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t • e PAGE, Relation of English to other Languages . . , . i Grammar and its Divisions • • . • ,7 Sounds and Letters g Alphabet v . . 10 CHAPTEI IL l*arts of Speech .... On Parsing . , , On Changes that Words undergo t» * • • • • 15 CHAPTER in. Nouns , .17 Gender . . .18 Number 21 Case . , . . • : : ! 24 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. Adjectives . Compnrison PACE. . a8 29 CHAPTER V. Pronouns , , Personal Demonstrative Interrogative Relative Indefinite . 32 33 36 36 37 39 CHAPTER VI. Verbs . . . Voice . . Mood ••.,,,, Tense ••••..,, Strong and Weak Verbs ...,,, Classification of Strong Verbs . . , , , „ „ Weak Verbs . , . , . Alphabetical List of Strong Verbs .... u tf some Anomalous Weak Verbs . Anomalous Verbs ...,,,, Be Can .... Will ...•.,... Owe, Dare ..,,,.,. Have, Do 41 42 43 46 49 50 54 58 62 65 65 66 67 68 69 TABLE OF CONTENTS. vil CHAPTER VII. Adverbs .... 74 CHAPTER VIII. Prepositions ^ CHAPTER IX. Conjunctions ... o • • 70 CHAPTER X. Interjections 79 CHAPTER XI. Word Making English Suffixes ... Compounds , , Latin and French Suffixes . ' * o^ * * • • • 85 Greek Suffixes . • • • • fiS Latin and French Prefixes .... Greek Prefixes . 90 CHAPTER XIL syntax . . • • 9a yiU TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIIL Analysis of Sentences ■-r rAGB. lOX ! • ■' Model of Grammatical Parsin^^ X3J M I PRIMER OP ENGLISH GRAMMAR. CHAPTER 1/ INTRODUCTION. Relation of English to other Languages. § I Every language has a history of its own, and it may be made to tell us its own ///V, so to speak, if we set the right way to work about it. There are /a/(7 ways of getting at this history. The first mode is by comparing one language with others that are well known to us. The second is by study- ing the literature of a language in order of time, or chronologically, beginning with the very oldest writ- ten books, and coming down to *he latest and newest. The first or comparative method is one that you have no doubt tried yourselves upon a small scale, when you have noticed how closely our word house resembles the German haus, or English thou hast the German du hast. You may have asked yourselves too, whether this likeness in words and in grammar proves that one of the languages is borrowed from the f . I i V i ■ 1 I ! i ! J'X/M£X OF ENGLISH GR AMMAR, [chap. Other as some have innocently supposed, or whether both have come from one parent, and are, so to speak, brothers or sisters. But the English are quite as ancient a people as the Germans, and their language is as old as German if not older, so that it would be decidedly wrong to mfer that .he one language came from or was bor- rowed from the other. So we are obliged to admit that English and German are akin, or related to each other, by having descended from a common parent ^ 2. Scholars have carried out this comparison wim a large number of languages, and have shown us ihat lEnglish is related, not only to German, but more closely to Dutch, Vanish, &c., and more re- motely to Welsh, Latin, Greek, Russian, Persian, They have called these kindred tongues the Indo- iiuropean family of languages. They have grouped together, too, those lan^ages that most resemble one another. ^ The chief groups in Europe are— (1) Keltic, ccntaining the'Welsh, Irish. Gaelic, Manx, and Armorican languages. (2) Romanic or Italic, containing Latin and the dialects sprung from Latin, called the /Romance languages (Italian, French. Spanish, and Portuguese, &c ). ^^^ ^t^)^ or Grecian, containing Ancient and Modem (4) Siavonic, containing the Russian. P.lish. and Boh«, mian languages. I.J FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES, (5) Teutonic, containing (a) English, Dutch, Flemish. {b) Icelandic, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian. {c) Modern German. § 3. They have proved — (i) That our language belongs to a group called Teutonic. (2) That English is most like Dutch, Frisian, and Flemish, These, including English, are called Low-German languages, because they were spoken originally along the low- lying shores of the German Ocean and Baltic Sea. (3) That our language closely resembles Ice^ landic, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish, called Scandinavian languages. (4) That it is also, as we have seen, much like the modern German language which was at first spoken only in the Highlands of Cen- tral and Southern Germany, and hence calkd High-German. § 4. History confirms the story told us by those who have studied languages in the way we have spoken of, for we know that the first Englishmen, the Angles, came from the land of the Low Ger- mans on the continent, and settled in Britain during the fifth century. England means " the land of the Angles." We know, too, that there were other Z^w- ^erman tribes that came along with them, and spoke t M ,!, 1 I ^ 4 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRA MMAR, [chaf. the same language. The Saxons were the most im- portant of these, and have left their names in their old settlements of Sussex, Wessex, Essex, and Mid^ diesex, • § 5- The second mode of arriving at the history of a language by means of its literature is called the historical method. We have a very long and complete series of English works, written at different periods and gomg as far back as the ninth century (to the time of Alfred). From these written documents of the language we learn — (i)^ How English has changed from time to time, and how many important events in the history of the English people are bound up with the changes that have taken place in the English language. (2) That we have gradually lost a large number of grammatical endings or inflexions, which we have replaced by using distinct words for them, instead of adopting new endings- Atone time we could translate Lat. "bib-^r^" by " drinc>a« " but now by to drink. ' (3) That though we have lost very many of our old English words, and have replaced them by others of foreign origin, yet aJl the most common and useful words, as well as all our « fiframmar- is tVinrm io-ItIu- t?««.i;,,i, 1 •_ ^„. borrowed. V, i»3 FAMILIES OF LANGUAGES. (4) That we have greatly added to our stock of words from various sources, of which the following are the most important :— I. Keltic words. We have a few words (^r^^, glen, pool, mattock, d^c) which the old English settlers took from the Keltic inhabitants of Britain, just as our countrymen in America still retain a few words borrowed from the native Indian tribes that once peopled that continent. 2. Scandinavian words. 1\i^ Danish Itwasion mtroduced some few Scandinavian words, as busk dairy, fellow, fro, gait, ill, same, till, are, &c. 3. Latin words. The bulk of our borrowed words are, however, of Latin origin, and came itito the language at different times :— i. The old English invaders adopted the names which the Romans had left behind in Britain for a fortified station (r«j/r4 a paved road (strata), and a rampart (vallum), which we still retain in Udcti^chester, Bon^caster, &c. • street and wall, ' ' ii. The Roman priests and monks, who brought Christianity to our forc^thers in the sixth century, introduced some Latin words be- longing to religion, worship, &c, as biskop I>^^^sly ^onk,mass, minister, Szc, as well as t..e names of a few things they brought with them '.—butter, cheese, pease, pepper, &c. ffi PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. fcHAP. iii The Norman Conquest in 1066 was the means, through French, of introducing fresh Latin words much altered from their original form, as caitiff Jrailjeat (cp. captive^ fragile Jact). iv. Through the Revival of Learning* the Latin language became familiar to educated men, and English writers introduced into the language very many Latin words with very little change of form. Hence we are able to distinguish between the French Latin and the later Latin words : tlius poor^ < poison, come through Norman -French, while pauper, potion, come straight from the Latin, and are due to English writers 4. Greek words. We have also borrowed many scientific and philosophical words from the Greek language, as archcsology, botany, physics, ethics^ music, &c. < Miscellaneous words. There are miscel- laneous words in our vocabulary from numerous other languages. Our word tea is Chinese; canoe is American-Indian; yacht is Dutch; and cypher is Arabic, &c. ♦ This took place in the sixteenth centtiry. ^^^iJf^^ 1 1.] GRAMMAi AND ITS DIVISIONS. GRAMMAR AND ITS DIVISIONS. § 6. Lang^uage is made up of words. Grammar tells us about the words that make up I a language : — ' i. If we examine a word as we hear it, we find that it consists of one or more sounds. These sounds are represented to the eye by written signs called letters. ii. Words may be put into classes, or classified according to their distinctive uses. Words sometimes undergo change when combined with other words, or when they have some- thing added to them to form new words. iii. Words are combined according to certain laws. Hence Grammar deals with the following subjects : (i) Sounds and Letters : (Orthography.) (2) Classification, inflexion and derivation: (Etymology.) (3) The relation of words in a sentence, and the relation of sentences to each other: (Syntax.) 8 I ■ I P/^/M£/^ OF ENGU SH^^^MMAf? ^.^.r. ORTHOGRAPHY. I. Sounds and Letters. § 7. All sounds are not produced exactly in the same way. Some sounds are produced by means of the tongue and cavity of the mouth, which modify the breath before it passes into the air, as a in father t m machtm, 00 in fool, &c. These simple sounds' are called vowels. Vowels were so called because they made distinct voices or iterances and formed syllables by themselves. (Fr. voyelle Lat. vocahs) Two vowels sometimes unite to form a Lh, thong, as 01 m botl, at in aisle^ &c. ^ § 8. Other sounds are produced by the direct means of the lips, teeth, &c., which are called the organs of speech. These sounds are called conso- nants, as b, d, &c. Zi>sounds are called Z^3,V,/.; teeth^^oy^r^^s Dentals ; throat- sounds Gutturals; htsstng-sounds Sibilants. Consonants (Lat. consonare, to sound along with) were so called because they could not make a distinct syllable without bemg sounded along with a vowel. Some consonant sounds seem to have a little breath attached to them and may be prolonged. Such sounds are called spirants (Lat. J//>ar^, to breathe) as/, /^, &c. " The other consonants, in sounding which the breath seems stopped, are called mutes or dumb sounds. ^ Of the mutes and spirants some seem to have a Hat sound, and others a sharp sound, as :— b(flat) p (sharp): z(flat) s (sharp) ^th. I.] SOUNDS AND LETTERS. I. — Consonant Sounds. MUTES. SPIRANTS. Flat Sharp. Nasal. Flat. Sharp. Trilled Gutturals G hard J \ D B K NG » • 6 H « • • Palatals . Ch (soft) • « • Y • •• • • • Palatal . Sibilants • ■ • • •• Zh (azure) Sh (sure) R Dental . Sibilants • • • • • • Z (pr'ze) s (mouse) L Dentals . T N Dh (bathe) Th (bath) • • • • « « Labials . P M W (witch) F Wh (which) II.— Vowel Sounds. a in gnat. a in pair. a in fame. a in all. a in want. e in met. e in meet. % in knit. o in not. o in note. oo in fool, rude, u in nut 10 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. 1 1 1.— Diphthongs. Ill i in high. ai in aisle. oi in boil. ou in how, bound. ewvci mew. The pupil must not confound the sound with the name of the letter ; ''be*' is only the nxme of the sign b, not the sound it represents. The Alphabet. § 9. An Alphabet is a collection of written signs called letters. The wdrd Alphabet is derived from Alpha, Beta, the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. An old name for our collection of letters was ABC. There ought to be as many letters in a perfect alphabet as there are sounds in the language. We have forty-three sounds, which ought to be repre- sented by forty-three letters. Our alphabet is very imperfect, for it consists of only twenty-six letters. Three of these (r, q, x) are not wanted, so that we have really only twenty-three useful letters. (i) One letter has to stand for more than one sound, as s in seas ; ch in ch^^ch, rtachine, €CLemistry; g in girl and gin, (See a, p. 9.) (2) The same sound is represented by different signs ; as o in noie, bosLf, /oe, crow, &c. (3) There are many silent letters, as in psalm, gnat, know, calf. \4/ ^f y, •*% are called redundant letters : c may be represented by / or >$, q by kw, and x by is. iB. [chap. I] SOUNDS AND LETTERS. XX md. the name of t the sound tten signs , the names n old name a perfect age. We be repre- 2t is very X letters. » that we 10. Occasional Change of Sound in English. Consonants are sometimes combined. If they are I unlike, one of them assimilates^ or becomes like the [other. Thus, if the first is a sharp sound, the I second, if flat^ will become sharp; as weeped^ yvtpt A y7dr/ consonant must be followed by a flat con- sonant, and a sharp consonant by a sharp one ; as, I. — (i) slabsy pronounced siabz. {2) bathes „ bathz, (3) ^tigge^^ ,, hugd, lagged „ lagd, II. — (1) slap-s. (2) bath'S (gives a bath). (3) sleeped pronounced slept, lacked „ lackt. ' The original sound of s was sharp, as in mouse (See Plurals of Nouns, § 22, p. 21.) md, as s in / and gi«. ns ; as o in naty Itnow, epresented 12 PKIAfER OF ENGUSH GRAMMA If \ CHAP. CHAPTER II. ETYMOLOGY. PARTS OF SPEECH. § II. Words are arranged in different Classes, accordino to their use in a Sen- TENCE. 1. Words used as names are called Nouns • as John saw a snake in the garden. ' ' 2. Words used for Notms are called Pronouns* as /told John the snake would not hurt him or ml It he left // alone, to go its own way. 3. Words used with Nouns to distinguish or de- scribe the thing named are called Adjectives • as The humble-bees are known by their large size and they relate. They may easily be found out by askinir " Of whaisortr ^^ How many ?^^ "JVhichr ^ ^' ^"^ 4. Words used for stating what anything ^/^^^ or/> ././/. to, are called Verbs ; as, One day John saw a rat come out of a hole; he found it wac ^,.w «.^ r^i//// not ^^/i fast. ''*'"" MAK. [chap. III.] PA UTS OF SPEECH, 13 5. Words used with Verbs to mark the when,w/tere^ and /low of what is done, are called Adverbs/ as' The lark soars aloft, and aiivays smgs sweetiy. Adverbs may be used with Adjectives and other Adverbs to mark how, how much, how often, &c.; as. My father is \quiu well ; he is very seldom iU ; he does not like to uke (00 much medicine. 6. Words used with JVouns (or Pronouns) to join them to verbs, adjectives, and other nouns, are called Prepositions ; as, On Monday last, early in the linorning, as John was walking along the side of the river, he saw a snake of a large size, which he [killed by striking it with his whip. Prepositions join words together to show their bearing to I one another ; as, side—river ; side of the river. The noun ox pronoun with iht preposition depends upon the word to which it is joined; as, in "a man 0/ wisdom]' ''of lw/«W,ow" depends on "wa«." The preposition with its noun is mostly uf the same value as Ian adjective or an adverb. Thus : "a man of wisdom " = "a }nuise man" (adj.); "he came on shore" ^ "he came ^ashore'* |(adv.). SomQ prepositions cannot well be separated from the words which they come before ; as, a^loft. in vain, at last, in deed We must parse these compounds as adverbs, (See r above.) I 7. Words used to join sentences together are called Conjunctions; as. Birds fly and fich swim, but I worms creep along the ground, for they have no I power to do otherwise or else they would. 8. Words used to express a sudden feeling are [caiiea interjections. They might be called I exclamations; as, Ohi Alas/ llil':' 11,1, I!'! m 14 /'/^/A/EJf OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [c ha7 V There are, as we have seen, eight Parts of Speech : — 1. Noun. 2. Pronoun. 3. Adjective. 4. Verb, 5. Adverb. 6. Preposition. 7. Conjunction. 8. Interjection. iiiiin : On Parsing:. § 1 2. When we say to what class ox part of speech a word belongs, we are said io parse it. We must bear in mind that we cannot do this off- hand, by merely looking at a word. We must ask ourselves what duty it is doing in the sentence to which It belongs, before we can parse it accurately. The same word may be a noun in one part of a sentence,, an adjective in another, a verb in a third and so on ; as, John exchanged his silver watch for a lump of silver, with which he meant to silver some metal coins. The first "silver" is an adjective, the second a noun, and the third a verb, Cp. "I cannot second you in trying to get the second place on the list without thinking a second or two about it." "I learnt all my lessons hut one, hut tm , v;;-, very harj; had I had but more time I comd have lear..; :; ver> weU." The first hut = except, is ^preposition; the second joins two 3 sentences, and is therefore a conjunction; the third = only is I an adverb. « The word that may be an adjective, ^pronoun, or a conjunc Hon. "John said that that word that he had nic.t «.-rc...4 -^^e a pronoun." \fMAJi. [chap II.] CHANGES OF WORDS, 15 As may be an adverb^ a ccnjuncHon. or a pronoun, " I am XZIZP " '"''"' "'^ '"^ '"^ ^'^^ --' ^-^»^-g - It must be recollected that some pronouns can be used as adjectwes; as. ^^Thafs the boy//,./ took that splendid book of yours off your table." Many words that are often used ., advert,, may be used a. <.njuncu.„s "No^ ,„ ;, „,dy, ,<,„^ „^^_ ^^^ don't d^y" or a conjunc' On Changes that Words undergo. § 13. Some words alter their form to express a change of meaning; thus,^/^,X/becomes(i)M,/fl>-^„ to show that more than one is meant; (2) M^fs, to show that something is possessed by a child. "We sleep," becomes "we slept," to show that the action o{ sleeping is not now going on, but took place m some time gone by or past. rhf." '\f^^^f Speech do not undergo a ttp^v" K°™'.°"'y "*" N°"°' Pronoun, A^ec tive, Verb, and some few Adverbs. These changes,.called inflexions, are mostly brought about by putting some additional letter or syllable o the end of a word. These additions are often spoki of as endings or suffixes. I. The addition of a letter or syllable to the end of a woM ^"^■^.^fT ^ -."-S^ - the word' itself; ,s, Zt; wZl! f I6 PRIMER OF ENG LISH GRAMMAR, [chap. III w\ 2. The ending has sometimes disappeared altogether, and the mternal change does duty for an inflexion. Thus, the word men (for mannis) has really lost the ending that brought about the change; cp. Uad, led {onc^ iedde); feed, fed {onct fedde), 3. The loss of a letter in the middle of a word causes change • cp . .. former. It i. this change that explains made from' maked; sttle from stigel, &c. ^ § 14. English has lost very many endings, but it IS not any the worse off on that account. It sup- phes their place by what we may call relational ^ox^% (or words that carry us to some other word in the same sentence). Thus: instead of saying "a bafs wmg," ^e can say "a wing of a bai^ Here ^/does dT^^y for the ending 'j. We say "a lion^ess'' to show that we are naming the female. We might say "a sheAxox,, just as we do always speak of "a j/J^-bear." The word she does exactly the same duty, and marks the same notion, as the ending ~ess. In fact, these endings, which now mean little by themselves, but modify greatly the words to which they are added, were once independent words; as, ly m god-ly is only a corruption of the word like in god-like. m III lit III.] NOUNS: CLASSIFICATION. 17 CHAPTER III. NOUNS, I.-DEFINITION. § 15. A Noun is a word used as a name. The word Noun comes from Fr no»i T of I that by which anything is known ' ^^"^ '"'"''• ^ "^"^^ II.— CLASSIFICATION . § 16. There are two kinds of nouns:— 1. Proper. 2. Common. «^ng m the same sense; as, Henry, London, («) When a noun stands for a number (or collections .f „„. i ■ . -f 1 8 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [cHAP. ! i J / II (1 (2) When a noun is the name of a quality, property, or action, it is called an Abstract NQun; as whiteness, honesty, love, reading. The word abstract means drawn off. Abstract nouns are so called because they are the names of qualities or states considered apart from the objects to which they belong. We see and speak of a white flower, but we may think and speak of the white' ness aloDe. The form of the verb with to before it is used as an abstract noun; as '' to play cricket is pleasanter than to ham grammar." III.— INFLEXIONS. § 1^7. Nouns and Pronouns have inflexions to mark Gender, Number, and Case. 1. Gender of Nouns. § 18. Gender is that form of the noun which shows whether we are speaking of living beings (males or females), or lifeless things. The names of males are called Masculine nouns. The names of females are called Feminine nouns. The word gender (Fr. genre, Lat. genus) means kind or class. It belongs only to words r thus the person man is of the male sex, but the word man is masculine or of the masculine gender. The names of things without life are called Neuter nouns, because they are of neither gender. A noun that is either masculine or feminine is said to be of the Common gender; as parent When the masculine and feminine have each a I'll I \v: TMAR. [chap. inflexions to have each ai III.] GENDER OF NOUNS. 19 distinct ending, then we have what is strictly termed grammatical gender^ as — Masc. Fem. murder-er and murder-ess. sorcer-er „ sorcer-ess. But such words are now very few, and the masculine noun occurs most often without any ending to mark gender, as — Masc. Fern. giant and giant-ess. peer „ peer-ess. We have chiefly to consider then the endings of feminine nouns. The feminine is formed from the masculine by the suffix -ess. ^asc. Fern. ^^cir heir-ess. founder foundr-ess. ^ctor actr-ess. cater-er cater-ess. This suffix comes to us from the Norman-French -esse (Lat. ,tssa) It is not found in the language before the twelfth century. It is now the only common mode of forming the femmme. Its present use is restricted; it cannot be put to every masculine noun. • In some few borrowed words we have feminine endings of foreign origm, as— ** Masc. Fern.' ^ - ^ execu-trix, hero-ine. executor hero sultan suhan-a. )l l!f iliiii:; 20 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GR AMMAR, [chap. § 19. Remains of Older Modes of Marking THE Feminine. 1. By the suffix -Ster. Spin.^/^r, the name of an unmarried woman, once signified a female spinner. ^ In O. E. many masculines in ^r had a corresponding feminine m 'Ster; as, Masc. Yttti O. E. bcBc.ere=.hik^x, bcBc-estre=haxter, san^.ere=smg^er, san^.,stre=song.stre3S. In the 14th century the N.-Fr. .... took the place of the older .ster as a feminine ending. After a time. -./.. merely marked tKe agent, as in songster and semester; then, to mark the femmme, .... was tacked on to -ster, as in son^.str-ess, and semp-str-ess. 2. By the suffix -en. Vix-^//, the old feminine of fox (once pro- nounced vox m some parts of England). Irregular Forms. Bridegroom (= the bride's man) is formed from the femmme bride. The word groom once meant man. Gander is formed from an old root, gans, a goose. Drake (= duck-king) is formed from the old roots, end, a duck, and rake, a king. Lady is the feminine of lord. Lass (= lad-ess 'i is thf> fi^mi*r.,'«^ ^c r^ j Woman is a compound of wife and man. i m MAI^. [chap. >F Marking m.] NUMBER OF NOUNS. 21 § 20 As a substitute for suffixes of gender we can make a compound term by putting a masculine or femmme word to a noun of the common gender; /?^-goat, J/5^-goat, OTa«-servant, maia-seivant. We have many distinct words for the masculine and the feminine, the use of which does not belong to grammar. ^ ii. Number. § 2 r Number is that form of the noun or pro- noun wh.ch marks whether we are speaking of o.^ thmg or more than one. ^ When a noun or pronoun signifies one thine it i, sa.d to be of the Singular number. When a noun or pronoun denotes more than on^ of^^^e .me kind, it is said to be Of tL'X;;; § ". Formation op the Plural of Nouns. GM J!u/,.~.The plural is formed by adding s to the smgular; as, book-., bag-., boy. ''"'■' sou?;it'L;T:';/?Vr° f 7' -->- (r) for the sharp (See § 10, p xr.) '^ '"' "" ""' ^°™'' ' '" -^'S-. boy. Our Dlurnl e I'c « „!._..._ , - I , , ' " " " "■ siiurtcnea form of O P ae tu .1 plural of smia was firsf c«,.-/a .u ^^"^ *^® l^i^Jks. '''"'^-'''^ ^^^» •'"''''^-^^. and finally ■(■ :i 22 r/ ■ .,"1 1 11 iliJ iii'i mt ■ I, •' .■ • ! '!. 1; ; : i 1 i ! ■ i i: PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. Modifi(fations of the General hide, 1. Singular nouns ending in s, z, x, sh, soft ch, j (all containing an s sound), form the plural by the syllable es (pronounced ez); as gas-^j, box-^j", brush-^j, church-^a/ before the verb, and the answer will be the Nominative. 11, V\ ^''^"'P^^ above, if we ask "Who sings?" "Who Inalives ^^^'^ ^"^ ^' ^''''' ""^ ^V^^^^^ "^^^^ ^«^- § 28. When a noun stands for the person spoken to or addressed, it is said to be in the Vocative case. It has the same form as the Nominative, and IS sometimes called the Nominative of Address; as. Father come and look here ! O Sir, do not be angry. § 29.^ When a noun stands for the object of an action It is said to be in the Objective case; as, John killed a rat. ^^ The Objective case of nouns is now like the Nominative, but K-^-as not always so, and is not now so in the case of pronouns. The Objective in English includes— ^MAJ^. [chap. H „,.] CASES OF NOUNS. 25 (i) The direct object after a transitive verb ; as, *' He struck James," " He hurt his footr To find the direct object, ask a question with whom or what before the verb, and the answer will give it, e. g. " Whom did he strike ?" " What did he hurt ?" James, foot, which are the direct objects. In Latin we should call the direct object the Accusative case, (2) The indirect object, which is equivalent to a noun with the preposition to or for before it ; as, " Give John his book." "He bears li^illiam a grudge." " Build me a house." William — to William, John = to John, me = for me. The indirect object answers to the Dative in Latin and other languages. In O. E. there was a suffix to distinguish this case (in the singular and plural) from the direct object {or accusative). The form of the verb with ta before it, when it denotes purpose, is an indirect object, "What went ye out to see f" to see -/or seeing, (3) A noun after a preposition ; as, " He put his foot on the ground" " He came from London," &c. It must be recollected, that in English the preposition along with a following noun is equal to a case form in Latin. § 30. When a noun by its form denotes the pos- sessor, it is said to be in the Possessive case • as, " the %'j book," "the r^r/V tail," "the sun's rays." {a) The Possessive case is the only form of the noun that expresses a relation by means of an ending or sujix. The difference between the Norrfinaiive and 0bjetii7je must be thought out, the sense and position being our guides in determining which is used. 36 ■ i; ml' W We use the />.„„„•., case simply ,o m.rk possession. It .s chiefly used wUh reference to /,«„^ things. Tha preposition ./is used instead of -he inflexion in other .nstances, as. "The roof of the house;" not. as we could once say, " The /5WX/., roof." sup,! " " ' ; ■ ■ "".f' ''"" ^"" ''"P " ■• «?• "»«""'> •uppiy , a <&j/ s journey," § 31. Formation of the Possessive Case. »l, '^M ^.°^"SS'^« '^^'se is formed by adding 's to the Nopmative. 6 - lu Singular man-'s Plural men-'s £^^eJ^f/.n.-Noum forming their plural by s take the apostrophe only. ^ Singular boy-'s sweep-'s Plural boys' sweeps' In the spoken language the possessive singular does not differ from the possessive plural, i^fflnl ioys being pronounced alike. • .^'•f ana tmg^shing the possessive case from the plural number of the noun, n came into use about the 17th century Apos,ropA> means " turned away," and is so callS because ,. shows that something has been omitt d. r/lrS. lit :-'.-•-•- ^'-e letter .; hrd^s,' """'' ""'''' '^'""^" *"^ pronounced fMAR . [chap. nark possession. ng things. The iflexion in other se;" not, as we the Genitive in t ; as, " a week's II.] CASES OF NOUNS, 27 {b) At one time it was supposed that *s meant his, and we actually find some writers using such expressions as " the king his crown." The apostrophe is sometimes used to mark the loss of the possessive sign in the singular, as " Moses* law," " for justice' sake." The sign ' is no real case form. § 32. Declension of a Noun. Nominative ) Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. and [• man men child children Vocative ) Possessive man's men's child's children's Objective man men child children Nominative \ Sing. Plural. Smg. Plural. Sing. Plural. and V Vocative ) boy boys fox foxes thief thieves Possessive boy's boys' fox's foxes' thiefs thieves' Objective boy boys fox foxes thief thieves .'» ^^-^^^^:^21ii«2^75r^JZS;j;r5^ !i:': t w CHAPTER IV ADJECTIVES. I.— DEFINITION. § 33' The Adjective is a w^r^ j . , distinguish or describe fhe I "^'^ ' "°"" ^^ "•-CLASSIFICATION. /'>//', Z.^-..^.,^.,^, others a^ln """"'■'''• '^''""^^' the thing spoken of a "T.r..''"''"'^ '''"'' Hence there are thr« i, ^ °°''' ^^" ""an." inere are three kinds of Adjectives .— I. Adjectives of Quantity. *■ " » Quality. 3. Demonstrative Adjectives. Many of the pronouns are useH ..a- ■ tiies calld'ArtcIes" '"• "' ^""^ *^^ - --- ^:^J:^' ''' ^«'^':^«/^^^M^.and the An or a is u.spH t^oA^-^ ^ ^^^^^i!^i^'B^J ADJECTIVES: COMPAK/SON. 29 An drops n and becomes a before a consonant ; IS, "j book," "tf history," "a yew-tree. " An is another form of the word om, Cp. "all )f a size = all of one size." No, meaning not one, is used for " not a; " as, " he is no dunce." The is used before a noun to show that some [particular person or thing is spoken of; as, ''the |man," ''the boy." Parse the as an adverb in '« so much the more," 'Uhe more \t}u merrier:" here the = by that. IIL—INFLEXIONS. § 7'5. The Adjective once had inflexions to I mark gender, number, and case. I. now only changes I its form to mark comparison. Comparison of Adjectives § 37. The Adjective has three forms to express \ Degrees of Comparison, the Positive, Compara- tive, and Superlative. The Positive is the adjective in its simple form; as, "a small boat," "a tall man." The Comparative is formed by adding -er to the Positive; as, '*a small-er boat," "a tall-er man." It is used when two things or two sets of things are compared, to show that one of them possesses the quality in a greater or less degree than the other .•*• •man." ' ' "'^ ''"^"-"t boat,""th. tall-est? otHe?ortt:aZs;.^'-:f ''jr-'i -''' ^" boy in his class." ' ^°^'^ '' "^« '«»-«' W Whan the Positive ends in a silent « , ^ ^ padded ; ,s. ,a.ge, la^^.^:!^' ■'' '"<• "'' -'^^ W When the Positive *»n^. • , vowel),,, cr;:^^:^^^^^^^^^^^ Wo7dSt:osXble''' '"' ^^"^'^^^^ -^ -ost --. and Z;'t .^^^^^^ ^y the adverbs are mostl, /Jl^^^Z^Z^' ^^ ^he inflexions (. and .^ § 38. Irregular Comparisons. Positive. Comparative. '• iate» latter, later, ^'Sh, Higher (near),* nearer, elder, older, near, old. 2. good, bad, ill, evil, little, much, manyj ■:l better, worse, less, more. (I) Late has two comparatives *Archaic Superlative. last, latest, nigbest, next, nearest, eldest, oldest, best. worst. least, most. and superlatives ; of these. h 4AfMA/^. [chap I IV.] ADJECTIVES: COMPARISONS. 31 adding -est to >""th(. tall-cst pared with all is the iaXUst e, -r and -j/ only t. : preceded by a the endings ; as, -s, and most y the adverbs nosf valiant/' ions {er and €s{) >NS. lative. itest. t» next, t. oldest. I latter and last (the ones most changed) are the oldest, cp. near^ next; elder^ eldest. Last is a contraction of an old form lat-st-=. lat-est. Next is a contraction of nighest (cp. O. E. nih-st^ in which the h was a sharp guttural, sounded as ch in locK), Near was once comparative. Elder, eldest have vowel change^ as well as inflexion. (2) The comparatives and superlatives in group (2) are all formed from positives no longer in use. Better comes from a root, bat = good (cp. our " to booV'\ with change of vowel, as in elder. Best = bet'St = bet-esi, cp. last Wor-se comes from a root, v^reor = bad. The suffix -se is another form of the comparative ending -^r. Worst is shortened from wortest. Less is formed from a root, las, meaning weak, infirm. The suffix -s (= -se) is another form of the com- parative -r. Much once meant large, great. The mo in mo-re and mo-st also meant ^^f relf** 2. Demonstrative Pronouns. §45. The Demonstratives are used in speaking definitely of the thing nance's: as, ''this is the book I want, but I should like //5^/ which is on yonder table, if it is not the same. I have never seen such books as these" § 46. The Demonstrati^ Pronouns are this, that (with their plurals, these and those), same, such, yon, self-same. That was originally the neuter of the. Such means "so-like:" /has been lost. Yon has now become a mere adjective. The Scotch use yon as a pronoun ; as, yon's a grand house." Self-same : self once meant same. When such (= so) comes before an adjective, followed by the conjunction thai, it is used as an adverb. He has sttch great confidence that he will be sure to succeed. = He has confidence sd great that he will, &c. The use of such in this way is a late usage. 3. Interrogative Pronouns. § 47. ihe Interrogative Pronouns are used asking questions :— Who ? which ? whafe? in MMAR. [chap. : in " I saw it my^ ^] PRONOUNS: RELATIVE, yi Who is thus declined : — Nom. who \ Poss. whose ( Masc. and Fem. Obj. (direct) whom j Sing, and Plural. „ (indirect) whom ^ Who relates \o persons; which to things; what [always refers to things, unless it is used as an adjec- tive : What book do you want ? What boy has [got my book ? For the s in tuhose und the m in tohom, see p. 34. Which is made up of who and like, meaning wko~Kke, or what'like. It onee related to persons; as, "Our Father, which art in Heaven." It is also used for the old word whether ^ which of two. Wha-t was originally the neuter of who. See p» 35. Who-se is the possessive of what as well as of who; cp, his once the possessive of he and //. § 48. Compound Relatives are formed by adding -ever; as, whoever, whatever, whichever. 4. Relative Pronouns. § 49- The Relative Pronoun is so called because it ^^latf^s or carries us back to some noun of pronoun going before (and already stated), called the antece^ dent. This is the house that I hav . built. Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and the man who getteth understanding. i ii^ xxciaii ve riunouns are wiio, what, which, that, as. m mi lit rill Who refers to persons; which to animals and lifeless things; that to person and things. What is used when the antecedent is omitted It means thct which (or /^^ //J/;^^ which). " ^/J^/ j have you are welcome to." Do not call what a compound pronoun. Who could be used for he who. " IVho steals my purse steals trash." ^«^^; A^ '^ "'^^ ^^ ^ relative after j^«.^ and such; as, This is the same as that ;" " These apples are very g9od, you may eat such as are ripe.'' That was sometimes equivalent to that which; as " We speak that we do know." That never follows the preposition that governs it ; as, " I know the person that you speak of." §51. Compound Relatives are formed by adding -ever and -soever to who, what, and wnicn i as, whosoever, whatsoever, whichsoever. Some adverbs (originally cases of pronouns) can be com- bmed with a preposition to do duty for relatives, though they are not usually called such : where-of = of which, of what, where-to = to which, to what, where-by = by which, by what, there-of = of that. 8 52. The Relatives- wifii f!-./a -a,,^^^*.* _/• ^^t^j. ana as, were once Interrogatives only. 'MAH. [chap. Hv.] PRONOUNS: INDEFINII E. 39 They are strictly sa in all indirect questions ; as, " Tell me •wJw has hurt you." " Ask him what is going on." § 53. The Relative who is declined like the I«iterrogative who ; see p. 37. 5. Indefinite Pronouns. § 54. The Indefinite Pronouns do not point out and particularize like the Demonstratives. To this class belong one, none, any, some, each, every, either, neither, other, another (all of which may be used as adjectives) ; aught, naug^ht, some- body, something, nothing, anything. One is the same word as the numeral one. The Fr. on is the Latin homo. None is made up of ne = not^ and one. Any contains the original irm of one^ seen in the article an. Some once meant one^ a, £a-ch originally meant any one like (of two or more things). The -ch stands for -lich = like ; cp. which, such. Ever-y is a corruption of ever each, that is, " each and all** (of two or more things). Ei-ther means any one of two. It can be used as a coiu junction. Neither is the negative of either. For the meaning of -ther, see § 38, p. 31. O-ther, one of two, see § 38, p. 31. Aught means any whit or any wight. ( Wight = person, thing ; cp. " an unlucky wight^) Naught, nought is the negative of aught = no whit. The adverb not is a worn-down form of nought or naught. I I H If Mi 40 jP^^iV O^ £ArcZ/S/f cramma£~^. Else in «'A»/./x..nd..«,Mm^ ,/„;,.„ i„d.fi„i,, ^ noun, bcng .he genitive of an old roo. .!, ™eaLg When il» means ollurwis, it i, , conjunction. SomMing ( ^ ^^^^^. anything (=^, .11); „,m,», (= not at all), are used as adverbs. . ■ Cerimn and tevtralm sometimes used as pronouns. fMAR, [chap. Hvi.] VERBS: CLASSIFICATION, 41 CHAPTER VL VERBS. I.— DEFINITION. § s^. The Verb is a word that states or asserts what a thing \ iMAH. [chap. as, "he turned ri.] VERBS: MOOD. 43 The sentences quoted above show t»".t the voice is deter- lined by the subject. If it is active, as in (i), the verb is active ; lif it is passive, i, e, suffers the action, as in (2), the verb is [passive. In some languages this is shown by the T^rm of the verb • [as, Lat. amatUr, he is loved. In English the forms of the verb in -en and -cd are a rem- [nant of the passive voice, and are always used along with the [verb be, to form the passive voice ; as, " the cup which was \broken has been mended" We have other roundabout ways of expressing \ ,e Passive ; las, "the house is being built," or by the old phrase, "the house is a-buiiding/* a-building =z on building, 2. Mood. § 60. Mood is that form or modification of the [verb which marks the mode in which an action is [viewed or stated. 61. There are three principal moods: (i) Indie- [ative, (2) Subjunctive, (3) Imperative. When a verb is in any of these moods it requires a subject. land is said to be iijinite verb, i. e, limited by the conditions of I time, person, &c. These are the only moods in English that have distinct forms [ or are inflexional. 62. The Indicative Mood is that form of the jverb that indicates or makes a direct assertion, or asks some direct question ; as, He talks. Who talks? 8 61 The* QiiKi«iMo4-:. -J TVT-i^J ^ _£_ __ • Wlity, doubt, dependency; as, " If he but blench I know 44 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. >> my course." "For murder, though it have no tongue, will speak." This mood is called Subjunctive, because of its use in a' sub- joined or dependent sentence ; as, •' Love not sleep, lest it brimr thee to poverty." "If thou keep promise, I shall end thil strife." Here we see that bring and keep in the dependent sentences are distinguished from the Indicative brings and keepest by their want of inflexion. But the subjunctive once had its own endings, as in Latin. The subjunctive form of the verb is now seldom employed. Its place is sometimes supplied by the use of the verb should or would. The conjunctions which vere formerly followed by the sub- I functive enable up to express doubt, condition, &c., without employing the old inflexional form of the verb. These Con- junctions are if, whether, provided, though, that, so that, lest, until, till, ere, unless, except, which, however, are no parts of I the subjunctive mood. I The verb to be has very distinct forms for the I subjunctive. See p. 6$. I § 64. The Imperative Mood is that form of the I verb that expresses a command or entreaty. " Call I him back." ^^ Pardon my fault." I The Imperative contains the simplest form or root of the verb. I The plural imperative once had the suffix th to distinguish I it from the singular j as, loveth — love ye. I The Imperative is only used in the second person. I In such expressions as ♦* let me sing," « let him sjng," parse | let as an independent verb, in the imperative mood. Do not I parse let sing as one verb. I § 65. Other forms, not finite (see p. 43). are some- times called Moods. These are — * >t ^ fMAR, [chap. it have no VI.] Drms for the VERBS: INFINITIVE MOOD, 45 I. The form of the verb with to before it, called the Infinitive ; as, to sing. The Infinitive once had no to before it, but was expressed by the suffix -an^ as, drinc^an, to drink. The Infinitive without to cones after the verbs may, can, shall, will, dare, must, &c. ; as, " he may df," " he will de," &c. The Simple Infinitive is a noun in the nominative or objec- tive (direct) case ; " to see is to believe:' " he wants to seer There is another kind of Infinitive called the Dative Infin- itive, because it was originally the dative of the simple infinitive. It is now often an indirect object. A house to let = ti house for letting; easy to /ind= ea^y /7r finding; the cup I have to drink {=/or drinking). It sometimes marks purpose, and is equivalent to an Adverb ; as, he came to see me = he came for the purpose of seeing me. {See, p. 98.) 2. The forms of the verb in -ed, -en, -ing, are called Participles, and they are also used as adjectives. " Then rode Geraint into the castle court. His charger trampling many a prickly star Of sprouted thistle on the broken stones. He look'd, and saw that all was ruinous. Here stood a shattered zrchwiiy plumed with fern. And here had falPn a great part of a tower." These forms in ^ed, -en, 4ng, were called participles because they participate of the nature of adjectives (in qualifying a noun) and of verbs (in governing an objective case). The participle in -ing once ended in -end, -and, or 4nde. Be careful to distinguish a noun in 4ng from a participle in 'ing; this is a fine building (noun) ; he is building a house (participle). The form in 4ng (O. E. .ung) is a noun in the follov^'ing passages : The house is bui:dlng = the house is a-building; ,46 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. fcHAP. he is fond of building ( = of the building of) houses ; he talked of your coming here to-day ; he took to hunting. See Syntax, p. 92. The form in 4ng is called the Present participle; the forms in -^^/and -en are 0,2X1^^. Passive participles.] 3. Tense. § (id. The form or modification of the verb used to indicate time is called Tensc (Fr. temps, Lat.| tempHs^, Tiipae may be considered as 1. Present 2. Past. 3. Future. There are three Tenses. I. Present 2. Past 3. Future I speak. I spoke. I shall speak, You will speak, He will speui,. The state of the action may be considered as (i) Indefinite; as, I write. (2) Progressive; as, I atn writing. (3) Completed or perfect; as, I have written. The words be, have, shall, will, which help to form tenses., are called auxiliary verbs. Each tense then has three forms, according to the following scheme : MMAR. fcHAP. louses ; he talked I ing. See Syntax, ent participle; ive participles. the verb used r. temps ^ Lat. VI.] VERBS: 7ENSES, 47 W H O ? written, to form tenses] ording to the I a £9 !i> uo ^H 4) 4} ^ fl ^^^^^H •a «• •sa- ^W Id ^H (1 --^ __ 'V-* • «■« have prais had prais shall en pr ■ Pn Pk ^4 *-* ~JS ■^B ^.i^ ,„^ ^, ^ ^^^^H M M M ^^^^^^^^H ' N— ' ' ' • 4> ^^^^1 raised been d aised been d have d have aised ■ 44 I have p I have praise I had pr I had praise I shall praise I shall been pt • 1-4 p^ >2. ■ >:i^ sSi- M W M CI ^H perfect and regressive. &m praising am being praised was prais- ing was being praised shall be praising 1 ►H 1-4 ll KN »-4 m /—N /— V ^-N -—^ /— N 4I ^^^^^^1 M a M N M ^■^^^^^^^H ■^-^- --^ ^^^^^1 •d •a 4) ^HR 4) « 2 4) a> ife' , 01 •3 (d ^ > i^H < ' U cd tJ Vh fe "^ ■»>> ^K • P4 4) Ij « _« 4) -i PJ d ^^^^^^^hS^B P^ P^ * ^ f I^B ^H i\ 48 PRIMER OF ENG LISH GRAMMAR, ' fcHAP. MZ: Notice that only the present and past tenses of the active voice, indicative mood, are inflected tenses. § 67. An emphatic form of the present and past tenses may be made by using do. Present I ^0 love, Past \ did love. But it is not emphatic when used in interrogative and negative sentences, but an auxiliary verb. Voyowkear? Did yoM listen? 1 do not hear, I did not listen. (See note on Do, p. 72.) 4- Person and Number. § (i%. The verb is Singular when it agrees with a subject in the singular number, and Plural when it agrees with a subject in the plural; as, Singular: ''\iQ writes.'* Plural: ''they wr/V^." There are three persons (as in the pronouns, see 8 41, p. 33), the first, the second, and.the third. The plural has no endings to mark person. We know the person by looking to the subject; as, ''we speak;' ''you speak;' '' t\iQ boys speak;' or "they speak.'* The first person singular has no ending : as. " I talk." *' ' T'U. X ••1 1 iic bccona person, which is seldom used, has -est (-St); as, "thou talk-est." 'MAR, fcHAP. |vi.] VERBS: CONJUGATIOf^. 49 not hear, I The third person (present) has -s, with the old [form -eth; as, "he talk-s," or "talk-eth." These endings belong only to the indicative mood. The subjunctive has no person-endings. We might do without any endings, becanse the personal pronoun marks the person. These endings were once pronouns themselves. Cp. a-w, ar-/, &c. 5. Conjugation. § 69. Verbs may be divided into two classes : (i ) Those that make their past tense by -d or -t ; as, . Present, I love. Fast, I love-//. I sleep. I slep-/. (2) Those that make their past tense by changing the vowel of the present ; as, Present, I wr/te. Past, I wr^te. Verbs of the first class are called Weak, and those of the second Strong verbs. Be careful to notice that a strong verb adds nothing to th« past tense. Thus got, the past tense of get, is a strong verb • but tol-d, the past tense of tell, is a weak verb. The change of vowel in the past tense of strong verbs, as fall, fell, &c., must not be confounded with the shortening of the vowel, as in feed and fed (once fed-de). The Passive Participles of all strong verbs once ended in "Cn • but this suffix has fallen away in many verbs ; as, drunk = drunken, &c. Passive participles of weak verbs end in -ed -. T -/ j t.sii,-3_ ;ji siiuiig v<^4u:« :»cvv-r nuu. mis ctiuiiiH, aiiu wlicn they take it they become weak ; as, he was tol^ (weak) ; he has f^own (strong) ; he has mowed (weak). • i g jy""- 50 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. § 70. Classification of Strong Verbs. \ Strong verbs arc classified according to the changes of their central vowels. CLASS I. Pres. PMt. Pass. Part. a, 0. «. a, 0. 4^i^. Passive Participle, lift-f>4- whetted t/itted occurs in 17th century PaM. Part, fed gilt gilded girt see p. 50. hit hurt knit led let lit lighted met put read rent rid sent set shed shred shut slit sped spent spit* split spread sweat thrust wet wetted whet whetted wVUttES^ rMAR. [qBAP. ■ V, ] ANOMALOUS I JS/^BS. % 76. ANOMALOUS \EKBS, To 3e. Indicative Mood. singular. 1. I a-m 2. Thou ar-t 3. He is Present Tense. ^h > Plural. 1. We are 2. Ye, you are 3. They are Singular. 1. I was 2. Thou was-t 3. He was Past Tense, Plural. 1. We were 2. Ye, you were 3. They were Singular. 1. I be 2. Thou be 3. Hebe Singular. 1. I were 2. Thou were,* wer-t 3. He were Subjunctive Mood. Present Tenst, Plural. 1. We be 2. Ye, you be 3. They be Past Tense. Plural. 1. We were 2. Ye, you were 3. They were 65 * Archaic. 66 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. ^E VI Imperative Mood. Singular— hQ (thou). Plural— hQ (ye, you). I Infinitive, to be. Present Participle, hQ-ing, I Passive Participle, bee-;/. 1 Can. ^^^B Indicative Mood. Present Tense. H 3* Singular. Plural. ^^H I. I can I. We can H 2. Thou can-st 2. Ye, you can 1 3. He can 3. They can 1 '* Past Tense, . 1 ^' Singular. Plural. 1 3* I. I COU-1-^ I. We COU-1-// H 2. Thou COU-l-//-St 2. Yc, you cou-1-// I 3- He cou-1-// 3. They cou-1-^ I Shall. I Indicative Mood. I Present Tense, I Singular. Plural. ^^^B I. I shall I. We shall 2. Thou shal-t 2. Ye, you shall 3. He shall 3. They shall 1 Past Tense, \ I Singular. Plural. ■ I. I shoul-// I. We shoul-// I ^* 2. Thou shoul- -St 2. Ye, you shouW ■ 3. He shoul-^ 3. They shoul-// 1 . \>-''^-'^/\ '"* ^1 4AR. [chap. B VI •] ANOMALOTT^ vj?j?iif: a. ^1 v->- '-r r M^ t\ i^ K.1^ V/ 1 in. e, you). 1 ^^^1 Indicative Mood. LE, Xi^'tng, ■ Present Tense, H Singular. Plural. H I. I will I. We will 1 2. Thou wil-t 2. Ye, you will I 3' He will ' 3. They will 1 Past Tense, u can H Singular. Plural. H I. I woul-^ I. We woul-// ^^^^^1 2. Thou woul-//-st 2. Ye, you woul-^f H 3- He woul-df 3. They wouW yxA-d H U COU-1-// H May. cou-1-^ H Indicative Mood. Present Tense, I Singular. Plural. I I. I may I. We may ■ 2. Thou may-est, may-st 2. Ye, you may u shall H 3. He may \ 3. Ihey may shall ■ Past Tense, • 1 Singular. Plural. 1 I. I migh-/ I. We migh-/ ovX'd' H 2. Thou migh-Aest, 2. Ye, you mich-/ u shoul-// ■ migh-/-st • * "*!■» shoul-// H 3- He migh-t t. Thev miffh-/ '•¥'' , f 68 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. Owe, Indicative Mood. Present Tense, Singular. 1. I owe 2. Thou owe-st 3. He owe-S Plural 1. We owe 2. Ye, you owe 3. They owe Past Tense, Singular. 1. I ough-/ 2. Thou ough-/-est 3. He ough-/ Plural. 1. We ough-/ 2. Ye, you ough-/ 3. They ough-/ i' .;, Dare. Indicative Mood. Present Tense, Singular. 1. I dare 2. Thou dar-est, dar-st 3. He dare, dare-S Plural. 1. We dare 2. Ye, you dare 3. They dare Past Tense, Singular. ir; I durs-/ 3. He durs-/ Plural. T. We durs-/ V t^ ir/Ml r1iii»e_y •1 J \j\x \.»t*xtj=V 3. They durs-/ VI.] ANOMALOUS VERBS. 1. ire >u dare dare 1. irs-/ 69 Have. Present Tense. Plural. 1. We have 2. Ye, you have 3. They have Past 7'ense, Plural. 1. We ha-un me. '"erb Ufs-an, to rong verb, itury, the verb al. >i-n, be i-n, be bi-n, be > be parsed as VI.] ANOMALOUS VERBS, n le," cp. to cpn, in from false ound to," "I i second and irnrpccirknc oe. 2. Shall is only an auxiliary of the future in the first person, and in interrogative seat- u. . a the second person ; as, **sAa/l yow go:* It is an im. perJ.nt verb ir ^he second and third persons. 3. Should is a w ak ^ form. When it means ought it must be parsed as ai inr* ^ndent verb. It sometimes has a present sense. In sue ...,^ sessions as, '* should you see him" (= if you see him) = «« if you shall see him," should must be parsed as subjunctive past, used with the force of a present tense. .4. Will Will once meant " to desire" " 7vish:* It is used as a sign of the future in the second and third persons. It is an independent v^rb in the first person, and expresses determination or purpose. Won't = tool not contains the Nfiddle English form of wilL Would is a weak past tense, like should. ,, ' ,' When will means to desire, exercise the will, it is conjugated regularly. JVilt in this sense is often found for wiliest. 5. May. May once meant "to be able** (cp. " Do what I may, I can- not please him "). It expresses also /^/"/wmji?*!. It must be parsed as an independent and not as an auxiliary verb. In such expressions as " way they be happy," " teach me that I may be able to learn," may is in the subjunctive mood. Mig^ht is a weak past tense. It preserves the g of may, O. E. mceg. 6. Must. Must is the past tense of an old verb, mot, **lo be able," "V^^^ui: 1 »• Ti. •. _» » _ ""- -■'-■iJti~u. it «,Aprcs>i>c5 Ticccssny, Stiu ia tiOvv uScu with a present and future sense. ,«.'! Ui y« PJ^/MEJ^ OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chak 7- Ought Ought ia the past tense of the verb owe. It has now a present as well as a past meaning when used to express duty obhgahon, -^' Owe originally meant " to hav^r " to ownr hence " to have as a duty!* When owe means " to have to payr " to be in debt^ it is con- jugated regularly: as, (i) owe. (2) owest, (3) owes ; past tense, owed. *^ ' & Durst. Durst is the old past tense of dkre. When dare means to challenge, it is conjugated regularly, and has dared for its past tense and passive participle. 9. Wit. The old verb to wit, " to know." makes its present tense wot • Us past tense is wist. These forms are used in the English Bible. To wit is the old dative infinitive, now used as an adverb. 10. Have. Hast = hav^st = havesi. Hath = havUh = haveth. Has = ?uiv*s = haves. Had = hav*d = haved, II. Do. Did is not a weak form, like had, but a Strang verb, being ongmally the reduplicated perfect tense of do, cp. Lat. dedi. It is used as (I) a tense auxiliary in negative and interrog- ative sentences j as, " 1 do not believe it/' " Do you believe Ur (2) To express emphasis : *' I do believe that he did do it." :mm I VI.] AUXILIARY VERBS, 73 ice ** to have 12. Go. Go has lost its tme past tense. We supply its loss by the verb went^ the old past tense of wend^ " to turn.'* Gone shows that g^ was originally a strong verb, cp. done, 13. Let, in "let me go," is the imperative mood of the verb \ti^ to allow, permit, 14. The subjunctive mood of anomalous verbs, with the exception of the verb *'to be" has no suffixes to mark person. Auxiliary Verbs. § 78. The auxiliary verbs used for forming /^r^j^j are be^ have^ shall, will, do. . The verb to be is used for forming the passive voice. To conjugate the verb in all its parts, see tables, p. 47 and pp. 56, 57, 65-^9. 74 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, (chap. CHAPTER VII. ADVERBS. I.— DEFINITION, § 79. An Adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective^ or other adverb, (See page 13.) II.~CLASSIFICATION. Adverbs may be divided into the following classes : 1. Adverbs of time. When? Then, now, of ten, soon, &c, 2. Adverbs of place. Where? Here, there, whither, &c. 3. Adverbs of manner. Hmv? (i) Well, ill, badly, so, thus. Degree, quality ; (2) little, much, quite, very. Affirmation, negation ; (3) yes, in- deed, no, not, 4. Adverbs of cause and effect. Why? Therefore, thence, wherefore, whence, &c. VII.] ADVERBS: INFLEXIONS, 75 III.— INFLEXIONS. Most Adverbs are compared by — more and most. See Adjectives, § 38, p. 30, • § 80. Irregular Comparison of Adverbs. well better best ill worse worst much more most forth further furthest far late farther later farth^t last ^ [rathe] rather [rathest] § 81. Adverbs are formed from other parts of speech. 1. Nouns and Adjectives: — needs {of necessity), noways^ always^ unawares^ on-cey whtl-S't. I'his s is an old genitive suffix. Whil-om and seld-om contain an old dative ending. 2. Pronouns : — whe-re, ijlie-*t. whence; why ^ ihe-re^ ihe-n^ »^c.; he-re^ &c. 3. N' jr- or Adjectives compounded with a Pre- position: - an-on {^f {//iCf), a-hed^ a-broad^ of kin^ of late ^ of oldy iO'day be-times^ by /wrrf, cp. at lasty fc\ once^ meanwhile (;?= in the mean while^ 76 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. I ! 'l^K 1 1 w V % B ,■■,!.! '(>■ HKltl S 1 1 [Hi [ CHAPTER VIIL PREPOSITIONS. I.— DEFINITION. § 82. Prepositions join words to mark certain relations. See p. 13. By means of Prepositions we are able to express the relation of things to other things, or the relation of things to their actions or attributes. The most common relations expressed by Prepositions are place, time, manner, eause, A Preposition joins a noun {or pronoun) (i) to another noun (or pronoun) : There is a book on the table. (2) to an adjective: He is fond of his book. (3) to a verb: John goes to school in time. II.— CLASSIFICATION. § ^z Prepositions are either simple or compound, I. Simple: — at, hy^ for, in, of of, out, to, up, with, an. VIII.] PREPOSITIONS. •77 2. Compound: — (i) af'ter^ ov-er^ un-der, throu-gh, b-uty a-b-out^ a-b-ove, un-iOy in-to^ be-hindy with-iriy out of^ , fro-niy for-thy outside^ in-side. (2) a-mongy a-gaitiy a-head, beside, be-yond^ a-thwarty be-twixi, a-round^ a-long. (3) From verbs (participles) : owing to, notwith- standing^ except^ save. (4) We have many adverbial phrases; as, i«- stead ofy close tOy because of, on account of, in spite of (= in despite of). (5) Round = around ; down = a-down [=^ of downy i. e. off or from the hill). Nigk^ fuar^ nearer, next^ since, are sometimes us«d as prep- ositions. Past, the passive participle of the verb pass, is a preposition in " I went /|:t 8a PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Tchap. —^ ■ ■ ■- -ful {full of) : truth->/, (ear^ful, -ish (somewhat like) : girl-ij//, whit-/V//. -ly (like) : god-ly, good-ly, loverly. -like : god-like, yvar-like. I -less (without) ; shame-/m, house-/rjx. -y (pertaining to, abounding in) : hill-j, storm-^. -some (full of): game-j^?^^, win-some. -ward (turning to) : ixo-ward, ^OM\h,-ward. -teen, -ty (ten) : nine-teen, twen-ty. -th (order) : six-t/t, seven-//;. -fold (folded) : two-fold, many -fold, -ern (direction to) : easUern, north-er'n, §95. III.—ADVERBS. -ly (like) : god-ly, had-ly, on-ly. -ling, -long (= -wise, -ways) : dsit-ling, head-long, side-long. -meal (division) : Mmh-meal, ])\ece-meal. -ward, -wards (turning to): hither-ze/dr/-//, up- wards. -wise (manner, mode) : other-wise, no-wise, like- wise. -way, -ways : aX-ways, straight-w^^y. -S, -ce, -St : need-j, twi-^^, beside-j, whil-j/. -n : whe-;^, the-n, the-«-ce, he-«-ce. -om : %e\d-om, whil-^w. -re : whe-r^, the-r^, he-re. -ther : whi-ther, thi-ther, hi-iher. (See p. 75.) xr.] ENGLISH SUFFIXES. 83 § 96. IV.— VERBS. 1. Frequentative: -k : tal-/^, har-/&, stal-/^. -le, -1 : dibb-/^, spark-/^*, start-/^, knee-/. -er: ling-^r, flitt-tv , falWr. 2. Causative (making): -en, -n : iz.\X-en, short-^/;, length-^/;, lear-;z. Some few Causative Verbs are formed from Intran- sitive Verbs by vowi change : Intransitivr , fall sit rise &c. Transitive. fell set raise &c. § 97. Compounds. Two words may be joined together to make a new word, as rail-road^ steam-boat, Szc. The accent of the true compound is on the first syllable ; e.^. A crow is a a^acA bird, but not a bldckbird. The hyphen is used in writing to mark a compound; as, passer-by, coast-line, I.— NOUN COMPOUNDS. 1. Adjective + Noun : black-bird, blue-belL 2. Noun or Pronoun + Noun : noon-tide^ shoe- maker, hearts-ease, he-goat. 3. Noun + Verb : tell-tale, scare-crow, dare-devil. •,**>. ^. M^. -'^^ ^o^^ ^^- .0. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) /. 1.0 I.I ^ as, 2.5 2.2 M 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 -• 6" ► '*#1'^ Photographic Sciences Coiporation 13 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 \ c ^ 84 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, \ckJ:;^ II.~ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS. 1. Noun + Adjective : sky-blue, blood^red, foot, sore, seasick, heart-rending, heart-broken, 2. Adjective -f Noun : bare-foot, 3. Adjective + Adjective: blue-green, red-hot,new^ made, fair -haired, six-sided, *' III.— VERB COMPOUNDS. 1. Noun + Verb : back-bite, way-lay, 2. Adjective + Verb : white-wash, rough-hew, 3. Verb -^ Adverb: doff (do-off), don (do-on). For Adverb Compounds, see p. 75. • § 98. English Prefixes. A- (on, in) : ^-bed, tf-shore, <7-b. out. A- (out of, from) : r-swear, /^r-get. Fore- (before): /7/'r<^tclI, ^AH. [chap. XI.] LA TIAT AND FRENCH SUFFIXES, 85 Forth- : forth-coming, for-^jzx^, Gairi- (against) : ^^/>/-say (cp. contra-^iox). In- : /Vcome, />/-land, />/-lay, />j-to. Mis- (amiss) : /;//>-deed, w/V-lead, w/V^take. '^ Of. ( = off, from) : ^/-fal, ^/--spring. On- : ^«-set, , testa-/r/^. -ess (fern.) : lion-(?^x, song-str^^-i-. -ive : capt-zk', fugit-/W. -iff: cait-^jf, plaint-//". -ant, -ent : merch-a;//, gi-d!«/, stud-r;//. -ist : evangel-/^/, novel-/V/. -ite, -it : Israel-//*?, Jesu-//. 2. Abstract Nouns (see p. 8i) :— -age : coMx-age^ \iom-age, mdixxx-age -ance, -ence : endur-^^^^, obeis-a:«r^, just-ice. -son, som : hexii-sony poi-j^//, xsLXi-sort, -tion : henedic'tw/iy ^o-iion^ redemp-/ii?».k' -sion : conver-^/^//, occa-j/^ -ane: hum-ane. -ant, -ent: tn-anty ramp-dr«/, pati-M/. -ary : contr-d^ry, necess-d^ry, honor-^ry. -ate : consider-dr/?, desol-ar/^, priv-^/^. -ble, -able : sta-<5/(?, iQ^-bieymow-abky favour- abky laugh-dJ^/?, ^dX-able (edi-^/^, nour-«^, pun-/V/5. •fy: magni.^, 8igni-/y, simpli-yj'. § loo. Greek Suffixes. I.— NOUNS. -ic : log-/V, mus-/V. -ism : fatal-ww, barbar-/jw, magnet-/V;w. -sy:* drop-xy, pal-jy. -Si^: paraly.j/V. -y: monarch-/. -isk (diminutive) : aster-/>y&, obel-/xi. II.— VERBS. -ise, -ize : civil-w, fertiI-/V^, anathemat-/V^r. § loi. Latin and French Prefixes. A-, ,-b-, abs- (away, from): «3-normal, a^-dicate, ahsAx^i^i, «^j-tain, tf-vert, a-d-vancc, &c Ad- (to): * By assimilation ad becomes ac, a/., ag., ^/., am., an^.ap. ar-f as-f ai-, * r * tf^-join, 4!//-vert, arr-cept. Ante- (before) : fl!«/^-chamber, /»«/^«w.stance, «>r^.it. ♦ Norman French form of -als. XI.] LA TIN' AND FRENCH PREFIXES. 89 Com-, con-, co- (with) : By assimilation, coU^ com-, cor-. r^/^-mand, <:^;/-tend, ^^-eternal, - please, ///V-like, dif-{^x, Demi- (half) : ^wi-god. Ex-, C- (out of, from): ex-zXt, -regular. Inter-,intro- ) (^j^j^Jj^a ( /«/'^/'-course,/»/r^-duce. Enter- ) ( enter-X^Xxi, entcr-prise. Male-, mal- (ill, badly) : wtz/^-factor, maUxesit. Mis- (from Lat. minuSfless): w/>-chief, wx-fortune. Non- (not): «^j/-script. Pre- (before) : /r-count, z;/V^-roi. 4'M § I02. Greek Prefixes. Amphi- (about, on both sides): flw/>5i-theatre, amph'-bions. An-, a- (not, without ; like English un~) : an-archy, rt-pathy. , Ana- (up to, again, back) : ana-tomyj ana-logy. Anti-, ant- (opposite to, against): an^i-christf ant-3iTctic, Apo- (away from, from) : apoAogyy apostropliQ. Arch-, archi- (chief, head) ; d^r^/z-heretic, arc/i- bishop, arc/n-iQct. Auto- (self) : auto-grdL^h.^ ^^/i?-biography. . Cata,- cat- (down) : cata-rsLCt^ ^i^Ahedral, Dia- (through) : ///d^-meter, dia-\og\XQ. ^ Di- (in two) : ///-syllable, ///-phthong. . I X..] GREEK PREFIXES, 91 Dys- (ill) : //)^J-peptic, //^'j-entery. Ec-, ex- (out, from) : ^jc-odus, ^r-centric. En- (in) : ^//-thusiasm, ^;«-phasis, ^/-lipsis. Eu- (well) : ^//-phony, ^z;-angelist. Epi- (upon, or) ; <^/-tome, ^-och. Hemi- (half) : //^w/'-sphere. Hyper- (above, over, beyond): hyper-Qx\\\z2\^ /j^d'r-bolical. Hypo- (under) : //y/^-crite, ^_y/ara-h\ef par-ody. Peri- (around) : /^r/'-meter, /^r/-phrases. Pro- (before): /r^-gramme, //-^-logue. Syn- (with): Jj^/z-thesis, syn-taXf sym-psithyj syl- lable. , ! r» 9» PRIMER OF ENtL/SH GRAMMAR, [chap. i ill CHAPTER XII. 1/ m%w V ' ' \ SYNTAX. § 103. Syntax teaches us how words are put together in a sentence. It treats of the right use of the paVts of speech and their inflexions.' The chief combinations of the Parts of Speech are :— 1. A verb and its subject; as, " Time flies." 2. An adjective and its noun ; as, ''A good man:' 3. A verb and its object ; as, " John hurt the dog." 4. An adverb and the verb, adjective or adverb to which it is joined. See examples on p. 13. • The frst, which shows the relation of the Predicate to its subject, is called Predicative combination. (See § 118, p. lOI.) The second is called Attributive combination. (See p. 103, for the different modes of expressing an attribute:) The third is called Objective combination. (See pp 42, 104.) The fourth is called Adverbial combination. (See pp. 74, 104, 108.) ^ ^^ '^ MAH. [chap. Bxii.] SYNTAX. 9J § 104. I. Verb and Subject. (See p. 104.) I. A finite verb is in the same numbek* and person as its subject ; as, / think Thou think'Csi He thinks We think You think They think The verb must agree with its subject in number and person. / thinks would be wrong, because / is of the first person and ^hinks of the third. The subject of a finite verb is said to be In the Nominative case. 2. The verb to be takes a Nominative case after it as tvell as before it ; as, '' He IS 2i king ;" " The king is a child,*' Some verbs are used like the verb to be in this respect ; as, ** he became a bankrupt /" * he seems an idiot /* " he is called a poet ;" "he is made a knight,'* 3. When two or more subjects in .the singular number are joined together by the conjunction and, the verb must be put in the plural number; as, "John and William are good boys.*' 4. Two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor, take a verb in the singular number ; as, " John or William, or James is going with me." " Neither John nor William is going." (i) Or originally meant either (see p. 39). It implies any 9ne of two, c r an alternative. ■^1- 94 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Fchap (2) When two nouns are of different numbers or persons ihe verb must agree with the latter. " Either he or I am right." " Neither John nor liis brothers have come!* 5. When the subject is a collective and singular noun the verb is sometimes put into the plural; "The jury were dismissed." "The multitude were divided." When the collective noun refers to a number of things con- sidered separately, then the verb should be in the plural number. If the objects denoted by the collective noun be regarded as a whole, the verb should be singular ; as, (i) The jury ^ ach of them) were dismissed. (2) The council (as one body) has chosen its president. § 105. 2. Adjective and Noun. 1. When the adjective is used after the verb to he it is said to be used predicatively ; as, " The wound is mortal^ When put close to the noun (before or after it) it is said to be used attributively s as, " He received a mortal wound." The adjective is used predicatively after the verbs become, seem^ appear ^ turn, &c. (See p. 93.) 2. A noun {or pronoun) used as an attribute to another noun, signifying the same thing, is said to be in apposition with it; as, William the Norman conquered Ergland " (= " the Norman William con- quer'd England "). The wore? Norma>: is in apposition to William, and agrees with it in number and case. 2. Sometimes the preposition of comes before the apposi- tional word ; as, the county of Rutland = the county Rutland* Is r ' r ti 'MAR. [chap. i or persons ihe or I am right." and singular the plural; ultitude were ' of things con- plural number. e regarded as a I. 5 president. )un. he verb to be * The wound m (before or dys as, " He ( verbs become^ attribute to is said to be :he Norman Villiam con- z/w, and agrees re the apposi- mnty Rutland xir.] SYNTAX. 95 A noun [or pronoun) in the Possessive case sta ds in the relation of an attribute to another n jun. Sometimes the preposition of marks the same re- lation as the sign of the possessive case. (See p. 26.) " Eye of newt and toe offrog^ Wool of bat and tongue of dog ^ Adder's fork -and blind-worm's sting, Lizard's leg and howlefs wing." / \ Macbeth iv, i. § 106. 3. Verb and Object. I. Direct Object. 1. The direct object of a transitive veii, is put in the Objective case ; as, " The lightning struck the tree and made it wither." (See p. 25.) 2. The verb teach, ask, fo jive, tell, &c., take two Objectives, one of a person and the other of a thing. "He taught bis pupils history:' "They asked hitn his name." The verbs to make, name, call, esteem, &c., take two Objectives of the same person or thing ; as, " They mads him king.'* " They called John a traitor." 3. Intransitive verbs often take an objective case, akin in form or meaning to the verb itself: * He dreamed a dream.*' " They went their way" The Objective case is sometimes used after intran- sitive verbs to express(i) time— how long ? (2) space— haivmtichl "The battle lasted the whole ^tzy." "He slept three hours." "I walked two miles a day." The Objective case follows some few impersona! Pi Bii: li: '!!- t 96 PRIMER OF ENGUSH GRAMM AR, [chap. verbs, as it did in Old English ; as, it repents me; me lists; it ails me; it irks me; it recks me; it con- cerns us; it grieves me, ' 2. Indirect Object. The Indirect Object comes after many transitive and intransitive verbs. It may be known by asking the question A> or /or whom or what? (See p. 25.) ** He built me a house." " Give me my book." The indirect object is used with the impersonal verbs, become^ behove, please, likes, beseem^ &c. ; cp. methlnks == it seems to me; methought = it seemed to me, "Gooid actions become «j." " It behoved C>5m/ to suffer." "If it please you/' or, "if ^'^ please." The Indirect object follows the verb worth; as, " woe worth the day:' In imitation of this we have, "woe is me;' "well is him:' The words like^zxA unlike), nigh, near, next, are followed by the Indirect object. " He is like a gian,ty He was ttear us" Many adjectives (as well as veros) are followed by the prep- osition to, and the governed nouumay be treated as the indirect object ; as, dear to, cruel to, fair to, similar to, obedient to, equal to. The adjectives worth and worthy (also unworthy) arc some- times followed by the Indirect Object; as, " it is not worth one's while:* In O. E. these adjectives, like many others, governed the genitive case, cp. the adjectives, slow of, swift of, hard of weary of, worthy of guilty of fond of proud of, ashamed of ; and the verbs, think of, smell of, taste of, laugh at (originally laugh of). T^^ cr<>nifivA urac fxni^A itca/l Mvtfli fl^A o^t^^t.:..^. 7 Z.*— £ broad, &c. ; as, " the box was six vards long, and six feet broad^ and ten inches high/' " the bey is two years dd." H. [chap. pents me; e; it con- XII.] SYNTAX. 97 transitive by asking eep. 25.) )k." ipersonal &c. ; cp. leemed to ed Christ please." ^orth; as, we have, allowed by tuar us.** the prep- le indirect Ot equal to. are some- wrih one's ^emed the , hard of, homed of; [originally ' Z.«_£ feet broad^ § 107. 4. Adverb and Verb, Adjective, or Adverb. Adverbs, as we have already seen (p. 74), are joined Xo verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, to express cer- tain relations of time, place, manner, cause, and effect. The adverb is not always a simple word. It is often (i) a phrase, (2) clause or sentence ; as, 1. "He yf^ni on shore:' " He came down step by step:' 2. The day having dawned we set out." When the day dawned ^q set out." (See § 130, p. io8.) MISCELLANEOUS RULES. I. Pronouns. § 108. The relative agrees with its antecedent in number and person ; as, " The boy a/^^ was late was punished;" ''liQthat is contented is happy;" "0 thou that leadest Israel." ^^ The relative does not always agree in case with its relative. He whom we worship, by whose gift we live, is the Lord." As the relative introduces a new clause, its case must depend upon Its relation to the verb in its own clause. In the example quoted above, whom is objective, because governed by the tran- sitive verb worship. " Tell me whom I am " is wrong ; it ought to be, " Tell me who I am." " Do you know who you speak to, ought to be, " Do you know whom;' &c. § 109. The Indefinite Pronouns, each, every, either, neither, are singular, and must be followed by a verb and pronoun in the singular. " Each Derson /^nows his own property." " Every bird tries to pro- tect its young. " " Either of the two is to be taken. " g8 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. 2. Verbs. § no. The Indicative Mood states a positive fact, and is used in simple assertions and questions. (See p. 43.) § 1 1 1. The Subjunctive Mood is used to express a doubt, supposition, opinion. The inflected sub- junctive has nearly gone out of use. It is still found after such conjunctions as //, unless^ though^ kst^ till; as, "//"fortune serve me, I'll requite this kindness." " For murder, though it have no tongue, will speak." " Let me stand here ////thou remember it." (See p. 43.) ^ § 112. Infinitive Mood. The Infinitive Mood is used after the verbs shall^ will^ may^ can, must, dare, let, do, without the sign to before it; as, "he can read," " he will talk" 1. The infinitive without to occurs after the transitive verbs bid^ maket see^ hear ^ feel. 2. It is used after ^0/ cp. *'ga seek," which is sometimes changed to " go and seek." The gerundial infinitive is the infinitive with the preposition to (=:/or) before it, used after nouns and adjectives; as, " a house to let,' " ready to go," " hard to tell." Here the infinitives are equal to verbal nouns with the preposition /?ry as, to let ^for letting, &c. The gerundial infinitive is also used to mark a purpose ; as, " What went ye out to see ?" Tht £erundial infinitive is so called because it often corre- sponds to a gerund in Latin. The simple infinitive must be either in the nomi- -I.' __ ^l-: aa. (nom.) ; "he began to err" (obj.). ft/ err la iiuiiiaii xir.] SYNTAX, 99 is sometimes often corre- § 113. Participles. Participles in -ing and -ed zxt. used as adjectives, and always refer to some noun in the sentence to which they belong. They may be used attributively or predicatively (see p. 45); as, " a l(mng mother;" " a drunken man ;" " a bruised reed." Tarticiples {and Adjectives) with the before them are used as nouns; as, "the living/' "the dead/* "the first begotten;" " the Lord's anointed." The Participle is sometimes used absoluteljrwith the Nominative case before it; as, "The dawn aj>- /^earing, we rose ;" "This done^ Mazeppa spread his cloak." The participle is said to be used absolutely because it stands in no grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. The nominative before the participle is called the Nomina- tive absolute, because it agrees with no finite verb. § 114. Verbal Nouns. Verbal Nouns in -ing. These must not be confounded with present participles in -ing. Verbal nouns are used either as nominatives or objectives. (i) The mending of the table will not take long. (2) The mending must be done at once. (3) The tabic wants mending, v4; The cost of mending the table will not be great. icx>. PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. The verbal noun mtnding in (4) seems to govern the noun table: but in older English the preposition § 119. The Subject. As the Subject names something that is spoken of, it must be : — 1. A Noun. (See p. 17 for the various kinds of nouns!) 2. Some word or words that may take the place and do the duty of a noun, as a Pronoun or a Sentence. Examples : — Subject. Man He He Erring To err Tfiat he erred Predicate. is mortal, is erring, is in error, is human, is human, is certain. An adjective with the definite article is equivalent to a noun; as, '' tlu ing duty for ee Subject, ect; as, 00k (direct). mtpUtion oj Adverb, ce) doing predicate te or Ad- § 125. The Extensions are nothing else than adverbial adjuncts or qualifications of the Predicate, and they may be put into the same classes as Ad- verbs (see p. 74), according as they mark the when, where^ how, and why of the Predicate. Examples : — Subject. Predicate. Object. Adverbial Adjunct*. The village- preacher's modest mansion rose near yonder copse (place). All met here (place) on a Sunday-eve (time). I knew him well (manner). He gave me a book yesterday (time). Swallows appear spring coming (time). He came to see me (cause). § 126. The Compound Sentence. \\r\. ^ "' iiwu ii bCixtciii^c v^oaiams only one subject and one finite verb, it is called a Simple sentence. Two io6 PMIMER OF ENGUSIT GRAMMAR, [chap. simple sentences may be united together by a co- ordinate conjunction (see p. 78) to form a compound sentence; as, ^^ Birds fly djid fish swim " Each member of the compound sentence makes complete sense by itself, and neither depends upon the other for its meaning. The second member of a compound sentence is said to be co-ordinate with the first. (i) Compound sentences may be contracted ; as, " John re- turned home and James returned home yesterday " = " John and James returned home yesterday." (2) And is Soften used to join two or more co-ordinate terms belonging to the same word in the sentence ; as, that new and expensive toy is spoilt. Subject. That new and expensive toy Predicate. is spoilt. § 127. The Complex Sentence. We have seen that a sentence may do duty for (i) a Noun, (2) an Adjective, (3) an Adverb. As such sentences depend upon another sentence called the Principal one, for their full meaning, they are hence called Subordinate sentences. Subordi- nate sentences are of three kinds. Substantival, Adjectival, and Adverbial. The principal sen- tence, with the subordinate part or parts, is called a Complex Sentence. In the complex sentence, " They lived unknown, till perse- cution dragged them into fame," the two sentences are : — /*. [chap. by a co- ompound :e makes tids upon nber of a r with the " John re- " = "John nate terms it new and Kll '•1 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, X07 tyror(i) jrb. As ce called they are lubordi- antival, [pal sen- called a (1) " They lived ttnknowti." (2) " Persecution draggid them into fame." Each sentence as it stands makes complete sense ; but the full nteaningof sentence two is not felt before it is joined and related to sentence one by the connecting word or conjunction /«//. Ib Noun-Sentences. § 128. A Substantival or noun-sentence does the duty of a fwun, and may be used as the subject or object of the verb in the principal sentence. It is sometimes introduced by the word that; as, (subject) " That Julius Cossar invaded Britain'\% a well-known fact;" (object) "he tried to prove that the earth is not rounds Indirect questions are often objects; as, **Tell me who said sor "Ask him why he did so!' "Can he explain how it is done," 2. Adjective-Sentences. § 129. The Adjectival sentence does the duty of an adjective and qualifies some noun in the principal sentence. It is very often joined to the principal, sentence by means of a relative pronoun or relative adverb. (i) At daybreak on a hill they stood that aver^ looked the moor, (2) And shall the audacious traitor brave The presence where our banners wave ? In (i) the adjective sentence qualifies the noun hill in the In (2) the adjective sentence qualifies the noun presence In the principal sentence. Notice that where = in which. ' ^^HR 'Iv^Ha 1 ^H^^^^IHiil ' ':%' r 1 U^H ■ ' l*''l *■ '' 108 FRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. 3. Adverb-Sentences. g I -JO. The Adverbial sentence docs the duty of an adverb, and modifies some verb^ adjectim^ or adverb^ in the principal sentence. The classification of adverbial sentences is the same as that of adverbs. (See p. 74.) Adverbial sen- tences are generally joined to the principal sentence by a subordinate conjunction. (See p. 78.) Examples :-— " OA Linden, when the mn was l< ould he stretch, il t babbles by." AJSTALYSIS OF SEJVTI ^N'CES. X09 mm I ' ■■■ the duty ■ 'jecHvty or ■ d verbulAdj unct . Eztenswn of the Predicate.) there, at the oot of yonder beech (pkice) at noontide (time) so high (manner) • • • • 1 ■^ I H ^.3 < -' 1 •« 1 ^H^^^ es is the ■ 1 1 u l^H^H rbial sen- 1 sentence ■ noontid s brook • 2* listless ngth fantasti oot "o • • • B ^1 1M O a-^ T3 >-« ' « • ^^^^^1 1 ength s upon t A 6 t ^H ^H iiP^^^^H ■ go • V 2-5 2 « c l^^l ^^H W 3 4> O U *3 s ^ o O O G. h|^^H| w .ss-o i! > t> £< fe 0,3 rt hH^^^^I ^^H J -^ c Pk ^ rO ^B^^^^^H [edied^ H % 'C^^ 1"^ i^^^^^i -g.Sf il^^BB is great'* H higher he H • IS* 3 C/} JK 4-> 4; H e weather H "no H bA«J ^^^H ^H • 1 ^ ^^^^^H B C Q 8 nate, Ad- o beech in cc (I). ^ -^ c-^ »>i« a^^ IS !^^H ay stand in H Itence, that H er nod tastic B U a J C/2 cj^ Hj 1 ttH O M 8^ «M o a t Subordi jective t senten Principal Co-ordi! Subord Adjectiv in ■ ^^B 1 1 1 ^^^^^^^^^^ 1 re, at the f< lat wreathe J u a <» 4-1 ere, at the if yonder ng beech, ess length tide would itretch. t wreathes fantastic so high. [he would] upon the ok. 1 pi B ) Th foot c nc'ddii is listl : noon j3 rs "li Ej o 2 T3 O S _• "^ n >— • Tt ■ ^-^ 1 ■Hi B no PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. 1^ 1 ef i ^ til <— 4 .5 « g 51 slgl • ■ • • • • • f ! iHiii -a • • » 1 jSKi^^M^^ Ji i^ , ^W M ^^^^^^^^^^^M 1 c: 0} 1 '^ c Ji UM^^^KS^m u • • • • V 6 1 I^Ibi ''^ IS* • • 1 Sf 'IHW « o rt o " • • (4 * w p. '^ -^ j||iu| i **^ d 1 ^ n tA 1 "^ S Ik i$ V fl^^^^^^^^l * tA V c Pi (A 0) ■5 .5 o a o V) ^:MB >• >> N S |^|H|h 1. ^ ^ • 1-4 g a^^lHi : ^^H^^^H^HI^ (J **~* r^ « • h (A .tl U O s -6 Si V o « Iff 3 CO o •^^ ^ > 4iJ • pi* 5 l-^ i|B • a 1 ^1 < a i o 0) " a a, o 4>l >» rt . V (A > c ^ -5 1 >^ ) 1 1 1 ^HHIIi m V u c a -£3 <— 1 O .2-2 1—4 ^ ^ ^ 8 Ul (A *^ S*'' O w iiiiiiiir M - fAR. [chap. XIII.] ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, III (4 o (A N o-J: O 0) Ki . V h bA V •r! O -^-d *- c ^ O w rC a> N "^ S! v.^,^ (A s C« o ^ .£P u A ifl •d C3 o tr* a W A ■w C •d (0 • •■4 c4 (l4 «; M ^ r/> J A V ^ ■M Cj •«ij a 1 a •^^ •d ^ fi LC -d o 4-1 ♦^ »r* X JA -3 o ^ V ^ -d •t-> (4 T 1- 1 C4 bA M •d (4 C4 Irf a kn o • ••4 o o CO I c -d E > >* « sa S 3 O « bfl wd 5 c ** c 2 e II*i5 o C4 •5 -a 8 ii o s p Pi •d 4-1 ? S fe cr ** o c4 -d -d U •d o '3 -d C4 u Iff 3 *w5 u> a ■<-> o rJ .^ I ^ :3 10 •d ,£3 • v4 1) rt4 u u c u c o •c c « 2 c4 ^ 'd .^ o o &>^ so-;: cr.;z; a. ••^ u c • 1-4 Pi o S d d to O I- ^ °&« «/) o *^ a ^ "j^ IM* ^ I « 'i o S ^3 M a< X O 'r* m ** ;fc ■♦^ '7 .2 o ? o • .£3 «G _- .Wd id^^ 2 IS^-d «* S) rs «j 4) g-d ^*-- 5^ 2 fl 'd *- 'd ^ g •*j "d 4111 \' ira PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, fcHAP. 8 132. MODEL OF GRAMMATICAL PARSING. I. Noun:— I. ir/W(Common, Proper); 2, Num- her; 3. Gender; 4. Case; 5. Syntax, II. Pronoun:-!. ^/W (Personal, Demonstra- tive, &c.); 2. Person; 3. .y^;«^^ry 4. 6^^«^^ry c. Case; 6. Syntax. ^ III. Adjective:-!. ^/Wy 2. 2?^^r^^ of Com. partson; 3. i?'«/?^//^« (attribute of, or predicate of) IV. Verb:— I. Kind (Transitive, Intransitive): 2. Conjugation (Strong, Weak); 3. Voice; 4. J/^^^,. 5. r^wy 6. />^/'j^;,y 7. iVk.;^^^^^. 8. Syntax {2.^tt^ ing with);i 9. 7>^^/^ (Present, Past, Passive Parti- ciple). V. Adverb:— I. Kind; 2. Degree of Comparison; 3. Function (qualifying Verb, Adjective, or Adverb) VI. Preposition:— I. ^/Wy 2. i?>^«^//^« (join- ing a Noun to a Noun, &c.). VII. Conjunccion:— I. iT/Wy 2. ^««^//^ (join- ing two sentences co-ordinately or subordinately). Example. My father lived at Blenheim then, Yon little stream hard by ; They burnt his dwelling to the ground, And he was forced to fly. .... Pronoun, personal, possessive, ist person, singular number, common gender, attribute of father. Noun, common, singular number, masculine My faihtr * • • . gender, nominatlv* case, enhiert t\f Uii^.-I 'MAIi, fC HAP. PARSING. Jr); 2. J^um- Demonstra- Gender J 5. ^^^ 0/ Com- redicate of). 1 transitive); J 4. Mood J ntax (agree- ssive Parti- Compartson; >r Adverb). iction (join- nction (join- dinately). XIII.] PARSING. "3 ound, 1st person, ier, attribute r, masculine lived at Blenheim then Yon little stream They burnt his dwelling to the ground Verb, intransitive, weak conjugation, active voice, indicative mood, past tense, 3rd person, singular number, agreeing with its subject father. Parte : live, lived, lived. Preposition, joining lived and Blenheim. Noun, proper, singular number, neuter gen- der, objective case, after at. Adverb of time, qualifying the verb lived. Pronoun, demonstrative, used as the attribute of stream. Adjective of quality, positive degree, attribute of stream. Noun, common, singular number, neuter gender, objective case, governed by the compound preposition hard by^ Pronoun, demonstrative, 3rd person, plural number, common gender, nominative case, subject of burnt. Verb, transitive, weak conjugation, active voice, indicative mood, past tense, 3rd person, plural number, agreeing with its subject they. Parts : burn, burnt, burnt. Pronoun, demonstrative, possessive, 3rd per- son, singular number, masculine gender, attribute of dwelling. Noun, common, singular number, neuter gender, objective case, governed by the transitive verb burnt, Prep(»ition, joining burnt and ground. Adjective, demonstrative, attribute oi ground. Noun, common, singular number, neuter gen- der, objective case, after the preposition to. jp- ■P' H4 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [chap. ' And he .... Conjunction, co-ordinate, joining the two sentences, " They burnt," &c., to " He was forced to fly." .... Pronoun, demonstrative, 3rd person, singular number, masculine gender, nominative case, agreeing with the verb was forced, •was farced*. . . . Verb, transitive, weak, passive voice, indica- , tive mood, past tense, 3rd person, singular, agreeing with its subject Ae. Parts : force, forced, forced, to Ay .... Verb, intransitive, weak, infinitive mood, indirect objert, after was forced. § 133. Examples of Analysis of Sentences not in a Tabular Form, (See § 131, p. 109.) I. My worthy friend, Sir Roger, when we are talk- ing of the malice of parties, very frequently tells us an accident that happened when he was a school- boy. A. My worthy friend. Sir Roger, very frequently tells us an accident ♦ The verbs was znA forced may be parsed separately, as follows : wax ... Verb, intransitive, strong, auxiliary, indicative mood, past tense, 3rd person, singular, agreeing with its subject he. /creed, . , Verb, transitive, weak, passive participle of the verb force, zrs% ftT:::s37» UAH, [chap. ining the two cc, to " He was >erson, singular ;r, nominative ) was forced. e voice, indica- srson, singular, Parts : force^ XIII.] PARSING. 115 we are talk- ntly tells us IS a school- , as follows : ive mood, past ;s subject he. the verb force, B. (when) we are talking of the malice of parties C. that happened D. (when) he was a school-boy. A. Principal sentence. B. Subordinate, Adverbial (time) to tells in A. C. Subordinate, Adjectival to accident in A. D. Subordinate, Adverbial (time) to happened in C. Friend My worthy, Sir Roger, tells us an accident very frequently ^Vhen we are talking of malice the, of parties That happened When he A. Subject. Attributes of Subject. Predicate. I Object. Extension of Predicate (time). Connective^ joining A and B. Subject. Predicate. Object. Attributes of Object, C. Subject. Predicate. D. Connective^ joining C and D, Subject. iL i lXnui i |r i l « rj f ^r w ri6 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRA MMAR, [chap. 2. I had worn out all the waistcoats I had, and my business was now to try if I could not make jackets out of the great watch-coats which I pos- sessed, and such other materials as I had. A. I had worn out all the waistcoats B. [that] I had . (and) my business was now t'* try I B. (iO I could not make jackets out of the great watch-coats and such other materials (which) I possessed as I had. E. F. A. Principal ; co-ord. with C. B. Subord. Adject, to waistcoats in A. C. Principal ; co-ord. with A. D. Subord. Noun (obj.) to try in C. E. Subord. Adject, to waistcoats in D. F. Subord. Adject, to materials in D. had worn out waistcoats all the A. Subject. Predicate. Object. Attributes of Obiect. \fAI^, [chap. 1 XIII.] PAUSING, 117 I had, and B. d not make I Subject. 'hich I pos- had Predicate. d. [that] Object. C. And Connective^ joining A and C. business Subject. my Attribute of Subject. was now to try Predicate. If Connective^ joining C and D. I Subject. could not make Predicate. itch-coaf s and jackets Object. out of the great watch-coatsj Extension of Predicate (material and (out oQ such other ma-^ instrument). terials I possessed which I had as E. Subject. Predicate. Object.* F. Subject. Predicate. Object.* ♦ Notice that the relatives which and as are used as Connectives. Ii8 PRIMER OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, CONTRACTIONS. O.E. = Old English. Fr. = French. N.-Fr. ac Norman-French. ft MAX,