FORCE AND ENERGY 
 
FRIXTKn BY 
 
 SrOTTUWOODB AND CO. KKW*TI1KET SgUARI 
 
 UiNOOK 
 
FOECE AND ENEEGY 
 
 A THEORY OF DYNAMICS 
 
 BY 
 
 GKANT ALLEN 
 
 LONDON 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO 
 
 AND NEW YORK: 15 EAST 16'» STREET 
 1888 
 
 .m ri^hlt rtstrifl 
 
^ib'bG^ 
 
rOSTEIilS 
 INVENTIONIS FOIiTASSE PIGNVS 
 
APOLOGY. 
 
 It is with the profoundest dilTulenre that I set forth 
 this ]K)()k. ;My best excuse for its pubhcatioii now may 
 j)ro])ably ])e foiuul in the circumstances under which 
 I have been induced at last to rush into print witli it. 
 The work has hiin by me for nearly double the time 
 prescribed in the familiar Iloratian maxim. Some 
 fourteen years a<ro, when I was head of a Government 
 college in Jamaica, the perusal of certain dynamical 
 treatises of Clerk ^Nfax well's, Tait's, Balfour Stewart's, 
 and Ilelmholtz's, surrgested to my mind sundry pro- 
 found difficulties in the current conception of the 
 nature of Energy. Puzzling out these difficulties 
 conscientiously with myself, as best I might, I began 
 at length to see, or think I saw, a way out of them 
 by means of a new theory of my own. Tliis theory, 
 which, right or wrong, gradually grew clear to my 
 mental vision, I embodied in a little twenty-page 
 pamphlet bearing the same title as the present work, 
 and printed privately at Oxford in 187') for distribu- 
 
viii APOLOGY 
 
 tioii to a few j)hy.sical specialists. Not many of tlie 
 specialists, I fear, looked at my lucubrations : those 
 who did returned me one or other of two ai)parently 
 contradictory criticisms. Some of them said my theory 
 was only just what was already known and universally 
 acknowledged. Others of them said it was diame- 
 trically oi)posed to what was already known, and be- 
 trayed an elementary ignorance of the entire matter. 
 To the ignorance thus imputed I will candidly plead 
 guilty, and will proceed to explain wliy, in spite of it, 
 I have ventured after so long a lapse of time to ob- 
 trude my speculations upon a learned audience. 
 
 In 1877 I returned once more dcfmitcly to the 
 fiu])ject, in which my interest had never in any way 
 declined, and, mainly for the sake of clarifying and 
 systematising my own conceptions, worked out my 
 nebulous ideas in full in the present treatise. But 
 finding from the reception accorded to my tentative 
 little pamphlet that physicists were not likely (then, 
 if ever) to admit my contention, and convinced that 
 they knew a great deal more about the matter at 
 stake than I did, I put the comi)leted manuscript 
 severely away in my desk, where it has remained ever 
 since in peace and quiet among a great many more 
 rejected juvenile performances. There it might have 
 remained to all time but for an accidental coincidence 
 which ha})peued a few years back. 
 
APOLOGY is 
 
 Tlie coincidence came about in this ^vay. My 
 friend Edward Clodd submitted to me in the summer 
 of 1885 the first rough sketch of his recent work ' The 
 Story of Creation.' In discussing with him the out- 
 line of that book, and especially certain points con- 
 nected with his conception of Force as there embodied, 
 I found he had lighted upon some of the self-same 
 fundamental difliculties which had originally led me 
 to the views set forth in this little volume. In the 
 course of our conversations on these moot questions 
 I ventured very gently to hint at my own heresies, 
 while disclaiming any desire to poison his mind with 
 them : indeed, so anxious was I not to mislead my 
 friend in this matter that itwMswith great reluctance 
 I at last consented to lend him the old and crumpled 
 manuscript of my early essay. On reading it over, he 
 told me it had entirely dissipated his difliculties, and 
 had set the whole question for him in a new light. 
 Furthermore, to my unfeigned dismay and distress, 
 he announced that he intended to ein])ody the theory 
 in outline in the dynamical portion of his forthcoming 
 work. Much alarmed, I endeavoured to dissuade him 
 from so rash a course, seeing that like myself he was 
 no physicist, and that the doctrine was new, strange, 
 and heterodox : but so great was his confidence in the 
 truth of the theory that my protests fell flat upon un- 
 willing ears. lie incorporated the heretical concept ion 
 
X APOLOGY 
 
 ill 'Tlie Story of Croat ion,' and, as I feared be* forcliaiid, 
 suffered not a little for his generous rashness at the 
 liands of the critics. 
 
 A monomaniac who has found one other j)erson 
 to share his monomania miglit perhaps liave been ex- 
 cused for jumping to the conclusion that the rest of 
 the world would probably give him a fair hearing. Hut 
 I w^as far too afraid of mathematical opinion to venture 
 even so upon publishing my ])r()bably crude and in- 
 correct ideas. I still refrained from any attempt to 
 print my book, till I saw that the attacks upon Mr. 
 Clodd's position almost made it a point of honour for 
 me to lay the facts in their integrity before tlie judg- 
 ment of the scientific world. It was not right my 
 fri(Mid should suffer for my own transgression. Cri- 
 ticism was levelled at the necessarily brief and bald 
 abstract he had given of what I may venture to call 
 our joint opinion : I thought it only projjcr, in justice 
 to him, that the theory as a whole should be put in 
 evidence for the jury of experts to examine and 
 decide upon. I don't for a numient suppose they will 
 take the trouble to look into it at all : but at anv 
 rate 1 have now discharmul mv dutv — I'lhevavi. (tnunam 
 mcam. — the evidence is here, and who will mav C(Mi- 
 sider it. 
 
 Nobody could be more sensible than T nm how 
 little likely it is lh;it n mere amateur should hit upon 
 
APOLOGY xi 
 
 a true penoralisation in science missed by tlic recog- 
 nised leaders of j)liysical thou<rlit. For tliis reason, I 
 M'ould never have publislied my treatise at all (pro- 
 foundly as I myself believe in it) had it not been for 
 ^fr. Clodd's intervention, with its remoter consequences. 
 As it is, however, I may plead in extenuation this 
 further excuse. ThethouLdits one entertains, says the 
 greatest of living English thinkers, are as children born 
 to one which one may not willinjrlv let die. There 
 can be no harm, therefore, in putting them forth to 
 the world, in a tentative wav, with all due niodestv, 
 provided always it is clearly understood that they are 
 ])ut forth as suggestions alone, for wiser heads to ac- 
 cept or reject at leisure. If ])erchance it shoidd 
 lia])pen that one has iiuleed hit almost by accident 
 upon a true and luminous ])rinci])le, one owes it to 
 humanity to set that })rinci})le forward at once, in 
 s|)ite of the natural fear of criticism and ridicule. 
 The would-be discoverer is ])robably wrong: but 
 when by any stroke of luck he chances to be right, it 
 is for the good of the world that he should })ul)lish 
 his discovery. In this light, therefore, I venture to 
 beg the professional critic to examine my work. It 
 pretends to be no more than a suggestion, an (ijxnuin^ 
 anattem[)tat a theory: I ask for it nothing belter 
 than honest consideration : for if tliis counsel or (his 
 work be of men, it will come to nouglit : and 1 have 
 
xii ArOLOGV 
 
 no desire to aid in the promulgation or difl'usion of 
 error. 
 
 For the same reason, I will not apologise for the 
 seemingly dogmatic mould in which the treatise itself 
 is cast. IJeing nothing more than an endeavour 
 to express in words the fundamental dynamical con- 
 stitution of the universe, as it envisages itself to a 
 particular inquirer, I have thought it best to use the 
 purely impersonal form, and to state each proposition 
 as simple fact, leaving the reader to bear in mind for 
 himself throughout, that the whole is suggestion or 
 conception merely. 
 
 At the same time, I sincerely trust scientific 
 readers (if I am fortunate enough to attract any) will 
 approach the theory with an unbiassed mind, and 
 instead of rejecting it offhand at the first glance, be- 
 cause its conceptions do not agree with those to which 
 they are already accustomed, will do me the justice 
 to read it through before deciding, and to place 
 themselves as far as possible in sympathy with my 
 point of view. I grant at once that the idea of Energy 
 they will here find embodied is not at all the idea 
 liithcrto framed by men of science. It is a new idea ; 
 and that is exactly why I have written this little 
 treatise. If I am right (as I jnobably am not) our 
 concepts of Energy will have to undergo a consider- 
 able revision. That being just the question at issue 
 
APOLOGY xiii 
 
 lioiv, I hope readers will duly consider it, instead 
 of taking the current view dogmatically for granted, 
 and crushing nie by pointing out that mine does 
 not coincide with it. A petitio principii is no re- 
 futation. 
 
 The long time I have kept this treatise by me 
 unpubhshed ouglit to supply ^ufTicient proof of the 
 extreme timidity with which I myself regard it. 
 That timidity may perhaps be allowed to protect me 
 from harsh, unkindly, and contemptuous criticism. 
 If I am wrong, of course, I shall expect to be frankly 
 told so: I shall accept demonstration of my mistakes 
 and misconceptions with a good grace. Naturally, I 
 shall continue still to think myself right : it is not in 
 human nature to do otherwise : the theory has too 
 long interwoven itself into all my conceptions of the 
 physical world to be easily rooted out of the fibres of 
 my brain now after so many years. Ihit having once 
 consented to trot out my little heresy unwillingly 
 before the eyes of the world, I shall drop it in public 
 henceforth and for ever. I will make no angry 
 replies to authoritative expositions of my blunders or 
 errors : I will abstain from imitating the common 
 paradox-monger, who, hardened in his obliquity, sees 
 only unfair attacks and unworthy motives in demon- 
 strative criticism. ' I'm not a-arguin* with you ; I'm 
 only a-tellin' of you,' said a pothouse politician to an 
 
xiv APOLOGY 
 
 obtuse friend. I don't expect to be argued with : I 
 shall be satisfied to be told. 
 
 Under these circumstances, and in consideration 
 of previous good conduct, I earnestly trust the court 
 of scientific opinion will let me off with a caution or 
 a nominal fine. My promise never to recur to the 
 subject again may surely in such a case be counted 
 to me for righteousness. At a certain college exami- 
 nation, where proof of age was required from all 
 intending candidates, a certain colonial-born under- 
 graduate brought with hhu perforce his only docu- 
 mentary evidence, a certificate of baptism. The 
 examiner, a well-known heterodox don, glanced at the 
 ecclesiastical certificate curiously. ' How's this ? ' 
 he asked in a hurried voice. ' How's this ? You've 
 been baptised, sir?' The luckless undergraduate 
 timidly stammered out that it was a mistake due to 
 the imperfect registration system of his native land. 
 ' H'm,' snorted the examiner : ' oh, very well, then : 
 as you were baptised by mistake, it won't be allowed 
 to tell against you.' May I venture to express a 
 humble hope that on this occasion too a heresy 
 extorted from me under such peculiar circumstances 
 will not be allowed to tell against my character ? 
 
COJ^TENTS. 
 
 PART L ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC. 
 
 • IIAITKR 
 
 I. I'OWF.U . . . . . 
 
 II. KOUCE .... 
 
 III. EXEUGY ..... 
 
 IV. THE SPECIES OF FOUCE 
 V. THE SI'ECIES OF ENEUGY 
 
 VI. THE MODES OF ENEIIQY 
 
 VII. THE KINDS OF KINESIS . 
 
 VIII. THE PERSISTENCE OF FOKCE 
 
 IX. THE CONSEKVATION OF ENEHGY 
 
 X. THE INDESTUUCTllULITY OF POWEK 
 
 XI. THE MUTUAL INTEKFEUENCE OP FOUCES 
 
 XII. THE SUPPHESSION OP ENERGIES 
 
 XIII. LIHERATING ENERGIES . 
 
 XIV. MISCELLANEOUS ILLUSTRATIONS 
 XV. THE DISSIPATION OF ENERGY 
 
 XVI. THE NATURE OF ENERGY 
 
 XVII. THE NATURE OF MOTION 
 
 TAOS 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 7 
 10 
 19 
 25 
 31 
 39 
 41 
 49 
 50 
 55 
 58 
 (J4 
 71 
 75 
 78 
 
XVI 
 
 COXTEA'TS 
 
 PART II.-CONCRETE OR SYNTHETIC. 
 
 CHAl'TKB 
 
 I. DYNAMICAL FORMULA OF THE UNIVEItRK 
 
 II, THE BIDEUEAL SYSTEM 
 
 III. THE SOLAR SYSTEM . . . • 
 
 IV. THE EARTH . . • • • 
 
 V. ORGANIC LIFE . . . . • 
 
 VI. THE VEGETAL ORGANISM 
 
 VII. THE ANIMAL ORGANISM .... 
 
 VIII. GENERAL VIEW OF MUNDANE ENERGIES 
 
 »5 
 «9 
 99 
 108 
 183 
 IS6 
 147 
 163 
 
Part I. 
 
 ABSTRACT OR AXALYTIC 
 
 B 
 
CUAPTER I. 
 row Ell. 
 
 A POWER is that wliicli initiates or terminates, ac- 
 celerates or retards, motion in one or more particles 
 of ponderable matter or of the ethereal medium. 
 
 Power, as here understood, is thus tlie widest of 
 all possible dynamical conceptions. It cannot be 
 defined by genus and difTerentia, because it is itself 
 the siimmum ijeuus of dynamical science. Accord- 
 ingly, it will be observed that no attempt is made 
 above to assign it to any higher class, such as thingsy 
 entities, or concepts. Nothing would be gained, for 
 example, by saying that a power is the tendency to 
 initiate or terminate motion : it is best described by 
 the indefinite statement given at the head of this 
 chapter. It is simply that which produces or destroys^ 
 increases or lessens, motion in any particle or particles 
 of any substance whatsoever cognisable ])y man. 
 
 Powers are of two sorts, Forces and Energies, the 
 difFerences between which will be fully set forth in 
 
 u -2 
 
4 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 siil)soquent chapters. Meanwhile, as a lielp lo the 
 provisional comprehension of the nature of Power, 
 which can scarcely be <rraspe(I at first in the abstract 
 terms of our formal defmition, it may be mentioned 
 that amongst the varieties of Power are such Forces 
 as Gravitation, Cohesion, and Chemical AfTmity, 
 besides such Energies as Heat, Electricity, and Light. 
 These expressions are here employed in their popidar 
 sense, merely as guides to the sort of concept pro- 
 visionally set forward for the, term Power, until the 
 subsequent investigation has rendered possible a 
 more rational and comprehensive notion in the mind 
 of the reader. 
 
CIIAITEK II. 
 
 FORCE. 
 
 A FORCE is a Power wliich initiates or accelerates 
 aggregative motion, while it resists or retards separa- 
 tive motion, in two or more particles of ponderable 
 matter (and possibly also of the ethereal medium). 
 
 All particles possess the Power of attracting one 
 another — in other words, of setting up mutually 
 aggregative motion — unless prevented by some other 
 Power of an opposite nature. Thus a body suspended 
 freely in the air is attracted towards the earth by the 
 Force (or aggregative Power) known as Gravitation. 
 A piece of sugar, held close over a cup of tea, attracts 
 into itself the water of the tea-cup, by the Force (or 
 aggregative Power) known as Capillarity. A spoon 
 left in tea grounds or a foot planted on the moist 
 sand similarly attracts the neighbouring drops. A 
 piece of iron or coal exposed to free oxygen (each at 
 a certain fixed temperature) attracts the particles of 
 oxygen by the Force known as Chemical Affinity. In 
 every case there must be an absence of counteracting 
 
6 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 Energies (or separative Powers) sufficient to prevent 
 the union of tlie particles, as Avill be sliown hereafter : 
 but for the present it will be enough to notice that 
 every particle attracts every other particle in some 
 one of various ways unless prevented by other 
 Powers.^ 
 
 Not only, however, do all particles thus attract 
 one another, but they also resist all attempts to 
 sejiarate them from one another. A weight sus- 
 pended in the air falls to the ground : but it also resists 
 any attempt to remove it from the ground, which can 
 only be done by the employment of a proportionate 
 Energy (or separative Power). The water which the 
 sugar has absorbed can only be drawn from it by the 
 Energy of suction. The oxygen with which the iron 
 has united can oiily be driven off by the Energy of 
 heat : Vv'hile the carbonic anhydride and water which 
 resulted from the burning of the coal yield only as a 
 rule to the separative Energy of light or electricity. 
 In every case the Force which brought two or more 
 particles together in the first instance keeps them 
 united ever after, and must be neutralised by an 
 equal Power of an opposite description before they 
 can be disjoined. 
 
 * Tlie term 'to attract' must be strictly accepted in the sense of 
 actually setting np aggregative motion, not merely in that of a tendency 
 to such motion. The tendency always subsists, in spite of eoimteract- 
 ing causes, and is immediately actualised upon their removal. 
 
CUAPTEll 111. 
 
 ENERGY. 
 
 Ax Energy is a power wliich resists or retards 
 ajjiirejiative motion, while it initiates or accelerates 
 separative motion, in two or more particles of ponder- 
 able matter or of the ethereal medium. 
 
 All particles, or aggregates of particles, not ac- 
 tually in contact with one another in stable equilibrium 
 at the absolute zero of temperature, are kept apart by 
 an Energy or separative Power of some sort, which 
 prevents them from aggregating as they would other- 
 wise do under the influence of the Forces inherent 
 in them. Thus the moon is prevented from falling 
 upon the earth, and the earth from falling into the 
 sun, by the Energy of their respective orbital motions. 
 A ball shot from a cannon into the air is prevented 
 from falling by the Energy of its upward flight. A 
 red-hot poker has its particles kept apart by the 
 Energy of heat. In every case, so soon as the Energy 
 is dissipated (as hereafter explained) the ball yields to 
 
8 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 the aggregative Power of Gravitation, and the poker 
 contracts to its ordinary dimensions ; while there is 
 no reason to doubt that under similar circumstances 
 the moon and the earth will aggregate with the sun. 
 The particles of water are kept in the liquid state by 
 the Energy known as latent heat,^ and so are those 
 of steam : wlien the * latent heat ' u dissipated, the 
 steam condenses and the water freezes. There are 
 many apparent exceptions ; but they will be con- 
 sidered at later stages of the argument. For the 
 present, the reader must be content to understand 
 the word Energy (when used in this treatise) only in 
 the sense here given to it of a Power which resists 
 or retards aggregation. 
 
 Energies also initiate separative motions, Tlius, 
 a cannon ball is raised by Energy to a distance from 
 the main mass of the earth which usually holds it 
 bcund by Gravitation on its surface. A poker placed 
 in the fire has its particles separated from one another 
 by the Energy of Heat. Wlien ice melts or water is 
 converted into steam, tlie same Energy similarly severs 
 their particles from one another and places them in 
 positions of relati\^e freedom. In the electrolysis of 
 water the Energy of the galvanic curr'^nt tears asunder 
 the atoms of hydrogen and oxygen from their close 
 
 ' I continue to employ for the present this well-known but very 
 incorrect expression. 
 
ENERGY 
 
 union in tlie compound molecule. In short, wherever 
 we see nicasses or particles in the act of separating 
 from one another, we know that the separation is due 
 to some Energy. 
 
JO ARSTRACl OR ANALYTIC 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SPECIES OF FORCE. 
 
 Forces may be most conveniently divided according 
 to tlie nature of the particles or bodies in wliicli tlicy 
 initiate and accelerate ajjfjrefrative motion or resist and 
 
 CO o 
 
 retard separative motion. Of these, there are four 
 principal kinds known to us or conjectured by us. 
 The first kind is the Mass or visible aggregation of 
 particles, which admits of mechanical separation into 
 minor masses. The second kind is the Molecule, or 
 ultimate mechanical unit, which does not admit of 
 subdivision, except by resolution into its chemical 
 components. The third kind is the Atom, or ultimate 
 chemical unit, which does not admit of subdivision by 
 any known means, though it may perhaps be resoluble 
 hereafter into some simpler and more primitive units. 
 The fourth is the Electrical Unit,^ whose nature is 
 very inadequately known to us, but which must be 
 considered for our present purpose as in some way 
 
 ' Tliis conception of electrical units is provisional and purely sym- 
 bolical ; but its use will bo apparent in later chapters. 
 
THE SPECIES OF FORCE H 
 
 the analogue of tlie others, though we have no sufii- 
 cient warrant for giving it any material properties. 
 
 The Force which aggregates Masses and resists the 
 separation of Masses is known as Gravitation. When 
 any two Masses are left free to act upon one another 
 without the counteracting influence of an Energy, 
 they aggregate in obedience to this Power. When 
 the cannon ball falls upon the earth, it is Gravitation 
 which draws them together. When an aerolite comes 
 within the circle of the earth's attraction, it is Gravi- 
 tation which makes them leap towards one another. 
 If the moon were to lose its orbital Energy, Gravita- 
 tion would pull it to the earth ; and if our planet in 
 her turn were suddenly checked in her course, Gravi- 
 tation would cause her to plunge into the sun, while 
 the sun in return would make a slight bound to meet 
 her. Again, when any two Masses are in a state 
 of aggregation, the Force of Gravitation resists any 
 attempt to sever them. If the cannon ball lies upon 
 the ground, it cannot be raised without an expenditure 
 of Energy, and the amount of the Energy required 
 to hft it to a given height (or distance from the surftice 
 of the earth) is the measure of the resistance offered 
 by Gravitation. Similarly, when the Masses are not in 
 actual contact owing to the existence of an Energy 
 which keeps them apart, as in the case of the earth 
 and her satellite, or the sun and the planets, Gravi- 
 
12 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 tation resists any attempt to sever tliem beyond their 
 actual distances. It would be impossible to remove 
 the moon a hundred miles from the earth, or the 
 earth a hundred miles from the sun, except by the 
 employment of an adequate Energy ; and, as in the 
 simpler case, the amount of Energy required would 
 be the measure of resistance offered by Gravitation. 
 The Force wliicli afrgfrefrates Molecules and resists 
 
 CO o 
 
 the separation of Molecules is known as Cohesion. 
 When any two Molecules are left free to act upon 
 one another without the counteracting influence of an 
 Energy, they aggregate in obedience to this Power. 
 But the cases are much more difficult to illustrate 
 than those of gravitation, because while masses attract 
 one another powerfully at very conspicuous distances, 
 Molecules (practically speaking) only attract one 
 another at infinitesimal distances. The difference, 
 however, which is purely relative, may thus be illus- 
 trated and explained. An aerolite is not drawn on to 
 the earth unless it approaches the earth very closely, 
 because otherwise the earth's attraction, though caus- 
 ing a deviation in its course, does not suffice to over- 
 come the aerolite's energy and the combined attrac- 
 tions of surroundincf bodies. But if it be near enough 
 to be more powerful than all of them put together,^ 
 
 ' I tako for granted on the reader's part a knowledge of the law of 
 inverse sciuarcs. 
 
THE SPECIES OF FORCE IS 
 
 the at-'rollte either circles round the earth as a satel- 
 lite or even falls at once upon its surface. Similarly 
 uith Cohesion. If two pieces of uneven iron be laid 
 upon one another, the molecules do not approach 
 near enough to exert any conspicuous mutual in- 
 fluence : but if the two pieces be planed to an 
 absolute smoothness, so that the several molecules 
 can come within the sphereof their mutual attraction, 
 they will cohere perfectly, and it wiU be impossible 
 to tear them asunder. Again, in other cases. Cohesion 
 can only be effected by such a molecular motion 
 (or heat) as will cause the Molecules to approach 
 one another closer than they can be induced to do 
 by mechanical means : just as an aerolite which 
 would not under ordinary circumstances come 
 (practically speaking) within the sphere of the 
 earth's attraction, might do so if it were given an os- 
 cillating motion from side to side, so as to cross or 
 closely approach some portion of the earth's orbit. 
 Thus, two pieces of iron, if heated, will cohere with 
 one another. Furthermore, the molecular motion 
 inherent in the liquid form is often sufficient for this 
 purpose : thus, two masses of dough, which will not 
 cohere in the dry condition, can be made to do so by 
 the addition of moisture. In the practice of gumming 
 and glueing, ?re make use of this device in everyday 
 life. A further account of these phenomena will be 
 
14 ABSTRACT OR AXALYTIC 
 
 given in the chapter on Liberating Energies. The 
 second property of Cohesion, that of rcsivSting the 
 separation of Molecules actually aggregated, is much 
 more familiar to us. If two Molecules or bodies of 
 Molecules are in an aggregated condition — that is, are 
 not rendered plastic or liquid or gaseous by some 
 form of Energy — we cannot separate them without a 
 considerable expenditure of Energy. The Energy 
 may be in the form of a mechanical action, as 
 when we tear or break a cohering substance ; or of 
 heat, as when we melt lead; or of the contained motion 
 of liquids, as when we dissolve a lump of sugar. 
 But in any case Energy must be expended to counter- 
 act the aggregative Force of Cohesion in solid bodies. 
 A qualification must be added to prevent miscon- 
 ception. The cohering Molecules need not be sup- 
 posed to be in actual physical contact with one 
 another. It is sufficient that they should be within 
 the sphere of one another's attraction ; just as the 
 moon is kept in its place by the earth, and the 
 planets by the sun, in spite of the intervening space. 
 Theoretically, of course, every body in the universe 
 attracts every other ; but as the attraction decreases 
 as the squares of the distance, at practically infinite 
 distances it becomes practically infinitesimal and can 
 be overcome by an infinitesimal Energy. This is 
 the case ordinarily with Cohesion : at very slight 
 
THE SPECIES OF FORCE 15 
 
 (listanoes its Force is so diminished that only an im- 
 perceptible amount of Energy is required to counter- 
 act it. But there is no reason to doubt that when 
 the two rough pieces of iron are laid upon one an- 
 other, the supporting points, so to speak, come within 
 the sphere of mutual attraction, though their number 
 and area are so sniall that we cannot perceive the re- 
 sistance resulting from their Cohesion when we sepa- 
 rate the pieces. In short, Cohesion always tends to act 
 between all Molecules, but its effects may be dis- 
 guised either by distance or by counteracting Energies. 
 Other cases will be treated in the chapter on 
 Mutual Interference of Forces. Adhesion and 
 
 Capillarity are only forms of Cohesion. 
 
 The Force which aggregates Atoms and resists 
 the separation of Atoms is known as Chemical 
 Affinity. As here employed it will be understood 
 to mean not merely the Force which unites the 
 Atoms of two or more elements into a compound 
 molecule, but also the identical Force which unites 
 two or more Atoms of the same element into a mole- 
 cule such as that of ozone. When any two or 
 more Atoms (or equivalents in combining propor- 
 tions) are left free to act upon one another without 
 the counteracting influence of an Energy, they aggre- 
 gate in obedience to this Power. As in the case of 
 cohesion, however, the Atoms must be brought into 
 
•l6 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 close contact with one another. When phosphorus 
 is exposed to oxygen the aggregation is immediate. 
 But in other jases a certain amount of molecular 
 or Atomic motion is needed in order to bring the 
 Atoms within the sphere of their mutual attractions. 
 Thus heat is necessary to make carbon combine with 
 oxygen, as in the ordinary phenomenon of combus- 
 tion : while the more subtle motion of light suffices 
 to effect a union between hydrogen and chlorine. 
 But we may broadly assert that whenever free Atoms 
 find themselves in the presence of a free Atom for 
 which they have affniities (the proper proportions 
 being of course supposed), and are brought within 
 the sphere of their mutual attraction, the two Atoms 
 or sets of Atoms aggregate under the influence of 
 Chemical Attraction. Here, again, a qualification 
 is needed. The above rule holds only ioT free Atoms. 
 Just as a ball suspended by a rope from the ceiling 
 does not fall to the ground, because the Force of 
 cohesion outbalances the Force of gravitation, so, 
 when two or more Atoms, united in stable combina- 
 tion, are brought into contact with other Atoms for 
 which they have affinities less strong than those of 
 their existing combination, they will not yield up their 
 stronger to their weaker affinity. (See the subsequent 
 chapter on Mutual Interference of Forces.) And 
 again, just as the ball will break the rope, if gravita- 
 
THE SPECIES OF FORCE I7 
 
 tion outbalances coliesion ; so, if the new afTinities 
 are stronger than the okl ones, the Atoms will yield 
 up tlieir previous combination and enter into that 
 to which they are most powerfully attracted. The 
 second mode in which Chemical Affinity acts is in re- 
 sisting the attempt to separate the component Atoms 
 of a compound body. Setting aside for the present 
 certain very abnormal cases in which ' unstable ' 
 bodies spontaneously decompose — cases which can 
 only be explained at a very late stage of our exposi- 
 tion — all ordinary ' stable ' compounds require an 
 Energy to separate their Atoms. Thus heat is needed 
 to divide the Atoms of oxA'gen from those of iron in 
 ferric oxide : while electricity is necessary to sever 
 the Atoms of hydrogen from those of oxygen in 
 water. This statement must be understood as apply- 
 ing only to the separation of free elements, not the 
 formation of new compounds. Mere juxtaposition is 
 sufficient to make certain compound bodies yield up 
 their weaker affinities in the presence of stronger 
 ones : but (with the special exception noted above, 
 chiefly referring to organic compounds) an Energy is 
 required to separate any compound into its compo- 
 nent Atoms in a free state, without the aid of stronger 
 antagonistic affinities. 
 
 The Force which aggregates Electrical Units and 
 resists the separation of Electrical Units is known as 
 
 c 
 
|8 
 
 AliSTRACT OR AXAI.VTIC 
 
 Elkctrkal Affinity. Tliis Force is little understood, 
 and ran only be treated in a very syn\l)oliral manner. 
 What few points can be formulated are briefly these. 
 When Posit iye and Negative Electricities are left free 
 to act within the sphere of their mutual attractions, 
 they are aggregated by this Force, as in the discharge 
 of a Leyden jar. In saying this, no imphcation of 
 materiality is meant to be conveyed. In our present 
 ignorance on the subject, Electrical Affinity must be 
 placed in the same category as other Forces ; though 
 further researches will doubtless enable ns to give 
 a better account of its real nature. Similarly, an 
 Energy is necessary to separate the Positive and 
 Negative Electricities which subsist in combination in 
 every material body. In the case of a glass rod or 
 an electrical machine this Energy is that of mechani- 
 cal motion : in certain other cases it is of thermal or 
 chemical origin. These points will receive further 
 consideration in the chapter on Electrical Phenomena. 
 A table will put in a clearer light the classification 
 here adopted. 
 
 Forces or Aggregative Towers. 
 
 Molar 
 
 Molecular 
 
 Atomic 
 
 Electric 
 
 Gravitation 
 
 Cohesion 
 
 Chemical Affinity 
 
 Electrical Affinity 
 
19 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 TIIK SPECIKS OF HNKRGY. 
 
 E.VKRfiiHS may be most conveniently divided on the 
 same principle as Forces, according to the nature 
 of the particles of bodies in which they initiate or 
 accelerate separative motion, and resist or retard 
 arrrrreirative motion. But owiiif? to the existence of 
 two modes of Energy, the Potential and the Kinetic, 
 whose peculiarities will form the subject of our next 
 chapter, it wnll not be possible to assign a single 
 defmite name to each species, as was the case with 
 the various Forces. It must suffice for the present to 
 quote a few well-known instances of each. 
 
 The energies which separate Masses and resist the 
 aggregation of Masses may be summed up under the 
 title of Molar Energies.^ Of Molar Energies em- 
 ployed in actual separation, a familiar instance is 
 
 ' We shall see hereafter that these species are in reality just as 
 simple as those of Forces ; but for the reader's convenience they are 
 exhibited here under familiar aspects, which give them an appearance 
 of plurality and indefiniteness. 
 
 c2 
 
20 A US TK ACT OR AXALVT/C 
 
 {^iveii in our own persons, when we lift Ji weif^ht fioni 
 the f^roiind or carry ourselves to the fop of a hill, 
 thereby oountera(.'tin<( the Molar Force of j^n'avitalioii 
 by raising a body to a greater distance than before 
 from the centre of tlie earth's attraction. Another 
 instance is seen in a cannon ball fired vertically, or 
 a stone lifted by a crane. On a larger scale, any 
 fresh Energy employed in removing the moon further 
 from the earth or a planet from the sun would 
 be a Molar Energy. Any Mass thus separated from 
 another attracting; Mass is said in the current languajje 
 of physics to possess Visible Energy of Position, a term 
 which we shall examine and endeavour to amend 
 hereafter. Of Molar Energies employed in resist- 
 ance to aggregation the most familiar instance is that 
 of orbital movement. The moon is prevented by this 
 Energy from aggregating with the earth, and the 
 planets with the sun, as they would otlierwise do 
 undtjr the influence of Molar Force or gravitation. 
 On a smaller scale, the Energy of a bird in flying or 
 a cannon ball fired horizontally is largely employed 
 in counteracting gravitation. It is seldom, however, 
 that we see Energy thus emjjloyed, except in the 
 case of the heavenly bodies, because the Molar Force 
 exerted by the earth in its immediate vicinity is so 
 strong as to overcome ordinary Energies after a very 
 short period of dissipation. Masses of the sort here 
 
THE SrECIES OE ESEKGY tt 
 
 (Icscrihecl are said in tlit; current plu'aseology to 
 j)ossess Energy of Visible Motion, which expression, 
 like the ibrnier one, will receive attention at a later 
 point. 
 
 The Energies which separate Molecules and resist 
 the aggregation of Molecules may be sununed up 
 under the title of Molkculab Enkrgiks. Of Mole- 
 cular Energies employed in separation we have a 
 conunon instance in heat, which draws apart the 
 Molecules of a red-hot poker or a mass of lioiling 
 water, in opposition to the Molecular Force of Cohe- 
 sion. The contained Energy of water acts in the sauie 
 maimer on a lump of sugar or a mass of dry dough. 
 Of Molecular Energies employed in resistance to 
 aggregation, heat under its converse aspect affords 
 us an exauiple. The Molecules of all Ijodies are 
 prevented from aggregating into their most com- 
 ])ressed form by the presence of heat. Thus the red- 
 hot poker only contracts so fast as it loses its Energy 
 by radiation. The contained Energy (or ' latent 
 heat ') of water similarly prevents its aggregation into 
 ice. Large masses of water before freezing part with 
 their Energy in the visible form of heated uiist. 
 
 The Energies wdiich separate Atoms and resist the 
 aggregation of Atoms may be summed up under the 
 title of Chemical Enkrgirs. A caution as to the 
 sense in wliicli this term must be here accepted is 
 
32 ABSTRACT OR A XA LYTIC 
 
 appended below. Of Chemical Energies employed 
 in separation we have an instance in the electrolysis 
 of water. The Energy disengaged by the union of 
 elements in the battery is used up in producing 
 chemical separation between the atoms of the electro- 
 lyte. Light produces a similar effect upon carbonic 
 anhydride and water in the leaves of plants. Any 
 Energy which separates a compound body into simpler 
 or elementary bodies may be regarded as a Chemical 
 Energy in the sense here intended. Of Chemical 
 Energies employed in resistance to aggregation, no 
 um uivocal instance can be cited at our present 
 stage, though this apparent anomaly will be cleared 
 up as we proceed. For the time the reader must be 
 content to accept as an instance the fact that many 
 Atoms will not combine with one another at a certain 
 high temperature : the same temperature, in fact, at 
 which they are driven off from their combination 
 when actual. It will be noticed that, for the sake 
 of uniformity, a somewhat new sense has here been 
 given to the term ' Chemical Energy.' As ordinarily 
 used at present, that term refers to the strength of 
 the tendency which a body shows to unite with other 
 bodies. It will be seen in the sequel that this is 
 really a property depending upon separation and 
 chemical nature : just as a body in proportion to its 
 height and mass shows a tendencv to a<>irre<rate with 
 
THE SPECIES OF ENERGY 23 
 
 the earth : but, nieaiiwliile, it is necessary to hnpose 
 a new sense upon the term, in keeping with the 
 analogous term ' Chemical Affinity,' which we have 
 applied to the i'orce that aggregates Atoms, 
 
 The Energies which separate Electrical Units and 
 resist the aggregation of Electrical Units may be 
 summed up under the title of Elfx'TRIcal Energies. 
 As in the case of Electrical Forces, our treatment of 
 this department must be considered purely temporary 
 and symbolical. Of Electrical Energies employed 
 in separation we have an instance in the electrical 
 machine, where friction produces a disunion of the 
 Positive and Negative Units. Similarly in the torpedo 
 and gymnotus. Of Electrical Energies employed in 
 resisting aggregation there is again no ujiequivoeal 
 instance. The illustration of this deficiencv must be 
 left to later chapters. 
 
 Throughout, both in the case of Forces and 
 Energies, it will be noticed that the same Power which 
 initiates and accelerates one kind of motion equally 
 resists and retards the other kind of motion. Thus, 
 Gravitation both initiates movements of masses to- 
 wards centres of attraction, and resists movements of 
 masses away from centres of attraction. Cohesion both 
 draws molecules together, and resists the se})aniti()n 
 of molecules : while heat dravvs molecules apart and 
 resists the a!2fi»' re nation of molecules. So thai these 
 
^4 
 
 ABSTRACT OK ANALYTIC 
 
 two Powers, the aggregative and the separative, are 
 incessantly opposing and antagonising one another in 
 all bodies, great or small. The amount of aggregation 
 reached by any system of bodies at any point of time 
 depends upon the relative proportions of its Forces 
 and its Energies at that moment. 
 
 A table is scarcely needed for the contents of 
 this chapter; yet for the sake of symmetry one is 
 here appended. 
 
 Energies or Separative Powers. 
 
 Molar 
 
 Molecular Atomic 
 
 Electric 
 
 Molar 
 Energy 
 
 Molecular 
 Energy 
 
 Chemical Energy 
 
 Electrical Energy 
 
3v 
 
 CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 TI1I<: MODES OF ENERGY. 
 
 Energy has two Modes, ordinarily known as the Po- 
 tential and the Kinetic : bnt the terms Statical and 
 Dynamical are mncli preferable. Nevertheless, in 
 order not to disturb unnecessarily the received ter- 
 minology, the former expressions will be generally 
 preserved in this treatise. 
 
 The two Modes of Energy are interchangeable 
 with one another : the Potential can pass into the 
 Kinetic, and the Kinetic into the Potential. Each 
 species of Energy, Molar, Molecular, Atomic, and 
 Electrical, is represented in both modes. 
 
 Potential Energy (a very bad name) is equivalent 
 to actual or statical separation. Any mass, molecule, 
 atom, or electrical unit, ii state of separation from 
 other masses, molecules, atoms, or electrical units, 
 possesses Potential Energy. The subject may con- 
 venientlv be considered under the four heads hence 
 arising. 
 
26 ABSTRACT OR AXALVTIC 
 
 Molar Potential Energy is equivalent to the 
 statical separation of Masses. The moon pos- 
 
 sesses this Energy relatively to the earth, and the 
 planets to the sun,^ The cannon ball, shot vertically, 
 has Molar Potential Energy at the instantaneous 
 neutral point when it has reached its greatest height 
 and has not yet begun to fall. A stone on a moun- 
 tain top or a head of water on its side has also the 
 same Energy. In short. Molar Potential Energy is 
 possessed by all discrete Masses in virtue of their 
 separation. It is commonly known as Visible Energy 
 of Position. 
 
 Molecular Potential Energy is equivalent to the 
 statical separation of Molecules. Two planed surfaces 
 of iron possess this Energy, until by apposition they 
 are made to unite. The molecules of water, dispersed 
 as steam, similarly possess it, in the form commonly 
 known as ' latent heat.' When steam condenses or 
 water freezes, the Energy is yielded up in the Kinetic 
 form. 
 
 Atomic Potential Energy is equivalent to the 
 statical separation of Atoms. It is possessed by 
 every free Atom of an element, and by every com- 
 pound Atom whose affinities are not fully saturated. 
 
 ' It may excite surprise to see these relations described as statical. 
 The term is only employed in a relative sense, as opposed to the 
 dynamical energy of a falling body. 
 
THE MODES OF ENERGY 27 
 
 Thus an Atom of carbon has Potential Energy in 
 relation to two separate Atoms of oxygen, with 
 which it may unite to form carbonic anhydride. 
 Similarly, chlorine has Potential Energy relatively to 
 sodium, with which it may unite to form common 
 salt. Such cases, however, must be carefully dis- 
 tinguished from those of preferential attraction where 
 a body leaves its union with one element to combine 
 with another for which it has stronger affinities : as 
 when the CI of IICl leaves the 11 to unite with Na in 
 XaCl. This last instance is really analogous to that 
 of the cannon ball which breaks the rope that ties it 
 because the Force of Gravitation has outbalanced that 
 of Cohesion. 
 
 Electrical Potential Energy is equivalent to the 
 statical separation of Electrical Units. In a Leyden 
 jar, the opposite electricities of the inner and outer 
 coats exhibit this relation. In a thunder cloud and 
 the earth beneath it we have a substantially similar 
 division of the Positive and Negative Units. The state- 
 ment of these facts must be accepted with the usual 
 caution as to the purely symbolical nature of our 
 electrical conceptions. 
 
 From the potential we pass on to the Kinetic Mode. 
 It will not be inunediately apparent in what sense 
 Kinesis is an Energy in accordance with our definition : 
 but, here again, the reader must courteously waive 
 
•?8 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 his objections for the present, and accept the state- 
 ment provisionally, so far as he finds possible. Many 
 difficulties of this sort necessarily beset the explana- 
 tion of every new point of view, esj)ecially where 
 previous misconceptions have clouded and embar- 
 rassed the mental vision. 
 
 Kinetic Energy is equivalent to motion. Any mass, 
 molecule, atom, or electrical unit, in a state of motion, 
 possesses Kinetic Energy. The subject may be con- 
 veniently considered under the four heads hence aris- 
 ing. But, just as before, when dealing with Energy 
 generally, we found that we could not divide it into 
 species so definite in their likeness as those of Force, 
 because Energy was manifested in two Modes, the 
 Potential and the Kinetic : so, here, when we are 
 dealing with Kinetic Energy specially, we shall find 
 that it cannot be divided into species so definite 
 as those of the Potential Mode, because Kinesis 
 itself is divisible into several Kinds, whose nature 
 will form the subject-matter of the succeeding 
 chapter. 
 
 Molar Kinetic Energy is equivalent to the relative 
 motion of Masses. It is seen in the fall of an unsup- 
 ported weight or a spent cannonball to the earth. It is 
 also seen in the rising of the ball, the flying of a bird, 
 or the walk of a man. Again, it is seen in the orbital 
 motion of the planets, and in the spinning of a top. 
 
THE MODES OF ENERGY 29 
 
 These various Kinds of Kinesis will be fully discussed 
 in the next chapter. 
 
 Molecular Kinetic Energy is equivalent to the re- 
 lative motion of Molecules. It is found in the falling 
 tofjether of Molecules of steam into water. It also 
 occurs in the disruption of a cohering mass. And it is 
 more conspicuous in the phenomenon of heat. 
 
 Atomic Kinetic Energy is equivalent to the relative 
 motion of Atoms. It is seen in that rushinjr to<Tether 
 of Atoms which results in chemical combination. It 
 also occurs in the severing of Atoms from the com- 
 bined state. But it is not known to have any continuous 
 form analogous to the orbital motion of a planet, 
 the spinning of a top, or the regular vibration of 
 heat. 
 
 Electrical Kinetic Energy is equivalent to the 
 relative motion of Electrical Units. It is seen in the 
 lightning, in the discharge of a Leyden jar, and in the 
 galvanic current. 
 
 It will doubtless seem strange to the reader to find 
 the motion of masses, molecules, and atoms towards 
 one another spoken of as a manifestation of Energy : 
 but this seeming inconsistency will be explained in the 
 succeeding chapter. 
 
 A table will clearly exhibit the relations here 
 
 ft) 
 
 described, one example only of each species being 
 cited. 
 
10 
 
 ABSTRACT OR AXALYTIC 
 
 Enkrgies or Skparative Powers. 
 
 Molav Poten- ' Molecular Po- | ^*!'7•° ^"^en. 
 Potential J' tial Energy. | tential Energy, t'/il Energy. | Electrical Po- 
 ' (Visible Energy! (Condensing 
 
 Speciks 
 
 of Position.) 
 
 Molar Kinetic 
 
 Steam.) 
 
 (Chemical 
 
 Energy of Free 
 Elements.) 
 
 Atomic Kinetic 
 Vn^raxt Molccular I Energy. „. .. ,, 
 
 forbffi Kinetic Energy.! (Chemical ^-;,-±?f;«y' 
 
 tential Energy. 
 (Tension.) 
 
 Electrical 
 
 (Orbital 
 Motion.) 
 
 (Heat.) 
 
 Energy in Act 
 of Combining.) 
 
 (Galvanic 
 Current.) 
 
3» 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE KINDS OF KINKSI8. 
 
 Motion has three Kinds, considered from our present 
 standpoint. It may be separative, or it may be 
 ao-crrecfative, or it may be continuous and neutral. 
 Each species of Kinetic Enerfjy lias a form of each 
 Kind. 
 
 Molar motion may be separative, as when a can- 
 non ball is shot up into the air ; or aggregative, as 
 when the same cannon ball falls to the earth ; or 
 continuous and neutral, as when a top spins in the 
 same place. 
 
 Molecukr motion may be separative, as in tearing 
 asunder a mass; or aggregative, as in condensing 
 steam ; or continuous and neutral, as in the case of 
 heat. 
 
 Atomic motion may be separative, as in decom- 
 position ; or aggregative, as in the act of combining. 
 The continuous and neutral stage is not at present 
 known, thouijh there is reason to think that it exists. 
 
32 ABSTRACT OR A XA LYTIC 
 
 Electrical motion may be separative, as when the 
 Positive and Negative Electricities are divided ; or ag- 
 gregative, as when they are uniting. The continuous 
 stage is possibly given us in the current which is sup- 
 posed to circle round a magnet. 
 
 It was noticed in the last chapter that there was 
 an appearance of contradiction in the statement that 
 aggregative motions were yet manifestations of 
 Energy. That difficulty must now be met. 
 
 When a cannon ball is shot up into the air, the 
 motion is obviously separative, and there can be no 
 doubt of its being a manifestation of Energy. Simi- 
 larly, when a set of molecules are separated by 
 mechanical Power or by heat, when a chemical com- 
 pound is broken up into its elements, and when the 
 Positive and Negative Electricities are sundered from 
 one another, the separative nature of the process is 
 obvious. We can have no hesitation in assigning 
 each of these cases to the action of an Energy. 
 
 But when we look at the continuous and neutral 
 motions, their character as Energies is less obvious. 
 A moment's consideration, however, wdll make it clear. 
 The orbital motion of the planets is a continuous Energy 
 which prevents them from aggregating with the sun 
 as they would otherwise do. The motion of the top 
 in like manner prevents it from falling on to the earth. 
 The continuous vibratory molecular motion (or heat) 
 
THE KIXDS OF KINESIS 33 
 
 of the red-hot poker prevents the steam or the water 
 particles from aggregathig into their cooled or liquid 
 or solid states respectively. In short, whenever a 
 body or molecule in a free state does not aggregate 
 immediately with the other bodies or molecules which 
 attract it, it is kept apart from them in virtue of some 
 continuous or neutral movement.^ So soon as it parts 
 with its Energy (or motion), it aggregates with the 
 attracting body. Thus when the steam loses its heat 
 it condenses into water ; when the water in turn is 
 deprived of heat, it freezes into ice ; when the poker 
 cools, it contracts ; when the top parts with its motion 
 to the air on the surface, it falls ; and we have no 
 reason to doubt that when the planets have dissi- 
 pated their Energy of orbital movement by ethereal 
 friction they will fall into the sun. This general 
 principle — that free bodies can only be kept from 
 aggregating by a continuous movement — is one of 
 great importance, whose value will l)e seen here- 
 after, A body in such a state of continuous move- 
 ment, which prevents it from aggregating with another, 
 is said to be in equilibrium mobile. 
 
 Wlien, however, we come to the aggregative mo- 
 tions, it would seem at first sight as though these 
 
 ' The reader must be cautioned to notice the expression ' in a free 
 state,' which exchides such instances as those of a weiglit tied bv a 
 string, or a chemical body already in stable combination, whose case 
 will be considered in the chapter on the Mutual Interference of Forces. 
 
 D 
 
34 A ns TRACT OK AAA LYTIC 
 
 must be classed with Forces, not with Enei-f^nos. A 
 considerable faculty of abstract thou<,dit is required 
 to grasp their real relations : nevertlieless we must 
 endeavour to solve the problem. In doing so, we 
 must trench a little on the subject-matter of future 
 chapters, but only by alluding to facts already 
 familiar to the reader. When the cannon ball 
 reaches ite highest point it possesses Potential Energy. 
 But it does not remain suspended in the air. There 
 are only two conditions under which it could do so, 
 in opposition to the Force of gravitation : the first is 
 if it is supported by a ledge or rope, in which case 
 cohesion balances gravitation ; the second is if it 
 possesses continuous kinetic energy, in which case it 
 Avould circle round the earth as a satellite until its 
 energy was dissipated. Practically, the existence of 
 the atmosphere makes the second case purely imagi- 
 nary within the limits of that medium, though it is 
 exhibited in the ether by such a body as the moon. 
 As the cannon ball does not fulfil either of these con- 
 ditions, it begins at once to fall. But the Potential 
 Energy which it possesses becomes thereupon Kinetic, 
 from moment to moment, until, at the instant of touch- 
 ing the earth, it has all assumed that mode. Now, 
 we know that it does not then utterly disappear. The 
 great principle of the Conservation of Energy teaches 
 us that it is changed into the form of heat. Accord- 
 ingly, while the two masses aggregate, certain mole- 
 
THE A'/.'\/)S OF AVA7:.S/.V 35 
 
 rules of cacli are separated ])y lieat. At the moment of 
 roiitact, all the motion of the fall, or Aggregative Mo- 
 lar Kinetic; Energy, is changed into heat (or separa- 
 tive Molecular Kinetic Energy). There is just as much 
 separation at last as at first : only when the ball was 
 at its height, the separation was molar ; and when the 
 ball has touched the earth, the separation is molecular. 
 The formula which tells us how many heat-units are 
 generated by the fall of such and such a mass through 
 so many feet, is a formula for the equivalence of 
 molar separation with molecular separation. ]hit in 
 the intermediate time, during the fall. Potential Energy 
 was disappearing every moment, and motion was 
 taking its place. Though this motion was aggrega- 
 tive, yet, when the ground was reached, it changed 
 into the separation of heat. Accordingly, we are 
 justified in regarding it as essentially a transitory 
 form of separative Power. This will be still clearer 
 if we take such a case as the moon's. That satellite, 
 though attracted by the earth, is yet prevented from 
 aggregating by its orbital movement. It possesses 
 Potential Energy in virtue of its separation, but this 
 does not assume the aggregative Kinetic form on 
 account of the continuous orbital Energy. If, how- 
 ever, we suppose the moon to have lost its orbital 
 movement, still retaining its present position and size, 
 it would at once yield to the earth's attraction, and all 
 
 u-2 
 
36 ABSTRACT OR AXALYTIC 
 
 its Potential Energy would become Kinetic, When it 
 reached the earth, the shock of its fall would reduce 
 it to a very heated state, and an immense increase in 
 size would result from the separation of its particles. 
 The merely transferential nature of the aggregative 
 motion is here clearly seen. So too, in the case of 
 molecules. The Potential Energy of steam is given 
 up when it condenses into water ; and the Potential 
 Energy of water when it forms into ice. Similarly 
 with atoms. When oxygen unites witli carbon and 
 hydrogen in a candle, their Energy is yielded up in 
 the form of heat, which produces a separation (or 
 rarefaction) in the neighbouring atoms of the atmo- 
 sphere. The same truth is shown in the heat and 
 light evolved during the aggregation of Positive and 
 Negative Electricities. Througliout we see that 
 aggregative Energy is merely Potential Energy in the 
 course of transformation to another form. While the 
 really aggregative Power of Force is causing these 
 bodies to combine, the Energy of tlieir motion repre- 
 sents for a while their origmal separateness, and is 
 finally transformed into a similar separateness between 
 other bodies. 
 
 A concrete instance will make this clearer. Let 
 us suppose the case of a pulley, with a weight at each 
 end, one suspended in the air at the utmost height 
 of the pulley, and the other slightly hghter, on the 
 ground. The heavier weight possesses Potential 
 
yy/A" A'/\DS OF KLMiSlS yj 
 
 Energy in virtue oi' its elevation ; but, if it is free to 
 act, it is drawn down by the aggregative Force of 
 gravitation. In tliis case, however, all its Energy does 
 not assume the Kinetic Mode as it drops : the greater 
 part of it is used up in elevating the lighter weight to 
 the same height, while the remainder chiefly goes off in 
 the form of friction — that is, heat — that is, molecular 
 separation. There is thus a mere fraction left to be 
 converted into heat when the weight touches the 
 ground; the mass of the Energy still remains Potential 
 in the lighter weight. Here we see that the Energy of 
 a falling body does not consist in its mere downward 
 movement, but rather in that accelerating motion 
 which is capable of being transformed into heat when 
 the masses aggregate. If the motion be infinitely 
 slow, the amount of heat evolved will be infinitesimal. 
 So that the Energy of Kinesis is seen to be a mere 
 transferential mode from one kind of separation to 
 another. Acrain, we mav look at the similar in- 
 stance of a clock, driven by a weight. Here the 
 weight possesses Potential Energy, in the same way 
 as in the case of the pulley ; but it has opposed to it, 
 not another weight (that is, gravitation), but friction 
 (that is, cohesion).^ As gravitation pulls down the 
 
 ' Above we used friction in a different sense, as equivalent to heat. 
 This is a necessary ambiguity of our present teruiiiiology. From the 
 point of view of the Force involved, friction means the cohesion which 
 must be overcome ; but from the point of view of the Enerfry employed, 
 friction means the separative power of heat which o\ crcomcs 
 
38 
 
 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 weiglit through each inch of its course, the Potential 
 Energy so lost assumes the form of heat, or separa- 
 tive Molecular Motion, in the wheels and bearings. 
 When the weight reaches the ground, its Energy has 
 all been used up, and the aggregative movement has 
 been a real display of Force. 
 
 Thus all I'le kinds of motion are ultimately shown 
 to be forms of Energy or Separative Power. 
 
 Kinetic Energies. 
 
 Separative 
 
 Aggregative-) 
 
 Continuous 
 
 Separative 
 Molar Motion. 
 I (In a body 
 I raised from 
 ! the earth's 
 surface.) 
 
 Aggregative 
 
 Molar Motion. 
 
 (In a falling 
 
 body.) 
 
 Continuous 
 ' Molar Motion. 
 I (In a top or a 
 I j planet.) 
 
 Separative 
 Molecular 
 Motion. 
 (In a body 
 torn apart.) 
 
 Aggregative 
 Molecular 
 
 Motion. 
 (In a body 
 
 cooling.) 
 
 Continuous 
 Molecular 
 
 Motion. 
 
 (In heat.) 
 
 Separative 
 Atomic 
 Motion. 
 (In chemical 
 decomposi- 
 tion.) 
 
 Aggregative 
 
 Atomic 
 
 Motion. 
 
 (In chemical 
 
 combination.) 
 
 Continuous 
 Atomic 
 Motion. 
 
 (Unknown.) 
 
 Separative 
 
 Electrical 
 
 Motion. 
 
 (In electrical 
 
 machine.) 
 
 Aggregative 
 
 Electrical 
 
 Motion. 
 
 (In lightning.) 
 
 Continuous 
 
 Electrical 
 
 Motion. 
 
 (In magnet '?) 
 
39 
 
 CHAPTEll VIII. 
 
 THE PERSISTENCE OP FORCE. 
 
 Every particle of matter has inherent in it certain 
 Forces of which it can never be deprived. The total 
 amount of Force or Aggregative Power in the universe 
 is thus always a fixed quantity. This principle may 
 be known as the Persistence of Force. It must be 
 carefully distinguished from the opposite principle 
 of the Conservation of Energy, to which the same 
 name has been frequently but most incorrectly 
 applied. 
 
 Every mass tends always to attract every other 
 mass, and cannot be deprived of this tendency. The 
 tendency may be masked for awhile by the interven- 
 tion of other masses, as when a loose stone stands on 
 the top of a wall, or by the presence of an Energy, as 
 when the moon circles round the earth, or a ball is 
 shot from a cannon ; but it cannot be got rid of : for 
 as soon as the stone topples over with the wind it 
 falls to the ground at once; as soon as tlie ball parts 
 
40 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 with its Energy it similarly falls ; and as soon as the 
 moon has got rid of her motion by ethereal friction, 
 she will aggregate with the earth. 
 
 Similarly with molecules, atoms, and electrical 
 units : every one of them when in a free state, un- 
 restrained by interfering Forces, and unacted upon 
 by Separating Enei-gies, rushes at once into a state of 
 aggregation with its fellows. 
 
 It is important to notice that Force, unlike Energy, 
 is inherent and indefeasible in every unit of matter. 
 It may be counteracted for awhile by an Energy, but 
 it still remains ready to act so soon as the Energy is 
 dissijDated ; it never passes from one unit to another, 
 as we shall see that Energy does. Force, or. aggrega- 
 tive Power, is the primary and indefeasible attribute 
 of every material particle. 
 
41 
 
 1 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE CONSERVATION OP ENERGY. 
 
 The total amount of Energy, Potential and Kinetic, 
 existing in tlie universe is always a fixed quantity. 
 It is not, however, like Force, rigidly bound up witl 
 the individual particles in which it is from time to 
 time manifested. As we have already seen, it can 
 be transferred from one particle or set of particles to 
 another. For this reason it has been deemed desirable 
 to embody the principle in different language from 
 that which we employed in the somewhat analogous 
 case of Force. Wliile Forces persist. Energies are 
 conserved. The concrete and practical results of this 
 difference are enormous. 
 
 It does not come within the scope of the present 
 work to give a full account of the (juaiilitative rela- 
 tions subsisting between the various species of Energy ; 
 it will be sufficient to trace their equivalence in its 
 broader (juaHtative aspect. For this purpose we may 
 consider the phenomena of Conservation under three 
 
42 ABSTRACT OR A XA LYTIC 
 
 heads: tlie passage of Energy from the Potential 
 Mode to the Kinetic, the passage of Energy from the 
 Kinetic Mode to the Potential, and the passage of 
 Energy from one species of the Kinetic Mode to 
 another. 
 
 Potential Energy or relative statical separation ^ 
 has a tendency constantly to pass into the Kinetic 
 Mode, under the influence of Force. Every free 
 body or particle, unless restrained by an antago- 
 nistic Force, or kept in separation by a continuous 
 Kinetic Energy, is aggregated at once with other 
 bodies or particles which attract it. A mass poised 
 on a ledge or suspended by a rope is prevented from 
 aggregating with the earth by the Force of cohesion ; 
 but when some external Energy has pushed it off the 
 ledge or severed the rope, its Potential Energy passes 
 at once into the Kinetic Mode, under the influence of 
 gravitation. Two molecules of water vapour are 
 prevented from aggregating under the relatively 
 feeble attraction of cohesion at a distance by their 
 inertia — that is, by the relatively strong cohesion of 
 surrounding or intervening mattei's (just as a mass 
 
 ' By this term is implied a separation which, though perhaps accom- 
 paiiietl by actxial motion, does not carry the two related bodies further 
 iway from one another. Thus, orbital motion in a perfect circle, or 
 the upright spinning of a top, is statical relatively to the centre of 
 gravity of the system ; while a fresh energy would be reipiired to 
 carry the related bodies further away from one another. 
 
THE CONSERVATIOX OF EXERGV 43 
 
 Oil the table, tliou^li attracted by the earth, is pre- 
 vented from aggregating by the intervention of tlie 
 cohering boards)— but when some external Enei-<>v 
 brings them within such a distance of one another 
 that the resistances are overcome by their mutual 
 attractions, their Potential Energy becomes Kinetic, 
 and they aggregate with one another. Two atoms 
 (having affinities for one another) are similarly 
 prevented from aggregating by inertia ; but when 
 brought within the sphere of their mutual attraction, 
 their Potential Energy becomes at once Kinetic, and 
 they combine with one another. So also, two 
 
 electrical units are prevented from aggregatin^r in 
 the Leyden jar by the electrical neutralitv of the Hass 
 partition ; but when a conducting medium is made 
 to connect them, their Potential Energy passes into 
 the Kinetic Mode and they rush together at once. 
 
 Kinetic Energy "or motion often passes into the 
 Potential Mode. The Kinetic Energy of actual separa- 
 tion always exhibits this interchange. A cannon 
 ball fired in the air, the piston of a steam-engine 
 forced 'up by the expansive Energy of the steam, a 
 weight hauled by a pulley to a height, a man who 
 has climbed a mountain, are all of them instances 
 where Molar Kinetic Energy has become Poten- 
 tial. The liquid condition of water melted from ice, 
 the diflused state of vni)our raised from water, ai-e 
 
44 ABSTRACT OR ASA LYTIC 
 
 instances where Molecular Kinetic Energy has become 
 Potential. The free hydrogen and oxygen of an 
 electrolytic bottle, the iron and oxygen driven from 
 their combination by heat, are instances where Atomic 
 Kinetic Energy has become Potential. The negative 
 and positive electricities of a Leyden jar, of a thunder- 
 cloud and the earth, of the knobs of an electrical 
 machine, are instances where Electrical Kinetic 
 Energy has become Potential. 
 
 Finally, Kinetic Energy often passes from one of 
 its species to another. Molar motion passes into 
 Molecular motion whenever one mass interferes with 
 the motion of another. This is true whether the 
 motion is aggregative, or separative, or continuous. 
 If a cannon ball be allowed to fall to the earth from 
 a position of Potential Energy, all the Kinetic Energy 
 which the mass acquires in its fall passes to the 
 molecular species when it touches the ground. If it 
 be fired into the air, and immediately checked by an 
 iron target, the same result occurs. And if a top be 
 stopjjed in spinning or the moon checked in her 
 course, exactly like effects are or would be pro- 
 duced. Molecular motion passes into molar motion 
 whenever the free separation of the moving molecules 
 is interfered with by the cohesion of enclosing masses. 
 Thus the steam in a cylinder pushes up the piston by 
 its expansion ; the freed nitrogen in a discharge of 
 
THE COXSERVATION OF KXERGY 45 
 
 gunpowder in like manner puslies out tlie ball ; and 
 tlie energetic movement of a heated gas bursts the 
 vessel within which it is confined. Molecular motion 
 also passes into atomic motion in decomposition by 
 heat, and into electrical motion in the friction 
 macliine. Atomic motion passes into molecular 
 motion wlien heat is generated by chemical combina- 
 tion. It also passes (apparently) into electrical 
 motion in the galvanic current. Electrical motion 
 passes into molecular motion when an interrupted 
 current produces heat. Light, which is a phenome- 
 non connected with the ethereal medium, must be 
 neglected for the present. 
 
 This relation is quantitative-that is to say a 
 defimte amount of Potential Energy passes always 
 into a definite amount of Kinetic, and vice versa 
 whde a definite quantity of each species is equivalent 
 to a definite quantity of each other species, in either 
 Mode. The law of conservation may therefore be 
 subsumed under the following formula, where A 
 stands for Potential and B for Kinetic Energv 1 2 
 3, and 4 for the Molar, Molecular, Atomic, ^md Elec- 
 trical species, and 5 for the Kinetic Energy of the 
 ether (of which more hereafter) : 
 
 Al.A2.A3.A4.Bl.B2.B3.B4.B5 = aconstant quantity. 
 
 But While the total of Energy, like the total of 
 lorce, IS thus constant, the total of each mode and 
 
46 A US TRACT OR AXALVT/C 
 
 species varies from moment to moment. Wliereas 
 tlie total of each Species of Force is as constant as the 
 sum of their totals. 
 
 Again, while each unit of Force is rigidly bound 
 up with each atom of matter (with which it is perhaps 
 identical),^ each nnit of Energy may pass from one 
 mass, molecule, atom, or electrical unit to another. 
 It may also pass from matter to the ethereal medium, 
 and vice versa. This can only happen, however, to 
 Energy in the Kinetic Mode. 
 
 A mass in motion parts always with portions of 
 its motion to all other bodies with which it comes in 
 contact. It does so either by imparting to them a 
 portion of its motion in the molar form (as when one 
 billiard ball strikes another), or in the molecular 
 form (as when heat is generated by friction). Hence 
 every moving mass tends to part with all its Kinetic 
 Energy more or less (quickly, according as it is more 
 or less impeded in its motion by more or less cohesion 
 and gravitation. Thus a cannon ball parts with all 
 its Molar Kinetic Energy at once when it strikes an 
 iron target, and very quickly when it is fired in the 
 air ; a bilhard ball parts with it more slowly, as it 
 hits the other balls and the cushions ; a quoit on ice 
 
 1 It is possible to regard each atom as a centre of Force (i.e. Aggre- 
 gative Power) liable to separation from other centres by means of 
 Energies (i.e. Separative Powers). 
 
THE COXSERVATFOX OE EXERGY 47 
 
 more slowly still, as it meets the resistance of the air 
 <and the <rentle friction of the ice ; while a pendulinn 
 under an air pump hardly parts with it perceptibly 
 by friction on its knife-edge, and a planet only by in- 
 finitesimal decrements to tlie ethereal medium. ' A 
 molecule in motion parts similarly with a portion 
 of its motion to every other molecule with which it 
 comes in contact. When the two molecules, however, 
 possess equal motions, or, as we oftener say, are at 
 the same temperature, the amounts of gain and loss 
 neutralise one another. J^ut when the motions of the 
 Molecules differ, the more energetic parts with a 
 disproportionate amount of its motion to the less ener- 
 getic, until the Energies of both are equal. Hence it 
 happens that whenever the molecules of any mass 
 have a higher Kinetic Energy than that of surround- 
 ing bodies, the motion of its molecules is imparted to 
 the surrounding bodies till a state of equahty is 
 reached. As to Atomic and Electrical motions, we 
 know too little of their nature to speak with any con- 
 fidence, but we see at least that they also tend to 
 pass away from the bodies with which they were as- 
 sociated, and to assume the forms of light and 
 heat. Li short, without fully anticipating the 
 chapter on the Dissipation of Energy, we may say that 
 whenever masses, molecules, atoms, or electrical 
 units are free to act in accordance with their aggre- 
 
48 AD SIR AC I OR A XA LYTIC 
 
 gative tendencies, witliout interference of antafjonistic 
 Forces or restraining power of continuous Kinetic 
 Energies, they innnediately unite, and impart their 
 former Potential Energy in the Kinetic Mode directly 
 to surrounding bodies, and ultimately to the ethereal 
 medium. 
 
 We may thus sunmiarise the contents of the pre- 
 sent chapter : the sum total of all Energies in the 
 Universe is a constant quantity ; and whenever one 
 mode or species of Energy disappears it is replaced by 
 an equivalent quantity of another mode or species. 
 
49 
 
 CTIAPTER X. 
 
 TIIK INDKSTKUCTIBILITY OF POWER. 
 
 TiiK two generalisaiions briefly stated in the two 
 preceding chapters under the titles of' The Persistence 
 of Force ' and 'The Conservation of Energy ' may be 
 sunnned up under a still wider generalisation to which 
 we shall apply the title of ' The Indestructibility of 
 Power.' It may be formulated as follows. 
 
 The total amount of Power, aggregative or sepa- 
 rative, in the Universe, is a constant quantity, and 
 no Power can ever disappear or be destroyed.^ 
 
 This short chapter cannot be enlarged by the 
 addition of any further remarks. Like our first 
 chapter on Power generally it does not admit of am- 
 plification. 
 
 ' Readers of Mr. Herbert Spencer's System of Synthetic Philosophy 
 will doubtless observe that it is tliis ultimate generalisation to whicli 
 he refers under the style of the Pcrsistenre of Force, and not either of 
 the minor {generalisations subsumed under it. The author, however, 
 makes this statement solely on liis own responsibility, and has no 
 warrant from Mr. Spencer for doing so. It is not improbable that Mr. 
 Spencer would energetically dissent from acquiescence in tlic slate- 
 
 ment. . . ...... , 
 
 B 
 
so ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 CPIAPTEE XI. 
 
 THE MUTUAL INTERFERENCE OF FORCES. 
 
 As tlie various portions of matter, molar, molecular, 
 and atomic, all possess Forces of their own, it must 
 necessarily happen that many bodies or particles 
 are attracted in different directions with varyin^y 
 intensities by surrounding bodies or particles. Hence 
 arises a certain cross-attraction or Mutual Interference 
 of Forces. We shall consider in regular order the 
 various modes in which each species of Force is 
 opposed by interfering Forces. 
 
 Molar Force may be opposed to another Molar 
 Force when two neighbouring masses each tend to 
 attract a third mass. If all three masses be in every 
 respect free — that is to say, if there be no other re- 
 straining Force, and no continuous Energy of relative 
 motion — the three masses will aggregate simply. But 
 in the large planetary bodies exposed to our observa- 
 tion the orbital Energy counteracts all the Forces ; 
 and we consequently see the sun, the earth, and the 
 moon retaining their relative positions in spite of 
 
THE MUTUAL INTERFERENCE OF FORCES 51 
 
 gravitation. There are certain instances, however, 
 where the interference of Forces is seen, even in the 
 case of Mohir Forces. Thus, a hirge body like a 
 table does not perceptibly attract even very small 
 bodies on the floor, owing to the superior Power of 
 the earth's attraction as a whole. Yet in the neiirh- 
 bourhood of much larger masses, such as mountains, 
 a slight deflection of the plummet has been observed, 
 because the attraction of the mountain has proved 
 strong enough to counteract in part the attraction of 
 the earth as a whole. 
 
 Molar Force is more commonly interfered with by 
 Molecular Force or cohesion. A weight placed on a 
 table or a ball suspended by a cord cannot aggregate 
 with the earth generally, because the Force of gravita- 
 tion is overpowered by that of cohesion. At a certain 
 point, however, the Power of gravitation outweighs 
 that of cohesion, and the tal)le or the rope gives way. 
 
 We can scarcely say with any certainty that 
 Molar Force is interfered with by Atomic and Flec- 
 trical Forces : but there seems no reason to doubt 
 that chemical attraction may act in opposition to 
 gravitation by causing an atom to aggregate with an- 
 other atom so as to raise it slightly above its previous 
 level: while tlie position of a lump of iron sus- 
 pended from a magnet (permanent or electro-mao-- 
 netic) probably represents the interference of electrical 
 
 K 2 
 
52 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 with molar Force. Our acquaintance with these phe- 
 nomena, however, is so very superficial that it would 
 he premature to do more than hint at possible ana- 
 logies. 
 
 Molecular Force may be opposed by Molar Force 
 in the above-cited instances of a mass laid on a table 
 or hung by a cord. If the Molar Force overpowers 
 the Molecular, the table or cord breaks, and the mass 
 falls to the ground. One Molecular Force is op- 
 posed by another Molecular Force in the curious case 
 of what is called Molecular Tension. In such an in- 
 stance, certain molecules on either side of a particular 
 set of molecules tend to draw it towards them, 
 and the stronger attraction finally succeeds in doing 
 so, leaving a disrupted portion on one side of the 
 line. Molecular Force is probably opposed by 
 Atomic and Electrical Forces, though here again no 
 very obvious instance can be cited. 
 
 Atomic Force is possibly opposed by Molar Force 
 as noted above. It is also possibly opposed by 
 Molecular Force ; and this seems not improbable 
 when we recollect that many bodies will not combine 
 chenucally unless at a high temperature — in other 
 words, unless their Molecular Force has been coun- 
 teracted by an antagonistic energy. One Atomic 
 Force is certainly opposed by another Atomic Force 
 when two diflerent atoms, each having afiinity for a 
 
THE MUTUAL INTERFERENCE OF FORCES 53 
 
 third atom, are brought into close conjunction with it. 
 This occurs in all ordinary reactions ; and, as we 
 see, the stronger affinity overpowers the weaker 
 one. What may be the relations of Atomic to 
 Electrical Force it would be premature even to 
 guess. 
 
 Electrical Force as a whole is too little understood 
 to permit of definite treatment. We may conjecture, 
 however, that it is similarly nifected with other Forces. 
 In one case, at least, we c:vi feel sure of an analogy. 
 One Electrical Force can b^ opposed to another by 
 placing two balls, pretty equally charged with Posi- 
 tive Electricity, opposite io (^ne another, and at equal 
 distances from a ball charged with Negative Elec- 
 tricity. In this case we set I'p a state of cross-tension 
 like that of the interfering masses, the molecular 
 tension, or the rival chemical affinities : and any 
 slight diffi^rence in the two attractions will cause the 
 one to outweigh the other. It would also seem as 
 though, in the case of a Leyden jar, the molecular 
 Force of the glass opposed the Electrical Force whicli 
 tends to aggregate the opposite electricities : for 
 when the Electrical Force reaches a very high pitch, 
 the electricities escape from some point on the metal 
 surface, and leave a hole pierced through the glabs. 
 The analogy of this case to that of the broken rope 
 or table is obvious. On the whole, however, the 
 
•54 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 subject is still too ill-correlated with other depart- 
 ments of physics to allow of positive statements. 
 
 In all the cases where the interference of Forces 
 produces an actual separation between masses or 
 particles previously in (relative) contact, it might at 
 first sight seem as though there were really an exhi- 
 bition of Energy and not of Force. As in the case of 
 aggregative Energies, however, a little consideration 
 will correct this idea. For the bodies always follow 
 the stronger Force ; and the result is, a total of closer 
 and more intimate aj?2^regation than that which before 
 subsisted. If the cord can resist the power of gravi- 
 tation, then the union between its molecules is a more 
 intimate one than that which would result from the 
 aggregation of the ball and the earth. If, on the other 
 hand, the cord cannot resist it, then the total of ag- 
 gregation is increased by the fall of the ball. So, too, 
 if a body in chemical combination with another body 
 can resist the afFniity of a third body brought near it, 
 the existing union is shown to be a closer one than 
 that proposed for it. If, on the other hand, it cannot 
 resist it, then the new union proves itself thereby to 
 be closer and more intimate than the previous one. 
 When we come to consider the material universe as 
 an aggregating total, whose separative Energy is 
 being imparted to the ethereal universe, this point 
 will become much clearer. 
 
55 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 THE SUPPRESSION OF ENERGIES. 
 
 When a set of particles possessing Kinetic Energy is 
 entirely surrounded by other particles, bound together 
 by Eorce, it is possible up to a certain limit to sup- 
 press the Energy of the contained particles by Umit- 
 incT their mutual movements ; whereupon the Energy 
 appears to exist in a dormant state. But when a 
 certain point of suppression is reached, the Energy of 
 the contained particles overpowers the Eorce of the 
 containing particles, and a disruption takes place. 
 Such a disruption is commonly known as an Explosion. 
 Or again, at a point short of disruption, such an 
 active separative impulse exists amongst the contained 
 particles, that if any aperture be made in the con- 
 taining wall, the contained particles rush out with 
 Explosive Energy. 
 
 The abstract statement of this principle must be 
 enforced by a few concrete examples. 
 
 The boiler of a steam-engine is a wall or partition 
 
56 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 of molecules, rigidly bound together by cohesion. 
 Within it, is a mass of water and steam, which is being 
 raised to a high pitch of molecular motion by the 
 fire underneath. Up to a certain point, it is possible 
 to sujipress or restrain the separative Energy of the 
 steam by opposing to it the cohesi^^e Force of the iron 
 wall. But when a certain point of suppression is 
 reached, the Energy outbalances the Force, and an 
 Explosion takes place. At a point short of the Ex- 
 plosion, it is possible to open a valve and ' blow off 
 steam ' : the energetic particles then rush forth with 
 Explosive Energy. Similarly when a gas is reduced 
 by pressure to the liquid state. Up to a certain 
 point the Energy of the gas is suppressed ; but when 
 that point is passed, the Energy outbalances the 
 Force, and an Explosion takes place. Short of 
 the Explosion, it is possible to open the vessel, 
 whereupon the gas rushes forth with Explosive 
 
 Energy. 
 
 It is possible that certain (so-called) chemical com- 
 binations are really of this nature. Thus, certain 
 compounds of nitrogen are very apt to explode, and 
 it would seem not unreasonable to suppose that in 
 their case the Energy of the free gas may be in some 
 way confined by the combining atoms : while a match 
 or other detonating agent may be the analogue of the 
 valve or the stopcock in the above cited cases. This 
 
THE SUPPRESSION OF EAERCIES 57 
 
 possibility will be more fully discussed in tlie succeed- 
 ing chapter. 
 
 It is important to notice that one Energy may be 
 opposed to another in producing a suppression. Thus 
 Energy is expended in compressing a gas or bending 
 a bow (a case which will be fully considered here- 
 after). So that just as Forces interfere with Forces, 
 Energies sometimes oppose Energies. A suppressed 
 Energy is regarded in the ordinary text-books as Po- 
 tential. It is clear, however, that it cannot be so re- 
 garded from our present standpoint. It is essentially 
 Kinetic, though its Kinesis is masked by surrounding 
 bodies. 
 
58 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 CPIAPTER XIII. 
 
 LIBERATING ENERGIES. 
 
 When any body or particle possessing Potential 
 Energy is prevented from aggregating with any other 
 body or particle which attracts it, by the interference 
 of an antagonistic Force, its Energy can only assume 
 the Kinetic Mode through the intervention of some 
 external Energy. Such external Energy is itself 
 necessarily in the Kinetic Mode. It is known as a 
 Liberating Energy. 
 
 Put in more concrete language, this principle may 
 be otherwise stated thus. A body can only be dis- 
 engaged from the attraction of one Force and brought 
 under the direct influence of another, by some move- 
 ment affecting it. A moment's consideration will 
 make it clear that this is a corollary from previously 
 stated laws. 
 
 As we saw that the stronger Force necessarily out- 
 weighs the weaker, and as Forces cannot increase or 
 decrease in intensity, the only manner in which any 
 
• LIBERATING ENERGIES |^ 
 
 body or particle can be released from the Force 
 which actually governs it and brought under the in- 
 fluence of another Force, is bv some movement which 
 either severs it from the sphere of the existing Forces, 
 or brings it within the sphere of a stronger one. In 
 the latter case, it is immaterial whether the movement 
 brings the body into proximity with other bodies, or 
 brings other bodies into proximity with it. 
 
 Molar Liberating Energies are those which release 
 masses from the interference of a Force antagonistic 
 to gravitation. The commonest instance of such a 
 Liberating Energy is seen when we remove some 
 obstacle which by its cohesion prevented the aggre- 
 gation of gravitating massec. Thus a ball suspended by 
 a thread is released by the separative Energy of a knife 
 or scissors. A clock weight wound up but checked by a 
 catch, is released through the Energy which removes 
 the catch. A stone perched on a ledge is released by 
 the puff of wind or the blow from a hand which 
 causes it to topple over. A head of water confined 
 by a sluice is released by the Energy which raises the 
 sluice. A mass of ice on a mountain top is released 
 by the Energy of heat, which breaks down the co- 
 hesion of its particles and allows it to trickle down the 
 sides. Even in those cases where the intervention of 
 the Energy is less apparent, we can see in an ultimate 
 analysis that such Energy is really the moving 
 
^ ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 Power at work. Tims, when the string decays instead 
 of being cut, it might seem at first sight that the co- 
 hesion mehed away imperceptibly ; but a closer con- 
 sideration will show us that the dropping of water, 
 the action of liejit and light, the approach of chemical 
 solvents in minute quantities, and the incidence of 
 other unobserved Energies is really the cause of the 
 decay. So, too, if the water makes a way through 
 the sluice, or cuts a path for itself through the bank, 
 it can only do so by the slow action of incident 
 Energies, which wear away the cohering substance 
 that retains it. And the stone can never topple over 
 from its ledge unless some animal pushes it, or some 
 slow water action wears away its sui)porting mass. 
 Molar Liberating Energies may also be seen in a few 
 cases where a chemical body undergoes a separation 
 which precipitates the heavier among its constituents. 
 Molecular Liberating Energies are those which 
 release molecules from the interference of a Force an- 
 tagonistic to cohesion. Two planed pieces of iron 
 cannot cohere if laid side by side on a table : they are 
 restrained in their places by gravitation. But the 
 energy which apposes them to one another acts in 
 this case as a liberator. Li other instances, heat 
 performs the same function, by loosening cohering 
 molecules from their existing arrangement, and bring- 
 ing them within the sphere of their mutual attractions, 
 
LIBERATING ENERGIES ^i 
 
 as wlien we weld two pieces of iron by heating them, 
 or by hanuneriiig them together. Tlie contained 
 energy of water fulfils a like office in gumming or glue- 
 ing, and in mixing plastic clay or dough. In these 
 cases, one cohesion has interfered with another, and 
 t .e Liberating Energy, by causing a partial disengage- 
 ment, finally permits the complete saturation of both 
 affinities. 
 
 Atomic Liberating Energies are those which release 
 atoms from the interference of a Force antagonistic to 
 Chemical Affinity. Occasionally it is the mere Force 
 of gravitation or cohesion which opposes this affinity, 
 and in that case, the Energy employed in bri'.ging the 
 substances together is the liberating agent ; as when 
 we expose phosphorus to Chlorine. Li other in- 
 stances, however, the mere apposition of the elements 
 is not sufficient, as when we expose carbon to oxygen ; 
 heat is then needed as a liberating agent ; and we may 
 conjecture that it acts by setting up such a molecular 
 vibration in the carbon as takes each atom out of its 
 existing stable arrangement with other like atoms, 
 into a compound carbon molecule, and brings it 
 within the sphere of the stronger affinity exerted by 
 oxygen. This case leads on to those where the in- 
 terference is between rival Chemical Affinities. The 
 Energy which brings together two substances and per- 
 mits the stronger affinity to overcome tlie weaker acts 
 
62 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 as a liberating af^ent. In this instance, too, lieat is 
 sometimes necessary as an additional factor, probably 
 for the same reason as before. In the case of CI and 
 11 light acts as the liberating energy. Other less 
 obvious cases resemble those of a match, where' fric- 
 tion performs the same function. 
 
 Electrical Liberating Energies are those which 
 release Electrical Units from the interference of a 
 Force antagonistic to Electrical Affinity. The usual 
 vagueness of electrical science prevents any definite 
 treatment of these phenomena ; but we may consider 
 the Energy which closes the circuit of a battery, or 
 brings the discharging tongs to a licyden jar, as essen- 
 tially analogous to the cases noted above. Their fun- 
 damental similaritv will be seen if we recollect that 
 any Energy spent in overcoming the cohesion of the 
 glass partition in the Leyden jar, and so causing it to 
 break, would produce exactly the same effect.^ 
 
 Under the head of Liberating Energies it will be 
 
 ' The practised physicist will observe that a much wider significa- 
 tion is here given to the term Liberating Energy than that which is 
 usually attached to the expression ' Liberating Force ' in the current 
 phraseology of science. But if, as here contended, the cases are really 
 analogous in every way, then there is no logical reason why they should 
 not all be included under a single general name. Of course, if com- 
 petent critics can point out any error in the conception here advocated, 
 the classification falls to the ground ; and throughout, it must be re- 
 membered that all the ideas contained in this treatise, though dog- 
 matically stated for simplicity's sake, must be regarded merely as 
 suggestions and points-of-view thrown out for the express purpose of 
 placing the author's conception in a clear light. 
 
LIBERATING ENERGIES 63 
 
 convenient to include those other Energies wliich 
 act so as to permit tlie escape of suppressed Kinetic 
 Energies. Such will be the Energy which turns the 
 valve of a steam-engine or the stop- cock of a vessel 
 containing compressed gases. A more familiar in- 
 stance is found in the Energy which draws the cork 
 of a champagne bottle. And if we were correct in 
 supposing an analogy between known suppressed 
 Energies and explosive nitrogenous compounds such 
 as gunpowder and nitro-glycerine, then the match or 
 blow which explodes them acts as an analogous 
 liberating agent. Liberating Energies of this des- 
 cription may be conveniently described as Liberators 
 of Suppressed Energies. 
 
64 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 After so long and so abstract an exposition, it may 
 be well to give a few selected conciete illustrations, 
 showing the interaction of the principles already laid 
 down, before we proceed to those still more abstract 
 and difficult problems which yet lie before us. We 
 have liereafter to frame some clearer notion of the 
 Relation between Ether and Matter, the Nature of 
 Energy, and the Nature of Movement ; which 
 questions will require a power of abstract thought 
 and concentration which is not possessed by every 
 reader. But it may aid our comprehension of these 
 highest abstractions if we more firmly grasp the 
 concrete phenomena in which they are dimly mani- 
 fested. 
 
 A lump of ice lies loosely on a mountain top. 
 Its molecules are rigidly bound together by the Force 
 of cohesion. The Force of gravitation tends to attract 
 it, but the cohesion of intervening molecules interferes, 
 
MISCELLANEOUS ILLUSTRATIOXS 65 
 
 and it car not further aggregate, cannot get any lowei . 
 of its own accord. It j^ossesses Potential Energy in 
 virtue of its separation from tlie dead level of ocean : 
 but that Energy cannot assume the Kinetic Mode so 
 long as the interfering Force of cohesion prevents 
 it. There are, however, various conceivable wavs 
 in which a Kinetic Energy may intervene to liberate it. 
 Tlie wind may blow it over ; a man may hit it with 
 I is stick ; or a peal of thunder may shake it down. 
 Li any of these cases, it will go down as a mass, 
 all its molecules still locked together by cohesive 
 Force. Again, the Kinetic Energy of ether (which 
 we commonly know as Eadiant Heat) may foil upon 
 the mass, while still perched on its pinnacle. In that 
 case, the motions of the ether particles will be com- 
 numicated to the ice molecules, just as the motion of 
 one billiard ball is communicated to another — or still 
 more exactly, as one pendulum might set another in 
 synchronous motion by striking it time after time. 
 Under the influence of this separative Power, the 
 molecules will slowly be unlocked from their cohesive 
 union, and the ice will be melted. V>wi the Enerfv 
 wliicli thus acts as separative to the molecules in 
 their relation to cohesion, acts also as li])orative in 
 their relation to gravitation. The Potential Energy 
 of each molecule (visible Energy of i)osition) now- 
 becomes Kinetic, and tliev roll down the mountain 
 
 F 
 
66 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 side iv! ilie form of water. Let us suppose that 
 they unite ou their course and make a cataract. 
 When they reach the level below (which for vcc^w- 
 ment's sake we will suppose to be that of the sea) all 
 their Potential Eneroy has been transformed into 
 Kinetic. Omitting the small amount lost ^)y friction 
 on the way, this Kinetic Energy is immediately trans- 
 formed once more, as the water reaches the surface, 
 from the Molar to the Molecular species. It becomes 
 heat, and is radiated off into the surrounding 
 space. Our ice has thus entirely parted with its 
 Potential Energy to iieighl curing bodies, and to the 
 ethereal medium, though the water which represents 
 it still holds all the Kinetic Energy which originally 
 melted it. It cannot again be raised to the mountain 
 top without the integration of fresh Energ}\ Whence is 
 this to come ? In the majority of cases it is supplied 
 by the Padiant Heat of the sun. This Energy, work- 
 ing upon the surfiice of the sea, causes separation 
 amongst its superficial molecules, which thereupon 
 rise into the air. Thus we see that the same Energy 
 which overcomes the ftiint cohesion of the water also 
 overcomes in part the force of gravitation. The 
 heated molecules, being less attracted than the colder, 
 are pushed upward by their pressure, and rise to a 
 considerable height. The agent in raising them is 
 Energy. So that tlie very same motion which keeps 
 
MISCELLANEOUS ILLUSTRATIONS 67 
 
 the planets from aggregating with the sun, keeps 
 the water molecules from aggregating with the 
 earth. So long as they retain this Energy they 
 continue to float at a great height. But they cannot 
 retain it long. The surrounding objects at that height 
 are very cold — in other woi'ds, are not in a state of 
 high molecular vibration. Accordingly, when the 
 molecules encounter a cold mountain top, towards 
 which they are attracted by molar Forces, they part 
 with their heat and ao-<rre<xate under the influence 
 of cohesion into ice. Their Kinetic Energy is now all 
 gone, and nothiufr remains to them but the Potential 
 Euergy of their separation from the level of the sea. 
 And then the whole cvcle of changes beo-ius over aL^ain. 
 Let us look next at a totallv different instance, 
 that of a cross-bow. This is a common illustration 
 with physicists, and it has already been once hinted at, 
 but no detailed explanation was given, because it will 
 be presently seen that the case is much more com- 
 plicated than at first sight appears. The Kinetic 
 Energy of humaii muscles is employed in pulling the 
 string back to the notch. The bow is then bent. 
 Now this l)ending implies two forms in which the 
 energy becomes dormant, which answer to the connnon 
 expressions, tension and 'pressure. The molecules in 
 the convex portion of the bow are pulled slightly 
 apart from one another, but not beyoiul the sphci'c of 
 
68 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 their mutual attractions. We have consequently here 
 a state of Potential Energy due to the separation of 
 particles strongly influenced by cohesive Force. The 
 molecules in the concave part of the bow, on the 
 other hand, are pressed closely together upon one 
 another by the Energy employed, which here acts in 
 opposition to the Kinetic Energy of the molecules, 
 whose natural vibrations are thus in part suppressed. 
 Accordingly we have here a state of suppressed Energy. 
 Both of these of course tend to become Kinetic, but 
 are prevented by the interfering cohesion of the 
 string and the trigger. The separative nature of 
 the Energy employed is clear from the fact that if the 
 string is pulled too far back, the strain upon the 
 cohering particles becomes too great, and the sphere 
 of their mutual attraction being transcended, they 
 break apart with a snap. In the present case, how- 
 ever, having merely bent and bolted our bow, we 
 have all our Energy bottled up in a dormant state. 
 Next, let us release the string. The Energy which 
 we employ in doing so, acts as a I^iberating Energy 
 with reference to the Potential Energy of the convex 
 part, and as a Liberator of Suppressed Energy with 
 reference to the concave part. It removes that 
 cohesive obstacle, the trigger, which interfered with 
 the mobilisation of the dormant Energies. The 
 Molecular Force of cohesion now draws together the 
 
MISCELLAXEOUS ILLUSTRATIOXS 69 
 
 separated molecules of the convex part, and their 
 Potential Energy becomes Kinetic. Through the 
 medium of the string it is comnmnicated to the arrow. 
 The arrow flies rapidly through the air, parts with a 
 small portion of its Energy by friction, but retains 
 most of it till it pierces the target. Here, part of its 
 Energy is used up in producijig separation between 
 the particles ; while the remainder is given off" in the 
 form of heat. And so all our Energy is once more 
 yielded up from its original possessor, the bow. 
 
 Again, let us take a case where chemical activity 
 is concerned. A lump of coal possesses Potential 
 Energy in the separation of its atoms from those oxy- 
 gen atoms towards which it is attracted by Chemical 
 Affinity. So long as they are merely in mechanical 
 conjunction with one another, the interference of some 
 other Force (probably cohesion) prevents tliem from 
 aggregating. But when a Liberating Energy is applied 
 in the shape of a match, the atoms rush together in a 
 mutual embrace. Their Potential Energy becomes 
 Kinetic, and they aggregate. But the Energy of 
 their separation is not destroyed. It is conununi- 
 cated to the ether as Eadiant Heat. In this f tate it 
 may either pass aw^iy from our earth altogether, or it 
 may be communicated to other bodies, in which case 
 it is said to be ahsorhed. Let us suppose it is 
 absorbed by a boiler of water. The water molecules 
 
70 ABSTRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 are then thrown into a state of vibration, wliicli rapidly 
 severs tlieni from one another until they assume the 
 form of steam. If this steam is allowed to issue from the 
 boiler, it will rapidly give off its Energy to neighbour- 
 ing bodies, the ether inchided, and the Energy which 
 first passed from the coal and oxvgen to the watei-. 
 will now pass from the water to the ether. Ihit 
 we may use the boiler to turn an engine. In this 
 case part of the Molecular Kinetic Energy is trans- 
 formed to the Molar species in the piston. It is then 
 used up in initiating movements in the wheels and 
 cranks, all of which are finally retransformed into the 
 Molecular Species by friction. If the engine is sta- 
 tionary, the friction will be between its parts ; if loco- 
 motive, between its parts and the rails. Ultimately, 
 in every case, all the Energy is yielded up to the ether 
 in the Kinetic Mode and radiated off into space. 
 
 Now what is the conclusion which all these cases 
 force upon us ? That whenever Forces succeed in a^-- 
 gregating masses, molecules, atoms, or electrical units, 
 the Energy of their separation, passing into the Kinetic 
 Mode, is transferred to surrounding bodies, and after 
 many or few vicissitudes is finally handed over to the 
 ethereal medium. This is the point which must next 
 engage our attention. 
 
71 
 
 WIAPTER XV. 
 
 THE DISSIPATION OF HNEROY. 
 
 IiN the defiuitiou of Force given in our sfoond 
 chapter, a Force was stated to be a Power which 
 initiated aggregative motion and resisted separati^'e 
 motion in two or more particles of ponderable matter, 
 and possiljly also of the ethereal medium. In the 
 definition of Energj-, given in our third chapter, an 
 Energy was stated to be a Tower which initialed 
 separative motion and resisted aggregative motion in 
 two or more particles of ponderable matter or of the 
 ethereal medium. This addition in the latter case, and 
 its qualified omission in the former, was intentional and 
 significant. Though we caniiot dogmatically say that 
 the ether does not possess Forces, we do not know it to 
 possess any ; and if it does, the resistance which they 
 offer to separation appears to oe almost infinitesimal. 
 It may well be that ether is merely a more tenuous 
 kind of matter, animated by the same Tower as the 
 ponderable lK)dies : but vwn if i( is. we know that it 
 
72 ABSTRACT OR AXALVTIC 
 
 can Ije coiispicuoiisly affected l)y Eiier^^y, wliile we 
 do not know tliat it can be conspicuously affected 
 l)y Force. ^ From this difference flows a very im- 
 portant corollary which may be formulated as 
 follows. 
 
 The Energy li])erated from the Potential Mode 
 when bodies or particles aggregate under the influence 
 of Force tends ever to assume the Kinetic Mode, and 
 to be transferred from ponderable matter to the 
 etliereal medium. 
 
 As Liberating Energies are peri)etually setting free 
 Potential Energy, and permitting aggregative motions 
 to be set up under the influence of Force, and as the 
 Kinetic Energy thus liberated is transferred to adjacent 
 bodies, a part of it at least must be transferred to the 
 ether. Furthermore, as that part of it which is trans- 
 ferred to the ether is radiated off in everv direction 
 into space, it must happen that the greater part of it 
 is lost for ever to ponderable matter, and imparted to 
 the ethereal medium. For, although some portion of 
 the Energy may riieet in its course with ponderable 
 matter, and be absorbed thereby, yet inasnaicli as the 
 interstellar spaces are vastly larger than the inter- 
 spersed ponderable heavenly bodies (so that in most 
 
 ' The mere fact that motion can be lost by ethereal friction, as we 
 know in the case of heated molecules and believe in that of planetary 
 bodies, would lead us to suppose that the ether has something rosem- 
 bUng cohesive Force. 
 
THE DISSIPATIOX OF EXERGY 73 
 
 directions motion may be continued in a straight line 
 for ever without meeting one) it necessarily happens 
 that the greater portion will never meet with any 
 ponderable matter, but will go on, presumably ad 
 'uijinitum, traversing the ethereal medium. This 
 principle, which will be i'ully expounded in its con- 
 crete aspect in Part II. of this work, must at present 
 be accepted in this its abstract aspect, on the ground 
 here laid down. 
 
 Again, though nuich radiant Energy may fall 
 upon any one mass from another (as on the earth 
 from the sun), yet inasmuch as this Energy is the cor- 
 relative of an aggregation wliich has taken place in 
 the radiating mass, whereby some of its Potential 
 Energy has become Kinetic and been imparted to the 
 ether, and inasmuch as the portion absorbed by that 
 l)articular mass bears an infinitesimal ratio to the 
 portion radiated ad infinitum, it must follow that on 
 the whole every aggregation involves a loss of Energy 
 to ponderable matter and a gain of Energy to the 
 ethereal medium. 
 
 Once more, even that portion of Energ}' which is 
 absorbed by any other mass will in part be used up in 
 Liberating Energies (as when solar heat melts a piece 
 of ice on a mountain top), and will accordingly itself be 
 a cause for future transfers of Energy from ponderable 
 matter to the ethereal medium. And finallv, this 
 
74 ADSIRACT OR ANALYTIC 
 
 absorbed Energy itself will in part iit least be radiated 
 oir from the absorbing mass and imparted once more 
 to the ethereal medinm. 
 
 We thus see in every case that all Energy lends to 
 be lost by i)onderable matter and transferred to the 
 ethereal medinm. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 TIIK NATURE OF EXKKGY. 
 
 We now come to the most abstract and fun(lamenl;il 
 question of all. What is the true nature of Energy ? 
 In the beginning of this book we took it for granted 
 that Force was equivalent to Aggregative Power and 
 Energy to Separative Power. Tliat first assumption, 
 however, is in reality the point which our treatise is 
 meant to prove, and we have tried to prove it by 
 running through the chief manifestations of Power 
 and showing how simply and truthfully they can all 
 be fornnilated on this principle. We have en- 
 deavoured, in other words, to point out the perfect 
 congruity of our assumption with fact. Having 
 done so first in the abstract, we shall proceed to 
 show how the phenomena which form the subject- 
 matter of the various sciences, and how the concrete 
 course of events in the universe, can be expressed 
 in terms of our formulae. But before we go on 
 to these departments of our subject, we must try to 
 gain a clearer conception oi the real nature of Energv. 
 
76 AliSTKACT OR AXALVTJC 
 
 Energy is Separative Power. Every Energy in the 
 Universe was primordially a mere statical separation 
 of masses, nioleeiiles, atoms, or electrical units. If 
 there were no such i)owei as Force, every one of these 
 bodies would have remained for ever apart and im- 
 movable. But as forces draw together these nuitually 
 attractive material objects, their Energy assumes for 
 a moment the Kinetic Mode. The falling water, the 
 movinj' «jlacier, the oxv^en rushinj; to unite with the 
 coal, each pass for a shorter or longer period through 
 the Kinetic stage. As they aggregate, their Energy is 
 given off in some other form of motion, involving 
 separation. Hut as they move about, they part with 
 this motion in separating other masses or molecules, and 
 the attractive Force soon brin<;s them together ajjain. 
 
 And what is the meaning of the Law of Conserva- 
 tion ? Simply Uiis : that the total of statical separa- 
 tion, plus the total of motion, in all particles what- 
 soever, material or ethereal, is always a constant 
 quantity. In other words, separation can never yield 
 to aggregation without generating an equivalent 
 amount of motion, which itself may pass into separa- 
 tion of some other sort: while, conversely, motion 
 can never cease without generating either an equiva- 
 lent separation or an equivalent other motion. Thus 
 a body at a heigiit cannot fall without generating an 
 amount of motion proportionate in a known ratio to 
 its mass and height, which motion itself is transferred 
 
THE NATURE OF ENERGY 77 
 
 on the body's fjill to its several moleeules, ciusing a 
 separative action aniongtliem; and tliis motion is again 
 transferred to the ether : while, similarly, a piece of 
 coal cannot combine with oxygen withont yielding np 
 its separation in the form of molecular motion, which 
 motion may raise vapour of water to a considerable 
 separation from the earth's central mass, and be itself 
 finally yielded up to the ether. In short, the 
 alternative Modes of Energy are Actual Separation, 
 and Motion which eventuates in Separation. 
 
 Furthermore, no body can be prevented from 
 saturating its aggregative tendencies except by an 
 Energy. There is no known way in which the total 
 of bodies can be kept apart from their closest con- 
 junction with one another except by continuous 
 motion, like that of a planet, a lop, or a vibrating 
 molecule. Even the case of Interference of Forces, 
 which at first sight seems an exception, is not really 
 so (though for convenience' sake we have treated it 
 as such), because to suppose that the suspended ball 
 will break its string or the weight push through the 
 table is to suppose that a weaker aggregative tendency 
 will overpower a stronger one. In all the laiger 
 bodies of the Universe we see the discrete state main- 
 tained by orbital Energy : and in all the molecules of 
 liquids and gases on this earth we see the discrete 
 state maintained by heat, or contiimous vibration. 
 
7« A nS TRACT OR AXA LYTIC 
 
 CHAPTER XVIT. 
 
 TUB XATURB OF MOTIOX. 
 
 Last of all conies the question, — What is Motion F 
 Divesting our minds of all concrete associations and 
 locking at the phenomenon in itself, we arrive at the 
 following unfamiliar conclusion. 
 
 Motion is the ^Nlode by which Energy (or Separa- 
 tion) is transferred from one portion of matter to 
 another, and ultimately from matter, to the ethereal 
 medium. 
 
 Wlien the Motion is simply separative we see this 
 in a moment. A ball fired upward, a weight carried 
 to a height, or an atom disengaged from a compound, 
 sliow us motion as ecpiivalent to separation, in its 
 naked form. When we look at Motion along a 
 line at equal distances from the attractive centres — 
 as in the case of a locomotive running along a level 
 — we do not at first see how the Energy can be con- 
 sidered as separative. But as soon as we reflect that 
 the Energy recjuired for the purpose is entirely rela- 
 
rHE SATURE OF MOTIOX 79 
 
 five to the rosistanoes which must he overcome as 
 
 soon as we recollect that if there were no friction, 
 the initial Enerfjy would carry on the movin«T body 
 for ever, and that where there is little friction the 
 moving body contiimes to proceed for a long period 
 in the same direction without conspicuous loss of 
 speed— we see that each new increment of energy 
 from the l)urning coal is used up— not in intensify- 
 ing the rate of motion, but in overcoming friction, 
 in wearing down the projecting particles of the 
 machinery and the rails, in producing heat, and so, 
 ultimately, in setting up separative actions. This 
 case leads us on to that of a planet having orbital 
 Energy, or a molecule having Vibratory Motion. In 
 both these instances the substance to which the Enercry 
 is imparted is far subtler and more tenuous, being in 
 fact the ethereal medium. Yet in both we see that 
 as their Energy is lost, they aggregate with attractive 
 bodies, and we thus perceive the separative nature of 
 their motion. At the same time we see it as a mere 
 incident in the transference of separation from matter 
 to ether. Lastly, in the case of aggregative move- 
 ments, we see that the Motion replaces for a time the 
 separation of masses, molecules, atoms, or electrical 
 units, as they rush together; but we also see the 
 same separation afterwards transmitted to some other 
 form of matter or to the ether, as heat, li^dit, elec- 
 
8o ABSTRACT OR AXAIA'T/C 
 
 trical separation, or some other form of separative 
 Energy. 
 
 Again, in every ease, the ether is the final gainer 
 of Energy, and every Motion is only an incident whirh 
 ultimately effects the transferof Energy (i.e. separation) 
 from matter to ether. On the surface of our earth, 
 where so large an amount of Energ}- is being daily 
 poured down by the sun, this truth is masked by the 
 fact that new Energy continually replaces tlie old. 
 Ihit if we leave out of considerati(Mi the accretions 
 thus made to our store of Energy, we shall see that 
 every Motion originates in an aggregation — whetner 
 it be through the fiill of a body at a heiglii, or the 
 burning of coul in an engine, or the oxidation of 
 food in an animal body — and that after the motion 
 has taken place, there is a less total of Potential Energy 
 on the earth, while the Kinetic Energy has been trans- 
 ferred, in whole or in part, to the ether. This prin- 
 ciple, here briefly alluded to in the abstract, will be 
 fully developed in the portion of this work devoted 
 to concrete phenomena. Far more evident, how- 
 ever, is this truth when we look to the wider sidereal 
 system. There, we see at once that all Kinetic Energy 
 is the correlative of an aggregation, and that the 
 separative Power, which once divided the ponderable 
 matter composing the various suns, is now being 
 radiated off, as they aggregate, in the form of ethereal 
 Kinetic Enertiv — or, as we oftener say. of Tiight aiul 
 
THE .\ATUKl-: OF AfOTWX 
 
 Si 
 
 Heat. This Eiior^ry, when it falls i.p„„ smh a mass 
 as our own planet, at once displays its separative 
 nature by such phenomena as the melting of ice, the 
 raising of aciiieous vapour, the formation of wincls,'an(l 
 the production of living organisms. These questions, 
 again, will be fully discussed in the Second Tart of 
 til is book. 
 
 Briefly, we may say that the shortest formula to 
 embrace the facts of Kinetic Energy is the follow- 
 ing:— Motion is the redistribution of separations. 
 
 We have now completed our rapid survey of the 
 abstract principles of Transcendental Dynamics, and 
 may proceed to consider their concrete numifesta- 
 tions. JJefore doing so, it was the author's origiual 
 intention to glance briefly in a separate Part at certain 
 
 . othersu])()rdinatefactsconnectedwiththedevelopment 
 of the subject. The Laws laid down in the present First 
 Part mostly refer to that department of science known 
 as Physics; though we ha^'e treated incidentally of 
 many facts commonly h.oked upon as chemical and 
 electrical. A special Part ought f(» have been dedi- 
 cated to a brief examiuation of certain ([ualitative 
 propositions in Chemistry and Ele(;trical Science : but 
 this task, unfortunately, the author has found impos- 
 .sible of achievement with his existing knowledge. 
 He therefore proceeds at onre to the ronerete mani- 
 fest at i(ms. 
 
.4 
 
^' k' 
 
 Tart IT. 
 
 CONCRETE OR SYNTlfETfC 
 
 S 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 DYNAMICAL FOHMULA OF THE UXIVEHSE. 
 
 We have now to consider in their concrete appli- 
 cations the abstract hiws laid down in the First 
 Part. Our chief object in doing so will be to show 
 how simply and clearly the wider dynamical relations 
 of the Universe can be comprehended under our con- 
 ception of Force and Energy, as two mutually op- 
 posing and indestructible forms of Power. 
 
 If we conceive a Universe without any inherent 
 Force, all of whose atoms stood at varying distances 
 from one another, we can see that it would con- 
 tinue for ever motionless, all its Energy remaining 
 in the Potential Mode as simple statical separation.'' 
 
 ' In the current lanf»imge of Physics, Biich a state of separation 
 would not be spoken of as Potential Energj' at all. It would only be 
 considered as such when a Force attracting the atoms had been intro- 
 duced into the closed system. It is unfortunate that we must use the 
 term * Potential ' in such a case ; but as we have here kept it through- 
 out, instead of the simpler and more logical plirase ' Energj* of Statical 
 Separation ' proiwsed in an earlier page of this treatise, it will be better, 
 in spite of the verbal incongruity, till to continue its use in this Purl 
 
16 coxcKiriK OK sYwrnirnc 
 
 There would he notliiiij^ to dnivv to^'et her its scat- 
 tered parts, or to set up motion in a sin^de one of 
 its particles. On the other hand, if we con<'elve a 
 Universe actuated only by Force, we can see that it 
 would a;/«;re«,Mte inuiiediately it' it were in a discrete 
 form, or that it would preserve its inertia if it were 
 already absolutely aggregated. There would be no 
 Conservation of Energy, and each mass, as it glided 
 into the central whole, would simply subside without 
 communicating its motion or sei)aratioii to adjijining 
 masses. liut the only Universe which we know by 
 observation is actuated both by Force and Energy. It 
 consists in part of ponderable atoms, molecules, and 
 masses, each of which tends to aggregate with the 
 others, but each of which can oidy get rid of itt 
 se])aration by jjassing it on to some other substance, 
 either as separation or as its ecpiivalent, motion. It 
 also consists in part of other relatively im})onderable 
 particles, known as ether, occnipying all the inter- 
 spaces, great or small, between the ponderable bodies, 
 and capable of receiving and imparting F^nergy from 
 or to the ponderable units. And inasmuch as ail 
 moving bodies part with some portion of their motion 
 to every other body with which they come in contact 
 
 Of course the word ' Enerjjy ' itself ill describes sucli a Power as that 
 which we have envisaged under that name— a power wliose chief 
 priniordial manifestation is wholly statical. But we have thought it 
 well to continue calling it by the most familiar name. 
 
DVSAMICAL FORMULA OF THE UMVEHSL 87 
 
 in every direction, und, fiirtlier, injusnnicli as the 
 interspaces of pondcral)!^ ])odie.s are infinitely j^'reater 
 than the space occnpicd by .snch bodies, it must 
 necessarily follow that the total aniouiit of energy re- 
 ceived by the ether from all ponderable bodies must 
 be very much greater than the total amount of Energy 
 received by all jionderalile boibes from the ether. 
 In other words, the ponderable bodies must be 
 aggregating, and passing on their Energy to the 
 ether. 
 
 Our Dynamical Formuhi of the existing Universe, 
 so far as it is known to us in its present stage, 
 will therefore be a deduction from the IjJIW of the 
 Indestructibility of Tower — that is, from the joint 
 principles of Persistence of Force and Conservation 
 of Energy. It may be stated as follows. 
 
 All the ponderable bodies of the Universe are 
 continuously aggregating under the influence of 
 Forces, and are imparting their Energy to the ethe- 
 real medium : such continuous aggregation being 
 only locally interfered with where the Energy 
 imparted to the ether by one aggregating mass falls 
 upon the surlace of another mass, and there sets up 
 temporary separative action, in opposition to the local 
 Forces. 
 
 It may be added that such local separatlv^e action, 
 as hinted above, is not sullicient in amount to counter- 
 
88 COXC/^KT/-: OR sy\TH/:J7C 
 
 act the general aggregative action jmkI that, in con- 
 setiueiice, tlie ponderable matter of tlie Universe is 
 daily becoming, as u Avhole, more aggregated, ^vhile 
 the etliereal medium is dailvbecominj? more enertretic : 
 though we have no means oi" knowing whether the 
 Energy absor])edby the ether continues always in the 
 Kinetic Mode, or finally assumes the form oi" statical 
 separation. 
 
 We have now to apply this Formula to the explana- 
 tion of the concrete phenomena presented by the 
 Universe in its various portions. Our explanation 
 will serve a double purpose, as a deductive aililiation 
 of the several sciences on the Law of the Indestructi- 
 bility of Power, and as a verification of our abstract 
 principles by their exact coincidence with well-known 
 facts. 
 
89 
 
 CirAlTEK II. 
 
 TJIK SIDKRKAL SV.STKM. 
 
 TiiK lile-hi.story of the material Universe, as known 
 and predictable by us, is the history of its passage 
 from a diffused nebulous state to an an<rreoated solid 
 state, through a vast number of intermediate stages 
 each one of which is an advance in aggregation upon 
 the stage which preceded it. Whether or not the 
 universe had any previous state to that of the earliest 
 known nebula, whether it will have any later state 
 than that of the absolutely aggregated mas;:, are 
 speculative questions into which we will not enter 
 in the present treatise. It will be suflicient for our 
 purpose to trace the history of matter in its existing 
 phase, from its iirst known form as numberless dif- 
 fused atoms, to its last knowable form as a single 
 aggregated mass. 
 
 All modern science compels us to posit as start- 
 ing point a primordial state of the Universe in which 
 its ■ aious masses, molecules, and atoms stood apart 
 
90 CONCRETE OR SYXTHETIC 
 
 fioin one another at nnknown distances. ]kit caoli 
 particle liad inherent in it those forces which were 
 destined in the future to effect its aggregation with 
 every other. Accordingly, however we figure to 
 ourselves the beginning as absolute or relative (and 
 it must be allowed that we have here reached the 
 utmost limits of our conceptive faculty), we cannot 
 but suppose that from the moment of that begiiming 
 the various particles began to set at once towards 
 one another. The primordial form of Energy was 
 therefore all Potential, and it nuist immediately have 
 begun to assume in part the Kinetic Mode. 
 
 If we assume that the primitive cosmical nebula 
 was perfectly spherical in shape, and absolutely 
 homogeneous and uniform in the disposition of its 
 various atoms, then we can hardly resist the inference 
 that, as each particle would be quite eveidy attracted 
 towards the connnon centre of gravity, thej-e would 
 have resulted a single aggregating sphere, whose 
 Potential Energy would all have passed into the form 
 of heat as the atoms clashed together, and would 
 have been slowly communicated to the circumambient 
 ether, until the whole mass had assumed its most 
 aggregated shape. But as we do not find this condi- 
 tion fulfilled by the existing Universe, we must con- 
 jecture that the primitive nebula was not uniform in 
 shape or in texture — that it enclosed within it groups 
 
THE SIDEREAL SYSTEM 91 
 
 of tenuous nuitter more or less separated iVom other 
 ^r()ui)s l)v lines of demarcation Jiiore or less stron<r. 
 Such ineciualities of distribution may have been in- 
 finitesimal ; for it is only necessary to our purj^ise 
 that certain atoms, besides their general gravitation 
 towards the comuion centre, should also have dis- 
 l)layed a special gravitation towards special centres. 
 Granted this, the reason for the discrete condition of 
 the sidereal masses becomes obvious. 
 
 But when each ultimate particle began to unite 
 with each other particle, the Law of Conservation de- 
 manded that their Energy of statical separation should 
 not die out as they coalesced, but should pass on to 
 some other body or assume some other form. The 
 manner in which it actually shows itself is that of 
 heat. Within each sidereal mass, the atoms are in 
 a fierce state of vibratory movement, the correlative 
 of their previous separation and of the Kinetic Energy 
 of their mutually aggregative motion. This vibratory 
 movement is perpetually being communicated to the 
 adjacent ether as Eadiant Energy, and a correspond- 
 ing aggregation within the sidereal mass is perpetually 
 taking place. Each sun is thus a body of aggre- 
 gating atoms, being drawn together from moment to 
 moment by their inherent Forces, wlule their Energy 
 of statical separation, after passing hito the continuous 
 Kinetic form as true Heat (molecular vibration), is 
 
92 COXCRETE OR SYXTHETIC 
 
 yielded up, little by little, to the adjacent particles of 
 ether as Itadiant Eneiyy. The l-jier^ry thus absoi-bed 
 by the ether is passed on by it from particle to 
 l)article of its substance, radiating in every direction 
 tliroughout all space, {^onie small portion strikes 
 the surface of our planet, both from our own sun 
 and otliers like it ; and it is known to us as Liidit 
 
 o 
 
 and Heat. 
 
 We thus see that all the Energy of Light and 
 Heat radiating througli the whole of space from the 
 various material masses has for its origin the statical 
 separation of the primordial neljula. ]kit is this 
 ecpially true of the Kinetic Energy of their various 
 relative motions? There is reason to think that 
 it is. 
 
 The Universe as a whole has a connnon centre of 
 gravity, towards which all its various masses are 
 attracted. Those masses still possess Potential 
 Energy in virtue of their separation from one another 
 and from this central point of union : and it is clear 
 that if they were to aggregate suddenly round that 
 point, their Potential I^iergy would become Kinetic 
 as they fell, and would be transmuted into Heat as 
 they clashed together at the common cosmical meet- 
 ing-place. It would then be radiated off into the 
 ether, and the matter would gradually assume a solid 
 and perfectly aggregated form. Now, it is possible 
 
THE SIDEREAL SYSTEM 93 
 
 that some of the sidereal masses mav be thus crravl- 
 tating towards tlie common centre in a direct hue ; 
 and if they are, tlien it is clear that their motion is 
 the correlative of their previous separation. J3iit 
 i^ is more probable that the various suns are pre- 
 vented from aggregating directly with one another 
 by some form of continuous motion. We are sure 
 in the case of the best-known large masses— the earth 
 and other planets— that tliey are prevented from 
 aggregating with their relative centre, the sun, by 
 the continuous Energy of their orbital motion. We 
 also know that certain special suns — the double stars 
 — have such a relative motion with regard to one 
 another. We further know tliat all stars have a 
 proper motion whose cycle is so immense that it 
 cannot be measured by the short period of human 
 observation. It is prol)al)le, therefore, that the 
 ascertained cause whicli prevents central aggrerration 
 in the known cases (namely, orbital motion) mav be 
 fairly extended to the unknown cases. We may 
 conclude, accordingly, that all the heavenly bodies 
 are prevented from aggregating around the common 
 cosmical centre of gravity owing to their possession 
 of a relative orbital movement. Of course, there may 
 be many cycles of such orbital movciiicnts one with- 
 in the other, as we know to Ik- tlie case with the 
 satellites which circle round a jjlanet, while the plane 
 
94 COXCKET/C OA' SYXri/llTlC 
 
 circles round the sun, and llic sun lias his own proper 
 motion. All that is contended here is nierelv this 
 — that each mass or set of masses is prohahly pre- 
 vented from ai;<;re<'atin<' with each other mass or set 
 of masses, around their relative centre, or around 
 the absolute cosmical centre, by some continuous 
 Kinetic Eneryv, analoijous to the known orbital 
 motion of the planets and their satellites. Now, is 
 this continuous Energy the transmuted form of pre- 
 vious separation in the parts of each mass ? In the 
 best-known case — that of the masses composing the 
 solar system — astronomical authority has decided 
 that it is. Laplace has shown that the orbital 
 motions of the planets and satellites, as well as the 
 axial motions of the sun and its dependent bodies, 
 may be accounted for by the falling together of nebu- 
 lous matter, whose Energy of separation, becoming 
 Kinetic in the act of aggregation, and then receivin<j 
 a check, communicates motion to the whole mass. 
 In what way this axial motion is converted into 
 orbital motion we shall see when we come to(;onsider 
 the solar system in the next chapter. For the pre- 
 sent it must sufllce to point out that the Enei-gy of 
 relative motion in heavenly bodies is thus probably 
 due, like their Energy of Heat, to the primordial 
 Potential Energy of their originally sej^arate and 
 discrete particles. 
 
THE SIDEREAL SYSTEM 95 
 
 Aj^'iiin, is tliis Molar Kiiicfic Kiiciyy <»r relative 
 motion in the various lioavcnlv bodies Ijcincr yielded 
 lip to the ether, as we fsaw to be the case with their 
 Molecular Kinetic Ener<rj% which is l)eiiig dispersed 
 from moment to moment throu<,di all space in the 
 radiant form ? There are reasons for thinkinf; tliat 
 this also is the fact. It is now pretty generally 
 admitted that orbital Energy is slowly lost by ethereal 
 friction in the case of the planets: and there is no 
 reason to doubt that it is ecpially h)st in the case of 
 these larger masses, the fixed stars. And as the 
 Kinetic Energy of orbital motion seems to be the 
 only barrier to aggregation under the influence of 
 gravitation, it will follow that as this Energy is im- 
 parted to the ether, the various heaveidy bodies will 
 draw closer and closer together, until, when all their 
 Energy has been transferred to ether, they will 
 aggregate in absolute contact around their common 
 centre. 
 
 Let us restate then, in a simpler way, the proba- 
 l)le con(,'lusions to which we are led. The Material 
 Universe originally existed as avast nebula of discrete 
 particles, in which Persistent Forces and Conservative 
 Energies were inherent. As its Forces drew together 
 the particles into several masses their Potential 
 Energy became Kinetic. Part of it assumed the 
 Molar form, and drove the various masses in orbit 
 
96 co.\'cki:tk or svyniiync 
 
 within orbit aroiiiid their rchitive centres, and, ulti- 
 mately, round the coninioi coi^niical centre. Part of 
 it assumed the Molecular form, and kept the mole- 
 cules of each mass in a state of rapid continuous 
 vibration. But each Kinetic Energy alike was and is 
 continually being yielded up to the ethereal medium. 
 As Jladiaut Energy, the Molecular motion is from 
 day to day in\parted to the ether, and transmitted to 
 the furthest ends of space. Some small portion of it 
 falls upon other material masses, scattered like lonely 
 islands in the ocean of ether, and may there set up 
 separative action : but the vastly greater portion is 
 never again expended on a particle of matter. As 
 ethereal friction, tlte Molar motion is more slowly 
 vielded up to the ether, in which it produces (pro- 
 bably) wavT^s of heat(or low-powered radiant Energy). 
 And there is no reason to doubt that this process will 
 go on indcfuiitoly until it reaches its final result. The 
 Molecular ]V[otion will probably be dissipated until 
 each mass has grown cold and inert : the Molar Mo- 
 tion will probably be dissipated until all the masses 
 a<jf<n-e<(ate round their common centre. The Material 
 Universe, which began as a number of discrete par- 
 ticles, will end as a single aggregated mass : all the 
 Energy which was inherent in its separate form will 
 have been transferred to the ether : and inotion will 
 have l)cen the means of transference, the repre- 
 
THE SID ERE A I. SYSTEM 97 
 
 sontative of the sepanitioii during its iiitcnnodJate 
 sta/ie. 
 
 Of courso, in tliis brief .sketcli of tlie cosmioal lifo- 
 liistory many incidents of vast relative importance are 
 necessarily omitted. One mass — wlietlier sun,])lanet, 
 or satellite, — circlinfj round another, may part with 
 its Molar or orbital Ener;^'y, and may a<:i,n-e;,'ate witli 
 its central mass, lo!i<^ l)efore other masses have d(^ne 
 so. At the moment when two such bodies a^'^fregate, 
 doul)tless some portion of their Molar I'lner^^fy will 
 still remain, and this will probably be converted into 
 the Molecular species, and radiated away as heat and 
 liijrht. But such minor incidents, forminj; the several 
 steps of the great process by which matter is aggre- 
 gated and Energy dissipated into ether, do not inter- 
 fere with the main process as laid down above. 
 Moreover, as the history of one such episode — that of 
 the solar system — will be more fully considered in 
 our next chapter, it is less necessary to enter into 
 details at the present stage. 
 
 This chapter contains much that is purely specu- 
 lative and may raise objections in many minds. That 
 is inevitable, considering the vastness of the subject 
 and our ignorance of the facts. But as we progress 
 to the solar system the speculative cliaracter of our 
 explanations will gradually decrease : and when we 
 reach our own planet — the most practically important 
 
 u 
 
9l COXCKICTK OK SYXTHKTIC 
 
 f 
 
 to ourselves — the element of liypothesiswill (lisappc.-ir 
 
 altofjetlier. Forsyininefry's sake, however, it is neees- 
 
 Bary that the less eertain eosmieal applicntioii of our 
 
 l)rinciples should precede the more certain mundane 
 
 application. 
 
90 
 
 C'lrArTKPv TIT. 
 
 Tin-] SOLAR SYSTKNf. 
 
 Amono tlic minor amrroaatinrr massos into which tlm 
 msmiral noht.la may l)o supposed to have split up, 
 in tlio course of its ^roneral amnv^r.ative cycle, was 
 a prroup of matter out of wliich our own sohir system 
 has ])een developed. In its earliest separate pliase we 
 may sui)pose tliis *rronp to have consisted of various 
 minor portions, in varying stages of aggregation, re- 
 volving in a single direction around their conunon 
 contre. (T)etails about the direction of Xeptune and 
 Tranus may he safely neglected.) We mav further 
 Huppose that the nel.uh.us or quasi-nel,uh.us mass 
 thus C(miposed again divided itself, along its weakest 
 rohesive lines, into other portions, which have aggre- 
 gated into the existing planetary gi-onps; while U^ese 
 latter again su})divided themselves into the centi-al 
 masses and their satellites. It is immaterial for our 
 purpose whether, with the earlier evolutionists, we 
 regard these changes as taking place in a relatively 
 
 u J 
 
too COXCRF.TE OR SVWniKTJC 
 
 liomor»onooussul>st;iTi('o, a (lifTiiscd n('l)iila,or wlictluT, 
 with thoir lator followers, wo sot thorn down to a*'- 
 ^rof,'ativo aotion in coniparativoly solid and discrete 
 masses (meteors), like those which we know to exist 
 in large tracts within the sphere of the solar 
 system. Ihit the inij)ortant point to not ice in either 
 case is this, that these pronpin^'s and su])-<rron})inps 
 took })lace under the inHuence of Forces, and that the 
 Potential Energy of separation between the masses or 
 molecules became Kinetic as they clashed together, and 
 assumed the form of Heat. The various masses thus 
 became each of them a little sun, ajrjjrefjating around 
 their several centres, and radiating their Energy into 
 the surrounding ether. As in other cases, some small 
 portion of this Energy would fall upon neighbouring 
 masses, belonging either to the same system or to other 
 systems, and would there do a little towards retarding 
 the aggregation of their matter and the dissipation of 
 their Energy ; ])ut the greater portion would doubtless 
 be lost in the vast interstellar spaces ; so that the gene- 
 ral result would be a loss of Energy to matter, and 
 a gain of Energy to the ethereal medium. 
 
 The various planets and satellites thus formed 
 would still possess Potential Energy in virtue of their 
 continued separation from one another. They would 
 also possess Molar Kinetic Energy in virtue of their 
 orbital movement, which acts as a preventive to their 
 
71IE SOLAR HYHTEM loi 
 
 immediate a^'«,Me^'.ilioii with their common centre, 
 the sun. And, finally, they woiild possess ^^ole('nlar 
 Kinetie Energy through the vibratory movement ot* 
 their molecules, derived from the previous Kinetic 
 Energy of their aggregative motion. But as tlieir 
 particles vibrated, they would j)art from moment 
 to moment with portions of their Energy to the 
 surrounding ether. This loss of Energy would only 
 largely allect the periphery of each mass, and would 
 at first be inconspicuous at the centre. It would also 
 affect the smaller masses much more rapidly than the 
 greater, for two reasons ; both because the amount 
 of aggregatin<' matter being less, the amount of heat 
 generated would also be less; and bt cause losses of 
 heat from the periphery could not so easily be made 
 up by condu('tit)n from the centre. The smaller 
 masses would accordingly cool at their surfaces at 
 comparatively early periods ; while the larger ones, 
 in proportion to the amount of unaggregated matter 
 within the sphere of their attraction, would continue 
 for long periods to receive fresh accessions to their 
 molecular Energy, and to radiate Light and Heat 
 mto the surrounding ether. Especially would the 
 largest mass of all, the central sun, continue for an 
 immense era to aggregate the surrounding masses 
 and to radiate the liberated Energy mto '.ne space 
 around. 
 
I02 Cr CONCRETE OR SYXIJIETIC 
 
 Furtlicr, we may concliitle tlmt as the surface of 
 each mass parted with its Energy, its superficial 
 molecules would be drawn toj^ether bv the Forces of 
 cohesion and chemical affuiitv. We should thus ffet 
 a solid cohering framework on the exterior of each 
 ■ mass, as soon as it had i)arted with a considerable 
 portion of its molecular Ener<iv to the surroundiiij'' 
 ether. ^ Through this cohering crust, the central 
 Energy would slowly escape by conduction: until, 
 sooner or later, we might expect each such mass to 
 consist of a cold and inert collection of molecules, 
 the whole Energy of whose previous separation had 
 been yielded up to the ether. ]3ut a special inci- 
 dent of this transference mijiht occasionally occur to 
 break the monotony of its simjile course. As the 
 central Energy escaped through the cohering crust, 
 there miji'ht be a tendency for the interior molecules 
 to be drawn together under the influence of cohesion 
 and gravitation. A second crust would thus tend to 
 form itself beneath the outer one. Thereupon, the 
 Force of gravitation might outweigh the cohesion of 
 the outer crust, which would yield under the strain 
 and fall in upon the subjacent mass, breaking along 
 its line of least cohesion. Each such ftdl would be 
 
 ' The cases of the ocean and the atinospherc, whicli ajipcar to 
 contradict this general stati'nient, but whose form is reall.\ due to the 
 poparative action of radiant solor J'^ncrgy, will be treated in the next 
 chapter. 
 
THE SOLAR SYSTEM 103 
 
 Itself a change of Potential into aggregative molar 
 Kinetic Energy, as the masses fell together ; and 
 ■when they clashed, tlie Euei'uv would assume the 
 molecular form and ])e given oil' as heat. Ihit, how- 
 ever the aggregation takes place, as the matter of 
 each group aggregated more and moi'e closely round 
 its centre, the Energy of its previous separation would 
 he given off as heat, and would fnially be imparted, as 
 in every other case, to the ethereal medium. 
 
 While each mass was thus parting (l)y radiation) 
 with the Molecular Kinetic Ener»iv result inj"- from its 
 previous separation and aggregative motion, it would 
 also be parting, though more slowly (by ethereal 
 friction) with the Molar Kinetic Energy of its orbital 
 motion. Each satellite would thus be drawing pro- 
 gressively nearer to its primary, and each planet to 
 the sun. As every unit of Energy was lost, gravita- 
 tion would draw the body one unit nearer to its 
 relative centre. It might thus be e^xpected that each 
 satellite would agurenate with its primarv before the 
 primary jjlanet aggregated with the sun. At each 
 such aggregation, though the greater part of the 
 orbital Energy would doubtless be already dissipated, 
 yet it is probable that as the two bodies glided to- 
 gether (for they would not /'c^//, as is often erroneously 
 said) there would be a considerable residue of Energy 
 still reivuiininu', which, on the shock of collision. 
 
I04 CONCRETE OK SYNTHETIC 
 
 would be converted into molecular motion (or heat), 
 and wonld be sutricient to reduce the bodies to a 
 molten state. But this incident, instead of interfer- 
 ing with the final agj^n'cgative ])rocess, would really 
 hasten it : because the new nnited body would at 
 once begin radiating off its heat into space, and once 
 more cool down to a mass of cold and inert molecules. 
 In other words, all the remaining Energy of sejjara- 
 tion belonguig to the sateUite in virtue of its discrete 
 condition, and all the remaining Kinetic Energy of 
 its orbital motion, would thereupon be dissipated into 
 the surrounding ether : and the united mass would 
 continue to gravitate slowly towards the central 
 sun. What is thus probable of the satellites in 
 relation to their primai'ies is equally probable of the 
 planets in relation to the sun. As their Energy of 
 orbital motion is dissipated by ethereal friction, we 
 conclude that they are drawing nearer and nearer, 
 step by st€^p, to the centre of our system. And there 
 is no reason to doubt that they will continue to do so 
 until they each slowly aggre<.jate with the central 
 mass, converting their remaining Energy as they 
 clash together, into heat, which will itself go for a 
 time to swell the volume of solar Energy, and will be 
 radiated off like the rest into surrounding space. 
 Finally, when the sun has aggregated with himself 
 ail the matter of the solar svstem, we mav conclude 
 
THE SOLAR SYSTEM 105 
 
 that he will ultinuitely radiate off all the iiiolecuilar 
 Energy derived iVoiu their aggregati(Mi, and become 
 himself a cold and inert mass, like some of those 
 biirnt-ont stars revealed to us by astronomy. And 
 then we may imagine that this single sphere, which 
 contains all tlie matter of our system, will itself i)ro- 
 ceed to aggregate with some other mass, in that 
 general cosmical group of wliich it forms an un- 
 important mend)er. Of course, it is impossible 
 to conjecture which of these aggregations will take 
 place first ; and it is quite conceivable that the whole 
 solar system might clasli with some other group of 
 worlds before its various meml)ers had time to aj?<n-e- 
 gate in this regular order with one another ; but if 
 our suggested theory of a general subordination of 
 systems and cycles to a conunon cosmical centre be 
 correct, then just as each satellite w^ould aggregate 
 with its primary before that primary had time to 
 aggregate with the sun, so each planet would have 
 aggregated with the sun before the sun had time 
 to aggregate with its superior mass. However 
 this may be, it will be sufficient if we regard the 
 probable course of events in the solar system as a 
 specimen of the probable incidents everywhere ac- 
 companying the course of aggregation round tlie 
 common cosmical centre, and briefly hinted in the 
 preceding chapter. 
 
io6 COXCKETE OK SYXTIIETIC 
 
 At tlio present inoineut of time, we occupy a 
 middle point in tlie systemic epoch tliiis sketched out. 
 The sun, our central mass, is still in a state of rapid 
 molecular motitni, which he imparts as Kadiant 
 Ener<jv to the ether. He has yet much outlvin<{ 
 matter to ajrgregate, and it seems prohahle that small 
 agcrregations are from day to day taking place. Of 
 the planets, the smaller have cooled down sulliciently 
 to possess a firm and coherent outer crust, while the 
 larger are still in a very volcanic state. The satellites 
 have probably radiated away all their proi)er heat, 
 and are already cold and inert to their centres. The 
 surface of the most easily observed, our own moon, 
 shows the vast corrugations which result from the 
 continual collapses of the crust uj)on the once heated 
 nucleus, and the reactions of the molten interior upon 
 the coherent outer shell : — corrugations relatively (if 
 not absolutely ?) much greater than any at present 
 found upon the surffice of our own earth. Some 
 small fraction of the Energy radiated from the sun 
 falls upon the cooled exteriors both of planets and 
 satellites. Of this, the greater i)ortion is reflected 
 back by dispersion, as we see from the case of the 
 moon, in every direction (only a small fraction of 
 this fraction again falling upon other masses). But 
 a certain lesser portion is used up in heating the outer 
 crusts, ui setting up evaporation, currents, and winds. 
 
THE SOLAR SYSTEM ,07 
 
 and ill producing tlie iilieiioiiieiia of ori^^auic life. 
 These secoiidaiy s('i)arative reactions of radiattd 
 Ijiei-gy upon tlie surface of a planet foi-ni tlie gi-eat 
 mass of those plienonieiia which arc generally obserxt d 
 by human beings. 
 
io8 COACRETE OR SYArHETIC 
 
 CHAPTEK IV. 
 
 THE EAIITII. 
 
 As we pass from the solar system to our own planet, 
 we leave tlie region of hypothesis, and arrive at that 
 of known facts. 
 
 The earth is a collection of material particles, the 
 vast majority of which, so far as revealed to our 
 observation, are in a state of stable aggregation 
 with one another, molar, molecular, chemical, and 
 electrical. Its centre may be — and probably is — still 
 occupied by a molten (though rigid) mass, whose heat 
 has not yet been fully conducted away : but the outer 
 crust, except at its exposed surface, consists of matter 
 aggregated in those molecularly cohering and chemi- 
 cally passive masses known as rocks. Its exterior is 
 not absolutely regular, but is in places corrugated 
 into certain elevations and depressions which we call 
 mountains, tablelands, valleys, and ocean-beds. The 
 portions elevated above the general level possess 
 Potential Enerrjv in virtue of their elevation : but the 
 
THE EARTH 109 
 
 Force of gravitation Ix'ing interfered with hy that 
 of coliesion, this ]'iner<ry cannot assume tlie Kinetic 
 ]\[o(le witliout the intervention of an external Liberat- 
 ing Energy. In short, while the centre of the earth 
 may still possess some molecular Energy of its own, 
 which is only slowly esca])ing through the outer 
 crust, its hard exterior is for the most part thoroughly 
 arrrrrerrated and almost devoid of relative Kinetic 
 Energy, except so far as it obtains small daily incre- 
 ments from the solar radiation. 
 
 If for a moment we leave out of consideration the 
 solar Energy thus absorbed, we can form some con- 
 ception of the appearance which the earth would 
 possess, supposing it left to its own resources. The 
 whole ocean and all the other water on the earth 
 would be frozen into a solid mass. There would be 
 no plants or animals on the surface, nor any winds, 
 storms, rain, snow, or lightning. What might be the 
 condition of the atmosphere we cannot say ; but we 
 may guess that it would be greatly diminished in size, 
 if not absolutely reduced to a solid form. Motion 
 upon the surface would be all but unknown : the 
 only movements whicli could ever cccur being those 
 which would occasionally result from those internal 
 causes that give rise to eartliquakes and volcanic 
 eruptions. These would still take place, as the 
 gradual loss of Energy from the central mass would 
 
no coxc/iiyn-: oa' svxti/ht/c 
 
 make the Force of <fravit;»ti<)n outwci'fli that of co- 
 lu'sion ; and tlie Potential Kner*^'}' vvliicli tliereiH)on 
 would be niol)ili.scd nii;ilit art as a liherative agent to 
 certain masses on the slopes, besides cansinfj perhaps 
 a temporary melting of some small portion o*' the 
 solidified water through volcanic, heat. ]hit these 
 incidents would themselves only accelerate the loss 
 of the remaining pi'oper Energy of our planet, which 
 would soon be imparted to the ethereal medium, and 
 leave our earth at last a perfectly inert mass of 
 aggregated particles. 
 
 In the world as we know it, however, very dif- 
 ferent phenomena arc observable ; and all these are 
 due to the separative action of Energies radiated from 
 the sun, which fall upon our earth, acting partly as 
 separative agents for the superficial molecules, and 
 partly as liberative agents for the various Potential 
 Energies whose mobilisation is prevented by inter- 
 fering Forces. Falling upon tlie atmosphere, the 
 Kinetic Energy of ethereal undulation prevents its 
 aggregation and keeps it permanently in the gaseous 
 form. If it be objected that the non-absorption of 
 i-adiant heat by the gases of the atmosphere is opposed 
 to this view% it may be answered that actual absorp- 
 tion is not necessarily implied : it will be sufficient 
 for our purpose if the original molecular mobility of 
 the gases is not diminished by conununication with 
 
THE EARTH ill 
 
 the ether. We eaiinot experiment upon the rondnct, 
 of oxy<(eu or nitro^jfcn at tlic absohite zero of tem- 
 perature, ])iit we liave ik^ reason to douht tliat at. 
 some extremely low point they would follow the 
 example of all other bodies, part with their molecular 
 Ener</y to the surrounding^ ctlicr, and ])ass tju'ou^h 
 the lifpiid into the solid form.' We know already 
 that earhonie anhydride can assume the frozen con- 
 dition, and it is hardly probable that the simple 
 atmospheric fj^ii^es would not do the same, under 
 similar circumstances, could we only command suf- 
 ficient Power for their li([uefaction. Fairm<f upon 
 the water, the ethereal Kner<ry acts in opposition to 
 its cohesive Force, and keeps it habitually in the; 
 lif[uid state, at least in tropical and temperate 
 climates. Nor is it only by compelling them to 
 assume the gaseous and li(piid forms that the ethereal 
 Energy displays its separative nature on air and 
 water: it also acts in opposition to gravitation. It 
 heats many water-molecules till they evaporate, ajid 
 then raises them to considerable heights in the air. 
 It expands the atmosphere of the tropics (by conduc- 
 tion and convection), and causes the phenomena of 
 monsoons, winds, and storms. In a similar way it 
 produces the ocean currents. And it thus becomes 
 
 ' Since this was wiitten, the solidification of oxygen lins been 
 actually accomplished. 
 
in coxcRfrri': or sY\Tff/:T/c 
 
 the cause of all motioiia on the faco of tlio oartli, 
 except those of or<jairK' bcin^^rs, to ha treated here- 
 after. It must be noticed throii^dioiit, liowever, 
 that these disintegrative effects are only directly pro- 
 duced upon the lifjuid and ^^aseous substances in 
 which the force of cohesion is very slight. Those 
 more solid and coherent masses, the rocks, are little 
 acted upon, and that oidy indirectly, by Liberating 
 Energies in the li([uids and gases, as will more fully 
 jippear hereafter. 
 
 But the Energy which thus falls upon the surface 
 of the earth from day to day, and sets up these sepa- 
 rative actions in its less coherent sujierficial molecules, 
 does not long remain upon the face of our planet. 
 Each portion of the earth's surface is turned (on an 
 averaire) for one half of each twenty-four hours to- 
 wards the sun, and for one half away from the sun. 
 The heat which struck it during the da}- and was 
 partly absorbed by its superficial molecules is more 
 or less radiated away to the ether during the succeed- 
 in<r niijht. In such a case as that of Sahara, where 
 there is no organic life on wliose production the 
 Energy is permanently expended, and little vapour of 
 water to retain the heat — almost all the Energy re- 
 ceived during the daytime is radiated away at ni<dit, 
 so that the thermometer often sinks below the freez- 
 ing point. Here we have the naked facts uncom- 
 
THE EARTH iij 
 
 pliratt'd by tlu* ])r()l)l('ins of life and tlic iiiterfrroiuf 
 of rain and wind. On the ocean, (he solar Knerjjv 
 absorliod by the water raises larj^e masses of waterv 
 vapour to a considora])le lieight. There, the vapour 
 parts sooner or hiter with some of its Kner*ry to the 
 ether, and ajx^ref^atinfj in the form of rain, converts 
 the remainder from the Potential to the Kinetic AFode, 
 finally yieldin_<^ it up again as heat when it once more 
 reaches the ocean. So in this case too, though 
 
 less conspicuously than in the fornici*, llie absorbed 
 I'^nergy, after causing temporary separations, is before 
 long dissipated, while the particles which it affected 
 once more aggregate in obedience to their inherent 
 Forces. On the ordinary fertile land-patches the 
 solar ]"'nergy is partly returned at once by radiation, 
 as in Sahara; partly used up in evaporation, as on 
 the ocean ; and partly employed in the production of 
 living organisms. In the first case, the retransference 
 of the Energy to the ether is obvious ; in the second 
 case, though less immediate, it yet takes place, as ex- 
 plained above, when the vapour falls again as rain ; 
 but in the third case, the transfers are more invol\-ed, 
 and will have to be treated in separate chapters. 
 It will be enough for the present to point out that 
 every orf^anism sooner or later dies, and that then the 
 Energy which was embodied in its production is 
 once more given up to the ether on the chemical 
 
 1 
 
114 coxcki:t/-: on svxT/nrr/c 
 
 HL'<j;r('j;ati<)n of oxy^'cn niul oilier (Iccomposing aj^cnts 
 ■VNifh its component atoms. 
 
 Let us now look in detail at a few of the ways in 
 which the separation, yielded up to the ether by ])ar- 
 ticles of solar matter as they a<rj,fre«;ated, is recon- 
 verted into separation between sli^^dilly-coherent mnn- 
 dane particles, and is finally transferred again to ether. 
 
 A lake in the northernmost part of the temperate 
 zone is frozen over during the winter. The conjpa- 
 ratively small amount of solar Energy wJiich affects 
 it does not suffice to separate its particles from their 
 cohesive union. Ihit when the earth sliifts its posi- 
 tion by oscillating slightly on a particular axis, the 
 conditions of aerial refraction are altered, and the 
 amount of radiant Eiierfxv which is concentrated on 
 this particular spot is largely increased. The first 
 eflfect of this Energy is to loosen the aggregated mole- 
 cules from their solid state and to make them assume 
 the liquid form. The Energy thus absorbed remains 
 in the water as ' latent heat,' in other words either as 
 Potential Energy of separation or as Kinetic Energy 
 of motion : and when the water again freezes, it is 
 yielded up to the surrounding atmosphere, often in 
 the visible form of warm mist. After tlie separa- 
 tive Power has "produced this first effect in melting 
 the ice, fresh quantities are from day to day poured 
 upon the surface of tlie now liquid lake. Here, the 
 
THF. EARTH ii; 
 
 licat prodiu'OH fiiitlicr srpjiiation ln'twci'ii llic supcr- 
 fi(.'ial inolcciilcs, so (liat oven tlio .sli^'lit (■iilicsivc power 
 of liquids is ovorcomo, and tlw particlos assuinc the 
 vaporous state. Tlicrrupoti llicy aro raisod into flic 
 air, and drifted about hy the winds, which themselves 
 result from the 8e})arative action of heat. After a 
 time, the particles lose by radiation and convection 
 much of their Kinetic Kner«fy, and l)e<.'in once more to 
 ajrgrpiTjtte into rain-drops. These fall upon the sur- 
 roundin*^ hei<:fhts, and finally find their way aj/ain into 
 the lake. Hut the Ener«.fy which raised them has by 
 this time been di.ssipated, and fresh Enerjiy will be re- 
 quired to make them once more assume the form of 
 vapour. Nor is this all. As the drops fall upon 
 the mountain side, they employ part of their Eiu'r^y 
 in overcomin<^ the cohesion of its molecules. In this 
 way they slowly wear away the elevations on the 
 earth's surface, and carry down their particles to the 
 valleys or the sea. In so doin<.^ they act as liberatinjjf 
 agents for the Potential Ener;iy of these masses, and 
 so assist in working out the general plan of aggrega- 
 tion. It is true that new mountains are from time to 
 time slowly upheaved in place of the old ones, but 
 these are themselves mere a])parent exceptions, as- 
 they really represent a general lapse of the surround* 
 injj crust : and their lieiixhts are in turn worn down 
 by watercourses, glaciers, and percolation. In short, 
 
 J 2 
 
ii6 COXCNK/r. Oh' SY.\THI-:riC 
 
 the soljir Eiicrjrj'- ox])t-iul('(l in ev.-iponition is ulti- 
 mately employed as a liberating agency for the Po- 
 tential Energy of separation possessed by such masses 
 as are raised above the general gravitative sea level 
 of our planet. These masses, though tlieir cohesion 
 is for a while destroyed, aggregate in the end as new 
 sedimentary deposits ; and so the whole process be- 
 comes merely one more step in the gradual aggre- 
 gation of matter and dissipation of Energy to the 
 ether. 
 
 Winds and : orms act in similar ways. They all 
 arise from some kind of separation, produced in air 
 or water by heat ; or from the subsecpient cooling of 
 the heated masses. In the first case, we see the ab- 
 sorption of separative PoM'er ; in tlie second case the 
 re-establishment of ecpiilibrium on its disengagement. 
 They, too, act as Liberating Energies for the Potential 
 Energy of masses elevated above the general gravita- 
 tive level, as when tliey blow down trees, walls, or 
 stones, and beat the waves against a cliff. In one wav 
 or another, every Energy which falls upon our earth 
 from the sun is cmijloved in weai'in<r down all in- 
 e(pialities of surface,- -that is, in liberating masses 
 possessed of Potentiid Enei-gy, and permitting them 
 to obev tlieir gravitative inn)ulses. 
 
 The special case of lightning demands a brief ex- 
 planation. Throughout, we have dealt lightly with 
 
THE EARTH 11? 
 
 electrical plienomena, and we must do so here once 
 more. The Potential Energy of the separative electri- 
 cities in the thunder-cloud and the earth is in some 
 way a product of solar Energy. So long as they remain 
 apart, there is some kind of statical separation between 
 unknown units generally aggregated. At last, some 
 Liberating Energy in the shape of wind or heat brings 
 the charwd masses within ranye of their mutual afii- 
 nities. At once a discharge takes place, and the Po- 
 tential Energy is liberated as Light, Heat, and Sound ; 
 all of which are finally turned loose upon the ether as 
 radiant Energy, to pulse perhaps forever, through the 
 interstellar spaces. The only peculiarity of the case 
 is the conspicuous and instantaneous way in which 
 the Potential Energy is liberated and assumes the 
 Kinetic Mode. 
 
 So, too, witli many human machines. Organic 
 phenomena will demand careful separate treatment ; 
 and until this has been given we cannot properly un- 
 derstand such a case as that of a steam-engine, where 
 the prime Energy is derived from organic products 
 like coal and wood. lUit certain simpler machines 
 like water-mills and windmills may conveniently be 
 explained at the present stage. The water which 
 falls from clouds on an elevated patch of ground still 
 possesses Potential Energy in virtue of its separation 
 from the general gravilative level, and as the force of 
 
lis coxcNJ-rn-: oa' synthetic 
 
 uravitati(jii is very little interl'tTed witli bv cohesion 
 ill the case of litjiiids, the water is enabled to ibvni 
 into a stream, and run down to the sea. On the wav, 
 nnder ordinary circuinstances, it ])art,s with most of 
 its Potential Enei'f>y by friction, or yields it u]) in fall- 
 iiiii" as heat. Ihit where a considerable iall occurs, it is 
 possible to em])l()y this energy in turning a wheel. 
 The wlieel, being comiected with other wheels and 
 giindstones, gives up the Kinetic Energy thus derived, 
 partly in producing separation, in opposition to cohe- 
 sion, among the molecules of corn, and partly in heat 
 or friction. The heat is of course I'adiatedofl", and the 
 rest of the ]^lnergy remains Potential in the flour. 
 So also with a windmill. Here the Kinetic Energy of 
 wind, itself derived from solar ra\s, is transferred to 
 the vans of the mill, and is finally used up ini)roduc- 
 ing separation in the corn, or in heating the bearings 
 and grindstones. In both cases we see, as usual, an 
 . intermediate employment of Energ}- for the i)uri)ose 
 of separating material particles, but a fmal loss of 
 ener<Tv from matter to the ethereal medium. 
 
 In all these cases we deal with })henomena essen- 
 tially unconnected with organic life : for although the 
 machines mentioned above are of human construction, 
 yet, when once set in a(;tion, they can go on without 
 human intervention until the loss sustained by fric- 
 tion makes their working impossible. In the next 
 
THE EARTH 119 
 
 chapter we sliall consider the more hivolved ease of 
 living organisms. Before doing so, however, it will 
 l;e well to sum up the conclusions at which we have 
 arrived regarding the general dynamical phenomena 
 of our planet. 
 
 The earth is a proximately spherical mass of 
 matter, held together by its own gravitation, and 
 bulging slightly towards its equator, where its axial 
 Energy produces the greatest effect. It revolves 
 round the sun in virtue of its orbital motion, and it 
 possesses Potential Energy by reason of its separate 
 condition. This Potential Energy, however, cannot 
 assume the Kinetic Mode, because the solar gra- 
 vitation is opposed by the orbital Energy of the 
 [)lanet. Though the earth thus possesses two proper 
 molar motions of its own — the axial and the orbital — 
 its Molecular Energy has been radiated away into 
 space from the surface at least, only the interior por- 
 tion being still in a highly heated state. The inter- 
 ference of cohesion in this outer solid shell with the 
 generd gravitation whose Force comes into free play 
 as the internal mass cools and contracts, gives rise 
 to a state of tension, fuially resulting in cracks and 
 corrugations on the surface. If no external Energy 
 intervened, the outer shell would present one uniform 
 cold and probably solid surftice, broken up into ice- 
 dad muunlaius and valle\s. lhi( a fraction of the 
 
lao COXCKETE OR sv.\Tui:ric 
 
 Energy radia'od into space by the aggregating masses 
 of the central snn falls on the outer shell and there 
 interferes with the aggregative i)rocess ])y setting np 
 temporary separative action among the less coherent 
 molecules. It keeps the atmosphere and the ocean in 
 the gajieousand liquid forms respectively. It prodnces 
 such an expansion of the erpuitorial air as gives rise 
 to monsoons ; and elsewhere it heats the atmosphere 
 of deserts, valleys, and low-lying plains so as to cause 
 local winds and storms. It also lifts up great masses 
 of water, which float in the air as clouds, and finally 
 fall as rain when their Energy is dissipated. It heats 
 the equatorial oceans, and thus rendering them lighter 
 sets up warm ocean currents, while gravitation, draw- 
 ing down the colder uiasses, produces the compensat- 
 ing cold streams. The separative nature of all these 
 processes will be obvious when we reflect that evei'v 
 one of them depends upon such an absorption of 
 i-adiant heat as overcomes the aggregative Force of 
 cohesion. But these changes are never permanent. 
 The Energy thus absorbed is soon radiated off to the 
 cooler ether in those less energetic periods which we 
 know as night and winter. Unless everv dav and 
 every summer new Energy w^ere poured upon the 
 earth to set up similar separative actions, the effects 
 of each Energy-absorbing period would soon pass 
 away. The vapour and the water would part with 
 
THE EARTH 12 1 
 
 llieir heat, condense, and finally I'reeze : Avliile the air 
 ■would cool down, settle into stable equilibrium, and 
 ])erhaps aggregate at last into the solid state. ^More- 
 over, the Energy which thus falls U})on the earth 
 acts indirectly as a liberating agent to those more 
 solid masses which are prevented by cohesion from 
 aggregating in the stablest possible manner with the 
 general body of the plaiiet. By wearing down moun- 
 tain sides ; by water-action, percolation, glacier-grind- 
 ing, and attrition of rolling bodies ; by blowing over 
 stones, chinnieys, and trees ; by wasting cliffs, head- 
 lands, and river-banks ; by grinding down pebbles, 
 shells and refuse ; and by depositing all the debris thus 
 lesulting in new and lower strata of mud and sand — 
 bv all these wavs and countless others, to which every 
 gorge, ravine, denudation valley, and seaward clifl' 
 bears witness, the Energy poured down upon us from 
 the sun acts as a liberating agency to reduce the in- 
 ('({ualities of our planet's surface, and bring eveiy 
 body ultimately into closer and more intinuite aggre- 
 gation with the general mass. 
 
 Thus we see that on the surface of our earth 
 the universal process of aggregation continues in 
 spite of partial interruptions. Incident Energy let 
 loose from the aggregating sun produces local and 
 temporary separations among its material particles ; 
 but such separations do not interfere in the end with 
 
'^2 COXCRETE ON SVXTIIETIC 
 
 the general aggregating process, mIiIcIi they ratlier 
 indirectly assist. As elsewhere, we find all tlie matter 
 engaged in a continuous course of aggregation, and 
 all the Energy thus liberated continuously handed 
 over to the ethereal medium. 
 
>^1 
 
 CllArXKli V. 
 
 OllGAXIC LIFE. 
 
 TiiK interferences caused by incident solar Energy in 
 the aggregative processes of our earth Avhich were 
 considered in tlie hist chapter niostl}'' consisted in 
 separative actions opposed to tlie niolecuhir Force 
 of cohesion, and, less directly, to the molar Force of 
 gravitation. Those phenomena which we have to 
 consider in tlie present chapter are the result of 
 interferences by solar Energy opposed to the atomic 
 Force of Chemical Aflinity. 
 
 It is not here asserted that *'/// the cases where 
 solar Energy interferes with and opposes Chemical 
 Affinity are concerned with vital i)henomena. But 
 vital phenomena form the principal instance of such 
 interferences, and all the others may be omitted as 
 illustrating no new principle and suggesting no new 
 difficulty. 
 
 Ivcfiarded in their naked dvnamical asi)ect 
 these phenomena may be brielly described as fol- 
 
124 COXCKETE OR SYNTHETIC 
 
 lows. The incident solar Energy, — besides falling 
 upon molecules in the slightly aggregated cohesive 
 states which we know as the liquid and the gaseous, 
 and overcoming their very moderate cohesion so as to 
 produce evaporation and expansion — also falls upon 
 certain atoms aggregated together by the Force of 
 Chemical Affinity, and sets up in them separative 
 actions, which result in the severance of these atoms 
 from their alfinities, and the rebuilding of some 
 among them into those peculiar forms which may be 
 described as Energetic Compounds (hydro-carbons, 
 &c.), while the remainder are cast in a free state 
 upon the atmosphere. The radiant Energy thus 
 employed is used up for the time being in producing 
 these separations, and is retained j^artly by the freed 
 elements, and partly by the Energetic Compounds, 
 either in the Potential Mode or in the Kinetic, or 
 partly in one and partly in the other (for on this 
 ])oint w'e have as yet no certain knowledge). The 
 Energy thus absorbed l)y the Energetic Compounds 
 apparently remains witliin them permanently, until 
 some incident Energy, acting as a liberating agent, 
 causes their atoms once more to unite wntli those 
 other free atoms in the atmosphere for wOiicli they 
 liave affinities. When they reunite, all the Energy 
 which was absorbed in producing their separation 
 is liberated once more by the act of aggregation, 
 
()A'(;.l.\7C l.lll: 125 
 
 ;iii(l is yicUU'd up to the ctlier as low-p^rado 
 Energy. Wliile the Energy is retained by tlie freed 
 element and the Energetic Compound we may either 
 suppose that it is all Potential and consists merely in 
 the statical sejjaration of their atoms, — on which sup- 
 position it will be exactly analogous to the case of a 
 rock, raised to a height and then supported so that 
 it cannot fall without the intervention of a liberating 
 Energy : or we may sujjpose that it is partly Potential 
 and partly Kinetic, and consists not only in the sta- 
 tical separation of the atoms, but also in a relative 
 iTiotion of the atoms in the p]nei-getic Compound, — on 
 which supposition it would be analogous to the case 
 where a collection of bodies like the solar system, 
 liaving relative motions of their own, possess Potential 
 Energy with reference to some other external body, 
 like the star in Hercules, towards which the solar 
 f^ystem is sujjposed to be moving. It is clear that on 
 the first supposition tlie amount of Energy lil)erated 
 by the reaggregation of the atoms will be equivalent 
 to the Potential Energy of their statical separation : 
 but on the second supposition the amount liberated 
 will be equivalent to that Potential Energy, p/w.s the 
 Kinetic Energy of the rclatixc motions possessed by 
 the several atortis — just as, if the sun were to aggre- 
 gate with any fixed star after all his j)lanets had 
 already dissipated the Kinetic Energy of their several 
 
126 co.\ck/:tk UK sv.\r///:/7C 
 
 orbital motions, ami iinilcd witli liis mass, the J^irtov 
 liberated by the agjj^regatioii would l)e the ec|iiivaleiit 
 of the statical separation previously existing between 
 the sun and that star; \vhereas, if the afrgregafion 
 ■were to take place to-day, the amount of Encrgv 
 liberated would l)e equivalent to the statical separa- 
 tion of the two systems, plus the Energy liberated by 
 the stoppage of orbital and axial motion in each of 
 the planets and satellites. It is not improljablc that, 
 in certain instances at least, we niav be induced to 
 accept the second of these two snj)positions. 
 
 Translated into concrete language, the above 
 abstract propositions may thus be more simply ex- 
 pressed. Solar Energy falls upon a crust contain- 
 ing the molecules of water, carbonic aidiydride, the 
 various nitrates in a state of solution, and other i-aw 
 materials of organic matter. It finds their atoms in 
 a condition of relatively stable chemical combination 
 — in other words, closely bound up with one another 
 by the Force of Chemical Aflinily, ]3eing absorbed 
 by some or all of these atoms, it sets them free from 
 their stable unions, by producing motions which take 
 them beyond the sphere of their mutual attractions. 
 It leaves the oxva'en of the carbonic anhvdride in a 
 free state, while it builds up the carbon with the 
 hydrogen of water into certain Energetic Compounds, 
 such as starches, t^'C. The Encrg\' of these com- 
 
()A\;aa7C uri: la; 
 
 pounds may be all rotciitial — that is lo say, may 
 consist in the fact of their statical soj)arati()n from 
 the attracting oxygon and tlicir loose chemical 
 apposition ; or it may be partly Kinetic as avcU — that 
 is to sav, mav also consist in the fact that the various 
 atoms have relative movements like those of a 
 planetary system. Furtheiniore, in the case of tlu? 
 Energetic nitrogenous compounds there is reason to 
 suppose that a suppressed Energy is also involved. 
 Once these Energetic Compounds have been built up, 
 they remain permanently inert, retaining their Energy 
 themselves in a dormant state — at least so far as 
 human observation can detect — until some Liberating 
 Energy brings them once more under the influence of 
 Chemical Affinity. Thus a piece of wood or a lump 
 of fat, once produced, remains inert, at least to out- 
 ward appearance, so long as it is kejjt at a low tem- 
 perature and isolated from disintegrating agents. 
 But so soon as we apply a certain degree of heat to 
 either, they burn away ; or, in other words, unite once 
 more with the oxA'<>en from whicli thev were i)re- 
 viously separated, and yield up as they aggregate 
 all the Energy of tlieir separation and their relative 
 movement (if any) in the form of Light and 
 Heat. Moreover, there are several ways in which 
 such a liberating agency can be set in action. It may 
 be by human aid, and the intervention of exteriud 
 
I2.S coxcKirn-: ok sv.\T///:nc 
 
 \my\\\\\\f iniitf«'rs, ns wlicn we liL'lit :i piece of u'ood or 
 aeandhi ])}' incjinsof anmtcli. Or it may l)e In'thein- 
 tervontion of sonic animal orrranism, as when a worm 
 burrows into a piece of wood and uses up its Poten- 
 tial K/iergy in tlie performance of his piiysiological 
 functions, ])y causing its atoms to combine with 
 oxygen witliiii his body: or as wlien a carnivorous 
 animal devours tlu; fat, and so em[)loys it in liis 
 physiological functions : or as wiien the animal which 
 has deposited it, himself employs it for his own use, 
 which case we see illustrated in the bear and other 
 hibernating animals. Or, again, it may be hy the set of 
 external liberating agents which produce what we call 
 decomposition : as when a tree decays slowly where it 
 fell, under the influence of moisture and L'cnlle lieat : 
 or when a dead animal decomj)oses in the suidight : — 
 though these latter cases are sure to be accompanied 
 by the devel()})ment of other organisms, which act as 
 liberating agents, such as fungi, maggots, vibrios, 
 and other like organisms. Hut whatever may be 
 
 the means bv which is brou<fht about this recombina- 
 tion of the organic substances with the oxygen pre- 
 viously liberated from their affinity by solar Energy, 
 there are two points which can be laid down as 
 certain. First, that no sucli reaggregatir)n of the 
 separated atoms can take place without the interven- 
 tion of a liberatiui; agent, whether that liberatin*' 
 
0/iGAXIC LIFE U9 
 
 agent be moisture, solar ligljt and heat, animal ^'erms, 
 t'liiigiia spores, or human interferencre : as we clearly 
 see in the tact that to preserve an or«(anie substance 
 we nuiy either desiccate it, or freeze it, or seclude it 
 from light and heat, or from animal and vegetable 
 germs, or secure it from being devoured by some 
 other organism, or from the interference of human 
 beings, who might burn it or otherwise cause its re- 
 aggregation with oxygen : while on the contrary we 
 know that exposure to one or other of these liberating 
 agents will bring about such reaggregation (or de- 
 composition, as it is oftener though less accurately 
 called) in every kind of organic matter. Second, that 
 on the whole and in the vast majority of cases almost 
 every piece of organic nuitter aggregates at last with 
 the oxygen or other free atoms from which its ele- 
 ments were at fust severed, and yields up its Energy 
 to the ether in some more or less conspicuous mannei'. 
 Thus, sooner or later, every plant, if left to itself, dies 
 and decays : that is, recoml)ines with oxygen slowly, 
 under the influence of moisture, light, and heat, and 
 yields up its Energy by inconspicuous degrees ; while 
 every animal, if left to itself, similarly dies and decays, 
 probably under the influence of other small animal 
 germs, which use up its contained Energies in carry- 
 ing on their own activities : and so, in both these 
 cases, the atoms finally rcaggregate in stable com- 
 
 K 
 
130 CONCRETE OR SYNTHETIC 
 
 bination, while the Energy is yielded up, immediately 
 perhaps to surrounding matter, but finally to the 
 ethereal medium. So, too, if the plant or animal 
 is devoured by an animal oiganism, its atoms are 
 made to combine with oxygen within the devouring 
 organism, and their Energy is yielded up as heat and 
 as movement, either of internal parts or of external 
 limbs, and is thus finally dissipated. And even if, as 
 in the case of peat, petroleum, and coal, or of the 
 Siberian mammoths, the Energetic Compounds are 
 long secluded by their circumstances from Liberating 
 Energies, it may j^et finally happen that human 
 activity may intervene to liberate their Energies, as 
 we see ■'.vhen we burn coal, petroleum, or peat, or 
 when we exhume mammoths, and so expose them 
 to the decomposing (liberating) action of the sun and 
 organic germs. So that organic life, when closely 
 considered, proves dynamically to be a mere special 
 case of the general laws : and we see that though it 
 is in its nature separative, as being the product of 
 solar Energy absorbed for a time by particular 
 mundane particles, it nevertheless results in a final 
 reaggregation of atoms in stable combination, and 
 dissipation of Energy to the ethereal medium. 
 
 A word of explanation is necessary. It may be 
 asked, why will not the organic compounds aggregate 
 at once with the free oxygen, and why do they need 
 
ORGANIC LIFE 131 
 
 the liberating agency of heat or other Energy ? The 
 answer is probably analogous to that which we gave 
 in the case of cohesion. Unless the atoms are brought 
 very close to one another they cannot api)arently 
 get within the range of their mutual affinities, and 
 mere mechanical juxtaposition is insufficient for this 
 purpose without such atomic vibration as will bring 
 them into close quarters with one another. But 
 the more complex animal compounds, as we shall see 
 hereafter, seem to possess high Kinetic Energy of 
 their own, which can only be kept up in the circum- 
 stances of the body : and it is probable that they 
 spontaneously decompose (or split up into simpler and 
 less Energetic compounds) with a liberation of Energy 
 on any direct contact with external agencies.^ 
 
 In the present work no attempt will be made to 
 account for the origin and development of living 
 organisms. That task has been satisfactorily per- 
 formed in portions by Darwin, Haeckel, Mlillei-, 
 Huxley, Wallace, Hooker, and others, while a more 
 comprehensive and systematic view of the whole 
 process has been given by Mr. Herbert S})encer 
 (whose name I can never pass by without the expres- 
 sion of my deepest intellet^tual gratitude and venera- 
 tion). Their results can easily be translated into 
 terms of the theory advocated in this work : and they 
 
 ' About this point tlie author is now extremely donlitfiil. 
 
 K 2 
 
^32 COACRKTJC OK SYNTHETIC 
 
 liave not sufficiently direct dynamical bearings to 
 concern us greatly in our present inquiry.^ It must 
 suffice here to recognise the fact that life owes its 
 origin to the chemically-separative action of ethereal 
 undulations on the cooled surface of the earth, espe- 
 cially carbonic anhydride and water, and that the 
 existing diversity of organic forms is due to the 
 miiuite interaction of dynamical laws. 
 
 It will, however, be desirable to point out that life 
 is essentially separative in its nature, because the 
 identity of Energy with separation is the main point 
 insisted upon in the present treatise, and life is the 
 Mode of Energy with which human beings are most 
 familiar, and from which they form their conception 
 of all its other modes. 
 
 Life, then, is shown to be essentially separative, 
 first, because it is a product of solar Energy, acting 
 upon the superficial matter of the earth. This Energy 
 is the locomotive form of the statical separation once 
 existing between the particles of the sun's mass. "When 
 it falls upon the earih, being then in the ethereal 
 form, we know that it is partly absorbed by various 
 loosely aggregated superficial material molecules, in 
 
 * It must be understood that no disrespect towards such inquiries 
 is intended in the present passage. On the contrary, there can be no 
 doubt that, bea-ring as they do on all our acts and theories as living 
 beings, these questions are of paramount practical importance. But 
 they are not necessary to the present subject, and they have already 
 been treated sufficiently by proper and competent authorities. 
 
ORGAMC LIFE 
 
 133 
 
 wliicli it sets lip separati()i\s that overcome the niole- 
 cuhir Force of cohesion, and so produces winds, 
 storms, ocean currents, clouds, &c. Now it simiUirly 
 falls upon certain other molecules, among whose 
 atoms it sets up separations that overcome the atomic 
 Force of Chemical Affinity, and so produces starch, 
 albuminoids, free oxygen, and other like chemically 
 Energetic bodies. The separative nature of this 
 process is obvious. Without the disjunctive solar 
 Energy there could be no life, just as there could be 
 no wind, ocean currents, rain, or clouds. All the 
 stable chemical compounds would remain for ever in 
 the aggregated state, unless the solar Energy came 
 in to separate them. Again, life is seen to be 
 essentially separative by its mechanical position and 
 effects. Trees, plants, and animals stand out for the 
 most part at a visible elevation from the mass of the 
 earth's solid crust, and when they die, large portions 
 of them fall down and are reaggregated with its sub- 
 stance. The heat which sets up evaporation in leaves 
 causes a capillary circulation in the vessels and cells 
 of the plant, whereby water, holding in solution 
 nitrogenous salts and mineral matters generally, is 
 raised to every part of its surface ; and then a large 
 portion of this water is evaporated, while the mineral 
 matters remain in the leaves and fibres. In all 
 this we obviously see separative action opposed to 
 
134 COXCKETE OR SYNTHETIC 
 
 gravitation, as above we saw it opposed to chemical 
 affinity. Still more clear is this point of view 
 in animals, which climb trees, plants, rocks, and 
 mountains ; which fly to great heights in the air ; 
 and some of which carry about great masses of bone, 
 while others lift stone and brick to conspicuous ele- 
 vation as houses, towers, and steeples. No one of 
 these separative acts could have been performed 
 without the intervention of solar Energy. But it 
 is especially in its reconversion that organic matter 
 shows its separative nature. As its atoms reaggre- 
 gate, they give out heat, which obviously causes 
 molecular separation in the surrounding bodies. The 
 animal organism is perpetually in such a heated condi- 
 tion, and is perpetually parting with heat which goes 
 off to swell the volume of ethereal Energy. So 
 that in every way life reveals itself as an effect of the 
 separative action exerted by ethereal Energy on the 
 superficial material particles of our planet. 
 
 Succeeding chapters will deal with the phenomena 
 of vegetal and animal life severally, as enforcing and 
 illustrating these principles. For the present we 
 may content ourselves with a brief summary of the 
 results already attained. 
 
 Organic life is one of the effects wrought by 
 incident solar Energy on the surface of the earth. 
 It originates mainly in separative actions, whereby 
 
ORGANIC LIFE 135 
 
 atoms are severed from relatively stable clieinkal 
 combinations, and are either turned loose upon the 
 atmosphere in a free state, or are built up into Ener- 
 getic Compounds. But through the action of libera- 
 ting agents, also of solar origin, these free atoms and 
 Energetic Compounds for the most part sooner or 
 later recorabine ; whereupon the absorbed Energy is 
 once more liberated and turned loose upon the ether. 
 Organic life is thus a transitory result of the general 
 aggregating process during which the Energy libe- 
 rated by the aggregation of particles in one mass 
 falls upon the aggregated surface of another mass, 
 and there sets up separative actions, which, however, 
 are most often only temporary in their effects, owing 
 to the subsequent incidence of Liberating Energies, 
 whereby the absorbed Energy is once more turned 
 loose upon the ether. 
 
136 CDXCK/iTE OR SYXTIIETIC 
 
 CHAi*Tia( yi. 
 
 TlIK VEfiKTAL OIUiAXIt?M. 
 
 Ai.TiiouGii ill tlie last chapter, where we treated of 
 life generally as a pnxluct of incident solar Energy, 
 we made little distinction between tlie two main 
 forms of life, it must yet be understood that the rela- 
 tion which, as wholes, they bear to the incident Energy 
 is exactly contrary. Vegetal organisms, as a rule, 
 are accumulators of Energy, and not expenders : ani- 
 mal organisms, as a rule, are expenders of Energy and 
 not accumulators. In other words, the vegetal organ- 
 ism is a case where incident Kinetic Energy is setting 
 up separative actions between aggregated atoms, 
 aiid is being absorbed (or potentialised) in the separa- 
 tion so produced : while the animal organism is a case 
 in which the atoms so separated are being reaggre- 
 gated, and their Energies, Potential or Suppressed, 
 are assuming the Kinetic Mode, either as heat or as 
 visible motion. The energy absorbed and potential- 
 ised by the plant, is kineticised and given off by the 
 animal. 
 
THE VEGETAL ORGAMSM 137 
 
 These statements must only be accepted as true 
 ill the gross, and with certain deductions duly noted 
 hereafter. 
 
 The phuit is the origin of all the Energy i)()ssessed 
 by all living beings. The separation between the atoms 
 of water, carbonic anhydride, and nitrogenous salts, 
 which takes place in its tissues under the influence 
 of sunlight, is the Potential Energy which becomes 
 Kinetic in the growing seed, the expanding flower, 
 and the leaping or flying animal. We may there- 
 fore briefly trace the life-history of a plant, as throw- 
 ing some light upon the dynamical nature of life 
 generally. 
 
 Every plant starts as a spore or seed, cast ofT 
 from a previously existing plant. This first germ 
 contains some small materials for growth for the 
 young plant in the form of Energetic Compounds, 
 wliose Potential Enercfv is to become Kinetic in the 
 act of germination. In order, however, to produce this 
 effect, liberating agents are needed ; and these libera- 
 ting agents are generally three in number, moisture, 
 lieat, and light. Tliese, acting upon the materials in 
 the seed, either cause them to aggregate with other 
 matters, or overcome the suppressing Force ; and in 
 consequence the materials yield up their Potential or 
 Suppressed Energies in that determinate form im- 
 posed by the specific conditions and known as ger- 
 
138 CONCRETE OR SYNTHETIC 
 
 iiiiiiation. Tlie amount of Energetic materials supplied 
 to the new plant (or the fresh year's growth) may be 
 very great, as in the potato tuber, the lily bulb, and 
 the wheat grain, or it may be very little, as in fungi, 
 ferns, and cryptogams generally : but in every case, 
 if the plant is to continue living, there must be enough 
 Energy to permit of its assuming the shape in which 
 it can begin to be acted upon by the sunlight, and to 
 assimilate fresh matter under the influence of that 
 incident Energy. This stage is reached when leaves 
 are produced. On the surface of these leaves the 
 solar Energy produces evaporation, and this evapora- 
 tion gives rise to a general capillary action, whereby 
 water is raised into the leaves. 
 
 In these leaves the sunlight, acting upon carbonic 
 anhydride sucked in from the atmosphere, frees the 
 carbon atoms from their union with the oxygen, and 
 builds them up with the hydrogen into hydrocarbons 
 — Energetic compounds : while the oxygen is turned 
 out upon the atmosphere in a free state. Nitrogenous 
 salts in solution have also been supplied by the water, 
 and from these and the starch, the plant in some un- 
 known way builds up the protoplasm which forms the 
 moving portion of all living organisms. The starch, 
 sugar, albuminoids, and other organic compounds 
 thus produced are then circulated all over the plant, 
 where they supply the materials for growth, and 
 
rUE VEGETAL ORGANISM 139 
 
 develop new leaves, wliicli in turn increase the 
 amount of Energetic matter in the plant. Tart of 
 the Energy thus absorbed is used up by the plant 
 itself in its own physiological processes. The growth 
 of each cell doubtless involves the expenditure of 
 Energy — that is to say, some Energy previously con- 
 tained by the protoplasm assumes thereupon the 
 Kinetic Mode, and is in part yielded up to the ether. 
 In the larger physiological processes, such as germina- 
 tion or inflorescence, it is certain that such dissipation 
 of Energy takes place, in the first place because free 
 oxygen is absorbed and carbonic anhydride is evolved, 
 which shows that some of the contained carbon has 
 reaggregated with the oxygen ; and in the second 
 place because a rise of temperature can be shown to 
 accompany these processes. Accordingly we may 
 conclude that the motions which take place in plants 
 are due to the reaggregation of certain Energetic 
 particles with the free atoms of their neighbourhood, 
 and that while some of the Energy thereupon liberated 
 has assumed the form of Molar Motion, part of it has 
 been dissipated as heat. But a large portion of the 
 Energy remains dormant in the plant, either in the 
 molar or the atomic species. The leaves and stem as 
 wholes, viewed mechanically, represent the former : the 
 starch, protoplasm, and wood, viewed chemically, re- 
 present the latter. When the plant dies or is devoured. 
 
I40 COXCRETE OR SYNTHETIC 
 
 on the average of iiistatices the greater part of this 
 Energy is rendered Kinetic, and iihiinat el}' yielded up 
 to the ether. Take first the case of a tree which 
 dies a natural deatli. At the end of each year its 
 leaves fall. Before they do so, they render up their 
 most important chemically Energetic products to 
 the permanent portions of the complex organism ; but 
 inasmuch as they will burn, they retain a certain 
 amount of atomic Energy in their cellulose ; and in- 
 asmuch as they are elevated above the general level, 
 they possess Molar Potential Energy in their position. 
 When the leaves drop off by the weakening of cohesion 
 at their bases (along a pre-arranged line) their Molar 
 Potential Energy becomes Kinetic in the act of fall- 
 ing, and is dissipated as they reach the ground. The 
 dead leaves, lying on the earth, now consist mainly 
 of inorganic earthy matter and cellulose. The 
 action of moisture, heat, and light, as liberating 
 agents, soon sets up decomposition : and the mineral 
 matter lies in situ, while the organic substances com- 
 bine with the surrounding oxygen. When the whole 
 tree dies the same process is repeated on a larger 
 scale. The actions of moisture, heat, and light, com- 
 bined with those of fungi, w^orms, &c., are liberating 
 agencies which cause the trunk to decay and fall, and 
 afterwards produce more or less complete decomposi- 
 tion of the whole tree as it lies. In a few cases, 
 
THE VEGETAL ORGAMSM 141 
 
 which will be treated of hereafter, the stored-iip 
 Energies are long retained in coal, peat, and vegetal 
 debris : but on the average of instances, almost all the 
 Energy absorbed during one year has been yielded up 
 by the next. When the plant is devoured by an 
 animal or burnt by man, it undergoes a somewhat 
 different yet ultimately identical cycle of changes, 
 which will be more fully detailed in our next chai)ter : 
 for the present it will suffice to say that its Energetic 
 Compounds combine with free oxygen within the 
 animal organism, or the fireplace, and that their 
 Energy is used up in the production of motion and 
 heat, and is thus, as usual, finally transferred to the 
 ethereal medium. 
 
 The special case of reproduction requires a few 
 additional remarks. Where this function is carried 
 on by inflorescence, we have a series of leaves pro- 
 duced which are expenders of Energy, instead of 
 being accumulators, growing and unfolding by the 
 employment of Energy stored up in other parts of 
 the plant. Most esjoecially is this the case with the 
 pollen, ovule, and seed. In the protrusion of the 
 pollen-tubes and the growth of the embryo, we see 
 conspicuous instances of the cmi)loyment and dissipa- 
 tion of previously stored Energy. In the developed 
 seed we sometimes find a store of albumen ; and in 
 any case we have in the em])ryo itself a nitrogenous 
 
143 CONCRETE OR SVNTI/ETIC 
 
 iiiJiHs whicli is al)le, under the influonce of moist iin^ 
 and heat (hbtTutiufj; aj^'ciits), to ag«^regate in part 
 with oxygen and [)rodu(^e germination. Somewhat 
 similar in their dynamical nature are those morpho- 
 logically unlike propagating portions whidi lay up 
 nutriment for the future growth of the individual or 
 its oflsprlng. Such are tlie roots and tubers of 
 l)otato('S and heets, the tu])ers of the orcliis and dahlia, 
 the corms of tlie saffron, and the bulbs or buroils of 
 the onion and the tiger-lily. In every case, motion 
 in plants is caused Ijy the aggregation of free oxygen 
 with the Energetic Compounds of tlie plant, and by 
 the employment of the Energy thus liberated for the 
 production of Molar motion. 
 
 It will thus be seen that even those plants which 
 are on the whole ac(;umulators and storers of 
 Energy are themselves to some extent likewise 
 expenders of Energy : and that the broad distinction 
 which we have drawn between the vegetal and the 
 animal organisms, viewed dvnamicallv, must not be 
 pressed too close. In growth, in inflorescence, and 
 in germination, the plant is essentially an animal. 
 It is only in assimilation that it displays the charac- 
 teristic vegetal function of transferring Energy from 
 ether to material particles maiidy by the production 
 of hydrocarbons, plus free oxygen, from carbonic 
 anhydride and water. We may thus say roughly, in 
 
77/A V EG ETA I. ORGAMSM I43 
 
 reffTonce to our present staiulpoinl, tl\at the as- 
 siiniljiling leaf, IVoiul, or thallus, is the only true 
 plant. Nor is this all. Afany or^Mni.snis, clas.scd 
 inorpiiolojjjically a8 plants, are in their dynamical 
 aHpect the analo<;ue8 of animals : that is to say, their 
 funetions are wholly expensive of Energy and not at 
 all aceumulative.' The leafless j)arasites (orobanche, 
 cytinus iVc.) fasten iiixm some other j)lant, and 
 without themselves eontributiuj,' to the general store 
 of Energy, employ the Energetic Compounds laid up 
 by their host, in the production of their own flowers 
 and seeds. A much larger and more important class 
 is that of fungi, which live upon the roots, stems, 
 seeds, or tubers of otlier plants, upon the bodies or 
 the dung of animals, or upon the generally difhised 
 undecomposed organic matter of the soil. But 
 whencesoever they derive tlieir nuiterials, they always 
 thrive upon previously-composed Energetic Com- 
 pounds, whose Energy they liberate with almost 
 explosive power. They are like animals in never 
 accunudating Energy, while expending that which has 
 been previously accumulated by other plants. It 
 is noticeable that all these (piasi-aninud functions can 
 be carried on in the absence of light, that is, of high- 
 
 ' Allusion is not here made to insectivorous species, like Dionira, 
 Nepenthes, and Drosera ; but to plants which derive their whole 
 material from previously orRanised matter. 
 
144 CONCRETE OR SYNTHETIC 
 
 power radiant Energy. Thus, a seed will germinate, 
 a hyacinth will grow from its bulb and produce 
 blossoms, a potato Avill sprout from its tuber, a flower 
 will open, and a fungus will pass its whole life, under 
 proper conditions of heat and moisture combined with 
 the presence of oxygen, in a perfectly dark cellar : 
 because the Energetic compounds, and the free oxygen 
 whose a<;OTef(ation liberates their Enerjjfv, are all 
 stored up in the plant or its environment beforehand. 
 Jhit no assimilation, no separation of atoms from their 
 sta])le unions, can take place except under the dis- 
 junctive hifluence of radiant Energy. 
 
 So, in spite of these numerous exceptions — these 
 quasi-animal functions of all plants, and these large 
 groups of ])lants with none but rpuisi-aninuil func- 
 tions — the distinction which we have marked between 
 l)lants and animals is yet of cardinal importance, and 
 for this reason. Though some plants are quasi-animal, 
 no animal is quasi-vegetal.^ All the Energetic Com- 
 pounds which enter into the composition of any living- 
 organism are derived, directly or indirectly, from 
 l)lants. In the leaf or thallus or body of some plant 
 or protophyte all the organised materials have taken 
 their rise, under the separative influence of radiant 
 Energy. 
 
 ' Exception may be made of a few doubtful chlorophyll-containing 
 animals. 
 
THE VEGETAL ORG AX ISM I45 
 
 To sum up, the conclusions at which we have 
 arrived are these. Sohir Energy, phiying upon cer- 
 tain superficial material particles of our planet, 
 separates their atoms into Energetic Compounds and 
 free elements. The masses immediatelv built up of 
 these Energetic Compounds, together with certain 
 inorganic (or stably-compounded) substances, are 
 known as plants. The}' go on continuously assisting 
 (by means of their chlorophyll) in the similar separa- 
 tion of other atoms by solar Energy, some of which 
 (liydrocar])ons) swell their mass, while others (oxygen) 
 are turned loose upon the atmosphere. The Energy 
 thus" stored in the matter of the plants and the free 
 elements about them, does not remain perpetually 
 connected with the same particles. Partly it is used 
 up in the physiolo^yical operations of the plant : 
 partly it is stored away in seed, tubers, &c., for future 
 physiological operations : partly it is dissipated at 
 the death of the plant. In a vast number of instances 
 the plant is eaten by an aninial, and in that case the 
 reaggregation of elements and dissipation of Energy 
 takes place within the animal's body. So that, in the 
 majority of instances, the Energy radiated from the 
 sun into the ether, and temporarily employed on the 
 surface of our planet in the production of vegetal life, 
 is sooner or later cast once more upon the ether, to 
 make its way forever through the interstellar spaces. 
 
 1. 
 
146 CONCRETE OR SYNTHETIC 
 
 Only a small portion remains here, dormant in wood, 
 coal, and peat ; and even that small portion, as we 
 shall hereafter see, is finally used up by animals (in- 
 cluding man) for some purpose connected with their 
 vital necessities. 
 
J47 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE ANIMAL ORGANISM. 
 
 In the last chapter we saw roughly what were the 
 dynamical relations of those organisms which act 
 mainly as accumulators of Energy. In the present 
 one we must make a similar investigation regarding 
 the dynamical relations of those organisms which act 
 mainly as expenders or dissipators of Energy. 
 
 Amongst these, as already noticed, are many 
 themselves of vegetal origin ; and it may simplity 
 matters if we first look briefly at their nature, after- 
 wards noting the principal points of distinction be- 
 tween them and the animal organism proper, 
 
 A fungus grows upon a decaying tree. It has its 
 origin in a spore ; and this spore, alighting in the 
 neighbourhood of previously-accumulated Energetic 
 Compounds, has its own Energies liberated by heat 
 and moisture; and thereupon becomes in turn a 
 liberator of the Energies in the organised matter 
 around it. These it gathers info its mass, and ora- 
 
148 COXCRETE OJi SY XT J IE TIC 
 
 dually dissipates, with the exception of that portion 
 which it bequeaths to its spores, thereby once more 
 beginning a similar cycle of changes. Wherever the 
 fungus seats itself, — whether on the root or stem of 
 a plant ; or on a seed, tuber, or other receptacle of 
 Energetic Compounds destined for future growth ; or 
 on an animal body ; or on a patch of soil containing 
 dispersed undecomposed organic matter ; — it adds 
 nothing to the total of Energy, being merely a dis- 
 sipator of the Energy already accumulated. 
 
 Now, the animal organism is a mechanism in 
 which these same processes take place, but take place 
 muc^h more rapidly and conspicuously, and are accom- 
 panied by certain secondary phenomena. As the 
 highest organisn\s show all the processes of the lower, 
 and also some others peculiar to themselves, it may 
 be convenient to take an example from the upper 
 ranks of animal life to illustrate the specialities of the 
 case. 
 
 A young vertebrate begins its existence as a small 
 mass of Energetic Compounds presenting elementary 
 organisation, surrounded by another mass (more or 
 less) of comparatively unorganised Energetic material. 
 As in the case of the plant, the material may differ in 
 amount, but must be sufficient, under the liberating 
 agency of heat, to carry on the process of organisation 
 to such a point that the young organism can obtain 
 
THE AMMAL ORGANISM 149 
 
 the necessary further material for itself. In the case 
 of a bird, this material is supplied by the food-yolk ; 
 in that of a mammal it is supplemented by nutriment 
 derived from the maternal circulatlnfr system. But in 
 eyery case, the young plant and the young animal 
 are alike in this, that each begins its life as an ex- 
 l)ender of previously-accumulated Energy. It is 
 needless to add that the presence of free oxygen, 
 which combines with the food-slufls to ])roduce 
 carbonic anhydride, and so yields up its Energy 
 for the act of organisation, is in both cases indispen- 
 sable. So soon, however, as the self-sustaining de- 
 gree of organisation has been reached, a wide diffe- 
 rence begins to manifest itself. The plant spreads its 
 leaves to the sun and the air, and drinks in carbonic 
 anhydride and water, from which the ethereal Enero-y 
 separates part of their oxygen, and manufactures 
 starch and other organic compounds. The animal, 
 on the contrary, devours the compounds thus formed, 
 and drinking in the free oxygen, causes them to re- 
 aggregate within his body, using up the Energy so 
 liberated, partly for the production of heat, partly for 
 physiological processes, and partly for locomotion. 
 What may be the exact nature of these conversions 
 w^e do not fully know ; and even if w^e did, they could 
 only be detailed in a complete work on Physiolofry : 
 but it is sufficient for our purpose to point out (hat 
 
ISO CONCRETE OR SYXTIIETIC 
 
 Energetic carbonaceous and nitrogenous matters pass 
 into the body by one channel, and free oxygen by an- 
 other ; tliat they leave the body as carbonic anhydride, 
 ammonia, water, and other de-energised products ; and 
 that heat and motion have been given outmeanwliile. 
 The animal organism is thus essentially a seat for 
 the reaggregation of matter and the dissipation of 
 Energy. It is, however, probable that part of the 
 Energy thus liberated is not immediately dissipated, 
 but is used up for the time being in the so-called syn- 
 thetic processes of the body. What these really are, 
 we do not thoroughly understand : but it seems lilcely 
 that they may be combinations of many atoms, pos- 
 sessing high relative Kinetic Energy, upon whose de- 
 composition the Kinetic Energy is liberated.^ Thus, a 
 manifestation of Energy accompanies the conversion 
 of sugar into lactic acid, or into alcohol and carbonic 
 anhydride, although no new oxygen is united during 
 the process. At any rate, waiving all speculation, it 
 is <*ertain that these bodies, unlike ordinary com- 
 pounds, possess Energy in their composite form, 
 which is dissipated when the}^ separate into simpler 
 bodies. 
 
 While the animal lives, he is perpetually taking 
 into his organism Energetic Compounds stored up in 
 plants, or temporarily deposited in the tissues of other 
 
 ' This the author now greatly doubts. 
 
THE ANIMAL ORGANISM 151 
 
 animals, and using up their Enerpries for his own 
 activities. In some cases the matters thus ahsorlx'd 
 are inunediately employed for physiological processes : 
 but in other cases they are stored up, like the starch 
 and albumen of seeds or tubers, for future use. A 
 bear living through the winter on his own fat, or a 
 camel consuming his humps during a journey, is the 
 exact analogue of the sprouting wheat and of the 
 potato or hyacinth grown in a cellar. When the 
 animal dies, heat and other animal germs act as 
 liberators for his stored-up tissue Energies ; and de- 
 composition rapidly sets in, resulting in the final 
 formation of stable compounds. Thus the matter 
 which during the animal's life possessed Energy of 
 chemical separation in its atomic composition, — 
 Energy of molar separation in its erect position and 
 frequent elevation in the air or on mountain tops, — 
 Energy of molecular motion in its heat, — and Energy 
 of molar motion in its locomotive processes, — becomes 
 at last a number of chemically stable masses, partly 
 aggregated with the earth's surface, and partly float- 
 ing as carbonic anhydiide, incapal)le of resuming 
 its separate and self-moving condition except by the 
 intervention of fresh solar Energy through the agency 
 of vegetal life. 
 
 Viewed from a wide standpoint, we may say that 
 animals act as liberating agents for the Enern^ies 
 
isa coxcKEm ok synthetic 
 
 stored \\\) in plants. Thoy are therefore links in that 
 general chain of j)rocesses whereby separate portions 
 of matter are made to aggregate in the stablest union, 
 and their ])revioiisly-existing separation is imparted 
 lo the ether. 
 
'53 
 
 CHAPTER VIIT. 
 
 OKNKRAL VI KW OF MUNDANE ENERCilKS. 
 
 We have now coini)leted our brief survey of the cos- 
 niical facts known to us at present, and examined their 
 congruity with our general theory of two opposing 
 Powers, aggregative and separative. But before we 
 close the subject it may be well to look briefly at the 
 facts of mundane Energy in their entirety, with especial 
 reference to the part played by man. 
 
 By the term ' Cosmical Energies of the J^arth ' we 
 may understand all that Energy which our planet 
 possesses in virtue of its statical separation from the 
 sun and the other sidereal bodies. By the term 
 ' Proper Energies of the Earth ' we may designate all 
 that Energy which the material particles composing 
 the earth's substance now possess or formerly pos- 
 sessed in virtue of their own original separation from 
 one another, as masses, molecules, or atoms. Finally, 
 bv the term 'Derived Energies of the Earth,' we may 
 understand all that Energy which our planet has ab- 
 
154 cose RET E OR SYNTHETIC 
 
 iSorbcd from the radiated Energy of other aggregathig 
 masses elsewhere : and as the amount of such absorbed 
 Energy derived from the ' fixed ' stars or refle(;ted from 
 the moon and planets is practically without conspi- 
 cuous effects on the earth's surface, we may consider 
 this term as equivalent to directly incident solar 
 Energy. 
 
 The Cosmical Energies need not long detain us. 
 Doubtless, as the earth loses orbital Energy by ethe- 
 real friction, it is slowly approaching the sun, while 
 the sun in turn is approaching its own central point 
 of attraction ; but these remote possibilities possess 
 for man only a speculative interest, and have no in- 
 fluence on practical mechanical activities. 
 
 The Proper Energies of the Earth are more inte- 
 resting to humanity. (1) First, come the facts of 
 the planet's orbital Energy and nutation, which in- 
 directly yield the phenomena of winter and summer. 
 (2) Next comes its axial motion (the indirect cause of 
 day and night ),^ of whose dissipation the tides are a 
 concomitant. (3) More purely terrestrial are the 
 phenomena of earthquakes, volcanoes, &c., which are 
 Kinetic transformations of the statical separation 
 existing between the superficial and central masses. 
 
 ' Indirect, because the real cause is the incident sunlight. Were 
 there no sun, the axial energy might still continue, but not, of course, 
 the daylight. 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF MUXDAXE ESERGIES 155 
 
 (4) Derived from tlie last-njimcd Kiierjjry 18 the Po- 
 tential Enorjrv of mountains and otlier masses raised 
 by lateral pressure above the rjeneral level of the solid 
 and liquid surface. In both these eases, — that of the 
 whole cohering crust, and that of special raised masses 
 — small por ions of the Potential Enerjjfy become from 
 time to time Kinetic under the influence of liberating 
 Jigencies ; in the first case, we know the result as an 
 earthquake, in the second as a landslip. (5) Next 
 may be mentioned the internal heat of the earth, 
 small portions of which are always escaping by con- 
 duction through the cohering crust. (6) Lastly, we 
 may mention the Potential I*]nergy of chemical sepa- 
 ration in free elements, like sulphur &c., within the 
 earth's crust, if these ought not to be regarded as of 
 organic origin, and consequently included in the list 
 of Derived Energies. All these Proper Energies 
 are the surviving forms of the separation once exist- 
 ing between the various portions of our earth. (But 
 in the case of the cohering crust, the monntains, and 
 the free elements, the Energies remain as statical se- 
 parations to our own time. In the case of the orbital 
 and axial Energies, the separation has assumed the 
 form of continuous molar motions. In the case of 
 the internal heat, it has assumed tliat of continuous 
 molecular motion.) And in every earthquake, land- 
 slip, falling cliff, or tuml>!ing stone, we see these Po- 
 
156 CO^CKICTK OK syW77//:77C 
 
 tciitial Kiicrgles .•issuiiiiiig llic Kinetic Mode uiulcrour 
 V€^ry eyes. Nor is it neressary to show in detail 
 liow the earth is gradually i)arting with all these 
 Proper I'Jiergies. The orbital and axial motions 
 are being dissipated by ethereal friction or by the 
 moon's attraction. The internal heat is being dissi- 
 pated by (H)nduction. The Potential Energy of the 
 crust is being given up from time to time by cart h- 
 ([uakes, or, after assuming the form of heat in volcanic 
 eruptions, is being radiated off into ether. And the 
 mountains, cliffs, and other elevated portions locally 
 raised for awhile (to outward appearance) by these 
 widespread disturbances, aljove the general level, are 
 being for ever woin down by rain, storms, roots, 
 animal footsteps, and other results of those Derived 
 Energies which we have next to examine. So that 
 the remaining Proper Energies of the earth (most of 
 them having been long since dissipated, after the 
 paitial aggregation of its matter, dui-ing the cooling 
 of its crust) are still being cast loose, in one form or 
 another, upon the Energy-a])sorbing ether ; while a 
 corresponding aggregation of its matter is for ever 
 taking place. 
 
 But the m-eat mass of those Mundane Enei'ijries in 
 which man is directly interested Ijelong to the class 
 of Derived Energies. And these, as we have al- 
 ready (?eeii. may be considered as practically c([uiva- 
 
GICXKKA/. in: II' OF .UCXDAMC EXKNUI/iS 157 
 
 lent to the (liivctly-incidciit 8olar cncrjjy aiul its deri- 
 vatives. They are dilliciilt to classify, ovviii<{ to tlieir 
 rapid ehaii^^'es, hut the r()ll()\viii<,' division may cast some 
 lij;lit oil tl»eir nature. Solar ICnergies are either 
 l)ire(;t, as li^dit and radiant heat, or Absorbed, as in 
 clouds, orn^anisnis, iSjc. Tiie latter or A])sorbed class 
 may be a'^ain divided into those of Inorj/anic Orij^nii, 
 and those of Organic; Origin. Each of these will de- 
 mand separate treatment. 
 
 Direct Solar Energy is the radiant Energy which 
 from moment to moment is cast upon our planet from 
 the sun. If the surface of the earth were composed 
 of a perfectly reflecting non-absorbing substance, all 
 tliis Energy would immediately be reflected back into 
 space. As it is, a small portion is so reflected, but 
 tlie greater part is absorbed by various superficial 
 bodies in the production of motion and separation 
 between their parts. 
 
 Absorbed Solar Energy, emplo}'ed for Inorganic 
 pnrposes, gives rise to the following among other 
 phenomena. (1) The Energetic gaseous condition of 
 the atmosphere. (2) The Energetic liquid condition 
 of water in temperate climates. (0) The melting of 
 ice. (4) The act of evaporation and raising of vapour. 
 (5) The production of winds and storms. (6) The 
 production of ocean currcjits. Some of these Ener- 
 gies are Kinetic, as in the case of the gases, liquids. 
 
IS8 CONCRETE OR SYNTHETIC 
 
 &c. : but ill other instances the Energy is rendered 
 Potential for awhile, as in the case of the floating 
 cloud, the head of water, and the ice or snow upon the 
 mountain tops. And, finally, these Potential Energies 
 are constantly becoming once more Kinetic, as when 
 the rain falls, the river flows, and the glacier or ava- 
 lanche slides down the valley. Each such Kinetic 
 Energy is of course in the act of being dissipated, by 
 friction or otherwise, to the ethereal medium. And 
 as before notic^ed, these Inorganic Absorbed Energies 
 become liberating agents for the proper Potential 
 Energy of the Earth, when rain or rivers wear down 
 rocks and mountains ; when glaciers or avalanches 
 grind their bed and tear away the stones ; wdien 
 storms beat the waves against the cliff; and when 
 winds upset rocky masses. Moreover, they also act 
 as liberating agents for Potential Energy of Organic 
 Origin, when lightning, rain, or wind wears down and 
 overthrows trees or buildings, when storms sink iron 
 ships, and when avalanches overwhelm villages. 
 
 Still more difficult to trace, because of their 
 numerous involutions, are the vicissitudes of that 
 Energy wdiicli assumes the Organic form. Yet we 
 must endeavour to give some account of its main 
 phases. The Energy which falls on the growing 
 plant lays up Energetic Compounds in the i)lant's sulj- 
 , stance and raises it to a position of visible height. 
 
GENERAL VIEW OF MUNDANE ENERGIES 159 
 
 Part of the Potential Energy thus obtained, the phmt 
 uses up in its own processes : part remains for awhile 
 inherent in its tissues. But, for the most part, sooner 
 or later it is either devoured by an aninuil, or else 
 dies. In the first case, the animal digests it, and uses 
 up its Energy in its own processes as heat and motion. 
 In the second case, fungi grow upon it, worms de- 
 vour it, water disintegrates it, and in one way or 
 another it yields up its Energy at last to ether. Be- 
 sides the Energy thus stored up in existing organisms, 
 there is some Energy belonging to extinct organisms 
 yet remaining on our earth. The small amount which 
 is stored up in wood, meat, Siberian mammoths, desic- 
 cated diatoms, and other like forms, may be neglected 
 on account of its insignificant quantity. But there 
 are considerable stores of Energetic material, known 
 as coal, peat, rock-oil, &c., which deserve a passing 
 mention. These are so situated that without a 
 liberating agent they could not be dissipated. Such 
 a liberating agent they find in man, who is so 
 rapidly using them up that he is now beginning to 
 look forward to a future when all such stores will be 
 exhausted, and when he will have to depend for his 
 stock of Energy on the immediate daily supplies from 
 the sun. As to the animal organisms, they are 
 
 themselves entirely expenders of Energy, ;i,nd their 
 whole life consists in a reaggregation of matter and 
 
l60 COXCRETE OR SYNTHETIC 
 
 consequent dissipation of Energy. In one way, how- 
 ever, such organisms leave portions of their Energy 
 for awhile in a Potential form, namely by building. 
 Every house, wall, church, &c., is a mass raised to a 
 height by means of Energy : and it may retain its 
 Energy, in the absence of a liberating agent, for a 
 considerable time. But in the end. Solar Energy, 
 in some one or other of its transformations, will act as 
 a liberating agent to reduce these irregularities and 
 wear down their masses. Either by rain, wind, fire, 
 roots of trees, lightning, or the hand of man, every 
 building sooner or later totters to the ground. And 
 if it escapes all these, the earth's own Proper Energy 
 may prove its overthrow, by tides, earthquakes, 
 subsidences, or volcanic eruptions. So that, as 
 in every other case, we see the matter ultimately 
 aggregating and the Energy handed over to the all- 
 absorbing ether. 
 
 Thus the earth is for ever parting with its Energy 
 in every shape. It is slowly aggregating Mdth the 
 sun and the fixed stars. It is losing its orbital and 
 axial motions. By internal cooling, by subsidences, 
 earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions, by radiation 
 from lava and hot springs, it is getting rid of the 
 proper separation and motion inherent in its own 
 mass. Solar Energy falling upon it prevents ^nd 
 counteracts for awhile its total aggregation,— liquefies 
 
^ GENERAL VIEW OF MUXDANE ENERGIES i6i 
 
 the ocean, keeps the atmospliere gaseous, creates 
 winds and currents, piles ice on mountain-tops, stores 
 up Energetic Compounds in vegetal and animal oriia- 
 nisms, lays by coal and peat, builds castles and cathe- 
 drals, smelts iron, and separates chemical bodies in 
 phials and jars. But this very same Solar Ener<rv 
 acts as a liberating agent in the long run not oidy for 
 its own Potentially-Energetic products, but also for the 
 proper Tot ential Enei-gy of the earth. It wears down 
 cliffs, moui ains, and table-lands, it melts the ice and 
 snow on the mountains, it sets the animal to devour the 
 plant ; it drives num to dig and burn the coal and 
 petroleum ; it overthrows the buildings he has piled ; 
 it rusts his iron implements ; it corrodes his chemical 
 reagents. In one way or another, all the Energy of 
 the earth's own primitive separation, and all the inter- 
 cepted Energy of the sun's primitive separation, go 
 together to sA\^ell the Energy of the ether, the great 
 waste-heap of the Universe. 
 
 The author is not disinclined to consider the 
 ether as composed primordial ly of the most tenuous 
 ponderable matter on the outside of all aL^frc'i-atin*? 
 systems, to which therefore their Energy has been 
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