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WEREKHA, Member of the Forestry Society of St. Petersburg. XSTS. (TRANSLATED BY A. KIRKWOOD.) TORONTO: WARWICK BROS. & RUTTER, Phintebs, &o., 68 and 70 Fboni Siaxm Wtai. IH96. Fo: WAi AN ACCOUNT OF TIIF, Forests of Russia and Their Products IX COMPARISON WITH THE TOTAL TERRrFORIAL AREA AND WITH • THE POPULATION. BY P. N. WEREKHA, MerAbcr of the Forcstrii Socictii of St. /\'^o-s'«i(/-'/ 18T3. (TRANSLATED BY A. KIRKWOOD.) TORONTO: WARWICK BROS. & RUTTER, PRINTERS, Etc.. 68 and 70 FRONT ST. WEST. 1896 AVANT PROPOS. It is the d at 1/ of the State to munagc tind e.ci^lolt the pahlic forests, 8}jsfem>iti- C(dhj, by a trained stiff of scientific oijlcers and skilled workmen ; and la encourage the develoiwient ofthi'ir industrial resources. The forests of Russia, oxclnsive of those of Ceiitnvl Asia, Ciincasia aiid Finlniul, (.'xtonJ over a space (*f 177,1')'.) 000 qiiaro dt'-ciatinL's, or iy;^),")44,10') hectares,* correspond in:,' to i, early -tO per cent, of the ,otal superficies of the Empire in Europe. Coniparin;,' the extent of country occupied by the forests with tlie number of inhabitants, there are about 2.0.S hectares to each inliabitant. If the proportion between the extent of forests arnl the popuhition was ever^'vvherc u.iiform, it mii,dit be said that the reriuirements of the country were more than completely assured ; but in Russia the lorests ai-e very unequally dis- tributed ; ."-o tl at of the whole area of the lorests there are 97,U;i0,00O deeialines, or 100,904,797 hectares situated in the lour governments of the north : Ark- hangel, Vologda, Olonctz and Perm ; which make about (io per cent, of the total superficies of the forests and more tlian 20 deciatines (2M,89.S hectares) for each inhabitant. In the ten most thickly populated govennuent.s in the centre of Russia, those of Moscow, Riazan, Penza, Kalouga, Toula, Tambow, Oiel, Koursk, Voronoge and Kharkow, the forests occupy only a space of 7,9-S8,00'l deciatines, or S,670,J?.S0 hectares, which make about IS per cent, of the total area, and scarcely half a deciatine or 54 ares for each inhabitant. In the seven govern- ments of the south: Bessarabia, Kherson, Ecaterinoslaw, Taurida, .Podolia, Poltava am' Astrakhan, the.se proportions are still much less. In these seven governments of the south the wojded lands (1,795,000 deciatines, or 1,900,002 hectares) represent only 3^ pei oent. of the total forest area and not more tluiu 0.1 deciatine or 11 ares to each inhabitant. The very dense population of the ten jjOvernments of the Kingdom of Poland, which occupy a space of 122,200 square kilometres, has, altogether, 3,053,000 deciatines or 3,334,003 hectares of forest, making ?-2.27 per cen^^. of the ^otal area. In tliese ten governments there is but one-half a deciatine, or only 54.50 ares of forest to each inhabitant.f Such an unequal di.sposition of forests, as well in regard to the total forest area of the Ru.ssian Empire in Europe, as to the population ; the immen.se tlis- tances that separate the thinly wooded governments of the .south; tlie rich forests of the northern governments ; t!ie want of water communications between many localities; and the cost of carrying wood long distances by rail ; — all these circumstances have compelled the inhabitants to seek metliods of reforestation, * 40 hectares=39 acrea, nearly, 1 dt'ciatine=109,2488]319.5S43894 arcs. + 1 are=119.6 square yards. as well for building purposes as for fuel. And all the while, the people of the wooded districts of the north suHer more as they do not profit from their abund- ance of forests, because they ol)struct the communication between localities so thinly populated. As to territorial ownership the forests arc distiibutoil as follows : The state forests occupy 110,720,000 de valines or 12(),!)(J(!,H4() hectares. Forests appertaining to the mines of the Crown occupy 5,394,000 di'ciatines or 5,.S92,S.S0 hectares. The appanage forests of the Crown exteu'l over .'),4«S7,')0() di-ciatines or 5,99"),()2« hectares. Foiests appertaining to towns, churches, monasteries, dideivnt institutions and private individuals extend o^'er 5 j,. 5.5 1, .500 dt''ciatiues or GO,6iS!),.'J.')4 hectares. Private individunls and institiuions owning forests have the absolute right to cut the timber and clear them up. It follows from this that ail ciilcMlations and guarantees as to the future forest wealth of the country can only lie liased on those forests which are under the inunediate guardianship of the Government, cr special forest administration. This is why the guarantee of the neinls of the pojiulation in forest products and trattic really depends upon the administration of the state forests by the Government. Of the whole extent of the forests of Russia, the most considerable part, as well of the state forests, as those belonging to individuals, is situated in the northern governments. In ArUiangel the state forests represent 41 per cent, of the whole forest domain ; in Vologda, 82 per cent. ; in Olonets, 8tj per cent. ; in Perm, 43 per cent. ; in the centre the proportion is 10 per cent., an5k and Bielewsk, describes a curve )|)l<' of the lieir abun«l- localities so etiircs. )0 (U'ciatines l(''ciatines or :, institutions ;}.')4' hectares, lisolutc rij^lit calculations Illy h'' l>aseil Government, ne»'«ls of the (liiiinistration .Table part, as ituated in the il per cent, of i; per cent. ; in ,1 in the south I indigenous to st management, r pushes almost :d to prolonged adually receded to the west of latitude. From ament of Kiew, isin of the Don, ts growth turns , and of Orel on c Government of L'scnbes a curve round Toula, and by way of Rta^an and Tambow, s is the sanie a.s that introduced under the administration of Colhert in lOoM hy Sweilish instriictois in the Liindes of France, for the gemnmge and fal»rication of tar from the maritime pine. For the purposes of fuel spruce was used as well as pine, hut being le.»-s valuable than pine, it was about :i per cent, cheaper where it was cut in the woods. Spruce bark, in the northern governments, takes the place of lime-tree bark for the sheating of wagons and sledges ; as a material for tanning, the bark is largely used in localities where willow or other trees richer in tan are scarce. Large forests are frecjuently entirely composed of this species of tree, especially in moist and argillaceous soils, but it is often mixed with other kinds of wood, as pine, hiich, })oi)lar, and in the north with the white spruce of Siberia. Spruce is exploited in the same order of cutting as i)ir.e. Siberian spruce (Abies-Sibirica), Ledel) (Abies Picnta), Forbes, forms forests mixed with connnon spruce, and pure, grand, massive f..rests, in some places, in the north and north-east, and beyond the Oura'. Technically, the Siberian Hi' is equal in value to the European or silver lir, and is exploited in a similar manner, in the true light of economic loiestry. The European fir (Abie.-i taxifolia, or A pectinata) flourishes in the western governments, near the Carpatliian mountains. The Siberian Larch (Larix Sibirica extends over the north-east part of Russia in Europe, and farther in an ea.stern direction. Its limits to the west and south are denoted by a line commeneinL' a little west of the Ba}' of Onega, on the White Sea, thence .south to the district of Kargopol in the Government of Olonets' and easterly acioss Kostroma to the district of Semenovsk, in the Government of Nijui-Novgorod ; then turns the Government of Kazan (where it is only found in i.solated patches), cuts the Gcverninent of Viatka, and heads towards the Oural, by the northern district of Oufa. Over this expanse of country, almost entirely covered by forests, the supplies of larch are . ery con.siderable. Larch is dis- patched abroad b}^ the mouths of the Petchora and Mezene, and in the same way to Cronstadt for the uses of the Russian fleet. At present the use of larch is very limited, attributable, in pai't, to the difficult)' of procuring it from ports situated •on the Northern ocean. But the remarkable solidity of tlie wood of this species, erly Lake 1 \ a it is :^') ties in tho J almost ft (|UnntitieH, ; lu-o routetl .(I also the .his niedh'y is ust'd for .() tliat, for o localities, luced under ! Liindes of ue. it heini^ le^s i cut in the of lime-tree inL'> the bark m are scarce. ee, especially Is of wood, as ia. Spruce is .hiea-Sihirica), rucc.and pure, X., and beyond ! European or it of economic lurishes in the t, part of Russia \vest and south Onega, on tl e nent of Olonets- he Government it is only found kvards the Oural, almost entirely Larch is dis- in the same way e of larch is very m ports situated ,d cif this species, its tli'xibility, thu hvrj^o dimen>»i<)ns of tho trees, and tho important fact that tho wood of tlie larch is rarely attached by insects, all lead to the supposition that as tiuie ^oeson.the larch will not occupy the lust place amoni,' woods for naval con- .-^truction. Durin;,' recent years the Minister of Marine has taken from tho forests of Arkhan<,'el, IdO.OOO feet, or 2,vS32 cubic meters of larch annually. 'I'lie larch in thesi! northern rei,'ions <,'rows very slowly, tho soil bein<,' shale anil the sub-soil stony. This is why, if tindier of lar^'e dimensicjns is lequired, these forests can only lit" exploited at the aj,n' of ISO to 200 years. Ihit when larch grows in a inarh' soil or a calcareous sub-.soil its vegetation is niiieh more rapid, ami tho (piality of its wood superior. The lilrcli (Hetula alba) is one of the most prevalent forest trees in Russia. Mixed with pine, Norway spruce, silver tir of Siberia, I'inus cendna (called also the cedar of the north), birch reaches almost to tho limit of northern forest vege- tation. It is found on the south at the 45 ° of iiurth latitued for this pur[)o.so is stripped either from felled or standing trees; in the last case the operation is not essentially injurious to the trees, if carefully done without deterioration of the inner bark. In five or eight years tht.' bark is renewed and can be taken from the tree again. Birch bark is also employed in making utensils of different kinds used by the peasantry instead of boxes, baskets and basins for dry articles as well as to hold li(|uids. In the northern districts, where the linden is not abundant, birch takes the place of the latter in the niunufacture of " Lapti," a kind of shoe or slipper made of bark for the l)easantry. Although birch bark lasts longer and is le.ss subject to decay, yet in drying it becomes brittle, and slippers made of it are le.ss solid than those made from the linden or the willow. Birch is exploited or felled as coppice, and high foi'cst, in revolutions of thirty to sixty years. In forests composed of birch and coniferous trees, the first are exploited in two cuttings, whilst the conifers are cut only once if intended to be used for the purposes of construction. The linden tree, lime-tree (Tilia purvifolia). Commencing in the most south- erly countries of Ru.ssia, the lime tree is found as far as Saint Petersburg and Lake Onega. Settirg out from th'^re, its northern limits cut the governments of 8 Olonetz ami Vologda by the distiicts of Solvitcliogonza and Tambow and the northwest. Forests composed entirely of trees of this species are rarely found; it is usually mixed with oak, birch, poplar and other bi'oad-leaved species, and different kinds of shrubs. The wood is not of any special value. It is used by carpenters, turners and sculptors, and in construction, where other woods cannot be obtained. Its principal value con- sists in its inner bark, which, taken from trees from tive to ten years old, is used in making slippers and plaiting baskets. When twenty years old or more, the bark is macerated and divided into Hne ribbon-like filaments which are made into mats and cords and cables up to a certain point, instead of hemp, and cheaper. The whole bark, when pres.sed, is used for sheathing wagons and sledges, making boxes and rooling houses. The poplar (Populus tremulia) grows throughout the whole of Russia to the 63'' of the north latitude. It is not much esteemed, especially where better kinds of wood can be jn-ocured, but it propagates easily and grows quickly. It is con- sidered incontiruous when growing in woods composed of more valuable species, such as pine birch and oak, because it is prejudicial to their propagation. Its principal use is for firewood, but even for this it occupies the lowest rank, as well among conifers as the broad-leaved species. Poplar of the best quality, at least half a meter in diameter at the root, is used for making small toys and knick-knacks and utensils turned in the lathe, ] tainted and varnished like Chinese woodenwaro. In the .sparsely wooded districts of the south, poplar is used in construction, and if very dry before it is worked, it yields but little in solidity to spruce and even to pine. In our own time poplar has acquired much importance as a material for tlie manufacture of ])aper pulp, being considered most suit.able for this purpose on account of the flexibility, lightness and white- ness of its wood. Poplar bark is used occa.sionally for the fabrication of tar, and is, frequently, for this jnu-pose, mixed with birch bark ; but if the product obtained from this mixture is cheaper, it is also of inferior quality. Sabots, or wooden shoes, are made from poplar in the northwest of Russia, perhaps not so solid as those made in France from beech, but much lighter, and, consequently, more comfovtnble ; it is also used to make shingles for the roofs of houses, of one foot in length and four inches wide. I'oidar for firewood is exploited by cut- tings of thirty and not more than sixty years old. Poplar wood for working should have attained the age of 90 or even IHO years. Felling should not go beyond this age, because at ninety years the heartwood is frequently rotten. The oak (Querous pedunculata) is found over the whols of Russia, excepting the northern districts. The northern limits conmience in the government of Livonia, about the 58 ° of north latitude, thence a little to the south, traversing ssolsk, tra- de. Groat Nijni-Nov- ;ed entirely oak, birch, The wood ilptors, and value con- old, is used r more, the li are made hemp, and rvagons and sia to the 63^ ter kinds of It is con- able species, .gation. Its est rank, as t quality, at all toys and rnished like ith, poplar is but little in quired much If considered ;s and white- )n of tar, and the product Sabots, or 3rhaps not so ;onsequently, lOuses, of one aited by cut- for workinj^ hould not go y rotten. «ia, excepting ivernment of th, traversing Novgorod, and passing Tver, they run towards the east, pass round the govern- ment of Moscow, cut those of .faroslavv, Kostromii, Viatka and Oufa, and heading towards the frontier of Russia in Asia, cross it near the 53 ° of latitude. The largest oak forests are found in the ge that is made of this wood in the interior of the country, there is a large foreign trade particularly with England liy the Baltic ports, and with France by the Black Sea. In the docks o!:" London and the market jtlaf^es of Marseilles one may see oak coming from the western parts of Russia every year. These giants some- times re-visit their country again, not in their rough state, but in the shape of vessels' keels, cable bitts, quarter decks, prows, ribs, side-planks, and other pai'ts of ships. Oak wood is also exported in the form of wainscot-iogs, used in Eng- land for cari)entry, and staves for cooperage. In the interior it is also used in ship-building, carriage-making, and the manufacture of many small articles. In the south, being cheaper, it is used for railway sleepers. Bark from young trees is used in the taimeries, where it is preferred to willow bark and all other kinds, as it contains 16 ° of tanning material, whilst willow contains scarcely 7 ^ , and spruce still less. Many other woods are found in Russia besides those already mentioned, as beech, for example, forming entire groves, but only in the more southerly coun- tries of Podolia, Bessarabia, and the Crimea ; the horn-b 'am, in the southwest, and souje ])arts of the northwest; many s[)ecies of willow are found everywhere; in the southerly governments of Kherson, Ekaterinoslaw, ami Bessaraliia they form entire forests along the inundated banks of rivers, as the Daunbe ami the Dniester, Ash, maple, elm, cedar, white ami black alder, poplar, walnut, and many varieties of shrubs are used for numy purposes in those districts where other woods do not abound. Winter oak (Quercus Robur) is found to the west on an irregular line traced between Kovno, through Mohilew and Kiew to Kis- chinew ; and tiio Quercus pubescens in the Crimea ami the mountains of the Caucasus. The limit of the horn-beam (Carpinus lietulus) to the northeast runs from Riga to Vitebsk, and thence, alub'st in a straight line, to the mouth of the Don, The beech (Fagus Sylvatica) extends along the frontiers of Austrian Galicia, and a straight line by the side of Moldavia ; in the Crimea and the Cau- casian mountains it forms very thick and magnificent forests. 10 Treatment and Exploitation of Foi^ests. In (lays gone by the forests were cut under license, and this mode is in vogue at the [iresent time. Systematic cutting goes back only to the time of Peter I. and does not now everywhere prevail. The old method of jardinage exists at present in a great many forests.* This arbitrary manner of cuttinff and fellini' no longer sati>,ties the Mantss and demands of many localities, where assortments are found to dominate in the forests of the north and northeast of Russia ; it o-ives way in the central and southern jiarts of the country, according to development and demand, over the whole extent of the forests, to exploitation according to the system of regulated cuttings. The abundance of the forests in the noi-th of Russia, and the little (leniiind for wood are the cause why Uiany of the forests so situated can be exploited by jardinage only, to supply the small demands of trade and local wants. It is only in the second half of the last century that people conunenced to consider special plans of forest administration, and adopt the method of regular cuttings for their management. B\' these old plans it was a question of dividing large forest areas, even of high forest, in straight zones, parallel to each other across the whole mass, and equal in numiter to the number of years of the revo- lution [proscribed for their exploitation. The ])hysical inconveniences and the complete inequality of the yield i'rom these cuttings a tire et aire caused the mttliod to fall into disuse, and resulted in the continuation of the arbitrary sys- tem of jardinage. The rational sN-stem of exploitation was introduced into Russia and put into practice in the year 1841. In 1S7;J, of the whole extent of the (iovernment forests, tliere were 11,872,500 hectares under a S3'stem of regular exploitation, ])rincipal]y in the southern, central and southwest provinces, where the foix'sts have acquired great importance, because their extent and yield scarcely suffice for the local wants of tlie population. The forests appertaining to niiiii's and factories are all exploited according to plans of systematic manage- ment, and one may rely that on all the.se forests which cover a space of 5,891,- (i.')S litetares, the cuttings are in just and legal conformity with the annual increase of the trees, III the forests assigned liy the sovereign to his younger sons, there are 3,728,;)46 hectares, all under .systematic management. As relates to forests owned by individuals, there is no orcfan containinsr tecbnienl and statistical information, and tending to establish useful and practical methods. Nevertheless in these latter days, forest proprietor.s, especially large proprietors, strongly recognizing, the utility of placing their forests under a *.Iardinag(' i.s the outcimie of ininiiitive exploitation. Wiiere wood abounded, and the forest was open to everyone, eacli one took acooidn , to his needs. So htng as exploitations of tliis kind are restrained, it is p ssible to proceed by jardinage in all the forest*, Nevertheless the extraction of trees taken here and there in the interior of massive woods is very unfavorable to the development of broad-leaved sjiecies. 11 node is in he time of y forests.* wants and late in tlie entral and d, over the L regulated 1 the little ;ed can be d and local coiiuneuced I of regular of dividing each other Df the revo- c-es and the caused the •bitrarj' sys- oduced into lie extent of 111 of regular inces, where - and yield appertaining atic nianage- ,oe of 5,891,- . the annual IS, there are n containing and practical pecially large ests under a 16 forest was open are restrained, it fs taken here aud ived si)ecies. regular system of exploitation, have chosen specialists for this purpose, men who, beforehand, have received a technical education on forest administration. Some proprietors may be mentioned whose forests are rigorously managed, conformably to scientific rules, and among others, Px-ince Paskevitch, proprietor of several large forests in the governments of Mohilew and Riazan ; Count Ouvarow, proprietor in the governments of Minsk, Vladimir and others ; Prince Youssoupovv, Count Tolstoi, Count Strogonow, M. M. Maltzow, Demidovv, Schatilow, Scheremetiew, the Countess Ribeaupierre, Count Apraxine, Baron KorfF and others. Even in forests belonging to village communities, there have begun to manifest itself here and there some rare efforts of rational manajrement. Of forests l.ielonfino' to towns, those of Riga and Pernau are well managed. But in the majoriiy of for- ests belonging to private owners they cut in jardinage, or here and there a tire et aire and a hlanc Hoc without any fixed plan of management, according to demand or need of money. The principles governing the organization of State forest management are not rigorou.sly defined, but the best tendency proclaimed since 18-il has begun to prevail — that is to say, exploitation so as to obtain the greatest material product, and most useful for the general interest. The working plans of mananement determine the duration of the revolution of the cuttins:s and their situation, the estimate of the volume and value of the cuttings of the first decade ; the methods of reforestation or restoring high forest and wood-coppices ; the re-wuoding of places stripped of trees and lying waste, of useless lands, and the adoption of all local measures for the amelioration of forest growth, advantage- ous to its exploitation. These works are entrusted to the hands of conuni.ssioners of forest organization, who, after having presented to the forest directors the geu'-'ral plan of a forest, with a specification of the work necessary for its man- ageiuent for the first decade, pass to the elaboration of analogous plans in another forest ; a similar commission returns towards the end of the first decade to control the execution of the works of management of the first decade, and fix the special plan for the following decade. The system of exploitation of the forests prevailing in the centre and south- ern part of Russia consists in cuttings a hlanc etoc contiguous to one another. The natural reforestation of the large areas denuded by these cuttings by the f5eed of adjacent masses is too rare, and attempts have been made to introduce in the exploitation of high forest (for the most part very irregular), instead of cut- ting a hlanc etoc, the reservation of trees for seeding ; but the number and quality of trees left on foot as reserves, not corrcs[)onding to the rules of the art of fores- try, the end to be attained has not been reached. The clearing of contiguous cuttings necessitated a long delay until the sowings had well thriven before com- mencing to fell the next adjacent cutting ; this delay of the clearing is often hurt- ful to the quality ami the delivery of ripe woud, and very old trees liable to deterioration ; all these inconveniences have disposed some foresters to adopt a» their guide the scientific notions practised in other countries in the last century, and introduce the system of cuttings by alternate strips or belts which has rarely given satisfactory results for the reproduction or regeneration of forests. The introduction of natural methods of re-sowing by successive cuttings, first, to increase the production of seed, and afterwards, to shade the tender shoots during the period necossary to their develoj)ment so as not to check their growth ; and last, the final cutting. This succession of regenerative cuttings, as well as melior- ative periodical cutting, is very rarely met with in Russia, because the application of the method, perfectly reasonable in itself, of regenerating the forest by natural seeding, and at small expense, meets with serious obstacles in the custom of com- mitting to the purchasers the whole care of the felling and the work in the forests. It is impossible to exaggerate the pernicious infiuence that this practice exercises in Russia on the development of the art of forestry and sylviculture generally ; for the superintendence ol the woodsmen pending the felling of the trees, and the field-work and dressing of the fallen timber by the purchaser who pays the axemen will always be defective and insutficient ; the forest -rangers of difi'erent grades cannot remedy this, — their infiuence and authority over the woodsmen are infinitely small, almost nil in everything that concerns the neces- sary care for the good order and conservation of the forests. It is impossible to impose the conditions and exigencies of the art of forestry upon a man who exploits a forest that he has purchased to cut as quickly as- possible, in order to profit by a speedy return of his capital. The absence in Russia of conducting all forest operations by the local directors or administrators of the forests, or by the proprietors themselves, explain.s the rare application of ameliorative cuttings, or periodical clearings so useful ^o the development of forest vegetation, whose fertility can only be achieved by a strict and constant inspec- tion on the part of the directors, guardians or proprietors, well up in all the details of economic forestry. It is only by such labors so conducted that we can hope to see trees duly cared for; that we can instruct workmen chosen from the people of the neighborhood to aj)ply themselves to the different labors of the forest, and inculcate an appreciation and habitudes of forest management, without which forest depredations ciinnot be curtailed. Natural regenc'ation of the forests, without cultivation, by seeding or young shoots, dominates in Russia ; artificial renewal by sowing or planting is practised in veiy lew localities, only in those where by reason of exceptional economic con- ditions, forest management takes a more intensive character. The planting of new forests in localities totally depnved of wood, has takvjn place principally in the steppes of Southern Russia, where, since 1842, its success- is gra( cultivf in fall growtj tation.1 unsalel and method 18 ,o adopt a» it century, has rarely •ests. The ;s, first, to )ots during owth ; and as melior- ipplication by natural om of com- ork in the lis practice ylviculture lling of the 3haser who t rangers of y over tlie the neces- b of forestry quickly as- 3 absence in iiinistrators )plication of int of forest tant inspec- ip in all the that we can ien fi'om the ibors of the ent, without ng or young is practised 3onomic con- id, has takon t, its success- lias been guaranteed by administrative measures. According to the reports of the Government Bureau of Forestry, artificial planting in the southern govern- ments was as follows : 1860 — de'oiatines bv seeding 2,088, by planting 2,0G0 1867— " ' " 1,372, " 1,400 1868— • " " 1,317, " 1,090 1809— " " 1,447, " 2,803 1870— 25o. 975 As regards the planting of forests by individual proprietors, there are few statistics ; relatively considered, it is known that large areas have been planted by certain owners; Count Ouvarow, in the government of Moscow, 700 dt-cia- tines ; M. Schatilow, in the government of Toula; M. Skarjinsky, in the govern- ment of Kherson; oOO deciatines in the colony of the Mennonites in the govern- ment of Taurida ; and some others. Ameliorative works, consisting in the construction or amelioration of forest roads for carrying off the timber cut, — the drying up or drainage of marshes — the encircling of forests by canals or live hedges, and the redemption of forest servi- tude (in Courland) have taken place in very limited proportions. Conformably to the natural geographical distribution of the principal kinds of forests in European Russia (to the north, resinous woods prevail ; in the south, bioad-leaved species), the management of the fore.«ts has also taken two different principal forms ; in the northerly and northern part of Central Russia, high forest and regeneration by seeding prevail ; in the southerly part of Central Russia, <:oppice-woods with regeneration by shoots predominate. The success of this last system of exploitation meets with a serious obstacle from the want of rigid regu- lations for the control of pasturage in the forests. Composite exploitation, or by coppice under high forest, has penetrated with- out any preconceived plan, and only in isolated cases, in the region of black-mould lands, in the western piovinces. Besides these principal forms of forest manage- ment, the application of other methods of exploitation is met with in the Russian forests; rather of the soil than the forests. Sartage (not only of coppice, but frequently of lofty resinous varieties of trees), for the most part withouc any regu- lar method, is found in the governments situated to the north and northeast, but is gradually disappearing. Sartage consists in allowing fields exhausted by the cultivation of flax or cereals, or soils poor by nature, or excessive cropping, to lie in fallow for a long time ; but in the long run they become covered with a woody growth whose roots penetrate the inexhausted sub-soil and promote a rapid vege- tation. This accomplished, the peasants cut the wood, burn it on the spot because unsaleable, .sow flax or wheat for some years on the soil enriched by the ashes, and when signs of exhaustion again occur, let it lie fallow again. This old method of working the soil is even now practised in southern and western Europe. 14 |i Tract's of a more regular system of an alternative management, consisting m using the soil, one while as cultivated tields, and anotlier while covered with varieties of forest growth, are observed in some parts of Central Russia, as in the district of Mujaisk, government of Moscow ; or, after a cutting has been cleared away, a crop of rye, oats, buckwheat and other economical domestic plants is taken of! for two or three years, and the ground then reftjrested, by sowing, or more rarely by planting. The expense of reforesting is generally more than reimbursed by the benefits obtained from the cultivation of the soil during the intermediate time. The system of periodically cutting ihe shoots from the roots of the willow and other trees is only met with in exceptional cases, and especially in places exposed to inundations, as the borders of rivers and lakes in the western and southern provinces. Wood in Civil and Naval Construction. The varieties and dimensions of woods used in construction are multifarious. The choice of it depends on the quality in the surrounding countrj', and the facility of procui-ing it from distant localities where it is abundant. The inhabit- ants of the northern governments do not think much, for house construction, of beams, even of spruce or pine, less than twenty-one feet long and twenty inches thick. The people of central Russia do not reject spruce, nor poplar, nor birch, not more than seven inches in diameter and fifteen feet in length, but consider them good material for construction, and the inhabitants of the thinly wooded southern parts, willingly employ trees of not more than five or .six inches in thickne.ss by nine feet in length. In the government of Arkhangel and northern parts of Vologda and Penn, although the richest in forests, woods for construc- tion purposes are not the object of any particular industry, or brisk interior trade, and are exclusively emploj-ed for local need.s. But in all the other >i-overn- ments of Russia that are rich in forests, construction timber is a very consider- able article of commerce, and is tran.sported to other localities that have little wood or none at all, and to sea ports for foreign countries. The governments of Kostroma, Yaroslaw, Nijni-Novgorod, Kazan and Viatka supply timber by the Volga, the Kama, the Viatka and their affluents, and all thinly wooded countries situated on the lower course of the Volga, and those covered with steppes on the Don. The countries short of forests situated towards the mouth of the Dnieper are supplied with construction tim.ber from Minsk, Mohilew, Orel, Tchernifow, and a part of Volhynia. Construction timber is sent to market in a rou ia, as in the cen cU-ared ic plants i* sowing, or more than during the f the willow ly in places western and n^.nltifarioiis. trj', and the The inhabit- istruction, of wenty inches ar, nor birch, but consider hinly wooded six inches in and northei'n > for construc- brisk interior other govern - very consider- lat have little overnments of timber by the oded countries steppes on the )f the Dnieper il, Tchernigow, n a rough and are dispatched dressed on two exported, it is 3, or by leaving 16 the sap-wood on the corneiM of the sipiared logs. Spruce wooil is exported in very small quantities, and intermixed with pine. Oak logs for spicketing in quarter-deck and forecastle and wainscoting, are principally exported to England. They are hewn on three sides only to show that the wood is fresh and new, and not wind-fallen wood, or piled together for a long time. The largest quantity is shipped from Riga, coming from the governments of Mohilew, Minsk, and part of Volhynia. A small ([uantity is also sertt by the port of Nicolayew. The construction of river boats consumes an enormous quantity of wood. Each year about 100,000 boats of different dimensions navigate the Russian rivers. For the most part, these boats make only a single trip down the river, and no return voyage. On arrival at their destination they are demolished for firewood and building material. ^lore than two millions of roubles* each year are expended for the renewal or completion of boats for river navigation. Pine and spruc3 are used for this purpose. The last mentioned is almost always used for the casing and lining of small vessels. When pine and spruce augment ia price, poplar is used for bateaux, particularly in the governments of Mohilew any the (lispatclu'il in, Saratow, |uantities of )rks, wheeK, i-lhI in lari^e in every part k, birch, ash, very limiti'd pulp. There his wood by with which Dvice of rags, rests are rich I without the ilso pine and is inferior to h1 annually in ilogr of paper the wood is ,'s to produce t 12,o00 cubic |- of forest, exactitude the a the quantity ihe wood con- niately in the food for each orty-eight and le value of the twelve millions ' English feet. One of fauiilies. Conse(|uent on the pn )f the populatitui, aliout onse(|uent on the pro^re-*sivo increase 80,000 houses for the peiisantry are built each year ; liesidos it may be estimut»'d that (10,000 houses of this description are annually tlestroyed by tin-. Calculat- ing the average cost of constructing each hoiisf at KM) roubles, 14,000,000 of roubles would be required to construct 140,000 houses. For supplying fuel for 1(1,001) verste?i* of railway, 2,400,009 sagt'-nes (cubic) of wood arc reipiired ; when lines of railway traverse countries that are not rich in forests, the value of ench cubic .sagrno of vvood useil for this puipose may be OMtimated at three roublt-s ; the consumption of railways therefore, amounts to the sum of 7,200,000 roubles ; for the construction of boats for river navigation, two millions; for the active operation of mines and works, one and one-half millions of sagenes, anniiully, which, on an average of Ir. .50c. each, makes an expenditure of 2,2.')0,OOO I'oubles ; for household utensils, furniture, fences, etc, 10 roubles on an avn-Mge for each family annually, 120 millions of roul)les; the total value of wood con- sumed for the interior wants of the country amounts to the sum of 205, 4.50, 000 roubles. This may be considered a minimum figure, because the cost of trans- port of the wood from the forests to the places where it is consume.00 kopeks =1 rouble. 24 merits in an extremely unequal way. In the governments of Arkhangel, Olonets, Valogda and Perm, they receive 1^ kopeks or 7 centimes per hectare of forest ; in the governments of St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Tver, Yaroslaw, Vladimir, Kostroma, Viatka, Nijni-Novgorod, Kazan, Simbirsk, Esthonia, Livonia, Courland, Psknow, Smolenok, Vitebsk, Kovno, Vilna, Grodno, Minsk, Mohilew, Tchernigow, Volhynia, Samara, Tambow, Oufa, Orenburg, Penza, Orel, and Taurida, the average revenue is 22 kopeks or 88 centimes per hectare ; in some governments it is 45 kopeks or one franc 80 centimes. In Riazan, Kiev, Kalouga, Koursk, Kharkow and Astrakhan the revenue amounts to 80 kopeks, or 3 francs 20 centimes per hectare ; in the governments of Moscow, Voronega, Ekaterinoslaw and Podolia, the revenue amounts from 117 to 157 kopeks, or 4 f ranees 7& centimes to 6 francs 28 centimes per hectare ; in Bessarabia and Kherson, from 210 to 240 kopeks, or 8 franc 4 centimes, to 9 francs 60 centimes ; in the govern- ment of Toula to 500 popeks, or 20 francs per hectare. The revenue of the forests, allotted to mioes and works of the state, amounts to 1,160,000 roubles, making on an average 2S}t kopeks, or 94 centimes per hectare. The gross revenue from the state forests settled upon younger sons, amounts^ on an average to 1,086,000 roubles, making IH kopeks or 46 centimes per hectare. In the ten governments situated on the Vistula, the forests of the Kingdom of Poland give 14 kopeks or oG centimes per hectare, in the government of Sedletsk, and even to 218 kopeks or 8 francs 72 centimes in the government of Lubin. The ten governments situated on the Vistula give together a total annual revenue of about 202,000 roubles. The total gross revenue of all the forests of European Russia, dependent on rrovernmental administration, exclusive of the forests of the Caucasus, and those of the Grand Ducky of Finland amounts to the sum of 12,358,000 roubles. The cost of administeiing the state forests, exclusive of appanage forests, those of mines and works, and t'losc of the Kingdom of Poland, amounts to 4,380,000 roubles, or 41- per cent, of the gross revenue. The costs include the followingheads : The maintenance of the personnel of the Directors of the forests, and the forestry agents, the maintenance of establish- ments of education, and the construction of houses for forest agents and guards 3,090,000 roubles For drawing uji plans of management, and for andiorations in the management of the forests 740,000 r. Payment of the territorial tax or impost 55,000 r. Total 4,380,000 r. tend coutj impc the on i] vincI trict accol clasJ marj of its gU£ mui 25 ye\, Olonets, re of forest ; r, Vladimir, ia, Courland, Tchernigow, Faurida, the vernments it lo-a, Koursk, 3 francs 20 katerinoslaw francos 7& [herson, from n the govera- state, amounts centimes per sons, amount* aes per hectare. t' the Kingdom (Tovernment of crovernment of irrether a total a, dependent on casus, and those ) roubles, .ppanage forests, ,nd, amounts to 3,090,000 rouble* 740,000 r. 55,000 r. 4,380,000 r. Adminstration of the Forests. The administration of all the State Forests of Russia in Europe, exclusive of the Caucasus, those'of Finland, of mines and works, of appanages, and of the King- dom of Poland, is concentrated in the hands of the Minister of State Domains, and forms a separate Department. The administration of the forests, of mines and works and those of the Kingdom of Poland is entrusted to the hands of the Minister of Finance. The appanage forests are administered by the sovereign and his council. The Caucasian forests are under the administration of the Viceroy of the Caucasus ; and those of Finland are administrated by a special bureau of forestry in Finland. At the head of the a Iministration under the immediate control of the Min- ister of State Domains, there is the Director of the Department of forestry, hav- ing for his assistants a vice-director, and seven chiefs of division, among whom all the labors of the different branches of administration and forestry management are distributed. To aid the director in superintending the regular march of affairs upon the ground, and the inspection of the forests, there are six vice- inspectors. There are moreover twenty specialists in the department of forestry employed for different missions relating to the forests, and one hundred and ten taxers occupied soley with the organization of the forests, elaboration of plans of management, and revision of forestry organization. In those govern- ments or provinces where there is a superior officer (master of govei'nment forests) at the head of administration : he is at the same time, a member of the provincial administration of the State domain, and in those provinces where the forests con- stitute the most important part of the State duinain, the government officer is chief of the ailministration. To assist the employe of the government forests in the immediate .sup^rin- tendance of the movements of the affairs of the forest, he has from one to five controlling agents, according to the extent of the province, and the ([uantity and importanoe of its forests. Each province in affinity with the administration of the forests is divided into districts. Their number in each government depends on the (|uantity of the forests, their dispersion over the whole extent of the pro- vince, and their financial importance and general economy. There are 479 dis- tricts or forest rangerships in Russia, These districts are arranged in four classes according to their importance and extent. The forest districts of the thn first classes are managed by the forest ofiicers ; the districts of the fourth class are managed by sub-foresters who have finished their course at the school of forestry of Lisino. In each district there are one or more assistant agents according to its extent. For the immediate guardianship of the forests there is a body of guardians under f.iee or voluntary contract. In forests conceded to village com- munities, the guardians are taken from the peasants themselves, receive a fixed 26 salary, and are paid by the common council. Chief foresters in the provinces receive a salary of 2,000 roubles, and from 400 to 600 roubles travelling expenses. A forest overseer receives a salary of 1,200 to 1,500 roubles, and from 200 to 600 roubles for travelling expenses. Foresters of the first class receive 1,500 roubles, those of the second class 900 roubles, those of the third class 600 roubles, and those of the fourth class 300 roubles. Each forest agent receives from 200 to 400 roubles annually for travelling expens;;s, and from 200 to 250 roubles for other expenses. Besides, eiich forester receives a domicile from the State in a forest-keeper's house, or rents one in the town or village nearest the forest; and is allowed fuel for his quarters, and thirty deciatines of arable land. An assistant forestr}' agent or sub-forester receives an annual salary of 240 roubles, and fifteen deciatines of arable land. Forest guardians are paid at the rate of 60 to 200 roubles per year; they have lodgings at the expense of the State, fuel and one and one-hslf deciatine for a kitchen garden. The government of Courland is not included in these general regulations for the remuneration of employes of forest admistration. Local forest administrators and guardians in Courland do not receive a salary : they are lodged at the expense of the State, are provided with fuel, and land for farming purposes, and receive five per cent, of the revenue obtained from the sale of forest products. tlu Institutions for instruction in Forestry Management. To prepare young men w^ho desire to occupy places as forest agents, as well in the State forests as in those belonging to individuals, there are two special schools for superior education ; the Agricultural aiid Forestry Institute at St. Petersburg, and the Agricultuial and Forestry Academy of Petrowski at Moscow. The term of study in these two establishments lasts for three or four years. After finishing their course, the pupils leave the establishments with the rank of graduate, or candidate. There are two forests in the neighborhood of the Academy of Petrowski for the practical study of forestrj' ; one containing 257 hectares and the other seventy-three hectares. The students of the Institute of St. Petersburg take practical lessons in the forest of Lissino, belonging to the State, situated about seventy versts* from the city, and containing 30,000 hectares of forest. Besides these two establishments, there is a school of the second class in the Village of Lissino. The pupils leave this school with the rank of forestry con- iluctors, and take the places of assistant forestry agents, and forestry agents of the fourth class. The course of practical studies at this school of forestry is for three years. *1 verst=3,500 English feet, 3 verst=2 miles nearly. or bet; new over beca selvi niani fres than resir u->ua disti muci the notcl the 27 J provinces im; expenses, nd from 200 second class > fourth class annually for es. Besides, ouse, or rents his quarters, salary of 240 paid at the xpense of the emulations for iduiinistrators lodged at the purposes, and t products. TEXT. airents, as well are two special nstitute at St. /ski at Moscow. )ur years. After link of graduate, the Academy of 7 hectares and ,f St. Petersburg ! State, situated •es of forest, cond class in the of forestry con- ;ry agents of the •estry is for three ADDENDA. ■Gemiimwje, or hoiv to extract liqidd resin from the pine by inoision, also rosin and spirit of turpentine, according to the method practised in the country around Bordeaux* There is no province in France that furnishes so many ditierent kinds of pine re.sin as the province of Guienne. This tree grows chieHy in arid ami sandy soils, such as the Landes, which extend along the sea, from south to north, from Bayonue into the region of ^ledoc ; and on the other side, from the shore of the sea to the banks of the Garonne. Throughout this whole extent, there is com- monly known only one species of pine, to wit, the pine of Lobel, or the maritime pine of Dodonee. When the pines have attained four feet in circumference, a notch is made at their foot, near the i-oots, three inches wide and seven or eight inches liigh ; the rough outer bark is first taken oW with an ordinary axe, then the inner bark a.i i a shaving of wood are removed with a very sharp adze ; the wound is fre.shened from time to time with this instrument, so that it attains one foot in length in the course of a year. This incision is continued, a foot higher in the following year, and so on in each succeeding year, until it has reached the height of seven or eight feet. In the eighth year, whilst the nt)tch exudes a resinous gum, a new notch is begun at the foot of the same tree in a line ])arallel with the first. When this new incision begins to furnish a resinous gum, the old one cicatrizes, or heals over, so that in this manner many turns or revolutions may be made of a pine, because, in this succession, new notches may be formed on the old scars them- selves, e.specially when the workman who makes the notches knows how to manage the tree properly, by removing very thin shavings each time he re- freshens the wounds ; for the gum always runs more abundantly from recent than Irom old notches ; moreover, the thinnest chip is sutScient to permit the resinous gum to exude. The labor exacts activity ; for the task of one man is usually two thousand five hundred or two thousand eight hundred feet of trees, distant from one another from twelve to fifteen feet ; and this labor becomes much more toilsome when the notches are above the reach of the axe ; for then the workman is obliged to lift himself up. He places one foot on one of the notches and clasps the tree with the other leg and one of his arms, whilst with the other he brings down the axe ou the pine he wishes to cut. From the month of May until the month of September the resinous gum •Taken from the memoirs of M. de Caupos, of the Academy of Bo deaux, as published by M. Duhamel JDn MoncLin. iirally from sionally for from pines that age has make resin,, whose edges furnaces. h a straw bed make a better side of the if, a hollow this water by md part of it he trough, and 3II together, so no-es color. It sly, and not to resin becomes ;,1, it is filtered de in the sand a forked stick it, and the sides manner and of ,f equal weight. I, the cakes have sold. th the gum resin ,ut in the neigh- l in the furnaces, heated, a resinous. matter is obtained more or less black, or moi'e or less hard, and packed in barrels for sale. This quail 'y of rosin is called, although improperly, black-pitch. The galipot, or liquid matter, that exudes from the pines in summer, may, when not thickened by boiling, be placed in the class of terebinths. The firs, properly so called, are, as is well known, the only trees of the forest, that furnish good and true terebinth ; larches also supply it, but the quality is not so good ; and the pines supply some also as has just been described, but it is very inferior to that of the larch. Besides the odor, taste and transparency which distinguish, these different terebinths, there is still another property that characterizes them ; that is, the facility with which they coagulate. The fir preserves its lujuidity better than all the others, and the resinous juice of the pine loses it most readily. Upon the question whether the wood of the pine from which the rosin has been extracted, is good for all purposes, opinion is divided ; but the majority assert that the wood is still very good, and the extiaction of the rosin does not injure its quality. It may be remarked that scarcely any forests that can be planted are more advantageous to the proprietor than those of the five-leaved pine. This tree will flourish in sands, where nothing else will grow. It is a fast grower, especially in lands it likes. Poles for the hops and vine can be made from it after ten years, and when fifteen or eighteen years old, it can be cut for firewood. By taking the piecaution of barking the wood, and letting it dry for two years, it has almost no offensive smell. The piled bark may be used for tanning. When twenty-five or thirty yea's old, it begins to supply rosin ; if the notches are care- fully managed, it may, after having yielded a profit for thirty years, be cut down for carpentry ; in many provinces it is sold for two thirds the price of oak ; the trunks, the roots, and all the fatty parts of the tree, supply tar and charcoal. Pines are in full vigor at sixty and eighty years, and the oak at one hundred and fifty, to two hundred years. It may therefore be concluded that pine high forests are more advantageous to proprietors than those of oaks, not only be- ■cau.se they may be cut twice as against once, but also because high pine forests produce a very considerable annual revenue. It is surprising that the owners of sandy plains do not think of planting them with pines, that require very little expense. A father of a family could not make a more profitable investment for his children. Industrial Resources. The industrial resources of a country are the foundations of its wealth, and their development contributes largely to the prosperity and contentment of its people. Every one knows the importance of the arts in social life, in industrial progress, and particularly in the extension of trade. The multifarious uses of wood in every day life are familiar to every observer. The products of the destructive distillation of wood are marvellous. The ash 80 left on coml»UHtion of wood may amount to as much as five per cent, of the weijijbt of woo(] burnt, or fall as low as one-half per cent. : a little over one per cent, is about the average. This ash contains potash, soda, lime, and magnesia in large quatititles, chiefly in combination with carbonic acid, phosphoric acid, or sulphuric acid ; also m smaller ijuantily manganese, iron, potassium chloride and silica. Some recent experiments carried out by A. Jakowlett' give the following results as to the percentage of acetic acid yielded by ditieretit woods : Linden 10.20 Birch 9.41 Aspen 8.21 Oak 8 08 Pine 5.89 Fir 5.16 liirch bark 2.29 Cellulose, } ^ ni from birch j Cellulose, ) - Qy from pine J These numbers support the common opinion that conifers give a smaller yield of acetic acid than other woods. They also indicate that lignin is very prod\;ctive, and that hard woods should be better than soft, although an exception to this occurs in the case of linden. The products of distillation may be classified as follows : (1) Non volatile residue — Charcoal (ash). (2) Vulatile distillate. {a) Condensihle — Water, pyroligneous acid, propionic acid, acetone, wood spirit, tar oils, tar, benzene phenol-guaiacol, cresolphlorol, creosote, napthalene, and paraffin. (/>) Uvcondevsihle — Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane, ethone, acetylene, etc. The wood tar, and tar oils contain, amongst other products, iridol, citriol, rubidol, coridol, benzidol, benzene, toluene, xylene, cumene, eupion, creosote, mesite, xylite, ])araffin, naphthalene, chrysene, pyrene, retene, pittacal, picamar, colophony, and resins. The i-elative quality and quantity of these products depend also very largely on the temperature at which the distillation is conducted and the time occupied* in the process. " Nature 1 how in every power supreme ! Whose vot'rjcs feast on raptures ever new ! Oh for the voice and fire of Seraphim, To sing thy glories with devotion due 1 " iho weij»ht ler cent, i)* Aes, chietly id ; uIho iit i following 16 •2J) 21 .07 ve a smaller gnin is very an exception Lcetone, wood 3, napthalene, )geii, methane. , iridol, citriol, pion, creosote, tacal, picamar, so very largely 5 time occupied'