called. «. ^^^ Vre^ent perfect, past perfect and /•„/ M are called comi.onnd fil ^^ •^"''"'^ ^«'- by means of thTrbl^ ^^'''"'^ ''^^ ^^^ ^^r'-e^ ^V^-. or helpingverb " " " ^^"^' ^^ «- 9. The present tense of this helping verb is W; iiiJ of present resent time the t, therefore, be graninjjir it ig )erfect" mean- ' a past tense ; mUccd. WulJe. yesterday, last ot before the 'rfect, and it I the past be- "ture perfect >g that will ? takes phice. ore the train *ast ; 3. Fu. i 6. Future la. II call. 8 called. ' have called. future per- are formed id an ata- is ha ve VERBS -OOMPOUND TKNSE8. gg th^' past is had; th. future is shdl hm,. V -that these .ordsaref.undinthelm;:..^r^ Present Perfect. Prist Perfvct.. //^fc called. Future Perfect ^/'<'/ called. ^Itnllhave called. 11. But this is not the cAon A.„] ^^!-ot the case b,t;:::nnt:;L::;r;s^ -nte. The past tense of .nV. is ..o^J N .l J ' to t.u„ly not ; you vvould say I have «,nV^.«, etc The ^^^^Jccd ml have waUcedh no more the n..f I -alk than .r.V.c. is the past tense oftT '' ^^- ^^^« fo'-m of the verb used in formin, fl.. pound tenses is called the^..,^..,v^r"^ ' ""' 13. The past participle of all regular verbs ia th. same in form as their past tense. *^^ Walk+ed=walked, Past Partidple. Love+ed=loved, Pa,t Partidple Rob+ed=robbed, Past Partidple The past participle of no ,•» « « « . 1 .'' 5^""^ « „ „ '''' IS done. j^ " -^"^^ is ./a//erj. be knSSn ly'^:^^^:^ f^^ Pficiple „ay always past rarticipl of tSe verhLJX ' ^'^''^ "^ "«* the Ue^nct^/^e^Jt^^^f *;^. b^^^^ ^« cannot say I participle, '*^ ^ ^^'^ ^"o^". and ,t«o«;rt ia the^aat 'f 70 LANGL".aE LESSONS. Exercise 27. Give the six tenses of the following verbs ;- Roll, go, name, know, invent, fall, naove, bring. XXX. VERBS WITH PRONOUNS. 1. Verbs make statements ; and they can make statements not only of all nounSy but also of the per- sonal jyronowis. 2. The personal pronouns are — / and we, denoting the speaker or speakers — call- ed the Jirst 2^61' son. You, denoting the person or persons spoken to — called the second person. He, she, it, and they, denoting the pei-son or per- sons, or tilings, spoken of— called the third person. 3. Now take the verb loalk. We can say : I walk. You walk. He walks. We walk. They walk. 4. When we are speaking of the verbs, we say that they are in the same person and number as the pro- nouns. That is, walk, with /, is said to be first person singular ; with you, it is second person singu- lar or plural ; with he, she, it, or any singular noun, it is third person singular ; and with they, or any plural noun, it is third person plural. Note. -TAoti was the old pmnnur. for the second person ■ingular, and it took a particular form of the verb ; thus, thou walkest, tlwu walkcdst. But this form has now gone out of use, except iu poetry and prayer, and by the Frienda, or Quakers. I ■'**--<'-'«' > i i «l> W«»»| P i i 'W.^WMMkMtlMMMIMt eakers — call- I T«RBS WITH PRONOUNS. 7] 6. In the present tense there is only one change of the form of the verb-that is, the third person singu- lar has an ,. He, or tlie man, horse, etc., walks ; but I, you, we, tliey, walk. Hence, if you remember to put the s to a verb of the third person singular in the present tense, you will be su.-e to have the whole tense correct, 6. In the past tense no mistakes can be made for the reason that the verb does not change its form with 8. The present perfect has but one change, namely, hasm the third person singular; as, he has walked but 1, you, we, they havj walked. 9. The past perfect is had walked, with all the pro- nouns. ^ 10. The future perfect is shall or will have walked with all the pronouns. The following little table will show yo. the whole matter at a glanca. '' Present tense Walk, walks. Pf'^iiense Walked. f'"^^^^"^^ Shall or will walk. pJlTj ^^'Tf ''"'' ^^^^« ''^^^^ i^as walked. Past Perfect tense Had walked. Future Perfect te^ise Shall or will have walked. Exercise 28. Write the verbs lave, call, sttuly, and hlame, in aU the Der. .^ns and numbers in each of the «x tensea. ^ i i ! \ 72 LANGUAGE LESSONS. XXXI. MOODS OF VERBS. Note ToTKACHERS.--It is recommeiuled that this lesson be merely read over carefully once or twice. It will ^;e enough for the present if pupils learn to recognize the orm ol a verb The full conjugation will be given an the Supplement, and the intricacies o our EngU.h verb-intncacies, however, rather of nomenclature than o? fact- may advantagoously be postponed to a later stage. 1. The six tenses that we have defined all dififer in re-ai-d to time ; but they all agree in making the state- ment as a fact actually tahing place. All these tenses agree in indicating some fact ; and hence they are said to be tenses of the indicative mood. Mood, or mode, means way or manner. 2. But there are other ways of making statements. , Thus we may wish to express the idea of the verb as a possibility. This is done by means of certain little words, such as may, can, might, could, would, should. When a statement is made in this way, the verb is said to be in the potential, (or possible) mood. May or ain walk is called the present potential of the verb walk. Might (or could, would, or should) walk is called the past potential. May or can have walked is called the present per- fect potential. Might (could, etc.) have Walked i- called the past perfect potential. 3. A second wivy of making a statement is to make it as a supposition. This is called the subjunctive mood ; as, If he see the signal, 1/ he have en the signal, et^. *«Mi'-«Meuutitul lanihcape stretclied below us. Exercise 32. Comhine each set of statements iiito a single sen. ;^ence with ./.rases. The principal statement comes 1. I lay down to rest. I was exhausted by fati Mie, on;,.;s,'''^xJS:S]'LBit,,„r ""' '"" '"^ "- 1oIkT^eht:ft'L":fr^L'o.*' "»"'""'■ »» ■«« -» XXXV, COUJUNWIONS. Trance and Switzerland are republic* I went because lie asked me. I. Tlieword "and" makes one statement out of wJi.t oUaerwise must be iwo : France is a republic, K^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET {MT-3) An A (A Z ^ '^ o 1.0 I.I ^ us, 2.5 2.2 |l-25 i 1.4 2.0 1.6 Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. M580 (716) 872-4503 4- \ \\ ^N? 83 LANGUAOE LESSONS. Switzerland is a republic. The word " because » con- nects the two statements « I svent " and " he asked me into one sentence. A^id and because are called conjunctiona. 2. Definition.-A conjunction joins words to words sentences to sentences, or shows the ^ dependence of one statement upon another. ILLUSTaATIONS. 1. rolIya»(^ Annie sing sweetly. Although introduces a dependent statement. 3 DEFiNiTioN.-Co-ordinate conjunctions con- arnre^ce^^^^^^^"^^"^-^^^----^^^ 4. Inhere is another class o: conjunctions, called suOordinate conjunctions. ILLUSTBATI0N3. 1. 1 will not go unless you accompany me. 2. I will help you, if you wish me to do so 6. DEPiMTioN.-Subordinate conjunctions con- nect a qualifying or dependent statement with a principal statement. 6. The principal co-ordinate conjunctions are and, ^ut, or, therefore. The principal subordinate conjunc- tions are that, i/, though, mh^z. »» jcause con- " he asked s words to shows the mother. is heavily snts by join- d "Annie." lonscon- rank in IS, called ne. so. two state - 16." " If" ts " I wUl ►ns con- nt with ire and, conjunc- REVIEW LESSON. Exercise 33. A. 83 e co- Name the conjunctions, and tell whether thoyar crdiuaf ot subordinate. 1. I went first, and he followed mo 9 v„ui, n- nor sailors could advance. 3. Twill t^ll h'inf " ^ "f'''' know that your brother had hurt himself "''* Supph B. ly conjunctions to connect the foil. w\u ; sometimes we ship a sea. The first word " ship" in this sentence is f. noun, because It 18 the name of a thing; the second "ship" is a verb because it makes a statement. 3. Without one ifov hut. The words "if and "but "are usually conjunctions; as here used they are nouns. 4. Come to me at four o'clock, that [conjunction] I may show you how to do that [adjective] puzzle that [pronoun] I got for you. As a review exercise, let the pupils opea their Readers and tell the parta of speech in a number of pieces. KEVIEV LESSON. 65 hlngs. id qualities. statements. and strong ;he parts of s the mean- to which it 3 of two or ling iu the should not xdjective, ! . he sentence, is a uoun, !s we ship a 0U71, because " is a verb, 'onjunctions ; nj unction] ve] puzzle I tell the parta II.— Inflection of Words. r The same word may be used iu various ways, to express tiie siune thing differently. But we must then alter the t'ovm of the word, to suit the iuteuiled chnu'^'e of thought. Such changes iu the form of words aro called Inflections. 4. Five of the eight classes of words change their form ; that is, are injlccted. These are nouus, pronouns, adjectives, adveibs, and verbs. Tlutie --prepositions conjunctions, and interjections —are not iullected; that is, they undergo no change. 6. A noun is inflected to mark the plural number and the possessive case. Fof the mode of forming the plural of nouns, review Lessons IX , X. and 'SI For the forraatiou of the possesive case, review Lesson XV XI. 6. Pronouns are changed to express person, num.ber, gender, and case. (a) The three persons — speaker, person spoken to, and per- son or thing spoken of -have ditfercnt -AMrcts to deii.te them. Thus : first perdon, I ; second person, you ; third piusoii, he, she, it. {h) The plural of /is we ; of you (old fovin, thou) is you ; of he, she. and it, is they. (c) The third personal pronoun alone has different words for the genders— he, masculine ; s/te, feinittine ; it, neuter — that is, neither gender — since it geueially etauds for a lilclesa object. {d) Pronouns have three cases ; thus, nominative, he; poa- sessive, hh ; objective, him, for the inflections of the pro- nouns, review Lesson XXV", 7 Adjectives and adverbs are inflected to e^i- press the comparative and the superlative degree. 86 n-. LANGUAGE JLESSOxVS. XIV. t„, the „„„„„„„[, „, advel:t\wlesn;^S"" befofTl '"" ''7.'»''«'=''<' '0 "■'■■k «.e person and „„ ", be. of tl.eir subjects in only two instan,.», ,,, piige 75. ^ "isfnces, as seen on JILilte "' ""■ '""-''^ '» ™-k the dfent te„« and ot n.,o«„kr ve,... ate forlYS'a^S^iSjKi;:'-^" the U8e of auxiliary words. ' ^^ "I'iectiou, but by Exercise 34. Tell the ??y7ec<^o;i^ in the follo.viu- vvor^tion Added ks the po3- 5. Sweeter. 10. Given. iti'st. 15. 19. Shiiis. • 24. Fair. , One's. 29. aster. ,34, liest. 38. iatement, nsists in 87 pointing out the subject and the predicate, and the en- hvrgenient or enhirgenients, if any, of the subject and of the predicate. 3. Tlie simple subject of a simple sentence may be— 1. A noun ; 2. A jTonoun ; 3. A j.hrase. ILLUSTIUTIONS, 1 . Ca7d is a metal. Walkhig is good exercise. The subject of the first sentence is the noun "goldi" of tlie .second, the noun '*walkino " 2. We hear the music. The subject is the pronoun " we." 3. To waUc is good exercise. The subject is the phrase "to walk." 4. Fi.lmigfor trout is fine fun. The subject is the i>hiase " fishing for trout." Select the subjects in the following simple sentences, and tell whether they are nonns, prouonn- or phrases. 1. The snow fell heavily. 2. Writing letters was her daily occupation. 3. We are brothers. 4. To forget an injury is the mark of a noble mind. 5. That day I oft remember, 6. Books are not dead things. 4. The simple predicate of a simple sentence will be {.'ither — 1. A verb by itself— if the verb is a complete verb. 2. A verb and its complement— if the verb is an incomplete verb. actln''ii;;i^'!/'""''''''^'''''^''~T*^''^* ''' ^^'•^^ expressing aa action that passes over to an object— are incomDlete Tht\l complement is called the object. '"complete. Iheir 88 LANGUAGE LESSONS. an arijecti ve (calle I wS; n^rrH / '"" ''^"'l''^'"*-'"*. either cate jLninative) ^ adjective) ..r a noun (called prcdi- 5. In tl,e sentence Birds sing, the verb " sine. » is t^Y-licate; " sing " is a complete verb ; that L, it wakes lull sense b^. itself, 6 In the sentence Columhns d I smvercd America, the simple pre,licate is " discovered America." The verb " discovered " alone does not form the predicate, be- cause - Columbus discovered " does not make complete sense. " Discovered " is an incomj.lete verb. "is\iu'r"'T.''''"t, ""r ''" ^'"''^ ^'''''^''^- - 18 blue. The verb be is here an incomplete verb. 8. When the verb is an incomp'ete verb, the predi cate consists of the verb and whatever word is necessary to complete the sense. 1. The sun shines. 2. I like flowe,-s. 3. He wishes to go. 4. Napoleon was chosen emperor. 6 The vessel sailed yesterday. 6. Glass is transparent. Model of Analysis-Simple Subject and Predicate. 1. The birds sing. The predicate fs- sing " '"^^''^ '' "*« '^^"'^ "l>irda." 2. You are scholars. i Jti?„:'7^Lr."°^i,r=L i'i ^l"'™' o„.y one „k. Tlie predicate if, " are se]iola. . " - T -^ ^ Pronoun " you." «nd •'8cho]ai^''isitscC^:^„ent. ^« «» >"<=«">Plete verb. lense of the verb iploiiieiit, eitlier 111 {calWA prcdi- rb "sing" > ; that is, it smg " IS America, tlie The verb I'edicate, be- ike complete erb. pi-erlicate is lote verb. >i the predi- r word is ss. Tell whether what is its oom- He wishes r. 6. The iparent. Predicate. ily one sub- in "birds." ly one sub- iin "you." iplete verb, ANALYSIS— ENLARGED SUBJECT. 89 3. To lie is disgraceful. Tliis is a 8i.n,,le sentence, b..c.ause it contains only one ruI. :.ic.tcsa„dti.e„di.„tive*.Xi.er„V'^r;;!;;„'^i,,i:r'"- 4. Tlie fisherman brought a lobster. This is a simple sentence. The subject is "the fisherman " brought has for its compleniont the object ' ' lobster. " Exercise 35. A. Analyze the following sentences : was lucen. 4 I he dog fights. 5. Faust invented printirr 0. ^teel tarnushes. 7. To .lie for one's cmutry is sweet 8* Artrehnes 9. Music soothes. 10. To torgiS d viae H We know him 12. Charge ! o « uiviue. u. B. Write a sim;>/e sen^ewce, containing a simple subject and predicate, on each of the following subjects. When done, analyze the sentences : 1. Winds. 2. Morning. 3. Rain. 4. Snow. 5. Wheat. 6. Kight. XXXVIII. ANALYSIS-ENLARGED SUBJECT. 1. A noun, the simple subject of a simple sentence, may be enlarged by — 1. An adjective; as, hri^fht skies; some books. 2. A noun in the possessive case ; as, the sun's rays. 3. A noun in appc^ition ; as, Alexander the copper- amith- 4. An adjective phrase; as, men of renown. 90 LANGUAGE LESSONS. !i Model of Analysis. 1. Heavy rain fulls. Ire,hcateis.'fal,«,> It ?s nr^lilaS. '"''' '^'^^« '^''''P'" 2. John's book is torn. aae. 1 lie prechoate is " is torn. " ^ I'ossesaivp 3. The .study of history improves the mind. adjective' phrase '.'oriit J *-' '^/'f ^*'^«," the," and hy [he the mind." or mstory. J he predicate is " improves Exercise 36. (^se. 5. The ar,ny, havinc: crossed ttlv^ ^'""*'' ^'^"'^ P^"shed ilxhausted by fatigSe! ^£1 down ?' T^Tii ^'•^°««- 6. IS sweet. ^ ' ^ ^^^- 7. The little bird's song B. In the follomng sentences, enlarge the subiect hv lutroducinff af/>Vr^*,,/., n,. 7- .• , suoject bj t, (^(tjectives, or »./^,c<*ye p/imses, or both •— thee,ylr,e 'If^sriJ^'/'fT,':- ^^ ^he mechanic repaired sg;5-t;:"HJ^^'|;Se.^,eS^^ introduced by y & preposition.] tlif air. [I'hrase •jeot is "rain." 'y" Thesimplo ^'Ct is "book." 1 the possesaivp iin(J. 2t is •'study." " ii'Kl l>y the 18 "improves iccording to rn awoke the pher, was an ■ve perished. France. 6. le bird's song subject by ur both : — '—The great river. lie repaired riltori wrote ;he hens. 7, fire burns. 12. Books 91 ANALYSIS— ENLARGED PREDICATE. XXXIX. ANALV8IS--ENLA11GED PKEDI GATE. 1. An adverb, ^. An adverbial phrase. ILLUSTRATIONS. ^^ L The !,„.« ,„„ .,lfa„. f E„I.,.ge„,ent by „„ „,,. 3 G,.e.t men ]ive,l a„A,, ,/,« ^fe,,,/, ,,„, rJ2.ila.gen.ent by nn adverbkl pl.mse ] <..bjec/Tl,u»:- ""^ a» tI.o »in,ple 1. The rain has injured the gnjmng cop. Here the noun "cror:; " Tiri,,v i • xi adjective "growing.' mjmed, is eulai, . ,■ by the J^ The Egyptians en.balmed the bodies of their 3. We passed a shpherd tending his sheep. Here the noun "shenhcd " nhin,.* ^f r.- , ., ■ by the adjective phra.e^ " ieAdit h4 sUefr''"'' " '""""^^^ Model of Analysis. 1. The army advanced rapidly. This is a simple sentence. The subject is " the aimy "- 92 LANGUAGE LESSONS. not enlarged The simplo predicate is " advaiicod." The predicate la enlarged by tlie adverb "rajjidly," 2. A spirit hatints the year's last hours. This is a simple Benteiice. Tlie subject is " a soirit " Thn simple predicate is '< haunts the Imurs." The cr.n.pWment of 1' '"!^« ' '8 th.. noun ;' hours." It is enlarged by the noun "years' and tlie ad jo. tive "last." j- no lioun Exercise 37, A. Aimh/ze the following siin|)lc' sentences: 1. Rich men shoiUd give liberally. 2. The horn of the hunter 18 heard on the hill. 3. My dear mother will soon 1 e heio. 4. Ihp squirrel eyes asUaiice the chestnuts browning 5. Heaven from all creatures hides tlic book of fate. 6 Some buds o prey, having secured their victim, fly with it verv hsiifjon t:zr''''- '• '''' '''''' "^ ''' ^''' «^^*«' P-- B. lu the following sentences, enhirtjie the predicate by means of adverbs, adverbial phrases, or both :— MoDKi, -We go to swim. Enlaryed-\\e often go to swi)n m the river. * °"'"" 1. The sun shines. 2. The moon shines. 3. Thev learn their lessons. 4 The British soldiers fought bravelv 5 James wrote .a letter, fi. It is pleasant to watch tliAtars /. \\e took shelter. 8. The Hre burns. 9. Bees fcthei honey. 10. Hirds fly. 11. Fishes swim. • ^^^s jatHei I XL. EEVIEW OF PUNCTUATING SIMPLE SENTENCES. 1. The comma, period, point of interrogation, and point of exclamation, are the only marks used in punctuating simple sentences. idvaiicfid." The KEVIEW or PUNCTUATmo mMPI.B SENTENCES. 93 2. Close a declarativo „e„teuce with t|,e .,„,.io,| .n ."to,.,.„,„.t,ve s.„,t,.„,.„ wHl, the mterr«,.„t „n Ir .-1,™ e.o,a„,at„.., «„.te„„e with the po^t of L^ It is cold to-day. Is it oold to-day ? How cold it is to-day I The Comma. Rule I.-Words of the same class in a series commas ^^'"^""""^ or in pairs, are separated by The calm, cool, resolute man presented a noble ex- ample of daring. Russia exports wheat, tallow, flax, and hides. nouTbe'ef^anrd"'"^'""*' """'^ j"'"^'^ ^^^ "-^ or or are Rule Il._A phrase, unless very closely con- nected with the word to which it belongs is to be marked off by a comma. 1. In spite of all difficulties, they resolved to make the attempt. 2 The Indian monarch, ./«„nerf a«.Z bewildered, ^^y, his faithful subjects falling around him. But in the sentence, "Our house is beautifully situ- ated about three miles from town," the phrase" aio„« three miles Jrom town is too closely joined in construe tion to be separated by a comma. Rule Ill.-in a succession of phrases, each phrase is to be marked off by a comma. 94 LANGUAGE LESSONS. At dayl.eak, the combined fleets were distincilv seen from the Victory's hfnu], formed in a dose line of baffle ah ad, on the sfnrhoard tack, (d)uut twelve miles to leeward, and standing to the south. Rule IV.— Adverbs like however, indeed, TiiKREFouE, etc., being equivalent to phrases, are generally marked off by commas. The stoi-y, however, was pronounced untrue. No man, indeed, is always happy. Rule V.— Words or phrases n apposition are marked off_by commas. James Watt, the improver of the steam-emjine, was a native of Greenock. Exercise 38. Punctuate the following simple sentences : — 1. He was blessed with x sonnd understandini;; an intrepid spirit a benevolent heart 2. In our present advanced state it is a disgrace not to be able to write good English 3. In carrying a buronieter from t)ie level of the Thames to the top of St. P.ud's Church in London the mercury falls lialf an inch marking an ascent of about five hundred feet 4. How sad how dreary how desolate is tlii.s scene 5 Is it not pleasant in the morning to brush the dew upon the uplaul lawn 6. Milton the author of "Paradise Lost "was blind 7. The signal being given the fleet weiglied anchor 8. The grocer sells tea cotfee sugar and spices 9. On the rich and the elo- quent on nobles and princes the Puritans looked down with contempt. XLI. REVIEW OF MAKING SIMPLE SEN- - TENCES. 1. In the previous lessons we have learned all that goes to make up a simple sentence. J distincily dose line of twelve mile» i, INDEED, irases, are ue. sit ion are (fine, was a REVIEW OP MAKING SIMPLE SENTENCES. 95 J an intrepid liuicetl state glisli 3. In -•s to the top liiilf an inch 4. How sad lot pleasant 111 lawn 6. in 5 Has the sentence any other faults ? Can you improve- it in anv way ? t^ J XLII. CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS. (1.) Nouns as Subjects. 1. The usual place of a nonn as the subject of a sentence is before the verb ; as, A messemjer was sent. But in certain cases this order is inverted 1 . When, for the sake of emphasis, some other important word or phrase is put tirst; as, (a.) Ne/or will a pa/riot con- Bent to so dishonourable a proceeding; {h.) In came his father ^h^orT ^^^"^ ^^'"ting to him ; (c.) lu the beginning was lit* 2. In sentences which report a dialogue, as, said he. replied 1, and the like ; as, Come, said viy friend, make haste ! 98 LANGUAGE LESSONS. n "I I I 3. In interrogative and in imperative sentences ; as, Are you there ? Name the subjeois in the following sentences, anrl show in what respect their place is not the usual one : 1. Down fell the house vvith a great crash. 2. Great is Ihana of the I^.hosiaus. 3. Tiicn rose from sea to sky the wild farewell. 4. " Wiiat «ill become of the poor sheep '"' tiiouglit she. 5. Has an answer yet been received ? 6 Mav he be happy ! y. ^^^^y (2.) Use of the Possessive Form. William's share was five thousand dollars. Mary's share was five thousand dollars. 2. If we combine these sentences we shall have :— William's and Mary's share was five tliousand dollars. But suppose we wish to say, not that each separately had five thousand dollars, but that the share of both together was five thousand dollars; wo must then write, William and Mary's share was five thousand dollars. Rule.— In a series oi possessive nouns, if separate ownership is meant, write each noun with the possessive sign ; if joint ownership, use the sign with the last only. Tell in which sentence joint ownership is meant, and in which separate ownership *^ 1. Have yoa read any of Beaumont and Fletcher's plays ? 2. Have you read any of Shakespeare's and Jonson's plays ? 3. We admire Scott's genius. 3. In the sentence. We admire Scott's genius, sup- pose we wish to add to ''Scott's" the explanatory noun the novelist, hovv shall we write the sentence ? 1 I fii '^ tencea ; as, Are w in what respect h. 2. Great is sea to sky tlie e poor slieep V iived? 6. May m. hilars, rs. lall have : — sand dollars, ih separately lare of both must tlien ve thousaixd nouns, if each noun )wnership, which separate id Fletcher's *nd Jonsou'a genius, sup- latory uouu :e1 CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS, 99 We admire ScoU's the novelisf'.i genius. We admire Scoffs, the novelist, genius. We admire Scott, the novelist's, genius. The last form is tlie correct oue. Rule.— When two possessives are in apposi- tion, the last alone takes the possessive sign. Note. —In all such cases, however, it is muoli bettor to turn the sentence thus : We admire the genius of Scott the novelist. ' 4. The following construction is bad English : John going was unexj)ected. The reason of him being there is unknown. These sentences should be — JoJioi's going was imexpected. The reason oi' Iiis being there was unknown. (3.) Nouns as Objects. 5. Nouns are generally placed after the vovbs of which they arc the objects ; as, The merchant has built a hoitse. But if we wish to bo emphatic, we place the object first ; as, My ri(/ht there is none to disi)ute— There is none to dispute my i'i "discovered'' '''''"' ^^^^' ^^>^* °^ t^- verb In the following sentences, parse the noun-objects •• 1. Thb cat followed the girl 2 A mo« u-n ^ The farmer sold the horse. ^4 The iS ^'^^l* *^g^^««' 3- • ^"® People saw the giant. (3.) Noun in Apposition. Milton, the jt?oe«, was blind. * Poet " is a common noun ihi,^A ^ wth "MiUon .. 3i„ee it denotes tL LXeX °° The ctfe„'^J,r;,^S/rV'^"'*- "■«=«■" J HOW TO PARSE NOUNS. 101 ^OUNS. >erson, singula i case, subject oi' = of wLich the se son maketh a e live thunder. 3. •son singular, of the verb i a tigress. 3. the giant. »n singular, apposition erson. B Lost." 2. nfamous em- in Asia and (4.) Noun as Predicate Nominative. Queen Victoria is Empress of Inrlia. "Empress "is a common noun, tliinl person sin^u- s.^ , feminine gender, in the predicate no.ninative after IS, and explains the subject, " Queen Victoria." In the following sentences, parse the nouns in the predioate nominative : y^'Z^^tJ- ^-klin was a printer. 3. Inafow (5 ) Noun in Possessive Case. The hoys' shites are broken. "Boys'" is a common noun, third person plural masculine gender, possessive case, and limits the noun slates. In the following ..ntono.., p,r,o thenomB in Ho posoei,!™ oaio : (U ) Noun used in a Phrase. The man loith the white coat came from London. " Coat " is a common noun, third person singular neuter gender, and objective case; is joined by the pre' position -with" to the noun "man:" " with the wliite coat " is an adjective phrase. "London " is a proper noun, third person singular, neuter gender, objective case, and is joined by the preposition " from " to - came :" "from London ""is an adverbial phrase. In the following sentences, parse the nouns used in phrases : „i Mj ^^^i. ^^y ^" ^}^^ ^"''** <^''i"S'^t a fish with a line 2 The duld ,net me on the road. 3. A sailor at sea looks hopcfuli; \< 102 LANGUAGE LESSONS. r f (7.) Noun as Nominative Independent. Our Father, who art in heaven. "Father" is a proper noun, second porson singular masculine gender, and nominative of address. " ' disdoled""' '"""^" """' " '^"'"'^'"' ^''''^''' ^«« "Mist" is a common noun, third person sin-uh,r neu e.. ge„der, and nominative absolute, used indepen! dently m the phrase " the mist having arisen." In the following sentences, parse the nouns Indeoendent : l._ Oh mighty Cffisar ! dost thou lie so low' 2 r^in. i having finished the account of his vova^e iZ '.J' Vol»"i1>"8 upon theirknees. 3. Speak/n^^. ■bl7lifs^ 4 XT/fV?'' >ng ended, the general counted his loss " "^^ ^^" Exercise 40. Parso all the nomw in the following sentences :- been t'eorr^d^'n^^one^?- s'' S T^' ^^ *^ ^"^ ^' of vast forests. / Tirp'aSt's'heS bll'' T '01!!'^"" was a patriot. 6. Death, where is thy sting ? '"^^'■^"'•«* XLIV. CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. (I.) The Article. 1. When two or more nouns or adjectives refer to tiK. same thing, the article is prefixed to the first only • but If they refer to different things, the article should be repeated with each. ILLUSTRAlTONg. 1. The governor and commander-in-chief has arrived (that is, one person). CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. 103 pendent, n. Orson singular, Idress. il prospect was 5rson sinsfnl'ir, , used indepen- arisen." eat: ? 2. Columbus sovereigns siank I The battit) be- 'ntences :— 3 of the Nile K-s .are tlie remaino T). WiIberforG« EOTlVJilS. iives refer to lie first only ; rticle should in-chief has ('■; 2. The governor and the commander-in chief have arrived (tliat is, two persons). 3. He lives in a long and narrow street (one street). 4. The rich and the poor have a common interest (two classes). Show the application of this rule in the following sentences :— 1. The ox anil the sheep are the domestic animals chiefly used for food. 2. Benjamin Franklin, the philosopher and statesman, lived in I'liiladelphia. 3. The three brothers were underalarge and spreading tree. 4. I passed a man and a boy on my way to the village. 5. Bi.shop Butler is a better reasoner than writer. 6. I saw a X'ed, white, and blue flag. Here is a white and a red flag. (2) Comparison. 2. The corapnrative is used when two objects are compared ; the superlative, when more than two. Hence — KuLE.— Never use the superlative when but two objects are compared. The Euphrates and the Tigris are rivers of Asia ; of these, the Euphrates is the laiyer, and the Tigris the more rapid. It would be wrong to say, The Euphrates is the largest; The Tigris the inost rapid. Why is this sentence incorrect — This is the best house of the two 1 (3.) Position of Adjectives. 3. An adjective generally precedes its noun j as, A mise man ; A great and wise man. But it may follow it for emuhasis or in poetic construction ; as, A man tvinc and uwi* . ioi. >-««* ue was to all the country dear. 104 LANGUAGE LESSONS. (4 ) Adjectives for Adverbs. predicate adjective instead of an advei-b. 1- The rose smells sweet. 2. Tiie velvet feels nvno^',, 5. It would be incorrect to siv TI,. sentence., mean i.,, that the roae U ,Lt to ,! 7 and that the velvet « smooth to the toth '""'' ^r|;;;i;.>'"'"'«.;':t!„!i':"''he.ea..,ewveK,,hk« ^ i. Feel. 4 r,, Z^' 5. iieconie. That these verhs all ho v« ii , 6- ^^row. v»b, .aU „ ,4d,ol\^Jje' ^e i'i' ""T ""I" '"»' "•-» take adverbs. 'J^t-uve, wheieas all ordinary verbs tastes «0M;%r Why not? -^^'^ ^*^^' The lemon (5) Parsing of Adjectives. orLt:;*:rir:;^:f"-«'''-'-wihe. the verb. ^ ' ""^ ''''''"■''>™ «'« subject of The way was long. Sft. I verbs. lo.inin^r of the verb '«tead of un adverb. ', The rose smells '^y- WJ.at these iweot to the scent, toucli. are a few verl)8 like 0- iu'conie. 6. Grow. *'"'»>, and that these 18 all ordinary verbs oks beautifully V say, '< The lemon 3. tbat it describes y saying that it 8 the subject of knowledge, ive degree, and ?i-ee, after the MF8USED ADJECTIVES. Exercise 41. 105 Parse the ao?>c'«^ 2. The fields the £.i,htJst of my\trr !ltt^'"^''fc, ^' ,^'"1'- - sweetly. 6. Mary sings sweet " "^^"^ ''^''^' *^«tes XLV. MLSUSED ADJECTIVES. (1.) These for This. Tho adjective this must be used only with singular nouns ; these with plural nouns. This rule is vi Jated m such expressions as " /A..e sort of people," ^^ those ^^hJlTli We must say, '' M/^ sort of people/ '*/, ^/„/. In most cases, all that is meint hv +),„ i rem«t Jikeacannil-al-; Jo det^^%r"'"' "'-'';'l *" l^e a VVe had a very bad dinner "would f., i "f"^ ^^ '''"•'•^■'''«- meant. "''^' ^<'""» ""ly describe what is Exercise 42. Correct the errors in the following sentences :- Them apples are sorr. Those Horf rf , complaining. Writing letters is an «? ''"''P u. ^'"^ *>«'ay8 Grandmother was some bS ast niiT'^S^^ ""'««"^«. inakmg an awful racket. We saw ! ** ^ ''^" ^^^y^ are spKler. The music was awfullv „ * tremendously bi« •U. He fl„d. it „Te S;£ S;Z7%.i'Z."" "'^ XLVI, LESSON ON THE AGKEEMENT OF VEKBS. 1. In grammara, the rule for verbs is fl^of *u n.-t.g..o .ith their subjects i» n.: .■l^^'';^ herefore, witl, a singula,- subject of the Mrd" ' the verb in the p.-e.ont tense ,„„st take an . '^ 2. But we must be very careful wifl, a few verv m-egularforn,,, remembering that k„,. rf... 1„ ™J IT"'/'"" "''°°'^ "f "'» "■"■« Pe-n'sCilar and Aa«, rfo. go. and o.« with all other subjects 108 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 3. We know that such expressions as The horses rum, the boys has gone to school, the dog walk, are wrong and why they are wrong. But there are otW forms of expression that are not so simple as 5. The first difficulty in using these verbs correctly occurs when the subjects have qualifying phraser, ILLUSTKATIONS. 1. The union of two great rivers producea the La The verb is "produces ;" the subject is "union " "TTn,-.«" s m tlie smguJar number, and hence " produces '•' is S .? n thV nS: """f'^f ' '' ^eree with it.^Ye" ord " rS^ d"o ;^t\fe™ t t*h7vS\:S"" nv^er^^^, ^^k 2. The condition of the roads are horrible control ov^er tre form of tKerb. ^^ ^ '"''' ^"""'^^^' ^^« "« 6. Rule.- When a subject has qualifying words or phrases, select the real subject and make the form of the verb agree with hat! phrases. '"'""" ^° ^^' Qualifying words or Exercise 43. A. What word is the real subject in these sentences ? 2/Th?sL?e''SllW,'""""*r^^^« towards the south. rest seems to he ILl % Vhl Z' ^' -"^^^ n^onths' inte- n^atehes were then unknown (ItnS' ^T '^ • t^'^'i «."'^ cumstenoes are to be takSt^Sunt 'wl J"*^ '' "'- [i ns as The horses e dog icalk, are But there are >fc so simple as e verbs correctly g phrase*. produces the La 'union." "Union" iuces" ia rightly he word "rivers," t have nothing to ers " is used with and hence it has horrible. condition,' M'hich es— the condition i qualifier, has no IS qualifying subject, and e with that, ng words or TERBS WITH TWO SUBJECTS. 109 B. 3se sentences ? '^ards the south. i destroyed. 3. c niontha' inte- of clockt, and variety of cir- What phrase in each of the preceding sentences might lead a careless speaker into making a mistake in the form of the verb ? Model.— Six months' interest seems to be due. The verb is -seems," in the singular number. It agrees with its subject, "interest." The word " months' " has no control over the form of the verb because that word is in the possessive case, and limits " interest. ' XLVII. VERBS WITH TWO SUBJEOTa (1.) Two Nouns joined by "and." 1. Sometimes the subject of a verb consists of two or more singular nouns. Tims : 1. The horse, the ox, and the deer are quadrupeds. 2. Grace and Gertrude have recited their lessons. 3. Gold and silver a/re precious metals. 2, In the first sentence the subject consists of three singular nouns, connected by " and." What are they ? The subject of the second sentence is two singular nouns, connected by "and." What are they? '^The subject of the third sentence is two singular nouns. What are they ? 3. Rule.— Two or more singular suojects, meaning different persons or things, and join- ed by AND. take a verb in the plural. 4. Exceptions.— There are some apparent excep. tions to the rule. no LANGUAGE LESSONS. ii^ ! ;! si ,il ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. A gentleman and scholar Hues here. Explanation. — Thia means that one person, who is both a "gentleman" and a "scholar," ^i yes here. 2. Why is dust and ashes proud ? The " is " is correct, because we are really speaking of one thing, namely, " man." 3. The boy, and not the dogs, is to blame. The verb "is "is correct. The sentence really makes two statements — the boy is to blame ; the dogs oj-c ti'tt to blame. But as one subject is singular and the other plural, we cannot make both statements by means of one verb. Hence we make the verb agree in number with the affirma- tive subject, and leave the correct form of the verb to be undcrstooS, with the negative subject. 4. Every tree and every shrub is in bloom. The rule in such cases is that when two or more singu- lar subjects joined by and are do3cril)eil by the adjectives each, every, or no, the verb takes the singular form. (2.) Two Nouns joined by "or" or "nor." 5. Rule.— Two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor require a verb in the singular. ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. John or his brother has the book. The two singular subjects are "John " and "his broth- er." They are separatee! by "or," and hence, as we really make the statement of only one, the verb " has" is singular. 2. Either Anne or Jane tell a falsehood. You observe that the verb "tell" is the plural form. But this is wrong : tlio stutoinciit is made of but one, and hence the verb should be singular— :i 3. There is a peck of potatoes in the pantiy— be- cause the subject is the noun "peck," which is sin- gular ; it matters not tliat we speak of a peck " of potatoes," because "of potatoes " is a mere phrase, and can have no influence on the numbei- of the subject. 4. There are many flowers born to blush unseen — because the subject is the plural noun " flowers." 6. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods— be- cause the subject is the noun " pleasure," which is in the singular number. 3. Thus we clearly see that whether we shall say there is or there are depends entirely on the number of the real subject. 4. Now, what is the little word " there?" If we say, " The book is there," the word '« there " is an ad- verb. But "there," in the sentences given above, is not an adverb. Thus — There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin. This is the same as if we should say, A poor exile of Erin came to the beach. In all such cases the word there serves to introduce the statement, while the real subject comes after the verb. It may be called an introductory particle. 5. The same rule that applies to " there is " and " there are " applies to nil verbs used in the same way with there. The verb must agree with the real subject, which will be found aftOi* the verb. the pantry — be- £," wJiich is sin- : of a peck " of a mere j)hrase, numbta- of the ;o blush unscon loun " flowers." less woods — be- sure," which is sr we shall say on the number here?" If we lere "is an ad- liven above, is ile of Erin. ! beach. s to introduce Jmes after the particle. ihere is " and I in the same ivith the real 3rb. SYNTAX OP PRONOUNS. Exercise 45. 113 Correct the following verbs : — 1. There's many men who cannot read. 2. There are a great difference in the dispositions of peoijle. 3. Tliere was ten tliousand men killed at Waterloo. 4. Live there a man with soul so dead ? 5. There appears to be many who will not be promoted. 6. Thi're is two or tlireo apples on the table. 7. In fact, there is no .servants in the house. 8. Theie are, indeed, a great number in attendance. 9. There were a shoal of herrings. 10. There was many fires last year. XLIX. SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. (1.) Agreement of Pronouns. 1. Pronouns stand for nouns. Hence in using pro- nouns we must be very cax-eful that we use the right pronouns, and also that we use them correctly. 2. Rule.-- A pronoun must be of the same number as the noun it is meant to represent ; as, " The man is sick : he has a fever ;" " The men are foolish, because they waste their money. 3. Rule. — When two or more singular nouns are joined by fmd, the pronoun used to repre- sent them must be plural ; but when separated by or or nor, the pronoun must be singular. Thus, "Whales and eloi)]i!ints are maunnals : thei/ suckle their young." *' When he sees a dog or a cat, he chases it." 4. — Rule. — Collective nouns require sin^jular or plural pronouns according as they convey the idea of unity or plurality. Thus, "The u 114 i I^ANQUAGE LESSONS, »<-J,*«1^,X"V/,'!;°S,r""' "" P'^"'"'-"' by M.e word. Con'ect the mistakes in the proDouos : dragged themselves along through ft *""^- ^- ^^^^ ''^••'ny and girl must learu tliei? lessor" frT'^A ^- ^^"''y boy ammal when their master is S" tnfi"' '^''^ >« » faithful their senses would ha^e known Eetter'"' ^^ ^"^'^^^^^ i» ' (2.) Pronouns as Subjects. 5. RuLE.-When a pronoun is used as fh. form ' ha'f " ?.^'' ^* ""^^ ^^^- the su^ect! form, that is, the nominative case. 6. We should say, And not. I go to town ; -fie takes a walk. Me go to town ; ffini takes a walk. 1 ""wu, y/t/n, takes a walk-" Knf ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Richard is taller than me. 2. Mary is older than /livt. 3. Who wants a kite 1 Me. / SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 116 y] meets in Feb- •" "The people rul thet/ will con- ieded by the words )nsi(lerea sinyular •uua. ' teacher. 2. Every ne. 3. The army ud. 4. Every boy 2 «og IS a faithful • C. Anybody in S. used as the the subject- se. ' person would a walkj" but ting mistakes In each of these sentences there is a verb under- stood. Let us write the sentences out in full :— . 1. Richard is taller than me am. 2. Mary is older than him is. 3. Who wants a kite 1 Me wants a kite. " Me " is not the subject form, but the object-form. So " him " is not the subject-form, but the object- form. Sm)plying the subject-form, we have the .sen- tences in the right shape : 1. Kichard is older than /. 2. Mary is taller than he, 3. Who wants a kite 1 I. (3) Pronouns as Objects. 8. Rule.— A pronoun used as the object of a verb, or with a preposition, must take the object-form, that is, the objective case, 9. This moans that we should say, And not, I do not know who7n I love best. I do not know icho 1 love best. Here " whom" is the object of the verb " love," and hence it has, quite properly, the object-form ; but ** who " is the sulijcct-form, which is incorrect. 10. A pronoun governed by a preposition must always be in the objective form. Thus : To whom did you give that book 1 not To who did you give that bookl l1f in ill 116 LANGUAGE LESSONS. II. The following incorrect torn, of expression is viti y often heard :— Between you and /. Tins should be '< n.fcv.een you and me.'' The nrepo- «it.on between voquires the object-fo.-m of tlie pronoun • lience me, and nut /, should be en.pioyed. Corroot the mislakes in the pronouns : 1. I'eter is in the same class aa mo o nn (4.) Common Mistakes in Pronouns, 12. Tho pupil, may write fte following sentences . 1 Rifliard he went to school. 2. Eva she forgot her lunch-basket. 3. The dog it ran down the street. You may make these sentences good English bv leaving out the " he " in fJiP «....+ t , ^ • .1 , ^^ "le tirst sentsuce, the "she" in the second, and the " it " in the third. suiUt ^mJs:^\;:^:^^^^o school,, the sary, because you liave t e ZZ^l p- i ! ^^^^ unneces- 13. DiKECTioN.-Do not use a personal pro- noun as the subject of a verb when the verb nas already a noun for its subject. (5,) Politeness in Pronouns, 14. Rule I.~In the position of singular pronouns oi different persons, the second (you) precedes the SYNTAX OP PRONOUNS. 117 3f expression is '." The prepo- >f the pronoun ; cd. Who do yon see, IS not gold that omoted. 5. Let get that book ouzis» ing sentences ; d English by ue, the " she" to school," the quite unueces- ■ The sentence lool," or "He sonal pro- n the verb lar pronouns Hecedes the .thers (he, she, it, I); and the tliird (he, she, it) orecodes the first (I) ; as, You and he will go. ' J/e and / will go. OnsERVATioN.— Here "he" and "you." "I" and "ho " would not be correct. ' 15. A noun has the same place as a third pergonal pronoun ; as, Ho says he saw either my cousin or jue. Observation -Here "cousin," in the third person, pre- cedes " ine " in the first, ^ 16. Rule II. —With the plural pronouns, we has the first place, you the second, and they the third ; as, We and thei/ start to-morrow. Explanation .-The reason of the difference in the position of the singular and of tlie plural pronouns ia this :-In the singu ar number, the speaker (/), cut of polueness, puts him- self after the person spoken to and the person spoken of. But m the plural number, for the same reason, he puts those who are most intimately associated with him in tlie first place (and hence js forced to use the pronoun we), then the persons spoken to, and then those spoken of. i' ^" In the following aentences, write over the pronouna of what person they 8re, and point out the application of the rules just given. 1. I would have told you and him a piece of news, if you hads ayed. 2 How did you and John settle the .natter? 3. Why should Mary and I be kept at home ? 4. Neither wa nor you have done our duty. 6. We and our brothers are going to a party. ^^o aic (6.) It is I. 17. Pupils may write the following sentences: 1. It is/. 2. Who is the general ? I am he, 3. We thought it was she. fl,?'' ?T°H}' 11" ^^^° *^« subject-form, and comes after theverb"is/' Thepronoun "he" is in the subject-form, and comes after the verb "am." The pronoun -she" is lA the subject-form, and conies after the verb " was." 118 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 18. In these sentences it would be inconect to say, 1. It is me. 2. Who is the general? T am him. 3. We thought it was her. aJr"K''"'""''''i''"x*^"''' *h« pronouns "me," 'Ject.forn,. because In the secon.l soutonce, tl o pz ,2i ''^s'- '* , \*/'^^ ^"% form, and this is corrtvt. Why is"his' T hi « *"• '"'IT^l the verb " be " is preceded by ^ Vem/^n obj:c\T.i';oun:'"' 20. Rule. -The subject-form of the pronouns comes after the verb be when a subject comes before the verb be. The object-form of the pronouns comes after the verb be when an object comes before the verb be. (7.) Parsing Pronouns. 21. Pronouns have the same inflections as nouns and ure pursed in the same way as nouns. L. SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. (1) Position of Adverbs. 1. RuLE.-Adverbs should be so placed in a sentence as to qualify the word intended. SYNTAX OP ADVERBS. Ill) icoi rect to B&y, "me," "him," I'lild the subject- It' HMson is that t is the siuiie as '^am the i)erson ' means, " We teiiueb . — :t-forin, because un-subject. It lilt it was me." in til., ribject- i reason 13 that ect-pronoun. e pronouns )ject comes )rm of the 3 when an IS as nouns. 'laced in a tided. ILLUSTRATION. 1. ITe came to see me onli/ once. 2. I f e onli/ came to see me once. 2. Those two sentences have different meanings ac cording as the advei-h " only " is placed so as to qualify once, or came. The first means, " He came to see me onli/ once," not oftencr. The second means, " He only came to see me once"— Ae did nothing else. See in how many positions you can place the adverts in these sentences, ftudtdl the change of meaning made by each shifting of place : 1. Only he mourned for his brother. 2. We may j)robab]y go there to-morrow. 3. Charles resolved immediately to make an apology. (2) Misuse of Adjectives for Adverbs 3. Direction.— Never use adjectives as ad- verbs. Say, The girl .speaks distinctly —wot distinct. Is there anything wrong in these sentences 1 1. Pauline writes elegant. 2. Josojdi walks slow. 4. Ptemomber that verbs can be qiiMJifiod only by adverbs, and that the only seeming exception is in tlie case of a few verbs that contain the meaning of the verb be. (See Lesson XLIV., page 104.) 5. DriiKCTioN.- Use the adjective, and not the adverb, when you can change the verb into the corresponding part of the verb h-. Tims, The fields look grren, miglit be, Tiie field.s are green. He looks cold; 1 K t f He looks coldJif on us. The air felt keen; ] " ' j H(« tdt the insult heenly. 6. Would you say, She \o6k^Jive, or finely ? Would you say, Maiy looks beaufifully, or beautiful t 'i 120 LANQUAQE LESSONS. (3 ) Double Negatives. 7. Rum-. In English, two negatives are equal to an affirmative. Hence, never intro- duce two negatives when you intend to make a negative statement. ILLUSTUATION. I have not done nothing. This mciins I have (lone somethiyirf ; whereas what was meant was, I have not done anything, or, " I have done nothing." Correct these 8ent*ncei: 1, I don't like geography noliow. 2. I did not get no dinner to-day. 3. Can your father not do no work 1 4. He did not say nothing. Parsing Adverbs. 8. Adverbs are parsed by telling tlio d^-gree, if in- fleeted, and by saying, They limit the verb, adjec- tive, or other adverb [naming it]. Exercise 46. Parse the adverbs in the following .sentences: 1. The very fairest flowers usually wither m(.st quickly. 2. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 3. The pupil has answered very well. 4. When are you coming ? 5. We will know our lesson better to-morrow. 6. She loved not wisely, but too well. LI. ON COMPOUND SENTENCES. The rain descended, and the floods came. !, Hero two statements, "The rain descended," " the floods came," are joined into one sentence by the conjunction " and," but neither qualifies the other. ON COMPOUND SENTENCES. 121 ;gatives are never intro- md to make whereas what g, or, " I have I did not get >t do no work 1 ; d^'gi-ee, if in- verb, adjec- tences : — : most quickly. The pupil has g? 5. We will ved uot wisely, 3 came, . deseerided,' [itence by the the other. 2. Pki' iNiTioN.— A sentence consisting of two or more statements joined, so that one does not qualify another, is caH'^d a compound sen- 1 tence. l.xi'i, A NATION'.- Tf wc sliouM s.iy, •' U'f n tlio rain do- soendcd, the IUkkIs ciituf," thetiiat stateniui.t uould (jualify the second ; it wou'dtell when the lloodH came. "When the rain descended, the floods came," is not a. compound, but a compkx sentence, of wliieh wealuill speak hereafter. 3. The difrorenb statements of a compound jjontonce aie called its mimhers. 4. The members of a compound sontoujo are joined by one of the co-ordinate conjunctions. The principal co-ordinate conjunctions are and, hut, or, Ticncc, cither — or, neither— nor, Norn 1.— Sometimes the cnnjnr.ction is onii'ttod ; lint if the sentence contains two princiiial statements, it is slill a compound sentence. Thus — "Man proposes, Cod disposes." Note 2. — Sometimes the connecting word is a relative pro- noun or a relative adverb. Example 1.—" The next battle was that of Zama, w/hW( decided the war." This is equivalent to, " and this decided the war." Example 2.— " I shall be here at ten o'clock, when I shall expect to meet you " = '♦ and then I shall expect to meet you." We shall hereafter see that relative pronouns and relative adverbs generally connect a subordinate clause with a princi- pal member, and so make a complex sentence. But when the relative pronoun or adverb contains the sense of and, the sentence is compound. Select the membeTs of the following compoiind sentences, and name the conneotiTes, if any : 1. John went, but James stayed at home. 2. Give me my wngC3, and .^cnd me- away. 3. He is a diligent boy j hence he succeeds well. 4. Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; consider her ways and be wise. 5. I shall either see vou or write to you. 122 LANGUAGE LESSONS. II II ^^Supply a second member to make oomponud sentences out of the follow ^LTh_e ol-''-- disporse,!. „nfl — . o To err is human ; 4. Either you uever asked me to doit, or '/"^'^^"'^ • 6. Contracted Compound Sentences—It often ia,>pens that different mombe.s of a con.poun.l scui- tence have the same subject, or the same predicate or the same enlargements of eitl.er or of both. Wlien these common elements are omitted iu one of the members, the sentence IS a c../mc^«.^ <--o'"pound sen- ILLUSTliATIOXS. 1. The birds saw the Uttle pool, and the birds came there to drink. Contracted thus : The birds saw the little pool and came there to drink. ' be^'Som^tt3^L^^>!''''''''^'J"«'^""^'""" *« »^«th mem- tmcted '^"' ^^'^ '''""'^' ^"^1 «^^^« s*^»te«ce is con- 2. Either a knave must have done this, or a fool must have done this. Contracted : Either a knave or a fool must have done this. H.re the predicate " must have done this " beina onm mon to both members, is omitted from the first ^ ^' 3. Cold produces ice, and heatdisbulvcs ice. Contracted : Cold produces, and heat dissolves oJJlL°V''°*'/v!''^'".^'*"S common to both members I. oimtted from the tirat member of the contracted fo™nS ' oes out of the follow- To err is human ; ' ; tlierefore . ices.— It often "onipound soii- iino predicate, ' IfOth. Wlicm ill one of tlje oinpound sen- md the birds e little pool, to both niem- ntence is con- ANALYSIS OP COMPOUND SENTENCES. 123 Exercise 47. A. Contract the following co7npound sentences, and state the nature of the contraction : ^ 1 . The jackal happened to be at a short distance, and the jackal was nistantly dispatched on this important business. 2. The rice-plant grows in great abundance in India : the rice-plant grows m great abundance in China. 8. We examined their implements, we examined their clothes, we examined their food. 4. Canada exports wheat ; England imports wheat. 5 The young soldier joined his regiment, and the young soldier was present at the battle. ^ ^ B. Contract the following four sentences into one com- pound sentence of nine words : 1. Froga live on land. 2. Frogs live in water. 3 Seals hve on land. 4. Seals live in water. his, or a fool 1 must have " being com* •St. cs ice. at dissolves members, is )d form. LIT. ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. In analyzing a compound sentence, it is only neces- sary to mention of what statements (two or more) it is made up, to tell what conjunction connects the statements, and then proceed to analyze the separate statements in precisely the same manner in which we analyzed simple sentences. Model of Anu!ys!s= The Second Punic War lasted for sixteen years, and it ended in 202 B. C. This is a compound sentence. It is composed of the two 124 tANGUAGE LESSONS. statements " The Second Punic War lasted for sixteen ve-rs - «' It ended m 202 B.C." These statemen? a^ecoaSd by the co-ordinate conjunction " and." t-onneciea sixTeen^ea,?' 'Thp* •'' l" '^^l^'T'^^ ^"nic War lasted for sixteen yeais. 1 he simple subject is " war." The subipcf ''P'llnic'-^^h^ *•'' adjectives/:' the" and "second "Tud • ^7'°- , The simple predicate IS "lasted." The predicate 13 enlarged by the adverbial phrase "for sixteen years." The second statement is, "It ended in 202 B. C " The "tSd -' Tht °? r'-'^'^'f T^^« «™P^^ predicate is " S 202 B. C." ^' ° '' ' "'^'''^ ^^ the advo.bial phrase Exercise 48. Analyze the following compound senten'ies :^ wealth''"/ Th*''^ "^'^ "'^' '^^l *''« "*y ^«« *^'^ '^^"t'e of its ^ Th» o? ' "''" '■?'=«^«':e^l f'«"i the bite, but tlie dog died 3. The army must gam a victory, or our cause will be luined 4, A 1 the world is a stage, and all the men and women faiil merely players. Prosperity did not unduly elate him ^ noi did misfortune cast him down. ' Change papers, and write letters of critioism. LIIL M A laNG COMPOUND SENTENCES. 1. We Iiavo had considerable practice in breaking up long, loose compound sentences into a series of simple sentences, each containing but one statement. 2. It is very clumsy to combine in one sentence a seiies of statements loosely connected by ands and i/s, huts and ors ; and if the pupil has profited by the exorcises given, he will have learned to avoid so faulty a way of writing and speaking. 3. But, at the same time, it is very important to be able to compose good compound sentences. If u 1 for sixteen years," enta are connected mic "War lasted for ^ar." The subject nd "second" and 1." The predicate steen years." n 202 B. 0." The mp'e predicate is ie advoibial phrase tewies : — • 3 the centre of its , but the dog died, use will be ruined. 1 and women [are] ily date him, nor QNTENCES. i in breaking up series of simple ement. one sentence a y ands and ifs, >rofited by the to avoid so important to uteucoB. U a MAKING COMPOUND SENTENCES. 125 /etter or a composition consists of nothing but little simple sentences, it will be too much broken up. The following will illustrate this :-~ The Lion. S T).mnc!'fh?/''"'?i^'r'^^'\°*' ,2- The lion is foundin Asia. 5. During the day the lion slumbers in his retreat. 4 Niuht setsm. 6. Iheiion then rouses himself from his lair. 6 1^ aish 8 Tp'r *° P'''^/- ^- ^° general, the lion waits in ambush. 8. The lion .sometimes creeps towards his victim. 9. The hon seizes bis victim with his powerful claws. 4. Here are nine simple sentences. The effect is not agreeable when you read the piece aloud. The sentences are too much of the same length. Then the words "the lion " occur too frequently, the writer apparently forgetting that there are such things as pronouns, and that pronouns stand for nouns. 6. Sentences 1 and 2 should be brought together into one contracted compound sentence, thus : 1. The lion is found in Africa and in Asia. 6. Sentences 3, 4, 5, and 6 may be blended into one compound sentence, thus : 2 During the day he slumbers in his retreat ; but, when tofiowl' '"' ''*"""" ^'"""^ ^^' MT,\n6. blgiS 7. Sentence 7 may remain unchanged in form— a short simple sentence between two somewhat long compound sentences. The pronoun he should, how- ever, be substituted for " the lion," thus : 3. In general, he waits in ambush. 8. Sentences 8 and 9 should bo connected into one compound sentence, thus : .J'.^-'"^*V"''-:u^u^''''''''' ^® *"'*^^P« towards his victim, •nd seizes it, with his powerful claws. :Mte«.i'»)r- 126 31 II y ri i: LANGUAGE LESSONS. 9. The composition now reads as follows, and ia certainly much better than it was in its oicimil form : ° The lion is found in Africa and in Asia. Durinrr the dnv !,« s umbers m his retreat ; but, when night ses"n, he Sos himself from his lair. and begins to prowl. In gufera he waits m an.bush. Sometimes, howtver, he creeps towarSa his victim, and seizes it with his powerful cLiwa. ^"""^^'"^^ Exercise 49. Combine the simple sentences in each of the follow- ing paragraphs into compound sentences where it is necessary, so as to produce a continuous narrative. 11 :l red^-breast'" tL* ;!^f ""k'^^" l>ird. The robin is called the The head and upper parts are tinged 4ith gSsSolivL B. The whale is the largest animal known to us The whaTn is sometimes met with from sixty to seventv fo. f ■ i. fc It is an inhabitant of the seas wliwn the AnS * SrcWi WW.'fi\^^'*'"* ""^ *^^. «^^^ ^i*'^"^ «>e Antarctic Circle Whale-hshing is carried on to a. considerable extPntK: by.pi.nk. ih..„u.h„n«„riX. iLtg'arr^ 6K>jl»>F>^t>,v>ia>>i COMPLEX SENTENCES. 127 allows, and is a its c)-igiiuil iring the day he ts in, he rouses In general, he creeps towards va. nse, make any ieces into good e exercises, the of the follow- } where it is narrative. in is called the jp red orange ts are brown, uish olive. 8. The whale 'eet in length. bic Circle. It iarctic Circle, 3 extent from its oil. We This animal •ne is obtained etain the food led away with k was crossed 'o shadowy ui made vivid m the water. He mistook it for another dog with a bone in his mouth. He coveted the second bone He made a snap at 'Jie sliadow. He took fright at his own ugly face. The face seemed to come quite close to him with open IIT,!' .1 '^i' y'^'l'i"?. ''^^^^y- lie lost both bones. He was vttL-if J "^ bis own greediness. He was thus the victim of his own cowardice. D. Alphonso was king of Sicily. Alphonso was king of Naples Alphonso was remarkable for kindness to his subjects Al- phonso was remarkable for condescension to his subjects At one time A phonso was travelling privately through Cam- pania. Alphonso came up to a muleteer. The muleteer's beast hael stuck m the mud. The muleteer could not draw It out with all his strength. The poor man had implored the aid of every passenger in vain. He now sought assistance fromtheking. He did not know who the king was Al! phonso instantly dismounted from his horse Alphonso helped the man. Alphonso soon freed the mule. Alphonso brought it upon safe ground. The muleteer learned that it was the king. The muleteer fell on his knees. The mule- teer askecl his pardon. Alphonso removed his fears. Al- phonso told him that he had given no olTence. The good- r^ osed him '"^ reconciled many to him. Many had formerly E. The polar bear is of a white colour. It is found in the lite in these regions. Its body is long. Its head is flat. Its muzzle IS broad. Its mouth is peculiarly small. The naws coarse hair. From the coarse hair it derives security in walking over the slij.pery ice. The fur is long The fur is woolly, It 13 of fine texture. It is of considerable value LIY. COMPLEX SENTENCES. I shall be ready when you call me. I He will learn if you teach him. 1. The first sentence consists of two statements, of which the second, " when you call me," qualifies the 128 LANGUAGE LESSONS, i -i I m predicate of the other, "I shall be ready." The Kecond sentence ia of two parts, of which one, "if you teach him," is a supposition qualifying the other, or principal statement, " he will learn." Definition.— A sentence consisting of two or more statements joined together, so that one statement is principal and the other subordi- nate, is called a complex sentence, 3. The principal part is called the principal member ; the subordinate part is called a clause, or subordinate sentence. 4. Clauses are generally joined to principal mem- bers : — ) (1.) By subordinate conjunctions, such as that and if. (2.) By the relative pronouns— w^y, which, that, what. (3.) By relative adverbs —when, where, why. 6. There are three kinds of clauses : The noun clause, or noun sentence. The adjective clause, or adjective sentence. The adverbial clause, or adverbial sentence. (1) The Noun Clause. 6. Definition.-A clause which is the subject or the object of the principal member is called a noun clause ; as " Do you remember what 1 saddf ready." The ch one, "if you g the other, or ing of two or , so that one her subordi- ' cipal member ; or subordinate )rincipal mem- such as that ?, which, that, ere, why. sentence. 1 sentence. the subject )er is called uiber what 1 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 129 Exercise 50. A. Point out the noun clauses in the following sen- tences, and tell whether they are subjects or objects : 1 . Tliey soon saw that the ehphant's mouth was underneatu his trunk. 2. No one could tell what had beconie of him. .3. That we gist leather from skins is known to every one. 4, Where Ibmier was liorn is not known. 6. Every one thought the tree would be blown down. B. Sujtply noun clauses in tlie following scntencca : 1. Do you not remember 3. How could she hear 2. Most people know People used to thiuk 5. He asked one of the masons to tell him 7. Definition.— A clause that qualifies a noun is called an adjective clause ; as, " Those birds that live on other animals are called birds of prey." Exercise 51. A. Point out the adjective clauses, and tell what nouns they qualify : 1. I know a story of an eagle, which you will like to hear. 2. The crowd that had gathered round to welcome her now stood back. 3. Franklin, who was a great philospher, was born in Boston. 4. We get silk from a caterpillar which is called the silk-worm. 6. The house where Shakespeare was bom still stands. G. Among the foreigners who repaired co Egypt to buy corn were the brethren of Joseiih, 7. The Scots, who advanced to York, ravaged the country with unspaiing fury. 8. The minutest animal th.at is attntively examined aflfords a thousand wonders. S. Tlie heai t oi' lioijuit (huce, •which was preserved in a silver case, was consigned to the care of Douglas. p ISO LANGUAGE LESSONS. B. Supply adjective clauses. 1. I will sliow you tho hook 2 t^» u-j an.l sheep arc sold to tho tanner — ^ tI ^ °' ^^^"^ butter are obtained from tlT^'o^ ^4' r^L'^^ ^P^ *i'« house . 6. Are these the acorns!^ J ^- ^^** " ^^^ (3.) The Adverbial Clause. D.rrNiTioN A clause that qualifies the verb of the principal member is called an acW bal clause; as, "The daisy shuts her .yZZ the dew begins to fall." ^ ^ Exercise 52. A. Point out the adverbial clauses. 1. We shall sail when the moon rises 2 TT,o pressed between heavy rollers ti 1 In fi • ■ '"^''^''-cane is As th.^y drew near the nest til •"l"".^ ?"""« «"*• 3. ^ve stucly, we shall Jmprovt' 5 Yo'ilwil tt'' '^^"i ^ ^^ you persevere. ''• ^^u will not succeed unless B. Supply adverbial clauses. 1 . We shall be glad to spp vmi o /m well tell you a secrft ~ / v^ZT' , \ P"^^ • 3- I on the ice • 6. Wg shall 'i.ao . ^^""^ ^^® minutes o. we shall learn a great many things . O. ^ Wvite a comple. sentence on each of the following 1. Ants. 2. Music. 8. The buffalo. 4. Columbus. Change papers, and write letters of criticism. 6. Scholars. 6. Geography, IS E^aSSmrsHiK AKALYSIS OP COMPLEX SENTENCES. 131 he hides of oxen rho ro.ik and the 4. That ia the e. fies the verb d an adver- ser eye when LV. ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. In analyzing complex sentences, proceed as follows : L Tell which is the principal member, II. Tell which is the clause. III. Tell what connective joins the clause with the principal member. IV. Then analyze the principal member and the clause, as in the case of simple sentences. he sugar-cane is !e runs out. 3. hed by. 4. ]f t succeed unless me — . 3. I HI five minutes ly things . he following Scholars. Geography, Model of Analysis. Excmiph. When the war closed, the Commander-in-chief retired to his home. This is a complex sentence. The principal member is, " The Commander-in-chief retired to his home." The clause (or subordin; be proposition) is, " When the war closed." The connective is the relative adverb "when." The subject of the principal member is "The Commander-in-chief." The predicate is "retired." The predicate is enlar ou call me. 4. He is proud that he is a soldier, o. Wait till you see. 6. The sea, after it had spent its fury, bfcanie calm. 7, When the door was opened, the people crowded into the hall. 8. And when he next doth ride abroad, may I be there to see. 132 LANGUAGE LESSONS. LVI. EXPANDING AND CONTRACTING SEN- TENCES. r Rule. -A simple sentence is transformed into a compound sentence by changing a word Ts fr/n'^r^'^'^""''^^- A complex sentence Xlll "^1^ '"^° ^ compound sentence by changmg a clause into a principal member. (1) Simple to Complex. At the conclusion of the battle, the commander be- gan to count his loss. What kind of a sentence is this ? A simple sc .tence because it contains but one subject, ' the commander '' and one predicate, " began to count his loss." hJ^^V' T. *^' "^P^«««i°^ " at the conchision of the « be^n." ^ '"^ ™' P^^'^'' ^"'^'^^^^ '^' ^«'»> 2. Now we may, by a little change, make this a complex sentence. Instead of saying « at the conclu- .on of the battle," we may say, u^ken the lattle was concluded and the simple sentence will then be chang- ed into the complex sentence : When the battle w^ concluded, the commander began to count hi. loss. 3. Let us now take another example: Mary being 111, we had to go to the picnic without her. being m-^inSeckf"''"'- ,?'^* change the phrase "Mary without her. ' '*' ^ "^ ""' ^® ^^^ t« «o *<> the picnio EXPANDING AND CONTRACTING SENTENCES. 133 ACTING SEN. 3 transformed inging a word )lex sentence i sentence by >al member. commander be- implestntence, le commander," loss." ichision of the ifviag the verb make this a at the conclu- the battle was hen be chansr- the battle waa it his loss. : Mary being r. Shrase "Mary we have the ;o to the picuig 4. Take a third erample : The discoveries of Living- stone, one of the greatest travellers of modern times, have taught us much about the interior of Africa. This simple sentence may be changed into the complex Bcntence, The discoveries of Livingstone, who was one of the greatest travellers of modern times, have taught us much about the interior of Africa. (2.) Complex to Oompound. 6. We have changed a number of simple sentences into complex sentences. Now we shall transform these complex sentences into compound sentences. When the battle was concluded, the commander began to count his loss. The reason why this is a cot iplex sentence is because one of the statements, " when the battle was concluded," quali- fies the other, which is the principal statement. 6. If we make this qualifying statement a principal one, we shall have a compound sentence, thus : The battle was concluded, and the commander began to couit his loss. 7. The second complex sentence is : As Mary was ill, we had to go to the picnic without her. This is transformed into a compound sentence, as follows • Mary was ill, and heuce we had to go to the picnic without her. 8. The second complex sentence is : The discoveries of Livingstone, who was one of the greatest travellers of modem times, have taught us much about the interior of Africa. This is transformed into a oompound sentence is fullow^ • Livmgstono waa oue .jf the grt^attsr travellers ot modfru times, and his discoveries have taught ud much ab!)ut the interior of Africa. 134 LANGUAGE LESSONS. Rule.— A compound sentence is contracted into a complex one by changing a principal member into a clause. A complex sentence is contracted into a simple one by changing a clause into a phrase. (3.) Compound to Complex. 10. Take the following compound sentence : The nea spent its fury, and then it became calm. This is a compound sentence, liecause it contains two principal statements. What are these etatementa ? Doee either qualify the other ? 11. This sentence may be transformed into a com- plex sentence in the following ways : 1. The sea, when it had spent its fury, became calm. 2. The sea became calm when it had spent its fury. 3. When the sea had spent its fury, it became calm. 4. When it had spent its fury, the sea became calm. Each of these sentences is a complex sentence; beciuise of its two statements, the one qualities the other. What is the principal statement in each ? What is tho qualifying clause iu the first ? the second ? the third ? the fourth ? (4). Complex to Simple, 12. Iu order to conde 9 the complex sentence, " When the sea had spent its fury, it became calm," into a simple sentence, we must change the clause, " when the sea had spent its fury," into a phrase : namely, " the sea having spent its fury." We now have the following forms of the simple sentence : — . zii^ =c=, ii:iviiig apcuu iis lury, Dccame calm. 2. The sea became calm, having spent its fury. 3. Having spent ita fury, the sea became calm. is contracted g a principal ilex sentence by changing tence : Tlie sea EXPANDING AND CONTRACTING SENTENCES. 133 Exercise 54, A. Expand the following simple sentences into complex sentences : — 1. Quarrelsome persons are disagreeable. 2. The ancients believed tlie earth to bo the centre of the universe. 3. With patience ho might have succeeded. 4. Tho utility of the telegraph is evident to all. 5. The manner of his escape ia a profound mystery. it contains two atements ? Does ted into a com- )ecame calm, at its fury, came calm, icame calm. ;ence; because of other. What is the qualifying the fourth? ilex sentence, jecame calm," ge the clause, xto a phrase ' y" We now sntence :— calm. fury. ;alia. Expand the following complex sentences into comr- ponnd : — 1. As the wind was fair, the vessel put to sea. 2. The Scots, who advanced to York, ravaged the country with un- sparing fury. 3. The heart of Robert Bruce, which was E reserved in a silver case, was consigned to the care of 'ouglas. 4. Beyond the Red Kiver are vast prairies, over which roam great herds of buffalo. a Contract the following compound sent- aces into com- plex sentences, and then, if possible, into simple sentences: 1. The lighfinfantry joined the main body, and the enemy retreated precii)itately into the town. 'J. He was a worthless man, and he could not command the i spect of his neighbours. 3. E;jypt is a wonderfully fertile country, and it is annually overllowed by the River Nile. 4. The earth is round, and no one doubts it. 5. The house v as ver' .arge, and coiisequently there was little comfort in it. D. X Contract the ibllowing complex sentences into simple sentences .•— 1. Socrates proved that virtue is its own reward. 2. When morning began to dawn, our ship struck on a sunken reef, near the rock-bound coast. 3. It may be easily shown that the earth is round [the rotundity of]. 4. It is generally believed that the soul is immortal. 5. The rain has been falling ever since the sun rose. 6". A tree is known by the fruit that it bears. 7. As Egypt is annually overflowed by the Nile, it is a very rich country. 8. The man who is virtu- ous will be happy. 136 LANQUAaB LESSONS. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN COMPOSI- TION. A. —Letter-writing. Superscriptions and Subscriptions. ^r?^!j°"Ti"^ ri'^^TP*'*'"^' subscriptions, etc.. of letters are designed to show what is now regai led as the most an proved arrangement and style of these carts ■ an^ f^«. ^ serve as models, accordh.g t^o ciVcumstanS ' "^ ^^'^ "^'^ ^if'^T''} *^|.™?8*> common forms of address are Sir Dear fe,-!^^M'";^''''^^''P'^<=*^^''^^'*'«i''«' Dear Sirs, Gentlemen Ladies. Madam, Dear Madam, etc.; Dear Susan MvS Friend. My dear Mr. Smith, My de^r Mrs. sSh,Y/other Brother etc., according to the relations of respect ntimacv or affection existing between the parties. Note that the form The subscription may be Yours, Yours truly. Most trulv yours, Very truly yours, Yours respectfully. Respectfullv Sincerely yours. Your friend, Your obedient Servant etc • Yours affectionately. Your affectionate frS, yZi'ov L' brother, sister, etc., followed by the name of the writer Thf closing wiU vary with the varying relations of thlparties (1.) Heading or date. (2.) Address.* Toronto, Out., Feb. S, ms. Mr. James F. Hammond, 4^1 Broadway, N.7, (3.) Introduction. Dear Sir,— (4.) Body* In reply to your letter of the 10th hist. , I beg leave to say that I most cheerfully accede to your very reasonable request, etc. (5.) Superscription* Yours respectfully, Henry H. Adains. .nlTS®*'!^'"^^^ inside the lettter should be identical with the miperscription upon the envelope, and may be put e?ther IN COMPOSI. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 137 Messrs. Nichols t. 25, 1873. '.troduce to you ^ohnson. Any be gratefully truly, B. Grover. >f introduction. g your experi- XT amusements observations. orpublio gar- —your earliest impressions — -the number — • '■ social inter- MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 139 »»t«T"*® the results of the last examination-whether vou B.— NARRATIVBa. A profitable exercise in composition is to take a series of detached simple sentences and put them together so as to make a continuous narrative, usin*^ sentences of the various sorts, simple, compound, and complex. ExAMPU!.— "/n union is strength.** broke each arrow singly. He then turned towards hfssor He said to them "Mark the effect of union. United like ^ like i^e^d? """^ ^' ''''''''^^'- ^'''''^'^' y°« will be broken One way of combining :-— .^.u^^l'^ "^^A """^y^t P'''''* °f ^^a*h °a"ed his sons to his bed- side, and ordered them to break a bundle of arrows Th« young men. though strong, being unable to do so L toJk sindv" Thl^n^'f *"■"' "."^'^^j*' r^ ^'^^ily broke each arrow "T\ .u ®^ turning towards his sons, he said to them Mark the eftect of union. United like a bundle youViU be invmcible ; divided, yo. will be broken like reeds." Another mode of combining : his^bediirr;?^'"! *"'i^lP°^°**'/ ^«**^' «a"«dhi8 sons to his bedside, and ordered them to break a bundle of arrows fiorfn'l*-;'^ were they were unable to break the bundle j so he took It m his turn, and, having untied it, easilv broke t'hom ^"'n ■f'f^- ^""-"'"S *°^^^^8 his son;,Te IS to wnn' K L" '^' yo"^. «ann«* be overpowered ; divided, you Will be broken as easily as reeds." fni!f'!ff~^°*'^*' P"PJJ' .y'"^'* "Pon exactly the same own way ^''^'^^''*°' "^ """^^ ^^^ ^ ''°'"^^'^® ^ ^^^ uo LANGUAGE LESS0N8. »l' Exercise 56. Combine in the same way the following paragraph: Tea. Tea is the dried leaf of a shrub. This shrub grows chiefly m China. It is an evergreen. It grows to the height of from four to SIX feet. It bears pretty, white flowers. The flowers resemble wild roses. In China there are many tea farms. These are generally of small extent. They are situated in the upper valleys. They are situated on the sloping sides of the hills. In these places the aoil is light. It is rich. It IS well dr .Ined. The plants are raised from seed. They are generally allowed to remain three years in the ground. A crop of leaves is then taken from them. The leaves are carefully picked by the hand. ' C— Writing from Heads. A more advanced exercise in writing is to give the pupil merely the heads of a composition, and then re- quire him to fill it out. The Cow. ffeads.— The most useM of horned animals ; its flesh ; articles made of its skin ; uses of its horns ; the hair : the bones ; importance of milk ; the calf ; use of its skin. Expanded.— 01 all horned animals the cow is the most use- ful. Its flesh is one of the most necessary articles of food to man ; and the purposes to which the various parts of its body are applied i.re almost innumerable. Without its skin we could scarcely obtain covering for our feet, the boots and shoes that we wear being almost wholly made from the skin, which is, besides, manufactured into an endless variety of necessary commodities. Mixed with lime, its hair serves to make mortar ; its horns are converted into combs, knife- handles, boxes, drinking-vessels, spoons, and other useful articles : and its bones are equally serviceable for domestic and ornamental purposes. The milk of the cow is one of the most valuable of animal products, being in every-day use as a wholesome and nourishing arti -le of diet ; and it is froni milk that butter and cheese are made. The young of the cow is called a calf ,• its skin is made into fine boots and shoes, parchment, and material for binding books. HISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. Ul Exercise 57. wing paragraph: | Do the same with the following paragraphs ;- ihrub grows chiefly the height of from >wers. The flowers many tea farms. 3y are situated in he sloping sides of ht. It is rich. It from seed. They ee years in the from them. The \g is to give the on, and then re- Description of Printing. limala ; its flesh ; IS ; the hair ; the if its skin. w is the most use- articles of food to 3 parts of its body hout its skin we !t, the boots and de from the skin, jndless variety of its hair serves to to combs, knife- and other useful able for domestic cow is one of the very-day use as a id it is from milk ung of the cow is 3oots and &hoes, i '^wTu ?* ^*^P '" ^^^ process-the setting up of thetvnes -what the types are-how they are arranged in tiieS!! f^ hTnH !*'' '"* "P letter by letter-the compositor holds^ his hand a composing-stick what is this ?)-the lines are Zd« into pages-the page is fixed in an iron fmme ca led a chSe- process of mkmg-the roUer-tho paper put over the m^e the pressure stamping the charactersinumber of copies?f1 The Cotton Plant. ffpttrfs.— Peculiar to warm climates-several species-all Ke^'Ie'^rirfr' y'"°^ -^d purple-when the flCers faU ott the seed-pots soon come to maturity— when rine thpv spring open-the seeds are then seen en/eloped?n cotton!! the cotton IS picked and gathered into ba|s-next snread out and dned-then separated from the seeds-where the cot ton plant IS best cultiy.^ed-value of the cott^ crop every year-countries to which it is exported-for what it ^ uledf Sir Walter Raleigh. n,2"*i'i~wf an Englishman-lived during the reign of Queen Ehzabeth-his accomplishments and his talents as a trvif";^r'?'*t-°^ his readiness and tact-the queS, ^nd the velvet cloak-his promotions and -ewards-his voyage to America-the colony of Virginia-a failure-the impoffion of tobacco and potatoes into England-Ealeigh arrested on 2 false charge of treason-imprisonment in the Tower-Ss exe* cution— what you think of Raleigh. D. — QrOTATIONS. In the course of a composition, it will often be ne- cessary to represent a person as actually speaking. This is called direct speech. Indirect speech gives the words as reported by another. The words which the speaker is represented as using are to be encJoBPd in quotation-marka. Such expres- U2 LANGUAGE LESSONS. sions as said I, replied he, etc., are not to be put in quotation-marks, but are to be set oflf from the spoken words by commas. ExAiiPLB.— " I have lived," said the old man, " a great many years in poverty." Thrown into the in- direct form, this would read as follows : — " The old man said that he had lived a great many years in poverty." In changing from the direot to the indirect form of speech, thw first per- son becomes the third; the present tense, past; and the word this is changed to thaXi Exercise 58. Insert quotation-marks and coawjaas in the follow- ing paragraph where necessary : — A traveller drenched with rain and henumbed with coW arrived at a country inn which he found so full of people that he could not get near the fire. Addressing himself to the landlord he called out take a feed of oysters to my horse. To your horse exclaimed the host your horse will never eat them. Do as I ask you returned the traveller. All the people rushed immediately to the stable to see a horse eat oysters ; and the traveller being thus left alone seats himself comfortably by the fire and warms himself at his ease. When the landlord re- turned he said to the traveller I would have wagered my head that your horse would not eat oysters. Never mind replied the other put them on the table and I will eat thorn myself when I am thoroughly dried. Change the following passages from the direct to the indirect mode of speech : — 1, " 1 have behaved very ill," said I within myself ; " but I have only just set out on my travels, and shall learn better manners as I get along." 2, Says Coleridge, " I expect neither profit nor general fame by my writings. " 8. •' If it feeds nothing else." said Shylock. " it will feed my revenge." 4. Burke says. •' I never knew « man who was bad fit for •ervio* that is good." )t to be put in rom the spoken le old man, " a ivn into the in- lat many years in speech, the first pei- ad the word tuis is in the follow- mbed with coW ill of people that ? himself to the ;o my horse. To [ never eat them, he people rushed oysters ; and the mfortably by the the landlord re- vagered my head ^er mind replied eat thorn myself the direct to n myself ; *' but hall learn better lor general fame :, " it will feed > was bad fit for MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 143 E.— Changing Poetry to Prose. Ohangincr poetry into the order of prose is an ex- ceedingly interesting and instructive exercise. As an example, six stanzas of Mrs. Hemans' " Landing of the Pilgrims " are here given, together with a specimen ol' transposition. The Landing of the Pilgrims, The breaking waves dashed high On a stern and rcck-bound coast, And the woods a^'ainst a stormy sky Their giant branches toss'd ; And the heavy night hung dark, The hills and waters o'er, When a band of exiles moor'd their bark On the wild New England shore. Not as the conqueror comes, , They, the true-hearted, came ; Not with the roll of the stirring drums, And the trumpet that sings of fame ; Not as the fljn'ng come, In sileace and in fear : — They shook the depths of the desert gloom With their hymns of lofty cheer, What sought they thus afar ? Bright jewels of the mine ? The wealth of seas, the spoils of war ? They sought a faith's pure shrme 1 Ay, call it holy ground, The soil where first they trod ; They have left unstained what there they found—- Freedom to worship God. Transposed. The breaking waves were dashing on a stem, rock- bound coast, while the woods tossed their giant brariches against a stormy sky, and the night lowered heavy and dark over the Hills and waters. It was amid such scenes that a band o-^ exUes moored their bark on the wild shore of New England. U4 LANaUAOE LESSONS. These true-hearted men did not come as does the conqueror ; for neither the roll of drums nor the blare of trumpets heralded their advent. On the other hand, they did not come in fear and silence as might fugitives from their native country. With their hymns of lofty cheer they made the depths of the desert gloom resound. What were the Pilgrims seeking in this far-off land T Were they in search of precious atones, or the spoils to be gained by sea or land ? No ; their object was to enjoy religious liberty. This boon they found in their new home, and we may woU aaU the soil whore they fiist trod, sacred gi , uud. the S( press sousIj 8 the conqueror ; utniiets heralded ot come in fear native country, le depths of the iflf land T Were to be gained by eligious liberty. id we may woU SUPPLEMENT. I. RECAPITULATION OF INFLECTIONS. 1. Nouns. A noun is inflected to mark the plural number and the possessive case. Singular. Plural. Nommative bey boys. ^«?«^«P^« boy'8 boys'. Objective boy boys. Nominative lady ladies. J°?«^«?i^« lady's ladies'. Objective lady ladies. Nominative man men Possessive man's ."."] .men's Objective man men. ' 2. Pronouns. Some of the personal pronouns are changed to ex- press person, number, gender and case. (See p. 85.) Singular. Plural Nominative Possessive my. Objective me.. .we. .our. ,U3. SecoTid person. —Nominative. Singular and Plural. • you. Possessive vonr Objective you. Singular. Plural. a%»r(iPemn.— Nominative he, she, it they. Possessive his, her, its.,, .their. Objective him, her, it..... them. Note.— It will be seen that only pronouns of the third ner- ■on singular have special forms for the different genders. 146 . I ; SUPPLEMENT. The relative pronoun " who " is changed in form to express case. (See pp. 60, 61.) XT . X. Singular and Plural Nominative i Posaessive u okj"*"" .•■•::;.v.::.:::;:::.:.:.v.:::::::::::.-.Sr 3. Verbs. A verb is changed in form to express mood and tense, and sometimes the person and number of its EHbject (See pp. 71-74.) \ Prea. Teim. I You We \ walk. You They J Zrd Sing., he walks. Indicative Mood. Past Tense. I You FtUure Tenst. Ho We You They J ■walked. Prat. Perfect Tense. I You We You They . SrdSing,, he haa walked. I You He We You They J shall or will walk. Past Perfect Tense. Future Perfect Tense I 1 I V „ J X°" ' You have walked. He v j „ , He We had walked. :^« You You THey J They shall or will have walked. Potential Mood. Pres. Tense. I Yon He We You They, Past Tense, Pres. Per. Tense. T ^ T may, You ^f^' You ] ""^V' can, orHe [could, jj / can, or must We n°"\'\'«^Wfi ^■'""s* Past Per. Tense. I You He might, could, w'd, or should must we ' "VV^ Wfi ("'""" Wp ^ -i,. walk Vnii siiouid -yr have ,V I °"*^ hey J walked ged in form to dar and Plural who. fvhoae. whom. Q possessive of BECAPITULATI05 OF INFLECTIONS. Subjunctive Mood. 147 Present Tense. Ifl -I If yon Tfhe If we \ If you If they J walk. Present Perfect Tense. Ifl If you If he If we If you If they j have walked. ss mood and imber of its 'utwre Tense. shall or will walk. Perfect Tense. shall or ■will have walked. 8t Per. Tense. ' might, could, w'd, or should have heyj walked ou 6 ou Imperative Mood. .«^"?er.^r' '^'"'- ''"'* """>' '^«> • P-O" of th. Infinitives. w^:r ''''^'' ""^ ^^''- ^'•^^"^ ^-/-' Tense, To have Participles. Present, Walking. Past, Weiked. Per/ec^. Having walked. 4. Adjectives. An adjective is changed in form to express different degrees of the same quality. (See pp. 36, 37.) Positive. Sharp, Manly, Beautiful, Beautiful, Comparative. Superlative' Sharper, Sharpest. More leantiful. Most beautiful Less beautiful, Least beautiful. 148 I '5 5 SUPPLEMENT. Jonie adjectiv es are compared irregularly ; as l Pogilive, Comparative, Superlative Good, Better, Best. Well, Better, Best. \wn, Worae, Worst, Bad. Worse, Worst Little, Less, Least. Many, More, Most. Much, More, Moat. Far, forth. Farther, further, Farthest, furthest. Near, Nearer, Nearest or next. Late, Later (latter). Latest or last. OIJ, Older or elder, Oldest or eldest. Hind, Hinder, Hindmost. Up, Upper, Upmost. Out, Utter or outer. Utmost. Fore, Former, Foremost or first. Adverbs are compared in the same manner as adjec- tives. (See p. 42.) lift II. THE PRINCIPAL RULES OP SYNTAX. Rule 1. — The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. Rule 2. — A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. Rule 3. — A noun used in explanation of another noun, meaning the same thing, is in the same case by apposition, as : Howard, the philanthropist, was loved by all. Rule 4. — A noun in the predicate, after an intran- sitive verb, and meaning the same thing as the subject, is in the same case. THE PRINCIPAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 149 •ly; ast \erlaliv0. est, furthest, at or next. ; or last. ; or eldest, aost. St. jt. lOst or first. iner as adjeo- lYNTAX. > must be in bs subject in I of another same case by 3t, was loved Rule 5. — A noun used independently, by direct ad- dress, is in the nominative case. Rule 6. — The object of a transitive verb or a prepo- sition is in the objective case. Rule 7. — A noun denoting possession, used to limit another noun, is in the possessive case. EuLS 8. — A pronoun must agree in nu n\ r, ger. der, and person with the noun or pronoun vliich ;i» represents. Rule 9. — An adjective limits or describes a noun. Rule 10. — An adverb limits a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Rule 11. — A preposition joins a noun or a pronoun to some other word, and shows the relation which one thing bears to another. Rule 12. — A conjunction connects words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Note.— Pronouns are subject to the same rules as nouns. Participles are used as adjectives or nouns, and are subject to the same rules. luterjections have no grAiumaticai relation to other wui\U 3r an intran- the aubjuct. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. if • II I V 'i Present, A\ ide, Am, Arise, Awake, Bear (to bring forth Bear (to carry), Beat, Begin, - Bend, Bereave, Beseech, Bid, Bind, ITn; ' Bite, Bleed, Blow, Break, Breed, Bring, BuilcJ, Re-, Burn, Burst, Buy, Cast, Catch, Chide, Choose, Cleave (to adhere), Cleave (to split), Cling, Clothe, Come, Be; Cost, Creep, Crow, Cut, Dare (to venture), Dare (to challenge)^ k Deal, Dift Past, Ahode, Was, Arose, Awoke, or awaked, \ Bore, hare. Bore, hare. Beat, Began, Bent, Bereft, Besought, Bid, bade, B'^und, Bit, Bled, Blew, Broke (hraJce), Bred, Brouglit Built, Burnt, or burned. Burst, Bought, Cast, Caught, Chid, Chose, Cleaved, clave, Cleft, clave, Clung, Clothed, Came, Cost, Crept, Crew, Cut, Durst, Dared, Dealt, Dug, Pas' Participle, Abode. Been. Arisen. Awaked. Born. Borne. Beaten. Begun. Bent. Bereaved, o; bereft. Besought. Biilden. Bound. Bitten, bit. Bled. Blown. * Broken. Bred. Brouglxt, Built. Burnt. Burst. Bought. Cast. Caught. Chifiden. Chosen. Cleaved. Cleft, cloven. Clung. Clad, clothed. Come, Cost. Crept. Crowed. Cut. Dared. Dared. Dealt. Dug. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 161 Present. t Do, Un-t Draw, Dream, RBS. Drink, Drive, Dwell, 75! Participle, Eat, le Fall, e-. ivt Feed, ri Feel, .ed. Fiylit, Find, Flee, Q. Fliug, :. Fly, Forbear, i^ed. 01 bereft. Forget, "lit. Forsake, ■3""* n. Freeze, 1. Get, Be; For-, . bit. Gild, , VAU. Gird, Be-, En-, m Give, For-, I, Go, Grave, JS"/**, It. Grind, 1 Grow, 1 Hang,* 1 Have, t. Hear, Hep.vo^ y Hew, Hide, lit Hit, fl Hold, Be, With- Lit :loven. Hurt, Keep, lothed. 1 Kneel, Knit. 1 Know, 1 Lay, 1 Lead, Mis; Leave, 1 Lend, 1 Let, 1 Lie (to recline). Past. Did, Drew, Dreamt, or dreamed Drank, Drove, Dwelt, Ate, Fell, Fed, Felt, Fought, Found, Fled, Flung, Fluw, Foibore, Forgot, Forsook, Froze, Got, Gilt, or gilded. Girt, or girded, Gave, Went, Graved, Ground, Grew, Hung, l''„ard, Heaved, or hove, Hewed, Hid, Hit, Held, Hurt, Kept, Knelt, or kneeled, Knit, Knew. Laid, Led, Left, Lent, Let, Lay, Past Participle, Done. Drawn. Dreamt, or dreamed. Drunk. Driven. Dwelt. Eaten. Fallen. Fed. Felt. Fought. Found. Fled. Flung. Flown. Forborne. Forgotten, forgot. Forsaken. Frozen. Got (gotten). Gilt, or gilded. Girt, or girded. Given. Gone. Graven. Ground. Grown. Hung. Had. Heard. Heaved. Hewn. Hidden. Hit. Held, huldcn. Hurt. Kept. Knelt, or kneelci. Knit. Known. Laid. Led. Left. Lent. Let. Lain. ' Hang, toUke away life by hanging', is regular. 152 Present, Light, Load, Lose, Mako, Mean, Meet, Mow, Pay, Be- Pen (to inclose), Put, Quit, Head, Rend, Rid, Ride, Ring, Rise, A; Eive, Run, Saw, J Say, See, Seek, Seethe, Sell, Send, Set, Be-, Shake, Shave, Shear, Shed, Shine, Shoe, Shoot, Show, Shred, Shrink, Shut, Sing, Sink, Sit, Slay. Sleep, Slide, Sling, SliaL Slit, Smite, SUPPLEMENT • V Past. Past ParticipU. Lighted or lit. Lighted, or lit. Loaded, Laden, or loaded. Lost, Lost. Made, Made. Meant, Meant. Met, Met. Mowed, Mown. Paid, Paid. Pent, or penned. Pent, or penned. Put, Put. Quit, or quitted, Quit, or quilted. Read, Read. Rent, Rent. Rid, Rid. Rode, IJiddcn. Rang, Rung. Rose, Risen. Rived, Riven. Ran, Run. Sawed, Sawn. Said, Said. Saw, Seen. Sought, Sought. Seethed, Seethed, or sodden. Sold, Sold. Sent, Sent. Set, Set. Shook, Shaken. Shaved, Shaven. Sheared, Shorn. Shed, Shed. Shone, Shone. Shod, Shod. Shot, Shot. Showed, Showed, or shown. Shred, Shred. Shrank, Shrunk. Shut, Shut. Sang, Snng. Sf-'k, Sunk. Sat, Sat. Slew, Slain. Slept, Slid, Slept. Slid. Slung, slang, Slung. Slunk, Slunk. Slit, Slit. Smote, Smitten. 1 '1 1 1 'I f V V v\ \\ w w w V i LIST OF IRREGULAR VERB8. 153 ited, or lit. Prcsnrt^. en, or loaded. Sow (to scatter). ;. ! Speak, Be-, e. Speod, nt. Spend, MiS; Spin, 'n. Spit, Split, , or penned. Spread, Be-, Spnii^ or quitU'd. Stand, With; etc., X Steal, Stick, StiMor, on. Stri ie. rt^ Strike, n. String, n. Strive, Strow, or strew, Be 1. Swear, Sweat, Sweep, ht. Swell, led, or sodden. Sivim, Swing, Take, Br-, etc.. Teach, Mli-, Re- 3n. Tear, ;n. Tell, 1. Think, ??2-, Tlirive, B. Tlirow, 1 Til rust, 1 Tread, 3d, o;- shown. 1 Was, 1 Wear, ik. I Weave, 1 Weep, 1 Wet, 1 Whet, 1 Win, 1 Wind, 1 Work, 1 Wring, 1 Write, Past. Sowed, Spoke, srinTce, Sped, Spent, Spun, span, Spat, Split, Spread, SplHIlg Stood, Stole, Stuck, Stung, Strode, Struck, Strung, Strove, Past Participle, Sown. Spoken. Sped. Spent. Spun. Spit. Si)lit, Spread. Sprung. Stood. Stolen. Stuck. Stung. StriddtMi. Struck, stricken. Strung. Striven. : Strowed, or strewed, 'Ztrown,' strewn. Swore, sware, Sweat, or sweatesi, Swept, Swelled, Swam, Swung, Took, Taught, Tore, Told, Thought, Throve, Threw, Tlirust, Trod, Waxed, Wore, Wove, Wept, Wet, or wetted. Whet, or whetted. Won, Wound, Sworn. Sweat, or sweated. Swept. Swollen, or swoln. Swum. Swung. Taken. Taught. Torn. Told. Thought. Tliiiven. Thrown Thrust. Trodden. Waxen. Worn. Woven. Wept. Wet, or wetted. Whet, or whetted. Won. Wound. """""» wound. Wrought, or worked. Wrought, or worked. W''""g. Wrun;?. Wrote, Wfitt MILLER & GO'S EDUCATIONAL SERIES. ■ ■■! I (NEW^ PUBLICATIONS.) (OANADZAir OOPTBIOKT SDITZOira) iS^^ot^^ «"»^» B«ini^« cSueg." «d s23l' cSSr 5SlS5ff o•—*——♦— SWnrrOirB LANGUAOX IiSBSOirS-Ad»B««d to Junior >*■•«•«••••••••«• •••••••I l> ■<■»•»»»—— ••• MOBM KMlor. Monul Bohool. Xoronto.™!!lZ!!!L!!±: 1 00 «i.5^i? npTH'SSTATICS-WitU Appendix, by Thoi. ZIrkkBd. MJl.. BeiMM* MMt«r, Konoai iMx^Hnm^ .J!!!Z HiMBLnr tnaTiTB ■toboitatios.^^.. .,^.,.. ^2?t^*^' "-^ «r»*b«m»tio«I Xttlor. OiilT«^ColiH»[ !•••••••••••• • •••«•«•••••••*••«•••••.•■< !••••«•••«■•«••*••«« HAMBLTH 81CrrH;s QEOIIliTRT-B«hool Kditlon, with ■mniaatiun Pap«n, from tbo Toronto wd MmUI CniTCiM. tiMk ftod Mormal iJohooL I'Monto ^^ * w«*TMm« vu & »i»—»...~. ■«—.—..- 47lBtn, 80 W M •0 M EAUBLIN aMnVS aaOMSTBl^BooiB t sad I, vttk ■T M iUnwti ou Papm «. ,. ."clotty ■t^l2?^^''?f ABIIHMETIO-By Thac Klrktanl. 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