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Le diagramme suivant illustre la mdthode : the 1 2 3 1 6 V(' —^ «-'^ • d ^j'M ' -' ^'y r:,,M \Xi- * 1 ' 1 » « I 'i ^''LiUr/M I '■■■.' \ > ';• m:: V..>;,^-:- '. ''-■»' .-4,, %. ■'* ; » • I nwww*'^"''^"-"' \r~j: .. INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE IN WORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA: SHOWING THE YAlilED CLIMATIC INFLUENCES OPERATING IN THE EQUATORIAL, TROPICAL, SUB-TROPICAL, TEMPERATE, COLD AND FRIGID REGIONS, EXTENDING FKOM THE ARCTIC TO THE ANTARCTIC CIRCLE. ACCOMPANIED BY AN AGRICULTUIIAL, AXD ISOTHEMAL MAP OF XORin AMERICA. ■m COMPILED BY J. DISTURNELL, AUinOU OF » INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE, RELATING TO THE WOULD," EXa NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY D. VAN NOSTRAND, No. 193 BROADWAY. AND FOR SALE BY BOOKSELLERS GENERALLY. 1867. tfsm Entered, according to Act of Coiigrcsa, in the year 1867, by J. D ^ S T U n N K L L , In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. //7 5 ^ 9n il m\ Stereotyped by Smith & McBol-gal, 82 nnd 84 Bcckinan St., N. Y. Printed by John J. Ef.kd, 43 Center St. ■ H ll—HtlWI TO PETER COOPEB ESQ. My Dear Siii : — By your miimjicent endoicment of " The Cooper Union for THE Advancement of Science and Art," in the City of New York, you have coif erred on the risincj and future generations one of the most 'princely gifts that has ever been hestoived on the American puMic. Oiving to this consideration, and the liberal manner in which you f-^d the Trustees of the Cooper Union have favored the Instituti, .i icith which I am connected, and in grateful remendyrance j ,ie personal Jcindness I have uniformly received at your hands, allow me to dedicate this Volume to you. With feelings of great regard, I remain, Your Obedient Servant, JOHN DISTUENELL. KooMS OK TiiK '-Association fou tiik Advan'ce- \ MKNT OF SCIENOK, AND ART," CoOrEU INSTITUTE, > New Youk, Jamuinj, 1867. ' li 1 : SB ILLUSTllATIOX AND MAPS. Frontispiece — Illustratiug the Climatic Influence and Topography of North America. Agricultural Map of the United States and Canada — Showing the Limit of Wheat, Indian C'orn, Grass, Rico, and Sugar. Isothermal Map — Showing the Division of the Frigid, Cold, Temperate, Sub-Tropical, and Tropical Regions in North America. CONTENTS. VMH Intbopuction ix-xii Climate — Atmosphere — Zones, or Belts of Temperature xiv- xv Isothermal T jnes and Climatic Zones xvi Natural Influences that Produce Rain, etc xvii Annual Mean Temperature I'rom the Equator to the Arctic Circle. . . , xviii PART I. Climatk of North America 19-23 Botanj-— "Wheat, etc 23-24 Mountain and River Systems 25-27 (jfreat River Basins and Valleys — Mountain Peaks 28-29 PART n. Arctic Lands and Oceans 30-33 The Magnetic Pole 83 Appearance of the Sun from the North Pole 34 Climate of Greenland 35-36 Temperature v,ithin the Arctic Circle , 37 Summer and Winter Temperatures 38 Temperature of the Arctic Sea 39 PART in. The Cold Zone op America 40 Russian America — Sitka, or New Archangel 41-43 British America 43-44 Hudson Bay — Monthly and Yearly Mean Temperature 45 York Factory — York Factory to Norway House 4G-48 Norway House — Fort Alexander 49 Climate of a Portion of British America 50-51 Observations on the Temjjerature of the Air — Lake Winnipeg 53 Seasons in the Valley of Lake Winnipeg 53 Prevailing Winds in the Northwest Territory 54 Passes over the Rocky Mountains 55 Climate of the Valley ot the Red River of the North 56 Temperature. Rain, etc., of the Red River Settlement 57 Lake of the Woods— Rainy Lake « 58-59 Climate of liabrador CO-Gl Icebergs— Straits of Belle Isle C2-G3 Climate of Newfoundland 64-65 Meteorologichl Table, showing the Situation, etc., of Cities and Posts in British and Russian America G6 PART IV. Climatic Division of Canada 67-68 Brief Outline of Canada — Agricultural Products 69 Climate of Canada, as Described by the Early French Authors 70-74 ■'i '\ VI CONTENTS. PAOR Mean Tonipcraturo of Montreal and Quebec 75 Canada as It Is, in a Climatic and Agricultural Point of View 70-77 Climate of Canada, New Brunswiclt, and Nova Scotia 78-79 Indian Summer — Climatic Observations nciar Montreal 80-81 Monthly Mean Temperature at Quebec — Health Statistics 82 Comparative Tables of Temperature 83 Agricultural Products of Canada 84 Meteorological Results at Toronto 85-87 Climate of Vancouver's Island 88-80 PART V. (}reat Laki;s, on Int-ai,d Seas— Temperature, etc 90-91 Lakes Superior — Huron — Michigan — Erie — Ontario 92 Lake Region of North America — Comparative Fall of Hain — Extent of the (Jreat Lakes 93-94 Waters of Lake Superior 95-97 Ilemarkablo Phenomenon — Auroras — Mirage 98 Agricultural Produ<;t8 of the Lake Superior licgion 99-100 PART VI. FOKESTS AND PrAIRIES OF NORTII AMERICA 101-103 Prairie Region 104 Vegetable Kinp'dom of America 1 0.5-108 Northwestern States — Healthy and Fruitful Region 109-111 Ck'ography of Consumption — Diseases of the Respiratory System. . . . 112-1 13 Meteorological Observations at Forts Laramie and Benton 114 PART VII. Climatic Boundary (;f the United States 115-116 Population, Health, and Agricultural Products 117-118 Habits and Character, as luflueuced by Climate 119-120 Agricultural Products, Area, etc., of the U. S. — Climatic Divisions. . . 121-123 Comparative Agricultural Statistics of tha United States 124 Indian Corn — Wheat — Quantity Produced in 1800 125 Deaths in the United States in 1800 120-127 Rain in the United States 128 Changes in the Climate of the United States 129-131 Meteorological Table, Showing the Cities and Posts having a Mean Annual Temperature bet'.vcen 37 " and 47" Fahr. . . . , 132 PART VIII. Military Posts and Cities on tub Northern Frontier— Cli- matic Features 133 Fort Kent— Fort Sullivan— Plattsburgh Barracks 134-135 Madison Barracks — Fort Niagara — Detroit Barracks — Fort Mackinac. 136 Fort Brady— Fort Snelling— Fort Ripley 137-138 Fort Randall — Meteorology — Diseases and Death 139-140 Meteorological Table — Climatic Features^ 141-142 Military Posts— West Point, N. Y 143 Fort Laramie — Camp Scott, or Bridger's Fort 144r-145 Fort Steilacoom, Washington Territory 140 Fort Dalles — Astoria, Oregon 147 Fort Cascades, Washington Territory 148 Ascent of Mount Hood 149 Meteorological Table — Climatic Features 150-151 Military Posts — Fort Monroe — JelTcrson Barracks 153 CONTENTS. vu \ I PAOR St. Louis — Fnrt Li'avenwortb 103 Fort Scott — Benocia, Ciilifornia 154 Fort Jones, Ciilifornia ir).5-ir)(5 Fort Ut\'\(lin_!Jf — Monterey, Caliibrnia 157-15H Mcteorolo£^ical Table lOI) ('llmatic Features— Military Posts— Charleston, S. C lG0-ir.:3 St. Augustine, Florida lG;t New Orleans, Louisiana — Yellow Fever Ifil-lO"* Fort Yuma— Han Diego. California 1(1(5-107 Annual Measurement of Rain at tlio Different Military Stations 108-170 Sickness and Mortality in the United States Army 171 PART IX. Cliwate of the Noutheun, Middle, and Western States 178 New Enj^land — Topography — Productions, etc 173-175 Meteorological Observations in the State of New York 17(5 Climate of the State of New York 177-178 Opening and Closing of the Hudson Kiver 17!) Climate of Buffido, N. Y 180 Climate of the Middle States 181 Climate of the Western States 182-18;{ Ohio — Its Climate and Productions 184 Meteorological Observations — Hapid Growth in Population, etc 185 Climate of the Northwestern States and Territories 180-187 Table, Showing the Temperature of Milwaukee, Wisconsin 13H Minnesota — Its Situation, Climate, and Productions 189-19^ Adaptation of Climate to Agriculture 194 PAET X. ('ltmate op the Southern States— Northern Section 195 Climate of West Virginia, Altitude, etc 190-197 Kentucky and Tennessee 198 Cultivation of Tobacco — Limit of Cotton CJ rowing 199 (ylimato of the Cotton-growing States 200 Cotton Culture— Rice Culture 201-204 Climate of Florida, its Productions, etc 205-200 Climate (ort on the Sickness and Mortality in the Begular Army for a period of thirty-eight years. The " Kesults of Meteorological Observations" from 1854 to 1859, published in 18G1, under the direction of the Smith- sonian Institution, together with the "Meteorological Ab- stracts," contained in the Eeport of the ^'opographical Bureau relating to the Survey of the Great Lake! , on our northorn frontier, all go to furnish additional information on this im- portant subject, which, together with recent published obser- vations along the Bocky Moimtain range, and on the Pacific coast, altogether furnish facts of the most interesting and varied character, which are now beuig justly appreciated by the m- teliigcnt porton of the community. These combined results, in connection with the United States Census of 18G0, and the Census of Canada for 18G1, furnish data by which the Inflnencc of Clirnatc on the vital subjects of population, health, and agricultural productions, can be favor- ably compar(Kl over the greater and most important portions of North America. * This duty lins been translerred totlio Corpa of Enginecra of the U. S. Arniy. INTKODUCTIfiN. " The term Climate," says Dr. Fony, " -svliich is limited, in its rigorous acceptation, to a mere geographical division, and in ordinary parlance to the temperature of a region, possesses, in medical science, a wider signification. It embraces not only the temperature of the atmosphere, but all those modifications of it which produce a sensible effect on our organs, such as its serenity and humidity, changes of eh' jiric tension, variation of barometric pressure, the admixture of terrestrial emanations dissolved in its moisture, and its tranquillity as respects both horizontal and vertical currents. Climate, in a word, as already defined, constitutes the aggregate of all the external physical circumstances appertaining to each locality in its relation to organic nature." ' To observe,' says Professor Rostan, ' the simultaneous effects of hglit, heat, electricity, of the winds, &c., on the organic productions of the different zones of the earth, to explore the nature of this earth, to deduce from this know- ledge the infiucnce which they exercise on the physical and moral state of man, such is the wide field which climates pre- sent to our investigation.' " The Httle knowledge that we possess upon these various points, is far from being precise. On the one hand, Ave are ignorant of wlmt constitutes the real elements of climate ; and, on the other hand, these complex agents act upon living organs still more complex in their functions. Our knowledge hereto- fore has consisted mainly of the unexplained results of expe- rience. As the subject does not admit of the precision of the exact sciences, the aid of induction and analogy must be invoked. Having once acquired a knowledge of the distinctive characters of different systems of climate, and of their effects upon the animal economy, both in health and disease, the gen- eral laws regulating such iniluences may be readily ascertained. In regard to the reinaining elements of climate, such as the admixture of terrestrial emanations dissolved in atmospheric moisture, our positive knowledge is still more limited. That mysterious agent — Ma-la-ri-a — though too well recognised in its deleterious effects on the human frame, has hitherto remained inscrutable in its nature. " It is thus seen that there are many circumstances besides mere temperature, which enter into the constitution of climate. M'; xu INTRODUCTION. Amongst these, as influencing organized beings, one of the most important is the nature of the soil, the formation of which has apparently been the result of the gradual attrition of the solid materials composmg the crust of the globe. As all animals and vegetables, at least all animals, are dependent for existence on this stratum of comminuted mineral substances and organic remains, its influence in regard not only to mere health, but the (U'ganic modifications which the human frame experiences, con- stitutes an interestuig subject of inquiry." The same author, in the valuable work, entitled " The Cli- ma'e of the United States ami its Endemic I)}'-'enccs," pubUshed in New York, 1842, I'emarks : "In regard to the climate of our own country, we possess no treatise foimded on facts. Indeed, so little effort has been made to keep pace with the progress of kindred branches of science, that the Avork of M. Volney, wi'itten more than forty years ago, is still quoted by every writer on the subject. In relation to chmate, nearly all facts stand isolated, and inasmuch as to render such data valuable, it is necessary that they be collated, thus determining their relations to one another and to general laws, the attempt has lieen made to present a systematic arrangement, so far as the facts collected will warrant, leaving the further prosecution of the subject to a period when new data shall have accunmlated." Professor Rogers says : " This continent, being more re- strict'-d in its dimensiims, especially in its east and west dia- meter, than that of Euroi)e and Asia, yet comprises almost as wide a range of heat and cold, and of dr^Tiess and humidity. Here these extremes are brought together within narrower limits ; there they are expanded both in latitude and longitude, over wider zones. Here, geogra])hicaUy, their transitions are more abrupt ; there their gradations are more gentle. " This close packing together of the vai'ious belts of tempera- ture and humidity, the result of closer proximity of the earth's tropical and polar cii^ronts, oceanic and atmospheric, occasions the several climates of the continent to act and react upon each other with greater potency. Hence the whole region is (me of marked climatic contrasts, as striking, Avheu Ave compare different districts, as Avhen we regard the different seasons." ITie Pacific or Western coast of America, extending eastward INTRODUCTION. xm to the summit of tlie Rocky Mountains, including the great basin of Salt Lake in Utah, possesses in many respects a marked difiference of climate from the eastern portion of the continent facing the Atlantic. The Temperate Zone or climate takes a much wider range in the former, extending from Sitka, in Russian America, 57^ north latitude, to near Monterey, in Cahfornia, 3G^ north, running through upwards of twenty de- grees of latitude, where the mean annual temperature ranges from 40'^ to GO " Fahrenheit. The more southern portion of the continent, including Lower Cahfornia, assumes the tropical character of the Gulf coast of Mexico, embracing Central America and the Isthmus of Panama. To the north of Mount St. Elias, GO^ north latitude, the tem- perature is cold and forbidthug, partaldng of the character of the more eastern portion of the continent along the coast of Labrador. Westward, toward Alaska, the climate is modified by the warm waters of the Pacific Ocean, here flowing eastward toward the northwest coast of America. The cold influence setting down fi'om the Arctic Sea, through Bohring's Strait, being more perceptibly felt on the oiDposite side of Asia, along the coast of Kamschatka. North America, on the Pacific side, may thus be said to be divided into three gi'and chmatic di^'isions- -giving from the Equator, northward, 3G degrees to the Tropical and Semi- tropical chmate ; 22 degrees to the Temperate chmate, where the wliite race may live in safety and comfort ; and 32 degi-ees to the cold and Frigid climate of the Arctic region. The volume on the Influence of Climate now offered to the Pubhc, is, so far as I am aware, the only American or English one containing, within a moderate compass, so large an amount of rehable mformatiou concei*ning the most important subject of weather, or chmate, and presenting at the same time correct statistics as to population and agiicvdtural products, all of which are closely allied to the subject under consideration. It is earaestly and respectfully hoped that it will prove useful, and that the further investigation be followed by more compe- tent minds. J. Distuknell. New York, Januarj/, 1867. XIV CLIJIATE — ^ATMOSPHERE. CLIMATE. Physical Climate is chiefly determined by — 1. The Temperature of a countxy divided into Months and Heasous. 2. The Elevation of the land above the level of the sea. 3. The nature of tlio Soil ; also, whether cleared or woodland. 4. Tlie prevalent Winds. 5. The annual quantity of Rain or Snow that falls. (). The great Oceanic Currents. ATMOSPHERE. Meaauie and Weight of the Atmosphere, according to Dr. Murray. Constituent Parts. Nitrogen gnR, or impiiro air,. Oxygen gas, or piiro air,. . . . Aqueous vapor Carbonic acid gas, Total, Mean Normal Temperature of the Northern Hemisphere of tlie Earth. 1 )il»'.rciiee of the Latitude. January. July. Yearly Mean. llottcKt and Coldest .Moiitlis. ■J ° 1 / <- 1 O 1 90 a —20 +30 6 +2 57 80 a —20 5 34 1 6 8 54 6 TO a —11 9 45 1 16 57 65 h — 6 1 51 6 22 6 57 7 (iO b 4 ;} 56 4 30 2 52 8 50 c 19 8 62 6 41 7 42 8 40 c 40 4 72 3 56 5 32 2 ;{() d 5S (i 78 4 69 8 22 20 e 70 1 81 8 77 5 11 7 10 e 77 3 80 8 79 9 8 6 e 79 4 78 79 7 2 7 Decrease from Equator to the Polo, 106° 48' 77M' The mean Annual Temperature of the whole earth, at the level of the sea, is 50^ Fahrenheit. a. Frigid Zone, mostly within the Arctic Circle. h. Cold Zone. c. Temperate Zone. d. Sub-Tropical Zone. e. Troj)ical, or Equatoiial Zone. Note. — Tlio Arctic Circle of tho sphere, parallel to the equator, and distant 23° 28' from the North Polo, from whence its name. This and its opiKJsito, the Ant-Arctic, are clIIocI the two Polar Circles, I ZONES, OR BELTS OF TEMrERATURE. TriE Tropics, and Polar or Arotic Circles vlivido the surface of the Earth into Jive great climatic zones or belts, viz. : 1. One Torrid Zone, 47^ in brendth, or 23.V'^ on each side of the Equator, and bounded by the Tropics of Cancer and Capri- corn. Every place in this wide region has tlie sun vertical to it twice a yeir ; and as the sun's rays never fall very obliquely on any part of it, the temperature at the surface of the earth is here always very high, averaging from 78^ to 84^ mean annual temperature near the level of the ocean. Hero the grow th of vegetation is luxiiriant and man indolent. 2. Two Temperaic Zmef^, one northern and the otlier southern, each 43-* in l)readth, lying between the Tropics and the Polar Circles. This belt is properly divided into three parts, viz. : the Sub-tropical, Temperate, and Cold Zones. The Jirst division has a mean annual temperature ranging from 78^ to GO^ Fahr. ; here snow seldom falls nor is ice formed, wliile fevers of dillerent types are prevalent. On the Atlantic coast of America, it ex- tends from 2o.y^ to 37^ north latitude. The seeond division has a mean annual temperature ranging from 00^ to 40" Fahr., ex- tending from 37" to 47" north latitude, in the United States and Canada. Hero snow and ice are found, particularly in the mid- dle and northern portions. The middle of t}iis zone or belt, 50" mean annual temperature, is the most favored climate on the earth's surface. The third division has a mean annual temperature ranging from 40- to 20" Fahr., and may be said to extend in British America from 47" to GG.l" north latitude. These zones, lying between the Tropics and the Arctic Circle, never ha%'ing the sim vertical, are characteiized by a lower temperature than tropical regions ; the vegetation and fniits of the earth are less luxuriant and spontaneous ; and man, com- pelled to cxei'cise his corpcn-eal and thinking powers, attains to a higher degTce of intelligence and civilization than in those regions where his wanta arc supplied without any exertion on his part. 8. The two Friat as in New England ; but continues for too short a period to bring gi'ass or vegetables to maturit}. T'etween 55^ and 47^ north, tl c climate is still severe ; the cold of ^vinter is steady and intense, and tho snow, which begins to fall in November, remains till May. Here summer advances with such rai)idity, that the season of spring is scarcely luiown." Tho above desciubed re- gions includes tho Cold and Frujid Zones of America. The sovf/urn limit of this great belt, extending to 4.7° north latitude on tho castera portion of the continent, rises as you rising to 57' as you approach Lake Winnipeg to about 50' approach tho North PaciEc coast in the Ilussian Possessions. The stretch of country along the line of temperature that divides tho cold and temperate zones (40'^ Fahr.) is so distinctly marked, as regards cultivation and settlement, that an observing traveller passing west from near Quel)ec to the head of nf,viga- tion on the Ottawa lUver, and thence to the north shore of Lake Superior, passing up the St. Mary's liiver, can perceive the last vestige of civilized habitation. This marked and singular circunistanco can only bo attributed to the liability of killing fi'osts all along this extended lino during tho summer months — ])otatoes, Vt'heat, and other hardy vegetables, and cereals, being destroyed for the want of a season of uninternipted heat sufH- cient to bring them to perfection. The temj^crate portion of America, on the Atlantic coast, may bo considered as extending from 47^ to 37^ north latitude, (Quebec, Can., to Norfolk, Va.) The southern limit of this zone (60° Fahr.) is also strongly marked by diflcrent vegetable pro- ductions, and a different class of diseases peculiar to the human family. Here commences tho cotton region, and the prevalence of malignant fevers ; there being no severe fi'osts, and little or no snow during the winter months. The Semi- Tropical Zone may bo said to extend from 37° to 25'^ north latitude, or from Norfolk, Va., to the mouth of the Bio CIJMATE OF NORTH AMERICA. 21 Graudo, in Texas. Horo is another marked feature in tho vegetable kingdom, tlio trees becoming dwarfed with a rank undergrowth of vegetation. Tho Trojiicnl Zone extends from 25^ nortli latitude to the Equator, where tho animal and vegctabh? kingdoms are of a tropical or equatorial character, contrasting .strongly vrith the productions of tho more northern zones, or sections of countrv. Thus, North America, cast of tho Rocky IMountains, may bo justly divided into fve grand Climatic Divisions, being marked b}^ difforcmt races of men, or traits of character, and dil^'erent vegetal )lo productions. IVcst of tho Rocky Mountain range is found a climate peculiar to the region of the Pacific coast of America. AVithin this wide extent of country, running through 90 degi-ecs of latitude, from tho Equator to the North Pole, may be found almost every variety of tho vcgetaljle kingdom — from tl-'O stunted growth of tho Arctic Circle to tho lofty white pine of the North or Temperate Zone, tlic yellow or pitch-pine of the South, or Sub-tropical Zono, and the rank evergreens of the Torrid or Ecpiatorial Zono. To the extreme north tho Esquimaux alone reside, unused to all the comforts and luxuries of civilized life ; while south of Hiv.lson Bay and the coast of Labrador, and iiorth of Quebec, the European settler and the more hardy tribe of Indians are found in limited numbers, being niostl}' engaged in hunting and fishing. South of 47^ north, running through the temperate and semi-tropical climate to tho 25tli parallel, the pure white race holds dominion on this contment, although the Indian and African races are intermingled. South of the Rio Grande, within the confines of Mexico, the climate becomes tropical. Horo are to be found the mixed Spanish race, their blood being so far intermingled with the Indian and African races as to make them an inferior people, Avhen compared with tho pure Castiliau race, whose blood flowed in tho veins of the early conquerors of Mexico and Cen- tral America. Another distinct feature of the nature that marks these great climatic divisions of North America, are, that the tropical re- gion is divided into but two seasons, the icet and the drijf w. 22 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. 11 i ' I * mi whcro hj fill" tlio groafcost nniouiit of Dioisturo falls dnving tlio wet scaHou, ofti^ii ill deluging torrents of rain, accompanied oy fierc(^ winds. The tcniptuato region has four regular seasons, Spring, Suninior, Autumn, anil Winter. Those ditlbrcnt seasons arc usually attondcMl Avith alxmt the same amount of moisture, a jiorticm, however^ falHng in the shape of snow— this latter phenomena showing an exem])tion from malignant contagicnis fevers, which are the scourge of the semi-tropical and tropical portion of the continent. T le extreme ncn-thern or cold rt>gion, which may be termed hupcrhym-mi, although free from malignant diseases, yet unfits man to acquire the full development of his higher faculties — hence wo see in this dreary section a half- savage race, which are ahme fitted hy nature; to live in northern latitudes."' Again, the food and the clothing necessaiy for the comfort of these diiferent races of men are as distinct as the clinuxte, showing ])lainly that it is at the risk of life to change suddenlv the residence of man, as well as the inferior animals, from one extreme temperature to one of a marked opposite influ(>nce. A late English writer says, "In a (nmtinent endu-acing 75 de- greets of latitude, and lUMirly twice as many of longitude, the varieties of climate must be very great. S2)(!aking generally, however, we lind that its A'arious ])ortions have; a lower average tem])(>rature than the corriisponding latitiuhis ol' the Okl World. '' The western side of tin; c(,>ntinent, however, is greatly warmer than its eit,stern. For example, in llussian America, tlie Island of Sitka has a mean annual tcnuiKH'atun^ of 42^ Fahr., Avhile Nain, in Labradcu', near clu; same latitude, 57 ' north, has a mean temperature of only 21) \ Tlu; dili'ercnco between the mean summer and the; minm Avint(>r tem])eratures is still greater ; for while at Sitka and San Francisco it amounts to only 22 \ sit Nain and Quebec it amounts to 44 ' and 54 '. " The hottest ])orti()n of tlie New Woi'ld lies mainly within this continent, being embriiced within tlu; isothermal lin(>. of >S1^ Fahr., which encloses tlu> (iulf of IMexico and the (!aribboan Sea — that great cauldron of heatcnl waters which originat(>s the Gulf Stream — the West Indies, the eastern side of Mexico and Central America, and the northern part of New Granada on the * Man is found from tlm 7~)tli dc^j^riM; of north Itititudi! (in North Aiiu'ricit) to Terra 'Icl Fuc^o, "t ' wouth (in South AnuTica), witli tJiis lUiirkod dilU'rencc, that tho dwarfed Esiiuiniaux of the nortliern continent is strangely placed in con- trast with the lullgrown race of the rutagoniuns of tho soutliera. CLIMATE OF NORTTI AMERICA. 23 nil \l' m a 10 Isthnnifl of Pniiainii. Tlio coldest region of North Aincrica nr.\ of tlio Now World is ciiibnicod within tho isocliiiiionul Wuv. of 2(i ' Itolow /(TO — ii h"no which, (•('luiiiciicinj^' iit C:i\)o. ]],'it]iurst, iiviiY tho montli of tlio M;u'lcoiizio, doih'cts southoustwardly to tho head of Chesttn'li{>hl lidet (south of th(! Mr.^Mioti(^ Polo), and thcnice northwards to Lancaster Sound and North Devon. North America is also nmvo humid than the correspondini.;; lati- tudes of the Old World. It is eakulated that 110 iiu'hes of rain fall anmially in tropical America, wliilo in tropii'al Asia and Africa i\\v. amount does not cxcccmI SO inches. In the tem- ])eratc! r<>Li;ions of the eastern continent the annual avera^^'o is estimate \ at IM inelies, while it amounts to oH inches in tho eor- res])ondin;4 /out; of the wfistern. The rainiest re^jjiou of this continent c()rres[)onds with the re;i;ion oi liij^hest tem])ei'ature above described, in which, as well as in Lower Oalifornia, Soutlau'U M(>xic(>, iuid all (Jenti'al America, snow luivei' falls." l>oi'ANV. — The same writer remarks: " The Nt>w World has lon;^ bet^n fniuiid for tlu; ])r<)di('tati()U, as well as its ])eculiar cliniatt!. AVhen the north- ern continent was disc()V(>i'(;il, one vast continuous forest covered the whole surface, fi'om t\u) St. Lawrence and tla; Cireat iiahes to tlu! (Julf of Mexico, ah)U[>; the A]))>alachian ran;j;e, and i'rcmi tho Eoclcy Mountains on the noilh to the Atlantic, endiracinp; an area of U])wards of two millions of S(]uare. mik^s. Much of this ocean of vegc^tation has since been cleared away, tliou^^h. to this day, hundreds of miles of luibrok^'U forest exist in seViU'al localities, whilt^ boundless ]»rairies, destitute of trees, lait covered ■with tall }j;rasses, occupy vast tracts iji tli(^ centre of th(> coniin(^nt, and on tho eastern sid(>. of tho. llochy Mcmntains. The forest tr(>es are extremely numerous in s])(>cies, (mibracin^ many varie- ties of oak and pine?, Avith tlu; ash, birch, beech, cedar, chestinit, cott(m-AVood, cypress, juniper, hickory, locust, nia])l(>, nndberry, j)01)lar, and walnut. As the traveller ])ass(>s northwards into the British territorii>s, tlu; variety of s))(;ci(>s is smaller, endirao ing mainl}' pjU(>s, cedars, larches, as{)ens, po]-,lars, alders, hazels, })irch, and willows ; whiles towards iho shores of tho Arctic ()c(!an th(^ trees Ikm-oiuc^ fewcM- iinunuber and more stunted in size, till at length tho dwarf willow, six inches in htught, is tla; sole ro))- rosentativo of tho gigantic trins of the temperate and tro])ical regions. " Wlll^AT is the cereal Avhich reciuii'es most h(!at of those usu- ally cultivated in England. Its culture is said to ascend to O'J or 64^' nortli latitude, on tlus Avest side of tlu^ Scandinavian pen- insula, but not to b(i of im])ortance beyond the (lO'h. On tho route of the Expedition," it is raised with piotit at Fort Liard, * yir John lUclmrdaon in biuiili ot'tsir Jolin Franklin, i84S. '- 1 Mi B ! I ■i 1 1 ii 24 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. British Amorica, in latiiado 60^ north, longitude ]*j2^ 31' west, and liavinpj an altitude of between 400 and 500 foot above the sea. This locality, however, being in the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains, is siibject to summer frosts, and the grain does not ripen perfectly every year, though in favorable seasons it gives a good retrru. It grows, however, freely on the banks of the Saskatchewan {ind Lake Winnipeg, except near Hudson Bay, where the summer temperature is too low. " At Fort James, on the borders of >Stiiart's Lake, in latitude 54.] ^ north, in a mountainous region, near the source of Frazor's Biver, Avheat continues to grow, but often suffers from the sum- mer frosts. In these (puirters the grain comes to maturity in about four months. In the colony of Bed Biver its growth is luxuriant, though the n])pcr part of that country, which touches the 41)tli parallel of latitude, is elevated about 900 feet above the sea. Periodical ravages of grasshoppers, however, fre- quently destroy the ho]ies of the husbandman. " At Fort Fi-ancis, situated on the banks of Bainy Biver, in latitude 48-^ 35' north, 93^ 28' Avest, Avlioat is generally sown about the first of IVLiy, and is reaped m the latter end of August, after nn interval of alxnit 120 days." " PoUifdc^, which have been cultivated from time immemorial on the banks of Lake Titicaca, So'utli America, yield abundantly at Fort Laird, and grow, though inferior in quality, at Fort Sim]">.-ion, 02-^ north latitude. " On the Island of Hitka, lying m 57^-58^ north latitude, though the forest, nourished by a coiaparatively high mean tem])erature and a very moist atmosphere, is ecjual to that of the richest woodlands of the Northern L'nited States, yet corn does not grow.*' The climate of South America is generally superior to that of the northern part of the continent in all the districts north of the 50th parallel of southern latitude ; but to the soutlt of that line, the cold increases more rapidly than it does as we approach the Polo in the Arctic regions. Among other causes Avhich powerfully influence the temperature in South America and Central America, must be reckoned the extraordinary elevation of the surface in many places. Thus the city of Mexico (19^ 25' north), which according to its latitude, should be cxccssi\uiy hot, being elevated 7,500 feet above sea-hn'el, enjoys a climate (jf jierpetual r.pring ; and (^>uito, elevated 9,543 feet, which hes under tlu^ Ecpiator, has a similar climate, though Avithin sight of that city are regions, at an elevation of 10,000 or 18,000 CLIMATE OF NORTH AJrERICA. 25 feet,* ■v^'hich are covered with nevcr-cliaTitnng masses of snow and ice ; and at the distance of a few miles, the inhabitants of Guayaquil, on a low and level margin of the sea, experience an intense and sicV.ly degree of heat. " The three zones of tcmperatxire Avhicli originate in Amer- ica," says Malte Brun, " from the enormous ditierence of level betvreen the various regions, cannot by any means be compared with the zones which result from a ditierence of latitude. The agreeab/le, the salutary vicissitudes of the seasons are wanting in those regions that are here distingiiished bv tlu; denomma- tioiis of //•/(//(/, fcnijrra/c, hot (U* torrkl. Li the t'rigid Zone it is not the intensity but the continuance of the cold — the absence of all vivid heat — the constant humidity of a foggy atmosphere, that arrest the gi'owth of the great vegetable protluctions, and, in man, perpetuate those diseases that arise from chei-ked per- spiration. The Hot Zone of America does not experience ex- cessive h(\at ; but it is a continuance of tlie heat, togetlier with exhalations from a marshy soil, and the miasmata of an im- mense mass of vegetable putrefactions, add(^d to the eliects of an extreme humiclity, which ju-oduces fevers of a more or less dest. uctive nature, and s})reads through the whole animal and vegetable world the agitation of an exuberant but deranged vital princii)le. The Temperate Zone, hj possessing only a moderate and constant Avarmth like that of a hot-house, ex- eludes from its limits the animals and vegetables which delight in the extremes of heat and cold, and produces its own peculiar t slants, Avhich can neither grow al)Ove its limits, nor tlescend jclow them. Its temperatiire, which does brace the constitution of its constant inhabitants, acts like spring on the diseases of tho hot regions, and like summer on those of the frozcui regions : accordingly, a mere journey fi'om the Andes to the level of tho sea, or vice i'crn((, proves an important medical agent, which is sufiicient to produce the most astonishing chnnges in the human body. But, living constantly in either one or the other of these zones, must eriervate both the mind and the body by its mono- tonous tranquillity. Sunimer, Spring and WtnUr are here seated on three distinct thrcmes, which they seldom quit, and are con- constantly surrounded by the attributes of their power." Mountains and Rivers. The Monniahi and llicir Si/-sfcms of North America, when viewed in their proper light, in connection with a healthy cli- mate, are of the most grand and benelicent character, as regards* * Hoiglit of the Buow-line iu the Amlus of Quito, l.jjSOO feet. f 2C INFLUENCE OF CIJMATE. their influeuco on the {miiniil and vegetable kingdoms, adapting most of this immense region to the abode oil civilized imm — now being fast peopled by different races em^igrating from Eu- rope and Asia. The two great mountain systems which give rise to almost innumerable streams, arc the Alleghany or Appalachian range of mountains, traversing the Atlantic States, and the Eocky Mountains and coast range of the Pacitic coast. The Eocky Mountain range, forming the gi-eat axis or vertebral column of the continent, is by far the most extensive, running through the entire length of North America, under different names, a dis- tance of five or six thousand miles, presenting in their course fertile plams, and moimtain peaks extending upward above the line of perpetual snow. On the western slope of the Eocky Momitains, the Columbia and other rivers of considerable magnitude rise and flow into ti^o Pacific Ocean and Gulf of California — all being fed and supplied with water bj' a system of rain and snow, operating alike, in a greater or less degree, across the continent, varying from twenty to sixty inches in depth during the year. This abundant and constant supply of moisture, falling in the shape of rain or snow, most plentiful in hilly or mountainous tracts of country, goes to swell the numerous streams flowing onward to the ocean. The vast regions east of the summit of the Rocky Mountain range, extending from the Arctic Circle to the Tropic of Cancer, embracing the great valleys of Hudson Bay, the Mississippi, and St. Lawrence, are drained by noble rivers entering the Arctic Ocean, Hudson Bay, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the north, and the Gulf of Mexico on the south. The Great Lakes or Liland Seas of America, embraced in this region, are of themselves the largest and purest body of water on the face of the globe, having an estinuxted area of 1)0,000 square miles of surface. The three great upper lakes, standing from 505 to 000 feet above the ocean level, with a depth varying from 100 to 800 feet, are surrounded by a healthy and fertile region of country. The St. Lawrence Eiver, the outlet of those mighty waters, flows northeast into the Gulf of CLIMATE OF NORTH AMERICA. 27 lam •er, .ml ■tic :th, ill I of lot" s, a Ibe lof St. Lawrence, by a succession of falls and rapids, the most remarkable of any stream on tlio face of the j^lobe. The Appalacliian range commences in Alabama and Georgia, extending in a northeast direction some one or two himdred miles from the Atlantic coast, through the States of South and North Carohna, Eastern Tennessee, Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania to the confines of the State of New York. Here the sj-stcm is continued by the " Highlands," and Taghkanic Mountams of New York and Massachusets, when the Green Mountains of Vermont are reached, and the water-shed or sys- tem is continued through Lower Canada to the District of Gaspr, teiminatiug on the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The highest peak of the whole extended range is the Black Mountain in North Carolina, which rises to an elevation of 0,470 feet above the ocean. The streams and navigable rivers rising in this mountain range, and flowing into the Atlantic Ocean on the cast, and the Gulf of Mexico on the south, are very numerous. The AiUrondnvh or Clinton range of mountains lying in the State of New Y'ork, extending from the Canada border to the M(jhawk Valley, are an elevated range, varying from 1,000 to upwards of 0,000 feet, while the Catskiil Momitain rises Avest of the Hudson River, forming an independent spm*, being elevated about 3,000 feet. The Willie Mountains of New Hampshire are an independent group of great interest, attaining an elevation of 0,428 feet above the ocean. The waters flowing from these several moun- tains find their wav into the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the At- lantic Ocean by numerous streams. For a healthy climate, fertile soil, riNiilets and inland navi- gation, no stretch of country on the globe, for the same extent of territory, equals tlint lying between the Gulf of Mexico on the south, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the north, being drained by the Appalachian range of mountains and hills, abounding in noble forests and rich mineral deposits. ^"mi 28 rNTLUENCE OF CLIMATE. r ! i Great River Basins and Valleys. 1. IncUnal to the Arctic Ocean. j.enyth in Miles. Mackenzie River, .... 1,200 Sask.'itcliewivn and Nelson, including Ked Hiver of the North, .... 1,500 2. Inclined to the Facijic. Frazer rdvcr, Cohimbia Sacramento Pdo Colorado, 450 1,000 850 750 3. Indimd to the Atlantic. St. Lawi'encc River and Great Lakes, 1,500 Susquehanna and Chesapeake Bay, . 450 4. Inclined to the Gulf of Mexico. Mississi})pi River, .... 2,000 Rio Grande del Norte, . . . 1,000 Tabasco, 250 Area. 440,000 450,000 80,000 200,000 25,000 170,000 3C0,000 20,000 1,000,000 180,000 20,000 The lesser valleys are those of the Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, Arc, along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. The great basins and valleys modify the climate in their dif- ferent regions in connection with prevailing winds — thus we find the valley of the Red River of the North, in 50^ north lati- tude, comi>arativcly warmer than the Lower St. La\vi'ence on the same parallel. Mountain Peaks. IIUSSIAN AMEKICA. Mount St. Elias, coast range Mount Fairweather, coast range, BRITISH AMERICA. Mount Brovv-n, Rocky Mountains, Mount Hooker, Rocky Mountains, UNITED STATES. O f Altitude in Fi'ot. no N. Lat. 10,800 50 52 30 52 Mount Hood, « 45 20 Mount St. Helens,* Cascade Mountains, 4G 10 * Active volcano. ii 14,783 10,000 15,700 10.500 15,500 MOUNTAIN TExVKS. 29 Mount Eaincr, Cascade Mountains, Mount ]3akcr, Mount Adams, Mount Jollrrson, " " Froiuoiit's Peak,"' Eocky Mountains, Sierra Ncjvada, California, {<:sf.) . Mount Shasta, " Pike's Peak, Colorado Ter., Long's Peak, " 40 48 40 44 4:j :w 41 38 40 40 N. 40 30 30 30 VfUrrE MOUNTAINS, N. H. Mount Washington, Mount Adams, Mount Jelierson, IMoimt Madison, . Mount Monroe, . Mount Franklin, . 44 15 ADIRONDACK GROUr, N^EW YORK. 44 10 " Mount Marcy, Mount Mclntyro, .... Mount Seward, Mount Katahdin, Maine, . . . 45 45 Mount Mansfield, Green Mountains, Vt., 44 20 Alleghany Mountains, Pennsylvania a.nd Yii-ginia, Black Mountain, North Carolina, MEXICO AND CENTRAL AlilERICA. 10 Popocatepetl, Volcano, Mexico, Orizaba, Line of perpetual snow, Iztacihuatl, " Tohica, Cofro de Perote, Mexico, Agua, Volcano, Guatemala, Amilpas, Atitlan, Volcano, Irasu, " Votos, Mount Omoa, " Honduras a 15 40 " * Elovateu 1,000 feet above tlio line of perpetual snow. 1!) 20 10 10 45 14 15 15 10 Altittulo in Fi'ut. Lat. 14,500 14,000 12,000 12,000 " 13,570 12,500 " 14,500 12,000 " 11,500 0,285 5,000 6,800 5,415 5,350 4,850 3 35 40 " 5,407 5,183 4,000 5,335 4,280 to 4,200 0,420 17,720 17,500 14,500 15,700 15,108 13,415 13,758 13,100 12,500 11,478 0,848 7,000 PART II. ARCTIC LAxNDS AND OCEAN. This is a vast dreary region, lying within the Arctic Circle, north of the parallel of 60 -^ 32', embracing the northern portion of the Continent of America, including all the nnmcrous islands discovered near the North Pole by English and American navi- gators. The Arctic Circle is one of the smaller circles of the sphere, riiniiing parallel with the Equator, and 23^ 28' distant from the Pole. In crossing North America, it passes Behring Strait, Great Bear Lake in British America, Back Biver, south of the Magnetic Pole, Fox Channel, and Davis Strait, striking Greenland at Holstoinberg, and passing immediately north of Iceland. Within these bounds Ue GrinncU Land, Washington Land, Parry Islands, Melville Island, Prince of Wales Island, Prince Albert's Land, King William's Land, Boothia Felix, Cockbum Land, and a portion of the continent proper, together with the greater part of Greenland. The Arctic Ocean lies within this but partially explored re- gion, also, the open Polar Sea, which is supposed to exist, and is now engaging the attention of explorers and scientific men, both in Eui'ope and America. A portion of this terra incojnita, or " Arctic Highlands," is thus described by Capt. Boss, II. N., in 1818, lying between 7G^ and 78"" north latitude, " bounded on the south by an immense mountain barrier, covered with ice, with clifl's 1,000 feet or upwards in height, and spurs of solid ice projecting for miles uto the sea. The vegetable produc- tions are heath, moss, and coarse grass, which afford shelter to hares and other game." The thermometer in these regions, during the month of July, sometimes rises to 40^ and 50^ Fahr., and in winter falls to 50^ and 00° below zero, often freezing the mercury. Dr. Kane, of the American Navy, who penetrated as far north as 81^, in 185-4, describes the formidable barriers of ice !l )» AnCTIC LANDS AND OCEAN. 31 and 5now in a still move vind and dreaiy form, lla^ing seen mountnins of glaciers extending for many miles along the north coast of Greenland, in the vicinity of 7U° and 80 north latitude. Here the seasons are divided into six months of daylight and six months of darkness. It was left for two of his adventurous companions to penetrate to ahout 81^ 20' north latitude, where an open Polar Sra was discovered of vast extent. "VMthin the Arctic Circle the only permanent human inhabi- tants arc the Esquimaux, a race scattered along the coasts of Labrador and Hudson Bay, and the Arctic shores, extending from Bchring's Strait to Lancaster Sound, and Greenland ; they are entirely dissimilar in manners and character to the other Indian tribes of North America. They are generally locateil to the north of the parallel of GS^, but are met with as far south as 52^ north, in Labrador. The name which has been given them by the Indians of the north, signifies " eaters of raw flesh." Their color is not that of copper, but approaches the tawny brown which distinguishes the inhabitants of the more northern parts of Europe. They have beards, and some of them have been observed with hair of different colors, in some fair, in others red, though the prevailing color is black. These marks, by which thoy are evidently distinguished from the American Indian, have inclined several savans to believe that they are of European descent. " It is a singular fact that tribes of this description, agi'ceing in form, features, and man- ners, and apparently of kindred race, occupy the whole shores of the Polar Sea in Europe, Asia, and America. One would almost suppose that this variety of the human species had been created expressly to tenant those frozen regions to which their mode of hfe appears to attach them, as the Negro seems adapted b}^ an opposite organization to the scorching heats of the Torrid Zone." The Esquimaux, Avhen first me<- by Captain Ross's ex- ploring part}' in high latitiides, supposed tliemselves to be the only people in the world, showing that thoy had lost all know- ledge of even kindred races in other parts of the globe. They are lower in stature than the other Indian races, as Avell as Europeans, if we except the La])landers. Their visage presents the peculiar form which the face assumes in intensely cold weather ; their dress is more ample and prepared with more ^1 32 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. i t caro than is usual auioiifj the savages. Tlioy subsist mostly ou fish oud animal food, which abounds in northern latitudes, be- yond the limits of vegetation. " The meteorological phenomena of the Arctic regions are of a higlily interesting character. ]j(>sidcs the recurrence of (hiy and night produced to a length very different from that which is usually indicated by those terms, and varying in propor- tion to tho latitude, the Aurora I'oreahs cannot fail to strike the observer with Avondtr and admiration during the winter nights. These beautiful strc^ams of light, forming or tending to form an irregular arch, Avith ' showers of rays' shooting in every direction, brilliant and rapid as lightning, supi)ly, in some de- gree, the absence of the sun, anil impart an air of fairyland to the scene. They are variously described — by some they have been su]")posed to be attended Avitli a * hissing and crack- ing noise ;' but this has been contradicted by others. To Capt. ]'arry tho light appeared to be tinged with yellow and blue ; while to Captain Lyon it resembled the milky wa}- or vivid sheet-lightning. From the observation of Captain Back, the Aurora Borealis appears to exert a sensible influence on the magnetic needle. The sun and nioon are often surrounded here with halos tinted with tho brightest hues. Parhelia, or mock suns, shine in difl'erent parts of tho firmament, several in number, and most brilhant about the period of sunrise and sunset ; and various luminous meteors, duo probably to tho re- fraction of the light by the crystals of ice, adorn at imcertain intervals tho northern sky. "Tho bleak and inhospitable regions of the Frozen Zone teem with animal life : tho whale, tho walrus, and the seal not only afford light and clothing to the inludjitants, but invite the adventurous mariner of more favored climes to visit these ice- bound coasts. The polar bear, the wolf, and tlo fox, are the antagonists, tho dog and the reuideor are the friends and coad- jutors, the musk ox and the elk, or moose deer, and hares of various kinds, supply the principal nourishment of the inhabi- tants. Innumerable fiocks of birds, the auk, the petrel, and the gull, the swan, the goose, and the duck, tho tern, the plover, and tho ptarmigan, animate tho air or tho waters; and the spring and summer are cheered with the notes of many song birds. Bisect species are few ; but in the short and sudden r.uramer even mosquitoes are found. The vegetable world is likewise very limited. Tho American spruce or white-pine is said by Dr. Richardson to be ' the only tree that the Esqui- maux of the Arctic Sea have access to while gi'owing.' They are chiefly supplied by drift-wood. The mosses and the lichens THE MAGNETIC POLE. 33 song are the principal products of tho soil. There arc mushrooms, ferns, algip, and coufervio. Tho summer is not wholly destitute of tho ranunculus, tho anemone, and tho poppy, tho strawberry, tlie raspl)(>rry, and some other edible fruits. Tho Proturo'vii.s iitvalis, a minute cryptogamie ])hint, imi)arts a general rosy ting(\ which has occasioned tho iucousistent api)ellation of red snow." — Enylish 0(t':<'tla;r.'" The general character of the climate in thoso regions is that of intense cold, ranginj,' so low as 50^ beloiv zero, or even niucli lower. In a journal kei)t by (Japtain Back, at Fort Keliance, north latitude i)2^ 50', the thermometer is rcv^ordcd to have stood at 70'^ below zero. It has been observed that tho extromo point of cold, as indicated by tho thormomotor, is often less severely felt in these noiihoru latitudes than in a more moder- ate temperature ; tho air in such circumstances being calm and clear. The Magnetic Pole. It may gratify our readers to give the result, in a sim])le and plain manner, of Captain Ross's attempt to reach and discover the Muijnedc Pole, where is supposed to l)e found tho greatest degree of cold on the earth's surface ; " Tlio place of observa- tion," ho says, " was as near tho Magnetic Pole as tlie limited means which I had enabled me to determine. Tlio amount of the dip was 89-' 51)', being within one minute of tlio vcrluxil, while the proximity of the Pole, if not its actual existence where wo stood, was further conlirmed by tho total inaction of tho several horizontal needles in my possession. These were suspended in tho most delicate manner possible, but not one showed the least effort to move from the position it was in — a fact, which tho most uninformed on the subject must know, jiroves that tho centre of attraction lies at a very small horizontal dis- tance, if at any." Captain Iloss proceeds to state, "that a learned professor in England had, in the al)sence of tlie expedi- tion, laid down all tho curves of equal variation to within a few donees of tlio point of concurrence, leaving that point of course to be determined by oljservation, should tho observation over faU within tho pov»'or of navigators. It was most gratifying on our ret'n-n to iind that the place I had fixed upon Avas precisely tho one whore these curves should have coincided in a centre, had they been protracted on his magnetic chart." " A few days after, and on returning to their more permanent station. Captain Ross examined his instruments, and his experi- ments served to convince him that his observations on tho celo- Ill III 84 INTLUENCE OF CLIMATT:. bratod spot woro oorroct. Tho theory previonftly adopted wart, that tho ])lace of tho Magnetic Polo wa« at 70 north hititude, and 98^ 80' 45" west h)nf^itudo ; — and the spot wlicre Captain lloss Kiipposes it, is 70 -^ 5' 17" north Lititude, and 90' 4()' 45" west longitude. A Committee of the Admiralty, to whom Capt. Ross' narrative and statement was snbmittcHl, rciported (among other things) that " they have no reason to donbt that Captain IlosH actually r(>ached the Magnetic Pole." As to the Magnetic Pole, or the substance which produces tho phenomena of the magnetic needle, some suppose "that there an? gi'evt magnets in the earth, which move periodically." Professor Stoinliausor was of opinion "that an interior planet revolved around the centre of the earth onco in 440 years, and produced tho magnetic eifc^cts at the surface." Prof. Sander contended these phenomena arc to bo ascribed to a magnetic planet beyond the newly discovered planet Hersch*;!, or Uranus, performing its revolution in 1,7'20 yora-s. Truly, the subject requires further explanation ! Appoarance of the Sun from the Norch Pole. To a person standing at the North Pole, the sun appears to sweep hoi-izontally around the sky every twenty-four Lours, without any perce))til)lo variation during its circiiit in its dis- tance fi-om the horizon. On the 21st of June it is 23'^ 28' above the horizon — a little more than one-fourth of the distance to the zenith, tho highest point that it ever reaches. From this altitude it slowly descends, its track being represented by a spiral or screw with a very line thread ; and in the course of three mouths it worms its way down to the horizon, which it reach(>s on the 23<1 of September. On this day it slowly sweeps around the sky, with its face half hidden below the icy sea. It still continues to descend, and after it has entirely disappeared, it is then so near the horizon that it carries a bright twilight around the heavens in its daily circuit. As the sun sinks lower and lower, this twiUght gradually grows fainter, till it fades away. On the 20th of December, the sun is 23"" 28' below the horizon, and this is the midnight of the dark Avinter of the Pole From this date tho sun begins to ascend ; and after a time his return is heralded l)y a faint dawn, which circles slowly around the horizon, completing its circuit every twenty- four hours. This dawn grows gradually brighter ; and on tho 20th of March the peaks of ice are gilded with the first level rays of the six months' day. The ])ringor of this long day con- tinues to wind his spiral way upward, till he reaches his highest l)]ace on the 21st of June, and his annual coui'sc is completed. Such is one of the most wonderful works of God. I CLIMATE OF GREENLAND. Climate of Greenland. 85 this by a of [i it light ower ades the the ifter ■c'les nty- tho cvel Greenland, the iiiost northora country of the Western Hemis- phere of the globe, lying 1)etween Iceland and the American Continent, reaches, as far us the land is discovered, from Cape Farewell, in latitude 5iP 49' to the 80th piirallcl of north lati- tude ; further than that, it has been found unapproachable toward the northeast by reason of an immense barrier of ice stretching along the coast. The intrepid Dr. Kane has explored the farthest in this direction, when on his last expedition in search of an open Pouir Sea. " The whole coast of Greenland, receiving the beams of the sun in a very oblique direction, is dei)rived of that genial warmth which most other parts of the earth enjoy. The soil being shallow, is frozen during the greater part of the year, and the ice having taken joossession of all the valleys of this l)arren and rocky land, the winds which blow over these are, even in summer, extremely cold. The climate on the east coast of Greenland, however, is undoubtedly more severe than on the west, where are to be found its only inhabitants.* Snow falls in an extraordinary quantity everywhere along the east coast, causing the glaciers witli which the land is covered to increase perpetuall}', the loose snow upon the siirface melting when it chances to thaw, and pressing down upon the strata below, or sinking through it, till the Avhole iK'comes one solid mass of ice, which never melts or undergoes change, until, in lapse of time, possibly not until some centuries pass by, it yields to the vast superincumbent pressure, and is precipitated into the sea in the form of icebergs. The winds which blow directly along the coast of Greenland from the sea, or Davis' Strait, are moist, and generally attended with rain, and in winter with snow and sleet, and are more boisterous in spring and autumn than in other seasons. Strong stormy winds from the west or southwest always break the sea-ice, evc^n in the middle of Avinter. The severe cold sets in with the month of January, but it is accom- panied with little snow, which generally falls either before or * In regard to diseases prevalent in northern latitudes, a late writer remarks : " There are some regions of tlie globe which enjoy a conii)leto immunity from consumption ; such regions are generally situated in a high latitude, and. indeed, we find, in proixirtion to the intensity and long continuance of cold, a propor- tionate decnuise in the amount of consumption. In Iceland, from 1837 to 1837, there was not a single case, and, according to a writ( r who has made the diseases of that country his study, it is entirely unknown, T'.iose who have passed along time also in Greenland, and along the coast of Labrador, state that they had never known among the Esquimaux a single case of consimiption, and that cii- tarrhal and bronchial affections are almost unknown." rmh 36 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. !| 'I i I I I after that time. More snow falls in the south than in the north. Of all the atmospheric phenomena peciihar to this country, the Anrnra Borcalis is the most beautiful. It streams here with peculiar lustre, and with a variety of colors, Avhich, ha\-ing great brilliancj', sometimes till the whole horizon Avith the most beautiful tints of the rainbow. It Ls more fiequent and more powerful from the GOth to the OTth parallel than in higher latitudes. " Although Greenland aflFords a great variety of objects to the mineralogist, yet it offers but few to the botanist, as compared Avith other countries ; vegetation being here repressed by the barrenness of the soil, and the wiint of the sun's genial influence. Those trees and shrubs, therefore, Avhich in milder climating afford a comfortable shadt^ to the wanderer, creep, in this forlorn land, under scattered rocks, to find shelter from the storm, snow and ice. There are a series of plants, however, which probably could not subsist in a milder chmate ; and in tlie ulterior of the inlets and firths may be found many species hitherto unknown in other countries. There are spots which even boast a luxuri- ant verdure, but they are only such places as, being in the neighborhood of dwellings, have been improved for many years by the blood and fat of seals and other animals. Vegetation commences very late in Greenland, not till the end of May or June, in projiortion to the different latitudes, and is over by the end of August or September. The bottcu of the sea in these climates appears to be better suittnl to vegetation than the sur- face of the land, presenting a great variety of fuci, ulva), and confervie. " Among the marine animals the whale tribe is here very con- spicuous. The porpoise, the sword-fish, and the narwal, or sea-uniconi, frequently appear on the Greenland coast. Various tjpecies of S(>al inhabit the surrounding seas, and are of immense importance to the inhabitants in supplying them with food and clothing, as well as with various articles useful in their simple arts and domestic economy." — Etyjlinlt Gar.dtcer. The mean annual temperature of the southern part of Green- land is probably from 20-^ to 30^ Fahr. ; but the difference be- tween the highest and the lowest temperatures (131^) is perhaps without a parallel. In July, tlie thermometer sometimes stands as high as 84°^ even in the shade, while in January it often sinks as low as 40^^ below zero. July is the only month in the year in which no snow falls ;. but tlie seas do not usually begin to freeze till December. TEMPERATURE WITHIN THE ARCTIC CIRCLE. 37 I nortli. .ry, the •c "with East Coast of Greenland. Captain W. A. Graah, of the Danish Eoyal Navy, who win- tered at Nukarbik, no'-th lat., Cli^ 22' west long., 4o^ 50' from Greenwich, r'cmarks : " The climate on the east coast of Green- land is undoubtedly somewhat more severe than on the west. The summer of 1829 began late, and })assed away without a singles day that could properly bo called warm. As early as the close of August, the sea was every night covered with a crust of new ice, Avhich, by sunrise, attained such a thickness that it Avaa no easy matter, nay, sometimes impossible, to break through it with the oars ; and by the middle of S<.!pteud)or ill the bay and filths were covered witli sheet-ice from an inch to two inches thick. The winter of 1828-9 had l»een, it Avas said, nnusually mild, and yet the winter ice lay still undissolved, when the new ice began to form. Towards the end of October sledging and hunting on the ice was in full train, and in Novem- ber and Pocember there were severtU davs from eight to ten degrees of cold. Subsequently, indeed, and until the close of February, the weather was particularly mild ; but at that date, it again became severe, and the cold increased to as much as IG" or 17" Ilc'aumer : —4'^ or — G= of Fahr." ireen- ice be- orhaps stands n sinks jgin to Temperature •within the Arctic Circle. Yfarlt TEMPEiiATunE of Rensselaer Harbor in north latitude 78° 37', west longitude 70^^ 40' from Greenwich, being the win- ter quarters of the brig liesciic, under the command of Dr. Kane, in 1853-54^55. Montha. Mean Ti'mp. Mont'ia Moxin Temp. ^ Fnhr. "• Falir. January, . 29.42 July, . +38.40 February, 27.40 Aiigust, . , +31.35 March, . 2G.03 September, . +13.48 April, . —11.30 October, . 5.00 May, . +12.89 Novemljer, 23.02 June, , +29.33 December, 29.50 Yearly Mean Temperature, 3.22° below zero. FOUR SEASONS. —11.48° Autumn, Spring, . • . Summer, . . +33^ Winter, Warmest dty, July 4, 1854, Coldest day, February 5, 1854, . . —4.85'^ . —29.50° 53.9° Fahr. -08° ■«,-jj' I ; i HBBBB **«,i 88 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Summer and Winter Temperature. Siaiions on the West Coast of Greenland. Stations. N. Lat. Slim. Temp. • Falir. Win. Temp. Differ- ence. o ' ° Fahr. ° Fahr. Rensselaer Harbor, 78 37 33 29.6 G2.6 Wostenholm, . . 7G 33 38 —28.7 GG.7 Upernavik, . . . 72 48 35.2 12.5 47.7 Omenak, . . , 70 41 40.7 5.1 45.8 Jacobsbaven, . . 69 12 42.4 + 0.8 41.6 Slat ions West of Baffiits Bi UJ. Melville Island, 74 47 37 28.2 65.3 Assistance Bay, 74 40 35.9 26.7 62.6 Port Bowen, , . 73 14 37 25.1 62.1 Bootbia Felix, . . 00 50 38 27.7 65.7 Igloolik, . . , GO 21 35.2 21.3 56.5 Fort Hope, . . . G7 25 30.7 —25.1 64.8 Winterinsel, . . GO 11 35.1 20.5 55.6 Fort Franklin, . . G5 12 50.2 17. 67.2 1. — Meteorological Austract kept on board Her Sliip " Investigator," Captain McClure> wintering Mercy — nortli latitude 74^ 6', west longitude 117^ Months— 1851. September, October, November, . December, . January, 1852, February, . Mean Temp. " Fahr. + 24.4 + 3.4 —14.6 —20.0 —27.2 —25.0 Months— 1853. Marcli, April, May, . June, . July . August, Majesty's in Bay of 12'. Mean Temp. " Fahr. —28.4 — 1.3 + 10.2 + 31.5 + 36.7 + 33.2 Mean Annual Temperature, 1.8^ Fahr. 2. — Meteorological Abstract kept on board Her Majesty's Shin " Resolute," wintering in Bridj^ort Inlet, Mehille Island —north latitude 74^^ 50', west longitude 108^ 48'. Months — 1852. Mean Tcniji. Months— 1853. Mean Temp. " Falir. ° Fahr. September, . +10.2 March, . -10.0 October, + 0.6 Apiil, . — 2.5 November, . . 10.2 May, . . + 2.0 December, . 26.0 June, . . +21.0 January, 1853, . —40.7 July, . . . +36.4 Febmary, . 33.2 August, . +33.1 Mean Annual Temperature, Zero. TEMPERATURE OF THE ARCTIC SEA. 39 .0 .5 Temperature of tlie Arcvic Sea. Table I. — Showing the Temperatures of the Sea at the Surface, and at various Depths, from Mr. Scoresby's Observations. B'jiow the Surface. Temperature at Surface. Temperature. No. Fathoms. ° Fahr. 31 ° Fahr. 31 33.8 13 37 3^.5 36 57 100 -Inlat. 79^ N. (( 36 400 (( 37 730 . 29.7 36.3 120 In lat. 80' N. 32 38 760 In lat. 78^ N. Table II. — Comparisons of Temperature of the Sea at Depths, and at the Surface, from Experiments made by the Expedition under Captain David Buchan, .U. N., in 1818, between lati- tudes 79^ 45' N., and 80^ 27' N. Below the Surface. Date. Temperature at Surface. Variation. 181S Temperature. No. of Fathoms. ° Fahr. ° Fahr. ° Fahr. July, 34 34.5 35 .5 33 34 60 1 32 36.7 73 4.7 31 35.6 83 4.6 32 36 94 4 31.5 36.5 103 5 30.5 36 120 5 30.5 36.5 142 6 32.5 36.5 173 4 32.5 36.5 185 4 31.5 37 237 5.5 32 36 330 4 May, 33 43 700 10 These result.s show an increase of temperature with an increase of depth, in the latter observation, making a difference of 10^ Fahrenheit. i t I PABT III. THE COLD ZONE OF AMERICA. The second climatic division of America, or tlie Cold Zone, lies mostly between the 50fcli and GOtli degrees north latitude, embracing Labrador, the central portion of British America, and most of Eussian America, where is to bo found the widest part of the American Continent, running through upwards of one hundred degrees of longitude. This immense region, wliich is sparsely populated by Indians and Europeans in the employ of the Hudson Bay Company and Russian Fur Company, has a mean annual temperature ranging from 20 to 4.2 degrees Fahrenheit — being subject, for the mos^ part, to killing frosts during every month of the year; yet still wheat and other cereals, and hardy vegetables come to perfection in the vicinity of Lake Winnipeg, the Saskatchewan country, and of the Mac- kenzie Piiver, as far north as the GOtli parallel of latitude ; the summer mouths in this section have a mean temperature of GO' Fahr(mheit, and upwards, with an abundance o'' rain, while the winter months are excessively cold and dry. On the northern limit of this cold belt, the subsoil is permanently frozen, and vegetation becomes dwarfed, or entirely disappears. Land in the greater part of this region may be said to lie almost valueless for agricultural purposes ; the forests, the mines, the fur-bearing animals, and the fisheries, affording the only rehablo means of support to the inhabitants, made w]} of Indians, half-breeds, and Europeans. These people do not as- pire to maintain a separate national organization, but content themselves by being ruled by the governors and agents of Brit- ish and Kussian chartered companies, who have here hold sway for some two hundred years. The climate, throughout the v, 05510111 portion of this country, is remarkable for its healthy and iuvigorating influence, being in a great degree free from pidmonary complaints and fevers of :1 RUSSIAN AMERICA. 41 every type. Like Northern Russia, in time, no doubt, much of this country will bo rcclaimetl, and found capable of sustaining a hardy and dense population : the lumber trade, the mines and fisheries being of themselves an inexhaustible source of wealth to the white race, while the Indian will follow his favor- ite pursuit of the chase, and furnish rich furs, which are foiiud in all cold regions. Russian America. This is an extensive and little kno^vll region, forming the northwest portion of the Continent of America, running north of latitude 54^ 40', to Behring Strait and the Arctic Ocean. Being mostly valuable for its fur-bearing animals, and having early attracted the notice of the Russian navigators, it was taken possession of by the Russian Government, as well as the Aleu- tian Islands, lying in the sea which divides Asia fi-om North America. (( r That part of the continent comprehended under the name of Russian America is generally of a very alpine and sterile ap- pearance. The celebrated mountain of St. Elias, which is prob- ably a volcanic peak, is calculated to have an elevation of l(j,8(J0 feet, while other peaks and ranges rise to 10,000 feet and up- Avards. Between the foot of the mountains and the sea extends a strip of low land, the soil of which is almost everywhere a black and marshy earth, only calculated for producing coarse though numerous mosses, short grasses, a few vaccinias, and other small plants. Some of these marshes on the side of the hills retain the water like a sponge, while their verdure makes them appear to be solid ground ; but in attempting to pass them, the traveller sinks up to the mid-leg. Nevertheless, the pine and other trees ac(|uire a large size on this gloomy soil. Next to the fir, the most common species of tree, is that of the alder ; but in many places on the rocks the vegetation is con- fined to dAvarf trees and slipbs. The proximity of mountams covered Avitli eternr.l snow, and the extent of the American Con- tinent in the latitude of 58~^, render the climate northward ex- cessively cold and inimical to vegetation." " Aliaska, or Alashka, is a long peninsula on the northwest coast of America, runnuig out in a soutlnvest direction from the continent into Behring Sea. It chiefly consists of a ridge of steep rocks, Avhich, in some parts, attain a great elevation, and has an average breadth of fifteen or twenty miles, while its length, if measured fi-om the head of Cook's Inlet, exceeds 400 ii! 1 ! I, I I 42 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. miles. Tliat division of the Aleutian chain, eallccl the Fox Islands, commences at its western extremity, a very narrow channel here dividing the volcanic Island of Unimak, which rises to an altitude of 8,083 feet, from the extremity of the pen- insula. This gi-eat uninterrupted sea-wall, as it may be termed, with its insular continuation in the Aleutian range, prevents ice brought from the Arctic Ocean, and down the large rivers which discharge themselves into the Sea of Behring, from flowing into the North Pacific Ocean ; v;hilo the accumulation of ice on the former sea absorbs a large proportion of the heat of the atmos- phei'e. Hence navigators, in passing from the Pacific into the Sea of Behring, seldom fail to remark a gTcat change of tempera- ture ; and while all the coast to the southeast of the peninsula is clad with dense forests of noble timber, on that of the northwest only a few stunted shrubs are seen. The Island of Kadiak, sheltered from the Arctic influences by the peninsula, has an abundance of timber ; while the Aleutian Islands, though seve- ral degrees further south, have not a single tree ; and the dif- ference in the animal is as striking as in the vegetable world on the two sides of the peninsula. On the one we find the walrus, on the other the humming-bu'd ; and while the ice-fox is often met with on the Aleutian Islands, it has never been encountered at Kadiak." Sitka, Russian America, is a largo island, eighty miles in length, and from ten to twenty miles in breadth, separated from the mainland by the narrow inlet of Norfolk Sound. Here is situated the principal settlement of the Russian American Com- pany, called New Archangel, in north latitude 57^ 3', Avest longi- tude 135° 18'. It was formerly called Sitka. The mean tem- perature for the year at Ncav Archangel is about 42° Fahrenheit, sjjring 40°, summer 54°, autumn 44°, and winter 32° Fahrenheit. This is about the same mean annual temperature as Quebec, about 10° south, and Bergen in Norway, 5° north. The climate of Russian America is described as very humitl, especially on the southwest coast and Sitka Island. At the latter place, Wrangell fomid, in 1828, that only sixty-six days were dry in the whole year, while for 128 days rain fell without inter- mission. Snow was frequent, but did not last long. The tem- perature, though warmer than on the eastern coast of Asia, is considerabl}' more severe than in con-esponding latitudes on the western coast of the Old World : for example, whUe the mean •t:' BRITISH AMERICA. 43 aiinuul temperature at Sitka, is 42° FaLr., at Bergen, in Nor- way, it is 47.° Tlie soU is generally sterile ; grain crops refuse to gi'ow, except in the Sitka archipelago, and the adjacent coast of the main- land, ■where a Uttlo barley, rye, and oats are raised.-* British America. This vast region, exclusive of Canada and the other provinces bordering on the Atlantic Ocean, extends from the Pacific Ocean along the parallel of the 49th degree north latitude to the Lake of the Woods, near the centre of the continent, thence to the mouth of Pigeon River, near the head of Lake Superior, in about 48^ north latitude. From thence, in a north and north- easterly direction, along the water-shed that divides the waters flowing into Hudson Bay fi-om the waters of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, to the coast of Labrador, striking the Atlantic on about the 50th j^arallel of latitude, forming an extended line of about 4,000 miles in length from ocean to ocean. The Arctic Ocean forms its northern boundary, and thus it is bounded on three sides by the gi'catest oceans of the globe, while Hudson Bay and Strait form an inland sea of gi"cat magnitude. This region includes all the country lying between the meri- dians of So-" and 141° west longitude, excepting a strip of Rus- sian America on the Pacific Ocean, between 54° 40' and G0° north latitude, where stands Mount St. Ehas. The dividing line between the Russian and British Possessions runs duo north from that point to the Arctic Ocean, terminating on about the 70th degi'eo of north latitude. From south to north it ex- tends through upwards of twenty-one degrees of latitude, or * The Russo- American Teleghapii Expedition.— 77ie Alta California, of October 20, 18G5, publishes the following; concerning Kussian America : "Col. Bulkier reports that the livcr laid down on the map as the Kwichpak, in Rus- sian America, is identical with the Youcan, and is navifrablo for small vessels as far as English Fork. A party was sent to explore the Youcan and Kwichpak in a small steamer. They will proceed to the head of navigation, and then cross with reindeer or on foot over the ice and snow, until they strike the settlements in British Columbia. Colonel Bulkley's party found the earth, on the American side, thawed to an average depth of ten inches, but frozen solid below to an un- known depth. On their arrival in September, the country on the American shore was rolling and breaking, but it is not high, and was destitute of timber. .M 44 INFLUENCE OF CIJMATE. Iflp! ! it I about 1,500 miles, and contains an estimated area of 3,000,000 square miles. Canada proper claims all the territory drained by the waters flowing into the Groat Lakes and the St. liawrcnce Eiver, north of the [Jiiitod States boundary as defined by treaty. The cliinafe of this iinnienso coiintry is, for the most pai-t, cold and forbidding, with the exception of Vancouv(n''s Island, Queen Charlotte's Island, and other islands which lie oil" the main coast of British America, between the 48th and 55th de- giTes of north latitude, having a front of about 450 miles on tlio North Pacific Ocean. These islands possess a genial and healthy climate, good soil, and aro said to be rich in mineral productions. The shores along tlio mainland, and inland to the Eocky Mountain range, embracing New Caledonia, are alike favored as regards climate and the productions of the earth ; here 1 oing recently discovered largo and valuable gokl Jields, which aro attracting gi'eat attention, and filhng the country with a hardy and industrious class of inhabitants. This portion of Brit- ish America, as well as Washington Tcn'itory, north of the Columbia Biver, affords pure water, pure air, and a fruitful soil, vdih. rich mineral productions, possessing all the require- ments in order to sustain civilized hfe in ease and comfort. The Saskatchewan region, embracing the Assinniboine and Red Biver valleys, and the shores of Lake Winnipeg, together wiili the Lake of the Woods and Bainy Lake, is all alike a fine region of country, producing grasses, cereals, and vegetable ])roductions in great abundance and of excellent quality. All the above enumerated regions, being about one-fourth of British America, is capable of sustaining a dense and hardy population. The chmate and soil being in every respect equal to a great part of Russia in Europe, where largo cities are found. The country drained by the head branches of Mackenzie River, running north into the Arctic Ocean, including Atha- basca Lake, as well as the extensive country around the south shore of Hudson Bay and James' Bay, together with Labrador, extending from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean, i.nd lying between the 52d and GOth degrees of north latitude. HUDSON BAY. 45 II of jrdy are izie ha- lutli llor, iin, ide, is mostly unfit for settlement or habitation, except by a hardy race of trappers and Indians, who are now found in the employ of the Hudson Hay Comiiany. This extensive region, south of the Esquimaux country, seems peculiarly adapted to a race of men essentially tliffen>nt from those who inhabit the temperate climate of America — thus marking the second grand division of people, whoso habits seem distinct from those of more southern climes. The chase of winter for game, for food, and furs for clothing and sale, is succeeded by fishing, and a short season for raising a few hardy vegetables during the months of June, July and August. The winters here averagiug eight or nine months, while frosts occur every month diu'ing the year. Hudson Bay, an extensive inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, foi-ni- ing a Mediterranean Sea on the east side of the North American Continent, lying between the parallels of 51° and OG^ north latitude, and measuring uinvards of 1,000 miles fi'om north to south ; while its breadth varies from 150 to 500 miles. It is navigable during Juno, July, August and yei:)tcmber, but is filled all the rest of the year with shoals of ice. The main en- trance of the bay from the Atlantic, known as Hudson's Strait, is 350 miles in length, with a breadth varying from 75 to 150 miles. This is a cold, inhosi)itablc region. " At York Factory, situated on the soiithwest shore, the land seems to have been thrown up by the sea, and is never thawed during the hottest summer, \vith the thermometer at 90 -' in the shade, more than ten or twelve inches, and then the soil is of the consistency of clammy mud." At Fort Franklin, on north latitude 05^ 12', west longitude llJ'2 ^ 13', the mean annual temperature is 17.50-" Fahr.; the maximum of heat 80^, the minimum — 58 '. " To account in some degree for this extreme cold, it may bo observed, that very little of the coast of this country is bounded by the ocean ; the chief parts of the sea upon which it borders are Davis' Strait, Hudson's Strait and Bay, and James' Bay. Now, these bodies of water, though of considerable magnitude, are not sufficiently largo to check the iutiuence of the wind proceeding from the frozen region in the northwest ; tlio consequence is, that they are almost entirely covered with ice during six mouths of the year, and thus, instead of mitigating the cold, they add con- siderably to its force. It has further been observed, that much of the inland is elevated and diy, unaccpiaintod with fogs, and accordingly healthy ; while the coasts are low, marshy, exposed to frequent and dense fogs and moist weather, and consequently II ii, 46 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. highly noxious to the human frame. The former is abundantly fertile in spontaneous productions, and, by being cultivated in favorable jilaccs, becomes a very agreeable coimtry ; tlio latter is dreary and unproductive, and scarce afibrds cither food or shelter to those wild beasts by which it is frequented. In the northern parts, the land is barren and comfortless; in tho southern parts, it is more fertile, and offers sufficient encourage- ment to him who Avould bestow the proper cultivation. On the coasts, tho country chiefly produces pnies, birch, larches and willows, but tho trees arc stunted and knotty. In the south Ulterior tlie same kinds of trees are more abundant, and of great size." Monthly and Yearly Mean Temperature of Posts on the Shores of Hudson Bay. Stations. York Factory. Fort Cluircliill. Fort Hope, 57° N. 51)'^ N. oa.ao" N. ° Fahr. ° Fuhr. ° Fahr. January, 5.12 21.21 —29.32 February, — O.GO 7.31 26.68 March, . —4.77 4.63 28.10 April, 19.21 16.29 3.95 May, 33.53 28.42 17.88 June, 47.06 44.69 31.38 July, 60.00 56.80 41.46 August, . 54.85 53.39 46.32 September, 41.90 36.03 28.57 October, . 33.43 26.50 12.56 November, 25.17 3.31 0.68 December, 3.73 14.00 19.27 Yearly mean, . 25.63 18.20 6.14 York Factory, situated on Hudson Bay, in north latitude 57^, is the principal depot of the northern department of the Hudson Bay Company, from whence aU the supplies for the trade are issued, and where all the returns of the department are collected and shipped for England. " As tho winter is very long, nearly eight months, and the sum- mer consequently very short, all the ^^ansport of goods to, and returns from, tho interior must necesso' ily he effected as quickly as possible. The consequence is, tha gi'cat numbers of men and boats are constantly arriving from inland, and departing YORK FACTORY. 47 the the juent 3um- aud k-kly hnen Ltiug again during tho summer ; and, as each brigade is commanded by a chief factor trader, or ch'rk, there is a constant succession of new faces, which, after a long and dreary winter, during which tho inhabitants never see any stranger, renders the summer months at York Factory tlio most ugrei^ablo part of the year. The arrival of tho shij) from England, too, delights tliom with letters from /tonic, which are only received twice a year. '* The Fort (as all establishments in tho Indian country, whether small or great, are called) is a large srjuare, I should think about six or seven acres, enclosed with high stockades, and built on tho banks of Hayes lliver, nearly live miles from its mouth. Tho country is nat and swampy, and the only objects that rise very prominently above the rest, and catch tho wandering eye, are the lofty " outlook" of wood, painted blajk, from wliich to look out for the arrival of the shij), and a flagstaff, from which on Sundays tho snowy folds of St. George's flag flutter in the breeze. " The trade carried on by the company is in peltries of all sorts, oil, dried and salted fish, feathers, quills, ttc. ; and a list of some of their principal articles of commerce is subjoined : — Bear-skins, black, brown, and white or polar; beaver-skins; badger-skins; moose or elk-sldns, buffalo or bison robes; deer-skins ; parchment ; fox-skins, black, red, silver, cross, white, and blue ; marten-skins, lynx-skins, musquash-skins, otter-skins, wolf-skins, seal-skins, &c., etc. " The most valuable of tho furs mentioned in the above list is that of the black fox. This beautiful animal resembles in shape the common fox of Enghmd, but it is much larger, and j( it-black, Avith the exception of one or tv/o white hairs along the back- bone, and a pure white tuft on the end of the tail. A single skin sometimes brings from twenty-live to thirty guineas in tho British market ; but, unfortunately, they are very scarce. At present the most profitable fur in the country is that of the marten ; it somewhat resembles the Russian sable, and gene- rally maintains a steady price. These animals, moreover, aro very numerous throughout most part of the Company's terri- tories, particularly on Mackenzie River, from Avhence great num- bers are annually sent to England. Most of the above animals are caught in steel and wooden traps by the natives, while deer, buffaloes, &c., are run doAvn, shot, and snared in various "ways." York Factory to Nor^way House. [ICxtract from " Balliiutync'B UiuUon Hay Territory," Londun, 1>43.] June 23, 1845, leave York Factory.— " The banks of Hayes' River were covered with huge blocks of ice, and scarcely a leaf had as yet made its appearance ; not a bird was to be seen, I h HI ' i 48 INFI.UENCE OP CLIMATE. except i\ fow crows and whiskey- jacks, wliich chattered among the trees ; and nature ujipoared as if undecided wliother or not she should take another nap, ore slic bedecked herself in the fj;armcnt8 of sprinj^. My Indians paddknl slowly against tlie stream, while I ■n, the day, Avhich had hitherto been agreeable, ovf became oppressively sultry ; not a breath of wind ruffled ^e water ; and as the sun shone down with mtense heat fi-om a rfectly cloudless f-ky, it became almost insufferable. Ju7' '" — " The weather Avas still Avarm, but a little more bear- able, oAvmg to a light, grateful breeze that came doAvn the river. After bi'eakfast, Avhicli we took at the usual hour, and in the usual Avay, Avhile proceeding slowly up the current, avo descritnl, on rounding a point, a brigade of boats close to the bank, on the opposite side of the river ; so Ave embarked our man, who Avas tracking us up with a lino (the current being too rapid for the contmucd use of the paddle), and crossed over to see Avho they were. On landing, avo found it Avas the NorAvay House brigade, in charge of a lied Eiver settler Shortly after Ave arriA'od at the mouth of HiU Ivivcr, AA'hich avo began to ascend. The face of the couutiy Avas noAv greatly changed, and it Avas evident that here spring had long ago dethroned Avinter. The banks of the river Avere covered from top to bottom Avith the most luxuriant foilage, AvLile the dark clumps of spruce-fir varied and improved the landscape. Jime 20. — " On the following morning, we started at an early hour. The day Avas delightfully cool, and mosquitoes AA-ere scarce, so that avc felt considerably comfortable as avo ghded quietly up the current. Juli/ 5. — " Arrived at Norway House, situated in north lati- tude 54", west longitude 1)8°, being about 300 miles southwest of York Factory. " NORWAY HOUSE— FORT iVLEXANDER. 40 Norway House. — This fort, situated about twenty luilea below Lake Winnipeg, in north latitude 54*^', is built at the mouth of a small and sluggish stream, known l)y the name of Jaek Eivor, emptying into Playgreeu Lake. The houses are ranged in the form of a square, none of them exceed one story in height, and most of tliem are wliitewashed. This is one of the oldest and most important estabhshments belonging to the Hudson Bay Company. The ''hmate is dry and salubrious, and although (Uke nearly all other parts of the country) extremely cold in ■winter, it is very diffcrc-nt from the damp, (^hilling cold of that season iu Great Britain. The country around is swampy and rocky, and covered with dense forests. Many of tlu! Company's j)osts ovi) but ill provided with the necessaries of life, and most of them entirely destitute of luxuries. Norway House, how- ever, is favored in this respect. We always had fresh meat of some kind or other ; sometimes, beef, mutton, or venison, par- tridge, wild ducks in their season, and occasionally buffalo meat, was sent us from Swan Iliver District ; and, besides the pro- duce of our garden in the way of vegetables, the river and lake contributed white-fish, sturgeon, and pike, or jack-fash in abun • dance. Tliis is also an aggi'ceable and interesting place, from its being in a manner the gate to the only route to Hudson Bay, Often might be seen a strange and noisy collection of humin l)eings, half-breeds, and Indians, who rested here aAvhilo ere they started for the shores of Hudson Bay, for the distant re- gion of Mackenzie's Bivev, or the still more distant lands bor- dering on the Pacific Ocean. The mean annual temperature of Norway House is 30^ Fahr. ; spring 28^, summer 60"*, autumn 30", winter 2° below zero. FoRTALEXiVNDER, situated near Lake Winnipeg, 50^ north lati- tude, says the Kev. J. Ryerson, " belongs to the Lac Iia Pluie District, and, in my judgment, is not surpassed, if eqUidled, in beauty and pleasantness, by any station belonging to the Hud- son Bay Company, between 8t. Marie and lied Eivcr. It is situated on an elbow of land made by a bend in the River Win- nipeg, three miles from the river's mouth. The scenery for many miles around is strikingly beautiful. The climate for Hudson Bay Territory is remarkably tine and salubrious, the land amazingly rich and productive. The water in the lakes Lac La Pluie, Lac Du Bois, Winnipeg, itc, is not deep, and becauoe of their wide surface and great shallowness, during the r, 50 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. summer season, thoy becomt; exceedingly warm ; this bas a wonderful eiFeot on the temperature of tlio atmosphere in the adjacent neighborhood, and no dou])t makes the great differ- ence in the climate (or at leaso is one of the principal caiises of it) in these parts, to the climate in the neighborhood of Lake Superior." He further says : "In many parts of this immense country ihcYo is a great deal of excellent land, very suitable for agricul- tural purposes ; this is especially the case in many localities south of hit. 55^, where almost evciry kind of summer grain and useful vegetables can be groAvn with the greatest facility, and i'l great abundance. There is not to be found in British America hner, richer, and a more productive soil, than there is in the Selkirk Settlement, on the Assinniboino and lied Rivers ; and in the ]:)ounds of llupert's Land there are millions of acres equally rich and fertile, and esjiecially suited, from climate and locality, for farming and agricultural purposes." Climate of a Portion of British America, or Rupert's Land. [Extract from I'rofcssor Hind's "licport on Ihv. AsKinilioine and Sat.,> itcliewan Country." OlTicial I)oc\inu;nt, l!?5'.).] " The climates of Canada and Eupert's Land (or Hudson Bay Companj^'s Territory), under the same parallels of latitude, vary to a considerable extent with the rock formation of the country. Throughout the undulating region of the Laurentides, the pro- portion of water to dry land is about one to two, not collected into one large water area, but distributed over the surface of tlie rountry in the form of counthiss thousands of lakes, ponds, iin 1 :uarshes. The intense cold of winter is sufficient to solidify the deepest lakes for a depth of several feet, and the thawing of so much ice in spring has the effect of aT)sorbing and render- ing latent tLo heat wliich would be otherwise expended iu warming the soil and advancing vegetation. " Lakes Winnipeg,* Manitobali, and Winnipego-sis, together wdth the smaller lakes belonging to the Winuijieg l)asin, are deieply frozen every winter, and ice often remains in their north- em extremities imtil the beginning of June, greatly retarding the progress of navigation on their immediate shores. Hence one reason that north of the 48th parallel the mildness of the seasons increases rapidly as we advance toward the west, after leaving lied lliver. Tiio improvement arises not only from gj'enter longitude, but also from the character of the rock for- * Luke WinniiK'gf, lyin;^ botwoiMi the .Wtli iiiul 54tU dcgrt'cs of north lutitudo, is iiboiit 118 lo)i;j^ iiH Liikd Kric, tuid rccL'i.vostlio waters of lied River, AHsinibuiue, Sabkatclic Willi, iiiid tlu3 Wiuiiipcf!; : the latter streura being tho outlet of tlio Luke of tlio Woods, lying on the 41ith iiarallel. CIJMATE OF BRITISH AMERICA. 51 mations, by ■wliicli the coimhy is underlaid and surrounded. The soil of the prairi{!S is in general dry, and is rapidly warmed by the rays of the sun in spring. The prairies enjoy, too, north of the 48th parallel, the genial, -warm and comparatively humid •winds from the Pacitic, which arc felt as far north as the latitude of Fort Simpson.'^ " The country embraced within the limits of this exploration may be divided into two regions in relation to climate ; the ariil and the hmiiid region. The vast treeh^ss prairie Avcst of the Little Souris (101'^ west ^ongitude) lies within tliat part of tiie area which receives comrarativel}' a small annual ram-fall. Its northern limit is roughly shown by the Qu'Appelle Valley, or more accurately by an imaginary lin(> draAvn from Fishing Lakes to the Moose Woods, (52^ north latitud<^). North and east of this area, the preci])itation is consideral)ly greater, and supplies tlie vall(>y of the main Saslvatchewan, the Touchwood Hill range, and the valley of the Assiniboine with an abundance of moist- ure, which is protected and treasixred 1)y forests." The valley of the Red River, east of the Little Souris, re- ceives much humidity from the moist winds coming from the Gulf of Mexico up the valley of the Mississippi, and over the JieigJd of hnvl whicili separates the waters of Red River from those of the St. Peter (ilowing southward into the Mississippi). The Touchwood Hill range, and the coumry generally north of the Qu'Appelle Valley, and in an eiustei'ly direction towards and beyond Lake Winnipeg, ar(^ made humid by the southwest Pacific Avind, in concurrence with the prevaiHng cast wind of this region. These pluniomeua are referred to in detail in suc- ceeding paragraphs. Lakes in tlie Great Basin of Lalce Winnipeg. Name. Lake Winnipeg, ' . Lake Manitobah, Lak(5 Winnipego-sis, St. Martin Lake, Cedar Lake, Dau])hin Lake, Total, * Colonel Lc'froy- Simpeon." Area. Above the Rea Squari! Milps. Feet. 8,.500 050 1,000 070 1,930 092 316 600 312 088 170 700 . 13,134 ' Meteorological Observations at Lake Athabasca and Fort ^"^r ^li i I fl ! 62 INFLUENCE OF CLIirATi:. Observations on the Temperature of the Air in DifTerent Parts of British North America. FoKT Fkakklin, in lat. (>5' 12'N. Fort CuKrEWYAS, in lat. 58° 43' N. ^lonths. Dt ;„'. Fahr. Months. Dog . Fulir. Januan% . -23.78 January, . 9.5G February, -12.70 February, — 4.2(; March, . - 8.26 March, . 0.55 April, 15.21 Api-il, 25.86 May, 8(5.35 May, 46.50 June, 48.00 Juno, 55.70 July, 52.10 July, 63.42 Aujj; ist, . 51.0!) Auj,Tist, . 58.10 ►September, 42.92 September, 43.53 October, , 20.28 October, . 32.00 November, 2.D7 November, 26.70 December, cau, ia.S)G December, Annual Moan, —2.82 Amiual M 17.50 , 31.50 Lake WrNTTiPEO, lying between 501° and 54° degrees north latitude, is larger than either Lake Erie or Ontario, though the water is very shallow ; it is 300 miles long and about 50 miles wide, being 650 feet above the level of the sea (or 50 feet higher than Lake- Superior). Tliere appears to be but little land that would admit of cultivation, though I was told there were local- ities in tho neighborhood of the lake whore are found largo tracts of land of the most excellent quality. Along tho eastern shore tho granite and trap rocks are everywhere exposed, tho latter being the mo, t extensive, and noAvhcre do these masses rise to tho altitude of hills. Ltiko Winni2^cg is very niuch rib- Ject to winds and storms, which many times rise so suddenly' as to give tho mariner no warning of their approach, until, like a giant in his strength, they are upon him. Imagination cannot paint, much less language describe, the subhmity and grandeur of a thunder-storm, as seen in the forest on the shore of the lake, Avhen the wild "Vfaves are 'aging ; tho lurid glare of tlio vivid lightning seems brighter, and tho claps and roarings of the thunder seem louder and deeper than anywhere else. Norway House, an important Hudson Bay Compa^-y's post, situated in north latitude 54°, is represented as possessing a fine healthy climate, where gi-ains, vegetables, and flowers are raised in great abundance. SEASONS OF THE VALLEY OF LAKE WINOTFEG. 53 Seasons of the Valley of Laka "Winnipeg. The natural division of the seasons in the Lake Winnipeg Valley are as follows : Spnn(;. — April and May. Summer. — June, July, and August. Autumn. — Septeml)er and October. JVinier. — November, Deccniljer, January, February, and Marcli. Tlie natural division of the seasons is strikingly represented by the early and rajiid advance of temperature in May in the valley and prairies of the Saskatchewan ; and it is also indicated in a very marked dogi-ee by the extension northwards to the same valley, between the 95th and 105th degrees of longitude, of numerous ])lantK, whose gtiographical dis-tfibution, east and west of those limits, has a much more southern climatic boun- dary. The limits of trees rise with the isothermal lines, and these attain a much higher elevation in the interior of British America than on the Atlantic coast. In relation to agricidture, the intensity of winter cold is of comparatively little moment. The elevated spring and summer temperature, combined with the humidity of the hundd region in the valley of Lake Winnipeg, enal)lo Indiisn coixi and the melon to ripen Avitli certahity, if ordinary care is taken in select- ing soil and in planting seecl. SUMMER TEMrERAlTJEES. Kingston, C. W. Toronto, " G7^ Fahr. Fort Gary, Eed Eiver, 07'^ Fahr Isorwav House, Lake Winnipeg, . . GO'^ " , " In tlie absence of instrumental observations, the progi-ess of vegetation afibrds the In^st ijidications of climate, ajiart from latitude and elevation above the sea. The prv od of flowering and fruiting is about three weeks earlier in latitude SI"*, than betAVcen the 53d and 51th parallels wt^st of the 100th degree of longitude. The i)rairi<>s of the Assiniboine, of the Qu'Appelle, and of the South Branch of the Elbow, are decorated with bril- liant spring flowers, and covered with luxiirinnt herbage, at a time when the ice still liugers at the head of Lake Winnipeg, or chills the air and arrests vegetation in Oedar and Cross Lakes on the Main Siiskatchewan. At Touchwood Hills, in north latitude 51 ' DO', horses and cattle are allowed to remain in the 0}K',u air all winter, finding sufficient pasture under the snow to keep them in good condition. " The growtb of forests is very intimately connected with the climate of a large extent of country. That forests once covered 54 INFLUENCE or CLIMATE. I ilii I |l!: a vast area in Rupert's Land tliero is no reason to donbt. Not only do the traditions of the natives refer to former forests, but the remains of mai._; still exist as detached groves in secluded valleys, or on the crests of hills, or in the form of blackened prostrated trunks covered with rich grass, and sometimes with vegetable mould (n- drifted sand. The agent ■wliich has caused the desti-uction of the forests, Avhich once covered many parts of the prairies, is undoubtedly fire ; and the same swift and eflfectual destroyer prevents the new growth from acquiring dimensions which wcnild (^nablo it to check their annual pro- gi'ess." Prevailing Winds in the North-west Territory. [From Hiiid'H " IJeport on Ilii- Assiiiilioiiio and Saskatchewnn."] " All the tlmnder-storms we cncountereil in 1858, in the valley of Lak(^ Winnipeg, came from the west, soutliAvest, or northwest, with one excei)tiou. I do not find a single record of tlmnder-storms with heavy rain commg from the south. This may have been an exceptional year, but the warmth and dr}-- ness, often oiiprcssive, of the south Avind, west of the 100th de- gree of longitude, contrasted strongly with the humidity and coldness of Avinds from the west. This i)henomena is directly opposed to those which ]n'ovailin lower latitudes, and may prob- ably be explained as follows : " Warm air from the Pacific, loaded with moisture, parses at certain periods of the year over the whole range of the llocky Mountains, in British America and in the XJnitod States. These Pacific winds occasion biit a very small precipitation of rain or snow on the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, south of the gi'eat Missouri Bend. Similar winds from the Pacific do occasion a considerable pronpitation in the northern part of the Saskatchewan valley. Wl. ence, then, this apparent anomaly '? It probably arises from the difference in the temperature of the two regions, the direction of the prevailing A\-inds, and lowness and comparatively small breadth of the Rocky Mountain ranges in that latitude. In spring and summer, warm Avesterly winds, ladened with moisture, in j)assing over the mountain range south of, say the 'KUh paraliel, are cooled to a certain tempera- ture, and ]n'ecipitato the greater portion of their iuoisture, in the form of rain or snow, upon t iuountam ridges. On arriv- ing at the eastern tiank of the llocky Mountains, their tciupera- turo rises to tliat of the region over which they pass, ])eing elevated by the dep(jsition of their moisture in the form of rain or snow, and continually increasing density as th<\y descend ; but the capacity of air for moisture is well known to bo depend- i« km PASSES OVER THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 55 ent upon its temperature, within certain limits, hence the west- erly Pacific -winds become more warm and more dry as they descend the eastern Eocky Mountain slope, until they meet the moist winds from the Gulf of Mexico ])assiuf< up the valley of the Mississippi, towards and thrw Mexico, . . 7,472 38th and 8!)th parallels I Coochecopa Pass), . . .10,000 41st and 42d " (South Pass), .... 7,085 47th and 49th " (Cadotte's Pass), . . . G,044 Kv anie Pass, latitude 49' 30', British America, . . (5,000 K.ananaskis Pass, near 50th parallel, .... 5,985 Vermillion Pass, latitude 51^ 10', 4,944 • See " Meteorology ia its Connectioa with Agriculture/' by Prof. Henry. 56 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Mean Temperatures. Monthly and Yearly Moan Tomporaturo of Cumhcrlnnd ITouxe, fiituated on tlin North Siioro of the Saskatchewan Hiver, in nortli latitude 53" 57' ; altitude 900 feet above the ocean. Months. " Fahr. Months. • Fahr. Jannarv, . —1. July, 05.00 February, 8. August, . 62.84 March, . 18.30 September, 44.50 April, 27.00 October, . 33.15 May,* . 52.00 November, 21.48 June, 60.00 December 7.94 Yearly Mean , 33.20° Fahr. FOUR SEASONS. Spring, . ^ ^ 32.70^ Autumn, 33.04'^ Summer, 1 • 62.G2^ Winter, . . —0.17° Climate of the Valley of the Red River of the North. " The climate of the valley of Eed Riv(>r exhibits the extremes of many characteristics Avliich belong to the interior of conti- nents in corresponding latitudes. High suumier temperatiires, with Avinter cold of extraordinary sevfity, apjiear to prevail in the district called the Assiniboinc, as in the interior of north- eastern Eurojie and Asia. It cannot fail to be noticed, however, that the general absence of late spi-ing and early autumn frosts, with an abundant fall of rain during the agricultural months, are its distinguishing features in relation to husbandry. The melon growing in the open air and arriving at perfect maturity in August and September ; Indian corn succeeding invariably when due precautions are used to ensiu'e the ripening before the middle of September, are strong proofs of the almost uni- form absence of summer frosts. " A comparison Avith the climate of Toronto, Canada West, for corresponding months of the years 1855 and 1850, reveals some very curious and interesting facts, which may possess impor- tance. Limiting our attention at present to the summer months, we find fron? ins])ecti(m of the following table of comparison, that the summer on Kcd Kiver dujiug the above years was more than three degrees warmer than the summer at Toronto, and Avith tiiis excess of temperature there occun^ed the unexi)ected dif- ference of 21.74 inches of rain in favor of Bed River during that year. '^ The mean temperatures of May, June, July, and August are about the sarao as Toronto. TEMrERATURE, RAIN, ETC. 57 " It must be boiiie in mintl, however, that the results of ono year's comparison are not (if much mine in estimating the rela- tive climatic adaptation of regionti far apart ; nor do tliey alibrd sufficient data for a fair estimate of the climate of the locaHty where the observations "were made." — Hind'.s liiporL The following comparisons refer to corresponding months of the same years, and are of course liable to those annual fluctua- tions to which the climatic elements of all countries arc sub- jected. It is vei'y probable that more extended observations Avill reduce the extremes. Temperature, Rain, &c. Comparison of tin; Metcorolon-y of Ilccl River Settlement with Toronto, Canada West, witli reference to Temperatiire, Oeptli of linin and t^now, from corre- sponding Observations in tlie Years iVHii and IS.'iG. Months. Mean Temp. Rain in Indies. Snow in Inches. lied Uivor. Toronto. Red Kiver. 0.0 6.5 4.0 Toronto. 0.0 2.8 4.5 Red River. Toronto. March, . April, . May, . o Fahr. D.O'J 39.83 58.4(5 Fahr. 23.00 42.27 50.52 6.5 3.0 2.0 16.2 0.1 0.0 Spring, . 35.79: 38.62 10.5 6.0 12.0 12.5 7.3 4.0 3.2 1.5 11.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.3 June, . July, . August, 69.10 71.1() 63.03 59.93 67.95 64.06 0.0 0.0 0.0 Summer, . 67.76 64.00 59.49 45.39 38.58 30.5 8.7 0.0 0.0 September, October, November, 59.26 42.20 21.19 5.0 0.0 2.5 5.0 2.4 4.6 0.0 2.0 7.0 0.0 0.8 3.0 Autumn, 40.88| 47.82 7.5 12.0 1.8 0.0 0.0 9.0 3.8 December, Januar}^ February, — 8.31 —10.00 1.71 27.00 16.02 15.69 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.0 5.0 6.0 29.5 13.0 9.7 "Winter, 6,85 35.00 19.57 0.0 48.5 1.8 30.6 190 52.8 Annual Teaap., 44.00 39.5 72.9 I 58 INTLUENCE OF CLIMATE. \ .1 ' ■ ■'I I 1 '1 /I ■ ,1 ' ■: ■fi 1 1; ^ I i Tlio summer tomj^eraturo of Eccl River, and the abseuco of frosts duriup; that seasou, dotermiiic the tituoss for agricultural purposes. The following table exhibits a comparison, based upon one year's ohscn'(ilii»i.s onhj, between the summer tempera- ture of the settlement and other well kiioAva places in v^'anada : — Sum. Tomp. Eed River Settlement, .... 67.70'' Montreal, Canada East, .... (]().62'-' Quebec, " ," .... 62.91^ Toronto, Canada West, .... Oi.OO^ Mr. BallantAnie, in his veiy interesting work on the " Hudson Bay Territory," after a residence there of six years, remarks ; — " The climate of Red River (between north latitude 49 ■ and 50^) is salubrioiTS and agreeable. Winter commences about the month of November, and spring generally begins in April. Al- though the winter is very long and extremely cold, yet, from its bemg always drji fi-ost, it is much more agiveable than people accustomed to the damp thawy weather of Great Britain might suppose. Winter is here the liveliest season of the year, atibrd- ing the most enjoyment. " During the summer months, tliert^ arc; often very severe thunder-storms, frecpiently accompanied with tremendous show- ers of hail, Avhich do great mischii^f to the crops and houses. Generallj' speaking, however, the weather is serene and calm, particularly in autumn, and during the delicious season peculiar to America, called the Indian Summer, which precedes the com- mencement of winter." From the above authentic account, it seems that the year is about eqiiaUy divided, giving six months for the production of all kinds of vegetation, and six months of frost and winter, not dift'ering materially from the climate found in difierent parts of the State of New York, above the " Highlands," or in the New England States. The Lake of the Woods, Avhich empties its surplus water into Lake Winuii)cg, sixty-eight miles in length, and from fifteen to twenty-five miles wide, is a splendid sheet of water, dotted all over with hundreds of l)eautiful islands, many of which are covered with a heavy and luxuriant foliage. Warm and fi'o- quent showers occur here in May and Juno, bringing forth vegetation at a rapid rate, although situated on the 49th paral- lel, from whence extends westward to the Pacific Ocean the boundary line between the United States and Canada. RAINY LAKE. 69 IS lof >f to llll 11- "Not a, trace of civilization is anywlioro obsorvablo, but the Imliaus aro niiincrous ; and, incl(^c(l, this lako sceins to be their favorite resort in snnnner ; the Avihl rice on its borders, and the fish whicli abound in its -svatei's, atl'ord them an easy means of subsistence, not to mention the maize wliich they {^aow on the islands. They aro a line looking race, and if removed fi'om the humanizing influences of civihzation, they aro also strangers to the vices -which it brings. The men aro generally tall aud well formed, and some of the women remarkably comely, but they are not very cleanly in their habits, and there can be nothing more suggestive of indolence than their mode of life, which, however, has one feature to reconnuend it, in the entire exemption from care with whicli it seems to bo attended. Gliding in tlicir light canoes from island to island, basking in the sunshine on somo pebbly strand, and merely exerting themselves to an extent suf- ficient to supply their immediate wants, the future affects them not, and they appear to be supremely happy ; but the winter l)rings its troubles, and they have to betake themselves to the forests in single famiUes, where, having only game to depend upon, they are sometimes satUy straitened." — I)aicw)i's licport. IIainy Lake, or Lac la Pluie, forming also, in part, the l)Oundary between the al)ove countries, lying to the eastward, is another most beautiful sheet of water ; it is forty-eight miles long, and averages about ten miles in breadth. It receives the waters flowing westward from the dividing ridge separating the watev^ flowing into Lako Supeiior from those flowing northwest into Lako Winnipeg and Hudson Bay. "There is nothing, I think," says BaUantyne, "better calcu- lated to aAvaken tlie more solemn feelings of our nature than the noble lakes, studded with innumerable islets, suddenly bursting on the traveller's view as he emerges from the sombre forest rivers of the American wilderness. The pure aud clear unruflled water, stretching out on the horizon — here mtorsecting the heavy and luxuriant foliage of an hiindred woody isles, or reflecting tlie wood-dad moimtains on its margin, cloth')d in all t]H) variegated hues of autunni ; and there glittering with all the dazzling brilliancy in the bright rays of the evening sun, or rippling among the reeds and rushes of some shallow bay, where thousands of wild-fowl chatter as they feed Avith varied cry, rendering more apparent, rather than disturbing, the solenui stillness of the scene ; aU tend to raise the soul from nature up to nature's God, and remind one of the beautiful passage of Scripture, ' O Lord, Iioav marvellous are thy Avorks : in Avisdom hast thou made them all : the earth is full of thy riches.' " no INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE, i 1 I Climate of Labrador. Labrador is a triangiilur peninsula, boimclGd on the east Ly Da\'is' Strait, on the south bj C^anada East and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and on tlio west by Hudson Bay ; but it is as exces- sively cold and barren as tlio countries to the west of the bay, and is, besides, almost constantly enveloiicd in fo^^s. The cli- mate is very rigorous, and the winter lasts nine months of the year. It is too severe to ripen any of the cereals ; but potatoes and several species of culinary vegetables are said to thrive and come to maturity. The climate, however, of the interior is somewhat milder than that of the coasts. The surface is mostly a mass of rocks and mountains, interspersed with innumerable lakes and rivei-s, which aboiind iii fish. It swarms with beavers and other fiir-bearing aiiimals ; reindeer, foxes, and bears also abound. The eider-duck and other buxls in counticss swarms frequent the eastern coast ; also seals of different species. The northern and northeastern portions are inhabited by Esqui- maux, among whom the Moravian brethren have estabhshed four settlements — at Nain, at Okak, Hoffenthal or Hopedale, and Hebron ; and besides preaching the gospel, have taught the natives many of the useful arts of life. The moan temperature of Okak, situated in north latitude 57"^ 30', beiuj about the same as Sitka, N. A., is as follows : — Spring, 25^ ; Summer, 50"^ ; Autumn, 33^ ; Winter, 4' : Yearly mean, 28° Fahr. Perhaps there is no region on this continent of which the gen- eral idea is more cloudy and indistinct than tha[. of Labrador. American fishermen now more frequently extend iheir piscato- rial visits to its coasts than formerly, and, so far as we under- stand, with good average success. Some interesting facts going to shed a little light on the general darkness, with respect to the natural history and meteorology of Labrador, are presented in the folloA^'ing extract fi-om a letter written by one of a party en- gaged in cod fishing along the shore of that bleak and chiUing land. He says : — " From a thermometrical register kept at Rigolette, we find the lowerst temperature of last winter to be but — 37"', which is no colder weather than is found in New England ; but that sea- son was unusually warm. The average summer day temperature LABRADOn. 61 [ler- ling Iml is 3a- according to our ovnx observations, is about 54° Fahr. 'n ono in- stance till) thormomctcr indicatctl as high as 80^ in the shade, and in another 74 '. The lowi^st winter day temperature was — 'jlj-', ard the nun'cury several times sank to — 4(3^. It is not inten- sity of cold, but the raw chilly atmosphere, impregnated with fogs and the moisture of melting snow, that renders necossar}' much thiidcor clothing than wo wear at homo in mid-winter. Although the climate is considered very health v by the settlers, yet I could hardly recommend it to invalids, 'to those aftiicted with weak or diseased lungs it is extremely injmious. Of this wo had al)undant endence in three cases among our i)assen- gers, all of which have been aggi'avatcd by the exjjosure. Tho winters hero are very long, and may bo said to extend from tho middle of September to tho 1st of June. Tho cold is quite uni- form, and the snow lies about four feet dec^p on a level. All that portion of the ocean embayed by tho chain of islands that extends along the coast is frozen solid until May, and tho ice- field sometimes extends beyond several miles to seaward. This is then the resort of tho Arctic foxes and tho white or polar bear. Tho 'water bear,' he is called hero. They are often found upon tho islands after tho breaking up of tho ice, where they have been left uncxpcc^ d ; -. They are quite numerous. Of foxes, largo numbers ar*) caught in traps. These live alto- gether ui)on tho coast, and do not fraternize with tho other species of lox in the interior. Snow may be said to disappear by the end of May, but it is found in gulloys and hollows all through the summer. " Labrador water we cannot recommend. It is but tho drain- ing of mcdting snow and frozen earth, which, percolating through tho moss, becomes a rank decoction, filled with vegetable mat- ter, and of the color of whiskey. Natural springs are rare, but wo have frequentlv found ponds and lakes upon tho summits of rocky knolls, which appear to be fathomless, and whoso water was pui*e and deUciously cold. As I havo remarked, there aro no roads in this coimtry, and tho only thoroughfares of travel in summer are the water courses which flow from the interior. I have referred at length to the Nor' west lliver and its immense outlet. Tho St. I'rancis or Alexis Eiver is the only one of con- siderable size between that and tho Straits of Belle Isle. It is a noble stream, but neither that nor the other is indicated on any maps yet made, " Labratlor furnishes littlo sport to the angler. Salmon aro taken in immense quantiti*||iu nets, but will not meddle with tho hook ; neither will sea trout nor salmon trout. Brook trout afibrd the only sport. The winter hunting is good. Tho only deer fovmd here is the caribou and reindeer. These aro by i '< ill' iu 62 INFIJJENCE OF CLIMATE. some f onsiidorcd a^^* ono and the same, but the settlers make thorn quite diKtinot. The ono is mrtttlod ■with reddish spots ; the other is of a mouse color in suunner, and nearly white in winter. From all I can learn, the two animals are identical, and the diflbronco in appearance is occasioned 1)}' the change of coat. The reindeer is not domesticated here, nor made to draw sledges, as in Lapland. Their time of fawning is two months later than in the States, and they are in the velvet until near the end of August. Trapping the fur-bearing aninmls affords a considerable profit, and quite frequently the hunter is rewarded b^ a black or silver fox, Avhose market prices are from forty to sixty dollars. " Wo cannot but remark how carefully the animals of this icy country are protected by nature from their enemies. When man goes forth, upon the snow to hunt, where upon the spotless mantle the smallest dark object would be readily revealed, then they are robed in white. Tlie white partridge nies up from his very feet, where he perceived but lumps of feathery snow. The deer, bear, fox, ermine, all clad in white, pass him with im- punity. Did not hunger lead them to the traps, or their deeply embedded tracks * prate of their whereabout,' seldom would they fall victims to man. In the summer they are slaty and mouse-colored, like the rocks, or wood-colored, like the trees, and in nir.iiy an imaginary rock, or stick, or stub, there is ani- mal life, which will take to itself legs or wings when opportu- nity of easy escape offers." Icebergs, which have a great influence on the climate of Lab- rador, ar(^ thus described by BalUuityne, when passing through Hudson Strait : " It is impossible to convey a correct idea of the beauty, the magnificence, of some of the scenes through which we passed. Thousands of the most grotesque, fanciful, and beautiful icebergs and ice-fields, surrounded us on all sides, intersected by numerous serpentine canals, which glittered in the sun like threads of silver, twining round ruined palaces of crystal. The masses assumed every variety of form and size, and many of them bore such a striking resemblance to cathe- drals, churches, columns, arches, and spires, that I could almost fancy we had been transported to one of the floating cities of Fairy-land. The weather being pleasant, with a light breeze, not a sound disturbed the stillness of nature, save the gentle rip- pling of the vessel's bow as sue sped on her Avay, or the occa- sional puffing of a lazy whale, aw^pei^Bd from a nap by our un- ceremonious intrusion on his domains." 8T1U1TS OF BELLE-ISLE. 63 m of of lOt P- a- u- Straits of Belle-Isle. Meteohological Journal kept at Bellc-Islc Li, whilst the fro/en and -lesolate re<{i(nis to tho northwest of Labrador and Hudson l^ay, cause the pnn'ailin^ winds to sweep over it, loaded with a varyinj^ and reduced tempcu-atiu'e of tho air ; and then in the early spring vast masses of ice iVom Hudson Straits and East CJrecnland are forced alonp; its At- lantic coast by a southerly curr(;nt, where they consolidate or }j;rind, until they are evenluiflly fonunl off by mihhu' air, and l)y the increasing warmth of the ocean, Avhere they are sunk in the t(!])id watei'S of the (lulf Stream. "If the laws c^' (dimate were regulated by tin; thermal zones which j)hilosoph(;rs have drawn rourd the globe, Newfoundland would bo an abode for man, e(|ually free from groat heats and from intense cold, as it lies in n(>arly the saiiu; ])arallels as Fi'ance ; Avhereas, it has the geni'ral teuqoeratun,' of the Euro- })ean countries, situated fifteen or twenty degrees higher than the north(!rn shores of that fertile country. •• "Various attcuiq.ts have Ijoou made to ac(!Ount satisfactorily for this scMMuing anomaly Ijotween the climates of the (jld and New World, as is most wonderfully exhibited on this island and ou the coast of Labrador. The th(!Oiy of winds is still, how- . _r, in its infancy, but that th(>y are allectc^d iji their ])assage i>.vor bleak howling wildernesses, cannot be doubted. In CJani, la, and overywlu^ro in N(nth Anunica, <'ast of the llocky Moun- tains, a wind fr* Falir. 12" 16° 17° 14° 20° 80° 32'- 19° 26° 42= 40° 22° 28° 80° 83° 39° 27° 86° 38° 36 = 88= 40= 40° 40i' 39^ 40° 42° 43= 42° 48*^ 45° 45° 43° 42 .r 44" 45° 43 rt' 44" 45° 44 r 48'' 47" 46° 47° 47° 48° FOUB SKA80N8. B •c 9 B s s 14° 15° 13° -4° 8° 27° 24° 13° 19° 40° 86° 18° 25° 3 ° 25° 28° 33° 58° 50° 58° 55° 59° 36° 85° (J i 38° 37° 88° 33° 39° 4'.° 40° 38^ 39° 43° 59° 52° 54"= 54° 53° 43° 49° 50° 0("»° 62° 18° 28° is° 17° 28° 34° 23° 33° 44° 39° 31° 33° 33° 30° 34° 68° 59° 62° 02° 00' 54° (i3° 05° 63° 68° 63° 70° 40° 44° 3;)° 41° 44° 44° 43° 44° 40° 47° 67° 68° 08° 74° 69° 07° 08° 68° 09' 38° 41° 44° 43° 44° 44° 42° 47° 48° 47° 49° 4.5° 45° 45° 47° 50° 51° 49° 48° 48° 49° -23° -10° -20° -25° -24" -14° —14° t) 32° 32° — 1° 4° 0° -15° — 3° 0° 8° i6° 16° 18° 19° 14" 23° 18° 19° 21° 20° 24° 18° 23° 24° 27° 27° ^6° 27° 27° 28* PABT IV. CLIMATIC DIVISION OF CANADA. Can.' ds in length fr< -24° -14° — ;r 32° 32° _ 1° 4° 0° -15° — 2° 0° 8° 10° 16° 18° 19° 14" 23° 18° 19° 2V 20° 24° 18° 2;; 09.' 24° the coast of Labrador 52° north latitude, westwardly, to the mouth of the Kaministiqiia River, where stauds Fort William, in latitude 48^^ 23' near the ■svestern extremity of Lake Superior, about sixteen hundred miles ; the average breadth is about two hundred and fifty miles. It contains an area of about three hundred and fifty thousand square miles, and is washed by the waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the east, and by the waters of the Great Lakes of Americu on the west. This important region of country Hes between the 41st and 52d parallels of north latitude, and the meridians of Gl "and 90'^ west fi'om Greenwich, The range of mean annual temperature varies from 35^ on the north, to 48-' Fahr. on the south. The winters being excessively cold in the Lower or E;>3iern Province, and the summers warm ; while in the Upper or Western Prov- ince the cold and heat are modified by the Great Lakes lying on its southern border. The natural features of Tapper and Lower Canada are, for the most iiavi, very difierent. Li Lower Canada, the scenery is of a far bolder character than in Upper. On the lower part of the St. Lawrence, both sides of the river are mountainous, and on the northern side the range which nins as far as the vicinity of Quebec presents the most subUme and picturesque beauties. On the southern side, the highlands or mountains which divide the waters flowing into the St. Law- rence from those running into the St. John's and other rivers of Maine, commence in the District of Gaspr, and about sixty miles below Quebec, turn off and enter the United States, forming, in part, tbe boundary between the two countries. 27° 28' 68 INFLUENCE OF CIJMATE. 'i\ Tbo District of Gaspi'-, facing the Gulf of Bt. La^Tenco, being mostly surrounded by Avater, lias a mild and favorable Slim- mer climate, while the cold of winter is perceptibly modified by the same caase. Tlie lands in this distinct are composed of a light but fertile soil, producing most kinds of grain and vege- tables in abundance ; the pot^itoes in particular being highly esteemed for their fine quality and flavor. Tliero are also found a variety of forest trees producing an abundance of tim- ber for ship-building and other purposes. The great pine region of Canada, which may be said to extend from Haguenay to the 8t, Maurice ami Ottawa Rivers, and even farther inland, aftbrd the great wealth and distinctive feature of Canada in a com- mercial point of view. The large extent of uninhabited country lying north of tho isothermal lino of 40'-' mean annual temperature, and along tho 47tli parallel of latitude, embracing the northern half of Canada, is almost entirely unfit for cultivation, owing to tho absence of continued warm weather during the summer months ; this whole region being subject to killing frosts every month of the year." It is, however, valuable for its timber, minerals, and fur-bearing animals. The valley of the St. Lawrence, below its junction with the Ottawa Eiver, embracing the Eastern Townships, has a favor- able and healthy climate ; the soil producing all kinds of cereals and vegbliables, as well as nutritious grasses. The Island of Orleans, below Quebec, and tho Island of Montreal and its vicinity, may be called tho " gardens of Lower Canada," where is produced wheat, rye, oats, barley, vegetables, and many kinds of fniit. Tho mean annual temperature varying from 40^ to 45° Fahr,, having a summer heat, for the most part, as high as Central Ncav York or Northern Illinois. The healthy influence of this great valley is proverbial — ^its inhabitants being a ^dgorous and long-lived class of people. Here thousands of seekers after health and pleasure resort dur- ing the summer months, enjoying alike the beautiful river and mountain scenery, with a healthy and invigorating chmate. Tho cold winter weather continues fi'ora Dec. to March, inclusive. * This depressing influenco is caused, no doubt, from tho cold, chilly wuids coming oil' lludisuu Bay and tho mure northern cold region. CLIMATIC DIVISION OF CANADA. 69 ITprER, or Western Canada, is comprisccl Avitliin the parallels of 41^ to 49^ north, and the meridians of 74 -^ to 90'^ west of Green- wich, and embraces an area of aljont one hundred thousand square miles. As compared Avith tlio Lower Province, Upper Canada is in general a level champaign country, with gentle un- dulating hills and rich vallcvs. At a distance of from fifty to one liundred miles north of Lake Ontario, there is a ridge of high rocky country running towards the OttaAva or Grand lUver, bcliind which there is a Avido and rich valley of great extent, bounded on the north by a mountainous country, of still higher elevation. From the division line on Lake St. Francis, (near Fond du Lac) to Sandwich, along the shores of the St. Law- rence and Lakes Ontario and Erie, there is not an elevation of any consequence ; and throughout this extent the soil is gene- rally remarkably rich, and the climate sahibrious. The following Extracts, from a Brief Outline of Canada, pub- lished by authority, will convc}- a correct idea of the climate of Canada West. " The most erroneous opinions have prevailed abroad respect- ing the climate of Canada. The so-called rigor of Canadian winters is often advanced as a serious objection io the country by many who have iiot the courage to encouiiter them, who prefer sleet and fog to brilliant skies and bracing cold, and who have yet to learn the value and extent of the blessings conferred upon Canada by her world-renowned ' snows.' " It will scarcely be believed by many who shudder at the idea of the thermometer falling to zero, that the gradual annual diminution m the fall of snow in certain localities, is a subject of lamentation to the farmer in Western Canada. Their desire is for the old-fashioned winters, with sleighing for four months, and spring bursting upon them with marvellous beauty at the beginning of April. A bountiful fall of snow, with hard frost, is equivalent to the construction of the best macadamized roads all over the country. The absence of a suflicient quantity of snov/ in winter for sleighing, is a calamity as nuich to be feared and deplored as the want ot rain in sprmg. Hajipily neither of these deprivations is of frequent occurrence. The climate of Canada is in some measure exceptional, especially that of the Peninsular portion. The influence of the Great Lakes is very strikingly ftdt in the elevation of winter temperatures and in the reduction of summer heats. *' Perhaps the popular standard of the adaptation of climate I I n ! ! I ■ ! ! 70 INFLUENCE OF CLI3IATE. to the purposes of agiiculturo is more suitable for the present occasion than a reference to monthly and unmial means of tem- perature. Much information is conveyed in the simple narra- tion of facts bearinf^ u])on fruit culture. From the head of Lake Ontario, round by the Niagara fi'ontier, and all along the (y'ana- dian shores of Lake Erie, the grape and ])eac]i grow with luxu- riance, and ri])en to perfection in the open air, Avithout the slightest artificial aid. Tlie Island of Montreal is distingiiished everywhere for the fine quality of its apples, and the Island of Orleans, below Quebec, is equally celebrated for its plums. Over the whole of Canada the melon and tomato acquire large dimensions, and ripen fuUy in the oi)en air, the seeds being planted in the soil towards the latter end of A]iril, and the fruit gathered in September. Pumpkins and squashes attain gigan- tic dimensions. Indian corn, hops, and tobacco, are common crops, and yield fair returns. Hemp and fhix are intligenous plants, and can be cultivated to any extent in many parts of the Province. " The most striking illustrati m of the mfluence of the Great Lakes in ameliorating the climate of Canada, especially of tliu western peninsula, is to be found in the natural limits to which certain trees are restricted by climate. That valuable Avood, the black walnut, for which Canada is so celel)rated, ceases to grow north of latitude 41^ on the Atlantic coast, but under the influence of the comparatively mild lake climate of Peninsular Canada it is found in the greatest profusion, and of the largest dimensions, as far north as latitude 43'^." Dr. Lillie, in his "Essay on Canada," remarks, that "Prof. Hind holds the climate of Canada West to be sui)crior to those portions of the L^nited States lying north of the 41st parallel of latitude, in mildness — in adaptation to the growth of cereals — in the uniformity of tlie distribution of rain over the agricultu- ral months — in the humidity of the atmosphere — in comparative indemnity from spring frosts and summer droughts — in a very favorable distribution of clear and cloudy days for the purposes of agriculture — and in the distribiition of rain over many days — as also in its salubrity. In the following points he regards it as difiering favorably from that of Great Britain and Ireland, viz. : — in high summer means of temperature — in its compara- tive dryness — and in the serenity of the sky." Climate of Canada, as described by Early French Authors. " The first Europeans who came to Canada were surprised to observe the remarkable difl'arence between the temperature of the Old World and of the New, under the same parallels of lati- 5 :--;'X, CLIJLVTE OF CANADA, 71 fa It ttido. Tlmr; Quebec, 40'^ 50' north latitude, is hardly more northerly tlmu La Eooholle, I'riinco, ■while it is more than two degrees to the south of Paris, and yet the ■winters of the ancient capital of Canada are much more rigorous than that of those two European cities. It had been thought that, according to a general rule, the intensity of cold and the rigor of climate in- creased in proportion as the Poles Avere approached, but in Canada these calculations were found to be at fault. " Father Bressaui, an early writer on the sul)ject, says : ' The first Frenchmen who mhabited the country ])elieved that th(^ immense forests ■which entirely covered it, Avere the cause of such an excessive cold. For my part, I thiidc that if the forests, naked and leafless as they are in winttu', can keep the sun from ■warming the earth and tempering the rigor of the cold, they should be a still greatcn- shield in summer, when they are decked ■with thick foliage. They do not, however, produce that efiect ; for the heat, even in the middle of these ■woods, is then ex- cessive, although it freezes during certaui nights, just as in winter.' " " The histoi'ian CHiarlevoix is of a different opinion, and thinks that, even in his time, the clearings had made some difi'erenci' in the temperature, and rendered it less cold than in the first years of the colony's existence. In our day, the encjuiry is sometimes made, whether the destruction of the great forests which there were on the l)anks of the St. Lawrence, has caused any improvement iu the climate of the country — and the ques- tion is a very interesting one, which it is worth while examin- ing. As reasoning could not possibly shed any light on the subject, wo have tlirown together some meteorological obser- vations, of a nature to enable us to see whether there are grounds for hope that the severity of our climate Avill be abated. ■' The oldest observations made as to the temperature of Canada arc those of Jacques Cartier, during the winter of 1535-3G, which he spent near the River St. Charles, in the vicinity of the present site of Quebec. ' From the middle of November,' says he, 'iintil the 18tli of April, we Avere con- tinuously shut up in the ice, Avhicli was more than two fathoms (brasses) thick, and, on land, the snow was four feet deep and more, so that it was above the Inilwarks of our shi]i, and it lasted until the time above mentioned, so that all our drink was frozen in our casks, ^' '* * and all the said river (St. Law- rence) was frozen, as nuich of it as is fresh Avater, as far as above Hochelaga,' noAv Montreal. " So, during the Avinter that Cartier spent at Stadaconc (Quebec), more than three centuries ago, the ice took about tlie middle of Noveudjcr, and the thaAv occurred about the mid- !* r I!! :!i' 72 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. (llo of April (a period of five montlis) ; the earth was covered with a sheet of snow, four feet thick. " About eight years hater, Jean Alphouse, pilot to the Lord (Sienr) of Roberval, made the remarks which follow : — ' The whole extent of these regions may well be called New France, for the air is as temperate as in Franco, and they are situated in the same latitude. The reason why they are so cold in win- ter "iS, that the fresh water river is naturally colder than the sea, and also because it is wide and deep, and in some places is more than half a league in width, and also because the land is not cultivated nor full of people, but altogether covered with forests, which is the cause of the cold. * ••■ "^" '■•' -' If the country were cidtivated and fully inhabited, it would be as warm as at La RochcUe ; and the reason Avhy it snows of tener than in France is because it rains less.' " These remarks contain nothing precise ; they only show that it was expected that the climate would become milder in proportion as settlements extended. Let us pass on to the ob- servations of Champlain. " 1608, October 3d. — Some white fi'ost appeared, and the leaves of trees began to fall on the 15th. 24:th. I had some of the vines of the country planted. November 18, a quantity of snow foil, but only remained on the ground two days. " 1613. — Wlien Champlain arrived at Quebec, on the 7th of May. the trees were putting forth leaves, and the fields Avere variegated with fiowers. The winter had been mild and the river free from ice. " 1623, March 19th. — A violent storm, accompanied with wind, hail, thunder and lightning, although at this time the air is stiil cold, and the country full of snow and ice. April 16th, there was a foot of snow in some parts. '20th of said month, grain was sown behind the house, where the snow had melted sooner than in other places, being sheltered fi'oni the northwest wind. " Towards the end of November, the River St. Charles was almost covered with ice. From the btiguming to the end of November the weather was very variable, and the days were chiefly pretty cold mornings with frost, although it was usually fine the rest of the day : there Avas sometimes rain nnd snow, which often melted as it fell. We remarked that there is not a fortnight's ditference between the commencement of whiter tem- perature, one year with the other, that is to say, from the 20th of November until April, Avhcn tlio snow melts, and Ma}^ is the spring-time ; making six months of frost and six months of mild weather for tliis region. Some years the snow is deeper than CLIMATE OF CANADA. 73 ■o others, the depth being from one and a half to three or four feet at most, on the lo.\o\ coxiniry. "December lOtli. — The River St. La^vTence was filled with ice, and the shore ice taking, navigation stopped. " 1(524:, April l8tli. — This is the time for hunting game, which is very pL^ntiful imtil the end of Ma}-, when the birds go back to lay their eggs, and only come again towards the 15th of Sep- tember, Avluni you can shoot imtil the ice takes along the shore, whicli is al)out the 2()th of November. " May 8th. — I'he cherry-trees begin to open their buds to lot the leaves grow ; at the same time little grey and Avhite lloAvers shoot from the ground, which are the first fruits of spring in these regions. Oth. Strawberries began to bud, and all herbs to spring up out of the earth. 12ih. White violets were seen in })loom. 15th. Trees were budding out, and cherry-trees covei'ed with foliage ; wheat had gro\m a span high, and in tlio fields the sorrel was two inches high. 18th. The birch- trees put forth leaves, the other forest trees following close after ; the oak had its 1)uds formed, and the apple-trees, which had been brought from Erance, as well as the plum-trees, began to blossom, and Indian corn was sown. 29th. Strawber- ries began to blossom, and the oaks to ])ut out pretty large summer leaves. 30th. Strawberries were aU in l)lossom ; apple- trees began to open tlieir leaf-buds ; the oaks had their leaves about an inch long ; the plum and cherry-trees were in flower, and Indian corn began to come up." Now, then, here is what Father Lalemant^ superior of the museum in Canada, Avrote to his brother in the year 1G2G : — " The place where the French have domiciled themselves called Kcbec, is on the parallel of about 'KJ degrees and a half, on the banks of one of the most beaxitihil rivers in the world. But, although the latitude of the country where we are is nearly two degrees to the south of Paris, yet tJie winter is usiially five months and a haU' in lengtli, the snow three or for.r feet deep, and so lasting, tliat they do not generally melt until the middle of April, although they always begin in the month of Novem- ber. During that time yon cannot see the earth, and our French people have even told me that they have drawn a sleigh in Ma}'. " The mildest winter ever known is that last past, so say the old inhabitants ; yet the snow began to fall on the IGth of No- vember, and to melt tow'ards the end of March. The length of time the snow lasts is such, you Avould hardly think wheat and barley could grow very well lu^re ; I have, however, seen crops of them just as fine as m Fnince. " From the mou^ii of the St. Lawrence up to this there is no cleared land — all is forest. These people do not engage in ii n 74 '^TTiUENCE OP CUMATE. liusbaridry ; tlioro aro only three or four families -wlio have cleared two or three acres, where thoy sow Indian corn."* Well, this was the climutt! of the neighborliood of Quebec 240 years ago, at the time Avlien tlie French had ouly cleared a few score of acres : the winter began in November, and termi- nated in the middle of April ; three or four feet of snow covered the ground around Quebec. To procure some other terms of comparison, wo present ex- tracts fi'om the Jesuits' journals : — 1645, Nov. 15th.—" The snow began to stay." 1G46, April. — " From tlie 17th to the l8th the river was clear, and they began to sow about this time." Nov. 7fch. — It began to freeze, so as to form ice, and the next day it snowed for the hrst time." 1647, March lltli. — " Then Ix^gan the break up of a winter without winter, for it had not been cold up to that time." Nov. 4th. — " The snoAv began." 1648, Nov. 18th.—" The snow began to stay." 1641). — Navigation opened between Quebec and Tlii'ee Elvers on the 22d of April ; the ice in the Ilivor St. Ohailes broke up on the 27th, and on the 28th they began to sow." 1650, A])ril 25th. — The breaking up of ice took place in the Biver St. Charles. ' On the 28d of November, a vessel going to carry fish to Montreal came back to Quebec, because the ice began to form in Lake St. Peter." Such are the observations we have been able to gather rela- tive to the climate of Quebec, such as it w-as in the first days of the colony ; and here are some made in our own times, after a lapse of upwards of 200 years : — 1855, Nov. 18tli. — The snow fell in abundance. 25th. Steam- boats, starting for Montreal, were obliged by the ice to come back, and go into winter quarters at Quebec. 1856, April. — Tlie ice of Lake St, Peter was going down from the 23d to the 27th ; 20th, the snow had mostly disappeared. 1857, April 20th. — The middle of the fields was uncovered. 24th. The ice in the Eiver St. Charles broke up. 28th. The Lake St. Peter ice broke up and passed Quebec. May 30th. Plum and apple-trees are in bloom. Octol)er 28th. The first snows whiten the earth, biit soon disappear. Nov. 23d. Good sleighing. Dec. 3d. Navigation terminates between Montreal and Quebec. * The Island of Orloans, situated a few miles below Quebec, is now highly cultivated, and very foitilo ; also other portions of the country, on both sides of the St. Lawrence, and Kiver St. Charles. CLIMATE OP CANADA. 76 )d. fhe th. Irst ]od ^S 1858, April 14tli and 15tli. — Lake St. Peter ice passes Que- bec. June 1st. Apple-trees and plum-trees in bloom. Nov. 8th. First snow fell ; 30th, navigation closes between Quebec and Montreal. 1859, March 30th. — Summer vehicles are used. 18th April, Lake St. Peter ice broke up, and navigation resumed. May IGth. Plum and cherry-trees in blossom ; October 21, snow whitens the ground ; 29th, navigation stopped between Quebec and Montreal. 18G0, April 17th. — Navigation opened in the River St. Law- rence ; May 19th, plum-trees in blossom ; Nov. 18th, first snow falls ; navigation remained open until the 7th of December. 18G1. — The Lake St. Peter ice lu'oke up on the 25th of April, and navigation opened on the St. Lawrence between Quebec and Montreal. Mean Temperatures. Comparative ^.'onthly TiiLlos of Mnux Tcmperatarc of Montreal and Quebec, from recent Observations. Montreal Quebec. Months. 45' 30' N. L. 4G' 4'J' N. L. ° Falir. ° Fabr. March, April .... May, .... 29.40 43.50 58.00 28.06 36.14 49.03 Mean Sirring Temp., June, .... July, August, 43.05 68.30 73.00 70.70 37.74 60.34 68.86 62.50 Mean Summer Temp., September, October, November, . 70.G0 60.G0 46.40 25.70 65.56 55.15 45.43 26.75 Mean Autumn Temp., , December . January, . February, . 43.56 19.00 14.90 17.80 43.10 18.00 12.50 10.55 Mean Winter Temp., Yearly Mean, . 17.30 44.60 13.68 40.02 'I 11 70 o IKPLUENCE OP CUltATE. I i 1.1 I 'i; . II ;hi; !■ 1' Altliougli tho oarly obsoiTations 011 record do not givo tlio exiict range of tlio thermometer, as is now attainable, yet still it seems safe to infer that the mean annual temperature of Canada has not materially changed during tho past three cen- turies. "On comparing the meteoroloffical observations made in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuncs with those of the middle of the nineteenth, it is easily to be convinced that the climate of Canada — at least the neighborhood of Quebec — is about tho same now as it was 300 ytsars ago. Then, three or four feet /f snow ; now at least as much ; the lirst snow falling the iirst fortnight of November, tho break up of the River St. Charles from the 18th to tho 27th April ; navigation on the St. Lawrence, between Quebec and Montreal, interrupted by the ice in the last week of November, and opening toward tho end of April — five months, closed on an average. The apple, cherry, and ])lum-trees blossoming the last of May and beginning of June ; this is what we find at both epochs. In this respect nothing appears changed; and the ckavhu/s made untr now have had very little influence in the present tomjierature of Canada. " It is, then, to other causes besides the existence of forests, that the great cold of the winter of our country is due. They are to be looked for in the drpiess of tho northern atmosphere ; tho neighborhood of Hudson Bay, which is covered with ice during a great j^ortion of the year ; in tho frequency of tho northwest winds, which carry away from America the heated moisture produced by tho warm current of the Gulf of Mexico ; perhaps in the proximity of the Magnetic Pole, which, accord- ing to Captaiiilloss, is to the north of the Contiiieut of America, in about tho TJOth degree of latitude, while the greatest cold is felt on the 72^ and 73d degree. Indeed, the nearness of tho Poles of cold and terrestrial magnetism would seem to show that some relation exists between the temperature and tho mag- netism of the globe." Canada as It Is, in a Climatic Point of View. HoGAN, in his Prhe Essay on Canada, says : " The acknow- ledged influence of the atmosphere, not only upon the produc- tiveness of the soil of a country, but upon the temper, habits, and industry of its inhabitants, renders an inquiry into iho climate of Canada a subject of great importance. " Her Inland Seas, covering an area of about 100,000 square miles, and a supposed contents of 11,000,000 cubic miles of water — far exceeding half the fresh water in all the lakes in tho I CANADA— TEMTEHATURE, TAIN, ETC. 77 ests, :iiey ere ; ice the tod ICO ; rd- ica., d is the lOW low- luc- )its, I the I are of Itho world — exercise a powerful influence in modifying the two ex- tremes of licat mid cold. The uniformity of temperature thus produ(!ed, although low, ia found to be highly favorable to ani- mal and vegotal)le lif(\ It is therefore found, that in the neigh- borhood of the lakes, the most delicate fruits are reared with- out injury, whilst in places four or five degi-ecs furtlier south, they are clestroyed by the early frosts. The quantity of rain, Avhich, for the most part, falls in sunmier and early autumn, is, no doubt, greatly increased by evaporation from these immense bodies of Avater. The winds are most variable, and rarely con- tinue for more than two or three days in the same quarter. This has the effect of preserving the equilibrium, and renders the occurrence of disastrous storms less frequent. The south- west, the most j)revalent wind, is generally moderate, with clear skies. The northeast and oast bring coutimied rains in sum- mer and early autumn, and the northwest, springing from the region of ice, is invariably dry, elastic, and invigorating. Since 1818, the climate has greatly changed, owing principally, it is supposed, to the large clearings of tbe primeval forests. "The salubrity of the province is sufficiently shown by its cloudless skies, its elastic air, and almost entire absence of fogs. The lightness of the atmosphere has a most invigorating effect upon the spirits. The winter frosts arc severe and steady, and the summer suns are hot, and bring on vegetation with wonder- ful rajiidity. It is true that the spring of Canada differs much from the spring of nip ny parts of Europe ; but after her long winter, th^ crops start up as if by magic, and reconcile her in- habitants to the loss of that which, elsewhere, is often the sw^cet- est season of the year. If, however, Canada has but a short spring, she can boast of an autumn dcllciously mild, and often Ungering on, with its "Indian Summer" and golden sunsets, until the month of December. " A Canadian winter, the mention of which, some years ago, in Europe, conveyed almost a sensation of misery, is hailed rather as a season of increased enjoyment than of privation and discomfort by the people. Instead of alternate rain, snow, sleet, and fog, Avith broken up and impassable roads, the Canadian has clear skies, a fine bracing atmosjiliere, Avith the rivers and many of the smaller lakes frozen, and the inequalities in the rude tracks through the Avoods made smooth by snow, the Avhole face of the country being literally macadamized by nature for a people as yet unable to macadamize for themselves. " It must not be supposed that the leng-th of this season is necessarily prejudicial to the farmer, for mild winters are gen- erally found to be injurious to fall crops of wheat, and a serious hindrance to business and travelling. The summer, short and Bnagn . ii: 1. :: ii:; li 1: r t i ' 1 ' ■■ "I 1 : 78 INFLUENCE OF CIJMATE. eminently fmctifying, oo( ..pies tlio wholo of tlio farmGr'f3 time. It is in viator that tlio j^nd is cloarcHl ot" timLor, tluj firewood draf^^cil Jiomo from tl^^rwoodM on sloi^lis, over ground impas- sable for wliool carriag(^s, and that tlio farmer disposes of his produ(!e, and Liys in his snp))lies for tlio futuio. The snow forms a coverinf^ for^his cr()j)s, anil a road to his market. On the arrival of winter, the earo of his fat stock C(!ases, for tho wholo is killed, freezes, and can bo disposed of as the state of tho niarkcit sujfgests. *' Comparins, alTord satisfactory evidence; and the folloAvijig tal)le, communicated by Professor (luy, is not doA'oid of interest, as shoAving the proportion of deaths to tho population in various ccnintries : — Austria, . 1 in 40 Prussia, 1 in ;u) IJelgium, 1 " 4^ llussia in Europe, . 1 " 44 Dentnark, 1 " 45 S])Min, . 1 " 40 England, 1 " 4(1 Switzerland, . 1 " 40 Prance, 1 " 42 Tuikcn', . 1 " no Norwa}^ and SAveden, 1 " 41 Tlnitul States, 1 " 74 Portugal, • • 1 " 40 Canada, . 1 " U8 Climate of Canacla, New BninsTwick, and Nova Scotia. " Tho ch'matc of Western Canada and Nova Scotia is vamK^r than that of Canada East, Prince Edward Islrnvi, r Noav 1 >runs- Avi'-k, idthough a larger portion of tho hitter is similar to that uf Nova Scotia. Li NeA\foundland Avinter is severe ; yet snoAV does not lie hnig on the southern (toast. It is generally said that AvintiM' in these co1oni(!S, lasts fiv(^ incmths, Avhich in one sense is tnie, but in another it is not. Winter, in reidity, can- not bo said to L'lst longev than three months, commencing al)out the middle of December, and ending about Ihe middle of March. During this period the. o are, in the coldest section of ^m CLIMATE OF CANADA, NEW BHUN8WICK, ETC. 70 40 40 74 '.KS IHK- uf liow laid pno liin- but Lower Canad.-i, from twtmty to twouty-fivG cold days, wliou tlio tliorinomctor ranges from l5^' to 20 ' dof^rcci-i below ■M)i'o. The (!old is driven from tlio Arctic; rt^^ioiis Ly nortliwe.^t winds, pass- ing over i]u) country in waves, lasting for about tlireci days at a tiuK! — familiarly known as ' pti(ms. Souh^ sea- sons the snow exceeds these depths, and vi ly fretjuently, in Nova Scotia and a large ])art of N(;w Brunswick, the sjk^w does not average one foot in depth. 'J'Ik^ January thaw oi't(>n sweeps the snow from the la.ce of the; country, heaving the ground, con- trary to tin; iiil(U-ests of agiiceltun!, uucov(!red for wcMiks. In Western Canada, where a Lirg(! (piantity of winter wheat is rais(Ml, thesi; thaws an; ])iirticula.rly iiijuvi(Mis. During a largo ])()rtion of winter, in the cold parts of tiie colonies, the ther- mometer i-anges from 10 ' to 40' above zero. " Dee]) snow adds to the fertility of the soil. Tho gi'ound is so ]mlveri/(Ml by th(! action of tlie frost as U. i^e rendered friai)le and more (iasily ])lougli(Ml. In IjowiU' Cana<^:i, it disa])]H'avs three; weeks sooner. " J^y a wis(> and ecoijomical division of time, all cli.sses of the jieople may be, and generally ar(>, as inotit.ibly em{)loyed dur- vrig tlu! winter lucmths, as in summer. It is a great mistake, to say that wint(;r is necressarily a ])eri()d of idlenc ss and inatttivity ; the reverse is the fact. Our wintcu's an; phiasant, and th"ir long evenings afford the student ampl(5 time for I lie a('(|uisitlou of us(4"ul kno\^'lcdge. Tl. re is r.o S(\'iS()U of the year so well adapted to the cultivation of lit(U'ary, domestic aud social inter- course, as that of a N(n-th American wii.'ter. It is the lecturing season in tiu! institutions and halls, with wldcli nearly (^very community is su])])lied ; it is the season when tjje sevcual ci)lo- nial h^gishitures sit, and the s<^ason when the ])r('ss is doubly vigilant in sup|)lying tin; ])ublic, with useful information. In- deed th(; winter season in tlu'S(\ colonies is wry pleasant, ail'ord- ing iidiabitants. " The prevailing winter winds are thnn>WBP r? M ¥'■ 'II i 80 raPLUENCE OF CLIMATE. wliile along tlio sea-board the climate is more equable, and the air wholesome and bracing. Vegetation progresses "with great rapidity.* "The autumn is the most delightful season in the year. In the language of J. V. Ellis : ' The summer still lingers, as if re- gretting to quit the scenes of beauty it has created ' — and then is produced the 'Indian Summer,' a season of rare and ex- quisite loveliness, that unites the v.'armth of summer wdth the mellowness of autunni. " The fogs which sometimes prevail along a part of the At- lantic coast line, seldom extend more than live miles inland. The Gulf and Eiver St. Lava'cnce are more free from fogs than the Bay of Fundy and the Atlantic coasts ; but in none of these places are they found to impede navigation, or produce efiects detrimental to the general interests of the country. *' Thei'e are no endcndcal, and few epidemical diseases in tlie habitable part of British North America. The country is re- mi.rkably healthy, as the longcA'ity of human life testifies. The frosts are less severe than in many of the populous countries of Christendom, and the siimmers are less calid than m many of the southern climes where civilization is making rapid progress. Indeed, the climate of one-third, at least, of British North America is highly adapted to the progTess of ci> ilization." ludian Summer iu Canada. Indian Summer is a phenomenon of constant yearly occur- rence and marked characteristics in th northewest of the United States and Canada. The following table, furnished from the private memoranda of an assistant at the Pro.incial Observa- tory, at Toronto, establishes the fact, that hazy, warm, mellow weather, termed Indian summer, is a periodical phenomenon in Canada. The characters of Indian Summer are still more de- cided in the far Northwest than in the neighborhood of Lake Ontario. Sounds are distinctly aiidible at great distances; objects are difficult to discern unless close at hand ; the weather is warm and oppressive, the atmosphere hazy and calm, and every object appears to wear a tranquil and drowsy aspect. * " By a rofer-'nco to t\m mean tcinporaturo of t' o years in Montroal. from 1826 to 1852," says Dr. A. Hall, "tlio fact will 1)e apparent, tliat a gradual decrease of temperature has marked the years, as they have successively passed away ; a circumstance not very consonant ^vith the almost universally received opinion, that countries become gradually warmer in the ratio of their cultivation, popu- lation, &c. The year 18:50 was the warmest on nicord (478" Fahr.), and the year 1835 (42'' Fahr) was the coldest ; the year 18D3 (44.0°) being the mean tempera- turo for a period of twenty-seven yours." r'^fff'^W'P^?^ i-^MiJUlVMIULII^M'! CLIMATIC OBSERVATIONa. 81 Indian Summer at Torouto, C. W. Tear. Commencement. Termination. No. of Days 1845, 24th October, 29th October, . . 6 1846, 4th November, 7th November, . 4 1847, 2Sth October, 81st October, . . 4 1848, 20tli November, 28(1 November, . 4 1849, 18th 18th . 6 1850, 7th 18th . 7 1851, 0th October, 11th October, . . 1852, 10th November, 21st November, . 1853, 12th October, 20th October, . . 9 1854. 24th 28th . 5 1855, 10th 2eth . 11 1850, 19th 22d . 4 1857, 5th 12th . 8 1858, 18th 28th . 11 1859, 2d November, 8th November, . 7 n result. 27tli October, 2d November, G.\ days. l-^^i :r Id Climatic Observations near Montreal. The extreme nature of the Climate will bo sufficiently ex- hibited by the accurate observations of the weatlxer of 1854; made near Montreal by Dr. Smallwood. Months. Mean Tom- V iiin in Snow in Range of pcraturc. Indies. lucllPfl. Tliermonicter. ° Falir. " Falir. January, . 10.92 1.007 17.98 78.8 Febraary, . 12.20 0.150 23.90 71.7 March, 20.84 0.910 28.10 00.4 Apiil, . 87.75 7.880 4.03 52.2 May, . 57.17 3.418 00.7 June, . 63.80 8.384 40.0 July, . 70.20 0.174 48.5 August, 08.81 2.205 48.2 September, 58.01 0.107 04.2 October, . . 48.40 4.844 3.10 55.5 November, . 32.99 5.130 1.10 50.0 December, . 27.35 0.110 18.07 78.1 Total, . 40.505 97.00 Spring, . . 38°Fahr. Autumn, t . 4r°Fahr. Summer, . . 70° " Winter, . . 17° " Yearly Mean, 44 ° Fahrenheit. ■J ;l b i^W Mi )i . lii if ill I n.% n. \ 1! 'f ' r. 82 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. " The IsL.\ND OF Montreal has been called * the Garden of Canada.' The soil, liov/ever, can only be regarded as of sec- ondary quality. The Trenton limestone prevails over the whole island, as an isolated patch among the surrounding primary rocks, rendering the soil genial to the growth of grasses, though not of winter wheat. Oats, barley, and potatoes are the staple croi:)s, with small quantities of turnips. Good orchards, pro- ducing dififorcut kinds of fruit, are met with throughout the Island of Montreal, Avhero the soil rests upon the limestone, and is more friable. The apple, however, does not thrive on the clay soils of the flats of the St. Lawrence, in consequence of their tenacious nature." — liusscWs Agriculture and Clhnale. Monthly Jlean Temperature at Qukbec ; North latitude, 4C° 49' ; West longi- tude, 71° IG', from Greenwich. Months. Mean Temix Maximum. Minimum. Variation. "l^ahr. ° Jb'ahr. "Fahr. "Fah January, 1G.70 46.0 -14.0 60.0 February, . 14.55 30.8 29.5 66.3 March, 21.06 47.3 2.4 44.9 April, . 34.14 59.8 5.9 53.9 May, . 40.03 83.0 32.0 51.0 June, . 58.34 88.0 43.2 44.8 July, . 68.86 90.3 51.9 38.4 August, 61.54 85.0 38.3 46.7 Sei^tember, 65.15 81.3 34.7 46.6 October, 45.43 60.4 28.4 32.0 November, . 28.75 34.3 10.0 24.3 December, . 20.09 40.1 —19.2 59.3 Extreme range of Temperature, 119^ Fahrenheit. Mean Annual Temperature, 40.64^ Fahr. Health Statistics of the Principal Cities in Canada. From the Official Census. Cities. Pop. 18G1. Deaths, i Pop. 1851. Deaths. Montreal, C. E., . 90,323 2,038 \ 57,715 1,725 Q^icbec, " 51,109 1,111 42,052 1,064 Three Pavers, C. E. . 6,058 100 4,936 Ottawa, C. W., . 14,669 172 i 7,760 90 Kingston, " 13,743 129 ' 11,585 172 Toronto, " 44,821 727 30,775 474 Hamilton, " 19,096 217 14,112 185 London, " 11,555 102 1 7,035 100 HEALTH STATISTICS — MEAN TEMTERAITRES. 88 Total Population and Deaths in Canada, — 1861. Population. Deaths. Ratio of Deaths. Lower Canada, Uj)per Canada, 1,111,566 1,396,091 13,224 10,160 lin 84 1 in 137 Grand Total, 2,507,657 23,384 1 in 107 From tlie above Table of Deaths, &c., it seems that Montreal and Quebec, situated on the St. Lawrence River, are quite un- healthy, compared to Hamilton and Toronto, situated on the shores of Lake Ontario. The same disparagement is apparent between the Upper and Lower Province. Mean Temperatures. Comparative Tables of Temperature of St. John, i<". R ; Halifax, N. S. ; and Cir^VBLOTTETOWN, P. E. Is. St. John. Halifax. Cliarlottetown. Months and Seasons. 45° IG' N. L. 44° a'J' N. L. 40° 15' N. I.. March, April . May, . ° Fahr. . 29.61 . 38.97 , 60.11 ° Fahr. 28.50 37.80 50.40 " Fahr 29.00 36.00 51.25 Spring, June, . July, . August, . 39.56 . 58.04 . 64.87 . 64.02 38.90 57.20 67.10 61.60 38.75 59.50 62.25 66.00 Summer, September, October, . November, . . 62.31 57.70 . 48.55 36.80 61.63 55.70 50.40 42.80 62.58 56.00 39.25 29.50 Autumn, December . January, . February, . 47.68 . 23.15 . 19.06 . 21.13 49.30 32.10 22.00 20.30 41.58 17.00 14.50 17.30 "Winter, Yearly Mean, . 21.11 . 42.66 24.80 43.50 16.26 40.00 il ii!;: .:. I : I !;■ I ::ii :;■ \] in I'.i I ill \ I Uf 84 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Agricultural Produce of Canada, — 1861. Arrps of Whent. 1,380,300 244,709 Uash. ofWlienl. 24,020,425 2,054,354 Acres Iniliau t'oriK Irtish. Indian (Juni. Upper Canada, . Lower Canada, . 79,918 15,012 2,250,290 334,vS01 Total, 1,031,135 .\cTes of Oiits. G78,337 955,553 27,274,879 Bush, of Oats. 21,220,874 17,551,290 94,930 2,591,151 Upper Canada, , Lower Canada, . Acres of Borlcy. 118,940 139,442 .\Jiish, ISarloy. 2,821,902 2,281,074 Total, 1,033,890 38,772,170 258,382 Acres of I'oivi. 400,595 231,035 5,103,G3(> Upper Canada, . Lower Canada, .. Acres of Rye. 70,376 83,931 Bush, of Kj:e. 973,181 844,192 B)13h. of I'iMS. 9,601,390 2,048,777 Total, 154,307 1,817,373 094,030 12,250,173 AcrosUiickwheal Bnidi.Biiekwhcat 1.248,037 1,250,025 AcTu.s Potatoes.. 137,200 118,709 liubh. Potatoes. Upper Canada, . Lower Canada, . 74,565 75,005 15,325,920 12,770,471 Total, 150,170 Tons r)f liny. 2,498,002 Lbs-Staple Sngar 0,970,005. 9,325,147 255,075 IJ)S. Wool 3,059,766 1,907,388 28,090,391 Lb.s.IScmp&riaa Upper Gmada, . Lower Canada, . 801,844 089,977 1,225,934 975,827 Total, 1,551,821 10,295,752 I.b:!. ChpcBO. 5,027,154 No. Lit (y'OIVB. 2,201,701 Lbs. linttcr. 20,828,204 15,900,949 Mo. of Sliepp. Upper Canada, . Lower Canada, . 2,687,172 080,279 451,640 328,370 1,170,225 082,829 Total, 42,735,213 3,373,409 980,010 1,853,054 From ilu! abovis Tublo it appears that tlio great agricultural products of Canada nro wheat and oata ; showinjf conclusively that tlic climate of (/anada is well adapted to the hardier cereals. METEOROLOGICAL RESTLTS. 85 ian (Ji 51 32 Mean Meteorological Results at Toronto. Latilvde, ■43° S9' North; Lonfjitiuh; TO" 21' West. BY G. T. KINGSTON, M.A. DIRECTOR OF THE PBOVIXCUL StAHNF.TU; OIISFJIVATOEY, TORONTO. The mean temperature of the year ISG-l was 44°. 70, or O^.SS in excess of the average of twenly-tivo years. The deTiation of the monthly means above or below their respective averages, and irre- spective of sig-n, had an average amplitude of l^.SG; thus indicating a 3'ear of unusually equable temperature, the average amplitude in twenty-five years being 2^.83, The mean deviations of temperature in the four seasons, with their proper signs, were: — 0°.38 in Winter; +0"//9 in Spring; +2".27 in Summer; 'id — 0°.60 in Autumn. As reg:i ds rain and snow, there was, on the whole year, an excess •amounting to 0.655 inches of water. An excess occurred in Winter, Spring, and Autumn — the total precipitation exceeding the average by 1.13G inches in Winter, 1.788 inches in Sj)ring, and 0.186 inches in Autumn. In Summer, the rain Avas deficient as compared with the average by 2.405 inches. This deficiency was not much greater than that of the summer of 1863; but the distribution among the three summer mouths was very different in the two years, for while in the summer of 1863 there was a moderate deficiency in each month, the rain in June, 1864, was less than one-fifth, and in July little over one-third of the average fall; that of August being above the average in the ratio of 5 to 3 nearly. In the following summary several of the results for the year 1864 are compared with the averages derived fi'oni a series of years as well as with extreme values of analogous results given by the same series. TEMPERATURE, Mean temperature of the year. . . Warmest mo.nth Mean temp, of the Avann'st month Coldest month Mean temp, of the coldest month. LMfl". between the temp, of the } Avarm'st and the cold'st m'ths \" Warmest day Mean temp, of the warmest day. ('oldest diiy Mean temp, of tlie coldest day. . . Date of the highest temperature Iliil'hest temperature. . , Date of lowoHt temperature Lowest temperature.. Range of the year 1864. 44. TO Julr. (i!).fa January. !>2.79 4G.94 June 2.J. 81.77 Feb. 17. —4.02 Aug. 8. !>4.0 Feb. 17. —15.0 109.0 Average of 2.") vearB. Kxtremes. I 4417 Julv. 60.93 Februixry. 23.99 43 99 77.45 •-1.03 "mss" —12.4" " 103.0 i 4(i.8Gin'46, Julv, 1854 I 72.47 i Jan. 1857. I 13.75 i 42.16 in '56. Aug. 1860. 6440 Feb. 184a 2660 j Julv 13. '45. ! 82.:12 Feb. 6. '55) Jan.23,'57) —14.38 Aug. 24, '54, 99.2 Jan. 26, ^59. : Jan. 3, '42. —26.5 I +1.0 118.3 87.0 Julv 31, '44 73.75 Dec. 33, 43. -i 9.57 Aug. 19, '40. 83.4 I mv n i'lL I |v I' M ni 1 86 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Oeneral Meteorological I'ROVINCIAL MAGNETICAL OBSER Mean tomporaturo Pifferenco from iiv. (S.*) years). Thermic anomaly (L. 43" 40 ). Highest temiieratnre Lowest temi)erature Monthly and annual ranges. . Mean maximum temperature. Mean minimum temi)eraturc. Mean daily range Greatest daily rango Mean height of barometer DiflFerence from av. (18 years). Highest barometer, Lowest barometer Monthly and annual ranges. . Mean humidity of the air Mean elasticity of aqueous vapor. Mean of cloudiness Difference from a v. (13 years). Resultant direction of the wind . " velocity of the wind . . Mean velocity (miles per hour) . . Diifeiencc from av. (17 years) Total amount of rain , Ditfor. from av. (24 & 35 yrs.) Number of days rain Total amount of snow Difference from av. (33 years.) Number of days snow Number of fair days Number of auroras observed. . . . Possible to see auro. (No. nights). Number of thunderstorms Jan. 23.79 - 0.82 -10.01 44,3 - 0.0 53.3 29M 17.51 12.07 26.9 39.5887 -.0447 Fen. 34.J13 - i.;?;5 -10.88 45.0 -15.0 00.0 31.52 18i)4 12.58 37,4 20.4914 —.1308 30.103 28 910 119^ .83 -110 .67 —.05 s 78 w 6.00 10.33 1.165 ■-0,106 30,134 29.009 1.115 .119 .01 s84w 6.48 10.11 + 1.77 26.3 +11.15 14 0.397 -0.603 o 14 11 9.5 8.55 14 13 11 Mab. 39.12 - 0.74 -10.98 50.3 3.0 35.59 23,44 13.16 28.4 Arn. 40.95 - 0.01 - 9.35 59.4 28.1 31.3 47.48 34.61 13.87 24.4 May 54.81 -f- 3.13 - 3.39 79.0 33.3 46.8 63.86 46.30 16.67 26.3 29.5082 29.5908 29.4721 —.0741 +.0098 —.1125 30.067 38.829 1.338 .80 .135 .60 +.06 N 53 w 2 29 8.41 0,26 1.630 +0.06^' 9 3.7 5.40 13 29.964 29.301 0.663 .194 .74 +.15 n41 E 3.39 7.77 —0.29 29.788 29.166 0.633 .75 •■cud .68 +.15 N 7 W 1.86 5.64 —0.95 3.633 4.070 +1.200 +0.864 16 18 14 3.5 1.10 3 14 10 0.0 0.00 JtTNK. 6;5.03 + 1.60 — 1.57 93.4 34.8 58.6 73.06 53.87 30.19 31.7 39.6545 +.0931 39.961 39.007 0.954 .63 .380 .30 N 55 w 1.73 4.53 —0.74 0.570 -2.297 5 13 12 35 24 I>OTE, — Tho ToitONTO Maonf.ticai. and MKTF.onoiooiOAL Or'EitVATOT.Y issitiintcd III tlie RroniKis of the University of Toronto, in liititndft 4ir 3'J' X.; longituilu !>h. I'm. iiiis. Vi'. ; 103 feet above Lalco Ontario, and approxini.ntcly iU2 feet above tbe Icvol of the sea, Tlio duties of Die Observatory are carried on by tlie Director, G. T. Kinubion, M.A., assisted \>y several competent assistunts. METEOROLOGICAL KESULTS. 87 cal iEK R. i03 09 57 Register for the year 1864. VATOKY, TORONTO, CANAD.V WEST. <7 9 July. Aco, Skit. Oct. o 45.11 — 0.48 — 8.63 Nov. Deo. Yonr Yonr 1804. Year 1S03. 44.57 + 0.40 — 6.43 88.0 —19.8 107.8 Year 1802. 69.73 + 2.75 + 1.03 08.58 + 2.37 + 0.08 94.0 47.0 47.0 56.36 — 1.48 — 5.14 86.91 + 0.16 — 0.29 24.06 — 1.50 —11.34 50.4 —10.4 00.8 32.23 19.71 13.52' 31.4 44.92 + 1.75 — 6.08 44.70 -1- 0.53 — 0.30 94.0 —15.0 109.0 44.35 + 0.18 — 0.65 90.2 49.0 41.3 73.0 37.8 35.2 63.94 48.96 14.98 37.0 29.6097 —.0532 07.0 28.0 39.0 53.05 39.73 13.32 26.0 29,5207 —.1293 29.890 29.026 0.864 60.2 21.0 39.3 90.5 —10.0 100.5 15.43 36.9 95.5 — 5.3 100.7 79.95 69.79 20. IG 31.3 77.24 61.41 15.83 29.2 ' 42.85 31.31 11.53 24.3 14.57 37.4 14".73 39.6 14.43 37.0 29.0289 +.0275 29.5450 — .07G3 29.5790 —.0349 30.126 28.671 1.455 29.5198, — .1282| 29.6330 —.0197 29.5590 —.0537 29.6536 +.0403 30.502 28.704 1.798 0.77 .266 0.61 +.01 29.6243 +.0115 29.831 29.319 0.512 29.803 29.099 0.764 29.975 29.230 0.745 30.,327 28.854' 1.473 30.354 28.707 1.647 30.327 28.671 1.656 30.409 28.805 1.GC4 .66 .73 .75 .80 .78 .83 0.75 0.76 0.77 .473 .516 .347 .248 .74 +.11 .182 .75 +.01 .121 .259 .263 .202 .44 —.04 .70 +.23 .58 +.08 .80 +.05 .61 +.01 N 66 w 1.98 6.78 -0.10 0.65 -i-.05 0.63 +.03 kOI-w 2.23 6.00 +1.03 n70w 1.38 4.75 —0.43 N38-W 1.89 7.00 -f-1.52 n60w 3.17 6.66 +0.52 s72w 3.82 7.64 +0.17 s83w 4.94 i 9.98 +1.66 n76av 2.49 7.40 +0.54 n41w 1.34 7.13 +0.27 26.483 -3.472 130 n48w 2.03 7.33 +0.47 1.332 4-2.142 8 5.060 +2.034 16 • • • • 2.508 —1.222 11 3.>il +0.791 oo 3.765 +0.617 11 2.045 +0.404; 9 20.599 —3.344 111 29.486 -0.409 132 25.529 —4.426 118 • • • • Inap. — 0.78 1 4.5 + 1.38 8 27.1 +12.41 18 03.3 — 0.00 08 201 74.0 +11.24 70 180 34 158 20 62.9 — 0.46 74 181 85.4 +33.04 73 23 15 6 19 4 9 12 9 1 10 189 3 1 9 55 44 48 19 13 14 11 201 183 176 4 5 4 17 24 24 B Thn instriimpnts used in the (>!)sorv.itory ami tho system of obscrTation nro of tlifi most approved description, sliowiiJK roliablo ri'siiUs. At tlie rcjriilar observation lionrs a record is made of tlie gen- eral appuaranci! i.f tin' sky, 'ndiuiin;; the form, distribntion, ami motion of the cloiide. Tin," .■ingiietieal and metc" iolof,'icid rusnlts are pnbllslnd at intervals of a few years, forming valu- able acqmsitions to kuowledije of the most useful und reliable character. 88 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Climate of Vancotiver'a Island, B. A. I 1 " Tlio olimatc of this important Island, lyinpj on tlio Pacific coast, bctwocu 48 ' and 51 '' nortli latitude?, i.s rendered })rovcr- l)ialiy gonial, productive, and salubrious, from an interesting variety of causes. The temperature of tlie Pacific coast gene- rally is known to be much milder than that which obtains ov. the corresponding shores of the North American Continent in the Atlantic. The isothermid lino belonging to latitude 40-' on tlie latter ocean, passes through the parallel of 50'' in the former. For lucid illustrations of this })rinciple the reader is directed to consult the instructive work of Lieutenant Maury, entitk^l ' The Physical Geography of the Sea.' " We have the autliority of eminent meteorologists for the action of cold under-cur rents fiovring fi'om the Arctic Sea, Avhich lave the rocky foundations of the island during the hot season, and exert their tempering influence far beyond high-water mark. The Olymjiian range of mountains, in AVashingtou Territor}-, extending in an easterly and westerly direction, regale the eye in the rich sunshine. The proximity of their grateful summits, cap})ed with eternal snows, tends to modify what must otlierwise be the intense heat of mid-summer. The prevailing winds at this season come fi'om the south, charged Avith warm moisture drawn from the sea, and oppress with sultrmcss the atmosphere of northern regions in most easterly longitudes. But, by contact with the neighboring snowy heights, the humid ele- meiit of these winds is condensed, and their excess of caloric a})sorbed, so that they are transmuted, as by a magic touch into breezes, ' Mild as when Zophyrus on Flora breathes! ' A vast rush of warm water, supposed to originate at the Equa- tor, and producing climatical eft'ects resembling those which result from the agency of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic, soft- ens tlio rigors of winter as the boreal action, akeady described, is believed to cool the scorching heat of summer. The phe- nomenon referred to is called the China Current, from the fact of its sweeping, m part, that coast, on its curvilinear path across the ocean, to break upon the shores of Vancouver's Island.'-^' * Anotlier of tlicso currents makes its escape through the Straits of Malacca, and bi'ino: joined by other warm streams i'rom the Java and Chinese Seas, flows into the Pacific, like anotlier Chilf Stream, between the Philippines and the shore of Asia. Thence it attempts vlie p;reat circle route for tlie Aleutian Islands, tem- pering climate, and losing itself in the sea on its route towards the northwest coast of America — as with the (iulf Stream so with the China ('urrcnt. — Tho climates of the Asiatic const correspond with those of America along the Atlantic, and those of Columbia, Washington, and Vancouver, are duplicates of those of Western Europe and the British Islands. — Physical Geography of the Sea. CIJJIATE OF VANCOUVER 8 ISLAND. 89 " From observations, t;ikon duily m Victoria during the years 18G0-G1, at nine a. m., three r. m., and nine r. m., it appears tliat the lowest mmn of the thermometer, in that period, occuiTC'd iu the thirty-one days in December, 1800, wlieu the range of that instrument averaged 41.2'2 ^ Fahr. Twenty-nine days in July, 1801, indicated tlie highest main to bo OO/J?^. At intervals of from seven to ten years, however, as in Great Britain, winters of unusual severity -^re experienced, when snow lies on tho ground for a month or six weeks. But with iUo. exception of these extraordinary periods, snow continues for little more than a week ; and sliarp frosts extend over about a fortnight of tho year. So mild is tho cold season generally, that cattle can find enough of food in the fields without siiecial provision having to be made for their shelter and maintenance. " The Avinter of 1803-04 was mild throughout. As this part of the sixbject is so important to intending settlerB, with respect to consideration of health as well as to farming operations, let us take a past year at random to aid tho reader in arriving at a satisfactory conclusion on tho matt(>,r. Dr. llattray, 11, N., attached to Her Majesty's ship " Topase," in Esquimalt Harbor, in 1800-01, carefuU}' tabulated, for tho use of the Admiralty, tho state of the Avcather from tho begin- ning of April to tho end of March following iu those years. Subjoined arc the result of his labors : — No. of fine days, 187 " wet days, ...... 17 " showery days, 101 " foggy days, ..... 17 " days with strong wind, ... 35 " days with thermometer below freezing, 11 " davs in which sncw fell, ... 12 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^.^ 4,%^ ^^. < t" r/u ^ A ^ 1.0 f-^ IM I.I 11.25 25 22 1^ 1: B4£ 1110 1.8 1.4 1.6 &p ^& 90 INFLUENCE OP CLIMATE. Temperature, &c., of the Upper Lakes. Situation and Mk.vj^ Annual Temfeuature of the Principal Ports on the Upper Lakes. il< :' FOBTB, &C. Agafe Harbor, L. S., Mioh., Ashland, L. S., Wis., Bayfield, « " . Beaver Bay, L. S., Minn., . Buchanan, L. 8,, Minn., Bruce Mines, Can., . Chicago, L. M., Ill, . Colling wood. Can., Copi^er Harbor,* L. S., Mich., Detroit,* Mich., . Eagle Harbor,* L. S., Mich., Eagle Rii'er, L. S., Mich., . Escanaba, Green Bay, Mich., Forrestville, L. Huron, Mich., Fort Gratiot,* " Fort WiUiam, L. S., Can., . Goderich, L. Huron, " Grand Haven, L. M., Mich, Grand Portage, L. S., Minn., Green Bay,* Wis., Houghton, L. S., Mich., La Pointe, L. S., Wis., Manitouwoc, L. M,, Wis., . Macidnac,* Mich., Marquette, L. S., Mich., Michigan City, L. M,, Ind., Micliicipoten, L. S., Can., . Milwaukee, L. M., Wis., . Munising, L. S., Mich., Neepigon, L. S., Can., Ontonagon, L. S., Mich., . Penetanquishene, Can., Port Huron, Mich, Eacine, L. M., Wis., . Eock Hfirbor, L. S., Mich., Saut Ste. Marie,* Mich., . Sheyboygan, L. M., Wis., . Superior City, L. S., Wi^., . Latitude. Longitude. Altitude. Mean Temp. o / c 1 Feet. ° Fahr. 47 30 88 10 600 41 46 33 91 00 600 41 46 45 91 00 600 40 47 12 91 18 600 38 47 33 92 00 600 37 46 20 83 45 576 40 41 53 87 37 578 47 44 30 80 20 574 43 47 30 88 00 620 41 42 20 83 00 600 471 47 28 88 08 600 41 47 25 88 18 600 578 41 42 43 40 82 34 574 45 42 55 82 23 598 46 48 23 89 22 600 36 43 44 81 43 574 45 43 05 86 12 578 46 47 50 90 00 600 37 44 30 88 05 620 44^ 46 40 88 30 600 41 46 45 90 57 600 40 44 07 87 45 578 45 45 51 84 33 700 40- 46 32 87 33 600 41 41 41 86 53 578 49 47 56 85 06 600 38 43 04 87 55 578 46 46 20 87 00 600 41 49 00 88 30 600 36 46 52 89 30 600 40 44 51 80 40 674 43 42 58 82 25 572 46 42 45 87 48 578 47 48 08 88 50 600 37 46 30 84 43 600 578 40 45 46 40 92 03 6O0 40 * United States Military Posts, giviijg the elevation of Forts, &c. PART V. GREAT LAKES, OR INLAND SEAS. The magnitude of the Lakes of North America, together with the St. LaAvrence River, is an interesting theme, being fully comprehended by only a few intelligent minds. They deserve to be described both in prose and verse, in order to have the mind fuUy impressed with their purity, extent, and impor- tance, in a commercial point of view, as well as their climatic influence. From the head of Lake Superior, passing through this inland sea and the St. Mary's Kiver into Lake Huron, and thence through Lake Erie, for a distance of upwards of 1,000 miles, there is much to see and admire ; while from the Falls of Nia- gara to the mouth of the St. Lawi'ence, for another thousand miles, the traveller witnesses the most grand and instructive lake and river scenery imaginable — passing through a healthy region of country, varying from 36^ to 48^ Fahr., mean annual temperature — the dai'k blue waters of Lake Superior changing to the green waters of LaJr.es Erie and Ontai'io, and the St. Lawrence Eiver. All the impediments to navigation, for the distance of about 2,000 miles, through the Great Lakes and their outlets, are overcome by a succession of sliip-canals, connecting with the tide waters below Montreal. Navigation is usually interrupted by ice from the beginning of December to the mid- dle of April, on the Upper Lakes and St. Lawi'ence Kiver. Eiver steamers usually start from Montreal the latter part of April, and anivals from sea, at Quebec, commence early in May, affording seven months of uninterrupted navigation. LAKf; Superior, at the height of 600 feet above the sea, is 420 miles long, 160 miles broad, and aboiit 900 feet deep. It discharges its surplus waters by the Strait or Eiver St. Mary, fifty miles long, into Lake Huron, w! ^'ch lies twenty-six feet be- low. This lake is computed to be 260 miles long, 110 miles If 92 INFLUENCE OF CTJMATE. .a broad, and 800 feet deep. A world of waters of itself, to say nothing of the Georgian Bay, on the northeast, or the Saginmo Bay, on the southwest, both embracing a large expanse of waters. The former, however, is studded with innumerable islands and islets, forming a perfect labyrinth for about 100 miles along its northeast shore, being entirely within the con- fines of Canada. LAiffi Michigan, 578 feet above the sea, is 320 miles long and 80 miles broad, and about 800 feet in depth. It discharges its waters, in connection with Green Bay, through the Strait of Mackinac, fifty miles in length, into Lake Huron, nearly on a level. Lake Winnebago, the extreme southwest tributary of the St. Lawrence, in connection with the Fox or Neenah Eiver, is an interesting body of water, lying 170 feet above Green Bay, or Lake Michigan. Navigation is now extended to tlie head of this lake, and up the Fox E,iver, until the level is obtained, where the waters of the St. Lawrence unite with the waters of the Missifgippi, by means of a -^anal of only between one and two miles in leng-th — the junction being made Avith the Wis- consin River at Portage City, near old Fort Winnebago — thus forming an inland navigation from the Gulf of Mexico to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The accumulated waters of Lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron are immense, all of which find an outlet through the St. Clair Eiver, into St. Clair Lake, and thence through Detroit Eiver into Lake Erie, the fourth great lake of this immense chain. This latter lake, again, running nearly east and west, at an elevation above the sea of 5G5 feet, is 250 miles long, 60 miles broad, and 200 feet at its greatest depth, but, on an aver- age, considerably less than 100 feet deep, discharges its surplus waters by the Niagara Eiver and Falls, into Lake Ontario, 330 feet below. The river is thirty-five , miles in length ; 160 feet being the descent at the Falls, the remainder made up of rapids above and below the Falls. Here navigation ceases for about seven miles, from a short distance above Niagara Falls Village to Lewiston, New York. Lake ONTAiao, the fifth and last of the Great Lakes of America, is elevated 235 feet above tide-water, at Three Rivers, on the St. Lawrence ; it is 180 miles long, 60 miles broad, and :J LAKE REQION OF NOHTH AMEMCA. 88 600 feet deep. Lake Ontario is the safest body of water for navigation, and Lake Erie the most dangerous, owing to its elevation and low depth of water. The lakes of greatest intei'ost to the tourist or scientific trav- eller are Ontario and Huron, together with Georgian Bay and North Channel, and Lake SujDcrior. LtJIlg Region of North America. la treating of the climate and phenomena peculiar to tho Great Lakes, or " Inland Seas" of North America, Foster and Whitney, in their Report of 1850, remark : " The meteoro- logical influence should be described in its most extended sense, as comprehending, according to Humboldt, all the changes of the atmosphere which seriously affect our organs — as tempera- ture, humidity, variations in tho barometrical pressure, the calm state of the atmosphere, or the action of opposite currents of wind, tho purity of the atmosphere, and, finally, the degree of ordinary transj^arency and clearness of the sky, which ia not only important, with respect to the increased radiation of tho earth, the organic development of plants, and tho ripening of fruits, but also with reference to its influence on the feelings and mental condition of men. " To tliis great student of na+ure, science is indebted for liav- ing first suggested a system of lines^ called Isothermal, Isothe- ral, and Isochimenal (implying the year, summer, and winter), connecting those places where the mean summer, winter, and annual temperatures have been ascertained; — thus running round tho globe, defining tho frigid, cold, temperate, sub-trop- ical, and tropical zones, or belts of temperature. These lines are by no means parallel, or defined by lines of latitude ; various causes conspiring to produce divergencies — such as altitude above the sea, the geographical configuration of the country, the presence or absence of large bodies of water and mountam chains, the purity of the sky, and the prevailing currents of the ocean and the dii'cction of winds.' This latter influence is fully apparent on the opposite sides of the American ( Joutinervt, as well as in that portion of country where tho cold blasts from oti' Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay crowd down the isu thermal line. "The presence of so vast a body of fi-esh wate • i\'-. is afforded by the American lakes modifies tlu^ rango of \ ae lihermometer, lessening the intensity of cold in the winter ai;ruce, broad-leaved maple, Oregon crab-a})ple, Oregon alder, western hemlock, spruce, Nootka cypress, red or black lir, and Oregon white oak, and other species ; making twenty ncnv form of trees in this far northv.estern region, north of latitude 49"', and others will doubth^ss l)e added, showing a very rich forest growth. At latitude 'IS , Straits of Fuca, are found Oregon ash, ma- drona laurel, scrub or twisted pine, Oregon 3'cw, heavy yellow pine, and northwestern larch. At about latitude 47 ', scrubby cherry, Oregon hawthorn, CaUi'ornia green dogwood, coast Avil- low and }-ellow lir. In Oregon and California are found, in ad- dition to most of the abovc^ species, smooth inanzanita, ever- green chestnut, downy-cone s|;ruce, Cascade Mountain spruce, Oregon silver fir, California nut |)ine, western ])itch pine, sugar pine, leafj'-cone spruce, California grape, California buckeye, California plum, Mexican sycamore, California red oak, red- wood, giant redwood, California cedar, California white oak, and long acorn live-oak. ^'•"vther south, between latitude oG^ and 32^, Avest of the Coast niouutaias appear — Mexican wahnit, hvurel, Bunuich, sharp- toothed live-oak, obloug-leaved alder, hairy-pot,', poplar, Gou- an's cypress, Mexican arbor vitai, Mexican pistachio tree, and Torrey's pine ; all of these may l)o su]iposed to occur in the Pcnuisula of Lower California, and nuiuy oxttMid their range east of the coast mountains toward the Sierra Nevada. Very littlcj is known of the trees of Northern Mexico, or of their distribution, between latitude 32 "' and 21) ', where abounds the mesquite, green acacia. New Mexican nut ])ine, Arizonian barberry, Arizonian live-oak, saguaro cactus, ]>rickly pear, AVis- lizenis ca *"us, Cliihuahuan pine, and dillerent species of willows. Many ox these trees of the southern border, along tlie boun- dary' lino, scarcely rise above the growtli of shrubs within our limits, and they are accompanied by a large uumlx^r of tree shrubs, which cover large tracts with a kind of miniature i'oreiit, as is the case iu portions of the llocky Mountain range. ff I m 104 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. The successive tables of land with wliicli the eastern slope of Mexico rises, fi'om the Gulf to the centre, have each peculiarities of vegetation, erato countries. Consumption is rare in the Arctic regions, in Si- beria, Iceland, the Orkneys, and Hebrides, also, in tho north- western portion of tho United States. " In North America ' the disease of the resjiiratory organs, of which consumption is the chief, have their maximum in Now England, in latitude about 42"', and diminish in all directions from this point inland. Tho diminution is quite as rajiid west- ward as southward, and a large district near the fortieth paral- lel is quite uniform at twelve to fifteen per cent, of deaths from consumption, while Massacluisetts varies from twenty to twenty- live. At the border of the dry climate of the plains, in Minne- sota, a minimum is attained as low as that occurring in Florida, and not exceeding five per cent, of the entire mortality. It is still lower in Texas, and tlie absolute minimum for the continent in temperate latitudes is in Southern California.' " The Upper Peninsula of Michigan, embracing the whole of the Lake Superior region, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Washing- ton Territory, are all alike exempt, in a remarkable degree, from the above fatal disease. Invalids suffering from pulmonary complaints and throat disease are almost uniformly benefited by the climate of the above northern re^on, having a mean an- nual temperature of fi'om 40^ to 50 ^ Fahrenheit. Biseases of the Respiratory System. With reference to diseases of the REariRATOKY System, Assis- tant Surgeon G. K. Wood, U. S. A., stationed at Fort Laramie, submits tho following remarks : — " The climate of these broad and elevated table-lands which skirt the base of tho llocky Mountains on the east, is especially beneficial to persons suffering from pulmonary diseases, or with DISEASES OP THE RESniUTOllY HYSTIiM. 113 a srrqfulom diathefiis. This has been known to tho French in- habitants of tho Upper Mississippi ivnd Missouri for many yours ; find it has been their custom, since tho settlement of that por- tion of the country, to send tlio younper members of their families, Avho showed any tendt>ncy to diseases of tho lunj^'s, to pass their youth amouf^ tho trappers of tho plains and moun- tains. The beneficial result of this c(MU'se, no doubt, depends, in ft gi'eat measure, upon the mode of life led by these jjcrsons — their regular habits, constant exercise in tho open air, and the pbseuco of the enerv'^' X , '■■> ^ \ g' tf »? y'g Bt ? v*i^:t:J t::^ .J. .. f ' ^l;,; i'-. i .*u H hi l.t'tii/itiiitc 11.'.*/ )1W*r'N HnKhint/trn i\ ■/ <- 7r -■^'^"— ^-v.. '^, /.'ff«l ^ !•■ H II A ,S \y;^ ) I ■ n \v V/.,, A ' /I'd/iinirt*'"' ■/ >1 . .!«!•'' 40 ^v »> z^' .,\ T ) K <0 ■^^ . "■'■''/'/•I n ..,.f»n,/^ ■^., (• I I. /' F M I: A- ' Unujitinle ItV-vc 87i'Ktm 1 J.itlhrpfnphfHl by Kak Hmith. V^\ Nnniaii I e\ \ \ li ! . ^* .'* wv*.;^- . .„.^i PART VII. CLIMATIC BOUxNDARY OF THE UNITED STATES. 11 The United States of America, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, is washed by two great oceans, one on the east and one on the west, each exercising a groat and varied cUmatic influence. It is bounded on the north by the British Posses- sions, and on the south by the Gulf and Repubhc of Mexico. Its extremes of Lititude are from 24.]^ to 49° north, and fi'om 67° to 125° west h)ngitude, from Greenwich. Its Northern Hmit, on the Athmtic side, is 47° 15' north lati- tude, where stands Fort Kent, Maine, having a mean annual temperature of 37° Fahrenheit ; centrally, at Pembina, Minn., 49° north latitude, having a ? lean annual temperature of 38°. On the Pacific side (Puget's Sound), its northern hmit is 48° 30' north latitude, h.ere having a mean annual temperature of 50° Fahr. ; variation, 1JI° Fahr. Its Eastern limit, on the Atlantic, in north latitude 44° 54' ; G6° 58' west longitude, from Greenwich (Eastport, Me.), having a mean annual temperature of 43° Fahr. ; centrally, Norfolk, Va., near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay, 3G° 45' north latitude, having a mean annual temperature of 00°. On the Atlantic coast, in 25° north latitude ; 81° west longitude (the southern pai*t of Florida), having a mean annual temperature of 76° Fahr. ; variation, 33° Fahr. Its Southern limit on the Gulf of Mexico (Key West), 24° 32' north latitude, having a mean annual temperature of 76° Fahr. ; centrally at the mouth of the Eio Grande (Fort Brown, Texas), 25° 53' north latitude, having a mean annual temperature of 74°. On the Pacific side, 32° 31' north latitude ; 117 ' 06' west longitude (near San Diego, Cal.), having a mean annual tem- perature of 62° Fahr. ; variation, 1 4° Fahr. Its Western limit on the Pacific coast, (San Diego), ha%'ing a mean annual temperatui-e of 62° Fahr. ; centrally, San Francisco, m i U^i 116 INFLUINCE OF CLIMATE. 37^ 48' north latitude ; 122° 26' west longitude, having a mean annual temperature of 55 \ On the Strait of San Juan de Fuca, (Cape Flattery), 48" 30' north latitude ; 124-^ 40' west longitude, here having a mean annual tomperatiu-e of 50 ' Fahr. ; varia- tion, 12^ Fahr. Its extremes of mean annual ieinperatares are from 37"^ to 77^ Fahr., and running through 24.] degrees of latitude, and 40 degrees of temperature.^- Within this wide limit, embracing upwards of 3,000,000 square miles, are produeed on the Ntn-tli all the more hardy products of the forest, furnishing the finest of timber, together with the cereals, the grasses, and the vegetables. On the South is produced cotton, rice, sugar, and most of the fruits peculiar to a warm or 8ub-troi)ical chmatc — thus placing the United States, in a chmatic point of view, in the best possible position on the face of the globe. The Atlantic slope, for the most part, is favored with a healthy chmate, and rich in agricultural and mineral products. West of the Alleghany range of mountains, the great valley of the Mississippi, presents a virgin soil and favorable climate, which, combined with the basin of the Great Lakes, fiu'nishes a culti- vable field unequalled m the Eastern or Western ContLneut. The northern boundary of the United States, for about half its distance across the continent, runs nearly parallel to the northern limit of the Temperate Zone (40^ mean annual tem- perature), above which Imo killing frosts are liable to occur during each of the summer months — hence the uncertainty of raising grain or vegetables north of the Upper Lakes. To the south of the United States boundary along the con- fines of Mexico, the climate assumes a tropical ca::racter. " The boundary," says Colonel Emory, " is embraced in the zone separating the tropical from the sub-tropical or temperate regions. It is indeed a ncufrcd re^fi'on, having peculiar charac- teristics so different as to stamp upon animal and vegetable life features of its own. The vegetation assumes a tropical charac- ter, and the margin of the Rio (Irande, near its mouth, which is exi)osed to overflow, abounds in reed, cane-brake, palmetto, willow, and water-plants. That which, perhaps, creates as much * On the Pacific coast, running through 16' of latitude' (from 32° to 48"), there is only a variation of 13^ of mean annual tomporaturo. m CLIMATIC BOUNDARY OF THE ITiITED STATES. 117 fo ^ro as any other one cause the difference in its botanical and zoolo- gical productions, is the liygrouietric state of the atmosphere." Thus it may be perceived that the United States possesses a singular and marked di mafic boundary, both on the North and on the South, although defined by no mountain ranges ; giving to the Union nearly all of the temperato and sub-tropical zones on the Continent of North An;erica, without any, or little, of the enervating influence of a purely tropical climate. A portion of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia are included in the above favorable Temperate Zone ; also, the southern part of British America lying Avest of the head of Lake Superior. Population, Health, and Agriciiltural Products. The Area of the United States may be divided into four gi'eat Climatic Divisions, as follows : — 1. The most healthy region is the Northern Division, embrac- ing the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Northern New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Dacota, Montana, Idaho, and Washington Territory, lying mostly between the 43d and 49th parallels of north latitude. O.OC) per cent., or 1 in 110 dying annually in the above States and Territories. This extensive region, embracing 825,000 square miles of tem- tory, has three or four months of cold winter weather, with de- lightful summers ; contaiuing only five inhabitants to the square mile. It produces, wheat, oats, hay, potatoes, and other vege- tables in great abundance. On the northern liujit, the mean annual temperature varies from 37^ to 44° Fahr., rising to 47° on the southern linut. 2. The Middle Division, lying mostlj^ between the 89tli and 43d parallels (the most favored zone), comprises the States of Massachusets, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Southern Idaho, and Oregon, having an area of 453,000 square mUes, and containing thirty inhabitants to the square mile. The mean annual temperature varies from 47° to 53° Fahr. ; it being the centre of the Temperate Zone ; 1.18 per cent., or 1 in 03 dying annually. It produces all the cereals, grasses, and fruit of different kinds, suitable for the sustenance of man and n ■i 118 IXFLUENCE OF CUILVTE. I beast. About one-half of the entire product of wheat, Indian com, and oats, and more than half the hay, butter, and cheese being raised in this fertile region, according to the Census of 1860, Avhile nearly half the poi)ulation of the Union is found within the same belt of territoiy, extending from ocean to ocean. 3. The Division lying between the 3Gth and 40th parallels of latitude, embracing the Border States, including Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Kentuck}', Tennessee, Mis- souri, Kansas, (.olorado, Utah, Nevada, and Northern Cali- fornia, forming an area of (]7G,000 square miles. It contains nine inhabitants to the square mile. The mean annual temperature varies from 50'^ to GO^ Fahr., being greatly affected by altitude in different sections ; 1.30 per cent., or 1 in 79 d^'ing annually. Although rich in agi'icultural and mineral productions, and with a genial clnnate, this section of the Union has not increased as rapidly in population and wealth as the more; northern divisions. It produces wheat, Indian corn, tobacco, and hemp, and is also favorable for grapes and other kinds of fruit. 4. The Southern Division, lying between the 24th and 3Gth parallels of latitude, includes the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Ar- kansas, Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and Southern California. The mean annual temperature varies from GO ^ to 77^ Fahrenheit. It embraces an area of 1,091,000 square miles, being the largest division ; containing six inhabitants to to the square mile ; 1.48 per cent., or 1 in G9 dying annually. Here is produced cotton, rice, sugar, and Indian corn in great quantities ; being for the most part a sub-tropical climate, where snow or ice are seldom to be found, and is subject to malignant fevers of different kinds. Total Area, Population, &c., of the United States — 1860. Divisious. Moan Temp. No. to " Fahr. Sq. Milos. Population. Sq. Mile Northern, . . 37 to 47 8-25,190 4,27G,47G 5 Middle, . . . 47 to 53 453,358 14,189,349 30 Border or Central, 50 to GO G7(;,70G 6,208,583 9 Southern, . . GO to 7G 1,091,413 G,G84,349 6 3,04G,GG7 31,358,757* 12^ * Of whom iu 1860, o,9o0,700 vcie Slaves of African descent. HABITS AND CH.VRACTEB. 119 M ile. Habits and Character, as Influeuced by Climate. The habits and character of the people inhabiting these dif- ferent sections are more or less influenced by rlimatc — thus the inhabitants of the New England States, with a temperate, cool climate, arc found to be generally intelligent, industrious, hu- mane, and frugal — hving m comfortable houses, encouraging ediication, religion, the arts, and all the helps which go to ame- liorate and advance the human race. The same may be said of all the Northern and Northwestern States, where an agricultural community predominates. Hero ship-building and manufac- tures, as well as agricultural piirsuits of different kinds, are carried on very extensively. The middle belt, luuing a mean annual temperature from 4'P to 53 - Fahr., is crowded with inhabitants, and fuU of entoqDrise — where the arts, commerce, institutions of learning and agricul- tural pursuits are alike encouraged. Here are the gi'cat cities and marts of trade — where are found steam-ships and railroads in rapid motion, communicating in a measure the same impetus to its citizens. Common schools, academies, colleges, scientific, l^enevolent and rehgious institutions, and manufacturing estab- lishments are generally found to exist. Popublican institutions here find firm supporters, while op})ression of every kind is dis- couraged and opposed by the great mass of the people. On this gi'eatly favored belt or zone, commerce has its perma- nent and chief seat — here sailing vessels and steamers are en- abled to run during the entire year with safety to passengers and freight, while in the more northern parts the harbors and rivers are generally closed for three or four months by ice — while to the south, during the summer months, excessive hot weather and sickness enfeebles and retards commerce. This may be further illustrated by comparing the navigation of the St. Lawrence Eiver and ports south of the mouth of Chesa- peake Bay, with Boston, Ncav York, and Philadelphia. So on the Pacific side of the continent, nearly all the commerce being confined to ports having a temperate and healthy climate. The inhabitants of the Border or Central States, includmg Mui'yland, Kentucky, Sec, are of a mixed character in regard to many of the habits and traits enumerated above — often resort- ing to scenes of violence, in order to enforce their opinions. r 'I Vi t III ■t I II It' IK 120 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Here, to a considorablo extent, the arts, commerce, and mann- faeturcs aro fostered, wliilo ap^riculturc is gi'catly encouraged. The white population of the ►Southern or Cotton-growing States, as a whole, are more united and fixed in their character, than any other portion of the American people. Climate and the institution of slavery combined, has tended to render thom haiighty, domineering, and impatient of restraint — in a measure imfitting them for a republican form of government. These objectionable traits of character, hoAvevcr, are confined mostly to the vicinity of the sea-board, while in the mountainous regions of Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee are found good and loyal citizens, firmly maintaining republican prin- ciples. Here is a sub-tropical climate, the temperature varing from GO^ to 70^ Fahrenheit, mean annual temperature. The inhabitants of the Ppcilic States and Territories are of a varied and mixed character, Avhere may be found the descendants of the Eurojiean, Asiatic, Mexican and African races, as well as the native Indian. Their habits of life and social relations differ- ing according to their different nationalities. The white Ameri- can race predominates in the government and business affairs of the country, being sincere in their support of repul)hcan principles ; while a fine cHmate, fruitful soil, and mountain ranges engenders noble sentiments in the breast of man. Further observations in North America aro necessary in order to show the influences operating, in. a climatic point of view, on its inhabitants, now making rapid progress in civiliza- tion and liberal forms of government, giving equal privileges to all races of men ; thus elevating all classes of the human family, residing on this continent, to tho standard designed by an oveiTuling Providence. AGRICULTUHAL PRODUCTS. 121 I.— Agricultural Products of the United States— 1860, Giving tbo Ark\ of tlic States and Teuritokies. 1. NoKTiiKiiN Division, Having a Jlcan Annual Temperature between 40" and 47' Fahrcnlieit. States, &c. Aron, Sq. Miles. 85,000 !),2H0 10,212 10,000 5(5.243 5:5.924 83,5:51 230,000 1(50,000 100,000 71,000 Whnnt, lliislula. 233,870 2:58,905 4:57.0:57 2,89:5,701 8,;s:so,:50s 15,057,458 2,180,99:5 945 80,219 Inillnn Corn, liiishuls. I'atihcls. 2,988,039 1,:529.2:53 3.(5:50,2(57 11.725,044 4,0;5(i,98() 11,059,2(50 2,170,002 2,540 134,334 I'otntoca, lliiMlield. G,;570,052 4,1:57,704 5,254,121 8,818,:507 5,;500,7;S7 3,820,705 2,500,277 9,489 103,012 irujr, T0118. Maino New 1 (ampshirc, . Verm, at Nth'rn New York Miclii^an ^Vi8consin Minnesota, Dakota Ten, Montana Ter LlalioTer \^'abllinc;tou Ter., 1,540,071 1,414,028 1,525,411 0,(587,01(5 12,444,(57(5 7,517,;50O 2,941,952 20,209 4,712 975,803 042,741 940.178 1,188,2(54 7(58,250 855,037 179,482 855 4,580 Total, 825,190 30,071,502 34,102,035 3r,082,599!30,407,004 5,555,190 2. Middle Division. Having a Mean Annual Temperature bi'twccn 47' and 53" Falir. Massachusetts,. Itliodo Island,.. Connecticut., . . Sth'rn New York New Jersey,. . . Pennsvlvania, . (3hio,." Indiana, Illinois [owa Nebraslia Ter.,. Oregon 7,800 1,300 4,750 30,000 8,;520 47,000 30.904 33,809 55,400 55,000 79,000 100,000 119,783 1,131 52,401 5,787,4041 1,70:5,218 13,04->,1(55 15,119,047 10,848,207 2:5,837,02:5 8,449,403 147.807 820,770 2,157,003 401,497 2.059,835 13.374.0:5:5 9.72:5.3:50 28,190,821 73.54:M90 71,588,919 115,174,777 42,410.080, 1,482,080 70,122 1,180,075 244,453; 1,522,218 23,450,090 4,.5:SO,i:52' 27,:587,147 15,409.2:54 5.317,831 15.220.029 5,887,045 74,502 885,073 ZL\ 3,202.51 < 54:5,855 1,8:55,8,58 17,030,010 5.200,522 11,090,154 8,999,540 4,1(55,103 5,840,544 2,85H.082 1(52,350 303.054 Total,. 005,331 82,722 502,425 2.37(5.529 508,720 2,245.413 1,504,503 022,420 1.774,554 813,173 24,458 27,086 Having a Delaware, Maryland, Dis. of Columbia, Virginia, \_ West Virginia, ) Kentucky Tennessee, Missouri, Kansas Colorado Ter.,. . . Utah Ter., Nevada Nth'rn California, Total, I453,358,85,994,485i360,168,279|101,118,029,02,450,807 11,209,245 3. Border Southern States. Moan Annual Temperature between 53' and 00' Fahr. 2,120 11,124 00 37,352 912.941 0,103,480 12,700 2l:000 l-^-130,977 37,080j 7,394,809 5,459,208 4,227,580 194,173 45,000 05,000 83,000 101,000 121,000 90,000 50,:333 384,892 3,031 1.970,150 070,700 39,800,073 3,892,337 13,444,922 80,840 38,319,999 04,013,033 52,089,920 72,892,157 6,150,727 90,482 4(50 170,230 J5 1,1 75,719 1,040,910 520,144 3,959,298 1,501,109 29,548i 37,299 10,180,720 4,253,215 4,017,029^ 2,814,088 2,207.814; 3.780,077 3,080,870: 3,325,95'> 88,325 63,211 1,082 347,008! 306,300 141.001 5.880 607.923 20,288,475:10,359,054 1,509,030 30,973 191,744 3.180 445,133 158,470 143,499 401.070 50,233 19,235 2 213 loT,'884 :'l 122 INFLUENCE OF CUMATE. hi 1 1 4. SouTiiEiiN Division. Having a Mean Annual Tomperaturo between 60° and 70^ Fahr. States, iSco. North Carolina,.. South Carolinp... (Jcorpia, Florida, Alabama Mississippi, Arlfansas Louisiana, Texas Indian Territory, N. Mexico Tor., ) Arizona Ter.,. . J Sth'ni Calil'ornia, Total,.., Aroa. Sq. MilUB. 50,700 JM.OOO CH,000 r«i),3(iH 50,722 47,150 52,19.s 41,:14() 274,ir)(! 70,000 110,000 1 a 1,000 112,0(j'7 Wlicat, ItllBllclH. 4,74i{,70(]l 1,2S5,0;!I| 2,544,!) i;j 2,H(Wi 1,218,444 5M7,!)25 957,(501 ;{2,20H 1,478,345 i j- 434,309| 2,952,!U4 Iiulinn (!i>rn, IIiihIiuIh. 30,078,504 15,005,000 30,77(i,29;{ 2,834,391 33,220,282 2!),057,«82 17,823,588 l(i,853,745 10,500,702 709,304 340,472 OfttH, lilltlllclS. 2,781,800 930,974 1,231,817 40,899 082,179 221.235 475,208 89,377 985,889 095,338 I'otatocs, UuhIiuId. 0,970,004 4,342,723 6,813,330 1,148,525 5,931,503 4,978,193 1,984,550 2.:!55,030 2,020,794 5,403 1,335,847 . 1 ,091,413 10,338,204 193,200,029 8,154,082 37,885,708 liar. Tom. 181,305 87,587 40,448 11.478 02,211 32.901 9,350 52,721 11,805 1,113 203,771 700,810 Recapitulation, by Climatic Divisions. Divisions. Wlicat, liuslu'ls. Northern Division, Middle Division i Border South'n States, Southern Division,,. . . Grand Total, Indian Corn, Uushels. 30,071,552 34.102,035 85,994,485 300,108,279 39,800,073;251, 175,719 10,238,204 193,200,029 Oats. BuhIicIh. 37,082,599 101.118.029 20.288.475 8.154,082 •Potatoes, liushuls. 30.407,004 02.450,807 10.359,054 37,885,708 Hay, Tons. 5,555,190 11,209,245 1,509,039 700,810 172,104,924'838,713,003j 172,013.185 153,109,293|19,094,l * 42,095,020 were sweet potatoes. II. — Agricultural Product.^ of the United States— 1860. Also, the Average Meau Annual Temperature of tlie Several States and Territories. 1. Northern Diyision. States, &o. Maine, New IIami)3hiro,.. . Vermont. Nth'rn New York, Michigan, Wisconsin., Minnesota, Dakota Territory,.. Montana Ter.,.. . , Idaho Ter Washington Ter.,.. Totpl Yearly Temp. Fahr. 37 to 40 40 to 40 42 to 47 44 to 47 40 to 49 40 to 47 138 to 46 ]38 to 4S ;i8 to 48 40 to 50 f44 to 52 i Butter, Lbs. 11,687,781 0,956,704 15,900.359 34,097,280 15,503,482 13,011,328 2,957,073 2,170 153,092 Cheese, Lbs. 1,799,862 2,232,092 8.215.030 10,548.289 1,041,897 1,104,300 199,314 12,140 Tobacco, Lbs. 1,583 18,581 12,215 1,921,537 121,099 87.340 38,938 10 10 ■Wool, Lbs. 1,495,000 1,100,222 3,118,950 3,151,491 3,960,888 1,011,933 20,388 19,819 100,870.729i 31 ,752,930 i3,201 ,343; 13,938,751 Flax, Lbs. 2,997 1.347 7,007 SOli.OOS 4,128 21,044 1,983 515,114 AOKIOUIiTURAL PRODUCl'S. 123 2. Middle Dimsion. Utatks, &0. Ma8Eac]iu8ett<«,. . . Hhixlo Island,.. . . Conuucticut. . . . Sth'rn Now York, Nt;w Jnrsoy I'eiinaylvaiiia, . . . Oliio,." ludiuna, Illinois Iowa Nebraska Tor.,.. • Orogou Total, Yoorly Temp. ° Kiihr. 45 to oO 48 to oO 4(1 to 50 47 t„ .Tl 48 to ry.i 4(i to 5:{ 47 to .'54 48 to 54 47 to 54 4(J to 5:> 4(J to 50 48 to 54 iiuiter, Lba. 8,297,1)30 1,021,707 7,020,013 09,000,000 10,714,447 58,0:35,511 48,54:i,l(!2 18,:i0(i,(i51 28,052,551 ll,9.5:!,(l«(i ;!42,541 1,000,157 Clipcse, Lbs. 5,294,090 181,511 3.898,411 32,000,000 182,172 2,50S,55() 21,018,893 005,795 1,848.557 918,035 12,342 105,379 Tobftcoo, Lbs. 3;J33.198 0,705 0,000,133 3,843,045 149,485 3,181,580 25.092,581 7.993,378 0,885,202 303.108 3,030 0,405 Wool, Lbs. 877,207 90.099 335,890 0,302,983 349,250 4,752,522 10,008,927 2,552,318 1,989,507 00).8.58 3.oU2 219,012 riax, Lbs. 0,105 1,187 1,012.017 4H.051 312,308 8H2,423 97,119 48,235 30,230 163 J00,450,080l09,174,343 50,080,581 !28,342,701 2,432,553 3. Border and Western States. Dolawaro, ]53 Maryland '50 Dis. of Columbia, .55 Virginia } ~'^ WoMt Virginia, f Kontucky, Tennessee, Missouri o: Kansas 50 Colorado Ter.,...'40 Utah Tor '48 Nevada 48 Nth'rn Calitbrnia,'48 to 55 to 58 to 50 to 00 to 50 to 00 to 00 to 00 to 50 to 54 to 00 to 58 to 58 Total,. 1,430,502 5,205,295 18,835 13,404,722 11,710,000 10,017,787 12,704,837 1,093,497 310,040 1,. 547,5 17 57,575,047 0,579 9,099 8,342 38,410,905 15,300 280,852 123,908,312 190,400 108,120,840 135,570 2.59,033 29,045 53,331 071,844 43,448,09. 25,080,190 20,349 1,575 50.201 491,511 100 2,510,019 2,329.105 1.405,230 2,009,778 24,740 74,705 1,341 ,.554 1,035,598,339,087,233,10,297,015 1,550,C;34: 8,113 14,481 487,808 728,234 290,4()4 109,837 1335 4,343 4. Southern Division. North Carolina,.. 1.54 to South Carolina, . . 50 to Georgia 58 to Florida 00 to Alabama, 00 to Mississippi, Arkansas,. . Louisianix, 00 to 50 to , ,02 to Texas, 00 to Indian Territory, '50 to N. Mexico Ter., { Arizona Ter.,. . J Bth'rn California, Total 48 to .50 to .50 to CO 08 70 77 70 70 CO 72 74 01 72 74 74 4,73.5,495 3,177,934 5,439,705 ■ 408,855 0,028,487 5,006,010 4,007,550 1,444,702 5,850,583 13,259 1,547,517 51,119 1,543 15,587 5,380 15.933 4,427 10,810 0,153 27.5,138 37,340 071,844 33,853,250 104,412 919,318 828,815 232,914 1.59,141 989,980 39,940 97,914 7,044 1,575 883,473 427,103 940,227 59,171 775,117 005,959 410,382 290,847 1,493,738 492,045 1,341,554 37,719,8011 1,101,034 36,834,3031 7,780,315 216.490 344 3,303 111 50 3,821 115 234,234 i: i r lU INFLUENCE OP CLIMAlTi:. Recapitulation, byClitnatio Divisions. DiVIBIONA, lliilter. I.ln. t'lll'I'lll', l.llH. ai.7.w,ni)0 «i»,t74,a4;{ i,(i;jr...'5i)8 1,101,034 Tobncco, l.llH. L\20i,:M:i .')(t,(IH((/)Hl :};!»,()H7,'j;i;t y(i,'i;{4,;i():{ Wiinl, Mia. i:!,!);w.7r»l 2M,'JI2,701 10,'J!l7,Oir. 7,78(i,;Jir) Flux, UlM. Nortlicrn DivlHion, . . Midillc DiviHioii UordiT Statcrt, etc. . . . Soiitlicru DiviHion 10n.H70.72!t 3(;().4r)(i,«H(t r.7,57r),«47 »7,719,801 R4r»,ii4 !3,4:i'.;,.W!i l,r)5(),.JH4 ','2l,'234 Grand Total, 4r,(j,o22,8r)7 loa.dHij.itos 4!{4,20!),4(10 ()0,2U4,78a 4,7.12,48.1 III.— Agricultural Products of the Sub-Tropical States— 1060. Btaths, iSco. North Carolina, South Civrolina, Georgia Florida Alahania . . . Mississippi Tonnt'ssoc (SoutluTu), Arkansas, Lonislana, Texas Other States, Total, C.itton, Dales, 4U0 lbs. 14.5,514 ;ir):!,4i2 701. H 10 or),i,');5 })8!),i)'').'5 1,202 ,.507 228,11(4 307,:i!);{ 777,7;iS 4 ;{ 1.40:3 .50,473 5,318,782 Hlri., Llis. 7,.5n3.070 11!),100,.528 .52,.5()7,r>')3 223,704 41)3,40.5 80!»,0S3 40,372 10,813 0,331,2.57 20,031 24,134 187,107,032 Cimn Piifriir, llugsliuuUii. 88 198 1,107 1 ,001) 17.5 500 3 403 321,720 5,01)1) *230,983 MiiliiRseii, iiullullH, 12,494 540,749 430,357 85,115 10,010 2,S30 22,305 13,43!),773 408,358 14,963,090 * 330,982,000 pounds cano sugar; maple sugar, 40,120,083 pounds, mostly raised iu the Middle and Northern States. m IV. — Comparative Agricultural Statistics of the United States, 1850—1860. I'BODCCTS, &0. Inhabitants, Number, Wheat,. . . . Bushels, Indian Corn, " Oats Potatoes, . . " Hay Tons, Butter, Lbs. Cheese " Tobacco, " Wool, " Cotton, " Rice " Sugar " Wine, Gallons, QuanMties. 1850. 23,191,870 100,485,944 .592.141,230 146,.584,17» 104,037,502 13,838,042 312,948,915 105,535,.599 199,752,740 52,518,143 978,317,200 215,312.710 230,814,000 231,319 1800. 31,443,232 173,104,934 838,792,740 172,043,185 153,109,293 1!),083,890 4.59,081,372 10;},003,927 434,209,401 00,204,913 3,127,512,800 187,107,032 230,982,000 1,027,242 Proportion to Each III militant. 1850. 1860. 4.33 5.50 2.5. 27. 6.34 5. 13. 1.5. 4.50 3.50 8..50 14. 2.25 o 42..50 70. 9.25 0. 12. 9. Increase nnd Decrease. In. 8.251,440 " 72.018,980 " 250,051,510 " 2(;,05!),(K)0 " 49,071,731 5,245,254 " 140,733,457 De. 1,871,073 In. 234,440,715 7,740,770 " 1,1 41). 195,000 Do. 28,145,078 5,832,000 In. 1,405,993 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 125 States in the Order of their Indian Corn Product in 1860. States. Uuishols. 18. South Carolina, IS.OOH.OOO Statks. Bualiols. 1. Illinois, . . 115,174,777 2. Oliio, . . 73,54;},1m less sud- den and uniform. It is also allirnicd that tlu're lias been a great alteration in tlie prevalent winds. The force of the west Avinds has a})ated, while the ea.st winds are increasing in frequency and extent. A century ago, they did not penetrate more than thirty or forty miles into the country ; now they reach eighty miles from the sea-shore or upwards. 130 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. li Notwithstandinpf these alleged facts, Dr. Enoch Hale gives the result of his enrcfiil discussion of the Meterological Journal of Dr. Holyoke, kept at Salem, from 178G to 1821, as follows : It thus ai^pears that this journal does not s\ipport the opinion that there has been a progressive uicrease of the temperature of our cUmate iii nyanl to t/ic wJiole year. If we comi)are the spring months of the different years, we find the results nearly the same, both in respect to the whole spring, and to tlie months of March and April ; thus showing tliat the opinion is equally unfounded, which has been maintained, that the sjjriug advances more rapidly in proportion to the temperature of the whole 3'ear, than it did formerly. The mean tcmi)erature of the first ten years in 48.77 Fahr., of the last ten years 47.85 ; the highest year of all was 1793, the mean annual temperature be- ing 50.9G ; the lowest, 1812, the mean annual temperature being 45.28. It appears from the published observations at Boston, by Mr. Jon. P. Hall, from 1821 to 185G, that the average tempera- ture of the whole year, during the period of thirty-six years, was 48.66 Fahr. The Avarmest year was 1828, the temperature beiug 51.78 ; the coldest year was 1836, the temperature being 45.34 Fahr. As the observations of Mr. Hall are not sti'ictly comparable with those of Dr. Holyoke, becaiise the places were ten miles ai)art, and the hours and instruments also different, we may compare the observations of Mr. Hall with each other ; and we find the mean temperature for the first ])criod of nine years 49.36 ; for the second, 47.76 ; for the thirtl, 49.00 ; and for the fourth, 48.54 Fahr. The mean annual temperature derived from the above obser- vations, durmg forty-three years, are as follows : Mean yearly temperature of Boston, 48.86 Fahrenheit. Mean yearly tem})erature of Salem, 48.66 " The mean annual temperature of Salem appears to have fluc- tuated u'rogularly to the extent of 5.68 ^ ; and that of Boston to the extent of 6.44^ Fahr. The average annual fall of snow in Boston and its vicinity, during the past twenty years, us ascertained by actual observa- tion, amounts to four feet three inches. In the vicinity of Lake Superior, the average annual fall of snow amounts to twenty-four feet, while at St. Paiil, Minnesota, the annual fall is only two feet, or two inches of water, showing that the annual fall of snow is owing to local causes mor-^ than to difference of latitude. CHANGES IN THE CLIMATE OF THE UNITED STATES. 131 " Dr. Hugh Williamson attributes the change of climate which ho thinks has taken place in the United Stttes, at least in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, to the settlement upon the soil and its cultivation. When the settler enters the new coun- try, the trees disai)pear, th(^ sun strikes down to the surface, and penetrates the upturned soil, the drainage is perfected, and evaporation and cokl diminish in the winter. The land be- comes more heated than the water, and the sea breeze, which before scarcely passed the edge of the coast inland, now makes farther and farther inroads. The summers will bo less over- heated and the winters will not be so excessively cold as before man began his cultivation." The mean annual temperature of Philadelphia, for the last sixty years, at peiiods of ten years, are as follows : *on 1 1800 to 1809, average, . 51.80 ° Fahr 181C to 1819, 51.20 1820 to 1829, " 52.70 1830 to 1839, 52.00 1840 to 1849, " 52.70 1850 to 1859, 53.00 The coldest year was 181G, beuig a mean of 49^ Fahr., and the warmest, 1858, being 54^, making a variation of 5-^ Fahr. f ■:;i of isota, I wing than 4 i 1 132 INFI.UENCE OF (CLIMATE. I. — Meteorological Table. SmOWINO TIIK l-Ul.NCWAI, (ITIKS AN!) .MIl.ITAliV .'TATtON.S I.N THE UNITKD f-TATR< HAVING A MI.AN AN.NCAI, TICMI'ICUATlIIli; liKTVYKCN I}?' A 47' KAflU. c i 1 V»i:i S K.'.HO.NB. HiATIOVH, KT<;. «) •i •a s 1 1 1 .: 1 -• 1 1 1 1 IV-C't. !'• Kiilir Spring. Antumi Si a 5 * ° Kalir. Kiitir. °Kiitir.' ■' Tiihr. I'^iiRtpnrt, Miiiiic 44 r)4 (UiTiH' 70 i 4:5.00 10.15 00.50 47..52 2:5.00 Fort Kail-field, Mlliill^ . . . 4(;'.!() 07 4!» 41.") :!S.10 :!().2!i oi..":.h!40.:50 11.2S llimciK^it BiirrutlvH, Maine. 4(1 07 07"1!) 020 10..")0 :5!i.l5 0;!.:;:! 4:5.15 10.11 I'oit Kent, 47" 15' 08 ;r) 57") : ;!7.(M) '• :i5.22 01.08 ;5)).88 il.:}0 I'atli. 43' no ver, " .... 47.40 144.70 08.70 40.:'50 20.90 l,u\vreTi('e, " .... 42"42' 7i li' i;{;j 45.8!) I WorceHK.'r, " .... 42 Ui' 4222' 7r48' 72";)!' 5;{(! 200 47.00 40.70 1 AiiilierHt, " 45.66 08.00 48.'r6 24.76 WiiliamHtowii, " .... 42'4:r 7:n:i 5);iO 45.00 ' ! 4;!.«0 07.!)0 47.!)0 24.20 Tioy, N. V 42 4:i 7=5 40 50 47.80 1 140.10 70.00 50.25 24.00 Slllelll, " 4:i\r, 7:{:iO 000 40.5(; ' 45.00 08.20 48.41 21.50 I'latt.sl)urf,'li, .\. V 44 '71 7:j 2.") 180 44.00 '12.:)2 (;(i.70 10.07 20.22 Maloiie, " 44'r)0' 74 2;'.' 700 4:5.10 i 43.10 04.1!l 45.00 2l.:iO OfjfdeiiHlmrf^li, " 44 4 r 7r)';?2 280 4;i.50 1 42.80 00.84 18.00 22.0(5 I'tica, " 4;ro(>' 7.-) i:{ 470 io.((0 i 45.;{:5 ((7.!)4 18.12 25.24 Sacket's Ilurlxir, N. V... 4:j nr, 70 00 200 45.00 42..52 00.84 IH.OO 22.0(5 O.swcffo, " 4;}20' 70'40' 250 4(i.44 !4:i.70 (iO.!)2 .50.40 21.72 Hocliesler, " . . 4.}'()7' 77 51' 500 47.00 '44.00 07.()0 18.!)0 27.00 lUltfiih., " . . 425;$' 78 no' 050 40.25 12.7:5 00.03 47.!I2 27.12 Dotroit, Midi 42 20' 8;j oo' 580 47.25 i 4.5.8!) , (i7.«0 48.07 20.81 I'ort Huron, Midi 42 ".:!' 82'24' (iOO 47.00 |l:i.«8l 00.80 40.00 25.(;o (Jraiu! IfapjilH, " 4:i(M) ■ir, 'tv 80 00 81 ;i:f 8.")2 728 45.05 1 Fort .Macjiiiiac, " 41.00 i:i8.7:{ 102.00 4:5.8.5 20.00 Sant Ste. .Marie, Midi. . 4(i :iO' 84 4:5' 000 40.:!7 :57.oo 02.00 1:5.54 l.'^.:;o .Mur<|Uette, li. S., " 4(( ;!2' 87 41 (;;») 41.00 11.20 (il. 10 1:5.00 17.5:5 Clipper liarli'r, Ii.S.,Midi. 47 :!(> 88- 00' 020 4100 :i8.17 (i().8(» 12.!)0 21.7M <)ntona;,'<>n, " " 4(i"."i2' 81) :!0' 000 40.00 10.00 01.00 12.U(t 17.00 Miinitowoc, Wis 44 07' 4;i (Ci' 87 ;i7' 87'.")' (iOO coo 1.").00 40.10 1 Miiwaulu'c, " l42.:io'i!7.:50 .Vo'.io 20*.' 6 (ireen Ihty, " 41 ;!()' 88 O.T 020 11.50 4:5..52 08.50 40.00 1!).!)2 I'\)rt NMruielisit^o, NN'is. .. 4:i :ir 8!)°2M' 770 15.00 ! 45 .50 ' 08.00 10.00 20.00 Fort ('ra\vri)ni, " .. . 4:{().-)' 01 '00' 010 170M ;4H.OO 72.28 18.5:5 21.25 lluydcl.i. \u S., " ... 4(i 4r,' 0', 00 020 40.00 i :i8.00 02.00 13.00 1.5.00 Superinr, " " ... 4(i':iH' !)2 0:i 000 41.00 1 4!).00 o;j.()0 42.00 15.00 Fort .MiiiriHoii. Iowa 4:roo J)2"(I0' 700 10.00 1 40.0:S 08.00 10.13 20.02 l''ort Snellinir, Min 4rr,;{ «):i 10 820 41.54 45.57 70.(54 45.00 10.07 Fort Uimp(;riitur(', luiviii^' an aiinual moan varying from 37 to 47'"-' FaliViinluit, lies mostly IxtwcM^n 4:}^ and 49'^ north latitudo, but docs not (extend to tli(; Pacitic Ocean ■\vitliin tlio boundH of the United States, running northward into the IJritisli and llus.sian PosseHHicms. Nova Scotia, New lirnnswi(;k, Canada, and tlie soutliem por- tion of the Huds(m Vaiy iUnn[y.iuy^^ Tenitory, W(!st of Lake Sup(!rif)r, also ])osh('SH the same climatic influence, varying about 10^ mean annual temperature. On the Pacific slope of the continent, the above; range; of climatic extends from the 49th to the 57th degree o north latitude, terminating on the north near Sitka, or New .Archangel, in llussian America. This imm(ms(! region of country, ext«!nding through 80"^ of longitude, ]»ro(lu(;eH tin; cereals, grasses, and vege^tables of tho more hardy kind, sullici(!nt to sustain a dense ])opulation. Wheat, rye, oats, barley, potatoes, Ixians and peas being pro- duced in great abundance. Tlu; chie^f articles of export are lish and lumber, tin; former aflbrding profitable employment to a large amount of tonnage;, and thousands of seamen of differ- ent nations. The lumber trade is extensively and profitably pursued, both in the British Possessions and in the northern portion of the United States, where; ship-building is carrieel on to a very large extent. The pine;, the oak anel the; maple aro the me)st valuable trees of the? fe)r(;st. The; traele; in furs and mai)le sugar aro alse) important items e)f home ce)nsumption and e;xpe)rt, tho forruer sleiwly elecreasing in amoiint, and the hitter increasing. The ie-e; cre)p is also rising into importance, both for homo consumptie)n and export ; ne-arly all ])eing col- lected north of the mean annual temperature of 50'^ Fahrenheit, 134 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. it I; i;; • I'' where the thermometer occasioually falls to zero. Tlio streams are usually closed by ice for four months of the year, fi'om De- cember to March, while more or less suow covers the face of the earth, aftbrdinf^ both warmth aud moisture. The gi-eat geographical feature of this regiou is the Lakes or " Inland Seas" which are immense basins, containing the larg- est deposit of fresh water on the globe, their surplus waters flow- ing northeast through the St. Lawi-ence River into the Gulf and Atlantic Ocean ; other large streams flow eastward and north- ward into Lake Winnipeg, and the Hudson Bay, draining alto- gether an immense section of country, lying east of the Rocky Mountains. The mouths of the principal navigable rivers on the Atlantic slope are the St. John, Penobscot, Kennebec, Con- necticut and Hudson Rivers, while many other streams take their rise in this region, and flow southward, falling into the Atlantic Ocean or Gulf of Mexico. Military Posts and Cities. Fort Kent, situated in the most northern part of the State of Maine, at the junction of the Fish River with the St. John's, in latitude 47^ 15' north, has a mean annual temperature of 37° Fahr. The coldest winter mouth (February) had a mean of 10*^, and the warmest summer month (August) had a mean of 68^ Fahr. The greatest extremes behig from 1)0 ^ above to 30° below zero, showing a variation of 132° Fahrenheit. " The re- gion adjacent to Fort Kent is probably one of the healthiest within the limits of the United States, and though rigorous, the climate seems to be productive of the most robust health. Fevers and other diseases of a malarious origin are unknown, and other acute diseases aro by no means of common occur- rence. The soil is a light loam, which rests upon a stratum of gravel and pebbles. In consequence of its geological forma- tion, the drainage of the land is excellent, and numerous springs of fine water arc found in every direction. With the exception of the immediate })anks of the St. John's River, the whole coun- try is still covered by a dense, unbroken forest. The hardier woods, difterent varieties of the maple, beech, birch, and ash, are found on the more elevated and rocky soil, while the lower grounds are occupied by the sjiruce, fir, larch, and cypress. The white and yellow pines, which ])ioduce the line lumber, the staple of the country, are found scattered through the forest, generally more or less isolated and distant from each other. Large elms are generally seen on the interval lands ; the gene- ariLITARY POSTS AND CITIES. 135 Itl 1. 11, ur- () kor ss. er, ',»t, er. le- rality of the forest trees, however, -witli the exception of the pines, are of a rather diminutive size. " The climate of Fort Kent, like that of the colder regions of Northern Europ(% does not seem favorable for the production of pulmonary jjhthisis. During my sojourn at the p' .st," says Assistant Surgeon Wotherspoon, "1 have neither seen or heard of a case of this disease among the French or American set- tlers. Assistant Surgeon Isaacs, uho, during the two years he was resident at the fort, had a much better opportunity than myself of becoming acquainted with the diseases of the country, informs m(>, not oidy that he never saw a case of consumption in the country, but that some of the inmates of the garrison, who were ati'ected with suspicious symptoms, recovered from them entirely. The present revenue olli(;er at the post — a man of decidedly scrofulous temperament^ — had sultered a slight attack of lucmoptysis, and other symptoms of incipient pulmo- nary disease, when he was ordered to this post. Though liable to catch cold when exposed, his cough no longer troubles him ; he has gained Hesh and strength, and considers himself free from the disease. The children in and near the garrison have generally enjoyed the Ix^st of health, and have been aiilicted witii none of those complaints so common in warmer chniates." — Jledical Statistics [I. S. Army. FoKT Sullivan, the most northern military post on the Atlantic coast, is situaited on a rocky imminence on Moose Island, Passa- maquody Bay, in the inmiediate vicinity of the town of East- port, Maine. Owing to its situation, and its proximity to the Bay of Fundy, the climate is d:tmp, and fogs are frequent in the earlier summer months. The wmtors are cold, and in this season, the thermal variations are often sudden ; yet more ex- treme cold is felt m the interior, on the main land, than on the island. Pi-ArrsBUiiGii Babhacks. — This station is on the west shore of Lake Champlain, about a mile from the village of Plattsburgh, N. Y., in north latitude 44^ 41'. A range of mountains borders the lake on the west, rising into the Adirondack range, and on the east the Green Mountains of Vermont are to be seen throughout their whole extent. The weather is very variable ; sudden and great changes frequently occur. The thermometer has an extreme range of 124^, being 100^ in summer and — 24" in winter ; the mean annual temperature being 44^ Fahr. The mean annual precipitation in rain and snow is 33.40 inches. The prevailing winds are from the south and southwest ; those from the south are often very cold, and fi'equently accompanied with snow or rain. 136 INFl-UENCE OP CLIMATE. ^ I I I ' I ! m m iLit I Madison Barracks. — Thin station is a,t Sackot's Harbor, N. Y., in latitude 43^ 50' nortli. It is situatocl on tlic sotithci'u sitlo of the bay forniccl by the entrance of Blaek River into Lake On- tario. The liver is the thin] in size that is wholly in the State of New York. The c^olor of the water is quite dark — a feature not unconuuon in this region, and not readily accounted for. The water is not drunk by those who live near it, being thought unwholesome. The forest trees are maple, beech, birch, walnut, bass, ash, elm, and luMulock. Esculent vegetables are produced iu gi'cat abundance and variety. Tlie staple agricultural pro- duct is wheat ; the soil in general being rich. This post is ranked as very healthy, the troops usually stationed here suft'er- ing but > cry little from disease of late years. Fort Niagara, one of the oldest fortitications in the United States, is situated at the mouth of the Piiver Niagara, on the south shore of Lake Ontario, in north latitude 43^ 18'. It is fourteen miles ])clow the Falls of Niagara, and thirty-tAvo miles from Lake Erie. Mean annual temperature, 47" 90', the gi'eatest extremes lieing from 95-* above to o^ below zero; variations 100 \ The general cluiracter of the climate, being modified \r: Lho surrounding largo bodies of water, is very favorable for health and longevity. The fruit and- vegetable productions of most lands flourish here luxuriantly. Detroit Barracks, at the city of Detroit, Mich., is situated in north latitude 42^ 20' ; having a mean annual temiierature of 47^ Fahrenheit. The surrouniling country is flat. The sod is a IhY clay, combined with the carbonate of lime ; hence, in the rainy seastm, the land is in a great degree saturated Avitli water, and to a certain extent submerged. Tlie smaller streams empty- ing into the Detroit Ilivcr and Lake St. Clair are sluggish, bor- dered with extensive marshes, and in the autumn ai)ounding with decayed vegetable matter. As may be su])posed, from this brief outline of its topogi-aphy, intermittent and remittent fevers, dianiicea, and dysentry prevail among the troops, and also among the inhabitants of the city at certain seasons of the year." Fort Mackinac, located on the Island of Mackinac, in the straits connecting Lakes Huron and Michigan, in north latitude 45^^ 51', has a mean annual temperature of 40. G5" Fahr.; the temperature being modified by the surrounding waters of the rrreat lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior. This post is one of the most healthy in the United States, and the town is .. great resort for invalids and seekers of pleasure during th.. summer months. This romantic island is about nine miles in circumference, and rises on its eastern and southern shore in MILITARY rOSTS AND CITIES. 137 be lin liii abrupt rocky cHffa, tlio liif^liest point, old Fort Holmes, being 318 feet nbove the lake, while the ])resent fortress stands ele- vated 15 J feet, overlooking the \-illngo and the suiTounding waters. Fort Brady, situated at the Saut Ste. Marie, Mich., in north latitude 40-' 30', lies on the Houthcrn bank of the rive.:' or strait which connects Lak(^ Superior and. Huron. The river at this point is twenty f(H't l^elow Lake Superior, and 580 feet above the ocean level. Here is a ship-canal with two locks, through which vessels of 1,000 tons and upwards can pass with safety. Tlie mean annual tomperatui'e of this post is 10'^ Fahr. The coldest whiter month (February) had a mean of 4^ Fahr., and ihe warmest summer month (August) had a mean of iio\ The greatest extremes being from 80^ above to 32^ below zero, showing an extreme of 112-' Fahr. This old and im])ortant post and settlement, h'ing on the noiihern contincs of the United States, is the limit of settled country toward the noiih. The Hudson Bay Company have a post on the opposite side of the river, surrounded by a few dwellings, but to the northward, except near the river, irre no dwellings to be found, a wild expanse of countiy extending north to Hudson Bay, some four or live hundred miles distant. The C'hippewa tribe and other Indians, however, are to be found in this region, and far to the north and west. Many kinds of gi-ain and vegetables come to perfection in this Lititude, but the early frosts often disappoint the husbandman, rendering most crops very uncertain. Fort Sneiiino, near St. Paul, Min., is situated in north lati- tude 44^ 53', Avest longitude 93^ 10', on the west bank of the Mississippi, 2,050 miles from the Gulf of Mc^xico, by the course of the river. The mean annual temperature, deduced from a continiious series of observations for thirty years, is 44^ 54' Fahrenheit, with a mpximum of 100 -', a minimum of — 30^, and an extreme of 130^, the mean annual range being 120^. The average annual fall of rain and snow is 25.43 inches ; of which G.Gl fell in spring, 10.92 in summer, 5.98 in autunni, and only 1.92 inches in winter. The smniiur temperature of St. Paul is about the same as New York and Chicago, Avhile the Avinter months are much colder. " Fort Snelling, situated on the angle formed by the conflu- ence of the St. Peter's and Mississippi Kivers, is elevated ninety- four feet above those waters, and 820 feet above the level of the Gulf of Mexico. The St. Peter's, a navigable stream, at its mouth, is 150 yards A\'ide and sixteen feet deej) ; and the Mis- sissippi, at this point, is about 400 yards wide, but is much less nn' ill •t ;), 1 138 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. deep than tho former, nnvigatlon Ix^injjf hero intoirnptocl hj rapids and falls. Tbo banks of tho latter, up to tho Falls ot' St. Anthony, a distance of ci<,'ht miles, are about 200 feet high, tho upper strata of which coDsist of limestone, and the lower of sandstone. Beyon'^ <-ho falls, the banks are less high, and the immediato valley die river Ifoeomes UKU'e extended ; navigation being rosui a for upwards of 100 miles. Tho sur- face of the surrounding country ])resents an undixlating prairie, studded here and there with 'islands' of timbi'r. Large lakes, phnitifuUy sujiplied with fish, are occasionally found. The soil, although sandy, is productive, producing tho cereals and vege- tables in great abundance. Tho climate is V)racing and healthy ; Minnesota being celebrated as a health-restoring region." FoiiT Ripley, Min., is situated in north latitude 46^ 10' ; west ■ longitude 9-1^ 18', upon the west bank of the ]\Iississipi)i, elevated twenty feet above the river, and about 1,100 feet above the Gulf of Mexico, being the most northern post on the Mississippi River. The climate is subject to great variation, as will be seen by reference to the meteorological register. The coldest month, January, had a i '^an of 7^ Fahr., and the hottest month, July, 67^^. Tho extre of temperature observed are 96^ in August and — 39^ in . ry, 1852, showing a variation of 135 degrees of temperature, uein^ M^e gi-eatest of any recorded locality within the United Staiea. This section of Minnesota, no doubt, being infiuonced by cold currents of air descending from Hudson Bay and the Arctic regions ; while the western and more southern portions of the State are, no doubt, favored by a climatic influence proceeding from the Pacific coast, across the Rocky Mountains, in British America — hence the favorable climate of the Red River country of the north. " Different kinds of oak and pines constitute the prevailing forest growth of this region. The sugar maple abounds in some places. The chestnut, walnut, and beach are unknown, as is every species of fruit tree, wild or cultivated. Il'he soil is gen- erally a sandy alluvium. The land, at least when first culti- vated, is more })roductive than might be supposed, lieing what farmers term ' warm,' and adapted to the short summers. Wlieat, oats, potatoes, and other hardy vegetables flourish, while maize is considered a very uncertain crop, owing to the shortness of the season. The average depth of snow, during winter, is from two to tliree feet, which lies fcr about five months, from November to April. " The phenomena of spring, when once begun, often pro- gresses with great rapitiity ; and from the climate of winter, the region someHmes seems to pass at once into that of mid- summer. Wild sirawberries, which are found here in great DAKOTA TERRITOLY — FORT RANDALL. 139 abundanco, ripeu from tlio 20tli to the last of Juno. Green peas are ready for use about the second or third week m July. During the months of September and October the weather is generally clear and delightful." nne is -n- id- eat Dakota Territory, [Sanitary Report by Siirguon T. C. Madisom, U. 8. A.] Fort Randall, an important military post, is situated on the right bank of the Missouii River in the territory of Dakota, north latitude 43"* 01' ; west longitude 98^ 12' ; altitude above the sea 1,245 feet. " The country in the immediate vicinity of the fort is veiy hilly ; but, after you ascend these eminences or bluft's two miles to the southwest, presents an expansive level prairie. From the summit of any of these hills you have a most picturesque view of the surrounding country, the Missouri River and adjacent territory. The plateau on which the post is built is nboiit one fourth of a mile from the river, the width of which, at this point, is about the same distance. The river bottom is not extensive, and the only timber to be found is along it and the Dry Ravine (which latter extends about 15 miles), and is suitable for fuel only. There are several cedar islands from ] 5 to 30 miles above, from >vhich the best lumber can be procured, and either floated down in summer or hauled down upon the ice in winter. The soil is chiefly seUcious, and productive only in small localities. Our gardens would have succeeded better but for the inadequate supply of rain and the myriads of grass- hoppers, which made their appearance about the first of August, continued throughout the mouth, and almost annihilated every- thing possessing verdure. " The forest trees are oottonwood, elm, ash, cedar, scrub oak, hickory, and box-elder. Fruit — plums, choke-cherries, wild raspberries, gooseberries, buffalo and service berries, and wild grapes. Plants — sunflower, wild artichoke, Avild onion, polar or magnetic plant, and a gi'eat variety of others. The Avilcl rose is also most abundant, and a weed, called rattlesnake Aveed." Meteorology. — " The climate is uniformly cold in winter and not unpleasantly hot in summer. The lowest thermometrical observation was — 26^, on the 17th January, and the highest 104^, on the 11th of August, 1857. The latest frost was on the lotli of May, and the earliest was on the 28th of September, when the thermometer was 34^^ Fahrenheit. There was no rain from the 24th of pctober, 1856, to the 4th of March, 1857. The annual precipitation of rain from October 1, 1856, when meteoro- gical observations were first commeaced, to September 30, 1857, '■I ! 140 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. was 11.64 inches ; and that of melted snow, 4.23 inches ; total, 15.87 inches. It rarely rains during the winter months of any year. The wind blows almost incessantly, and most frequently from the north in winter, and south and southeast in summer. The snow storms arc quite frequent, and usually most violent. The Missouri Eiver was frozen over on the 2nd of December, and remained blocked until the 28th of March. It, hoAvever, requires much time after the river opens before it is safe na^d- gation, owing to floating ice." Diseases and Deaths. — " The ratio of mortality per 1,000 of mean strength, exclusive of two deaths by cholera, was ouly 12, being lower than any othjr known military station on record. I do not believe that a single case of genuine intermittent fever has originated at the post. We have, at present, one, and the only case of febris typnoides, which might have occurred in the healthiest parts of Virginia, The climate is certainly unfavor- able to the development of phthisis and the affections of the chest generally. Consumption, from obvious reasons, must be more frequent among the Indians in the vicinity, who are more exposed to atmospherical vicissitudes and not as well clothed and fed as soldiers. "The only disease about which we need feel the slightest apprehension is scorbutus, the chief disease from which the troojis have suffered from the commencement of the Sioux expedition up to the present time ; but, after an experience of more than two years in the treatment of scurvy and its comph- cations, I am compelled tc b lieve that the use of too much salt meat is the true cause. Th. Indians eat nothing save fresh game or dried buffalo meat, and put u]) for Avinter quantities of dried plums, buffalo berries, «fec. ; hence their immunity. " The Avhol.g district of country, east of the Ilocky Mountain range, extending to the Missouri Eivc^-, and running through several degrees of latitude, may be considered as a remarkably healthy region, where fevers, consumption, and throat diseases are seldom Imown, or prove fatal." m. **l^' MILITARY POSTS AND CrriES. 141 II. — Meteorological Table. BnOWINQ THE miKCIl'AL CITIES AND MILITARY STATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES HAVING A MEAN ANNUAIi l-EMPERATUrE BETWEEN 4T & 53° FAHK. Stations, ktc. Boston, Mass New Bcdtbrd, Mass Nantucket, " SpriusTiolfl, " Newiiort, R. I New London, (\nm New Ilavcn, " . . . . Jamaica, Long ,' New York West Point, N. Y Albany, " Ithaca', " Newark, N. J Trenton, " Philadelphia Lancaster, Penn Ilarrisburg, " C!arlisle Barracks, Penn . Pittsburgh, " . Meadvilh", '• . Columbus, Ohio Cleveland, " Steuben ville, Ohio Toledo, " Marietta. " ITillsboro', " Chicago, 111 Fort Armstrong, 111. . . . Augusta, " . . . . Dubuque, Iowa Keokuk, " Muscatine, " Fort des Moines, Iwa. . Comicil Blufls, Neb Fort Kearny, " Fort liaramie, Dakota. Camp Flovd, I'tah. ... Hanta Fe.'N. M ijas Vegas, " Fort Jones, (a! Fort Humboldt, Cal Fort I mpquit, Or Fort Dallas, Fort Yamhill, " Fort Vancouver, " Astoria, " Fort Cascades, W. T Fort Steilacom, " Olynipia, " .. . . Victoria, Vancouver Is.. 43°31' 41'31' 4ri7 43°0r)' 4V60' 4V-2r 4ri8' 40"4l' 40'43' 41 23 42°;ll' 43^27 40^45' 40' 13 3ir.'j7' 40°03' 4ono 40n3 40''33 4r38' 3!)^57' 4r30 40^30 4r45' 3<)"3r)' ;i!)"15' 41S')3' 41 30 40 1 3' 43°30' 40"35' 4r3.T 4r33' 41 '30' 401^S' 43' 13' 40" 13' ^iO 35' 4r3(i 40°4r) 43%'53 4r)"30 43^37 45 40 4(ru 7r03' 70"5()' 70 00' 73°3r)' 71 "30' 73°r)r)' 74 00' 74°00' 73^44' 70 30 ' 74° 10' 744r)' 75 13' 70 '31' 70 50' 77=11' 80 03' 80 08' 83' 03' 8r47' 80'4r 83 36' 8r3r 83 30' 87'35' 00 '40 J)0 58' {)0%50 j)r3i 91 05' fl3°38' fl5''48' !)5"57' 104M7' 113 08' 107^14' 105 10 133 53 134 Oi» 134 0I>' 130 55 133''33' 133 '30' 133 '48' 131 '30' 133' 35' 133 30' 133 OOi Feet. 50 40 30 200 30 25 00 50 25 107 130 417 30 50 00 300 300 500 700 1,000 740 640 070 565 630 1,130 500 530 '"oso '580 780 1,250 3.300 4.530 4 800 6,840 6.418 3,570 50 "'356 "56 50 "m " Kahr. 48.00 48.10 , 50.40 48.10 4!).!)0 40.00 50.83 , 50.00 51.00 i 50.50 ! I 48.20 1 i 48.12 ! ' 50.50 1 51.10 j 53.00 1 i 51.40 40.50 , 51.10: i 50.80 ! i 50.30 : 53.00 j 40.70 I 51.70 I 50.00 53.00 1 50.70 ' i 47.00 1 50.00 1 50 50 ! 4S.38i 51 .00 1 49.30 ! 49.70 1 49.30: 48.50 50.00 ' 4S.05 50.50 49.14 ; 51.40 ; 51.40' 51.38! 52.50 ' 49.20 ! 52.50 53.00 1 4!).08 ; 49.801 51.00 1 50.00! FOUB SK.\B0N8. ring. e E a 3 a. 00 to < Fftlir. 1 46.30 ; 47.70 ! 44.60 ' 45.44 ! 45.90 40.40 1 47.54 ' 47.30 48.70 1 48.70 46.70 '46.37 i 46.74 1 49.40 : 50.00 ! 50.90 i 49.60 49.80 i 50.00 4859 47.00 51.10 11.50 50.70 45.00 50.50 I ;" "^ Falir. 09.10 07.. J 07.S0 70.43 08.80 09.30 09.78 08.90 70.10 71.30 70.00 0813 71.25 70.70 71.50 71.20 00.00 72.10 71.40 71.33 73.70 l°Fahr.i 151.00 j 52.00 I 55.30 51.73 53.50 53.90 ; 53.51 1 51.80 54.50 ' 53.20 I 50.00 49.35 52.24 52.10 53.30 52.10 50.00 52.10 51.40 51.84 54.20 ^Falir. 28.90 39.f^0 33.;o 34 50 31.30 39.90 33.44 3.0.40 31.40 39.70 30.00 28.62 31.80 00 33. 33.80 31.60 28.0(1 3040 30.00 29.37 35.00 70 on I 47.38 ,40.38 '51.50 ■49.38 40.39 '•1(1.84 47.17 '49.08 48.30 49.00 ^51.80 -49.18 i 53.00 i 46.30 151.80 51.00 48.30 47.30 71.00 53.00 33.00 09.00 51.20 1 31.30 OS 00! 48.85 30.00 74.00 1 51.00 73.50 78.43 71.55 74.70 71.04 71.90 75.05 70.40 07.35 o7.:;o 57.55 00.00 70.30 00.41 05.00 01.58 04.93 03.89 49.48 50.44 47.00 51.30 48.70 50.30 48.44 50.50 48.34 53.13 53.«8 53.45 52.30 49.38 53.50 53.70 51.58 50.09 24.88 23.76 37.15 38.90 31.73 35.05 31.00 23.33 31.00 33.50 33.7M -13 35 44.00 35.50 30.74 89 50 42.00 33.90 39.50 p^^V,[ ' ,1 V' i m mj r' «^ ii i : i I 142 mFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Climatic Features. The belt of temperature having a mean varying from 47° to 53° Fahrenheit, licis mostly between 40° and 43° north latitude, on the Atlantic coast, deflecting southward on crossing tho Rocky Mountains, and then rising on the Pacific coast from 40° to 48° north, extending fi'om Cape Mendocino to Pugct Sound. In passing from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean it extends through 54 degi'ces of longitude. This region stands unsurj assed as regards a favorable climate, fruitful soil, and rich mineral productions. On this favored belt is to be foTmd the most dense and active population of any part of the Union. Here the cereals and grasses are prodiiced in the greatest abundance, constituting the principal articles of export. Indian corn, wheat and hay form the principal items. The forest and mines also yield a rich return, as Avell as the agii- cultural products. The four principal cities on the seaboard, Boston, New York, Brooklyn, and Philadelphid, ^\-ith their two million of inhabi- tants, possess and exercise a preponderating influence from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. New York alone stands unrivalled as a commercial mart, Avhere the products of every clime are to be found in abundance ; her commerce whitens every sea and seeks every port of the habitable world. The cities of the inte- rior lying in the Valley of the Mississippi alike ai'e alive with industry, while the broad spread country teems with rich agri- cultural products, particularly between the base of the Alleghany Mountaii.s and the Rocky Mountains, embracing the Mississippi Valley north of the Ohio River. On the western slope of the Rocky Mountains new States are springing into existence, no doubt soon destined to contain a dense population, who will possess all the energy and facilities of the inhabitants of the Atlantic cities. Hero the mines and the soil will yield their rich reward. The North Pacific, possessing a favorable climatic influence, with the adjacent shores of America and Asia, aftbrds a new field for commerce. From this part of the republic, China, Japan and the long-sought East Indies are open to the American flag — that, too, by important treaty stipulations of late date. Puget Sound and adjacent waters afford ample accommodation for all Ml MILITARY rOSTS — WEST POINT. 143 y-i get the mercantile fleets of the world, being siiiTounded by immense quantities of timber valuable for sliip-bnilding. The climate on the seaboard, from Massachusetts Bay to Delaware Bay, is well understood and appreciated by thousands of invahds who annually seek the favorite health-restoring resorts scattered along the coasts of Massachusetts, Bhodc Island, New York and New Jersey. The interior of the countr}', cast of the Atlantic range of mountains, is equally well under- stood and acknowledged to have a favorable climate. The Valley of the Mississippi is still subject to fevers of an intermittent t;ype, but less subject to some other diseases, altogether com- paring favorably with other parts of the Union. Iowa and the northern part of Missouri, situated between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, partakes of the same character as the more eastern portion of this great valley, situated on the same joarallel of latitude. Military Posts. "West Point, one of the most favored locations in regard to climate and healthy influences, is situated on the west bank of Hudson River, in north latitude 41^ 23', west longitude 74'\ about midway in that jiart of the river called the " Highlands," 52 miles distant from the city of New York. The pubhc build- ings are on a plain about 'i mile square, having in its rear a range of hills of from 700 to 1,400 feet in height. On each side of this plain there are ravines that serve to carry oil" the gi'eat floods of water, Avhieh descend fi-om the adjacmit hills after heavy rains or spring freshets. The soil is gravelly, with frequent ledges of rock, either just below the surface, or rising above it in the form of boulders. The mean annual temperatiire of this post, as determined by observations continued for thirty-ojje years, is 50' 50' Fahr., with an extreme range of 110^, rising in sunnner to 100 ', and falling in winter to 10^ below zero. The prevailing winds are from the N. W. and S. The annual quantHy of rain is about 52 inches. There are no diseases which can be considered pecu- liar to this station ; acute inflammatory diseases are rare. The spring and autumn are most ])ro(luctive of severe catarrhal attections and rheumatism ; the sammcr, of disorders of the digestive organs ; and the Avintiu* is decidedly the most healthy period of the year. In addition to the oiflcers, cadets and soldiers permanently residing at this post, with their families, altogether numbering about 800 souls, the hotel, during tho 1 if ■^1 m m 144 rSTLUENOE OF CLIMATE. summer months, is thronged with visitors from every section of the Union, enjo;"'^jg the salubrity of the climate. Fort Laramie, Dakota Tcr., situated in north latitude 42^ 12', longitude 104^ 31', is a post of much importance, being on the most favored line of travel across the continent, where emigration flows westward toward the Pacitic States and Tem- tories. Its altitude is 4,519 feet above the level of the sea. The mean annual temperature is 50 degrees Fahr., rising in summer to 100 degrees and falling in winter to 20 degrees below zero. The mean annual precipitation of rain and snow is 20 inches. The soil in the vicinity appears to be sterile, owing, no doubt, to the extreme dryness oi the air and almost total absence of dews. The mean amuial tcmjicrature is 50~^ 32' Fahrenheit. The maximum temperature during the year was 92^ in July, and minimum 22^ in December, showing an extreme of 70 degrees, being onlj' about half as much variation as occurs in the same parallel of latitude on the upper Mississippi and Atlantic side of the continent. The annual quantity of rain that falls varies from 34 to 00 inches ; average, for a number of vears, 50 inches. Camp Scott, or Bridger's Fort, the -Nnntering place of the army of Utah in 1857-8, is situated in latitude 4P 18' N., longi- tude 110'^ 32' W. from Greenwich ; altitude 7,800 feet. Fort Bridgcr, an Indian trading-post, lies on Black's Fork, a tribu- tary of Green Biver. This mountain stream is of crystal clearness and purity, and is immensely valuable in this arid and thirsty region. The valley has an average width of about one mile and is separated from the higher table land by a range of iiTcgular sand hills. During spring and summer the valley is covered with an abundant lierbage, and olibrs a most striking contrast to the barren waste on either side. Assistant Surgeon Barthalow, in his Sanitary Beport, remarks : — " This region, as well as the Great Plains, like the steppes of Tartary, is adapted only to herds and grazing, and a nomadic population of savages or Indian traders, with their squaws and cattle. It can never become a nursery of civihzcd heroes ; and thus, in the New World, may be revived, in some- what the same form, the ancient patriarchal life, no ■ almost extinct in the old. " If we form an opinion of the mountain men from tne reports of poetic explorers, we would probably accord them many vir- tues — integrity, steady friendship, a noble sense of justice, and high personal bearing. I did not find the original of this description in real life. They have some of the good qualities of the Bedouin Arab, many vices to which he is a stranger, but UWSHredisposition to consumption, 146 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. the Great Plains and the mountains oft'cr more certain relief than any other climate in our country." Fort Steilacoom, Washington Territory, situated in lat. 47° 10' north, and long. 122^ 23' west from (rrecnwich, is one mile oast from Puget Sound, and ahout 800 feet above the level of the sea. " The Cascade range of monntaius, running north and soiith, is east distant about thirty miles, and one of its snow- capped i)oaks, having an altitude of 14,000 feet, is directly in view ; while the snow-peaks of the 01ym])ian range, distant about forty uiiles on the west, are also visil)le, along the sound, vary- ing from one to two miles in breadth, and near the mountains are dense and lofty forests. The country immediately around is comjiosed of beautiful undulating prairies, intersected by numerous small streams, which have their sources in tiio fresh- water lakes with which the prairies are interspersed. The prairies are separated from each other, and surrounded by dense and almost impcnetral)le forests, while they are inter- spersed with numerous groves of oak, which give them a most l)eautiful and park-like a})]iearanc(>. Sjirings of piu'e water are abundant, both, in the prairies a?id Avoodlands. The soil in this vicinity, particularly of the prairies, is composed of a mixture of sand and gi'avel, and is almost entirely unlit for agricultural purposes, except on the margins of the streams and in low places near the lakes. The soil of the woodlands is of a different nature, being a kind of loam ; but so dense are the forests that years will elapse before it is brought into requisition." " The forests are composed of pine, hendock, fir, cedar, oak, maple, ash, cottonwood, yew, dogwood, alder, aspen, crab- apple, liazid, itc. The ])ine, cedar and iir growing on the high- lands ; the oak on the ])r!iiries ; and the maple, ash, cotton- wood, &c., on the bottom-lands near the streams. Blackberries, raspberries, gooseben-ies, cranberries, whortleberries, strawber- ries, dewberries, and currants, are very abundant. A species of fern is very common in every section of the country, and the uva ursi covers the ground on the margin of all the prairies. The country abounds with animals, which afford excellent amusement to the s[)ortsman, and a i)rincipal article of food to the Indians. The birds of different kinds are numer- ous. During the latter part of autumn great numbers of swans, geese, ducks and cranes, make their appearance on their way to more southeni latitudes, and are not generally seen again until the opening of spring, Avlien they are returnmg north. " The climate of this country, as regards temperature, pos- sesses a medium between hyperborean, cold and intertropical heat. The seasons may be said to be divided into the rainy '• ; mh' MILITARY POSTR — FORT DALLES — ASTORLi. 147 II and Jry. From the middle of OctoLer to tlic first of April is tlio rainy season. During April and IMay there are frequent showers, after which it rains occasionally, l)nt seldom sufficient to thoroughly v,vi the ground. Snow falls to a greater or less extent every winter, but seldom remains on tlui ground over two or three days. Ice seldom forms over an inch thick. " The prevailing winds during the rainy season are southerly ; and during the dry, northerly. Southerly winds arc always indicative of rainy weatlier, and northerly of dry. The country generally being high and dry, the lakes, all of pure fresh water, no marshes or alluvial bottcmis being in the vicinity, diseases of a malarious origin are almost entirely unknown. Catarrhs, rheumatism, and diseases incident to exposure to cold, com- bined Avith moisture, are quite common during the rainy season." Fort Datjles, Oregon, is situated in north latitude 4:5^ 36', west longitude 120^ 55', being elevated 850 feet above the ocean ; mean annual temperature, 52^ 7i)' Fahr. ; average iu^nual fall of rain 15 inches. " The post at the Dalles of the Columbia, so called from the river being compressed by the encroaching rocky cliffs into a narrow cut, through which the whole volume of water nishes, is a few miles above the entrance of the river into the mountain ridges, jutting out from the Cascade; range, and two hundred miles iVom the ocean. Like all of middle Oregon, this is an admiral )le gi'azing region ; but, owing to the long dry season, is scarcely susce])tible of cultivation. This is eminently a volcanic region, basalt and basaltic conglomerate abounding. The position ma}- be considered perfectly salubri- ous. Within the experience of the residents in the vicinity, fevers of every description, or any local diseases, are entirely unknown." Astoria, Oregon, situated on the south bank of the Columbia River, near its entrance into the Pacific, in north latitude 40^^ 11', west longitude 123^ 48', has a mean annual temperature of 52'^ Fahrenheit. The coldest winter month (January) had a mean of 40 -^ Fahr., and the warmest summer month (August) had a mean of G4 \ " The most noticeable feature in the climate of Astoria is its equabilit}'. The sumuK^rs are cold, dry and healthy ; the winters stormy, rainy and disagreeable, but mild. The aurora is frequent during the spring, and intensely bril- liant. Thunder storms are not frequent nor severe. Astoria, and the shores of the ocean southward, afford pleasant places of resort from the hot, dusty and malarial sunuiier atmosi)hero of Portland and other places sitiiatcd in the Willamectte Val- ley ; and in the future growth of the country, Clatsop Plains Ill' I 148 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. will 1)0 on tliose westera shores wliut Newport .lud Capo May are on the Atlantic. "The soil in the vicinity of Astoria is, for tlio most part, a heavy rod and black day, mixed witli some {jjravel, which becomes, during the rainy season, soft and sticky ; and in the summer dry and tissured ; the heach is covered with pebbles and conf^lomcrate of clay and lime, enclosing petrified shells and ■' jarino animals. " Pre-eminent among tlu; forest trees are those of the ])iuo tribe ; three varieties foiind, including the ahis Domjask; often attaining incredible height and circumference ; also, yew-leaved hemlock, red cedar, and a large-leaved maple, not found cast of the Bocky Mountains. There are innumerable varieties of bushes and creeping plants, many of them producing delicious fruit in abundance. The potato, turnip, be(^t, and cabbage, are largely cultivated, and attain an enormous size and great per- fection. The grasses, growing on the tide-lands, are tender, and aflford a nutritious food to animals, who are able to keep in good condition throughout the year by grazing." Fort Cascades, "Washington Territory, " is situated," says Surgeon J. K. Barnes, " on the north bank of the Columbia River, at the lower termuuis of the ])ortago around the rapids, in latitude 'i;V 85' north, longitude 121'^ 80' west. The imme- diate site of the post is a small i)lat(uiu on the western slo])e of the Cascade range, surrounded on all sides by precipitous mountains, open only to the east and west l)y the river gorge, elevated but a few feet above the highest water level, and bear- ing unmistak(\able marks of having at some remote period been a portion of the river bed. A line of isolated volcanic ])eaks, whose siimmits are covered Avith ])eri)etual snow, extending in a direction nearly north and south, marks the western border of the elevated plateau between Pitt lliver and the Dos Chutes Valley. " Exi)erience has shown a great diffcu'onco in the seasons at points (-n the east and west side of the Cascade range upon nearly the same latitude. The sjiring is three weeks earlier at Fort Dalles than at Fort Vancouver, and five weeks earlim- than at the mouth of the river. Some fruits and vegetables that come to great ])erfection at the Dalles, scarcely mature at Fort Vancouver, and cannot be successfully cultivated at Astoria, on the Pacific coast." The ditterence in the amount of rain that falls in different localities in Oregon, and Washington Ter., is very remarkable, by far the greatest quantity falUng near the sea-coast. Tho annual fall at Fort Orford is G8 inches ; at Astoria, GO inches ; ASCENT OF MOUNT HOOD. 149 Fort Steil.acoom, 52 inches ; Fort Yancouvcr, 45 inchea, and at the Dalles, cast of tlio coast range, 15 inches : average, 50 inches. Ascent of Mount Hood. This gigantic mountain of the Cascade range of mountains, situated in Oregon, aI)out 45^ 20' north latitude, is RU])posed to he t]i(> higlK>st ]ieak in the United Stati'S, if not higher than Mt. St. Elias in Hussian America. The summit was reached in August, ISfJO, by a party of exi)lorers, who give the following reliable infornuitiou. "Wo liave reached the summit of Moiiut Hood, and here succeeded in melting snow and boiling the water with the spirit lam}). AVatcr here boils at 180 Fahrenheit. According to Prof. Porter's rule (given in his Chemistry) — and also by those in the Encyclopedia Brittanica — 550 feet should be allowed for every degree. 82^ by 550 gives the height of Mount Hood to be 17,000 feet above the sea. The highest point of vegetation is 11,000 feet (where commences the snow hne.) The highest of trees, of stunted pine, is 9,400 feet. The ascent was difficult and hazardous." Prof. A. Wood, one of the party, pronounces the Alpine flora of Mount Hood to be of a very interesting character. Ho finds at least thirty plants peculiar to this mountain, many of which are undoubtedly new. A consideralde attention has l)een given to the geological, miueralogical and volcanic character of the mountain. The crater is about 1,000 feet lielow the summit, on the s(mth side. Although at present not active, it is continually emitting a column of sul[)hur()us steam and .smoke, the odor of which is very nauseating. The extreme sunnuit is described as a circular ridge of three or four hundred yards in length, having its outward curve to the north. On this ridge are three or four eminences rising a few feet above the average of the ridgc\ The highest of these is the one to the east, though it is only a few feet higher than the others. The snow upon th(>m was from six to ten feet in de])tli, and only in one place did a rock project through it. That was the extreme s uumit of tlu^ highest point of the ridge. The scene around was overpoweriugly indescribable. It would require the canvas and brush, and years of toil, to give an idea to the eye — yet a few general observations may be taken. The first is the Cascade range itself. From south to north its whole line is at once und(^r the eye, from Diamond Peak to Mount Eainer, a distance of not less than 400 miles. Within that distancte are to be seen Mount St. Heleiis, Adams, Jeti'erson, and the Three Sisters, making, with Mount Hood, eight snowy mountains. •^'i!f r 150 INFT.UENCE OF CLIMATE. ! III. — Meteorological Table. RlIOWrNO THK I'HI.NTII'AI, ( ITIKS AND MIMTAlty STATfONS IX TTIR UN'ITKD STATICS HAVING A MIOAN A.N.SUAI* TK.MrtUATiniK UKTWKKN 5:)' & GO' KAHIl. HT*TIi>NH, KTI!. Fort DilawaH! Mallirnoro (Ft. .Mcllfiiry) I'Vedcrick ( ity, Md AmiiipoliH " . .|01)H. VV'AHiiiNfrioN, I). ('., Nut, l'\)rt VViiHliiii^toii, iM(l. . . AhIiIuikI, Vii WicliiiKiiid, Va I^'ort iMunroo, Vu SmithficM Lynclihur^, " Ivamiwlm, " (JllHti'av(Mi\vortli, Kan. Fort inicy, '• . l'\)rt (iih.Hon, Ind. Tcr. .. Fort Aibuckli!, " . ... Albu(]ucr(mc, N. M Fort Stanton, '• Fort Coiirail, " I>a!nina, ' Fort Wclmtcr: " l'\)rt Uiiclianan, Ark.. . . (iri'at Salt l^akc, Ijush.. J''ort 'I'cjon, Cat. Mont(Ti^y, *' Sacramento, " licnucia, " San I'YanciHco, Cal Fort (Jri'ord, Orr^'on. . . . ;i!) 2.")' :;'.) 17' :.0 ::4 !)H r»H' ■AH'V.',' •AH ;{H' :i7 :.'0' :;? 00 :!« .10' :,7 ;!0' ;!H ");{' ::() :(3' :i() :iO' •lit •.]r, :M .■".(•. 10' 2H' OH' •ir,' :;7 42' :i8 07' ;i!) 00 ;{.s Hi' :iH OS' :i7 r>H' :;h Oh' ;ii) ()()' ;w 4.r ;!H '10' _J _ 7.'5^:?4' 70 ;;r)' 77 IH' 70 '^7' 77 O-J' 77 0(i' Kl ,-)7' 77 S,' 70 IH' 70 'ir 7 1/ -3 S FouB Hrasons. 1) 07' :i7 ;5H oM :;!) 2\' ;]<) 00' ;{.■) 47' ■M :i7' ;i.-) 0(i' :',:', :]()' ;i;5 :!J' HI 2r,' 77 4.T 77 0(1' 7!) 17' h:; ,",s' HO 40' 87 i;!' HH 00' 80 40' H,-) l',' 84 :.'!)' 84 07' H.") '..>.">' HO 40' H7 r.o' 84 2'.)' x:l r,r,' 1 i)-) 01 !)1 .ii) 2'.y \2' 14' ;io' '.',2 O.) 47 ;u 40 40 40 ;!4 ih> •.Hi ;i(i ;jH I'M .■;s o;{ :J7 48 4W 44 ill 00 !),-,!() 07 0!) 100 •.',H 1(».") :{8 107 00 107 14 108 04 ! >ll ;iia M18 i \-2\ V2\ V2-> OS \-Z2 2n 124 20 fio 0()' 0' Fiict. 10 20 110 00 120 10 000 r,:]{) 480 400 GoO ' r.Vd 500 810 000 450 ;i20 54:! 5 10 450 1,000 400 800 000 1,000 500 1 ,000 5.000 a X " I'lihr 55.00 5 ».:!«; 5:j ;!4 ' 55.40 ' .50.00 57.80 .58.00 I 50.27 50.14 57.70 .57.00 5:1.47,1 59.00! 00.00 i .a a. 'A a a a Knlir. "I'lihr. " I'lilir. °l''iilir. ):i.50 75.00 58.50 ! ;i<(.28 74.: 12 50.20|:i4.24 ;8.:!2'.5:i.i;5 .'M-Hi 75.:iO ' 57.70 ' :{4.82 52.70 .50.:i7 5:!. 78 55.70 57.40 70.:!0 : 50.40 ;t0.00 77.70 58.00 I ;{7.;i(5 .57.:JO 77.00 I 00.40 41. :iH 50.87 70.57' 01.08 '41.45 5.5.01 ,70. ill 50.04! 42.12 50.:i0 55.70 5H.50 (!.(!:( .■)i).i 50.05 77.00 I 57.'J» j 40.00 57.81 7H.V4 1 58.57 | 42.04 .55,80 70.80 1. 50.70 :!0.;J0 50.80 77.40! 57. 10 I ^ ! I :!!),50 00.50 00.00 50.2:5, 5:!.00 5:!.70 51.00 ^01.00 78.00 jOO.(;0 42.00 (11.00 70.00,00.80 42.20 5;i 80 7;{.70 .54.50 55.88 55.7:i 5:!.8() 55,00 54..50 5 1..50 00.00 54.50 .52.78 52.70 00.00 00.00 .50.:!2 53.00 'i'i.m 55,00 7:110 54.70 yO.JJO I. .5;'. 70 51 SO 51.15 51 78 01 20 55 .54 .5;! 78 54.00 4,5T(i 50.40 0,000 55.00 0,:550 54.80 5,:i:i0 .58.00 4,:i50 5;i.24 57.'.iO 140 5(J.:iO 50 .50.80 04 58.2!) 150 .55.80 ; \ 50 5:5.00: .)...()() 01.00 01.00 55.00 52.52 .50.80 52.50 5 .'.00 55.47 51.7:5 5;!.00 54.00 50.10 5(!.54 54.50 51.82 74.00 74.20 70 10 74.05 77.00 77.0') 74.(;0 H().:{0 70.00 7S.00 74.00 71.00 77.40 7520 71.70 75.50 75.02 7:5.()8 (iO.Ol 72.85 07.00 (!0.:{0 00.00 5:5.00 .55.00 55.44 5.5.27 00.00 5:5.11 .5;s.(;o 55.10 01.50 02.00 57.:5:5 5.5. (i.5 (10.80 50.80 5:5.48 00.48 (i2.'55 57.:iO 01.27 00.57 5().h;5 :5:5.70 :5().0() :!2.27 :j:5.0() 41.13 :!2.:J8 2!».04 20.00 41.00 40.50 ;i7.15 :iO.(;0 ;;o.50 :i5.08 41.20 41.50 :i2.oo 42.:i« 51.20 40.20 40.00 50.80 47.48 l:i CIJMATIO FFATURF.S— MILITARY POHTS. 151 Climatic Features. a ir, -Knhr. ;!(t.2M ;5 , :i4.Hl ■« I :{4.H:i 10 :;•}.(»() 10 1 :n.:i(5 •• . . • • !)(> ', • • • • !:!.70 00 !(i()0 '14 \t:il 27 \\\m 00 11.12 It :;2.;js (;(; 2'.l..") 'l;-'.:;^ :;o .-,1.-0 27 4(5.21) 4i).()0 h:5 5().H0 oo 47.48 Till! Ixilt of tcnitory luivin/^ u iiicnii, v;iryin<^ from r>^>" to 00'^ Fahronhoit, lies mo.stly IxitwcMiij K) and '.%' north lutitudo on tho f tl o Atlantic h1o|)o, and ]>aH.s(!s wostwanl acrosH tlio Valhiy Mis.si.sH)*'!;! towiirdH tlic; Jtockv Mountains. It tlicn towiirdH tli(! Jtocky Mountains. It tli( dothurts Houtlnvard, and a^'ain liscs as it approaclicH tin? Pacitic Ocoan, bcinj^ unsurj)a.s.scd for fertility of soil and rich iiiiiK-ral ])rodii('tionM. Here is ])rodu('('d Indian corn, Avlx^at, tol'acco, hcMij), and almost ovory variisty of tho j^ra[)c, produc- inf5 larf,'(! (|uantiti(!H of wine. Ah regards climato and health it is very much varied accord- ing to altitude;. Fovcrs exist on th(! Atlantic sea-board, in ditleront forms, whih; for the most part IIm; (country to the west- wai'd is salubrious and invi^^'oratin;^'. It is wiill wat(!red, b(;infij favored with many navi^'abh; sticams, that of the Ohio liivor l)assing nc.'ar one thousand miles from east to west, beiVu'o onterinj.; into tho Mississijipi. 1'he j)oi)ulation is also dens(! and fast increasini^ in all the elennints of wealth. TUi iuoxhaustibh; beds of bituminous coal hero d(!])osited is alone; a semrco (jf immense ])rolit, whih; the richest j.arsoly on tho giounds immediately contiguous to it, tins live oak, in its evogreen foliage, is (juit(! conspicuous, having been hero retained and preserved, for purposes of oruarneut, in tho original cleaving of m 152 INFLUENCE OP CIJMATE. the f,TOun(ls ; tliis point bcinj:? tlio extreme nortliern limit in Avl'^cli it in found cm tlu! Atlantic coast. " Tlio geo^Tapliical locality of Old Point Comfort would naturally denote the climate of thin position to bo that of an intermediate, mild, or temjierate one ; and such the leadhig me- teoroloj^ical phenomena of the different seasons impress uj)on it. The winters are open and mild, but seldom with s ich depres- sions of temperature as give rise to snow. Althoup;h the entire district of country contiguous to this important military post is annually subjected to the calamity of having rife every form of malarial fever, the immediate locality of Fort Monroe may justly claiiu exemption from this evil ; this in fact l)ein<,' a favorite summer resort for invalids." The coldest winter month, Jamiary, had a mean temp, of 40 ' Fahr., and the warmest summer month, July, had a mf^an of 7»S^ Avoi'ago annual temperature 59^. Annual fall of rain, 45 in(!lu\s, the quantity being remarkably even during the ditl['er(>nt months of the year." The temperature of Norfolk, Va., may be considered very similar to Old Point Comfort, although somewhat warmer and subject to malignant fevers. " Jeffehron iiAitiiACKS," says Surgeon De ( ^imp, " is situated on the right bank of the Mississippi River, ton miles liclow the City of St. Louis, upon a sloping ridge, elevated about 100 feet above the river, and distant from it about 150 yards. The ground continues to rise; gently for one mile west of the bar- racks, attaining an elevation of aljout 200 feet above high water mark. The surface of the earth for many miles south and west, and for four or five miles north, is tradulating ; and as it fre- quently rises into abrupt hills with deep ravines, the drainage is perfect. The soil is a rich loam, br'^ed upon clay, with a substratum of limestone. The country around, with the excep- tion of the public grounds, remains (1830) covered with a heavy growth of tnnber. Indications of lead are common, and stone- coal is fomid in abundance within a few miles of the post. " The river is aliout one mile wide, and upon the opposite side, in Illinois, i) the. great ' American bottom,' which is said to be sixty miles long, and, on an average, seven miles wide. On the river it is skirted Avith forests, varying in breadth from a half to one mile, whilst the remaining space to the high ground consists principally of prairie, covered with a luxuriant growth of grass. This prairie is chequered with numerous lakes ; and as the evaporation of the water during the latter part of the summer exposes the surface of the subjacent soil, a iraitful source of disease is engendered, the influence of which is sensibly felt a^ die barracks. The water used at the post is /' y SrnJTARY POSTS — ST. LOUIS — FORT MAVENWORTII. 163 usiifilly that of the river ; hvit in suinnior it hns been common to resort to Avells and sprinfifs, the Avatcrs of which are preju- dicial to h(>altli, causinfi;, in many persons, bowt^l co.nph'uuts. "Tlio lmildinfj;s nsed as barracks are built '^f stone, and occupy three sides of a square. The position, "vith regard to healtli, is as good as any Avhicli could have been selected upon the riv(n' bank ; but, from an acquaintance vatli diseases of this country far morc^ than t^v(nlty-t^Yo years, I am able to state that fewer cases occur, and, Avheu they do, they are much milder in their character, when removed fi'om the river." St. Louis Auskxal is situated within the incorjiorated hmita of the city, in latitude 'M' 37', longitude 90^ 15'. " It is elevated above the Mississippi, at an ordinary stage of water, about 12 feet. The main c-hannel of the river runs east of the arsenal grounds about three quarters of a mile, an island intervening, and a small channel, at times, has l)iit little water in it, leaving (ixposed a broad surface of a muddy deposit, covered to a cou- feiderable extent with decayed wood, brought by each rise of the xtpper rivers from the wood-drifts. Being situated at the lower end of a largo city, where gi-eat numbers of dead animals are thro\\-n into the river, not a few of them are deposited in the vicinity of the arsenal when the river is low. In addition to the above causes of disease, a httle beloAv the arsenal, on the opposite side of the river, there is a chain of lakes, which in midsummer become very low, leaving tracts of muddy ground exposed to the action of the sun. AH these causes are fruitful sources of malaria, producing fevers of an intermittent type. From long residence in this vicinity," says Surgeon Do Camp, " I am con- vinced that when the south and southeast winds prevail, those causes are made operative to a considerable extent. Elevation above the river, especially if a little removed from it, tends, to a great extent, to render the above causes inoperative. Persons residing in the rear of the arsenal, on high ground, are seldom attacked with chills and fevers ; but, those who have recently come to reside at the arsenal, from distant ])arts of the country, are subject to this disease." Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, situated in north latitude 39° 11', west longitude 94'^ 44', is elevated 896 feet above the Gulf of Mexico. The mean annual temjierature is 53^ Fahrenheit ; the coldest month, January, having a mean of 28^, and the hottest month, July, 11'^ Fahr. Average annual fall of rain and snow, 30 inches. " This important military post is located on the right bank of the Missouri Kiver about 500 miles above its con- fluence with the Mississippi. As the Missouri here is not more than 300 yards wdde, being one of its narrowest points, the m 154 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. water is deep and ciiiTent rapid. This miglity river is at times navigable for steamboats 1,750 miles above tlie fort, and always, unless obstructed by ioe, to its mouth. " The soil, which is quite productive, consists of a sandy loam, covered with a rich vegetal)le deposit, the Avliole based on a stratum of clay and limestone. The forest abounds in trees valuable for timber or fuel. With the exception of pine, almost all kinds are to be found." Fort Scott, Kansas, is situated in north latitude 38^, west longitude 94° 30', four miles ^I'est of the Missouri line, and upon the military road from Fort Leavenworth to Fort Gibson, Indian Ter. The mean annual temperature is 54^ -^ Fahren- lieit. The coldest month, January, had a mean of 33°, and the warmest month, July, 77^. Average annual fall of rain, 42 inches. " Owing to the jiliysical conformation of the country, the climate is one of extremes of heat and cold, of drjuess and moisture. After a long and debilitating summ^jr, the winter, most frequently commencing abruptly with cold storms from the northeast, a succession of alternations, the mercury falling or .'ising 30° to 40° in a few hours. Sp)'ings and wells supply an abundance of good water, which laiely fails, even in the dryest seasons. An accurate examination of the country, for several miles in each direction, has failed to discover any local feature which may be considered objectionable, or as remotely the caiise of disease. The record of the post, however, show- ing so great a 2:)roportion of malarious fevers, an explanation is required of the statement that no appreciable local cause for them can be said to exist in this vicinity. This explanation may be found in the history of the occupation, habits and exposures of the troops ; the me^-^orological conditions of the seasons when most prevalent ; i .^ in what I conceive to be the general characteristics of a rich praii'ie country." — Medical Statistics U. States Army. Beneclv, Cal., is a mihtary j^ost situated in latitude 38° 8' north, and 122° 4' west, on the Straits of Carquenez, connecting the bays of San Pablo and Suisun, being about thirty miles east, in a direct line from the Pacil'c Ocean. The town of Benecia lies in the immediate vicinity of the barracks and is a place of importance. The coldest winter month, January, had a mean temp, of 47° Fahr., and the warmest summer month, July, had a mean of G7". Average annual temperature, 58° 29' Fahrenheit. Annual fall of rain, 17 incnos. The climate is mild, divided into two seasons — the wet and dry. The winter, a wet season, usually commences in Novem- ber, and continues through March. A few weeks after the tirst MIUTARY POSTS— FORT JONES. 155 38^ 8' lectiiig miles oAvn of lid is a •J, liad month, 58^^ 29' rains, the grass springs up, and in a sliort time the country pre- sents the appearance of spring. The fruit trees bloom in Yeh- ruarj and March ; the vire and olive grow in great perfection. Suow seldom falls on the plains ; occasionally the higher hills in the vicinity are covered for a short time ; ice sometimes, but rarely, forms ; the hills and valleys continue green until the last of May, when the oat and other grasses begin to ripen and turn yellow ; and, by the middle of July, the ground is baked and cracked, and the whole country presents the appearance of the greatest aridity. At this, and other points near the cojist, the sea-breeze blows regularly, commencing about 9 A. M., and con- tinuing till sundown ; tlio nights are cool and pleasant. The most prevalent diseases at this post, and in the vicinity, are fevers and affections of the respiratory and digestive organs. The fevers are not severe, the remittent form being mild and easily managed ; the intermittent is apt to return frequently and continue for a long time. The tliseases of the respirator}' organs are generally mild catarrhs, usually cured in a few days. The diseases of the digestive organs are diarrhoea and dysen- tery, both frequently proving extremely obstinate and difficult of cure. — Medical StaJtstics U. Slates Anny. The c'imate, etc., of San Francisco maybe considered similar to Benecir., although somewhat cooler, the mean annual tem- perature being 55^ Falir. ; the average annual fall of rain being 23 inches, mostly falling during the winter months. Fort Jones, Cal.— "In latitude 41° 35' N., longitude 122° 52' W., and on the eastern slope of the ' Coast Range' of moun- tains, exteudmg eastwardly towards the Sierra Nevada, is an oval basin thirty miles long by six wide, knoAvn as Scott's Valley. The southern as well as the northern extremity of this valley are bounded by two high ranges of mountains, the con- necting links between the coast range and the Sierra Nevada. That range, bounding the northern extremity, is a spur of the coast range ; that bounding the soiithern extremity is called Scott's Mountain, being some 8,000 feet above the level of the ocean, while the valley has an altitude of nearly 3,000 above the level of the sea. "From a bird's-eye view of the geological characteristics of the surrounding country, one is led to believe that its origin is of ratlier recent date. On some of the moiintains there are fresh appearances of scoriic, and in the crater of one of the neighbormg mountains, sulphurous ebullitions are distinctly visible. The pedrigal at the base of the mountains and in the small valleys appears to have undergone but little change, and ' I 15G INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. ! !:!'! is generally covered ■\vltli nn exceedingly yonng growth of tim- ber. The character of the soil of this valley is principally ai'gillaceons and arenaceous. The former jiresents a reddish appearance, and holds in coml)ination, minute pebbles, and the latter is composed chiefly of micaceous mattei*. With plenty of moisture and sufficient heat, this peculiar soil v.ould bring forth as delicious and luxuriant vegetables and fruit as the richest vegetable mould of the prairie lands of Iowa. " Fort Jones is situated at the northern extremity of the val- lev, on a gentle slope of the mountain, and in a pine grove. Tlie mean annual temperature of the post is 52^ Fahr. Spring 52°, summer 73^, autumn 52'-', Avintcr SB-", the highest being 100'^, and the lowest 3"' below zero, AltitLde, 2,570 feet. " The climate of Fort Jones may bo regarded, c n the whole, as salubrious. The hne of demarkation between each of the four seasons of the j'ear is conspicuously dra"\m. The fall sets in about the middle of September, and continues, with cool nights and warm days, until the first of December, which is ushered in either oy heavy rains or deep snows. This continues, at intervals, until the middle of February, when tlie hills and val- leys are clad in verdure. March r.'id April come and go with warm days and cool " aghts, and not unfrequcntly accompanied Avitli frosts. June, July, and August, bring hot (lays, and, occa- sionally, a sultry night. The summer is not always attended with a drought as in the southern part of the State. A rain storm, accomj)anied with thunder and lightning, in July and August, is not an unfrequent occurrence. " The most prevalent disease among the troops, as well as the citizens, is intermitting fever in some form. The overflowing of the river banks, with the rank vegetable matter that the water holds in combination, sufficiently accounts for this form of disease. "It is a noticeable fact that when females from the Atlantic States arrive on this coast, those who have been barreu for years, and those vho have never borne children at all, no sooner become acchmatcd than the ut-erine organs assume a new tone, and conception inmiediately follows. This change of the functions is not temporary, but continues, and the once sterile female may calculate with the greatest certainty that the end of every eighteen months will bring an oflspring. The American cow, after reaching this coast from the plains, will bring a culf every eleven or twelve months, and this calf will . bring forth yoing when two years old. Sheep breed twice a year, and more frequently bring forth two at each birth than one. If I were to advance an opinion of my own on this great procreative tendency of both man and beast on this coast, I MILrrARY POSTS — MONTEREY. 157 would attribute it, in a gi-eat measure, to this bland and sfciniu- latinf]f climate. The climate has certainly the effect, on females who come here, of producing an immoderate action of the cata- menial functions. But I will not attempt to ofier any further cause for this, but will leave it foi the more scientific." — Extract from Sanitary Etpurt (/ Asst. Simjcon C. C. Keemy, 185G. Fort Reading, Cal., situated in latitude 40^^ 28' N. ; longitude 122^ 7' W., from Greenwicli, is elevated about 700 feet abovi; the level of th(! sea, lying in the nortliern part of the valley of the Sacramento Eiver, Mean annual temperature, 52^ Fahr., showing a great degree of heat for the latitude. The country around is, in a general view, an irregular prairie, bounded on the east by a range of mountains — Lassen's Mountains — running north and south, sixty miles distant, and one-fourth of the way to the range of the Sierra Nevada ; on the west by the coast range, twenty-tivc miles distant ; on the north by Shasta Butt(^ ninety miles distant, which ai))iears to S2)read out east and west and connect with Lassen's and the coast range ; and on the south ib is continuous with a plain that follows the course of the Sacramento River. MouL^ain peaks covered ivitli snow are hero to be seen for most })arts of the year in the distance. Sluxsta Butte, which is immediately under the 122d parallel, is estimated to rise 1G,000 feet aboA'o the sea. The prairie is atudd(Hl hero and there with mots of white oak ; and white oak, the nut 'pine, and Avillows, with long grass and dense under- growth, skirt the wat( r courses. Elsewhere the country is bare of evi^rything that would intercept tlie Aviuds. The cultivation of the soil is of sui*h little extent that it cannot eflect in any degree its healthfulness ; yet, intermittent fever occurs hero at all seasons. In point of climate and salul)rity, the descrip- tion of this part of the country is a})plicable to much of the coimtry lying between the range of the Sierra Nevada Moun- tain and the coast range. Monterey, California, situated forty leagues soutli from San IVancisco, on the shore of Monterey Bay, m north latitude 80 ' JU5', is probably the most beautiful town on all the coast of California. "In all that constitutes beauty of scenery, derived from a proper proportion of woodland, water, hills, and distant mountains, Monterey Avill bear a comparison with other places of more c(>lebrity. The atmosphere is humid, the tc-mperaturo agreeably warm and equable ; the prevalent winds are sea breezes from the west and north ; the land winds from the east and soutl' are much less fiequent, blow less strongly, and may fi'cquently be detected alone by the uncomfortable feelings they produce, without reference to the weather-vane. Thc^e is ono !| n I 158 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. rainy season, from November till April. This is about the average time the rains begin and terminate, although some- times considerable rain will fall as early as October and continue until May. During this period there are frequent intervals of fine vi^eather of such extraordinary beauty and balmy temperature, that the traveller arriving on the coast might well imagine, with Col. Fremont, that it resembled the climate of southern Italy. During the dry season the fogs rise from the sea lato in the afternoon, float over the town, and dis- perse usually aljout 9 r. m. There is also a fog generally in the mornings until 10 A. m. These fogs are found on the entire coast of California as fa^ south as Point Conception. In the rainy season, at which time the winds are from the south and east, tlieiv'^ are no fogs ; the sky, when not rain}-, being clear and cloudless. There is a difference between the mean temper- ature of the summer and ■winter months of only from G^ to 7° ; and hence the annual temperature (60^ Fahr.) is very uniform, although the diurnal changes may be very considerable. "This post is represented as being remarkably healthy, no particular disease could said to be endemic to this locality. The diseases from which the inhabitants are entirely free are contagious or infectious fevers ; those fi'om which they are nearly exempt, are consumption, dyspepsia, aneiu'ism, and malignant tumors ; and those which are mild, and of rare occur- rence, are diarrhoea and dysentery. II: 'I 11'' I'l MILITARY rOSTS AXD CITIES. 159 IV. — Meteorological Table, BHOWrXG THE I'lUNCIPAli ( ITIKS AND JIU.ITAUY S-TATIOXS IN THE UNITED STATES, HAVING A MEAN ANNUAL TEMPEKATUHE ABOVE CO' PAIIR. Stations, rra Ralciph, N. C Fort Macon, N. C Fort Jolinston, " Columbia, S. C ( amden, " Charleston (Ft. Moultrie). Savannah, Uoo Axipjustu, " Sparta, Fernandina, Fla St. AufTu.stine, Fla Fort Kin<,^ " Pilatka, New Smyrna, " Fort Pierce, " Fort Dallas, " Key West, " Jacksonville, " Fort Brooke, " ....... Cedar Keys, " I'eiisacola " Mobil(\ Ala F( .'t Morgan, Ala Mt. ^'^ernon Arsenal, Miss, Natchez, Miss Vicksburg, " Little Rock, Ark Fort Pike, La Now Orleans, La Baton Rouge, " Fort Jesup, " Fort 'I'owson, Ind. Ter.. . Fort Washita, " " .. . Austin, Texas Fort Belknap, Texas Fort Worth, " Fort Gates, " Galveston, " San Antonio, " Corpus Christi, " Fort Brown, *■ Fort Chadbournc, Texas. Fort Duncan, Texas Fort Quitman, " Fort Fillmore, N. M Fort Yuma, Cal San Diego, " Jurupa, " Fort Miller, " Stockton, " 35^7' 34°4l' ;54'00' 34 00' 34 17' 32"4r)' 32' 05' 3328' 33 17' 30' 35' 2n"4S' 2!) 10 29 34' 28 54' 27 30' 25 55' 2r32' 30 15' 28'^00' 29 07' 30'] 8' 3042' 30" 14' 3r]2' 3r34' 32'24' 34'40' 30' 10' 20'57' 30 20' 3r33' 3400' 34 14' 30 20' 33 08' 32 '40' 31 20' 29 18' 29' 58' 28 05' 25 54' 32 02' 28M2' 30'40' 3213 32=43' 32"42' 34^00' 37''00' 37°57' To B O >-; 78°48' 7(540' 78 05' HlOO' 80 '33' 79=51' 81 07' 81^53' 83 00' 8r30' 81 35' 82 10' 81 ■48' 8102' 80 20' 80 20' 81=48' 82 00' 82 28' 8303' 87' 27' 87 59' 88=00' 8802' 91=28' 9100' 92=12' 89=38' 90 00' 91=18' 93=32' 95=33' !!fl=38' 97=40' 98=48' 97='25' 97=49' 95'or 98' 25' 97=27' 97=26' 100=05' 100 30' 105 00' 100=02' 11430' 117 14 11725 119=40' 121 = 14' FOUB SCABONS. Feet. "26 20 200 275 25 40 600 800 ' ' 25 50 25 20 30 20 10 14 20 35 20 25 20 200 240 350 150 10 10 40 80 300 645 050 1,000 1,100 1,000 ' COO 20 50 ! 2,120 I 2,842 3,700 3,937 i 120 I 150 M,000 400 ° Fnhr. 01.00 f.2.23 05.08 00.00 01.00 00.00 07.44 04.00 04.40 09.80 09.03 70.00 C9.C4 71.60 73.20 74.75 76.00 09.50 72.48 C9.00 08.74 70.00 ! 07.00 I 05.81 167.10 ! 65.00 I 62.30 09.86 09.86 08.14 I 06.>'9 61.09 62.21 I 67.50 , 64.00 I 63.54 ! 60.12 74.00 09.25 70.95 74.00 02.38 70.00 01.89 63.98 74.00 02.00 03.28 06.00 61.00 ° Fahr. 59.40 i 64.40 i 59.00 1 58.20 i 05.85 1 67.08 64.37 63.90 69.40 68.54 70.72 70.00 71.80 73.14 74.10 75.79 B a m " Fahr. 78.51 80.19 78.00 80.20 80.59 80.70 80.21 79.20 . 79.20 i 80.37 I 80.22 i 80.56 ! 79.14 i 81.30 : 81.50 I 82.50 s ° Falir. °Fuhr. 05.19 ' 07.46 58.00 59.40 08.11 67.94 63.37 68.20 70.80 71.53 70.64 70.20 72.43 74.80 70.27 78.00 72.08 70.08 "08.59 70.00 ;! 64.81 1167.02 '08.00 1 : 66.60 03.00 ! 69.97 ! 69.94 ; 169.84 ;: 67.00 1 62.39 02.16 j; 68.40 04.90 !! 63.11 I' 64.79 ! 1 73.20 1 1 69.68 71.45 '74.85 i 80.20 79.67 81.57 ' 82.70 i 80.33 j 78.68 181.00 i 78.40 ; 78.00 ! 82.84 82.27 I 81.21 181.27 ! 79.10 ! 79.29 82.92 i 80.95 I 80.43 j 82.30 87.50 82. Ki 82.53 83.37 04.35 ; 70.77 I I ^01.92 63.72 72.10 00.00 01.00 62.78 59.40 j 84,48 82.78 81,32 88.00 71.26 72.44 85.48 73.26 73.44 71.04 09.86 71.00 69.17 65.81 67.10 04.70 i 02,00 i 70.83 70.71 08.21 66.22 61.27 63.25 , 07.00 ' 65.15 65.37 67.80 70.00 71.20 73.11 74.77 02.55 72.25 02.42 04.27 75.69 64.40 (i5.78 60.36 04.00 50.00 40.00 41.00 51.88 54.00 48.07 40.50 59.80 58.08 .58.41 57.18 03.22 63.27 6(J.58 09.00 02.35 58.23 54.93 57.00 53.68 51.73 .52.00 50.30 45.00 55.80 50.53 54.21 51.00 43.93 44.14 30.00 44.!J0 45.25 49.58 00.40 53.90 50.73 62.28 45,87 53.92 40.'I6 46.62 56.80 53.29 53.89 49.35 46.08 ^w -r IGO INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Climatic Features. The southern portion of the Union having a mean tempera' ture varying from ()0° to H'i^ Fiihrcuheit, lies between 3G and 24 degrees north hititucle. Key AYest, -which is the most south- ern post in the Ignited States, is also the hottest. It runs through 37 degrees of longitude on a Hue from Charleston, H. C, to San Diego, Cal., including the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Loui- siana, Arkansas, Texas, Southern Califoi-nia, the Territory of Arizona, and part of Ncav Mexico. This largo section of the United States is mostly siib-tropical in its climatic character, producing cotton, rice and sugar in great abundance ; the former product being annually exj:)orted to an immense amount. Indian corn, wheat and sweet potatoes are raised in most parts, while Texas furnishes pasturage for large numbers of cattle and sheep. Yellow or pitch pine, live oak, the cyprus, and many other kinds of forest trees abound in the lowlands, while a still greater variety flourish in the more hilly or mountainous sections. The orange, and other fniits peculiar to a tropical region, ilourish hi Florida, on the Atlantic and Gulf coast, while the grape and other kinds of fruit abound in Southern California ou the Pacific coast. The minerals, although not numerous, ar(^ very valuable ; gold being found in North Carolina and South Carolina in consider- able quantities, while Arizona is found to i)roduce gold, silver, and copper, although as yet but partially explored. Southern CaUfornia also yields gold, quicksilver, ajid other valuable minerals. Military Posts and Cities. CiTAELESTON, S. C, situatod m latitude 32^4ry ; longitude 79"^ ryl' ; lies six miles in land from Fort 3I()ul(rie, on Sullivan's Island. The fort is suiTounded in part by the village of Moul- trievillo, which is a fashionable resort during warm weather. Mean annual tt;mperaturo (JO - Fahrenheit ; the mean of tiio winter months being 51"^, and the summer months 81°. Tlio average annual fall of rain is 45 inches ; the greatest quantity falling in July, August and September. The city of Charleston, being identified with the above island and military post, the Army statistics are quoted in regard to the situation and health of this locality. " Sullivan's Island ia i'U;l MILITARY POSTS AND dTIES — DEW POINT. 161 \ 3al gold lidcr- silvcr, liern liable 79'^ divan's Moul- ■atlier, the Tlio autity on the north side of the bay which forms Charleston harbor. It is a sandy island, and is but slightly elevated above the level of the sea ; several storms having been kno\\Ti to carry the waves over it so as almost to submerge it. There appear to be advo- cates for the salubrity of Sullivan's Island, while others sliow that several diseases have originated hero as well as in the city of Charleston — as cholera, infantum dysentery, intermittent fever, remittent fever, and ycillow fever." In speaking of the fever of 1852 the surgeon remarks : — " The conclusion is irre- sistible, that yellow fever was not introduced from Castle Pinckney, neither fi-om Charleston, but that it originated on Sullivan's Island." Dew Point. — With high range of the thermometer in the low country of the south, humidity and a high dew-point are always associated. This is the case in Charleston harbor. The me- teorological register of Fort this. Moultrie, for three years, shows Months. May, June, July, August, . September AIEAN OF THE DEW-POINT. 1849. 1852. 70.19 70.51 75.36 72.94 76.27 78.70 77.69 75.77 71.70 71.71 185.1 66.50 71.40 77.33 75.32 71.85 " Humidity and a high dew-point play an important part in the causation of febrile diseases. It is not the sole cause, but there is no question that a high dew-point is fi powerful agent ; and we may conclude, in the language of another, ' that a high dew-point has a tendency to i)roduce injurious effects on the system ; that it is often found to exist in imhealthy localities, or duruig pestilential times ; and that it must assist nuicli in the development of autumnal and periodic fevers, are facts which no one acqiiainted with the subject will question. We may go further, and afhrm that yellow fever never prevails in a place, endemically or epidemically, unless there is a high dew point. Indeed, heat, humidity, and a high dew-])oint, are always pres- ent in summer, as is evident to the most common observer, in the rapidity with which butcher's meat takes on the putrefac- tive process ; and the humidity of the climate is shown by the rapid oxidation of all articles of clothing, the rusting of keys in one's })ocket, the mildew on linen clotliing, and the injury done to cloth generall}', the mould on leather, r contagion are opposed by facts ; these are well known and need not be stated. "Setting aside the vexed t^uestion of qi'arantiw, hospitals should be establislicd in healthy situations ; all sources of noxious eflluvia should bo removed ; and by correcting such otiluvia, when known to exist, by appropiiate fumigations, and by exclading persons not exempt from the disease from the infected district. These and such like eflbrts should be made upon the Inst appearance of any epidemic." This writer fur- ther remarks : " I think yellow fever a pecuhar and distinct disease, and the ]U'eeise pathological conditions essential to it are at preseut unknown ;" and lurther, " Apart from the epi- demic influence on num, nothing was observed remarkable in the animal or vegetable kingdoms." Another army hiirgeon, stationed at Fort Moultrie, Charleston harbor, remarks : "Little will be said concerning the nature of yellow fever. AVhen the disease iirst occurred to me, it was regarded as sui (leneris — as diilerent from all other southern fevers ; but it must bo confessed that this opinion has been considerably moditied ; and, at the present time, it is believed that intermittent, reuiittent, continued congestive, and yellow fevers are nearly rt^lated, if not niodihcations of the same fever — all being southern bilious fevers — the nervous system ii some, and the blood in others, being pre-eminently aft'ected. Whether the difiereiice in these varieties of southern fever, in different seasons and in the same season, depends on a simple difference of intensity in the ju'edisposing and exciting causes with the same materia morlii ; whether different causes exist at the same, developing the different forms of fever ; or w^hether there is a blending and conversion of types, as is manifested by Dr. Dickson — all remains to be determmed." Fort Yuma, Cal., situated in north latitude 32° 32', west lon- gitude 114^ 36', is elevated 350 feet above the waters of tho Colorado Eivcr. The mean annual temperature, according to the Ai-my Eccords, is 74^ Fahrenheit. The coldest month (January) had a mean of 56'°, and the warmest month (July) 92° Fahr. Average annual fall of rain, 4 inches, being the least of any post in the United States. " Fort Yuma is situated on a high rocky hill on the west bank of the Colorado, opposite the mouth of the Rio Gila, and eight}'- miles from the head of the Gulf of California. The Valley of FORT YUMA — SAN DIEOO. 1G7 the Colorntlo avcragoB seven iiiilos in vvidtb, and ih bounLleJ on cither side by rocky barren mountains and sand-hills, -which separate it from the immense dtserts by which it is suiTounded. This locality is noted for its excessive temperature and absence of rain ; the thermometer occasionally rising to IIG^. Although such is the official record of meteorological observations at this post, it appears that the actual temperature is even more exces- sive than above stated. The principal number of cases of diarrluua, dysentery and scorbutis re])orted in the abstract for 1852 occuiT(!d at this post, the men being for the time destitute of vegetables, and deprived of the ordinary necessaries of life." San Dieoo, Cal., situated in north latitude 32" 42', and west longitude 117^ 1-1', has a mean annual temperature of 02-^ Fahr. The coldest month (January) had a mean of 52'^, and the ■warmest month (August) 74^. Annual average fall of rain, 10 inches. " The mihtary i)ost at San Diego is situated near the head of a valley, perhaps three quarters to one and a half mile in Avidth, six miles distant from the old Presidio, and eight miles from the sea-shore. The height of the hills and table-land on either side of the valley is about 250 feet. Some 15 or 20 miles to the east of the post is a range of mountains running north and south, broken in places, Avith some pretty valleys intervening, which mountains extend over a distance in width some 40 miles, and bound the desert on the Avest pide of the Rio Colo- rado. " The diseases which have occurred at this post have not been influenced ^jar^/c/i/fuZ/y by the climate. In some particular places they suifer from intermittant and bilious fevers, of which many die ; but in this immediate vicinity a case of intermittent or remittent fever is seldom ever seen, unless contracted else- where." P' • ' Mvr u 168 INFLUENCE OF CLIJilATE. Annual Measurement of Rain At the different Militauy Stations in the United States. The entire amount of ^v'ater falling in Rain and Snow is in all cases intended to be included in the summaries given in the original record, and of wlii(?li the results for separate years are here consolidated to determine the mean for a series of years. Note. — For Laciti.Jo and Longitude of tho difr?rfut Stations, see Meteorolo- gical Tdble of Temperatures, pages 132, 141, 150 and 159. MiLITAET STATI0X8. Rain, &c., in Inches nud IlunareUhs, Fort Kent, Maine, . Hancock I3arracks, Maine, . Fort Sullivan, Eastport, " Fort Preble, Portland, " Ft. Constitu, P'rtsni'th, N. H. Ft. indep'dence, Boston Har., Watertown Arsenal, Mass., . Fort Adams, Newport, It. I., . Ft. Trunvall, N. London, Con, Ft. Columbus, N. Y. Harbor, Fort Hamilton, N, Y., . West Point, N. Y. . Watevvliet Arsenal, N. Y., Platts])urgli Barracks, N. Y"., Madison Barracks, N. Y., Fort Ontario, Oswego, N. Y. Fort Niagara, N. Y. Buffalo Barracks, N. Y. .yieghanv Ar., Pittsburgh, Pa. Carlisle barracks. Pa., . Ft. MifJ.in, near Philadelphia, Ft. McHenry, Baltimore, Md. Washington City, D. C, Fort Washington, Md., . Ft. Monroe, near Norfolk, Va. Fort Johnston, N. C, . Ft. Moultrie, Charlci-.ton Har., Augusta Arsenal, Ga., . Oglethorpe Barracks, Ga., Ft. Marion, St. Augustine, Fla. Fort Pierce, Fla., . Key West, Fla., . Fort Myers, Fla,, . Fort Brooke, Fla., . Spring. 5.4 G 7.62 8.88 12.11 9.03 8.60 10.75 13.89 10.99 11.55 11.69 12.57 8.66 8.36 9.94 6.18 6.87 8.59 9.38 9.05 12.97 11.13 10.45 12.57 9.77 6.83 9.89 6.78 13.45 5.90 11.13 8.34 11.02 8.50 Sum'cr. 11.65 11.92 10.05 10.28 9.21: 8.42' 10.66 11.44 10.65 11.33 11.64 ! 12.43 10.34 1 10.03 ' 10.28 7.63 i 9.81: 9.23; 9.871 9.67 ! 12.62 11.04 10.43 12.84 15.08 15.52 17.45 3.66 23.50 10.54 26.25 16.59 32.15 28.24 Ant'inn. 9.64 9.95 9.85 11.93 8.95 9.27 10.83 13.66 13.16 10.30 1 I 9.93 i 10.74 : I 9.171 ' 10.05 I 12.51 1 9.77 i \ 8.68^ 13.54 1 8.23! 7.68! 10.42 10.. ^2 ' 10.15 10.22 10.10 16.32 '' 10.06 : 4.511 ! 7.21: 9..56 16.84 15.35 11.96 i 10.63 ; Winter. 9.71 7.48 10.61 10.93 8.38 9.01 9.83 13.47 10.98 9.63 10.39 10.7n 6.38 4.9r 8.10 7.30 6.41 7.53 7.48 7.61 9.26 9.31 10.07 9.39 10.17 7.34 7.52 8.05 9.17 5.80 8.76 7.37 8.06 8.04 Year. 36.46 36.97 3i).39 45.25 35.57 35.30 42.07 52.46 45.69 43.23 43 05 46.53 34.55 33.39 39.78 30.88 31.77 38.80 34.96 34.01 45.27 42.00 41.20 45.02 45.18 46.01 44.92 23.00 53.33 31.80 ; 62.98 47.65 G3.19 55.57 V \^ li-;''' •r> ANNUAL MEASUEEMENT OF E.ON. 169 Annuel Measurement of Rain — Continued. 52.46 46.u3 34.55 33.89 39.78 30.88 31.77 138.80 34.96 34.01 45.27 42.00 41.20 45.02 145.18 146.01 144.92 23.00 53.33 31.80 62.98 47.65 63.19 55.57 MiLiTABV Stations. Fort Meade, Fla., . Cedar Keys, Fla., . Ft. Barrancas, Pensacola, Fir Ft. Mitcliell, n'r Moutg'ry, Ala Mount Vernon Arsenal, Ala, Fort Wood, La., . Fort Pike, La., New Orleans Barracks, . Baton Rouge, La., , Fort Jesup, La., Fort Smith, Ark., . Fort Towson, Li. Ter., . Fort Washita, " Fort Gil)son, " Tort Arbuckle, " Fort Scott, Kansas, Fcrt Leavenworth, Kansas, Jefferson Barracks, Mo., St. Louis Arsenal, Mo., . Detroit Barracks, Mich., Fort Gratiot, Fort Mackinac, " Fort Brady, Fort Howard, " Fort Winnebago, " Fort Crawford, Fort Atkinson, Iowa, Fort Dcs Moines, " Fort Dodge, Fort Snelling, Minn., Fort Eipley, Fort Kearny, Neb., Fort Laramie, Dakota, Fox-t B'^lknap, Texas, Fort Worth, " Fort Chadbourne, " Fort Graham, " I'ort r^roghan, " San Antonio, " Fort Brown, '' Ringgold Bar'ks, Fort Mcintosh, (( llain, Ac., in Inches nnd Hundredths. Kprin;;. Smn'er. Aut'mn. Winter. Ye.ir. 8.76 20.68 6.91 3.87 40.22 4.10 22.35 11.94 10.11 48.50 12.86 18.69 13.71 11.72 56.98 17.60 14.65 4.61 9.29 i 46.15 13.42 18.84 13.15 18.09 i 63.50 16.13 17.30 15.60 11.601 60.63 16.70 23.61 18.96 12.65 1 i 71.92 11.29 17.28 9.62 12.71 50.90 15.08 19.14 12.48 15.40 ! 1 62.10 13.68 10.94 9.74 11.49 45.85 12.48 13.03 9.93 0.66 ! 42.10 15.55 14.36 12.23 8.94 51.08 13.19 11.27 10.78 6.42 i 1 41.66 11.38 9.68 9.25 C.15 36.46 8.15 8.98 8.90 4.54 30.57 12.57 16.3"^ 8.39 4.79 42.12 7.97 12.24 7.33 2.75 1 30.29 10.56 12.88 8.02 6.37 ! 37.83 12.86 14.09 8.71 6.29 i 41.95 8.51 9.29 7.41 4.86: : 30.07 8.02 9.99 8.86 5.75 ' 32.62 4.67 8.88 7.01 3.31 : 23.87 5.44 9.97 10-'' 5.18: 31.35 9.00 14.45 7.84 3.36 i 34.65 5.58 11.46 7.63 2.821 27.49 7.63 11.87 7.90 4.00 31.40 12.22 20.43 4.82 2.27 39.74 8.86 10.93 4.90 3.87 26.56 7.92 8.15 8.39 3.06' 27.32 6.61 10.92 5.1 i 1.92 25.43 6.31 12.62 8.42 2.13 29.48 10.80 12.05 3.82 1.31 27.98 13.68 7.15 12.00 2.13 35.00 7.09 6.31 6.85 1.75 22.00 14.50 8.80 9.49 8.07 40.86 8.52 10.46 8.99 3.91 31.88 11.98 6.02 9.77 11.91 40.58 11.61 7.80 8.24 8.91 36.56 8.63 10.22 7.57 7.35 i 33.77 3.97 9.26 15.08 5.34 33.65 4.49 7.10 6.31 3.05 20.95 4.07 7.33 5 06 2.20 18.66 1:1 W 170 "U\ INFLUENCE OF CIJMATE. Annual Measurement of Rain — Continued. MiLiTAEY Stations. Rain, &c., In Inches and Hundredths. Sprinft Sum'cr. Aut'nin ■\Vinter. Year. Fort Duncan, Texas, 3.55 9.91 6.32 2.42 22.20 Fort luge, 0.06 11.06 6.99 3.88 27.99 Fort Clarke, 4.60 8.53 6.36 2.31 21.80 Fort Bliss and El Paso, 0.70 3.56 5.25 1.70 11.21 Fort Fillmore, 0.75 4.44 3.30 0.74 9.23 Albuquerque, N. M., 1.10 5.45 2.07 0.80 9.42 Santa Fe, 2.83 8.90 6.02 2.08 19.83 Fort Union & Las Vegas, N.M. 2.47 9.62 5.12 2.03 19.24 Fort Massacnusetts, " 3.50 5.38 8.83 2.83 20.54 Fort Defiance, 2.91 6.41 4.57 2.65 16.64 San Diego, Cal., . 2.74 0.55 1.24 5.90 10.43 Fort Yuma, " . . . 0.27 1.31 0.86 0.80 3.24 Monterey, " 4.43 0.21 1.65 5.91 12.20 Fort Miller, " . . . 9.57 0.02 3.59 11.34 24.51 San Francisco, Cal., 8.81 0.03 3.37 11.38 23.59 Benecia Barracks, Cal., . 6.40 0.01 2.65 7.56 16.62 Sacramento, " . 9.02 0.00 3.74 8.56 21.32 FortEeading, " . 11.30 0.39 4.89 12.44 29.02 Fort Jones, " . 5.38 0.89 5.30 5.20 16.77 Fort Orford, Oregon, 19.12 3.00 19.60 26.80 68.52 Dalles of Columbia, Oregon, . 2.63 0.42 4.16 7.11 14.32 Astoria, " 60 00 Fort Vancouver, W. T., . '9'.28 "6!23 io!3b i9'.6'9 45.50 Fort Steilacoom, " 11.19 3.85 15.20 21.51 51.75 (( « « (( (( << (( 401 40 51 EECAPITULATION. Annual fall of Eain, &c., in tlie Now England States, 41 inches. State of New York, 30 Middle States, State of Ohio, Southern States, S.W. States & In. Ter. 391 Wesfm States & Ter. 30 Texas & Now Mexico, 24,^- State of California, 18^ Oregon it "Wash. Ter. 50 Average annual fall of Eain, &c., in the United States, 36 inches. From the abovp Army Be cord, running tln-ough a number ot years, it appears that the greatest fall of rain in the U. States occurs in the Southern States l)ordering on the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico ; the average annual fall being 51 inches. The (t « « « « (( (( (( (( <( (( (( (( (( il n i( <{ il (( <( 'WfV'' :NUAL FALL OP RAIN. 171 next greatest fall of rain and snow occurs in the Nortliwestem States and Temtories bordering on the Pacific Ocean ; tlio average annual fall being 50 iaclies, aUhougb immediately in the vicinity of the sea-coast and near Paget Sound (say for 100 miles inland), the average annual fall of rain, (fee, will amount to 56 inches and upwards — showing a singular coincidence in regard to these two extremes of territory, one receiving its climatic influence from the Gulf Stream as it ascends north- ward, and the other fi-om a similar cun'ont of water and air approaching the northwest coast from the Pacific Ocean. ;vr., :a ^\ ri a a t( (C (( i( (( (( ichea. Consolidated Table, Exhibiting the annual amount of Sicknops and Mortality in the U. States Anny * brought down to January, 18G0. Reoions. 1. Coast of New England, 2. Harbor of New York, . 8. West Point, N. Y., 4. North Interior — East, . 5. The Great Lakes, 6. North Interior — West. 7. Middle Atlantic coast, 8. Middle Interior — East, Newport Barracks, Ken., JciFcrson Barracks and St. Louis Ai'senal, Middle Interior — West, South Atlantic Coast, . South Literior — East, . 14. South Interior — West, 15. Atlantic Coast of Florida, 16. Interior and Gulf Coast of Florida, 17. Texas, Southern Frontier, 18. Texas, Western Frontier, 10. New Mexico, 20. Cahfornia, Southern, . 21. California, Northern, . 22. Oregon and Washington, 23. Utah Territory, . 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. I Ratio per 1000 Men. Ticnted. Died 1,755 3,181 4,G19 1,808 2,183 2,2(35 2,336 3,180 2,692 3,603 2,622 2,658 2,089 3,354 3,515 4,902 3,580 3,063 2,590 2,105 2,784 2,302 1,845 Average, per 1,000, Note.— The mortality per 1,000 B'-it West Indies, 143. * Asiatic cholera and gun-shot wounds excluded. 8.8 18.4 4.0 10.9 13.1 12.0 11.1 14.9 29.3 43.7 22.4 27.3 40.5 22.0 24.0 30.2 49.6 19.6 18.5 18.0 25.6 9.8 8.2 21.0 tish troops in Canada is 20 ; Jamaica, m I; ^ PART IX. CLIMATE OF THE NORTHERN, MIDDLE AND WESTERN STATES. Climate, Topography, and Productions. New EXGL.VND States. — This nortlieast section of the United States lies between 41'^ and 47° north latitude, extending from 67° to 73° 30' west longitude. It has for the most part a favored climate as regards health and longevity, although along the sea-coast, when northeast winds prevail, cases of consumption are very prevalent. The coldest part is the north of Maine, where the mean annual temperature is 37° Fahrenheit. The coldest month being January, and the warmest July. The average mean tem- perature of the seasons in this region are as follows : — Spring 35°, Summer G2°, xiutumn 40°, Winter 12°, Fahr. ; the mercury occasionally getting to — 3^° below zero, and rising to 90° above. The country is elevated, and mostly covered with a dense forest, bordering on the St. John's Eiver and its tribu- taries. On the eastern border of Maine, at Eastport, the mean annual temperature is 43° Fahr. : the mercury sometimes faUing to — G° below zero, and rising in summer to 85° above. This post lies facing the Bay of Fundy, the temperature being modified by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. The season of vegetation in this region of country is at least three months later than in South Carolina and Georgia. The northwestern bounds of New England, running along the parallel of 45° north latitude, extending to Lake Champlain, embraces a fine agricultural section of country, being separated from the Eastern Townships of Lower Canada. Vermont is jiTstly celebrated for a healthy climate and fruitful soil. The interior of the country, on the upper parts of the Connecticut Eiver, embracing the northern part of New Hampshire, is much colder, although no correct data can be obtained of its precise 1!l THE GREEN MOUNTAINS. 173 influence. The mean annual temperature of the northern part of Vermont is 44'^ Fahr. The seasons are as follows : — Spring 42°, Summer 67"^, Autumn 47^, Winter 20'^ ; the mercury occa- sionally falling to — 20^ below zero on the shores of Lake Champliiin. The Green Mountains of Vermont exercise a gi-eat influence on the climate of this region, rising from 3,000 to 4,000 feet and upwards above Lake Champlain. They are, however, for the most part cultivable to their summits. The following table gives the altitude of the several peaks and passes ; — GREEN MOUNTAINS. KIcvation I'KAKH. above th« Sea. Fei^t. Parbks. Elcraiion aboro the Sea. Feet. Chin, Mansfield Mt., . 4,348 Lincoln, . 2,415 Nose, . 4,044 Granville, . 2,340 S'th Peak, " . 3,882 Peru, . . 2,115 Camel's Hump, . 4,083 Sherburne, . 1,882 Jay Peak, . 4,018 Walden, . 1,615 Shrewsbury Peak, . 4,08() Mt. Holley (RaHroad,) . 1,415 Killington Peak, . . 3,924 Iloxbury . 912 Ascutney, Windsor, . 3,320 Williamstowi I, . . 908 MEAN TEMPERATURE AT BURLINGTON , VT. North latitude, 44^ 29'. West longitude 73^ 11'. Moniha. Dcftroos Falir. Months. r.air ;a Inclie.'i. January, .19.93 January, . . 1.58 February, . 20.4G February, . 1.52 March, . . 30.83 March, . . 1.96 April, . . 42.12 April . 1.62 May, . . 55.10 May, . 2.90 June, . . 64.80 June, . 3.59 July, . . 69.00 July, . 4.12 August, . . 67.73 August, . . 2.51 September, . . 59.32 September, . 2,95 October, . '47.40 October, . . 4.23 November, . 39.39 November, . 2.43 December, . . 23.69 December, . 2.41 Mean Annual Temp., . 44.74 Total Inches, . . 31.82 The southern portion of the New England States, including a part of Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut, are all alike favored with a healthy and delightful cHmate for the most part of the year, the Atlantic Ocean and Long Island Sound I 1 I ■Mm 174 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. washing its entire southern coast. The mean annual tempera- ture of this whole stretch of country, lying parallel to the 41st degree north latitude, may be given as is found to exist at Fort Adamf), near Newport, R. I. The mean annual tempera- ture at this post is 50^ Falir. The seasons as follows:— Spring 46^, Summer C9^ 46', Autumn 53° 56', Winter 32° ; th« coldest month being January, and the warmest month July ; the mercury occasionally faUing to 3° and rising to 90° Fahr. The varied products of this part of New England are mostly consumed at home ; the population being dense and actively employed in commerce an4 manufactures. Within the bounds of Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts, along the sea- board, are annually built a large number of vessels of different • kinds, giving employment to great numbers of landsmeu and sailors. The fisheries along this coast, also, are important and profitable — shad, herring, mackerel, halibut, lobsters and sal- mon being annually taken in largo quantities. The resorts and habits of the finny tribe show conclusively that they are governed by the influence of cool and healthy waters, perhaps as much so as men and the inferior animals are by a pure and healthy climate. The average annual quantity of rain and snow that falls m the six New England States is 41 inches, being nearly equally divided between the different seasons. The smallest quantity, 36 inches, falls in the northern part of Maine, and the largest quantity, 52 inches, falls at Newport, R. I. Northeast winds and storms prevail in all the northern Atlantic States, pioducing a cool and damp atmosphere, being most frequently attended by drenching rains, which usuaUy continue for several days in succession. This is considered the most unhealthy wind that occurs, often producing colds, influ- enza, catarrh affections, and pulmonary complaints. For Health Statistics, see different Militar}' Posts, Part X. The topography of New England presents an interesting feature to the admirer of nature, while it materially affects the temperature where mountain ranges and peaks predominate. The Green Monntaim of Vermont and the White Mountains of New Hampshire have grand and distinctive features ; they both tend to cool the atmosphere of the suiTOunding country, afford- CLIMATIC FK\TUBES. 175 ing most healthy and delightful summer resorts for invalids and the !-«ekers of pleasure. The soil and climate of New England, although not well adapted to agriculture in general, are particularly genial to the growth of timber. " However rocky and barren the soil may be, if it is not too precipitous, it is always covered by a dense growth of timber ; and every hitle crevice in the rocks affords sufficient hold for some gnarled member of the forest to fix its roots and obtain a subsistence. " It appears to be a peculiarity of the primary soils of New England that the pine, the elm, the maple, the beach, and the spruce, grow together in social equality. In many places it would have been difficult to find out which of these varieties predominate. In height, however, lO pines towered above all the others ; and in all those parts oi the forest which had been somewhat recently cleared by the fires, the birch was Ijy far the most common. The birch is a rapid grower, but it soon attains maturity or limit of gi'owth, so that in the long run it cannot compete with those Avhich ultimately rise to a greater height, and, overtopping it, shut it out from the sun's rays. Thus, in the older portions of the forest, few birch trees are seen. It is the great variety of trees in the New England forests which affords such a gorgeous spectacle when autumn tinges the leaves with so many brilliant hues." In the pine forests of the State of Maine innnense forests of giant pines are still to be found, giving profitable employment to the lumberman. " The apple tree, the pear tree, the cherry tree, and some other kinds of the fruit-bcarmg species tlirive in favored localities, as v/ell as the cranberry, the whortleberry, and other small fruits." " The sugar m^ple, which is peculiar to the climate of the Northern States and Canada, jn'oduccs, annually, large amounts of maple sugar. The sugar is obtained from the trees in March and April by making incisic-ns in the trunk. The sap, being collected in wooden troughs, is boiled down to a certain consistency, after which it crystallizes on cooling. It is com- monly used in a rough and uupurified state, and though retain- ing the peculiar flavor of the maple, is far from 1 icing disagreeable. Large quantities, however, are pi.ivified and sold at a remunerat- ing price ; also, converted into syru}) of a fine flavor." " During the collecting season parties go into the Avoods, and camp out for several weeks, when the process of bleeding the tre(;s and boiling down the sap are jointly carried on. The maple is often seen growing on very barren soils ; its trunk is seldom more than a foot and a half in diameter." ji'he timber is in demand for many kinds of purposes, beinj furniture. extensively used in the manufacture of wtmmmmti mmm 176 INFLUENCE OP CLIMATE. Meteorological Observations in the State of New York, Giving the Mean Annual '^l^emperatitrb and Variations. Stations, iScc. Albany, Aubui'n, . Buffalo, Cauandaigua, . Cazenovia, Clierry Vallc}", . Cliuton, Dolbi, Fishkill, . Flatbush, L. I., . Fort Echvarcl, . Goshen, Hamilton, . Homer, Hudson, . Ithaca, Jamaica, L. I., . Johnstown, Kinderhook, Kingston, . Lansingburgh, . Lowiston, . Lowville, . Maloue, Nowburgh, New York City, Ogdcnsburgh, . Oswego, . Oyster Bay, L. I. Penn Yan, Plattsburgh, Potsdam, . Poughkeepsie, . Iledhook, , IXochestor, Salem, . ^ . Saratoga Springs Schenectady, Syracuse, . Troy, . . Ucica, West Point, Altitude. Yearly Mean. ITlsh'st. liow'st. Range. Latitudo. Foot. " Fahr. ° Fahr, ^ Fahr. " Fahr. 42" 31' 130 48.60 97 23 120 42^55' 650 46.62 96 14 110 42^53' 620 47.14 92 12 104 42^50' 600 45.73 94 11 105 42^55' 43.65 97 28 125 42^48' 1,335 44.27 98 30 128 43^00' 500 45.96 96 24 120 42n6' 1,384 46.66 93 17 110 41° 34' 42 49.74 96 4 100 40^37' 40 51.62 96 4 100 43^13' 45.08 90 18 108 41^20' 425 48.56 98 20 128 42^49' 1,127 45.00 96 34 130 42^38' 1,096 44.67 95 28 123 423 iry 150 48.00 99 24 123 42o27' 417 48.38 98 18 116 40^41' 50.00 100 7 107 43^00' 45.00 96 —30 126 42=22' 125 47.00 100 30 130 413 55' 188 49.37 100 20 120 42^47' 30 47.62 100 28 128 433 09' 280 47.88 97 6 103 430 47' 800 44.00 100 40 140 44o50' 700 43.54 94 —24 118 41o 39' 150 49.67 100 15 115 40=42' 50 51.00 96 10 106 44^43' 280 44.00 92 20 112 43=28' 234 46.42 86 18 104 40^50' 50.80 95 3 92 ■ 2^42' 750 46.50 95 15 110 44^42' 180 44.17 98 20 118 44" 40' 394 43.61 96 34 130 41^41' 50 50.00 100 22 122 42'' 02' 60 48.36 98 -28 126 43° 08' 520 47.00 98 — 9 107 43° 15' 600 46.53 98 38 136 43° 06' 960 46.87 90 38 128 42° 48' 46.82 91 16 107 43° or 400 47.30 94 3 97 42° 43' 50 47.80 98 26 124 43° 06' 173 46.00 97 27 124 41° 23' 167 50.50 100 10 110 ffiul CLIMATE OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 177 Climate of tho State of New York. ■ The state of New York, lying to tlie westward of tho New England States, is situated between 40 ' 30' and 4:5'' north lati- tude. " It extends over a hundred miles along the sea-coast, and stretches to the Gr<'at Lakes, presenting every variety of surface, from Al^/ine peak ; to sandy i)laius, exposed to tlie soft breezes of the Atlantic and the chilling but bracing winds of tho north, presenting all the modifications of climate which these varied cii'cumstances can produce. The blossoming of plants, and other harbingers of spring, occur from two to three weeks earlier on Long Island, and the vicinity of the city of New York, than in the northern and western parts of the State, while in the latter, the first frost and snow, indicating the approach of winter, are seen nearly a month sooner. Tho progress of vege- tation in midsummer, as indicated by the harvests, is found to vary but little, thus indicating tho more rapid progress of vegetation in tho colder sections of the State, and an approach to the short and hot sunmiers of polar climates." The northern section of the State, lying between Lake Cham- plain and the Piiver St. LaAvrence, has a mean annual tempera- ture ranging from 43" to 44-* Fahr. ; the coldest month being Jifnuary, and the warmest mouth July. Tho mean of the seasons is as follows : — Spring 42'-", Summer OT^, Autumn 40-, Winter 20"^. Tho Adirondack Mountains, lying mostly in tlie Counties of Clinton, Essex, and Franldin, have an altitude exceeding the Green Mountams of Vermont ; Mt. Marcy, the highest peak, being elevated 5,407 feet above the sea. This high and mountainous section of the State, extending many miles westward, is still an unbroken forest, being extremely The mercury frequently falls to "" ' ■ of 130 showing a range cold considering its latitude 40"^ below zero and rises to 00^ degrees. The middlo section of the State, fi'om All any westward, is fa- vored in every particular, having a rich soil and healthy climate. Here are to be found a succession of ilourishing cities and towns surpassing almost any other section of the Union. The mean annual temperature at tho Dudley Observatory, Albany, is 48 ' GO' Fahr. ; the mei'cury sometimes falling to 20" below Z(n-o, and rising to 98^^ above. The mean temperature of the seasons is as follov/s: — Spring 47'^, Summer 70', Autumn 50 \ "Winter 20' Fahr. Tho temperature falls as you ap})roach Lake Erie. At liufFalo the seasons range as follows : — Spring 43"'. Summer 67"', Autumn 48^, Winter 27^ ; the mean annual temperature being 46^ 45' ; the mercury sometimes falhng to zero and rising to 86° above. Indian corn, wheat and other cereals flourish in this whole section of country, v.hile the grasses yield in great 1?^ I Urn' ' w El 1) ■r If.' :4 w M ;'l!: •^'i': 11 !! m 178 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. almndance the most nutritious food for cattlo — butter and eliceso l)oing produced in p;rcat quantities. Fruit of different kinds also Hourisli, particularly a})]ilcs, tliey being largely cxjiorted, as well as converted into cidei". The C\itsldll Mountains, and the Vallins of the Hudson and Mohawk, are tlu; most remai'kable topographical features of this part of the State. A late writer, in speaking (^f tlio soil and climate of Western New York, which is tlu^ garden of the State, remarks : — " Oak and hickory are the princi]ial trees in th(> forest, where the soil is the most suital)le for the growth of wheat. The butternut and the walnut are only sparingly distributed in the forests. In other parts of this region, where the subsoil is of a compact sand, the maple and the beech divide the land betwixt them. Maple and beech land is not so good for wheat, as there is usually more accumulaticm of vegetable matter, which renders it too soft, so that the plants are more liable to be thrown by the spring frosts, and tlie crop on such land is more subject to rust and mildew. The beech and maple land, however, is Avell adapted for spring and summer crops, such as Indian corn, barley and potatoes. Dr. Lindley, I behove, was the first to suggest that the distributic^n of forest trees over particular soils was regulated more by tlie pliysical condition than by the chemical composition of soils. In the general truth of this opinion I cpnte concur, and it is anqjly borne out in the facts which I have just stated regarding the oak and hickory, and the beech and maple soils, inasmuch as the adaptation of the first to winter wheat, and the last to spring crops, shows that it is the iihysical condition that determines the fitness of the soil for cultivated crops ; for we have only to bear in inind that winter wheat, barley, oats and Indian corn are identical in chemical composition." The Southern section of the State, below the " Highlands," is a most favored spot. Here, and on Long Island, are annually produced the cereals, grasses, early vegetaljles, and fruit in abundance, most of which is taken to the New York market. The mean annual temperature of the City of New Y'ork is 51" ; tlie seasons ranging as follows : — Spring 48^ 70', Summer 70^ 10', Autumn 54" 50', Winter 31" 40' ; the mer*cury sometimes falling below zero, and rising to 96" ; shoM ing a range of temperature less than in most of the other parts of the State. The average annual fall of rain and snow in the City of New Y'ork is 44 inches ; Newburgh, 36 inches ; Albany, 41 inches ; Plattsburgh, 38 inches ; Utica, 40 inches ; Syracuse, 33 inches ; Rochester, 31 inches ; Buffalo, 28 inches ; Lewiston, 23 inches. il,! ■J' rilOGUESS OF THE SEASONS IN NEW YORK STATE. 179 Tlic iivtriif^fo quantity tlironghout the State, 30 inches. In the City of Now York about 12 inclies I'alls in Spring, 12 in Sum- mer, 10 in Autumn, and 10 in AVinter. The jn-evaih'uij; winds passing over this State are very varia- ble, although w(;stcrly and northAvesterly i)r('dominate. " One of the most striking results of the observatitms nyton the winds is the correspondence between their dhvction and that of tlio valleys in which the stations an^ located. At most of those on the Hudson, northerly and soutluu'ly winds were recorded in the greatest number ; in tlie Mohawk Valley, easterly and westerly or northwesterly winds ; and at every other jilace, the prcvaihng direction of the neighl)()ring hills and valleys was found to influence that of the surface current. Northeasterly winds prevail in the southern part of the State along the sea- coast." T.UILE, Showing tlio progress of tlio Seasons in tlio Stat(! of New York, as indicated by tlie oiieniug of the Hudson Kiver. Nuvimition of the Iliidson IJlver. Navigation of tlic Hudson Hivcr. Mar. 15. " 15. " 25. " 21. Yctr. lu'Ljiiii. 182G, Feb. 20. 1827, Mar. 20. 1828, Feb. 8. 1829, April 1. 1830, " 1831, 1832, 1833, 1834, Feb. 21. 1835, Mar. 25. 1830, April 4. 1837, Mar. 28. 1838, " 19. 1839, " 21. 1840, Feb. 21. 1841, Mar. 24. 1842, Feb. 4. 1843, April 13. 1844, Mar, 14. 1845, Feb. 24. KiiiU Dec. Jtin. Dec. .1. 24. 25. 23. 11. 23. 5. 23. 13. 15. 30. 7. 13. Nov. 25. Dec. 18. 5. " 19. 29, 9. 11. 4. Nov Dec l>:iys(i|)'n | Vo.'ir. l!<'i.'^n. 300 1840, Mar. 22. 280 ! 1847, " 19. 320 : 1848, " 9. 290 ; 1849, Feb. 25. 283 ' 1850, Mar. 10. 209 : 1851, Feb. 25. 273 i 1852, Mar. 28. 207 1 1853, " 22. 297 18.54, " 17. 250 1 1855, " 27. 247 1 1850, April 7. 1857, Mar. 18. KnilL'd. I):iysiiirii Dec. 15. 208 24. 27. 25. 17. 11. 280 293 303 208 288 Dill not close tills YV. Jan. Dec. Nov. Dec. 200 251 272 297 270 298 240 272 282 1858, 1859, 1800, 1801, 1802, 1803, April 2. 1804, Mar. 12. 1805, " 14. 19. 23. 5. 6. 3. 4. 7. 21. 10. 27. 18. 14. 289 205 270 240 285 275 207 Note. — The earliest date on whicli the Hudson has been open at All)any, was Feb. 4, in 1843, and the latest April lii, in 1843. Avcrat^e time of openinjo: about the middle of March ; Average time of closing about the middle of December. THE CLIMATE OF BUFFALO, N. Y., Lying at the foot of Lake Erie, in N. Latitude, 42° 53' ; W. Longitude, 78' 58 ; Altitude GOO feet. From certain natural causes, no doubt produced by the waters ti ■ Ai ^*^v m^^^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 iii z m 1.4 1.6 ^ <^ /] 'el /a e3 -y > *V.^v ^ /^ o 7 fjn % €^z Q>, ^ 180 INM.UENCE OF CLIMATE. of Lake Eiio, the Winters are less severe, the Summers less hot, the temperature, night and day, at all seasons, more equable, and the transitions from heat to cold less rapid at Buffalo than at any other locality ■within the temperate zone of the United States, as wiU be seen by the follovving table : — TRifPEnATUKR OP Al,BANT, ROCIIESTETI, BUfFALO, Cl.EVELAXP, DETROIT, Chicago, and St. Paxil, dukixo the i.ouii iSEAscKs cv the Yeak. Yearly Cities. Albany, N. Y., Eochcster," N. Y., Buffalo, N. Y., Cleveland, Ohio, Detroit, Mich,, Chicago, 111., . St. Paul, Minn., Spring. Sumnior. 71" (57' OG" 71^ 67" 08' 70" 46^ 47" 40^ 45^ 4G" 4.5" 45" itumn. Winter. Mean. Ran^(\ 50" 24" 48" 47" 49^ 27= 47r 42" 48^ 28° 47" 42" 51" 20" 48r 45" 40' 26" 47' 41" 40' 26" 47" 42" 40" 16" 45" 54" By a careful examination of the above tabic, it will be seen that during the Summer months, the tem])eraturo of Buffalo is from 2'-' to 10^ cooler than that of any other point, east, south, or west, of the foot of Lake Erie, while the refreshing and invigorating lake breeze is always felt both night and day. The Winter Months compare favorably with Albany and all the lake ports. The thermometer rarely indicates zero, and the mean for January, 1858, was 20" above ; the usual range during the year being from 0^ to 90'^ Fahrenheit ; yet, during extreme hot Summers and cold Winters, the extreme range has been as high as 104\ " An equally important fact, is the gradual transiuon fi'om cold to heat, and from heat to cold, in the Sj^ring and Autumn months. In most localities south the temperatur(i suddenly (ihanges at these seasons, showing a change from 25" to 50^. This is debihtating to the constitution and gives rise to dis- eases, almost as fatal as contagion, wliich are unknown here. " The equableness of the temjiorature of Buffalo is '>„'ing to tlio prevailing direction of the winds, and the fact that the lakes are never completely frozen over. We learn from Mr. Ives, the Librarian of the Young Men's Association, that of 2,100 obser- vations of the course of the winds in 1858-9, from eight })oints of the compass, 780, or 37 per cent, of the winds were from the southwest, or Lake Eiie. Of 860 observations nuide in the months of November, December, January, and Fcbniary of the same years, 57 per cent, were from the southwest, west, and * Tho tcmi)oratnre of Rochostor and tlio Burroundinp country is favorably modiliod by tlio wo tors of Lako Ontario ; honco its adaptation to tlio growth of ccroala and fruit of almost ovory description. CLIMiTE OF THE MIDDLE STATES. 181 northwest, or from Lakes Erie and Ontario. The remainder, 43 per cent., were about equal]}' divided Ixtwccn the oth >r five points of the compass. In other words, most of the "Winter winds are south and southwest, and most of the Summer winds are west and northwest. The Meteorokigical Eeo;ister for the winter months of 1859 shows the following : — West v/ind, 12 days ; northwest, 5 days ; north, daj-s ; northeast, 11 days ; east, 7 days ; southeast, 4 days ; south 10 days ; southwest, 28 days ; showing that the northerly winds in winter compare with the southerly winds as G to 14. There is an average of a little more than one day to a month of strictly north Avind. " Otir attention has been called to another fact, illustrating the superiority of the chmate of this vicinity. It is well known among professional culturists, that the flavor of fruit, and its perfection, is, perhaps, the most delicate and satisfactory test for health ; and it is also known that the fruit produced in localities protected oai the north, northeast, and northwest, by the never-freezing waters of Lake Ontario, which temper the severe northern winds, and shielded by the Alleghany ridge from devastating storms, enjoj'S a world-wide reputation for richness of flavor. Fruit grown south of the lakes is of an inferior quality and cannot be eaten with impunity. " There are other interesting facts," saj-s the above writer, " in this connection to which it would be pleasant to a-llude. Our city is pre-eminently the residence of healthy, vigorous, working men. Labor is actiicdb/ icortli iircniy pir cent, more here than ill mamifacturing ciV/cs- exposed to the south and southicest hot, dry winds of summer, and which are not cooled hy any large body of ivater" Climate of the Middle States. The Middle States, lying southwest of New York, are com- prised of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware a?id Maryland. Pennsylvania, extending the niost northwardly, is bounded by 42^ N. Latitude ; and Maryland, the most southwardly, is bounded by 38^ N. Latitude on its eastern hmits. This section of country extends from the Atlantic Ocean to Lake Erie, on the western confines of Pennsylvania, 80^ 40' W. Long. On the north it has a mean annual temperature of from 47" to 48° Frhrenheit. The mean of the seasons is about as follows : — Spring 45^ Summer 67^\ Autumn 48^, Winter 27 Fahr. The Alleghany range of mountains extend through Pennsylvania and Mar'yland, lowering the temperature in some elevated places VvA-y materially. This jiortion of the States is mostly covered with a heavy growth of timber of difi'ereut kinds, such 182 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. as pine, spruce, hemlock, oalc, maple, beech, chestnut, walnut, &c. The middle section, in the vicinity of Harrisburg, Pa., has a mean annual temperature of 50^ Fahrenheit. The seasons are as follows : — »o^/iing 49^, Summer 70^, Autumn 50°, Winter 29°. January is usually the coldest month, and July the warmest. Indian corn, wheat, rve, and oats, together with nutritious grasses, vegetables, and fruit of different kinds, flourish in this favored section of country — Pennsylvania being one of the richest agricultural and mineral States in the Union, while New Jersey and Delaware are both justly celebrated for producing delicious peaches, strawberries, cranberries, &c., together with most kinds of vegetables which find a ready sale in the Philadelphia and New York markets. The southern section of the Middle States luvs a mean tem- perature of 58° Fahr. The seasons are as follows :- -Spring 58°, Summer 7C°, Autumn 59°, Winter 37°. The southern portion of Maryland, lying on the Chesapeake Bay, is a level, sandy section of country, producing Indian com, wheat, tobacco and sweet potatoes. The country here change , materially from that por- tion lying above Mason and Dixon's Une, or the north boundary of Maryland bordering on Pennsylvania. The average annual fall of rain in the Middle States is 40 inches, the largest quantity falling near the sea-board or in the vicinity of Chesaj)eake and Delaware Bays. At Philadelphia, 45 inches is the usual annual fall, while at Pittsburgh but 35 inches usually fall. In both instances the quantity is nearly divided between the four seasons. Intermittent and other fevers prevail in the southeast part of this region, in the vicinity of Chesapeake Bay, while the climate found on the sea-shore, from New Jersey to Viiginia, is cele- brated for its health-restoring and invigorating quahties. Climate of the "Western States. This healthy and fertile section of the Uuiou possesses great advantages as regards climate and soil, having all the elements that tend to increase ^7ealth, knowledge, and refinement. It embraces the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, nnd a por- tion of the Territori(^s west of the Missouri River, where is fou7id about the same mean annual temperature. Lying in the middle of the Temperate Zone and near the centre of the Mississippi Valley, it is susceptible of sustaining a vast popula- tion. Lakes Erie and Michigan lie on the north, the Ohio Eivcr on its south border, and the Mississippi and Missouri CLIMATE OF THE WESTEEN STATES. 183 Bivers on the west ; affording direct communication by lake, river, and caual, witli every part of the United States and Canada. The mean annual temperature ranges from 4G^ on the north- ern confines of Illinois and Iowa, to 54° Fahr. in southern Illinois, running through Gi degrees of latitude. Here is the gi'eatest yielJ. of Indian corn and wheat of any other section of the Union. The mean annual temperature of Chicago, lU., is 47° Fahr. The seasons arc as follows : — Sjiring 45°, Summer 68°, Autumn 49^', Winter 2G^ Fahr. ; the temperature being modi- fied by the waters of Lake Michigan. This favored city lying near the head of the lake, is one of the greatest grain and lum- ber markets in the world, having a water commiinication with the Atlantic Oceau by means of the Lakes and St. Lawrence Elver ; and Avitli the Gulf of Mexico, by means of canal and river navigation. The system of railroads also centring here aifords altogether unrivalled facilities for transhipping the pro- ducts of this whole immense region of fertile country. The southern portions of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois are oil alike favored by a good climate and rich soil ; the mean annual temperature ranging from Ul,° to 55° Fahrenheit. The mean annual temperature of Cincinnati is 55° Fahr. The seasons are as follows : — Spring 54°, Summer 73°, Autumn 53°, "Winter 33° Fahr. January is the coldest, and July the hottest month ; the mercur}^ occasionally falling to zero and rising to 9G° Fahr. Average annual fall of rain, 42 inches. Here Indian corn, the grape of different kinds, and most of the cereals flourish in great perfection. No portion of the Union is richer or more favored than the Valley of the Ohio, riiuning nearly cast and west for near one thousand miles. The grasses of Ohio, Indiana, lUiuois, and Iowa, -upply food for great quantities of cattle — the prairie lands, '/l pariicular, affortling good pasturage. Tlie eastern markets are to a great extent suppKed with beef cattle from this section. Ohio. — In order to show the gi'cat amount of agricultural products annually raised in the Valley of the Ohio and Missis- sippi, compared to the Canadas, we extract the following inter- esting summary : — 184 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. •'The northern half of the State of Ohio and the eastern borders are best suited for the growth of Avheat ; the southern for Indian corn, tobacco, and for grass. There is comparatively little alluvial land along the Ohio, as it has cut a deep channel out of the table-land, and, a already observed, the whole country on both sides is broken into hillocks. A surface so irrogiilar, being less suited for cultivating on a large scale, naturally became occupied with small pi-oprietors, who usually plant crops, such as tobacco and vines, which require more hand labor than those that are more generally raised. The farms are larger on the more level and fertile description of lands." " There is little imreclaimable land in Ohio, though a large proportion is still in wood. This State is about 200 miles in length, and nearly as many in breadth ; the annual temperature varying from 4S'-', on the shores of Lake Erie, to 54^ Fahren- heit, extending south towards the Ohio River. It covers an area of 39,961 square miles, or 25,576,960 acres, of which 9,851,493 were reclaimed in 1850. " To show the ]iarticular direction that agricultural produc- tion takes nortii and south of the Lakes the statistics of Ohio may be compared with those oi: the Canadas. In 1851 there were 7,300,839 acres of reclaimed land in the Canadas out of 155,188,425 acres. The population of the Canadas Avas then 1,842,265 ; of Ohio, 1,980,427. The amoiuit of their- chief pro- ducts were : — Products. Ohio. Canada. r.iisliols .t-e. r.iishel?, &i: Wheat 14,487,;?ol l(),tr)r),94(! Other Cereals, etc. lo,981,l!)l 28,(>o2,301 Indian Corn, . . 59,078,09.') 2.039,544 Sheep a,942,929 1,507,849 The Staiie of Ohio, 't ; ppei;rs from the above table, raises a gi-eater amount of agricultuvi' produce than the whole of the Canadas, and in all probabihty it v;ill continue to do so for many years to come. The statistics indicate the prominent place that Indian corn- occupies in the productions of Ohio, and the small quantity grown in the Canadas ; conclusively going to show that the climate of the former section of country is better adapted b}' nature to the above important production ; so in regard to tobacco. Products. Ohio. Canada. I.hs. l.bM. Butter,. . . . 84,449,:579 25,013,407 Clioose, . . . 20,819,543 2,737,790 Tobiicco, . . . 10,455,449 1,253,128 Maple Sugar, . 4,588,309 9,772,189 Wool, . . . . 10,190,371 4,130,740 I * In Canada East, where the thermouKitcr rnnpes telow 40° Fahr., mean annual temperature, the crop of corn and most of the cereals ceaso to be culti- vuted. METEOROL /JICiVL OBSEBVATIONS. 185 TABLE OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT COLUJIPUS, OHIO. Lat, 39° 57' N. ; Long., 83° 3' W. Altitude, 740 feet above tho Atlantic Ocean. By J. B. Ilicii.VRn. Months. 1857. January, . February, . March, April, . May, . June, . Jvily, . August, September, October, November, December, Annual mean, TlierniomoTer. I?ain, Mean, " Falir. Inches . 21.0 1.3G . 43.2 2.00 . 39.3 1.30 . 43.9 2.51 . 59.7 5.50 . 70.4 4.75 . 74.2 3.24 . 73.7 3.58 . G9.7 2.12 . 54.5 4.84 . 41.4 0.35 . 41.0 3.54 r;-~ 1.7 41.75 Snow, Inches. m i. 4 33 3i 23^ Note. — The total quantity of moisture, including 2;)o inches melted snow, was 41.75 inches, l)eing l.y.' inches above the average (luantity. I' From the Ohio to the Lakes, extending westward to the Eocky Mountains, tho advantage of free labor is fully exomjilitied by tho show of an increase of industry and of all the elements of edu- cation, which tend to make a nation wealthy and happy. Here freedom has her favorite abode, made sacred by Ijonds which no legislation can disturb without sacrificing the best interests of the community. The rapid growth in population and wealth of this portion of the Union is without precedent. Already does it assume gigantic proportions, which is, no doubt, soon destined to exercise a govcruing influence in the political ati'aii'S of the Great EepubUc of modern times. Already has the centre of popr^ation of the Union crossed the Alleghany chain, and fixed the initial point near Columbus, Ohio, near north latitude 40^, the climate here being of the most favored character, rang- ing in the vicinity of 51^ Fahrenheit, yearly mean. When the east and tlie west, extending from ocean to ocean, are united by a continiious railroad and line of settlements, ranning along the most favored temperature, then will tho sway of ]iower be found near the centre of the Great Mississippi Valley, capable of sustaining tens of millions of freemen, and at tho same time of aftbrding a surplus of food for less favored sections of tho world. ■m ' @ I ill' ] 186 INFLUENCE OF CTJMATE. Climate of the Northwestern States and Territories. This section of the United States, lying partly in the Basin of the Great Lakes and partly in the u^^per part of the Valley of the Mississippi, embraces tho States of Michigan, "Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Ten-itories of Dakota and Montana, extending westward to the Rocky MountaiiiS. It is bounded on the north by the Great Lakes of America and the 49th parallel of latitude, dividing it from tho British i^ossessions on the north. The extremes of mean annual temperature are from 38° to 48° Fahrenheit. The coldest post on record is Fort Eipley, Minn., in "N". Lat. 46° 19', the mean annual temperature being 39° 30'. The seasons are as follows : — Spring 39° 33', Summer G5°, Autumn 48^ Winter 10° Fahr. The coldest month is January, and the warmest mouth July ; tho extremes being from 36 degrees below to 90 degrees above zero. Average annual fall of rain, 30 inches. The military posts on tho line of the northera frontier are Detroit, Fort Gratiot, Mackinac, Fort Brady (Sault St. Marie), and Fort Wilkius (Copper Harbor), all being influenced more or less by the chmate pecuUar to the Great Lakes. The mean annual tcmiierature of the three latter stations is about 40° Fahr., or that of Quebec, Can., and Houlton, Maine.. Fort "Wilkins, in N. Lat. 47° 30', lies on Keweenaw Point, jutting out into Lake Superior, being mostly suiTOunded by water. The mean of the seasons are as follows : — Spring 38° 47', Summer 60° 80', Autumn 43°, Winter 22° ; mean yearly temperature 41° Fahr. This post furnishes good data for the temperature prevailing along the south shore of Lake Superior, one of the largest and purest bodies of fresh water on the face of tho globe. The country north and west of Fort Eipley, sitiiated on the Upper Mississippi, is mostly uninhabited except by Indians. This section abounds in streams and lakes of pure water, abounding in fish of dift'crcnt kinds. The Piod Eiver of the North, which drains a portion of Minnesota and Dakota, ia bounded on both sides by a fine section of country, here pro- ducing wheat and other kinds of grain and vegetables in abund- ance, the climate being remarkably healthy and in\igorating. CROSSING THE PLAINS. 187 The southern and middle portions of the States of Micliigau, Wisconsin and Minnesota are very similar in their temperature and agricultural productions, producing large crops of wheat and other cereals, as Avell as grasses of different kinds ; this whole region being avcII adapted to the raising of cattle, sheep, and hogs. From Eacine and Milwaukee Avest to Janesville and Madison, and thence to the Upper Mississippi, the lands are very producti ve, and proxitablv tilled by American and European settlers. The si:)ring and summer months are warmer in the same latitude as you approach the Mississippi Kiver. The same Avill hold good in reference to St. Paul, Minn., in a higher latitude ; thus rendering vegetation earlier on the Mississippi than in ilie vicinity of the Great Lakes. The mean annual temperature of Omailv City, Nebraska, situated on the west side of the Missouri Eiver, in N. latitude 41},^, is 49.28° Fahr. ; the Spring 49.28 ^ Summer 74^ Autumn Sf^, Winter 22^; the Summer months being 7 degrees warmer than Milwaukee, and 4 degrees warmer than tlie City of New York, having the Sum- mer temperature of Baltimore, Md. ; the Avinter temperatui'e being about the same as Burlington, Vermont. Crossing the Pl.iins. In his last letter from Denver, Colorado, Mr. Bowles, of the Springfield Ilej)ubhcau, gives an interesting account of the con- dition of the soil, cHiuate, etc., along the route of the Unimi Fadfic Bailroad : " The Platte RiA'er is a broad, shallow but swift stream, fur- nishing abundant good Avatcr for drinking and for limited irri- gation, but offering no possibilities of naA'igation — not even for ferriage. When it is too swift and strong for fording, it must hi let alone, and a route on either shore kept to, or the falling waters Avaited for. The soil of the valley and of the plains, which it crosses, is not by any means mere sand, but rather a tough, cold, sandy loam, with an admixtv-ve of clay. It is too cold and dry for corn and vegetables. Wheat and barley may be raised on its best acres, with the help sometimes of a simple irrigation ; but the pasture is its manifest destiny and use. There is a steady, imperceptible rise from the Missouri to the Kocky Mountains ; half Avay, avo get above the dew falling point ; and here at Denver, at the base of the mountains, we are 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. The days are Ararm, however ; the sun pours doAvn over its shadeless level Avith a hot, burning power ; but a cool wind tempers its bitterness, and at night the air is absolutely cold. This is the universal rule of all our Avestern country, from the Mississippi valley, and distin- guishes the summers of its whole extent from those of the East." 188 INM-UENCE OF CUMil'E. -go to cs" CO' H o > 7-1 H ^> ta a . >-* iC f- HOO P bo -< S O O V t-i -is J rt CO CO »o I- i-i •st^ja oi JO rr CO CO -'t o 00 1-1 orj lo lo -j< ro ('• oo «s ^. 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Tfi -tl QJ , 10 y 1.013 -3 CO a 1=1 bo T-l S o !t-l r-» p C ^< CO M Ch 5=!^ 00 g-H 1-1 "S i.^ S rt " C .3 K-^ o,a cj 9 .9 5 552^ a: ho jj a< o ^ ^ JsS 2 ^j -1 a ..J --1 o 2 (, < ■ft_^ o CJ ■:=! to'- Qj o 2 a c-j 73 CO CQ ^^L- ^ 0) m ?-.-=! rt S'^ a o o o o 3'^r'.^'-^ 2 ai a o b-< '^ c3 a) «.' a "o O CJ-3 2 .a c! 5j s "S ra -3 Tt CJ *> 4J jj a s TJ -•^.3 rt .i;^ f- a o ^^.i O o tc fJ g-g S 2i - ■^ Ti -- O S ^1 .,+^ f^ '^ o 0) rt ii ^^ pi-l r-i '^ 1^ S " 3 S-i Jj o c_ tot ^ CO O — 1 cJ 3 jiH - 2 ^^r:s ^ H-i "CO o a +^ ft « .rt o 9iJ^.§ 3 9 - -H 2 ?i " -S 'fNESOTA. 191 " Tho Red River Slope, wIioro southern point fxtcncls to Lac Traverse, separated from BIl' Stone Lake l)y a distance of only three miles, extends northward, msiintaining a uniform altitude of nearly 1,000 feet. Tho Red River has its source in the heil 192 INTLUENCE OF CIJJIaTT-:. inpj air, and its long iiiglits of cloudless Ijoautj, complotes the cii(;]o. "It will 1)0 romcmborod, that thougli Minnos(^ta has no monuiain poalis, its goncral <>l(natiou gives it th(! eharactcristics of a laouutainous district ; that whih^ it is ecjuidistant from tho oceans that wash tho eastern and western shores of tho conti- nent and is therefore coni])arativ(>] y nnallc^ctcxl Ly oceanic influ- ences, it has a great wat(!r system of lakes and rivers within its own borders. These, cond)ining witli other influences, give the State a climate in many respects dissimilar io the other norlhom States. " One of the most striking of the )■■ ,ritics of this climate is tho great variation betwc^en tlio c ......v iue cold of vrintor, when mercury congeals, and the iiitens(! heat of midsummer, wlien it stands, for many consecutive dajs, at U5 ■ above zero, in tho shade. "But these extremes afford no index; to tho real (character of the climate of Minnesota. Fortunately wc; have am])lo mc^ans by which to det(;rmui(i its actual tem])erature, and also its temperature comjiared with other and more widely known localities. " From records kept for a series of years, at different pla(!es, the Commissioner of Stalistics, in his report for 18(50, furnishes t]ie data for the following summary : — (Jentral Minnesota has a mean temp.jrature in the spring (45") equal to Northern Illinois, Sjutliern MichigaTi, a7id Ma;; achusetts. Its Summer mea}i tenrperaturo (70') coincides Avith tliat of Central AVisconsin, Pemisylvania, and Soutluirn Nmv York. Its Autumn tem])era- ture (4'.) ') is the e(]uival(>nt of d^ntral Wisconsin, Northern Ncnv York, and New Hampshire*. Its AVinter raear nip(>raturo (16°) (equals tliat of I^orthern AVisconsin, tlie soutl lindt of Canada East, Central Vermont, and New Han i>;:hire. "Its yearly mean temperature (44 '>) coincides with, that of Central Wisconsin, Michigan, Northern New Y'^ork, New Hamp- shire, and Maine, and has a range from the Sunnuer he.it of Southern Oliio and Stmthern Pennsylvania. Thus, in the breadth of four degr'3es, the Sumnuu'S of IVnnsylvania and Southern New Y'ork are followcul by tlie Winter of Canada and Northern Maim;. " It may be remarked that the Lilly district in the northoru f)art of the Stat(!, comprising about (me-fourth of its surface, las less than (55 ' Summer heat, or tho tempcM'ature of Canada and New England ; ^whilst the reuiaining three-fourths, having tt southern slope, wanned by tho southerly bi-eezo that swtiops up tlio Valley of the Mississij)pi, has a general average of 70*^ Suuunor heat, or tho climate of I'ennsylvauia and Oldo. wima MINNESOTA. 193 "From rain tables ])ivpaie(l IVoni ohscrvntions recoKlcd for a series of years at sixteen different ])la('es in Canada and the States, it appears that th(! mean yearly fall of rain for all tlu! ]ilaces is 35.5 inches ; -whilst th(3 )n(!an yearly fall at Fort Snell- mf; is 25.4 mehes, and the mean Summer fall lor all the ])laccs is 11,2 inches, wliilst tlu! nu^an Summer fall at Fort Snelling is 10.0 inches. " Thus it ^vill be; seiMi, that >vhile Minn<>s<)ta had a yearly fall of raiji ten inches less than tlu; mean ol' all the ])laces, its Sum- mer rain is l)nta fraction of an inch less tlian tin; mean Sumn-er rain of all th(! ]>lac('s. It may be addtul, that one half of the Spriufj; rain falls in tlu! month of May, and a fraction more than one-half of the rains of Autumn falls in Se]itemb(!r, givin<^ more tlian two-thirds of the Avhole yearly amcmnt of rain to the sea- son of vegetable growth, and leaving bnt the small fraction to the remaining seven months of the yair. "Judging from the climates of New England, Avhere the air is load(Hl with vapor from the ocean, and the ground is for months covered with dee]) snows ; or judging fiom tluMuore southern of the Western Stat(>s, wheie rain and shu't are followed by severe cold, it has been concluded that wintiT in Minnesota is a season of ten-il)!)^ storm, deep snow and s<>vere cold. The average fall of snow is about six inches })er month. This snow falls in small (juantities^ at diiferent times, and is rarely blown into drifts so as to impede travcdling. Tlu; first snow-fall of Novend)er usually lays on the gi'ound till March, allbrding pro- tection to the wiriter {n'ain. Occasionally at midday a slight thaw occurs in places with a southern declivity. Two or three times in the course ol' eight or ten winters, the ground has })eeu nncovered for a few days. Long driving snow stoi'iiis are iiu- Icnov/n, and rai .seldom falls during the winter months. " With an averages tem])erature of IG^, the dry atmosi)here of Winter in Minnesota is less cold io {lie sense than the warmer, y(>t damp, climate of States several degree s further south. With th(! new year comnu^nces tlu; extrenui cold of (mr I\Iinne- sota Winter, when, for a few days, i]u\ m(>'cury ranges from ten to thirty degrees b(!h)w zero, falling soiuetimes even l)elo\. that. Yvi the severity of thes(i da)s is much sol'tc-ncul by the biilliancy of the sun and tho, stillness of the air. Thus, whih^ other States in lower latitudes are being drenched by th(> coKl lain storm, or buried bcmeath huge drifts of wintry sno. , Minnesota enjoys a dry atmosj)liere, and an almost unbroken succession of bright cloudless days and s(U'ene star-lit nights ; aJid ^\]\vu tiie moon turns lier fuU-orbcd fucci towards tlu; ea)th, the night scene of Minnesota is one of peerless grandeur. \r I 194 INFLUENCi; OF CLIMATE. " Adaptation of Climate to Ar/ricnltitre. — Scientific men liavc determined that the successiful cultivation of Indian com requires a temperature of (57 de^^. for Jn\j, and of 65 deg. for the Summer. Minnesota has a Slimmer temperature of 70 deg. and a temperature for July of 73 deg. The cultivation of wheat is said to require a mean temperature of from 62 to 65 deg. for two of the Summer months. Thus it wiU be seen that the cli- mate of Minnesota is well adapted to the successful cultivation of all the cereals. " The fact established by climatalogists, that ' the cultivated plants yield the greatest products near the northernmost limit at which they will grow,' finds abundant illustration in the pro- ductions of Minnesota. It is a well known fact that cereals raised in the southern latitude are far inferior in quality to the same kind produced in the cooler cUmate of the north. Corn, which grows to the height of thirty feet in the West Indies, yields but a few keraels on a spongy col). In the Southern States the stnlks grow fifteen feet high, and yield fifteen bushels per acre ; in highly cultivated sections of the north from eighty to one hundred bushels are taken fi'om stalks seven or feet in height, " The eight warm, early Springs of milder latitudes develop the juices, and push forward the leaf and stalk at the expense of the seed ; whilst the cool, late Spring weather of the north checks this rank luxuriance of leaf and stem, and reserves the chief development to the ripening period. Minnesota, with its l^eculiar cHmate, combining the warm Summers of the southem of the more Middle States, with the cool, backward Springs of ^ew England, exceeds the latter section in the quantity of its products, because its Summers are warmer ; and the former region in the quality of its products, because its Springs are cool, and hold back the growth of the plant. Thus this State enjoys the conditions of temperature during the growing season adapted to the production of superior grains, grasses, and escu- lent roots." f, ■ 1 PART X. 11 CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. Northern Section, or Border States. This portiou of countr,;', lying south of the Potomac and Ohio Eivers, known as the " Border States," constitutes a most favored region. It hes between 35^ and 40^ north latitude, and em- braces the States of Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Ten- nessee, .t,nd Missouri ; being bounded on the west by Kansas and the Indian Territory. The chmate varies from 50° to GO'^ mean annual temperature, in rumiing through five degrees of latitude, being included in the Temperate Zone. The coldest month is January, and the warmest month July. The temperature of the seasc ns is as follows : — Stations. N. Lat. Si Norfolk, Va., . 37" Lewisburg, W. Va. 38° Louisville, Ky., . 38° 08' Memphis, Tcnn., . 35° 08' St. Louis, Mo., . 38° 40' Mean annual fall of ram, from 30 to 4G inches. In the eastern section of tliis region, facing the Atlantic Ocean for about one hundred miles, and extending westward across the Alleghany range of mountains to the Ohio River, the climate and soil are varied, chiefly owing to altitude. On the sea-board the country is sandy and level, being in most places clothed with a growth of yellow pine when not cleared for cultivation. The numerous streams flowing into Chesapeake Bay drains the most of Virginia east of the Alleghany ridge, affording many navigable rivers. Indian com, wheat and tobacco are the chief agricultural products, the latter being very extensively cultivated, and exported in largo quantities. Western Virginia, including the Alleghany range and its western slope to the Ohio River, embraces a healthy, rich, and Jlirinjr. S uinmcr. Autumn. Winter. Year. 57^rahr .77° Gl° 42° GO'^ ;54° " 74° 55° 35° 54^ 55° " 75° 55° 37° 54<^ Gl° " 78° 59° 42° 60« 54° " 7G° 55° 32° 54° it 5' > m 196 INFLUENCE OF CLDIATE. hi romantic section of country well iidaptod to free lal)or. The forest trees are varied and of a large growth, the mountain sides and even the summits being mostly heavily timbered. The valleys have a rich soil, witli a mild and invigorating climate. The medicinal foiuitains hero found in great variety, together with the health-restoring atmosphere, give this section a famed celebrity which it most justly deserves. Climate of West Virginia. " A study of llie causes affecting the climate of West Vir- ginia, forming a part of the Alleghany range of mountains, nnll be found interesting. In its latitude, lying as it does mainly between 37^ and 40^ North, it is neither suggestive of hyperbo- rean blasts in winter, or a forrid temperature in summer, of ])ent-up valleys, blockaded with drifted snow and solid ice for weary months, or sv/elteiing plains, parching and baking under a brazen sky. Its mountains, unlike those of Europe, or tho Rocky Mountains in the west, do not very materially affect the conditions of climate, excep*^^ to reduce the temperature in pro- portion to altitude. There are local differences, to be sure, tho result of peculiar position, but the interior valleys of tho Alleghanies have nearly the same temperature as the broad slopes on either side, and these opposite slopes scarcely ditier in their chmatic peculiarities. Unlike the mountains of Europe, however, the Alleghanies in this latitude have less rain than the plains l)elow." Altitude. — " Tho average altitude of the highest summits is 2,500 feet in this section of the AUeghauy range, increasing southward. The u])per valley of the Kanawha, instead of being an arid desert like the Colorado and other elevated plateaus, is luxuriant in verdure, differing comparatively little in humidity and temperature from the Atlantic coast and the Ohio Valle3" in the same latitudes ; indeed, the elevation of the Kanawha is but 2,500 feet in Southern Virginia near i.s s(mrce, descending more than one hundred miles before it bursts its Alleghanian barrier in Monroe County, West Virginia, where it ranges be- tween 1,800 and 1,300 feet — thence rapidly falling to little more than 600 feet at the foot of tho falls near the mouth of the Gauley, whence it flows gently, with tho slight descent of a few inches to the mile, to the Ohio River. The following table exhibits the elevation of the Alleghanies and their slopes in this section of that gi'eat mountainous range : — SUMMrr EIJiVATION. Summit in latitude 37^, 2,650 feet. Summit at crossing of Baltimore & Ohio R.R., . 2,620 if] CLIMATE OF WEST VIRGINIA. 197 1 'A Western plateau at White Sulphur Springs, . 2,000 feet. Source of Cheat and Greenbrier lliver, . . 2,400 " Blue Eidge, near Hai-per's Ferry, . . . 1,800 " ELEVATION OP THE VALLEY OF VIRGINIA. Near the Potomac Eiver, 800 feet. At Co^-ington, Alleghany County, . . . 902 " At Staunton, Augusta County, .... 1,2'22 " " The first of these divisions, the summit and tablo-lands of the Alleglianies, comj)rises a narrow strip little more than the average width of a county, and extends from the Alleghanian backbon, to the chain of mountains which are really a continu- ation of the Cumberland range, and known as Cotton Hill, Gauley, Laurel Hill, ttc. The vallc}' b.otweon these two ranges lies at it level of 1,850 to 2,000 feet above the eea ; the Green- brier Valley, for instance, for a h.'iigth of 150 miles, having an average elevation of 1,500 feet. Much of the cultivated land of Greenbrier County, which is one of the summit counties, lies at a height of 1,800 to 2,000 feet, and yet ripens corn and sor- ghum Avithout difficulty, and enjoys a winter climate of great mildness. " The second division includes the Valley of Virginia, or the Shenandoah Valley, averaging, perhaps, fifty miles in width, and extending through the old State of "Mrginia in a south- western and northwcHtern direction. Oidy the mouth of the valley is embraced in "West Virgiui;i. Its average elevation in this section is, perhaps, 1,000 feet. " The section Avest of the juountains, Avhich may be said practical* to represent the elevation of the State, containing at least ir),0()0 square miles, or two-thirds of its entire area, including and almost bomiding on. the east the great coal basin, lies betAA-een the altitudes of (100 and 1,500 feet. The uplands, a fcAv miles from the Ohio, Avith an elevation diflfering consider- jd)ly at dift'erent points, ]nay bo aA'eraged at 800 feet. ' Temperat[:i;e. — The mean temperature of West Virginia, for the year, as may be set'n by an examination of the isothemal lines, is lower than any other locality in the same latitude east of Missouri lliver. It lies between the lines of 50° and 55° Fahr., AA-hich eml»race the southern and ceutnd portions of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, Avith contiguous pcn'tions of Missouri ; on the Atlantic, deflecting northward to include the coast lino between New York and Baltimore. The isothermal, indicating ;i nu'an temperatur<> of 55 , ])asses through Baltimore and Washington, circles round t\w southern bounihtry of West Vir- ginia, intersects the northern bt)ider of Kentucky, and strikes St. Lo\iis, leaving Philadelphia and Cincinnati a very little north ! i • m f' 198 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. of the lino. The Ime of 52 ~ would come near the centre of "West Virginia. This "woukl make the average temperature slightly less than that of those two cities. Eainfall, — The distribution of rain in West Virginia is admirably calculated, in quantity and seasona})]cness, to insure success to husbandry, and give facility to all its successive operations. The Spring opens early, and with its opening come gentle and frequent showers. The Summer, with less humidity than any suiTounding State, is not siibject to long-coutinuecl droughts. The grasses spring green and fresh upon the sum- mits of the loftiest mountains during the Summer." " The amoimt of rain precij)itated in West Virginia is from 32 to 3G inches only, as indicated by partial records kept in different parts of the State, and esjieeially in the vicinity of Lewisburg and the White Sul}>hur Springs, where the same mean annual rainfall decreases to some excent southward from quantity was indicated on both sides of the Alloghanies. The Pittsburg, and its minimum quantity is found in Summer. Salubrity. — "It would scarcely need the corroboration of sanitary facts to prove the healthfulness of this region. The altitude, the ii'regularity of surface, the absence of marshy plains, so peculiarly characteristic of West Virginia, would give in con- nection with its medium temperature, assurances of health and longiAdty to her population." The Allegiianies, or Appalachian Chain. — " This mountain range extends nine hundred miles, nearly parallel with the sea- coast, consisting of ridges fifty to one hundred miles {1f)art, and parallel with each other, watered and wooded to their summits, with extensive and fertile vallejs between. " The Blue Eidge, Alleghany, and Cumberland, with many other subdivisions, as North Mountain, Laurel Hill, Peaks of Otter, and Greenbrier, are but parts of the great Alleghany system. That pcn'tion of this eml/raced in AVest Virginia abounds in many a i)lateau, Avitli an elevation just sufficient to insure a pure and bracing atmosphere, and all conditions essential to vigorous and healthy growth, both in animal and vegetable life." — J. 11. Dodge. Kentucky and Tennessee, lying contiguous, near the centre of the great Mississi|)pi Valley, may be said to be the " Garden of the Union." IncUan corn, tobacco and hemp here flourish in perfection, producing a large surplus for exportation. The natural produce of wheat is said to ho. much smaller on the grazing lands of Kentucky than in Northern Ohio, or the Northwestern States. " The same lauds," says a late writer, ;'■ i TOBACCO, AND COTTON-GnOWI^'0. 199 " which on an average yield 75 bushels of Indian corn to the acr'% would not yield more than eighteen bushels of wheat. In Southern Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee those conditions of cHmate prevail which are favorable to ]n-oducing the nuixiniuni yield of Indian corn, but are not equally well suited for large crops of wheat." The grasses of Kentucky are justly celebrated for their nutri- tioiis qualities ; this State producing fine sheep, cattle, horses and mules. The forests, in many parts, are extensive and hea\'ily timbered with a great variety of forest trees. The graj)e-viue also liourishes, and is extensively cultivated along the Valley of the Ohio. Missouri!, lying west of the Mississippi, is also favorably situated as regards climate and soil. Here are produced simi- lar products to those of Kentucky and Tennessee, while the rich and jjroductive soil, in connection with her mineral wealth, renders her capable of sustaining a dense population on almost e i'ery portion of her large territory'. Cultivation of Tobacco. — The successful raising of tobacco may be said to be the distinctive agricultural feature of the Border States, while the culture^ of cotton gives a distinctive character to the more Southern States of the Union. The adaj^tation of the soil and climate for the cultivation of tobacco can ])e shown by no better test than the census returns of 18C0, giving the ])roducts of the States north and south of the Ohio lliver, including Pennsjivsnia, Maryland and Virginia, lying to the eastward. States. Pennsylvania, . Ohio, . Indiana, . Illinois, 'J'obnrco, 1I)S. 8,181,580 25,092,581 7,99y,:}78 0,885,202 States. Maryland, Virginia, . Kentucky, Tennessee, Tobacco, lbs. 38,410,905 128,908,812 108,120,804 ^.3,448,0<)7 Total, . . . 48,152,807 , Total, . . . 818,954,178 NoimiEUN Limit of Cotton Growing. — The following extract fi'om a letter in the Chi'rif/o Tribune discloses the cause of the failure of the cotton-] )lanting experiment in Southern Ilhnois, the crop being ruined by an early frost in the latter part of August, 1808. " The 80th parallel of latitude passing through the States of North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas, may be said to form the northern limit for cotton growing. Not one of the northern counties in these States raises cotton to any considerable extent. Botwe(^n the 85th and 80th degrees cotton is cultivated, often successfully, but it is subject to be bhghted by frost. t iff" i 200 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. The most northern county in North Carohna where cotton is cnltivated extensively and successfully is Edgecombe, south of Roanoke River, which is situated in the lowlands, and has its climate tempered by the sea breezes. The up-land counties in the same latitude cultivate cotton on a small scale, but often have their crops cut off by a frost. But in the western part of the State cotton is not successfully planted, except in the coun- ties bordering on or near to the line of South Carohna. In Tennessee, in the same latitudes and elevation, the results are the same. The cotton statistics of 18G0 show that even in the lowlands, between the Tennessee and the Mississippi Rivers, no cotton is i^roducod in counties on the Kentucky border — in Olion, Weakly, Henry, Sec. ; while the southern counties of Tennessee, between the same rivers, rival the best cotton dis- tricts of Mississippi in productiveness. In Arkansas the same law of climate prevails. The southern counties constitute the very heart and centre of the cotton region of the United States, while the northern counties })roduce very httle, and some of them none at all, although the soil is highly fertile." Climate of the Cotton Growing States. • The cotton-growing region extends over a wide range of countiy, including most of the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas and Texas, also the southern portion of Tennessee, running through ten degrees of latitude, from 20^ to -36^ north. This whole region possesses a very similar cHmate and soil, being favorably influenced, no doubt, b}- the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, and may bo considered .suh-frojtical in its charac- ter and productions, having a mean annual temperature vary- ing from G0° to TC^ Fahrenheit. The southern peninsula of Florida, along the Gulf coast, being the hottest part of the United States, where the climate assumes a tropical character. That portion of country lying on the Atlantic slope is drained by numerous streams, takmg their rise in the Alleghanies or Appalachian chain of mountains, flowing eastward into the ocean. The principal rivers are Cape Fear, Great Pedee, Santee, Edisto, Savannah, Altamaha, and St. John's. On the margin of most of these rivers lice is produced in large quantities, while in the same neighborhood, contiguous to the coast, is produced the sea-island cotton in abundance. This section of country, which produces Indian corn, cotton, and sweet potatoes, seems desti- w CLDLVTE OF THE COTTON-GROWING STATES. 201 hite of nutritious gi-assos ; hence the cattle, sheep and hogs are of an inferior qualitj-. Cotton Culture. — " It would seem," says a late ^\Titer on aoriculturo and cliinato, " that South Carolina and other cotton growing States bordering on the Atlantic, cannot materially increase the number of bales of cotton, for land capable of growing cotton is limited. The sea-island variety is not culti- vated at a greater distance than 30 miles from the sea, and the greater part of it within ten miles. For upwards of 100 miles from the coast, the coiintry consists of i)ine barrens and SAvamps. The pine banvns occupy 0,000,000 acres of land, which is of the poorest description and cannot be cultivated by slave laljor. The inland swami)s occupy at least 1,200,000 acres, which are wholly unproductive. It is -well known that the upland cotton is raised on a belt intervening between the pine barrens and the hilly country, at the base of the Blue Ridge Mountains. These up-land cotton soils were naturally moderately fertile, but sonunvhat easily exhausted and difficult to ameliorate. Their peculiar character will bo afterwards di^scribed. The exhaus- tion of the soils in the uplands, where the greater part of the cotton crop is raised, forces the owners of slaves to go far- ther westward, so that there is not a great increase in the number of slaves, and the amount of produce ia also rather declining. " The low islands along the coast of Carolina and Georgia, with a margin of about thirty miles from the sea, furnish the finest quality of cotton raised in any part of the world. In this (.'omparatively limited area, the cUnuxto produces a length, strength aiul firmness of fibre which cannot be obtained by art in wthor localities. The nertluirn limit of the sea-island cotton is about the 83rd degree of latitude, and recent trials are favor- able to the extension of its culture along the Florida coast. " The cotton is j)lanted in ridges 4:1 feet in width and a foot and a half between each plant in the roAv ; but if the soil is rich, as much sometimes as tliree leet. The cotton seed is planted fi'om the 20th of March to the 20th of April ; and as the plants rise, the soil is thrown up to their roots by the plough and the hoe. The Is of the cotton-] )lant, like those of peas and beans, ripen .soonest on the branches next the ground ; indeed, while the lowest branches of the cotton plant have ripe seeds the upper are bearing tlowcrs. As the seeds ripen the husks ex- pand, and the cotton fibre appears attached to the seeds in the form of a round ball as large as an orange. As soon as the earliest husks are open, which i;:; usually about the last of July, picking commences. This operation is long continued, for a lit ■^ 1 202 INFLLENCE OF CLiaUTE. succession of pods ripen until tlio end of November. As the cotton is gathered, it is dried and stored up till -winter, when the separation of the fibre from the seed is afl'ected. " The soil being so poor upon whicli the sea-island cotton is raised, the most of it is manured witli a compost of cow-pen manure and vegetable stutt' from the swamps. Guano has also been appUed to a considerable extent in raising cotton. I saw one field which must have been greatly benefited by a quantity of this stuff, as the plants to which it had been applied were nearly double the size of these that were undressetl. Guano, however, is more esteemed as a manure for cotton on poor soils than on rich, for on the latter it is apt to send up too much wood. In climates iu which frosts do noi; occur, all the varieties of cotton that are cultivated in the United States are perennial. " The cotton cro}) on tlie sea islands is very precarious. Two or three weeks of showery weather fi'equently occur during the picking season, and the seed is often shed out and the produce diminished. The common opinion seemed to be, that the aver- age produce of clean cotton of the sea-island variety is not more than 150 lbs. to the acre. On the sea-islands and along the coast, the produce is kept u]) by manuring the soil with salt marsh mud, Avhich seems to bo the best application for obtaining quantity and quality. On the Avhole, the quantity of sea-island cotton is not increasing, owmg to the natural poverty of the soil and the limited region over which it can be culti- vated. Latterly, some planters have been improving the salt- tide swamps along the mouths of the rivers, and raising large crops of cotton. Eicli land, however, is not so favorable to the production of the finest fibre, for if the plant is stimulated beyond a certain degree, the wool becomes inferior." The lowland and tine upland cotton soils of the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi have the great defect of being uusuited to the growth of good gi-asses for pasturage. This cu'cumstance renders the lands easily exhausted, and of little value unless under crop. There are no good perennial grasses native to these soils, and none have yet been found that grow well upoji them. The Bermuda grass, a native of the Valley of the Ganges, is the most valuable one for the Southern States, though it does not mature its seeds. Owing to this, it is difficult to obtain a sward, which can only be done by breaking up the land where it has got possession, and by planting small pieces of sod, and these spreading, soon fill tlie ground. It must have the full blaze of the sun for its growth, and it perishes iu the shade of other plants. On rich land it is cut three times daring Summer, and has been known to yield ten tons of hay RICE CULTURE. 203 ■c iH)'? to the acre in one season. This vahiablo gi'ass is only fjuccoss- fiiUy cultivatecl in the Houthom States, from Virgmia to the Gulf of Mexico. — llnsscWs Atjriculture and Cliitinfe i>f U. Stat.a. EiCE Culture. — The same writer remarks : — " In Georgia and the Carohnas there are a good many marshy grounds in the pine region, which have arisen fi-om beds of clay sending the water to the surface in springs. They are composed of black vege- table matter, too deficient in earthy materials to be ])ossessed of fertility of any great permanence. It was on such soils, however, that the lirst settlers raised ri?e ; but, being easily exhausted, recourse had constantly to be made to new land. Though a considerable quantity of rice is here and there raised over the u}>per country on such soils, and even on dry cotton lands, for domestic use, none of it is reckoned sufficiently good for exportation. Tlie discovery that the tide-water swamps are pecuharly well adapted for the culture of rice is comparatively I'ccent. At first, the barren sandy soils were more valued than they are now, because indigo was raised upon them, and w^.s one of the great staples of the country. This article can now be brought to the European market at a cheaper rate from India, and its culture has, therefore, been abandoned in the United States. " It is on the tide-water swamps of the Savannah and the numerous other rivers in Georgia and the CaroUnas, that the fine rice known in Europe as the Carolina rioe is cultivated. Tlie production of rice for exportation is, in a great measure, confined to these swamps ; and it is further limited to the fresh- water-tide swamps ; for where the tides are salt, or even brack- ish, they are unsuitable for in-igation. Eice is cultivated about four miles below and twelve miles above Savannah. " The avera^^e produce of rough or unhuskcd rice on the Savannah swamps is estimated at from 45 to 55 bushels to the acre. Though tlie fields have been long under cropping, the produce is still large, but no doubt smaller than when the land was first cleared ; still frpm 70 to 80 bushels are sometimes got on old cultivated fit'lds. Crops of rice are usually taken in suc- cession as long as the land is ^lean ; but when it becomes foul through weeds, or the * volunteer rice,' it is laid under dry cul- tivation for a year. This is attended with great benefit ; for although no manure is applied, and two croi")S — one of oats and another of potatoes — are taken, yet the land is so much reno- . vated that the succeeding crop of rice is often increased b}' a half, and sometimes even doubled. " The ' volunteer rice,' which is interesting in a physiological point of view, causes a great deal of trouble to the planters. k it! 204 mFLUENCE OF CUMATE. The rice-seeds that are shed when the crop is cut, and Ho over the winter, produce an inftirior qiiality of grain, for under thoso conditions they appear so far to revt^rt to thcnr natural state. Though the husk of tlie ' vohmteer rice ' is of the? same light- yellow color KB that of the tinest quality, the kernal is red, and a few grains of this kind in a sam])le detract from its market value. There are several varieties of ' volunteer rice,' which are usually the moat vigorous plants in the field ; and as some of th(!m ripen before the main crop, they fall out and increase with great rapidity. " The rice plant adapts itsei in a most wonderful manner to the most opposite conditions in resjiect to moisture. There is no cultivated plant that bears any resemblance to it. The same variety which grows on the upland cotton soils and on tho, dry pine ban-ens, gi-^-ws in the tide-swamps, where the land is laid under water for weeks at a time ; and even in the lower part of the Delta of the Mississippi, where the fields are under water from the time of sowing to that of reaping. " The rice-grounds are comparatively healthy to white men in Winter, but not so in Summer and Autumn, when the crops are groAving and ripening. It has been often remarked that the swamps, in their original state, along the southern rivers of the United States, were by no means so deleterious to the Avhites as they are now, when brought under cultivation. Though this seems to apply, in a certain degree, to all the rich alluvial soils in the river bottoms, yet it is particularly applicable to the rice-grounds that are irrigated by the tides. Indeed, the undrained swamps remain comparatively healthy so long as they are covered wath the natural vegetation. It is said to be attended with extreme danger to a white man to remain, during the hot season, for one night on the rice-grounds of Carolinas. The planters, with their families, invariably leave the rice- grounds during the hot season, and remain m a more healthy l^art of the country until the crops are harvested. Though the negroes are not hablo to those diseases which are so fatal to the white inhabitants in Summer, yet they do not increase in the rice districts ; the damp ground and the nature of the labor render them liable to pulmonary diseases and other com- plaints." Tlie climate of the Summer months in the A-icinity of Charles- ton and Savannah is intensely liot, and very moist in the low grounds. On an average about tweutj'-two inches of rain fall, and the temperature obtains a mean of 80^ Fahr. Such con- ditions give great force to vegetation. The early Autumn is CLIMATE OP FLORIDA, ETC. 205 also hot, though dryor than Summer, and this seems to promote those miasmatic emanations which are so injurious to the wliito popuhition. Rice is also cultivated in Florida, n\or\^ the Gulf coast, and in Louisiana, near the mouth of the Mississippi River, where, also, the sugar-cane is successfully cultivated. Climate of Florida, its Productions, &c. The peninsula of Florida, bounded on the east V)y the Atlantic Ocean and on the west hy the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, the most southern land bolouging to the United States, approaches within a degree £ind a half of the Ton-id Zone, of whose climate it largely partakes, and a number of whose pro- ductions it yields, being wafted by the warm winds and moisture proceeding from the Gulf of Mexico. According to Dr. PeiTine's tables the mean temperature at Key West and Havana, in 1838, was : — Key West. Havana. Key West. Havana Montha ° Fal.r. ° Fiilir. Months. ° Ftthr. " Fahr January, . . . ()9 70 Jidy, . . . . 82 80 February, . . 70 75 August, . . . 81 80 March, . . . 73 77 September, . . 77 79 April, . . . . 75 78 October, . . . 74 75 May, . . . . 79 80 November, . . 72 72 June, . . . . 81 81 December, . . 70 72 On the night of January 28-29 (1858), the coldest known for many years, the thermometer fell to 44". At St. Augustine the thermometer has sunk on various occasions to 33"^, 30° and 24°; and at PHatka, in Lat. 29^ 38', to 28" and to 27° ; at Tampa, Lat. 27° 48', to 28° and 2G^ ; at Fort King, in the interior, half a degree south of St. Augustine, the climate in more severe than on the coast, and ice an inch thick is sometimes seen in its vicinity. The Summers, however, are hotter than on the coast. While the minimum range at St. Augustine was 39^, and the maximum 92-', at Fort King the minimum was 2G°, and the maximum 105^. The Gulf coast, too, has a more severe winter climate than the Atlantic. From the relative number of deaths occurring annuall}-, according to the census of 18G0, it appears that Florida in the south and New York in the nortli are tlie two most healthy sections of the United States bordering on the Atlantic coast. " The climate of South Florida may be set doAvn as the most desirable winter chmate in the United States, presenting to the JuvaMd of the north a desirable retreat from the rude blasts pecuHar to that region." In addition to St. Aiigustine and its 206 IOTI.UENCE OF CLIMATE. \'icinity, " the Miami, on Key Biscajiie Bay, and Key West, may be considered as most desirable points for establishing the necessary facilities for the encouragement of visitors of that class, numbers of whom annually go on to Cuba and other West India Islands, but who would be induced to stop in Florida were there proper accommodations. No place possesses greater advantages for fishing, boating, :. Su'mer. Aut'mn. Winter. Year. Stations. N. Latitude. ' Falir. ■• Falir. ' Fahr. ' Fahr. ° F'hr Key West, Fla., Fort Myers, . Fort Brocke, . St. Augustine, . Pensacola, Mobile, Ala., . New Orleans, La., Savannah, Ga., Charleston, S. C, Wilmington, N. C, Fort Monroe, Ya., Washington, D. C, Baltimore, Md., Philadelphia, Pa., New York, N. Y., Boston, Mass., . Portland, Me., . Eastport, " . The annual quantity of rain that falls between the 24th and 35th parallels of latitude, along the Atlantic coast, averages from 50 to 60 inches,* while between the 35th and 45th parallels the qxiantity of rain and snow averages from 35 to 45 mches. The same excess of moisture occurs along the northwest Pacific coast, embracing Oregon and Washington Territory, while not to exceed 5 and 10 inches of rain falls annually in parts of New Mexico and Arizona. 24" 32' 7(5 82 77 69 76 26° 38' 75 82 77 65 75 28° 00' 72 80 73 62 72 29" 48' 09 80 71 58 69 30° 18' G9 81 70 5() 69 31° 12' 07 79 GG 52 66 20° 57' 70 82 71 56 70 32=^ 05' G7 80 68 54 67 32° 45' GO 80 68 52 6Q 34^^ 00' G4 80 67 50 Go •EMPERAT] E CLIMATE. 37° 00' 57 77 62 40 59 38' 53' 56 76 56 36 56 39° 17' 53 74 56 34 54 39° 5G' 50 74 56 33 53 40° 42' 48 71 54 32 51 42° 20' 4() G8 52 28 481 43° 40' 43 Go 48 25 45 44° 54' 40 61 47 24 43 I' * The heat and moisture of this region, in many localities, engenders fevers nnd other diseases. 208 INFLUENX'E OF CLIMATE. Monthly Temparatures. TABLE, Showing the different Jlonthly Terapcraturos, for the first Six Months of the Your, from Florida to Maine, on tlic Atlantic seaboard. Stations, &c. Key West, Fla., Fort Dallos, " . Fort Pierce, " . St. Augustine, Fla., . Pcnsacola,'"' " Savanntih, G.i., Augusta, " . Charleston, 8. C, Fort Johnston, N. C. Norfolk, Va., . Washington, D. C, . Baltimore, Mel., Philadelphia, . New York, New Lond; n, Conn., Newport, H. I., Boston, Mass., . Portsmouth, N. H., . Portland, Me., . Eastoort, " Montreal,"!" Can., Quebec, " . Variation, From the above Table, running through 22 degi-ees of lati- tude, embracing the whole of the Atlantic coast of the United States and north to Quebec, Can., it appears that the tempera- ture of Key West in Febniary is aboul he same as Charleston in May, and Baltimore in June ; the temperature of Pensacola in January is the same as L'orfolk in April, and Enstport in June ; the temperature of St. Augustine in January is about the same as New York in May, and Portland in June ; and Charles- ton in January has the same temperature as Portland in May, being a dift'erence of four months. /•" ' —Moan To nperaturo.- \ 1 early N. Lat. Jan. Fob. Mar. Ai)ril Mav. June Mean. ° K-hr. -K-Im-. " K'lir. ' K'lir. ' Kallf. ° K'hr ° Kiilir 24" 32' 70 72 74 77 79 82 76.00 25^ 55' OG 67 70 75 78 81 74.75 27^ 30' 63 G5 70 73 77 80 73.20 20= 48' 57 GO 64 69 74 79 69.61 30^ 18' 54 58 60 67 74 80 68.74 32= 05' 54 55 59 67 75 80 67.44 33= 28' 47 51 56 ()5 72 79 64.00 32=45' 51 56 60 (;6 73 78 66.61 34= 00' 49 51 5{] 61 73 78 65.68 37^ 00' 42 46 49 56 66 74 59.00 37= 53' 34 37 46 55 G6 74 56.00 39= 17' 33 35 43 54 63 71 55.00 30^ 57' 33 34 41 50 61 70 53.00 40^ 42' 32 34 40 49 58 G8 51.00 41" 21' 32 33 39 47 56 65 50.07 41= 30' 33 34 38 46 55 64 50.27 423 21' 23 28 33 42 56 64 48.90 43^ 04' 23 27 33 42 52 60 44.87 43^ 39' 20 25 33 42 51 58 44.21 44=54' 21 26 32 41 48 54 43.00 45^ 30' 15 17 29 43 58 68 44.60 46° 49' 10 13 26 38 52 62 41.00 Latitude. Do-, oes of Fahrenheit. 22= 17' GO 59 48 39 27 20 35.00 * Lowest in January, -|-21' Fahr. f Lowest in January, — ;!!" Fahr. Highest in July, +98° Fahr. Highest in July, +98° Fahr. MONTHLY TEMPERATUHES. 209 .00 TABLE, Showing the different Monthly Tomiieratures, for the first Six Months of the Year, from Texas to Minnesota, through tho Valley of the Mis-sissippi and Great Lakes. Stations, &c. Fort Brown, Texas, , Corpus Christi, " San Antonio, " New Orleans,'^' La., . Baton Rouge, " Fort Towson, In. Tcr Fort Smith, Ark., Fort Scott, Kansas, . St. Louis, Mo., . Fort Leavenworth, . Chicago, 111., . Milwaukee, Wis., Detroit, Mich., . Fort Gratiot, . Green Bay, Wis., Fort Snelling,t Minn. Fort Eipley, ^ " Mackinac, Mich., Sault St. Mario, Mich. 4G° 30' Fort Wilkins, Variation, From the above Table, running through about 22 degi-eos of latitude, extending from the Rio Grande to the Upper Missis- sippi, it appears that the temperature of Fort Bro'^vn in January is about the same as Fort Ripley in June, being a dili'eronce of live months ; the temperature of New Orleans in Febiaiary being about the same as Chicago in May, and Sault St. Mary in June, a difference of four months. f — ^Ican Te npera tnrc. - 1 Yearly N. Lat. Jan. F(!b. Mar. A))ril. May J line . Mean • Fiilir. •F'lir. •K'hr. •I'hr. ■ Falir. ■ K'hr. " Kulir . 25° 54' Gl G5 66 75 80 83 73.75 273 47» 5G 57 66 70 78 82 71.00 29^^ 25' 54 5G GO G6 75 79 68.00 29'^ 57' 55 58 64 70 76 81 70.00 30 ^ 20' 53 55 61 69 76 80 68.00 34^ 00' 43 46 53 64 70 77 61.69 35° 23' 40 44 52 62 70 75 60.00 37° 45' 34 30 48 53 69 73 56.00 38° 40' 33 36 46 52 GC) 72 54.50 39° 21' 32 35 46 51 65 70 53.00 41° 52' 24 25 33 46 56 64 47.00 43° 03' 23 25 33 45 54 64 46.20 42^ 20' 27 32 39 45 56 66 47.35 42° 55' 25 26 33 44 54 63 46.30 44° 30' 20 25 33 40 50 62 41.50 44° 33' 14 22 37 50 57 69 44.54 46° 19' 8 12 30 41 52 62 39.30 45° 51' 19 25 30 ij.) 45 68 40.65 40° 30' IG 22 29 38 49 58 40.37 47° 30' 23 21 29 38 48 57 41.00 Latitude. D(!grcoa Df Fahronh 'it. 21° 7G' 53 53 36 37 32 26 34.45 \ i 1 n n m i * Lowest in January, +34° Falir. t Lowest in January, — SO" Fahr. Highest in July, +98° Fahr. Dighest in July, +06° Fahr. 210 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Climate of the Sciuth-%vestern States. H':. Tlie Gulf States of Alabauia, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas, including Arkansas, possess tor the most part a similar climate and soil, yielding like productions, if we except tlie sugar-cane, whicli is most common to Louisiana. This section of country extends westward from the Gulf of Mexico to the confines of New Mexico and the llocky Mountain range, being known as the Southwestern States. The mean annual tempcr- turo varies from GO^ to T-i^ Fahreulieit, being the hottest in Texas near the Bio Grande. The mean temperature of the seasons is as follows : — Spring, 70^, Summer 82^ Autumn 71 -", Winter SG^*. Yearly mean, 70° Fahr., agreeing with the Summer temperature of the City of New York and St. Paul, Minn. The mean fall of rain for the seasons is as follows . — Spring, 11 inches ; Summer, 17 inches ; Autunm, 10 inches ; Winter, 13 inches. Mean annual fall of Kain, 51 inches ; subject, however, to great variation from j'ear to year.-' The Delta of the Mississii)])i, below Baton Bouge, is about two hundred miles in length, averaging seventy-five in breadth. Its estimated area is fifteen thousand square miles, and it is only a very small portion of this extent that is capable of being cultivated ; for the interior is a vast swamp covered with trees, whoso toj^s only are sometimes visible during the flood season. The cultivated land of the Delta is mostly confined to the banks of the river and those of its l)ayous ; indeed, ra.rely extending Ijeyond a mile or two from the channels. And these have only been reclaimed by the forniation of embankments, or "levees," to prevent inundation. The eastern part of the State of Arkansas, bordering on the Mississippi, and the valleys of the large rivers whicli empty into it, are low and swam])y, Avith a heavy growth of timber, and is frequently overflowed. In the central part it is undulating and broken, and in the northwestern part the Ozark Mountains, * New Orleans was ovorflowod on the 2Stli Dec, 18G3, to an extent never wit- ncBsi'il since 1841). For three iliiys it rained tcrriliciiily and incessantly. From St. Charles street to the Rwaniptlie thorouffhfares were converted into miniature rivers. Hundreds of buildingH were completely flooded, and many bridfjes swept away. On Sunday morning tho city was submerge d to a depth varying from one to two feet. CLIMATE or THE SOUTH-WESTERN STATES. 211 rising sometimes to the height of 1,500 feet, extend across the State. The soil is of every variety, from the most protluctive to the most sterile. Prairies are almndaut and of large extent. Cotton, sugar and Indian corn are the staple ]iroductions ; but much of the country is well calculated for raising cattle. The northern and central portions of the State of Mississippi become elevated and diversified after leaving the river bottoms ; much of the soil, being a deep rich mould, producing, abund- antly, cotton, Indian corn, sweet potatoes and grapes. The natural growth of timber consists of c-ypresa, hickory, black- walnut, maple, cotton-wood, magnolia and sassafi-as. The country generally Ixung healthy and prodiiftive. The southern part oi the State, for about 100 miles from the Gulf shore, is mostly a sandy pine barren, interspersed with cypi'css swamps, open prairies and inundated marshes, and a few hills of a moder- ate elevation. This regicm is generally healthy, and, by culti- vation, produces sugar, cotton, indigo, and Indian corn. The same can be said of much of Louisiana ; biit the southwestern part of the State consists of a sea-marsh, on the margin of the Gulf, but further inland, of extensive and fertile prairies, which contain many flourishing settlements. The ncrthern part has an imdulating surface, and a heavy natural growth of white, red and yellow oak, cotton-wood, hickor}-, black-walnut, poplar, cypress, magnolia and sassafras. Cotton, sugar, rice, corn and indigo are the chief })rodut^tions. Yellow and other malignant fevers often prevail along the Gulf coast and along the Delta of the Mississippi, as far north as Vicksburg, Miss. The general aspect of Texas, extending on the south to the ]-lio Grande, is that of a vast inclined })lane, gradually sloping from the moiuitains, eastward to the Gulf, and traversed by numerous rivers, all having a southeast direction. It may bo naturally divided into three regions : The first, which is gener- ally level, extends along the coast with a brea.lth varying from 40 to 100 miles, being narrowest at the soutlnvest. The soil of this section is principally a rich alluvium, with scarcely a stone, and singularly free from stagnant swamps. Broad woodlands fringe the banks of the rivers on the northern portion, between which are extensive and rich pasture lands. Cotton and sugar are produced in this region. The second division is the undu- laring prairie region which extends for 150 to 200 miles further inland ; its wide grassy tracts alternating with others that are thickly timbered. Here vast herds of cattle and sheep are raised on many of the large estates. Cotton is also grown in largo quantities, as well as Indian corn, arts of the world llourish hero ecjually well, often attain- ing a V(;ry largo si/e. " Tho whole country is rich in iiowering ])lants and creep- ers. Beautiful mosses exhibit their long trails from the tops of tho highest treris, and the mistletoe shelters itself b(!no;ith tho shade of the noble oak, climbs up its rugged trunk, and nestles amid its tufted canoj)y. Among th(! grasses on the fiats and the wild oats of tlu! hilly shapes and mountain sides, aro mingled the most valuable buJbous rcxjts, and the Imghest and sweetest flowers. There are tuli])S and hyacinths, the lily and tho narcissus, golden po))pies and delicately tinted daisi(;s, crimson and scarlet pinks, tlui fragrant graphalium, and the medical canchalagua ; and their beauty, too, is enhanced, in a great degree, by tliii fme contrast presented by snow-crowiK^d jjeaks of the Sierra Nevada, that glisten like burnished silver on the very border of the dark lino of vegetation, and, more than all, by tho ])eautiful ultra-marme tints which, in a clear day, dye tho whole landscape, from the ocean surf to the loftiest moun- tain height." — Wilh'.H' Exncdition. Among the princij^al wild animals of California are tho fien.'o ' -if" FOUT YUMA — COIXJllADO I)I:HKI.T. 217 frr'v/.'Ay })Oiir, llio ivnllcnfd elk, (lie hliKrL-t.'iiled door, tlio Hava^<5 ])antli(tr and jjuiiia, Hks Caliroiiiia lion, tlio nhy antclopo, and tlio noisy coyoto or i>rairi(i wolf. HarcH, H(|uiiTols and mar- njots arc abnnd.int. Arnonf< the frulluinsd tribes arc tlio on^\o, liawk, vnltiuci, ciow, plicasiinl, )iailrid}<<;, ^'[oohc, ducK, polican, curlow, crane, turkey, pigf.'on and i)lover, hesides Hin^dn^' I)irdH of dinrr(Mit hinds. 'V\n- hIiciuhs abound in linff-ilavored lisli ; and the deiii.-ate and IuHei(ju.s salmon art; (juite plenty in the; more nortli(!rn waters. Fort Yuma— Colorado Deicit (Southern California.) "On tli(! rij-dit hank of the (Colorado, and in a b(>nd opjtosite th(! mouth of the (iila Kiver, rises nj) a low ii-re^ndar hill, from 70 to HO feet in heij^dit. On tlu! water h'u\o tlmre is a per|K!n- dieular <-lin". The other .sides are less stec|(, hut e(|ually iu;.,';^ed. 'J'his hill in of Plutonie ori^^dn, and pnssents a Mi-ak, (h'eary apj)earance. 'I'Ik; Huil"i"e(! is eoveretl with sharj), volcanic^ roeks, euttin^' like ^lass und(;r the tread, and is destitute of (jvery form of vef^etation, exc( the rattl(!-snake. Such is the site of the military ))<)Ht of FouT Yuma, situated in N. Lat. :tJ^ 4:r ; W. Lon^'. lii' 4;]'. " The climate of this region is in aceonhmeo with everythinfj else relating' to it. JMieamped there; durin;^' the three! winter mouths, we found the weather pj(ener;illy mild, althouj^h tlio (dian;^es in t(!m])eraturo wc^re very f,'reat. The thermometer durinj^ ]tai't of this ring. Summer. 11^ O KfL A*.tkl Autumn. Winter. Total. Sacramento, . 33 0.1 3.2 G.9 13.5 San Francisco, 4.G 0.7 3.7 8.8 17.8 Los Angeles, . 2.5 0.1 l.G 5.5 9.7 New Mexico. El Paso, O.G G.G 4.9 0.3 12.4 Albuquerque, O.G 5.G 1.2 1.0 8.4 AMERICAN ATLANTIC CLIMATES. Cincinnati, Ohio, . 11.9 14.2 10.0 11.3 47.5 Cleveland, '[ . 9.1 ll.G 9.8 G.9 27.4 Ann Ai-bor, Mich., 7.3 11.2 7.0 3.1 28.6 Pittsburgh, Penn., 9.5 12.3 7.G 7.4 3G.8 St. Louis, Mo., 12.7 14.G 8.7 7.0 42.5 EUROPEAN CLIMATES Turin, Piedmont, . 8.2 9.0 11.5 7.8 36.5 Valle^r of the Rhone, . 10.2 9.5 10.4 4.3 34.4 Vevay, Switzerland, 7.9 10.8 11.1 3.9 33.8 Manheim, Rhine, . G.3 8.0 7.4 5.3 27.0 Bordeaux, "West France, 7.3 7.4 10.3 9.0 34.0 Dijon, East France, 7.1 7.5 9.3 7.3 31.2 Chalons, N. East France, 5.4 G.2 G.l 5.G 23.3 These Tables exhibit r.n average fall of rain during Summer ia California of 0.3 of an inch, and in the Atlantic States of 13 inches nearly, and in European ine-gi'owing countries of 7.7 inches. The cUmate of California would be more favorable if it had more rain in Summer ; but in moist situations, or where irrigation may be employed, it presents all that invites to grape production. San Jose Valley, California. 37' North Latitude. " The climate in this valley," says a late writer, " is much more uniform in temperature than any I have j'ct seen in the United States. In the latter i)art of February, 18G4, the ther- mometer rose to 75^ Fahr., and has ranged from GO"" to 90"" for quite a number of weeks ; in fact I have not seen it range as low as 40° at any time within the past year in the middle of the day, and on two occasions only have I seen it as low as 28^^ (very early in the morning), and it always moderates to about 50^ or 60' in the middle of the day in the coldest weather. Ice seldom forms at all, and never lasts till noon. In October, 18G3, the range was from 70^ to 90" ; November, GO^ to 80° ; December, 56^ to 66^ ; January, 18G4, from 60" to 70°. The THE SEASONS IN CALIFORNIA. 223 fii'st week iii Januaiy, -when it was so cold in the Northwestern States, 50° Fahr. was the coldest in the middle of the day. I have not seen a flake of snow for a year except a little on the mountains of the coast ran'ijc, which here rise from 3,000 to 4,000 feet : there never falls any in the valley. Eoses and honeysuckles bloom all the year round in the open air. Rain seldom falls between April and November, thus rendering ini- gation necessary through this otherwise favored section of country. The SeaiBOiis in California. {CopUd fi-um (III Otficiiil- Document.) " There are but two seasons on the Pacific coast, usually de- nominated the dr// and raiin/ seasons ; the former correspond- ing to the Atlantic summer, the latter to the winter ; but much error exists in regard to them, esiiecially as to the amount of rain falling during the rauiy season. The following totals of rain that fell at San Francisco during each wet season, from 1851 to 1857, will show that the yearly amount is not great. During the wet season of 1851-52, there fell 18.0 inches. 1852-53, " 33.2 1853-54, " 23.0 1851-55, " 24.6 1855-5(3, " 21.3 1850-57,-^ " 18.7 The following table will show how these amounts were dis- tributed each month from 1851 to 1857. « tt (( (. <( MEAN MONTHLY FALL OF liAIN. January, . . 4.52] inches. Julv, .00 inches February, . . 3.37 (( August . .00 " March, . 3.32 (( September . .18 " April, . 3.07 t( October, . . .45 " May, . .73 (( November, . 2.08 " June, . .00 « December, . 4.45 " Giving an yearly average of . . . . 22.17 " These figures show clearly what months constitute each of these two characteristic seasons. " During the seasons we passed about San Francisco, wr, never heard thunder or saw lightning ; and never but once s?i\v snow fall, and then only at an elevation of 400 feet ; the hno being distinctly marked, and the elevation being well deter- mined l)y the knowledge of the height of the hills." The following statement will give a general idea of the tem- * To end ot March. ifr 221 INI'LUENCE OF CLIMATE. peraturc of tlio sea-board. TLe interior is mucli warmer, but, on account of tlio dr^Tiess of the atmosphere, the e£fect is not so enervating to the system as a lower temperature on the Atlantic. MEAN TEMrERATURE AT SUNRISE AND NOON, FOR SIX YEARS, From 1851 to 1850, computed from the California State Register for 1857. MoxTiia. SUNRTBE. Nook. Months, Sunrise. Noon. " Fahr. ' Falir. ° Falir. " Fahr. January, . 44.0 57.7 July, . 52.6 67.8 February, . 4G.0 G0.5 Aiifj^st, . . 53.7 68.2 March, . . 47.(5 63.1 September, . 54.0 69.9 April, . 49.3 (55.0 October, . 52.7 08.4 May, . . 49.9 04.5 November, . 49.8 01.9 June, . 51.4 68.1 December, . 45.2 55.7 49.7 54.3 Mean average, The lowest temperature experienced in San Francisco in the above six years was 25^ Fahr., in January, 1854. In 1852, '53, '50, the temperature Avas always above fi-eeziug, falhng no lower than 4()^ in 1853. The highest temperature was 98^, in September, 1852, and that may be considered remarkably high ; 90" hanng been reached but once in any other year. In a late letter from San Francisco, CaL, the writer saj's : " Wo pay very close attention here to climatic changes in the winter, because our wealth depends upon them. "We begin our conversations, not by remarking upon the weather, but upon the diniale — a wider subject, and requiring a traveled person to a})preciate it. As wo have a dozen climates in Cah- fomia, we can all talk about them. While Napa is wet as a swamp, Santa Clara is dry as timber ; and while the Sr.cra- mentans are bhsteriug with heat, wo in this city shiver with our overcoats buttoned up to our chins. March has brought rough winds vrith him, and during tiiis week the meekness of our winter's sun has been succeeded by winds as cold and harsh as those of July and August. " The prospect for fruit is excellent just now, but the crop ^dll be in great danger for three weeks to come. Two men in Napa County, each having about 100 acres of orchard, have eacn $50,000 at least depending on the v>'eather between this and the 20th of April. If there be ro severe frosts, the pro- duce of their two orchards will sell for at least $100,000 ; if tho frosts be severe, the produce will bo worth little or nothing. They keep men on the watch every night, and if there is danger of frost, numerous fires are built between the rows throughout the orchard. In other counties near tho buy equally largo interests are endangered by Jack Frost." I METEOROLOGICAL TABLE FOR SACRAMENTO CITY. 225 The Sierra Nevada of California formn part of the gi'eat mountain chain, which, under different names, at unequal heights, but in a uniform direction, spreads from the Sierra de San Bernardino to llussian America, beinp; second only to the Eocky Mountain Bango, affording no other apertures than those through which the Columbia and the Frazer flow into the Pacific. Tliis range is remai'kable for its extent, its parallelism with the sea-shore, its volcanic peaks, and the elevation of its isolated mountains, some of which rise above the highest sum- mit of the Eocky Mountains. The greatest part of these peaks, like pyramids, are placed on an immense plateau, overgrown with magnificent forests, and stretching as far as the frozen regions of eternal snow, and rising from 12,000 to 17,000 feet above the level of the sea. The Sierra Nevada exercises a visible influence on the climate and productions of Northern California, Distant 150 miles from the coast, this gigantic wall receives the hot winds, loaded with vapors, that blow from the ocean and fall in rain and snow on the western part of the range, leaving the opposite declivity exposed to drought and cold blasts. Consequently, you may find at the same season, in the same latitude, and at the same height, mildness of cli- mate, fertilitj', and in fact summer, reigning on one side, whilst sterility, cold atmosphere and frost exist with more or less intensity on the opposite slope of these mountains, whose sub- lime beauty is perhaps unequalled throughout the world. Here, too, are found, on the western slope, the most extensive gold Jidd of any known region. Meteorological Table for Sacramento City, Cal. N. Lat. 38° 34', W. Long. 131* 27'. Altitude, 40 feet By Thomas M. Logan, M.D. 1859-GO. Mnxinwim. Minimiim. Mean. Temp. March, . . 64" Fahr. 39^ Fahr. 53.00° Fall April, . 76 40 57.11 " May, . 80 53 63.00 " June, . 96 61 74.85 " July, . 87 60 69.07 " August, . , 85 58 67.16 " September, . 82 56 65.89 " October, . . 83 49 63.28 " November, . 68 42 54.05 *' December, . 53 34 43.52 " January, . 56 37 46.20 " Fobrnary, . 65 37 49.83 " Mean annual temperature, 58.92° Fahr. i 226 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. During the above period 18.74 inches of rain fell, which was a Httle less than the usual average. 171 clays were clear ; 195 days cloudy, and 61 days rainy. Table of Raius at Sacrameuto, Cal. Showing the (luuntity, in Inches, of each month during nine years. Months. •51-2 T)2-3 '53^ '54-5 '55-0 •56-7 '57-8 '58-9 '59-60 Mean Inch. Inch. Incli. i Inch. Incli. Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch. July, 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.00 Aug., 0.02 0.00 0.00 Sl)ri. 0.00 0.00 Spri. Spri. 0.00 0.00 Sept., 1.00 0.00 0.00 S])ri. Sjiri. S]Hi 0.00 Spri. 0.02 0.11 Oct., 0.18 0.00 0.00 1.01 0.00 0.19 0.65 3.01 0.00 0..59 Nov., 2.14 G.OO 1.50 0.65 0.75 0.65 2.40 0.14 6.48 2.08 Dec, 7.07 13=41 1.54 1.15 2.00 2.39 2.63 4.33 1.83 4.44 Jan., 0.58 3.00 3.25 2.67 4.91 1.37 2.44 0.96 2.31 2.42 Feb., 0.12 2.00 8.50 3.46 0.69 4.80 2.46 3.90 0.93 2.52 March, G.40 7.00 3.25 4.20 1.40 0.67 2.87 1.63 5.11 4.03 April, May, 0.19 3.50 1.50 4.32 2.13 Spri. 1.21 0.98 2.87 2.82 0.30 1.45 0.21 1.15 1.84 Spri. 0.20 1.03 2.49 0.87 June, 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.01 0.03 0.35 0.09 0.00 Spri. 0.07 Totals, 18.00 'MM 20.00 18.02 1 13.77 10.4415.00 16.02 22.09 1 20.00 Average fall of rain for 10 years, 19 inches. Note. — The most importixnt feature of the above Meteorological observations, in a practical point of view, lies in the periodical r.iin of California, by which it will be seen that the agriculturalist cannot depend with any certainty upon the raius alone, but must be prepared to supply their deficiency, whenever it occurs, by irrigation. Oregon, and Washington Territory. " Oregon boasts of a line climate, not more favorable to the health of the inhabitants than to the growth of agricultural products. The range of the thermometer in the valley of the Willamette, is from 30^ to 96^ up to the 45th parallel, and above this it is not often much colder. The winter is short, commencing the last of December and continuing until Feb- ruary. During this time, south of the above parallel, snow falls but rarely, never to the depth of more than three or four inches, and soon disappears. Kains are quite frequent, espe- cially from November till March, tliough not often heavy. " It is well known that isothermal hues, or hues of equal tem- perature, traverse the earth with varied eccentricity ; and that it is much warmer on the Pacific coast than in the same latitude ■on the Atlantic. Hence fruit trees blossom early in April at Nisqually (about north latitude 47 "j, and green peas and straw- OREGON, AND WASHINGTON TERRITORY. 227 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.59 2.08 4.44 2.42 2.52 4.03 2.82 0.87 0.07 berries are abundant in May ; wliile south of tlio Oohimbia River grass gi'ows all the -iviuter long, and tlio cattle are not housed, and only confined in jiens at night to protect them from wolves and other Avild animals. " Fever and ague, occasioned l)y the decomposition of the vegetable matter turned up by the plow on the prairies, and some pulmonary complaints, arc the ])rincipal diseases to which the inhabitants are subject. The lirst is quite fatal to the Indians, solely on the account of bad treatment, however ; and small-pox has made dreadful ravages among them. " Most conspicuous among the productions of Oregon, and "Washington Territory, are the enormous timber trees. These arc truly giants. Near Astoria, in the primeval forest, there arc fir trees over forty feet in circumference, three hundred feet long, and rising to the height of one hundred and fifty feet without giving off a single branch. Among the evergreens are the Douglass pine, fir, spruce, arbutus, cedar, yew, and arbor vito}. The principal deciduous trees are red and white oaks, hard and soft maples, the alder, poplar, elm and cherry. The ash, here and there, scatters its winged seeds upon the wind ; and in the forests of Southern Oregon, the long string of balls of the sycamore, and the feathery scones of the cotton-wood, wave above a dense undergrowth of willows, hazels, and wild roses, amid which occasionally glisten the silvery trunks of the birches, ' the ladies of the wood.' South of the Columbia liiver, however, there is, comparatively speaking, but Kttle forest land. But in Washington Territory, north of the 4Gth parallel, there is an abundance of timber for home consiamption, as well as for exportation ; and since the discovery of the gold mines of California and the rapid population of that State, the value of the timber has enhanced in a wonderful degi'ee. "All kinds of grass — timothy, clover and blue grass — grow with the greatest luxui'ianco in the valleys of the Columbia, Wil- lamette and Umpqua, and other streams in the eastern section. Indeed, this country seems to be peculiarly well adapted to their growth, and it can scarcely be excelled in the Union for good pasturage. There are two crops of rich, juicy grass produced on the river prairies — one in the Spring, and the other after the overflow subsides, in July and August. Yet there is very little hay made, except for exportation : the scythe and the rake, and the toil and sweat of the mower, are rendered almost unneces- sary by the kindness of nature. The growth of the grass is so rapid in the early Summer that the subsequent heats convert it readily, into hay, where it stands without the loss of any of its juices. Upon the second crop the stock feed during the Fall and Winter. ■■'M 5? n h 228 rNFr.UENC!E OF CLIMATE. " Tho soil of tho prairies and interval lands (;ontains an al)undan(!0 of hUox, and Avhoro it irt suilit'ientlj dry produces fino crops of wheat — the yield varying from thirty to fifty busliels ])v.v iu've, often of more tlian sixty ])ounds wei^dit. There is no sucli tiling as a complete failure of the wheat cro)) ; l)ut, as the waters of the rivers arc quit(! cold, and possess little or no fertilizing; ])roperties, it is liaMe to be injured Ijy tli(» inundations in all low exposures. Indian com and oats do not succeed very -well, the foruKM- sulferinf; mu(rh during the cold nij^hts, and the latter producing small heads in com])aris()n with tho stalk. For peas, beans, ])otat(^rs, cab])a<:;e8, and most f^ai'dcn vegetables, the soil is sui)ei-ior, producing abundantly and of an enormous siz(>. " Oregon and Washington TeiTitory are not deficient in fruits. Apples, pears, plums, goosol)en'ies and currants, have a thrifty growth, and yi<>!d pl(>ntifully ; and the indigenous fruits, including strawl)crries, l)lackberri(.'S, serviceberries, cran- bei-ries, crab apples, wild chcmes, wild p(\as and thorn api)les, ar(! very prolific. " The streams flowing into tho Pacific produce excellent fish, and gi'eat (luantities of salmon are annually taken in the rivtn-s discharging their waters into Pug(it's Sound. Mosi. all the birds commonly found on the Atlantic coasts in about the same latitiide are found hero ; and on the ocean shores there are an abundance of gulls, frigate-birds, villula, and other aquatic fowl."— Wllkci' ExpeAition. Scenery and Climate of Washington Territory. " The natural features of AVashington Territory are strikingly difTerent throughout from those of a corresponding ])ortion of the Atlantic coast, owing both to its mountainous character and peculiar products. To a traveller approaching tho coast 1)}' sea, the whole country' appears mountainous cad densely clothed with dark green forests from the water Ibvel to the limits of perpeti, A snow. Far above this tower, in indescriba- ble majesty and beauty, the brilliant snow-clad peaks of the (Cascade llange, in strong relief against the dtu^p blue sky, and Hocmingly dose to the sea, although Mt. St. Helens, the nearest, is one hiindred miles inland. At sunset the softening mist, which often hangs over them, becomes tinted Avith the most delicate hues, until in the moonhght they become like monu- ments of shining silver. *• On nearing land, this noble scenery is found to be accom- panied l)y a proportionately gigantic vegetation, and, indeed, everything seems i)lanued on a gigantic scale of twice tho di- mensions to which wo have been accustomed. The Columbia, SCENERY AND CIJMATE OF WAHIIINGTON TERRITORY. 229 nncquallod in f^'nmdour oven hy tlio ' Futlicr of "Wnter.s,' is Lor- dercd l)y lofty clifls iind inotintuius, clothed from l)aso to Hum- rnit with perpetual v<'rdure, and sup])ortiu" on alnioHt v.\Qry foot of snrfaeo trees of aKtonishin^' niaj^'uitude. At every l)end constantly varying? scenes of th(! wildest hcanty hurst u])on tho view, wlmei tho calm silence is often unhroken, save by the screaming of the panther or the shrill cry of the eagle souring far overhead. " Tho counti-y bordering on tho lower Colund)ia has been celebrated ev<>r since its discoveiT for the gigantic growth of its forests. Even s])ecies so nearly resembling those of tho Atlantic States as to be generally considered identical, attain a much greater size. The milder climate and alnindant moisture, causing a longer 'growing season, ma}' be considered, ])erhap8, as one cause of tliis increase. It seems certainly to have an influence iipon many smaller plants, and most sti'ikingly so on eultivatcid vegetables, whose seeds w(! knew to have been brouglit from the East. The great height to which trees grow may also be due to the rarity of lightning, as it is Avell known that thunder-storms, though common on the mountains, aro very rar<» in the valleys. " Entering by the Straits of Fuca, the scenery is quite dif- ferent, but no less interesting. The calm blue; waters of tho sound lie placid as a lake in the basin formed by their steep shores with an ever-varying outline of points and bays, and dotted with islands of every form and size. Prairies are often visil)le to tho water's edge, interspersed Avith evergreen forests, and extending as an elevated plat(;iiu to the l)ase of tho rugged and snowy mountains that ri::: ft m IS '•:|S 236 IKFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Wild hay can be, and is, cut from tliousands of acres. The grass is mostly a wild bimch grass, growing fi'om twelve to eighteen inches high, and covering tlie entire country. Horses and horned-stock by thousands, and sheep by hundreds, all be- speak the wealth tliat is wrapped up in the native grasses of the North Pacific region, and I confidently look forward to see- ing the wealth of ihoso beautiful mountain valleys yet consist in the thousands of fleecy fiocks to be here sheared ; and if the streams of the Rocky Mountains are themselves car ght and harnessed to the spindles and looms of wool manufactories to be there erected, that the annual shipments of wool to eastern markets will constitute a trade replete with wealth and mag- nitude." Northern PaciGc Railroad Route. (CojiieJ/ruiii (iov. I'Jaac F. Sti-.vuns' Ucport.) " In an examination of that country (now forming part of Montana Territory), which I made in 1853, '54, '55, the passes of the liocky Mountains, ' Hell Gate ' and ' Cadet's Pass,' were crossed by my parties in the months of December, January, February and March, in the years 1853-54, and in no one of these passes did they find more than fifteen or twenty inches of snow. " The mean Winter temperature of Fort Benton (47^49' N. lat.), in 1853-54, was 25^ above zero." The average at Mon- treal, on the lino of the Grand Trunk Railroad, for the same year was 13 ', and for a mean of ten years, 17^ above zero. At Quebec it was, in 1853-54, ll'^ aboA^e zero, and for a mean of ten years, 13"^ above zero. " At Fort Snelling (44°53' N. lat.\ on the great lines through Minnesota from St. Paul to Pembma, and from St. Paul to Breckinridge, the mean Winter temperature of 1853-54 was 12^, and the mean of tliirty-five winters IG^ above zero. Thus, in the winter of 1853-54, an unusually cold winter, Fort Benton was 12° Fahr. warmer than Montreal, 14^ warmer than Que- bec, and 13° warmer than Fort Snelling. Looking to the Bit- ter Root valley, we find its average temperature in the winter of 1853-54 to be 25°, and in 1854-55, 30° above zero. The great .'st cold in the winter of 1853-54 was — 2'J'^ below zero at Cantonment Stevens (40^20' N. lat.) At Fort SneUiug it was — 30^, at Montreal — 29-^, and at Quebec — 34'-' belov zero ; from these results it appears, that on this route, the gi cutest cold iti not equal to the greatest cold on the railroad roui3s of Lower Canada. The same fact is imqucstionably true of the great artery of Russia from Moscow to St. Petersburg. ^' I NORTHERN TACIFIC RAILROAD liOUlT.. 237 *' Take the number of cold days when the average lompera- ture was below zero, and we find the following result : The average temperature was below zero twelve days at Fort Ben- ton, ten days at Cantonment Stevens, cigliteen days at Fort Snelling, eighteen days at Montreal, and twenty-three days at Quebec. Thus, you see that there w^ere more cold days on the lino of the Grand Trunk Eaihvay, and of the railroads in Min- nesota, than on this Northern route. Having compavcd the average winter temperatures and the number of cold days, let us look at the climate in another point of view. Take the num- ber of warm days when the average temperature was above the fi-eezing point, and I find that at Fort Benton the thermometer was forty-three out of ninety days, and at Cantonment Stevens thirty-two out of ninety days above the frccziiDg point, against only six dayj5 out of ninety at Fort Snelling, five days out of uinety at Quebec, and eight days out of ninety at Montreal — all in the Avint<3r of ISSS-O-l. " But it may be objected, that the temperature of Fort Ben- ton and Cantonment Stevens is not the measure of the tem- perature of the intermediate rocky range through which the route passes, and which must be much lower. Fortunately, the party of Lieut. Grover, which has been already referred to in connection Avith the depth of snow, made observations of tem- perature on the route, and it has been found by careful com- parison that the party made the passage during the extreme cold weather of that winter, and the temperatures observed, therefore, indicate the extremost cold of the pass, and not the usual cold. The mean temperature in the pass fi'om January 12th to January 23d, 12 days, was — 10' below zero. At Can- tonment Stevens, the moan ten)pei.vture was — 5°, and at Fort Benton, — T"' below zero. The greatest mean cold of any day observed in the pass was — 22^, against — 21'' at Fort Snelling, and a still lower figure at Pembhia (49^ N. lat.) " That the winter of 1853-51 was unusually cold in the moun- tain region of the Northern route, is shown fi'om the fact, in the Bitter lioot valley, the thermometer never went down to zero in the winter of 1851-55, whilst it fell as low as — 29^ below zero in the winter of 1853-51. Tlu^ average mean temperature of this valley in the .vintcr of 1853-51 was 25 ', whereas, in 1851-55, it was , ' Fahr. Tiie same general residt, deter- mined by observation, as regards the temperature of the pass, would be arrived at by using the formula, that every 1,000 feet in altitude Avould depress the temperature three degrees. Now, only six miles of the pass is more than 5,000 feet above the sea, the greatest altitude being but 0,011 feet, and the average height of the pass is but about 4,000 tect." U mn ^^ 238 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. The c," tance from St. Paul and the western end of Lake Su- perior, via Fort Benton, to the shores of Puget's Sound is, in round numbers, 1,900 miles ; or a Httlo over 3,000 miles from the City of New York, extending for a great part of the distance on the Isothermal line of 50^ mean annual temperature. Meteorological Abstract for Esquimalt, Vancouver's Island, For tho Year 1860-Cl. North Latitude, 48''30'. Months. Maximum. Minimum. Mean. Temp. M'thly Kangc. No. of ° Fahr. " Faiir. " Fahr. " Falir. fmc days. March, . 59.00 34.00 45.31 25.00 13 April, . 61.50 43.50 51.74 18.00 19 May, . 62.50 46.50 55.50 16.00 20 June, . 68.00 52.50 59.44 15.50 24 July, . 68.50 54.50 61.00 15.00 22 August, . . 72.00 55.00 62.10 17.00 27 September, . 65.50 50.00 58.00 15.50 14 October, . . 60.50 45.50 54.10 15.00 9 November, . 61.00 40.50 49.16 20.50 10 December, . 59.00 28.50 42.62 30.50 13 January, . . 51.50 23.50 39.20 28.00 9 Februar^^ . 50.50 29.50 43.17 21.00 7 Mean annual temperature, 51° Fahi • SYNOrSIS OF WINDS. Southerly "Winds, 62 per cent. Northerly " 25 Easterly Winds, . 7 per cent. Westerly it Varia'e, 6 " Note. — Of the 3G5 days of the year, no fewer than 183, or 50 per cent., were fine, the remainder being dull, showery, rainy, &c. Snow fell on 12 days in small quaitities ; the thermometer seldom falling below freezing. Il PART XII. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. i o. of days. 13 19 20 24 22 27 14 9 10 13 9 7 The climate of Mexico and Central America, and their inhabitants, are of an heterogeneous character ; being diflScitlt to delineate. The temperature of the climate, and its influence on the human race, varies according to the altitude of the coun- try — thus you encounter the tropical, sub-tropical and temper- ate climates in a journey of a few hundred miles from the coast. Here we find a degree of culture, refinement and haughtiness, with indolence, ignorance, and a ferocity of character, which engenders feuds and civil war, unfitting the inhabitants from maintaining a purely republican form of government. The experiment of making Mexico a monarchy or an empire, will, no doubt, soon bt solved, and a renewed attempt made to establisl. a pure republican form of government. The Mexican family consists of several branches, besides the Castilian race, whoso blood is intermingled with the natives.* Tlie pure Mexicans or Aztecs occupy nearly the entire extent of the territory stretching from the 25th parallel to tlie lake of Nicaragua. The numerous monuments of their early attain- ments in arts and science, in their pyramids and roads, their idiographic writing, division of time, and religious institutions, assign to this people the highest rank in the intellect' A scale of the numerous races which belong to the New World. The population of Mexico is about 8,000,000, of whom about 4,500,000 are Lidians, 2,500,000 Mestizos or mixed races, 1,000,000 whites, and 10,000 negroes. The three original races are the Mexican Indians, European whites, and African negroes, and from their intermixture, in dilfercnt degrees, no less than * The ftboriginal Indians and Africans or noproes, who woro formnrly in a Btato of slavery, coastitutc a great jiortioii of the jjopulation. Besides, there are various mixed races— Mestizos, Zambos, Muhittos, Quadroous, &c. 240 INFLU^U'CE OF CLIMATE. twenty different castes are specified, besides the produce of other unions which have no specific name. In no portion of the earth, except in a tropical region, would this deraoraliijing mixture of the races occur to so great an extent. Mexico, lying between 15^58' and 32° north latitude, is hounded on the east by the Giilf of Mexico, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean ; being about 1,900 miles in length, and 1,100 miles in its greatest breadth. A large portion of Mexico is traversed by a continuation of the Cordilleras de los Andes, which runs through its whole length, and renders the surface extremely varied. On the north of Guatemala, the mountains diverge into two chains, one of wliich follows the coast of the Pacific Ocean, and the other that of the Gulf of Mexico. The vast tract between them, comprising about three-fifths of the Avhole area, consists of a table-land, called Analmac, being an extensive plateau 6,000 to 8,000 feet above the level of the sea ; and, owing to that great elevation, possessing a decided tem- perate climate, though lying within the tropics. Some very high mountains, however, rise above the table-land, and it is also divided in several places by well-defined ridges ; but, in general, the surface is broken by a few transverse valleys, and in some directions it is quite unbroken by either depressions or elevations. " The physical geography of the country is very extraordi- nary. Perhaps no region of the globe presents such varieties of surface or climate within the same extent of tenitory. Along the coast there is a narrow fringe of lowland. Advancing into the interior, the ground rapidly rises, sometimes mountain ranges stretch precipitously like a mighty wall for many leagues, sometimes the ascent is more gi'adual, and slopes upward at a scarcely perceptible angle. But whatever may be the gradient the ascent is continuous till an elevation of from 5,000 to 8,000 feet above the level of the sea is attained, and a vast plateau of table-land extends for many hundred miles. These broad sweeps of level plains on the tops of the mountain chains occu- py almost the entire area of Mexico, and form the platform from which the volcanic and other mountains rise into the region of perpetual snow. " These table-lands rise to different heights, and enjoy a varied climate, subject, however, to very slight annual changes from season to season. This plain is widest at the latitude of the capital, where it spreads out to 300 or 400 miles in breadth. MEXICO. 2^1 a 08 of ill. Its eastern or Atlantic side is 7,500 feet above the level of the sea, and it gradually decreases to a height of about 4,000 feet as it approaches the shore of the Pacific. Of course, so enor- mous a space does not literally present an unbroken surface ; but this is actually the case for many leagues together, and car- riaf^es may roll down from the City of Mexico to El Paso, in Chihuahua, a distance of twelve hundred miles ; that, too, with- out encountering much change in the temperature of the sea- sous. The mountains Avhich enclose the great plain of Auahuac on the eastern side are called the Sierra Madre. In some places they rise to the height of 17,000 feet above the level of the sea." The Mountains of Mexico exhibit numerous peaks of great elevation. The loftiest are as follows ; Popocatepetl," Pico d'Oj-izava," . Yxtaccihuatl,* Cerro de Aiusco, . Nevado Toluca, Cofre do Perote,-' . Volcano de Cohma,* Zempoaltepctl," . Pico de Quincoa, . Soconasco,"" . As regards dbante, Mexico is divided into three regions, the t terras calientes, the ticrras templadav, and the tierras frias, or the hot, the temperate, and the cool regions. The lirst, the low grounds along the coasts of the two seas ; and the mean annual temperature is about 78° Fahr. It is especially suited for the cultivation of sugar, cotton, indigo and banannas. Here all the products of the tropics are to be met with in gi*eat luxu- riance, and their rank growth in the hot, damp atmosphere begets the terrible vomito (yellow fever;, which desolates the coast. From the virulence of this disease. Vera Cniz has been ajitly named " the city of death." Its harbor is shall(jw and exposed, being swept from October to April by dangerous winds, called " nortes," when the air is tilled with sand, the sky is dark with clouds, and the whole coast line is one unbroken sheet of foam. During the unhealthy season of the vomito, from May to November, the merchants and their families usually retire to Jalapa, where " reigns eternal spring." " Here hundreds of trees, plants, shrubs, cereals and parasites spring * Volcanoes. Foct. Mexico, . 17,735 Vera Cruz, . 17,388 Mexico, . 15,700 (( . 15,800 (( . 15,150 Vera Cruz, . 13,514 Colima, . 12,200 Oaxaca, . 11,300 Michoacan, . . 11,000 Chiapas, . 8,000 ■Jii 242 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. almost spontaneously from the soil, and render the necessary labor of man insignificant." The second regions are of compar;itivcly limited extent, occupying only the slopes that rise above the coast-lands, with an elevation of from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, and a mean tempera- ture of from G8° to 70^, the extremes of heat and cold being equally unknown. The Mexican oak and most of the fniits and cerealia of Europe flourish in this genial clime, the hu- midity of w]\ich produces great beauty and strength of vegeta- tion. The cold region includes all the vast table-land 5,000 feet and upwards above the level of the sea. In the City of INtexico, at an elevation of 7,400 feet, the ther- mometer has sometimes fallen below the freezmg point. In the coldest season, the mean temperature of the day varies from 55^^ to 70-', while in summer the thermometer seldom rises in the shade above 7G. The mean temperature of the year may be taken at GO^, being about that of Rome. In the lati- tude of Mexico City, the snow-line varies from 14,000 to 15,000 feet ; but, whenever the elevation is greater than 8,000 feet, the climate is rough and disagreeable. Owing to the rarity, or thinness of the air, vegetati(m is not so vigorous on the table- land as in the tierras calieutes, and the plants of Europe do not succeed so well as in the tierras templadas. In the tropical and central regions, as far north as 28^, there are only two seasons ; that of rain, lasting fi'om July to the middle of September, and the dry season, continuing from October till the end of May. From the 24th to the 30th paral- lel, rain falls less frequently ; biit this deficiency is compen- sated by the abundance of snov/ in January and February. The southern portion of Mexico, however, is decidedl^'^ tropical in its character. In the eastern CordiUera, gi'anite, though forming the body of the mountains, in seldom met with on the surface. It is overlaid with porphpv, greenstone, amygdaloid, basalt and other igneous rocks. In the western chain, however, granite appears on the surface. The great central plateau, between 15-^ and 20^ N. latitude, is a mass of poi-phyry, characterized by the constant presence of hornblende and the complete absence of quartz. Here are foimd larj^e deposits of gold and silver. Iron is found in great abundance in Guadalaxara, Michoacan and Zacatecas, and copper in Michoacan and Gua- naxuato. Tin is obtained partly from mines, but principally from the washings of the ravines. Zinc, antimony and arsenic have been discovered. Quicksilver is found in Queretaro. The .soih of Mexico are noted for their richness and fertility ; but over so large a territory, there must necessarily be a great THE CLIMATE OF MEXICO. 243 variety, anil much tliat is unfit for cultivation. Tlio principal barren regions occur in the north, beyond the 29tli parallel. Valley of Mexico. — It is difficult to picture a fairer scene than that presented by the Mexican capital, lying, as it does, near to the waters of Lake Tczcucau. in the heart of this beautiful, healthy and furtilii valley. On which ever side you turn, there rise the serrated ridges of the (>ordilleraa, en- compassmg the city with a gigantic azure belt. The streets run ni long and unbroken straight lines, bisecting one another at right angles ; and in the clear atmospliere of the table-land, the varied color of the houses is beautifully toned down by the back-ground of the puii^le hills. To the south, two volcanoes, which overtop the other peaks of the Sierra, raise their majes- tic summits covered with eternal snow, which, in the Hglit of the evening sun, put on a pale purple tint, here and there flecked with delicate ruby. Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco lie to the south of the capital, Tczcuco adjoins it, and Lakes San Christoval and Zunipanzo are on the north. These lakes are drained by means of an artificial canal runnmg into the lUver Yuba, which flows into the Atlantic Ocean. The Climate of Mexico. — A late writer remarks : " It would require more space than I can claim to describe the ever- changing scenery along the road fi'om the foot-hills of the Mexican Cordillera to the capital. In three days, as many climates will have been passed through, with the attendant variations in fohage. From Vera Cruz to Paso del Macho, 70 or 80 miles inland, the climate, scenery and verdure are all tropical. The landscape seems to seethe and glow under the heat of a torrid sim, whoso rays, glittering in a thousand curious forms of dense foliage and strange plants and flowers, render the country a vast hot-bed, bursting continually into new forms of Ufe and beauty. Hastening through this enchanting but unhealthy region, the cars soon bear us to the commencement of the stage-travel, where, in a veritable Concord coach, and drawn by nine horses harnessed as only a Mexican knows how, we enter the foot-hills of the Cordillera, and by night have reached the temperate region Avhere peaches, grapes and the northern cereals flourish side by side with the tropical fruits and cotton, cocoa, coft'ee, rice and tobacco. Jalapa, situated 4,000 feet above the ocean, may be said to enjoy perpetual spring, being favored with a healthy and invigorating climate. At Orizaba and Cordova we are almost under the shadow of the vast volcanic cone of Orizaba, snow-crowned to its peak, and gi'een with dense foliage up to the snow-line. " After passing Puebla we have mounted to an elevation of II U M Wi 244 INFLUENCE OF CLIILVTE. 9,000 feet, and are in a cold, mountainous region, whose natural features of ctorile wastes, rocky passes, and solemn pines sigh- ing mournfully in the blast, contrast sadly with the fairy land we were in but yesterday. You leave Pucbla before daylight, and can thus enjoy the majestic sight of the sunrise tints upon tlio summits of the gi'eat volcanoes of Popocatapctl and Iztac- cihuatl— the first 18,000 and the last 10,000 feet abovo the sea. Pojiocatapetl with us was in sight all day — in fact, the road leads almost around its very base, along Avhicli the diligence was whirhug oflf the leagues, giving us ample opportunity to feast our eyes on the dizzy peak reaching apparently into the unclouded heavens, and crowned with 2,000 I'cct of a snow-cap, dazzling to behold. " The descent from the highlands around the great valley of Mexico into the plains beneath is made at a full trot. From these hights, Cortez and his mailed cavaliers first saw the Aztec capital, said by the Spanish chroniclers to have contained its millions of jieople. However that may have been, the stranger who now Aisits the Mexican caj^ital, will find a far more populous and beaiitiful city than ho would have imagined from any previous acquaintance he may have had with places of Spanish origin. The streets are generally wide, well paved and clean, and in all respects superior to the old part of Havana, which was laid out at nearly the same time. " The City of Mexico is full of interest to the stranger, nnd offers innumerable historical reminiscences. The localities commemorating the great Indian Emj^ire of the Montezumas, which, u .der Prescott's word painting have become classical ground, are visited with renewed pleasure after reading those vivid descriptions. A remarkable fact connected with the ad- vent of the Europeans here it the gi'eat increase in the popula- tion of the capital. In 18(51, about the time of the French intervention, the city was commonly estimated at al^out 180,000. These had been the figures, 's\dtli some few liuctuations, for 20 3'ears. The population at present is variously estimated at from 250,000 to 280,000, and it is jiossible that a correct census would reach even beyond the last-named estimate." This increase of population is mainly attributable to its healthy climate ; although situated within the tropics, in north latitude 19°25', it is elevated 7,500 feet above the ocean, enjoy- ing a mean annual temperature of G0° Fahrenheit, varying but a few degrees from season to season. Here the wealthy and the gay, together with the shopkeepers and artizans of all kinds, the musical and literary celebrities, delight to congre- gate. ■IP CENTRAL AMERICA. 215 I'f I Climate and Topography of Central America. " In its physical aspect and configuration of snrfico," sajs E. G. Squior, " it has very justly been obHcrved that it is an epitome of all other countries and climates of the globe. High mountain ran^^os, isolated volcanic peaks, elev!i<^^d table-lands, deep valleys, l)road and fertile planis and extensive alluvions are here found grouped together, relieved by large and beauti- ful lakes and majestic rivers ; the -whole teeming Avith animal and vegetable life, and possessing every variety of climate, from torrid heats to the cool and bracing temperature of eternal spring. Situated between 8^ and 17^ north latitude, were it not for these topographical features, the general temperature would bo somewhat higher than that of the West Indies. As it is, the climate of the coast is nearly the same with that of the islands allu'^ ^d to, and exceedingly uniform. It is modified someAvhat by the shape and position of the shore, and by the proximity ot the mountains, as well as by the prevailing winds. The heat on the Pacific coast is not, hoAvever, so oppressive as on the Atlantic ; less, perhaps, because of any considerable tlif- fercnce of temperature than on account of the greater dryness and purity of the atmosphere. " Li the northern part of the State of Guatemala, in what is called ' Los Altos,' the Highlands, the average temperature is loAver than in any other ])art of the country. Snow sometimes falls in the vicinity of Quezaltenango, the capital of this department, as Avell as on the high plains of Intibucat in Hon- duras, but soon disappetu's, as the thermometer seldom remains at the freezing point for any considerable length of time. In the vicinity of the city of Guatemala, the range of the thermome- ter is from 55^ to 8&^, averaging about 72^ Fahrenheit. Vera Paz, the north-eastern department of Guatemala, and embracing the coast below Yucatan to the Gulf of Dulce, is nearly ten degrees warmer. This coast, from Belize downward to Izabal and Santo Tomas, is hot and unhealthy. The same remark applies, in a less degree, to the northern and eastern coast of Honduras, from Omoa to Cape Gracias a Dios." The climate is hot and moist in the lowlands, where there are dense forests ; but is milder and more salubrious on the elevated table-lands. Earthquakes are frequent, especially in the j)lateaus, and nu- merous volcanoes exist, more particularly along the Pacitic coast or a short distance inland. " The State of San Salvador," says Gordon, " lies, on an average, considerably lower than that of Guatemala, but the heat is never oppressive except near the coast. The average temperature of the City of San Salvador may be equal in the 24G INFLUENCE OP CLIMATE. dry season to tlio South of France, the wet season being about eight degrees colder than tho dry. Many of the largo towns in this state, as Sonsonato and San Miguel, are situated very little above the level of the sea, and have an oppressively hot cli- mate, varying fi'om 80"^ to 1)0^ in the wet and dry seasons." Costa Rica. — " The climate of Costa Rica is very humid, the rain falling for six mouibs of the year. It is cool and healthy on the Pacitie declivity, excepting the immediate coast ; hot, wet, and unhealthy on the Atlantic ; cold and salubrious on the table-lands of the inttirior, where the thermometer ranges from 65° to 75° Fahrenheit in the course of the year. It must be observed that tlie ramy season on the Pacific and in the inte- rior is from Apiil to November; bul, upon the Atlantic coast this order of things is reversed, an* I the rainy season is from November to February." Anothe?. writer remarks, that the " chmate of Costa Rica is exceedingly varied, ranging fi'om 50^ to 80° of Fahr., according to the elevation." Honduras. — " The noi-thern and eastern coast of Hondm'as has a higher temperature than any other portion of the State ; it, however, dimmishos rapidly as we penetrate inland. The modifying influences of the neighboring mountains is felt even before the increase in altitude becomes perceptible. Her table- lands have, of course, a chmate varying with their hight above the sea, and theu' exposure to the prcvaihng winds. Conse- quently, there can be no generalization on the subject of the climate of Honduras, except so far as to say that it has a variety adapted to every caprice, and a temperature suitable for the cultivation of the products of almost every zone." TABLE of METEOI.OLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, Made in the City of Guatemala, for the year 1857. , Tliermometcr. Months. M.iximiim. Miuimnin. Yi 3arly Mean. Rainy Days . Fogs. Rain in Inches. January, 73.5 38.9 57.5 4 4 .20 February. 81.0 43.0 63.0 6 .00 March, 81.1 46.0 63.6 5 7 .55 April, . May, . 88.7 51.6 68.9 9 10 2.07 102.3 52.5 68.1 17 7 5.28 June, . 82.3 54.6 67.1 24 5 13.28 July, . 81.3 53.7 66.2 25 7 11.72 August, 80.9 53.6 66.2 20 10 11.12 September, . 77.9 54.5 66.0 18 10 5.40 October, 82.4 53.6 05.6 17 9 355 November, . 80.2 49.5 64.6 11 8 1.11 December, . 77.0 88.7 46.5 48.9 62.6 65.0 5 155 4 87 .24 For the year, 54.52 METEOROLOGICAL OBSEKVATIONS. 247 .55 No Rain Variable Rain. No Rain. durinfr chaugoa. Wcathor. 105 110 30 1'20 90 125 •40 110 100 130 45 00 From information collected in Guatemala, M. De PuycTt cou- structod the following Table, illustrativo of the seasons as marked in that Kepublic : LocaliticB. Atlantic Coast, Pacific Coast, Interior, Of the plateau of Guatemala, lie remarks : " Here, as gene- rally throughout the interior, the mean temperature is 17° of Reaumer (to-* Fahrenheit), during the summer. The prevail- ing winds are from the north ; so that the climate, as compared with the coast, where the mean temperature is 22 ^ of Reaumer (81.5° Fahrenheit), is almost cold, or at least so regarded by the inhalntants of the country." METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT RR'AS, NICARAGUA, 1850-51. Date of Observation. September, 1850, October, " November, " December, " January, 1851, Febniary, " March, " April, " May, " June, ** July, August, " Total Mean, . . 77.42 8G.45 71.15 15.30 Here it will bo observed that the maximum range was in the month of May, and was 23° Fahrenheit. The mean range for the year, however, was only 15.30°. The heat, it will be per- ceived, at no time of the year is as great as it is during July and August, in the city of New York. The Rain which fell during the same period is as follows : September, 1850, 15.240 inches.' April, Av. Ther. Highest. Lowest. Range. o o o o 78.12 88 71 17 77.00 86 70 16 78.42 86 74 12 77.11 84 72 12 7G.40 87 G9 18 7G.00 84 70 14 77.00 84 72 12 78.83 88 72 16 78.29 91 68 23 77.12 88 71 17 7G.98 86 71 15 76.20 86 71 15 October", K 17.860 November, C 1.395 December, <( 3.210 January, 1851, .380 Febriary, (( .000 March, (( 1.410 It April, 1851, .430 inches May, " . 9.145 << June, " . 14.210 (( July, " . 22.640 (( August, " . 11.810 (( Total Inches, . 97.730 i I i • ii r .vy.1 IS ; ■ ' ' " i - 1. i- i- II -■■ 243 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Belize. — The British estabHshment of Belize, situated lear the southern extremity of the Peninsula of Yucatan, on the Bay of Honduras, in Lat. 17°39' north, and Long. 88^12' west, has a temperature and cHmatc which may be regarded as com- mon to the entire eastern coast of Guatemala and Yucatan, and probably not far different from that of the islands off the same coast in the Bay of Honduras. Observations made here, under the authority of the governor, for the year 1848, gave the following results : TABLE OF THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS Made at Belize (British Honduras). Months. Average Maximum. Avcrafro Minimum. Fall of Rain. January, . 82° Fahr. 66° Fahr. 2.7 inches. February, . 85 73 4.2 March, . 83 75 .0 April, May, . 89 74 .0 . 89 75 2.5 June, . 90 77 4.3 July, . 90 78 3.3 August, . . 90 78 .6 September, . 91 76 8.2 October, . . 87 75 4.8 November, . 85 68 9.9 December, . 86 75 6.7 Total for the Year, . • • ■ 47.2 inches. The average mearx temperature for the year 1848, was 79*^ Fahrenheit. " The climate of this pait of the American continent (border- ing on the Bay of Honduras), is greatly superior that of most other parts of the same vast portion of the g-')be, either in higher or lower degrees of latitude. It is equally superior to the climate of the West India Islands generally, for persons, whoso health and constitutions have become impaired from the effects of the latter, very frequently acquire a sudden restora- tion of bor.i after an arrival in Hondiiras. With the exception of a few months of the year, this country is constantly refreshed by regular sea-breezes, accompanied by an average heat that may be taken at the temperature ot 80^ Fahrenheit. — Hender- son s Honduras. The principal productions of Central America are coffee, indigo, cochineal, Brazil wood, mahogany, dye-woodfi sarsa- parilla, India rubber, balsam of Peru, hides, tallow, wool, tor- toise-shell, gold and silver. Below the elevation of 3,000 feet, rr , :l CENTRAL AMEIIICA. 249 indigo, cotton, sugar and cacao are the chief cro]-)S ; between 3,000 and 6,000 feet, the cochineal plant is abundantly culti- vated. Maize is generally raised, but wheat only on the high table-land in the north. In some parts the chicozapote, a fniit yielding a good deal of nourishment, supplies the place of corn ; other products are tobacco, dragon's blood, mastic, various balsams and drugs, tamarinds, pepper, cassia, ginger, vanilla, and ail the fruits of a tropical region. The country is very productive of the precious metals, abounding in gold, sil- ver, copper, iron, lead and zinc. Horses, asses, goats, sheep, hogs, having licen introduced by the Spaniards, are now very numerous ; vast herds of cattle are pastured in the grazing farms of Nicaragua, and large flocks of sheep on the plateau of Quesaltcnango, being reared almost wholly for their wool. Cattle and sheep breeding are, "with agi'iculture, the main occupation of the population ; but the productions of coarse woolens, cottons, blankets, caps, hats, earthenware, furniture, cabinet-work, employs a good many hands, and the Indians weave mats of different colors, which are used as carpets. The vegetable productions of the country, oviTng to difference of altitude, are represented as more varied than almost any other part of the world ; and, if ir +he possession of an indus- trious and enterprising people, ii Avoald not fail to be one of the richest on the globe. Cotton of a superior quality can be raised in Nicaragua, but like all other articles produced in this State, the cultivation is Jiov/ at a very low ebb, and aluicrt entirely neglected. Sugar also is susceptible of prvjfitablo cul- tivation iu many parts of Central America. Taking the natural divisions of the continent alone into con- sideration. Central America may be regarded as lying between the Isthmus of Panama and Darien and the Isthmus of Tehuan- tepec, and consequently in a tropical climate. This narrow, tortuous strip of land, which unites the continents of North and South America, stretches from S. E. to N. W. about 1,200 miles, varying in breadth from 25 to 300 or 400 miles, thus includi?ig a portion of Mexico and New Granada. " As a regular chain, the Andes descend suddenly at the Isthmus of Panama, but as a ma s of high land they continue through Central America and Mexico, in an irregular mixture of table-lands and mountains. The mass of high lands which forms the central ridge of the country, and the Avatershcd between the two oceans, is very steep on its western side, and runs near the coast of the Pacific, where Central Americ;i is narrow ; but to the north, where it becomes wider, the high land recedes to a gi'cater distance from the shore than !i I ! 250 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. the Andes do in any other part between Cape Horn and Mexico. " This country consists of three distinct groups, divided by valleys which run from sea to sea, namely : Costa Rica, the group of Honduras and Nicaragua, and the group of Guate- mala. " The plains of Panama, very little raised above the sea, and in some parts studded with hills, follow the direction of the isthmus for 280 miles, and end at the Bay of Parita. From thence the forest-covered Cordillera of Paraguay, supposed to be 9,000 feet high, extends to a small but elevated table-land of Costa Rica, surrounded by volcanoes, and terminates at the plain of Nicaragua, which, together with its lake, occupies an area of 30,000 square miles, and forms the second break in the gi'eat Andean cbain. The lake is only 128 feet above the Pacific, from which it is separated by a line of active volcanoes. The River San Juan de Nicaragua news from its eastern end into the Caribbean Sea, and at its northern extremity it is cormected with the smaller lake of Managua or Leon by the river Penaloya. By this water-line it has been projected to unite the two seas. The high land begins again, after an interval of 170 miles, with the Mosquito country and Hon- duras, which mostly consist of table-lands and high mountains, some of which are volcanoes. " Guatemala is a table-land intersected by deep valleys, which hes betv-een the plain of Comayagua and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. It spreads to the ear,t in the peninsula of Yuca- tan, which terminatts at Cape Catoche, and encomi)asses the Bay of Honduras with terraces of high mountams. The table- land of Guatemala consist of undulating, verdant plains of gi'eat extent, of the absolute height of 5,000 feet, fi-agrant with flowers. In the southern part of the table-land, the cities of Old and New Guatemala are situated tv/elve miles apart. The portion of the plain, on which the new cit}^ stands, is bounded on ihe west by the three volcanoes of Pacayo, del Fuego and de Agua ; these, rising from 7,000 to 10,000 feet above the plain, lie close to the now city on the west, and form a scene of wonderful boldness and beauty. The Volcano de Agiui, at the foot of v/hicli Old Guatemala stands, is a perfect cone, verdant to its summit, vdiich occasionally pours forth torrents of boiling water and stones. The old city has been twice destroyed by it, and is now nearly deserted on account of earthquakes. " Though there are large savannahs on tlio plains of Guate- mala, therr ive also magnificent primcv: forests, as the name of the country implies, Guatemala signifying, in tlie Mexican language, ' a place covered with trees. ISTHMUS OF PANAMA — RAIN AT ASPINWALL. 251 " As the climate is cool in the elevated plains and highlands, the vegetation of the temperate zone is there in perfection. On the lowlands, us in other countries where heat and moisture are in excess, and where nature is for the most part undis- turbed, vegetation is vigorous to rankness ; forests of gigantic timber seek the foid aii* above an impenetrable undergrowth, and the mouths of the rivers are dense masses of jungle with mangroves and reeds 100 feet high, yet delightful savannahs vary the scene, and wooded mountains dip into the water." — 3Irs. Somerville. Isthmus of P.vnama. — " The majority of the natives of Panama and its vicinity are a mongrel race, in whoso veins, white, Indian and negro blood is mingled in every conceivable pro- portion. Yet those are every way superior in physical develop- ment to the few who boast an unmixed Castihan descent. It is fearfully probable that no race of whites can escape deteriora- tion upon the Isthmus. The indomitable energy which braves everv hardship, and overcomes every visible obstacle, yields to the fatal iulluence of climate, and each generation sinks lower than the one that preceded it. " The pestilential climate, with which no race of men and no strength of constitution can contend, and against which no measure of precaution and no process of acclimation is a safe- guard, is of the most fatal character. At certain seasons no man can expect to escape the terrible ' Panama fever ' for more than a few weeks or months at most." memoeandum of fat.t. OF KAIN AT ASPIN^'ALL, NEW GlLVN.y)A. Months. 1800. 1861. 18G2. lucbes. Inches. Inches. January, 3.91 5.42 February, 2.31 1.94 March, . 2.88 .70 April, 3.01 2.51 May, . 8.30 19.01 4.27 June, 12.28 July, 13.82 August, . . 8.70 U.99 September, . 11.37 9.62 15.51 October, . 20.83 7.10 13.10 November, . 19.88 26.80 — December, . 12.08 • • 18.08 ■ii Total, . 134.41 252 INTLUENCE OP CLIMATE. The mean annual temperature surrounding Central A.merica, along the sea-coast, varies from 75° to 80° Fahr. ; while on the table-lands and elevated localities it varies from G0° to 70°, thus producing all the tropical productions with many of the temperate zone. Yellow Fever aud Rainy Weather. A letter fi'om Belize, Honduras, of a late date, speaking of the ravages of the YeUow Fever on that coast, says : " Our old, acclimated population and the colored people have generally escaped, but it has made fearful havoc on those who had been only a short tinae here. We have had nothing like it for over sixteen years, and, in fact, there is no one who can remember such a sickly season before. The doctors themselves say that its fatality is beyond their skill. I think that not more than two who have had it have recovered." Temperature of the Air and the Ocean. Record of a Passenger on the Mail Steamsliip. 18C5. Air. Ocean. Barometer. N. Lat. / Panama, Nov .10, . 87 86 30.22 8 56 (( 11, . . 78 80 30.25 Off Costa Kica, " 12, . . 82 82 30.30 9 55 (( 13, . 82 82 30.27 12 18 Off Guatemala, ** 14, . 82 82 30.32 15 6 (( 15, . . 82 82 30.24 15 42 Acapulco, " 16, . 84 82 30.30 10 50 (( 17, . 82 82 30.24 18 29 (( 18, . 81 82 30.32 20 04 Cape St. Lucas, " 10, . 76 77 30.38 22 28 <( 20, . 75 76 30.47 25 12 (( 21, . 64 Gij 30.44 28 28 San Diego, Cal., " 22, . . 64 64 30.38 31 41 Los Angeles, " 23, . 58 59 30.41 34 25 San Francisco, " 24, . 54 55 30.60 37 46 Variation, . . • • . 30 31 00.38 28 90 Tue above *•! ows a close affinity between the air and the ocean. It is supposed a current from the North reduces the temperature of the ocean at Cahfornia. The lofty moimtams of Central America, of Mexico, and of Lower California were in Fight nearly all the way. — Journal of Commerce, March 24, 1866. MEAN TEMTEILVTURE IN TROPICAL AMERICA. 253 Mean Temperature in Tropical America. n 55 18 6 42 50 B 29 04 28 12 28 41 25 4(3 Cities, etc. Mexico (Alt. 7,500 feet), . Vera Cruz, . . . . Jalapa (4,000 feet), Acapulco, . . . . Belize, . . . . Guatemala (4,000 feet), Eivas, Nicaragua, Havana, Cuba, Matauzas, " . . . Sau Domiugo, Hayti, . Kingston, Jamaica, Panama, N. G., , Bogota (8,650 feet), . Caracas, Ven., (2,880 feet), . George Town, Bi\ Guiana, . Para, Brazil, Maranham, Brazil, Pernambuco, " Baliia. " . . Eio Janeiro, *' Quito, Ecuador (9,543 feet) . Guayaquil " . . . Truxillo, Peru Lima, " . . . Population. N. Lat. W, Long. 250,000 20,000 10,000 5,000 10,000 40,000 20,000 150,000 28,000 15,000 35,000 6,000 40,000 60,000 25,000 10,000 30,000 30,000 100,000 300,000 80,000 20,000 10,000 100,000 19 26 19 12 19 30 16 50 17 29 14 36 11 00 23 09 23 02 18 28 17 58 8 56 4 35 10 30 6 49 1 28 S. 2 31 " 8 06 " 13 00 " 22 54 " 13" 2 20" 8 30 " 12 02 " 99 00 96 08 97 00 99 49 88 10 90 30 82 22 81 38 69 50 76 47 79 31 74 10 67 00 58 11 48 30 44 18 34 51 38 31 43 09 78 50 79 43 79 09 77 06 Year. ° Ffthr. 60.50 77.00 70.00 78.00 79.00 65.00 78.00 76.00 78.30 78.00 78.70 80.00 58.00 72.00 81.00 82.00 8;.oo 80.00 79.00 74.00 70.00 82.00 80.00 76.00 Climate of Caracas, South America. Caracas, or Caraccas, A^enezuela, situated in N. lat 10°30', W. long. 67^, being twelve miles inland from its port. La Guayra, and elevated nearly 3,000 feet above the level of tlio Caribbean Sea, is freed, in consequence of its elcTatiou, from the excessive heats of the tropical regions. Though delight- fully cool in the mornings and evenings, the heat of noon is very great. Bain is abundant during Ai)ril, May and June. The climate of Caracas has been called a perpetual spring. " What, indeed," says Humboldt, " can we imagine more de- lightful tlian a temperature whieli, during the day, keeps between lO"^ and 28^ Keaumur ; and at night, between 12-" and 14°; and which is equally favorable for tin; ciiltivation of the phui- tain, the orange tree, the coftee plant, the apricot, the ap[)le and com ? It is to be regetted, however, that this climate is generally unconstant and variable. The inhabitants complain of having several seasons in the course of the same day, and of the rapid transition fi'om one season to another." iff %: PART XIII. ANTILLES, OR WEST LNDIA ISLANDS. [.:! This extensive and important group of Islands in the Atlantic extends in a semi-circular form between tlio two continents of America, and constitutes a sort of barrier to the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. These islands describe nearly the diago- nal of a parallelogram, of which the sides are the meridians of 59° and 86=^ W. longitude, and the parallels of 10^ and 23° N. latitude ; but this diagonal is of very variable breadth ; and there are several small islands off the neighboring coasts not included in the limits now traced. " These islands," says Malte Brun, " have been vaguely denominated the West In- dies, from the term India, originally given to America by Columbus." They are divided into the Greater and Lesser Antilles ; and have been nautically classified by the British under the general denominations of the Windward and Leeward Isl.\.nds. With reference to the trade-Avmd, however, the whole group are windward islands. The gi-eater Antilles, consisting of the four large islands of Cuba, Jamaica, St. Domingo or Hayti, and Porto Rico, stretch from near the coast of Florida on the Avest, towards the lesser Antilles or Caribbee Islands on the east, with which they are connected by the Virgin group. The total number of islands and islets which compose these groups is upAvards of eight hundred ; but many of them are bare, unin- habitable rocks. AVith the exception of St. Domingo — which ia an independent government — these islands mostly belong to different European powers. The Greater Antilles appear to be of primitive formation, and their highest summits are granite. Most of the Lesser Antilles have indications of volcanic origin ; but in many of CLIMATE — HEALTH, WINDS, ETC. 255 them tlio volcanic rocks arc covered ■with calcareoiis formations of a thickness varying from 25 to 1,000 feet. Climate— Health, Winds, etc. " The north wind blows here from November to February, and sometimes lowers the mercury of the thermometer to 16^^ of Reaumur, or 69^ of Fahrenheit, and the needle of the hygro- meter to between 60^ or 70^. Its prevalence is marked by epidemic rheumatism and catarrhic aft'ections. Tlie south v/ind is warm and humid ; it blows from July to Octobci', but with less force and continuity than that of the N. and E. It raises the thermometer to 28^ of lieaumur, and 95^ of Fahrenheit. Its influence is dangerous and malignant. To it is attributable the exhalation from the marshes of Saint Lucia, and tht eleva- tion of the waters of the Orinoco, which rise to the height of 39 or 41 feet, and inundate the (Country 200 leagues E. to "W. The hurricane season is reckoned from the loth of July to the 15th of October ; and the hurricane region is included between the parallels of 10^ and 28^ N., and the meridians of 58^ and 8G^ W. The east wind prevails in March, April, May and June. It resembles the north, to which quarter it generally more or less inclines, but is not so dry or warm, for in traversing the Atlantic? it loses, before reaching the Antilles, a part of the heat it acquired in passing over the African deserts. During its continuance, the climate is favorable to Creoles and Euro- peans. The west wind is the severest of all, and inclines more to the north than to the south. The seasons, however, alter with the Avuids, and are strictly coniinable to two — the wet sea- son, from November to April, passing from S. to E. — the dry from May to October, passing from E. to S. Spring com- mences in April ; and from May till October is the reign of summer, during which the medium height of the thermometer is about SO'^. The autumnal rains commence in October, and continue till the middle of December ; from 60 to 05 cubic inches are the medium fall. This humidity M. de Jonnes attri- butes, 1st. to the situtttion of the islands in the midst of a vast body of water, the daily evaporation from which amounts to more than 33,000,000 tons of water for a degree square ; 2d. to the prox:mity of the ditlerent islands of the arcliipelago which form a chain of 200 leagues, disposed in the form of a right angle, the direction of which is towards the prevailing winds ; 3d. to the mineralogical mass of these islands, which exercises a superior influence on the atmosphere to such insiilated soli- tary islands as Samt Helen{\, Ascension, or the Isle of Paquas ; 4th. to the conflict between opposing currents of wind during :f 256 INTLUENCE OF CLIMATE. the ■winter season ; 5t]i. to tlio elevation of the mountains, wliich rise 300 or 400 toises into the region of the clouds, which hang during the rainy season at less than 2,000 feet above the level of the sea, beginning from the 14th parallel ; and (Hh. to the conic or pyramidal form of the mountains, which sensibly augments their action on the electric clouds. An oflBcial docu- ment on the health of the British troops stationed in the West Indies, exhibits, as regard;j British Guayana, Trinidad, Tobago, Grenada, St. "Vincent's, Barbadoes, St. Lucia, Dominica, An- tigua and St. Kitt's, the following general results : Tobago is the most remarkable for fever ; l)o .linica for diseases of the bowels and of the brain ; Barbadoes for those of the lungs ; Grenada for those of the liver ; while Trinidad is most noted for its dropsies. It may be observed that the mortality of all the islands, except Antigua, Grenada and Tobago, is higher among the troops than among the black pojiulatiou ; and this is the more remarkable, as the mortality of the negro slave population was calculated upon persons of all ages, including old men and infants, sickly and healthy ; whereas, that of the troojos was calculated upon persons in the prime of life only. It appears that in these colonics, as well as in Jamaica, the most sickly as well as the most fatal period of the year extends from August to December, and that the only months compara- tively healthy are March, April and May. " Vegetation. — The atmosphere of the Antilles resembles that of Africa more than that of Europe. Hence, while Euro- pean productions degenerate In cc, those of Africa attain sin- gular luxuriance. The sugar-cane — Avhich now covers these islands — came originally from one of the Afi'ican islands ; the cofl'ee, from i\i'abia ; part of the alimentarv plants, from the coast of Guinea ; and the finest grapes of the savannahs, and ilowers from the same source. The dates are those of Atlas ; and fi'om Senegal were transplanted those tamarinds whose thick shade suiibcates the American trees with Avhicli they are surrounded. The numerous race of negi'oes, too, originally brought from Africa, has here usurped the place of the abo- rigines. ' Trees similar to those that we have admired in other tropical countries,' says Malte Brun, ' grow in equal luxuriance on these islands. A cnnoe made from a single tiiiuk of the Avild cotton-tree has been known to contain a hundred persons ; and the leaf of a particular kind of palm-tree affords a shade to live or six men. The royal palmetto, or mountain cabbage, grows to the extraordinary height of 200 feet, and its verdant summit is shaken by the lightest breeze. Many of the planta- tions are enclosed by rows of Campeachy and Brazilian trees i VEGETATION— THE SUGAR-CANE. 257 the corab is alike prized for its tliick shade and its excolleut fiTiit ; and the fibrous bark of the gi'cat cecropia is converted into strong cordaf:je. The trees most vahiable on account of their timber, are the tamarind, the cedar, the Spanish moun- tain-ash, the iron-tree, and the Luirns chloroxi/Ioii, which is well adapted for the constmction of mills. The dwellmgs of the settlers are shaded by orange, lemon and pomcgi'anate trees, which fill the air with the perfume of their flowers, while their branches are loaded with fruit. The apple, the peach, and the gi'ape ripen m the mountains. The date, the sapata and sapo- tilla, the mammce, several Oriental fruits, the rose-apple, the guava, the munga, and different species of spondias and anno- nas grow on the sultry plains. " The winter season is the great vegetating season in tlie West Indian Islands. The sap then circulates with activity and energy — the trees are almo.st at the same instant covered with flowers and fi-uit, mosses and lichens cover the walls — and stramoniums of gigantic size and purple euphorbiums spring up in the unfrequented paths. *'7V»' Sugar-cane. — Sugar is the great staple commodity of the West Indies. To this day, it is not exactly known what coun- try the sugar-cane was originally imported from ; but it is generally beUeved that it came fi'om the East Indies. In the 12tli or 13th century it was transplanted into Sicily ; whence it was taken to Madeira, then recently discovered by the Portu- guese. About the same time the Spaniards introduced it into the Canary Islands. Attempts were made to plant it in Pro- vence ; but they did not succeed. In the beginning of the 17th century, France had no sugar but what came from Madeira and the Canaries ; but towards the end of the century, tlie English had monopolized this article of trade, and all the north of France was in general supplied with sugar from England. From the Canary Islands the cane was conveyed to the Ameri- can Continent and islands, and afterwards to Madagascar, the coasts of Coromandel and Malabar, Ceylon and Manilla, and, at length, even to Otaheite. The sugar-cane is propagated b}' gi'ains or seed. There are several varieties of this plant. One of these, which is white, with a thin bark, and knots at spaces five fingers in length, is very productive both of juice and sugar. A second species is of a reddish color ; its knots lie nearer together ; its bark is hard ; and its produce of sugar less con- siderable but sweeter. In a third species, the stalk is not above an inch thick ; the bark is thin, the flutings are green, the knots very distant ; this last has a very sweet taste, and yields a great quantity of sugar. All the three species ripen in nine or ten. months." — EmjJish Gazetteer. I ■' } !>. fifi m 258 mn^UENCE OF CLIMATE. Island of Cuba — Ita Climate, etc. This large and noble islfind has its oast tenninus at Point Maysi, in 74'-'8' west longitude from Greenwich, and its west point, Capo San Antonio, in 84°59' ; lying hetAvcen three de- grees E, and eight degrees W. from Washington. The extrenio H. point of the island is in north latitude 19^50', and the ex- treme north ]ioint, 2I}~9'. It is of an elongated narrow shape, being G48 miles in length from east to west, and from 20 to 127 in breadth from south to north ; containing an estimated area of 35,750 square geographical miles, including several small islands attached to it and under the same government. The coast lino exceeds 2,000 miles in extent ; but such is the prevalence of reefs, rocks and sand-banks in the surrounding waters, that little more than one-thiril of this coast line can be considered accessible to mercantile vessels. Tlioro are, however, about fifty ports and anchorages. " Commanding the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico, and possessing one of the noblest harbors in the world, Cuba crowns by her pohtical importance the com- manding advantages of a rich soil, a varied and teeming pro- ductiveness, and a climate which enjoys the genial warmth, but escapes the fiercer heats of the tropics. The occupation of such an island must give strength and wealth to any nation." " The climate, although tropical, is marked by an unequal distribution of heat at diflennt periods of the year, indicating a transition to the climates of the temperate zone. When the north wind blows several weeks, ice is sometimes formed at night, at a little distance from the coast, and at an inconsider- able elevation above the sea. Yet tJio groat lowerings of tem- perature which occasionally take place are of so short duration, that the palm-tree, banana and sugar-cane do not suffer fi*om them. Snow never falls, even on the Sierra-del-Cobre, and hail so rarely that it is only observed during thunder storms, once in several years. " The average annual temperature of Havana is 25"' centi- grade (76^ Fahrenheit) ; the highest, 32'^ (SO.G'-") ; and the low- est, 10^ (50^ Fahr.) The average temperature of the warmest month was 27^ (82.6°), and of the coldest 21" (69.8°). The average humidity of the atmosphere, as shown by the hair hygrometer is 85^ ; the maximum, in Noveniber and December, l)eing 100°, and the minimum, in April, 66° ; or 97° and 75 ^ without the extremes. " The dew falls very copiously, especially during the dry sea- son, but chiefly in December and January. Fogs also occur prin- cipally in the season of drought. Tlie rain has so fixed and defi- nite a period as to determine the seasons, which are divided If AORICULTUIUL PRODUCTS OF CUBA. 259 into two, viz, : the rainy seaaon, and the drf/ sccifion, or season of ' northers.'' The first eonnnoncos hctwcen May and June, and ends in November, beinj; most active in Heptmnber and Octo- ber. The average fall of rain at Havana is 1,02!) millimetrca ; tlie most recorded for a year is 50 inches (5 hnes, and the least, 82 inches 7 lines. The most for a month (August), 11 inches, and the least (November and Deccuuber), 2 lines." In the interior of the island much more rain falls than at Havana or on the sea-board. " The common cereal grasses are cultivated in Cuba, together with all the productions of tropical climates. The hills and savannahs are decorated with ditlVreut species of palms, and the wild orange tree attains a height of from ten to lifteen feet. The mountains, in many parts, jjresent a naked appearance ; but the sweet pea, the myrtle-leafed vine and the night-bloom- ing cereus clothe their crags in some quarters. Immense dis- tricts, especially the hilly and mountain regions, are still cov- ered Avith trees, among which the magnificent olive and gigantic mahogany tree, with the red cedar, ebony, li(jniuti v!{\eeks successively. Showers are more frequent in the winter on the coast ; but vegetation iu the interior is chiefly sustnined by the copious d(r\\s. " Notwithst'inding the fruittulneKS of Cuba, all kinds of vege- tables and ])'• ^visions on the islant. irc high-priced, Avhich ren- ders Uvin*^ expensive in larg(> towns. A great deal of time and expense is incurred in taking the prcxhicc of the fields to market, its most of it is transported thither on the l)acks of small horses, in conseenence of the roads being so bad in the interior." FlHiifcin, or Ihtnnva. — " Tl.ie plantain is seen growing over the Avhole island of CHiba, aiibrding shade and shelter to every cabin, liowc ;er s' '1 or humble. Though it Avants the grace and beaaty of the cocoa-nut or palm, its form is peculiarly tropical — none iDore so. In good soil it groAVS to the height of tAvent}' feet. Its trunk, or rather fleshy stem, is holloAv, resem- bling in outAvard apjiearance that of the lily of the Nile, seen in our green-house.;. It is alxmt nini; inches in diameter at tlio )">ase, tnpering towards the top, Avhere it sends out long, broad .m mmmm CUBA — DISEASES. 263 leaves, and also a short stalk, bearing a heavy cluster of fruit. The plantain requu-cs to bo renewed, on good laad, only once in forty years. It sends from the root a fresh shoot every nine months, and the old trunk dies as soon as the frnit becomes ripe. Little care is l)estowed upon its culture!, being ])lanted in check-rows twelve feet apart. It is not unfrequently ^ oen, however, growing in the shallow soils of the coral formation, whore there is little in which to iix its routs except in the crevices of the rock. " With a little attention, a constant supply of plantain fruit is obtained all the year round. It is largely used by all classes, and is commonly })ulled when green and cooked with oil or grease. The banana is merely a smaller bnt less prodnctive variety of the plantain. It i.-; usually allowed to become ri])e before it is eaten, and is then found to be a most delicious fruit." Diseases. — " From wliat lias been said under the head of Physical Cli)nah\ it may be ijiferred that the tem])erature of tlu! island of Cuba is mild, although humid and warm. The ])etter to classify the diseases aicidciit to the climate, we shall divide the year into three periods, viz. : 1. From December to May, the season of drought and of the finc^st weather. 2. From May to Se[)tend)er, a jjeriod of excessive^ heat, rain, and of most atmospheric electricity. 3. From Septend)(;r to December, the season of deluging rains and of the gr(.'atest atmospheric chang'ths. During the lirst period, the fohowing complaints prt;vail ; catarrhs, ephemeral and intermittent fevers; croup, rheumatism, and, in some years, pleuiisy, infiamnuition of i\w lungs, and erui)tive fevers. During the second pcniejd, the most promi aont are : diarrJnea and c^H.i'jr disorders t)f .he digestive apparatus ; yellow fever, .small pox, liver complaint, Asiatic cholera and eruptive fevers ; at the same time, instances oli'er jf violent congestion, pulmonary intlannnation and pleurisy, likewise neuialgia and ntnvous ail'ections. The third period comprises nearly the same diseases as the second ; how- ever, the yellow lever and the cholera begin to decline, aVivl gradually disappear; dysentery is more commc^n during chis period, ."'so tetanus or locked jaw. AVithin a few yrain fevers, small pox and erysipelas. Yellow fever visits the island only at intervals, while the Asiatic cholera has never appeared, although it has raged fiercely in some of the other West India Islands. The population of the island is estimated at 500,000, of which number about one-half are whites ; the remainder mostly free blacks, there being comparatively but few slaves, being esti- mated at only one-tenth of the entire number of souls. HUMBOLDT ON THE CLIMATE OF CXUk. 265 Humboldt on the Climate of Cuba. " The Climate of Havana is that which corresponds to the extreme limit of the torrid zone ; it is a tropical climate, in which the unequal distribution of heat through the various sea- sons of the 3'car presages the transition to the climates of the temperate zone. Calcutta (N. lat. 22^34'), Canton, (N. lat. 23^8'), Macao (N. lat. 22°12'), Havana (N. lat. 23^9'), and Rio Janeiro (S. lat. 22^54'), are places whose location at the level of the ocean and near the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, being equi-distant from the equator, makes them of the greatest importance in the study of meteorology. This science can advance only by the determination of certain numerical dements, which are the indispensable basis of the laws we wish to discover. As the appearance of vegetation on the confines of the torrid zone and under the equator is the same, Ave are accustomed vaguely to confound the climates of the zones comprised between the 0=' and 10°, and 15° and 23° of latitude. The region of the Ealm, the banana, aiul the arborescent grasses, extends far eyond the tropics, but we should err in applying the result of our observations on the limit of the torrid zone, to the phenom- ena we may observe in the heated plains under the equator. " It is important to establish first, in order to correct these errors, the means of temperature for the year and the months, as also the oscillations of the thermometer at difierent stations under the parallel of Havana ; and by an exact comparison with other places equally distant from the equator, Rio Janeiro and Macro, for example, to demonstrate that the great decline of temperature which has been observed in Cuba, is owing to the descent and irruption of the masses of cold air which ilow from the temperate zones toward the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. " The mean temperature of Havana, as shown by exceUent observations made through four years, is 25° centigrade (78° Fahrenheit), being only 2^ C. (3.6° F.) lower than that of the regions of America under the equator. The proximity of the sea increases the mean temperature of the coasts, but in the interior of the island, where tlie northern winds penetrate with equal force, and where the land has the slight elevation of 250 feet, the mean temperature does not exceed 23° C. (73° F.), which is not greater than that of Cairo and all Lower Egypt. " The difterence between the mean temperature of tlie hot- test month and thrt of the coldest is 12° C. (21.6° F.) in Havana, and 8° C. (14.4° s^'.) in the interior, while at Cumand, it is barely 3° C. (5.4° F.) July and August, wliich are the hottest months, 266 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. attain in Cuba a mean temperature of 28.8° C. (83° F.), and X)erliaps even 29.5° C. (85° F.), as under the equator. " The coldest months are December and January ; their mean temperature is 17° C. (02° F.) in the interior of the island, and 21° C. (09° F.), in Havana, that is, from 5° C. to 8° C. (9° F.), (14° F.) less than during the same months under the equator, but yet 3° C. (5° F.) higlier than that of the hot- test month in Paris. " As regards the extremes touched by the centigrade ther- mometer in the shade, the same fact is observed near the limits of the torrid zone that characterizes the regions nearer the equator (between 0° and 10° of north, and south latitude) ; a thermometer which had been observed in Paris at 38.4° (101° F.), does not rise at Cumana above 33° (91° F.) ; at Vera Cruz it has touched 32° (89° F.), but once in thirteen years. At Havana, during three years, (1810-12), Serior Ferrer found it to oscillate only between '16° and 30° (01° and 80° F.). Senor Ko- bredo, in his manuscript notes, which I have in my possession, cites as a notable event that the temperature in 1801 rose to 34.4° (94° F.), while in Paris, according to the interesting investigations of Mons. Arago, the extremes of temperature between 36.7° and 38° (97° and 100° F.) have been reached four times in ten years (1793-1803.) " The great proximity of the days on which the sun passes the zenith of those places situate near the limit of the torrid zone, makes the heat at times very intense upon the coast of Cuba, and in all those places comprised between the parallels of 20° and 23.1°, not so much as regards entire months as for a term of a few days. In ordinary vears the thermometer never rises in August above 28° or 30° C. (82° or 86° F.), and I have known the inhabitants complain of excessive heat when it rose to 31° C. (87.8° F.) " It seldom happens in winter that the temperature falls to 10° or 12° C. (50° to 53° F.), but when the north wind prevails for several weeks, bringing the cold air of Canada, ice is some- times formed at night, in the interior of the island, and in the plain near Havana. Fro ji the observations of Messrs. Wells and Wilson, we may suppose that this effect is produced by the radiation o^ caloric wiien the thermometer stands at 5° C. (41° F.), and even 9° C. (48° F.) above zero. This formation of a thick ice very near the level of the sea, is more worthy the attention of naturalism's from the fact, that at Caraccas (10°ul' N. lat.), at an elevatioi: of 300 feet, the temperature of the atmosphere has never fallei: below 11° C. (41.8° F.) ; and that yet nearer to the equator we 3iavo to ascend 8,900 feet to see i(;e form. We also observe tht.fc between Havana and St. 11 HUMBOLDT ON THE CLIMATE OF CUBA. 267 Domingo, and between Batabano and Jamaica, there is a dif- ference of only 4P or 5^ of latitude, and j'et, in 8fc. Domingo, Jamaica, Martinique ajid Guadalupe, the minimum temperature in the plains is from 18.5^ to 20.5° C. (65° to 68° F.) " It will be interesting to compare the climate of Havana with that of Macao and Itio de Janeiro, one similarly situated near the northern extreme of the torrid zone, but on the eastern shore of Asia, and the other near the southern limit of the torrid zone, on the eastern shore of America. The means of temperature at Bio Janeiro are deduced from three thousand five hundred observations made by Seiior Benito Sanchez Dorta ; those of Macao from twelve hundi'ed observations which the Abbe Richenet has kindly sent me. Mean. For the year, . For the hottest month, For the coldest mouth. Ilavann. N. lat. 23' 9'. 78.00=^ F. 83.81° F. 69.98° F. Macao, N. lat. 23°]2'. 73.94° F. 83.12° F. 61.88° F. Rio Janeiro. S. lat. 23 TA'. 74.30° F. 80.96° F. 68.00° F. " The chmate of Havana, notwithstanding the frequent pre- valence of north and north-west winds, is warmer than either that of Macao or Rio Janeiro. The first named of these places is somewhat cold, because of the west winds which prevail along the eastern shores of the gxeat continent. The proximity of very broad stretches of land, covered with mountains and high plains, makes the distribution of heat through the months of the year more unequal at Macao and Canton, than in an island bordered by sea-shores upon the west, and on the north by the heated waters of the Gulf Stream. Thus it is that at Canton and Macao the winters are much more severe than at Havana. " The mean temiDeratures of December, January, February and March, at Canton, in 1801, were between 15° and 17.3° (59° and 62° F,) ; at Macao, between 16.6° and 20° (61^^ and 68° F.) ; while at Havana they were generally between 21° and 24.3° (69° and 75°) ; yet the latitude of Macao is one degree south of that of Havana, and the latter city and Canton are on the same parallel, with a difference of one mile, a httle more or less. But although the isothermal lines, or lines of equal heat, are convex toward the pole in the syslem of climates of Eastern Asia, as also in the si/ste>ii of cliinales of Eastern America, the cold on the same gcogi'apical parallel is greater in Asia." The * The difference of climate is so great on the eastern and western shores of the old continent, that in Canton, lat. 23 8', the mean annnal iemp(!rature is 22.9° (03" F.), while at Santa Cruz de Teneriffb, lat. 28 28', li is 23.8^74 F.), according to Buch and Escolar. Canton, situate upon an eastern coast, enjoys a continental climate. Teueriffe is an island near the, western coast of Africa. — U. lit r dtmumMtttrnm^t U h i 268 INFLUENCE OP CLIMATE. Abbe Eiclienet, who nsecl the excellent maximum and mininmm thermometer of Six, has observed it to fall even to 3.3" and 5° (38° and 41° F.), in the nine years, from 1806 to 1814. " At Canton, the thermometer sometimes falls to 0° C. (32° F. ), and from the radiation of caloric, ice is formed on the roofs of the houses. Althor .;h this excessive cold never lasts more than one day, the English merchants residing at Canton light fires daring the months o^" November, December and January, ■while at Havana fires ar< .lever needed. " Hail of large size frequentlv falV. in the Asiatic countries roimd Canton and in Macao, wliile at Havana fifteen years will pass without a single fall of hail. In all three of these places the thermometer will £ onetimes stand for hours between 0^ and 4° C. (32° and 39° F.) ; yet notwithstanding (which seems to me more strange), it has never been known to snow ; and although the temperature falls so low, the banana and the palm grow as weU in the neighborhoods of Canton, Macao and Havana, as in the plains immediately tinder the equator. " In the present state of the world, it is an advantage to the study of meteorology, that we can gather so many numerical elements of the climates of countries situate almost immediately under the tropics. The five great cities of the commercial world — Canton, Macao, Calctitta, Havana and Eio Janeiro, are found in this position. Besides these, we have in the Northern hemispliere, Muscat, Syenc, New Santander, Durango, and the Northern Sandwich Islands ; in the Southern hemisphere — Bourbon, Isle of France, and the port of Cobija, between Co- piapo and Arica, places much frequented by Europeans, and which present to the naturalist the same advantages of position as Eio Janeiro and Havana. " Climatology advances slowly, because we gather b}^ chance the results obtained at points of the globe where the civilization of man is just beginning its development. These points form small groups, separated from each other by immense spaces of lands ttnknown to the meteorologist. In order to attain a knowledge ot' the laws of nature regtdating the distiibution of heat in the world, we must give to observation a direction in conformity with the needs of a nascent science, and ascertain its most important numerical data. New Santander, tipon the eastern coast of the Gulf of Mexico, probal)ly has a mean tem- perature lower than that of the Island of Cuba, for the atmos- phere there must participate, during the cold of winter, in the effects of the great continent extendmg towards the north-west. " On the other hand, if we leave the system of climates of West- ern America, if we pass the lake, or, more strictly speaking, the submerged valley of the Atlantic, and fix our attention upon HUMBOLDT ON THE CLIMATE OF CUBA. 269 the coasts of Africa, we find that in the els-Atlantic system of climates upon the western borders of the old continent, the iso- thermal lines are again raised, being convex towards the pole. The tropic of Cancer j^assos between Cape Bojador and Cape Blanco, near the river Onro, upon the inliospitable confines of the Desert of Sahara, and the mean temperature of those coun- tries is necessarily hotter than that of Havana, for the double reason of their position upon a western coast, and the proximity of the desert, which reflects the heat, and scatters particles of sand in the atmosphere. " We have already seen that the great declinations of tem- perature in the island of Cuba are of so short duration, that neither the banana, the sugar-cane, nor the other productions of the torrid zone, sufter the shghtest detriment. Every one is aware how readily plants, that have great organic vigor, sust.i a momentary cold, and that the orange trees in the vicinity of Genoa resist snow storms and a degree of cold not lower than 6° or 7° C. below zero (21.2° or 19.4° F. above zero). _" As the vegetation of Cuba ]3resents an identity of character with that of regions near tJie equator, it is very extraordinary to find there, even in the plains, a vegetation of the colder ch- mates, identical with that of tlie mountains of Southern Mexico. In other Avorks, I have called the attention of botanists to this extraordinary phenomenon in the geography of plants. The pine (pimcs occidenfaUs), is not found in the Lesser Antilles, and according to Mr. Robert Brown, not even in Jamaica (between 174° and 18° of latitude), notwithstanding the elevation of the Blue Mountains in that island. Further north only do we begin to find it, in the mountains of St. Domingo, and through- out the Island of Cul)a, which extend from 20° to 23° of lati- tude. There, it attains a height of sixty or seventy feet, and and what is still more strange, the pine and the mahogany graw side by side in the plauis of the Isle of Pines. The pine is also found in the south-eastern part of Cuba, on the sides of the Cobre Mountains, where the soil is arid and sandy. " The interior plaiij of Mexico is covered with this same class of coniferas, if we may rely upon the comparison made by Boii- plaud and myself, with the specimens we brought from Aca- guisotla, the snow mountain of Toluca, and the Cofre of Perote, for these do not seem to differ specifically from the j9/«?f6' orc/- dentalis of the Antilles, as descrii)ed by Schwartz, But these pines, which we find at the level of the sea in Cuba, between the 20° and 22° of latitude, and only upon its southern side, do not descend lower than 3,200 feet above that level upon the Mexican continent, between the parallels of 17.]° and 19.]°. I have even observed that on the road from Perote to Jalapa, on TWII6i*':„S*.ni(;r.«b,«|ai«»»a*»«AK** 270 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. the eastern mountains of Mexico, opposite to Cuba, the limit of the pines is 5,950 feet, while on the western mountains, between Chilpancingo and Acap'ilco, near Cuasiniquilapa, two degrees further south, it descends to 3,900 feet, and at soiuo points, perhaps, even to the line of 2,860 feet. " These anomalies of position are very rare under the torrid zone, and depend probably less on the temperature than on the soil. In the system of the migration of plants, we should sup- pose that the piiixs occidenf\inter. The more southerly islands .are hotter throughout the year, but they enjoy the cooling sea-breezes which blow within the tropics, though these do not extend to Abaco, the most northern of the Bahamas. The subjoined Table exhibits an average of meteorological observations for seven years, which shows a remarkable even- ness of temperature. Barometer. ° Fahr. In. Ruin. Barometer. ° Fahr. In. Rain. Jan., . . 30.10 73 4.72 August, 30.15 84 7.11 Feb., . 30.24 71 3.75 Sept., . 29.97 81 9.74 March, . 30.07 72 1.06 Oct., . 29.99 80 7.80 April, . 30.03 75 1.82 Nov., . 30.00 76 2.25 May, . 30.00 79 2.25 Dec, . 30.02 72 1.70 June, July, . 30.09 . 30.11 81 84 5.12 4.68 Total inches of Kain, . 51.90 ! 1 i M BERMUDA— GULF STREAM. 273 Bermuda— Gulf Stream. 9 " The climnto of tlio Bermncla Islands has a mean temper- ature between that of the West Indies and British North America, partaking neither of the extreme heat of the one, nor the excessive cold of the other. It is gx-eatly improved by the warmth of the Gxlf Streo))!, which sweeps along between Ber- muda and the American Continent ; the winter months resem- bluig the early part of October in England, but without its fi'osts. The sweet strains of the Bard of Erin have sounded the praises of the cedar-groves and wood-nymphs of the ' Fairy Isles,' as the Bernmdas have been styled by Shakspeare — " ' No : ne'er did the wave in its cltmcnt steep An island of lovelier clianns ; It blooms in the f'iant embrace of the deep, Like Ilebe in Hercules' arms ; The blush of your bowers is light to the eye, And their melody Imlm to the ear ; But the liery planet of day is too nigh, And the snow spirit never coraes here.' " Bermuda is not so much subject to diseases as are the more northern climates. Epidemics are of unfi-equent occur- rence, and deaths from all causes, as shown by the statistical tables, amount to no more than 14.5 per cent, annually. "The climate of Bermuda would prove eminently eligible for those natives of cold countries, who, from general delicacy of constitution, are unable to undergo active continuous labor with exposure, or who otherwise suft'er from a cold and variable climate. As far as the author's observation goes, the effect of residence in Bermuda, on such persons, is usually beneficial, especially on those who are predisposed to scrofula or pulmo- nary consumption, or Avho have evinced a peculiar tendency to colds and bronchial aflections during the winter months. In such cases the physical energies usually undergo a rapid and marked change, resulting in permanent good health. I believe that immigrants of this description, by observing common pru- dence in their mode of Hving, might, with perfect safety, and with every prospect of improved health, engage as farmers iu the islands generally. " The efi'ects of the Gujf S/rcam on the cHmate of Bermuda are very manifest. This powerful current, after rising under the tropic, and flowing from the Gulf of Mexico through the Straits of Bahama, runs in a north-easterly direction along the American coast,, washing the Great Bank of Newfoundland,, and, after flowing upwards of 3,000 miles, finally reaches the Azores, and even the Bay of Biscay. The temperature of the I-; %. ^: IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1:^ .// '9/. ^m^ ''-" % M :/ 1.0 I.I 1.25 li. IA.0 1.4 12.0 1.8 1.6 VQ

7 ^. / y -^. # % iV ^9) V '^ \ \ <^/;-^ 1^. % ^^ £t> <^ L^< W- \ fi^ 274 INFLUEN'CE OF CLIJIATE. water of this current is 8- aliovo that of tlio surrounding; sea at tlio Great Bank, and i)^ above the temperature of the sea at Azores. Rennel estimates tlie dimensions of the current and the trac^t that receives it at 2,U()0 miles in length, and 350 in lireadth. ]^oth are marked by the sea-weed, and are well known to mariners. V)y this cauldron of warm water the ice- bergs from the north are dissolved ; the surrounding waters and sn])erincnml)ent atmospheie ar(^ warmed, and the temper- ature of the neighboring continent elevated. A proper retreat is also ixlibrded to the various kinds of lish after their season of spawning has passed, and while the severity of the frosts drives them from the shores. Such are some of the leading o]iera- tious perceived in the economy of nature in this part of the world. " The effects of the climate upon the agricultui-al produce are more favorable than in other coimtries xmder the same mean annual temperature. Besides many of the fruits of the temperate regions, the heat of summer pei'mits those of a tropical character to flourish ; hence, a greater variety may be produced than,in any other 2)art of the world. The season of vegetation is sufficiently ext(^nd''d to ripen a great many kinds of grain, V(\getables and fruit. " The most agreeable season at Bermuda is the winter, or cold season, which lasts from November to March ; the mean temperatiu'c l)eing 00 ' Fahr. The prevailing winds are then from the M'estward ; but if from the north-west, tine, hard wcurther, with a clear sky, accom])anies them, tlie thermometer varying from 50 - to 56 \ This weather often terminates in a very tine, l)riglit day, with a very slight wind and partial calms ; after- wards the v.ind invaria])ly changes to tlie south-west, and the weather becomes hazy, damp, and attended with heavy rains and gales ; the tlicrniometer rising to (X)" and 70°. " These alternate north-westerly and south-westerly winds prevail during nine months of the year, the wind remaining at no other point for any li>ngth of time. The change is shown by a dilforencc of l-i -^ in tlio temperature. TEMPERATUKE OF BERMUDA. Kangc of the Biiroinctor and ThormomctcT ; average for four years. Barometer. Thermometer. Maximum, . . . 30.4biO . . 85..S5 Minimum, . . . 2\\'2'M) . . 49.00 Oscillati(m, or Bange, . 1.244 . . 35.05 Spring commences at the end of February, and the weather usually continues mild, with refreshing showers of rain and TEMPERATUEE OF BERMUDA. 275 gentle breezes from the south and west, unt'l the end of Ihc Suniniev begins in June, and the -sveatlior bei'omes hot. Cahns about tliis time generally replaeo the gentle breezes of May ; the atmosiihere becomes sultry and oi')prL'ssive, and long droughts are common, which are usually succeeded by severe thunder-storms. The "\veatli(>r, in Septeml)er, changes its char- act(>r, and again becomes mild ;aid agreeable. " These islands, -which are generally and ])roperly allowed to be healthy, have; only been attiicted a seventh time since their settlenient — a period of aljove two centuries — with yellow fever. " The prodiictions of the soil are varied. Tho wheats of the south of Europe^ Egypt and Africa could hardly fail in Ber- muda. The American wheat \uxh been tried with succ^ess. Ex- cellent 2>otatoes are easily ciiltivated ; the sweet potato yields abundantly. Arrowroot, cassava and yams also yield abundant crops. Ginger and tcjbacco are easily cultivated ; and vegeta- ble oils iiboumh The cotton raised in Bernnida is accoimtod very firm and substantial, but tlie flax plants ai'o the most im- portant of all the neglected products of Bermuda. " Drugs arc here in great abundance. The fruits could be cultivated with nuicli advantage ; the strawberry, the grape, the liu', the guava, the shaddock, and many other tropical O' . fruits, ripen in the oj)(>n air without assistance from art." — " Bermuda,"' h// T. L. Gudef, M.D. L, 185<). Bermuda. North Lutitude, o'^ U)' ; West Lo."gitiulo, G4 ol'. Monthly mean TciiiinTuturc of the Air — Is.Vi. Jan. Fi'b. March. . Oo.l G1.8 0^.2 . ()-).4 ('.1.9 (J4.7 . 00.4 02.0 (-5.0 Tiino. 9 A.M., Noon, 4 P.M., 9 A.M., Noon, 4 P.M., Julv. SIA 81.4 81.5 All!,'. 8.').8 85.5 84.4 Sept. 81.2 81.8 81.4 Ajiril. 07.4 07.7 07.9 Oct. 74.0 75.1 74.3 >fav. 7118 72.4 72.7 X.iv. 0<).4 (;9.5 09.3 Jun(>. 77.8 78.1 78.1 Drc. 05.2 05.7 05.4 Yt-ar. 71.9 72.4 72.3 Maximum temperature for August, . Miniumm tem})eraturo tor August, . Maximum temperatu^'e for rdn'uary, Mininuim temperature for February, Extreme range of temperature. Note. — 'V\w year 18.j4 appears to have been warmer than tlie avera^< sous of previous years. 87" Fahr. 81 " 00 " 50 " 31 " ■ ^.^if ■ J Sea- 27G IXFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. r i Climate and Productions of Hayti. This I'ieli and beautiful island, the second in wizo of the West Indies, Leeward grou]), lies south-east of Cuba, and separated from it by the '\^'ind\vard Passage, 50 miles broad. Its ex- treme lenj>,th from cast to west about 401) miles ; greatest breadth, 150 miles ; area, 27,000 square mil(>s. The east part of the island is occupied by the; ra'})ublic of Sun Domingo, and the west part by the Empire of Hayti. Cliiiialc, d'.'. — There are two seasons in Hayti — a wet season and a dry season. During the former heavy rains are frequent, three and ev(ni five inches at times falling in 24 hours ; and in the latter, little or no raiii falls, and, in some localities, years have passed over Avithout a single heavy shower. At 8au Do- mingo the mean temperature is 78^, and the extremes (iO^ and 95'^ ; while at Port-au-Prince, the range is from 03" to 10-1^. The minimum occurs in December, and the maxinuini in August and Septemljer. Land-l)reezes moderate the summer heats. Hurricanes are less seldom here than in the AViudwnrd or Caribbean Islands. Earthquakes, though not frequent, have been very disastrous. Nowhere is tropical vegetation seen to greater advantage than in Hayti ; contribiTting, with the lofty, and at times, rugged mountains and deep valleys, to render the scenery of this island luisurpassed. Majestic pines, noble ma- hogany trees, fustic, satin-wood, lignum-vitio clothe the n\oun- tains, and form the })rincipal exports of the southern provinces. The roblc or oak, which yields hard, durable wood ; the wax- palm, divi-divi, numerous line cabinet woods, and the riciiest Bowering plants, abound ; together with the usual tropical vegeuables — plantains, bananas, yams and batatas ; also fruits, including oranges, pine-ap[)lcs, cherimoyas, sapodillas, with melons and gTa})es. The startle culti\ated products are coli'ee, sugar, indigo, cotton, tobacco and cocoa ; the quantities of which raised have fallen oil', in consequence of the unsettled state of the island. Island of Jamaica. This is one of the Great Antilles, and the princi]>al of the West India Islands, lying between 17 40' and IS -30' N. latitude. " The mean annual temperature at Kingston is 78^ ; in sum- mer, 81'-^ ; in Avinter, 7(5 \ The ramy seast)ns are from May to August, and from October to November. Earthquakes are fre- quent ; hurricanes less so than in the other West India Islands. The soil is naturally less productive than in many of the AN'est India Islands ; but most of staple products of tropical climates are i*aised, sugar being the chief. Indigo, cotton and cocoa were form(>rly more important staples than at present. Maize, Guinea corn and rice are noAv the chief grains raised. 7711 M^g^''jir> £^Hm 3C^'-ii^I i'Y''^""'/ftfa UY T \9 Leaittt ^A » o.V«r/ L 1. ^ <" 1 .\V >>"; -i^ ^' 1) c ICliip i^i '-SSA;^-:.;-*^: s<»^ its ^ .t5^ :Vi'^ i& 1^ ^ij ^^A , ^^;i£^ I'fiu^id /one L Cold /one .. l_ rciiipci'tMic Zoiio i_ Sill) riopic.-il /one _ I^XrLANAriON I j Tropicjil Of J ^ P",(|IUI lOllill /.OIK' J M(»:inAiiiiii;il lriii|»'.';' J SiiMiiiHM ICmpci-.H lll'O— .— .— ./,/,,, /,. \,t , (■<,.„,,,„ ,■ ,„ il,, „„r /,•,•,>■. h\ : n hitiw ,ixliM1 l„„rt ,.frti, I nil, ,1 .••t.Dnv K-r :lii Si'lll/irm I i:t xs ^^ ^ y\ ^"^^y '//■ V ^i'' © \, \ lapol bcadW jjmrWf.'iM.t 1 1 1 , ■ tUfti'ns •iiieK)^ .f.trHjtonvilU ^;/;:Jfvy^*^^->^^ r^^- I '• '•'■if^y '7. !// ;' mm\\\[juLJL A^V ///:(^l --'**■. ixste - ■' ■^^ - '*^ «' ^A.i • ■ Jar -iP^C ill. ^•.■i». .at, J .> TBOPlt Of CAM-'-* J(i :i^^ 'f/'"i'.'/"^ DOMIF > *^-^:-^:^ ■^ Tirtu ■i^piag::^^. il fii(N,!,.:i'5',;?iii 13;^;^! Kf ^ rt^ t^. ...'At.. 'oiitiiiMix ■.\\M\ Mfiracaybo K^^. :;^ oli.^jnno t <'iiiria(14i( div A V7 Mul Si Hi r" .v./tA>c'0\ 11 iyaii.'o >- ■■^SESSL WCST It t*ST I PAET XIV. CLIMATE OF SOUTH AMEIUIM 4 Tnis ricli and fertile portion of the Now World, with two- thirds of its area situated betAVeen the tropics, makes Iho cli- niatc of Sonth America necessarily very hot, ])arti(.'nlar]y ah)n{^ the Athmtio coast and sliores of the ('aril)l.ean Sea. Th(jugh yieldini,' in this respect to Africa, the corresponding continent of the Old "World, the temperature is, for the most part, con- sideraLl}' higher tlian that of North America ; for AAhile the lat- ter has its maximum hrcadth in the Arctic regions, the former attains its greatest widtli in the toriid zone near the Equattn*. The highest mean tenqicraturo occurs in the parts of New Granada, Venezuela and Guiaua, which is enclosed within tlio isothermal line of Bl'^ Fahr., wliilc in portions of Abyssinia, the mean temperature exceeds 85^. This great diflerence is, no doubt, chiefly owing to the greater humidit}' of South America, its vast forests, the absence of sandy deserts, the iufluenco of the trade winds, and the freer access to its shores of the great oceans of the globe. In contradistincticm to the other great divisions of the land, the western shores of this continent are considerably cohler than the eastern, owing to the low temperature of the "Antarctic Drift," or Humboldt Current, which, setting out from the Antarctic Ocean, flows north-east- ward against the shores of Chili, then Jiorthward along the coast of Peru to the vicinity of the Etpuitor. '■• South America is also characterized by great moisture, Avliich attains its maximum in the extreme north, wliere the temperature is highest, but vdiich is everywhere more co])ious on the eastern than on tlie western side of the Andes. AN'ithin the tropics, the wide plains on the cast are deluged by the hcavv periodical rains from November to Mav, while the nar- row margin between the Cordilleras and the Pacitie is almost 278 INTLUENCE OF CLIMATE. entiroly rainlosH. In soino ]>lacos, tlio dopositii-n of inoistnro in fsui'prisiiif^'ly ^a-cat ; for, uliilo in tlio tropical rc^doii.s of tlm New \V())M f^'cncriillj it iimoniits to IVI iiidios, on tlio north coast of J)iitc!i (luiaiia 220 indies fall annually ; and in sonic places on tlu! cast coast of I'lazil, near tlu; Eipiator, in the val- ley of the Aiua/on, no less than 270 inches have been ol)scrve(l. Tills astonishin.t;" (juantity falls, niore()vcr, in a comparatively brief period. Tlie number of clear days, ho\vo^(n•, in many por- tions of the coin>try, is much more considerable than in our tciinpcrato cliniatus ; while, duriiifj; the hni^-conthuied drought that pi'ecedes the wet season, tlui f^ronnd is parclu'd, the sun glares Avith intense radiance, and the cattU; and wild animals, tormented alike by lumger and thirst, ])erisli in great numbers. " Thci climate and ])r;)ductions of t]n\ michlle and southern portions of South America, including ])olivia, Paraguay and the Argentine l\e[»ublic, drained by tlu^ liio do la Tlata, art; of a difl'erent character in many ])articnlars. Tlie southern plain, named the P((/iij)<(s, is a d(*ad levt'l, destitute of trees, but cov- ered alternately with luxuriant pasturage, and vast crops of gigantic thistles, and interspersed with a multitudo of salt lakes, some of which are of largo size. " The northern part of this region l)elongs to the jilain of Gnin Cliaco, or (h'cat Desert, which extends from the iHth to the 28th south paralhd, and from longitude 58^ to 03'' west. Besides tiie north of La Plata, it embraces a largi> section of eastern Bolivia, l)eiiig l)ouiided on the east by the I'araguay, and traversed by its tributaries. It has an average elevation of from Ijni) to 500 feet; the northern portion is covered with grass, while tlie southern, ecnisisting of an arid and desert plain, is thinly inhabited ])_y roving Indians. The climate is characterized i>y great diversity, but is in general hot and very dr}- — th(i Patagonian Andes on the one side, and tlu; mountains of Brazil on the other, interce[)ting the rain-bearing winds from the great oceans. At intervals of about iiftec^n years apart, the rains are wholly suspended in the interior of tlu; country, the ground assumes the appearance of a dusty highwiiy, and great suti'ering ensues from want of food and wati'r. The Pampas are also subject to violent hurriciauis, called luDiipcros, accom- panied with terrilic thunder and lightning. These carry so much dust and sand into the air as to produce darkness at noon as fur south as Buenos; Ayres. The mean annual temperaturo ranges from 58-^ Fahr. in the south to I'P in the north ; Jan- uary, from ()8^ to 77'; and July (the midiTle of winterj, from 48-'" to (58 ' Fahr. In general, the heat of summer is not exces- sive, and the climate is more salubrious than that oi other countries equall;; near the tropics." CLDUTIC BOUNDAIIY OF SOUTH A^^:IU('A. 271) :l| Tho moro, sontliorn portion of South America, incliKlin;^ u ])iirt of Chili and all of I'ata^oniu, has a cool atiiio.s]>luie, raiii^iii^ from 5U-' to ilO^ Fahr., mean annual temperaturo ; while aloii;^f the Straits of Ma;^-ellaii, iu fi'J south Litituile, the elimati! l)eeomes intensely cold durinjj; tho winter months, in the southern henusphere, of June, July and Au^'ust. Ticnxi (III FiKyo^ and tho southern extremity of the eontiui-nt, termi- nating' with l!iij>i' Jl'int, in 'A') ' s(nitli latitude, has a frij^dd, inhospitable climate. Climatic Boundary of South America. South America, like tho northern portion of tho continent, is washed by two }j;reat oceans, ono on tho east and one (m tho west, oach exerrisin<^ j^roat and varied climatic iniluences. On the t'liaf, the fjjreat Equatorial CuitiiENT of tho xVtlantic strikes Capo St. llo(iuo witli its warmui;^ inlluonco, Avhero it divicU'S, a portion llowin^j; southward along the const of 13ra;cil, and a larger portion northward along the Guiana coast into tho Ca- ribl)ean Soa, and thence into tlu; CJulf of Mexico, forming tin; Gulf Stueam of tho N(n-th Atlantic. On tho ,s(,ii/h-/n,s/, ihv Antarctic DiiiFT, or Humboldt Current, strikes tho coast of Chili and extends nortliward along tho shores of Peru, toward the Equator, with its cooling infhience, crowding down tho thermometer in its onward course ; when, iinally, it foiius a great Equatorlxl Cuiiur.X'i', crossing tho broad I'acitio Ocean toward the Caroline Islands ; foriuing anotht>r ocfdn slngrees of latitude, tho greater portion lying within tho Ti'opics, may ])e thus divided : 1. Tho Tropic'il portion, lying north oi the Eqixator (extend- * Tho clinir.tic inthiriicf of flicsc two {rvcut Ocfan ("urrciitH, (iw ininii and the other roll/, wlicu strikinij,' tlic cuast ol' .South America, arc of a most woiulcr- fiil and diH'ere'it (diaractrr — tlie one oii the •■I'lt comiiiLr laden from otl'tlie coaMt of Africa witlv \\'arin water and a moist atmoS'./here l)rin.i:'s dehiirin;,'' rains, wljich clothe;; the ('astern sliore of tlie continent with venhire ; wliile the oni' on tiic y/'t'.'f/, with cold water and a chillinir atmosi)liere, is unaccomj)anied l>y rain or ]iereeiitilile moisture, other than wJiat falls in copious dews ali>n;r th(; coasts of Chili and I'eru. So in iv!>-ard to the continuation of this j^reat Ocean current, wliich, after crossing the Pac'iiic, strikes tho American coast to the far north iu liussian and British America, liriniring a warm current of air atid moisture like unto tho (rulf Slnum which strikes aj^ainst the west coast of England. ^ ^i til 280 INFI,UENCE OF CLIJUTE. iiig to 12 N. latitude), comprisos tlio Stiitcs of Now Granada, or Colombia, Vonozucla, (luiaiia, and the northern part of 13ra^:il. Hero tlio atmosj^lioi'c, near tne levid of the sea, varies from 82° to 70° moan annual temperature. The ixwipas and ele- vated Ian la ot New Granada and Venezuela sustains human life at an altitude of 1(),()0() or 12,000 feet above the ocean, where the temperature assumes that o-f the fri^'id zone. This division, in the extensive Udnus and low grounds of the eoast forms the hottest part of the eonthient, beinj^- thinly inhabited by Europeans and their descendants, and native Indians. 2. Tlio Troplnil rof:,'ion lyina; south of the Equator, comprises the larger portion of Brazil, Ecuador, IJolivia, Peru, and part of Paraguay. This division constitutes the largest half of South America, running through 23.] degrees of latitiulo and 47 degrees of longitud(>. Heie are found all degrees of tem- perature from the E(iuatorial, 82° Fahr. to the frigid tempera- ture of i)erpetual winter on the elevated peaks of the Andes, rising from 20,()()0 tt) 24,000 feet in height. 3. The Stili-Trojiitvl region, extending from 28.!^ to 32° S. latitiide, embraces the southern portions of Brazil, Paraguay and Btilivia, having a mean annual temperature averaging from 60° to 70° Fahr., near the level of the ocean. This rich and fertile section of country is capable of sustaining a dense popu- lation, whore is to be found a fertile soil and the most luxuriant growth of valuable trees and other vegetation, comprising a great vari-^ty of useful jilants. 4. Tho Teiiijicrafc division, extending from 32 to 48 S. lati- tude, embraces Buenos Ayres, or the Argentine Confederation, Uniguay and Chili, nnd the northern part of Patagonia. This most favored region produces all the grasses, cerials and fruits peculiar to tho temperate zone. Here are four regular seasons of three months ea(;h, and in general is favored with a healthy ehniate, where man attains his highest development. Here the climate varies from 40° to 60° mean annual temperature. TVliile the Northern Hemisphere is blessed with a broad stretch of country lying within tho temperate zone, the South- ern Hemisphere is Hmited to a comparative small extent of country, here running through only 20 degrees of longitude, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. On the line of this COSTA RICA— ISTIIMU8 OF PANAMA. 281 zone goinpj round tlio •^'lolio in omLvaooil tlm largo Islmul of New Zeiiliiiul, ill tlio South PiiciHc, Avhieli is oiio of tlio most favored portions of tlie eiirtli's surface. 5. The Cvhl or Frujld Zone, onibriiciufjj tlic Houthern portion of Soutli America, extends from 48^ to 50^ S. latitude. It ccA- piises the southern part of Patagonia, and the sterile peiiinsuJj), or island of Tierra del Fuego. This inhospitable region is ui part s[)ars('ly inhabited by Indians in a low state of civilization, wliile northern Patagonia is peopled by a large and warlike race of men. Hero the climate varies from 20 ^ to 40 ' nnmn annual temperature, corresponding in many respects with the climato of Labrador in North America. While (Ireenland ou the north produces t/'ihrn/s, this r<\giou is celebrated for its (jJd'ii /-.v, whore alone tlu>y are fomid at the present day on the continent of America. Another striking c(jn- trast is the Esquimaux of low stature (m the coast of Lidira- d(jr, and the stalv/art Patagouian race of South America. Climate of Costa Rica — Isthmus of Panama. Tlio small state of Costa Piica is bounded on the fiouth-caat by New Granada, forming the north-western extremity (jf the Isthmus of Panama, where runs the boundar}', from sea to sea, between North and South America. In chmate and vegetable productions it possesses the same general character as the whole of the Isthmus, extending through seven degrees of lon- gitude. Th(^ phy.'-ical aspect of Costa Jlica is very uneven, ])rescnting extensive valleys, table-lands and mountains ; and the face of the country is at various levels aljove the ocean, which, according to their height, have here, as in all other parts of Central and South America, dili'erent tein])(!ratures and pro- ductions. Between the foot of the mountains and tlie shores of the two seas, the surface is low and flat. The i')rincipal productions of Costa Eica are dye-woods, drugs, grain, fruits, indigo, iol.vacco, cocoa and coll'ee. The wild and white sugar-cane, and that of the species called hiroto, Vv^hicih, spread out, forms strong planks, are abundant. Coffee is the staple export ; and Avhen properly plucked and dried, resembles that of Mocha. " The chmate of Costa Eica is as varied as its aspect. In the principal inhabited places it may bo asserted that the cli- mate is the finest in the known world — no extremes of heat or cold. Fahrenheit's thermometer usually varies between 50-" and 80^ Fahr. ; but the thermometer ranges through every f I '282 INFLUENCE OF CIJMATF,. (Icp^'eo of tlio sciilo, from tlu! iwoy.'iw^ ])()iiit to lOC^, in ]iro])oi'^ tiou to tlic oUiViitioii iihovt! tlio level of tlu; wea. At many l)lac'os a short distance iVtun C!artlia<^e, and in otluiV ])ai'ts, tlu! cold is so int(3nso that it lVei[uentl}lia])])ens that I'unnin^' waters ji^ f(mnd froxen in the morning' ; and the iu]ia])iiants of Car- tha|j;e and San Jos('' enjoy tlu> Inxnry of ice ; so that tlu; terri- tory of Costa liica can ])roduee all the fruits and ])rodm;tions of every climate in tlu; world." {/uir Full (_>/' J'ntn (did Tcmjxf- ulai'c, see paml)racin,^• the northern ])ortion of South America, includin*^- the Isthmus of Pauanni, is Ijoundiul on th(! north and east by tho. Caril)l)ean Sea, and on the west by the Pacilic; Ocean ; extendin*;' lVt)m the ]^t[uator to 12 20' N. latitude. This c(juntry is tlm ]iiost e([ually diversitied in soil and climate of all the Scmth American Stat(>s. Neither plain or moiaitain can ]h\ said to predominate ; the sea-coasts are amplt^ and commodious, and, owinj^' to the wide ramitication of the Andes, there is a {.';reat extent of country a.t an elevati(m of from 5,000 to 10,000 fiu't, which, in such a lati- tude, is most i'avoral)le to industry ami tlu; ])ro;4"ress of civiliza- tion. Yet tl>e insalulnity of the zone surrounding this hif tht3 elements are all unknov.ii in the middle regions or Tem])la(las, and, excepting the earth([uakes, whicli have leiL here, as elsewhere in the Andes, de(>p traces of their destrue- tiv(! visitations, there is nothing which d(>tracts from the gene- ral benignityof nature. Even uj) to the limits of ])eriietual con- gelation the climate continues healtln', though it may cease to be agreoabk;. The remarkable equality of the climate in ihis part of tho CLIMATE AM) PPiODUC'TIONS OF YI'-nEZTTCLA. 283 •world, uIktc! tlio soas'oiis diffcv liltlf from cacli ollior, Rcoiiirt iuif;ivor;il)lo to tUr. iiuiltiplic.'iliou of vcj^a'tublt' s|»iH'i('S. \y,irh kind Hoizcs oil some locality or rc^'ioii ^vh(>roiii it j)n'd()minatos to tlio almost total exclusion of others. On tlio plains of ]3o- {^ota, in the. region of ])ei'{)t'tual spriii^^ though vei^etatioii is most 1uxuri:ait, tlu^ species an* not mniierous. Yist the woods, ini])erfectly ex])lored, teem Avitli vuhial le ])roductions. Tlie ■wax palm, 'JOO feet lii};li, clothes the sidt%s of Tolima, to an ele- vation of iS,(H)() fi'et. 'riui forests of Popajaii yielil china or einch(ma (the cascarilla or Jesuits bark of eomnuu'ce) in abun- dances. Cotton, rice, tobacco, cocoa, sugar-cane, with all tropi- cal fruits, are among the- productions of the coast ; uhile tlu) eh^vated ])lains yield niaixe, wheat, and all the cereals and fruits of Europe. AVilh nature so bountiful, the wants of the i)oj)nla- tion so few, and tln^ demands of commei'ce very moderate, the eiiltisation of tlu; soil is carri(>d on, as might bi; t'xpected, very remissly, and tins reclaimed land bears [)ut a small ]»i'oi)ortiou tt) the whoh\ Jn the llanos, towaids tlus Orinoco, tht^ peo]'Ie are occu[)ied wholly with tlu^ rearing of cattle and horses. Climate, Productions and Physical Features of Venezuela. This llepublic, occu])ying the north-east poi'lion of South America, lies ])etween IS. latituchs 1 H' and 12 Id', is bounded on the north by the Oaribb(>an Si'a, and forms the hotti'st portion of tlui iVnuuican Continent. The mountains hold ;i secondary imjxn'tani'e, and occupy but a thiiil of tin; wlioh; territory. T1r> plains in the vicinity of Lake Maracaibo, have hut a moih;- vido. elevation, raridy exci'eding ■[,{)[){) feet, and nro. nowlure cultivated to any considerable cixtent. Thick forests uhicli covta* the whole territory shelter immerons independent Indian tribes. Tilts /Kintiitos, or sunnnit-])lains, have gent'i'ally an ele- vation of 10,000 or l'J,000 feet. Where cultivation has obtained a footing on tlas sloj;es of the monntains, it succeeds to a height of 8,000 or 0,000 feet, the line which se])arates the cereal cnjps of tem])erate climates, wheat, ])arlev, etc. ; from tropical ])ro- ductions, niai/e, cocoa, cotl'ee, the yuca, etc., being at an eleva- tion of about 1,000 feet. " The JjhntoH, or plains of Veiie/uela, are of vast exttnil, having an area of over 100,000 square miles. They iwo gene- rally destitute of treses, which, in the most faveu'ed sjjots, occur only in small clusters. In the dry season, the greater ])art of the llanos presents to the view a bare sunburnt desert with intense! heat. IJut no sooner does the rain fall — and it ])ours down Avith tins violence peculiar to the trojiics — then thts sce-ne changiis totall}' ; vegetation s})rings fortli and spnsads itself abroad Avith surprising ra[)idity ; the aritl waste becomes a rich 281 INTLUENCE OF CLBLVTE. garden, tho nioistenod earth seems to heave and open, and fortli comes the crocodile and l)oa-constrictor, shakin<< oft' their letharfjy, and releasing themselves from their temporary im- prison}iient ; tho streams and rivers beinj,' quickly flooded. "■ Tlie great river of Venezuela is the OiUNTtco, flowing into tho Atlantic, Avhicli holds the third rank among the gi-eat rivers of South America. The exuberantly fertile valley of this noM'. river, into which flow a])Ove ;}!)() other rivers reputed navigable, watering a territory of 150,(100 square miles, otters to advancing civilization all the natural conditions of an oi)u- lent and populous state. " Tho climate of Venezuela exhibits in tho highest degree the ccpiatorial character. The change of seasons is scarcely perceptible, and vegetation goes on per])etuallv. On the coast, the thermometer ranges from MO' to Ho'-' Fahrenheit the year round. But, notv.ithstanding the continucms heat that ])revails along the coast, epidemic diseases are rare, and the climate is conq)aratively healthy. To those unacclinnited, however, a due amount of care is necessary, as a tor great exposure and inattention to diet are oft^n followed by violent fevers. The table-land bordering the coast has an almost uniform range of temperature throughout the year, the thermometer varying only about ten degrees, from 70- to S2 '. In the llanos, espe- cially those portions subject to inundation, the climate is not very ralubrious."' Climate and Surface of Guiana. This portion of South America, lying between the parallels of 1" and 0-20' N. latitude, is known as liritish Guiana, Dutch Guiana and French Guiana, eom})rising altogether an area of 1-12, 000 square miles, avHIi a po])uiation of about 400,001). The maritime region is low and level, but very fertile and hot. The country ris(^s in successive terraces to the Sierra of Acaria, which se}>arates it from Brazil, where the temperature becomes less heated. The ''limate is tropical, but more genial than that of most places in the torrid zone, owing to the trade wiads from the Atlantic, the sea and land breezes, and tlie frequent rains. It has two Avet and dry seasons on the coasts, each continuing for three months ; but in the interior, there is onlv one rainy sea- son, from April to the midtUe of Aiigust. The mean tempera- ture of the year is 81^ Falir. Violent thundi'r-stornis occur at the change of the seasons ; but hurricanes ho destructive in the West Lidies are unknown. Yellow fever and other malignant diseases occur periodically, Ijeing ver}- fatal to the Avhite po]>u- latiou. I CLBLVTE OF BRAZIL. 285 Tlie vegetable kiuf^uloui is of the most magnificent descrip- tiou. 2\jiioug cultivated ])lants the sngur-caiie IioUIh the high- est rank, its cultivation liaving largely suY)erseded the cotton and coiltH^ fonnevly grown. The fauna resembles that of the vallev of the Amazon. Climate, Topography and Pioduction.s c' Bra-zil. This extensive empire comprehends the eastern and a large part of the central ])ortion of South America, extending from 4' North, to that of 'S-i i)()' South latitude. The name of ]Ji;azil, — which was for a long lime restricted to a narrow though long extended portion of the American coast, extending from the mouth of the Amazon, under the Equator, nearly to that of the La Plata, is now used to designate all the former possessions of the Portuguese in this quarter of the globe, compreht nding most of the valley of the Amazon, including the vast region be- tween the sea and the mountains — the greater part of the inte- rior country beinor formerlv called Amazonia — and the cxten- sive territory to the north of the Maranou, called Portuguese Guiana. Estimated Area, 2,500,000 square miles. When first discovered by Cabral, it was denominatgion, however, is greatly modified on ascending to the head-waters of the Amazon, and its tributa- ries, to the foot of the Andes, where the country rises gradually \i 286 DTFLUEXCE OF CLIMATE. m to au olevation of several thousand foot, afforduif^, at different altitudes, all the climates of the sub-tropical, temperate and cold zones. IliVERs. — Brazil is watered by a profusion of great rivers. The chief of these is the mighty and majestic- Marafion or Ama- zon. On the side of Guiana, tlie Amazon is a Ih-azilian river for 1,200 miles direct distance from Ca])o N(n'tli to the mouth of the Yapuro ; on the south side, from Belem to Tapatinga, a distance of 1,GU() miles direct, it Hows through the liraziliau territory. The immense tributary streams which (m both sides fall into the Amazon, and intersect the interior of Brazil in every direction, A\]ieu opened up I)}- steam navigation, will give to a great ])art of tlu^ interior of IJrazil all the advantagt>s of a maritime shore. The lower jiart of the Eio Negro, and the whole course of its great alliuent, the Parana, belong to lirazil ; also all the streams which join the Annizcm, on the left l)auk, from the moutli of the Bio Negro downwards. On the right or south bank of the Amazon, tiie Yatay, the TeiV', the hnver part of the Burns, the Madeira from about tlu> parallel of 10 ^ north, and its atiluent the Ciiiapore, and the whole water-system of the Topayos, Xingu and Tocantins, Itelong to Brazil. Proceeding southwards along the coast, from the mouth of the Para, or estuary of the Tocantins, v.e have tla^ (rnrui\y, tlie Maracas- same, the Turiassu, tlie Maranham, the Barnahyba, the Camu- cim, the Jajuaribe, the Capibaribe, the Umia, the great Bio San Francisco, the Beruaguassu, the Bio Contas, the Ilheos, the Bio-Clrande-do-Belmonte, the Bio Doce, the Parahyba, and a nmltitude of minor streams, and ailhu^nts, liowing into the Atlantic. To the south of the parallel of 20' south, the rivers of Brazil mostly belong t't the water-system of the Parana, whicli is wholly a Brazihan river to within 1" of the Stropu ; and throughout a large portion of the renuviiid(>r of its course, form the common boundary of Brazil and Paraguay. The headstreams of the Paraguay, descending from this Serra Pa- rcels, iikcAviso belong to Brazil; and the tributary stream of the Cuiaba, or Cluyaba, a large river, almost ecpial in size to tho Paraguay, which it jonis in 17 ."57' south. The sources of tho Paraguay approach within a few miles of those of the Xingu and Araguaya ; and in many places, owing to tho eontiguratiou of tlie grcmnd, th(^ tributury rivers of the Am.'izon and the La Plata seem as if their respective head-streams inosculated. Climate. — In such an extensive region as Brazil, both the climate and soil nuist necessarily vary greatly accordiijg to tho locality. Tho chmatc nuiy, however, bo generally charactci- CLIMATE OF BRAZIL. 287 izod as mild and vo.milar. In tlic vicinity of the Ania/on, and iu tlio northern parts, great troi)ical heats prevail ; but these are tempered by the excessive humidity of tiie atmosj)here, and tlie copious dews. TIk^ j^a-eat aUuvial jjlains in the north-west and Avest, V'eing inundated for several months in the; y(>ar, are exceedingly uuhealtliy. The following is a rnnnniary of ther- mometrical observations made in the capital and the four north- ern cities of Brazil : , — Av ■nif!:'. — , S. Lntitiiili'. W. liiillLT. M •nil TiT.i] .. MilX. Mill. Kio, . . 22^ (V 42 50' 7-P 82^ (>7 Bahia, . i:{^ 0' ;is^^j2' 80^ 8G^ W P(U-nambueo, . H (')' .'Jo Ol' 80^ 8(5^ 7(P Marauham, . 2 :jl' •U 1(V 81^ 80^ 7(i^ Para, . 1 21' 4S-2S' 82'^ 1)3' 75^ In the southern parts, the climate is more mild and tem])er- ate, and frecjuently even cold, Fahrenheit's thermometcu' some- times falling below -iO^ This takes place, es])ccially in ascend- ing towards the sources of the great rivers, where the elevation of the ground modifies the temperature ; and within the lofty plains which s])n'ad out into the interior, fertile valleys occur Aviiich are both salubrious and temperate, and in which all the fruits of Europc> grow to niaturity, along with the native pro- ductions of America. Of this climat(^ are the inland provinces of Miuas-Geraes, Villa-Eica, Sau-raulo, (ioyaz and Mato- Grosso. The mean temperature of the central iabl.'-land of Brazil is from 8^ to 10' lower than that of the low districts on the coast. The west wind, 2)assing over vast marshy fon^sts, is frecpiently found to be unhealthy iu the interior parts. TIicsi* unhealthy blasts, however, are corrected l)y th(^ inliuence of the atmospheric plants which al)Ound in the woods, and which till the air with a fragrance pert-eived at seviral leagues froii) shore when the wind blows from the land. Ovi'r all Ik'azil, December, January and Febiuary avo the hottest months ; June, July and August the coolest. The rains commence hi March and continue until May, with intervals. During part of June and July a cessation of wet W(.>ather frequently takes place, and is called rcronicc, the short summer. The rains resume in August, and contiraie, with short intervals, until Sep- tember. During the hot months, there is ahhost constant dry Aveather ; and under the influence of the dry and ])arching ])lasts, vegetation languishes, and on the higher and more ex- posed parts appears Imriit up and withered. In the northern provinces of Ceara, rt^rnambuco, and ntighborhood, sonictimes no rain falls for two or three years together, when the conse- queuces are most disastrous. A famine ensues ; cattle die o£ 288 TNTLUKNCE OF CLIMATE. tip ^^'t thirst ; ami tlio Avietchod mlia])itants msli to tlio sca-coiiHt, dy- iu<,' iu liuudivds l)y ihv wixy. TIk; .S(u-bioozi>, ■which ushers in tho rainy s((asun, refreshes tho atmosphere, and rcaninuitcs vej^eta- tion. Tlie south-east trade-Avinds SAveep the Avhole coast, and arrive toleraldy cooled doun l)y their passa^^'e from the hurniuf^ coast of Africa on the opposite side of the Athmtic. This ten- dency to east winds receives, however, very re^ailar nioditica- tions from the sun's ])ro;^'ress iu the eclijjtic ; a monsocm set- ting dov>n the coast from Si'])teni1)er to April, and in the con- trary direction the other lialf of the year. The heaviness of the rains can only be imagined l)y those who have been in such latitudes. A^KGETATION. — The interior of r>ra/d, Avith tiie exception of tlie Campos Parecis, and ta])le-land already mentioned, forms a %ast and impenetrable forest, the trees of -which are closely interwoven Avith l)ruslnvood, and with innumerablt; shrubs inn\ creeping plants, Avhich clhig round them to their summits, and being genernlly adorned with the most beautiful flowers, give a peculiarly rich appearance to the sccmcry. These i)lants, after encircling the tree to the top, frecpiently grow downwards, iind taking root iu the ground remount anew ; so that the whole forest becomes laced together, and is rendt^red quite impene- trable. Luccock descril)es the various tints of a Brazilian forest as extending from a light yellow-green to one bortlering on blue ; and these mingled again with red, brown, and a grada- tion of ileeper shades almost to black. Tho forests of Erazd abound in varieties of useful and ornamental wood. One spi'- cies, called the sijipijiira, resembles the teak of India. The pcroha, omnhii and hnro resemble the oak and the larch. The riidiiilicd, " amarcllo venatico," yit'lds large broad planks for flooring and cabinet-work, like nudiogany. There are, besides, many lighter species of wood, similar to llr, besides log-wood, mahogany, and an intinit}' of ornamental and dyeing woods. Of the palm tree, neaily a hundred s})ecies are known and de- scribed as natives of Brazil ; and amongst thorn that celebrated species, the long serrated lancet-formed leaves of Avhich are cor.iposed of innumcra])lo fibres, which rival silk in strength and tinenes.s ; and are used for fishing-lines, and (-ometimes converted into bridles. The ]>razilian cocoa tree is thicker and more elevated than that found in the West Indies. The Bra- zilian myrtle is distinguished by the shining of its bark. The ibiripitamja, or Brazil-wood tree — called in Pernambuco, the pao (hi, Tdinlia or " Queen's wood," on acco;mt of its being a government monopoly — is now more rarely to be seen on the coast, owing to the improvident manner in which it has been VEGETATION IN BR.VZIL. 28!) cut down. It grows cliioily in the uortlicni i)vovincoa. It is not a lofty treo ; at a short distance from the <,'round, inini- merablo branches spring forth in every direction, in a slraj^- gling, irrc<^uhir manner ; the h*aves are small and not luxuri.int ; the Avood is very hard and lieavy, takes a liii^h ])olisli, and sinks in water ; the only valual)le portion of it is the lu'art, as the outward coat of wood has not any peculiarity. The name of this wood is deriv(-d from hrti'oi.s or In'trjiK, a " <^lowin,ii; lire," or '■ coal ;" its botanical name is C fsitljuitUi lirasHi tlo. The lea\('S are ]»inuated ; the llowers ai'(; white, and papilionacetnui, grow- in,^ in a pyramidal spike. Oiw. si)ecies has lloAvers variegated with red. " Almost every one of tlu\so sovereigns of the forest,"' says Von Spix, " is distinguished, in the total ell'ect of the i)ic- ture, from its neighbor. While the silk-cotton treo {Bombn:.- poifotdr/mn, partly armed with strong thorns, Ix'gins at a ccni- siderable height from the ground to s[)read out its thick arms, and its digitated leaves arc grouped in light and aiiy masses, the luxuriant lecythis and the liraziliau anda shoot out at a l(!ss height many branches profusi-ly covirod with leaves, Avhich unite to form a verdant arcade. The jaracaiida (rose-Avood treo) attracts the eye by the lightness of its double-feathered leaves : the largo gold-colored llower of this tree ;ind the ipi' {Bi'piojiia (■/(!■ i/.s(iul/i(i), dazzle by their splendor, contrastetl Avith the dark green of the foliage. The spondias {S. iii>/>'oliiihi!<(i.s), arches its pennatcd leaves into light oblong forms. A very ])eculiar and most striking cfi'ect in the ])icture is produced by tlio trumpet tree {So'ivpiif j/cIIuIk) among the other lofty forms of the forest : the smooth ash-gi'ey stems nao slightly bending to a considerable lu'ight, and spread out at tlie top into verticil- late branches, Avhicli have at the extremities large tufts of deeply lobatcd wliite loaves. The lloweriiig ea\sid))iua ; the tiiry laurel ; the lofty geoflVea ; the soap trees Avith their shining leaves ; the slender IJarbadoes cedar ; the ormosia with its poimated leaves ; the ta})ia or garlic pear tree, so called from the' strong smell of its bark ; the niaina ; and a thousand not yet described trees are mingled confusedly together, forming groups agreeably conlrast(,(l by the diviTsity of their forms and tints. Here and there, the dark crown of a Chilian fir {.infu- caria viiliriruld), among the lighten* green, a[)])ears like a stran- ger amitl the natives of the tropics ; while the towering str'ius of the palms Avith their Avaving crowns are an incom[)arid)le ornament of the forests, the beauty and majesty of Avhich no language can describe. If the eye turns to the more iuimble and lower which clothe the ground with a rich verdure, it is -leliglited Avith the splendor and gay variety of the llowers. The purple blossoms of the rhexia ; profuse clusters of the me- 1': ! 290 lOTLUENCE OF (LLMATE. lastoma, myrtles juul ilio on^^'cnia ; tlui Jt'licatc f()liafj;c of many ruliiiicou! and ardisi;!-, tliciv pretty flowcMs lilciukHlAvitli tlio siu- l^'ulavly I'oriiKHl Icavi'S of tlir thcopvasta ; tlic concoc^iirpus ; tlio rectl-lilco (Iwirf palms ; the brilliant si)a(lix of the costus ; the raf^,c^('(l lu'di^vs of iUo maranta, iron; ■which a S(iuamons I'cru rises; the maj^niliccnt stit'tia, thorny solana, lav^c llowerin^ i^ai'denias ami coutercas, enlivened •with j^'arlands of niikonia and l)i,i!;nonia ; the far-spi'eadin,tf slionts of the nielliih; nis paul- linias, delet'hampias, and the hanhinea with its stranp;ely lo- bated leaves ; strings of the leafless milky li'tiici (bind-Avecd), ^vhi(•ll descend from the luLilu'st summits of the trc(>s, or closelv twine rcmnd the stroi'.fi;c>st trunks, and };radnally kill them ; lastly, those parasitical ])lants h\ which old tree^; are invested Avith the f>;armont of youth, the j^jrotesquo species of the pothoy, and the arum, the su[)erl) llowc rs of the orchidea', the brome- lias which catch the rain water, the tillandsia, hanginjj; down like Lichi')}. pnhnoniirl'is, and a nudti])licity of stranjjjely formed l\>rns : all these admiral)le jiroductioiis combine to f(n'ni a sceno which alternately tills the Euro[)ean naturalist with deli^'ht and astonishment." Amou'^ the products peculiar to tlu^ Amazonian forests is the catnitchoue tree;, Siplnjnid cliislira, which {^'rows iu •••eneral to th(> hemht of fortv or tiftv fei't without branclu^s ; then O Oil brauchinj.;;, runs up fifteen feet hi,^h(>r, with a thick and i;lo sy foliage. The leaf is about six inches long, thin, and shaped like that of a peach tre(\ The juice of the caoutchouc is some- times used as milk, and the negroes and Indians who Avork Avith it, are said to be fond of drinking it. Tlu' alioriginal uamo of this substance Av:is cajiiK-hu, the promniciation of Avhich is nearly pi'escrved in the Avord caoutchouc. At Par;i it is uoav gem'rally calhnl lioi'ra-;'i". On the slightest incision the gum exudes, having at first the a|)peariinco of thick yelloAV cream. The trees are generaily ta[)i)eil in tlu^ morning, and aboiit a gill of the fluid is collected from one incision iu the course of the day. It is caught iu small cups of clay, moulded for the purpose Avith the hand. These are enrptieil, Avhen full, into a jar. No sooner is this gum collected, than it is ready for imme- diate use. Forms of various kinds, representing shoes, bottles, toys, etc., are in readiness, unide of clay. AN'hen shocks arc manufactured, it is a matter of economy to have Avooden lasts. These are first coated with clay, so as to be easily Avithdrawn. A handle is alKxed to the last foi' the couA'cnience of Avorking. The Huid is poured over the fnrm, and a thin coating innne- diately adheres to tht; clay. The next movement is to expose the gum to the action of smoke. The substaui'e ignited for this })urposo is tlic fruit of the irassai.' palm. This fumigation serves tlie dcjuble i)iu'pose of drying the gum, Jind of giving it avo AOmCULTURAL IT.ODUCTIONS. 291 a (lavkor color. AYlion one coating is siifriciontly liardimcd, another is added, and smoked in tnrn. Tims iiny tliicknoss can l)o produced. 11 is seldom that a shoo reeiivcs more than a, dozen coats. The work when formed, is exposed 1(j the sun. For a day or two it remains soft enough to receive peiiaanent im]n'essions. During this timo the shoes are figured according to the fane}- of the o]K'ratives, liy the use of a style or pointed stick. They retain their yellowish cohn- for some time after the lasts an^ taken out and th(!y are e(niside!'ed ready for market. Several other trees, most of them Ik longing tt) the tribe euphorl)iaeia>, produce a similar gum, but none of them is likely to enter into eompetition with the India rubb(n' tree of Para. Another two, iiot unconnnon in the province, eaded the nurssaraudui)a, yields in profusion a Avhite secretion, which so resend)les milk that it is mueh prized for an aliment. It forms when coagulated a speeii's of plast(>r, which is def'iued valuable. The Brazil nut, " CasUmliu. do 3ftir(i)t/((fni,'' or Miiranham chest- nut, which grows upon the lofty branches of a giant tree, //•/ - f/idllrtic c.rcclsff, is only produced in the neighb(nhood of the Amazon Ivivi'r, ir the i'tjrests of which it grov.'s spontaneously in great abundance. It v.-ould, however, bo impossible to enu- merate all the products of this wonderful regi(ni. Am(;ngst the products general over tlu? empire are vanilla, sarsai)arilla, ipe- cacuanha, co])al, cinnanum, cloves, tamarinds and cinchons. The most useful fruit cultivated hi Brazil is the banana, which forms a principal })art of the food of the Indians, and in its sea- son of the free black pojmlation, whose locations, in tlu^ low, warm, thickly wooded spots, ari' favorable to the culture of this plant. The fruit is from ten to Lsvelve inches in length, and about two in diameter. Several varieties of the orange, uhich comes to perfection in most of tlie provinces of Brazil arc cul- tivated. The [)ine-a]iplo is abundant ; but the necessity of eut- tmg this fruit th(! monu^nt it gives (nit its odin-, as it is then im- mediately attacked l)y the ants, is prejudicial to its flavor. The innivciijd, or fruit of the passion flower, is highly esteemed. The mango is uncertain in its produc(\ Among other fruits known are the _/'/•///(' vnmh' or custard-aiiple, the guava, tin; cashew, ViiajdmlKi or rose-apple, melons, ami iiipily, in |l 202 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. fow countries is it iiioro f^onorally noplcc-tod. It is ostiinatocT tliah not nioi'i- than oik* acre in 151) vif tin' Avlxtlo cnltivablo area ot' J>razil is under any kiml oi oiltuvo ; pro1)al)l_v ixjt one; acre in 200. Tiic articles oi' food raised ill the niaritiiiie provinces of lirazll in tact fall short of tlie consnnijition ; and wh(\-it is ini- j)()rted from t)i(^ I'nittMl Stati -., and occasionally from J-hn'ope, owin^' to tlu! industrial strmj^tli of these districts being d(>vott>(i to tlu! preparation of ])i'oducts f"r exportation to Europe and the I'liited States. JNIaize, })(\ins, ricc^ and cassava root are very gen(.u"ally cultivated, and in some ])laces, Avlieat and other European }j;rain is rear<'d. Tlie tlonr of the cassava root, /'"'/;/- Art (/'■ iii'iiith'()"ii, is the sta])le ariicle of farinaceous food for all the less wealthy classes, and is so especially of tln^ Indians and slaves The common garden pea has Ixh'U sown and gathered in the neighboi'hood of Uio wilhin tw(nitv-one davs. Colt'ee is the great staple mercantile product in the pnnmccs of and around Hio-d(>- Janeiro, and is the most vahiahle in amount of all the exports of Brazil. At the commencement of the present cc'iitury, till! (juantily grown was trifling. Its incre;iso may be (hited from l.SlO. The construction of a highway to Minas Goraes added greatly to the cultivation in the interior. Homo of the coftee (^states near Hio-dt^-Janeiro are extensive, and occupy 800 to 1,000 slaves iu tin; culture and preparation ; on the other hand, many of the smaller Inrmdurcs have not moni land under it than their own family and tAvo or three slaves can manage. A superior ([uality is grown l)v a colony of Germans at Caravellas, in the province of Jjahia, l)ut most of it linds its way to, and is dis})osed of in, the market of Iiio. The cultivation of sugar is extimsive in I'raxil, but is confined to the st!a-board, and margins of rivers and streams having a convenient outlet to a piu't for exportation. As sugar cannot l)e grown with advantage except on the richest soils — and these extend in the respective provinces only where alluvial dejiosits have ])een formed — the (piantity grown has not increased (luring tlie present ccntui'}', nor is likely to do so. In the middle of tli(! last century it formed the principal riches of the country. In the course of 1G() leagues along the coast, from 25 leagues beyond Peniambuco to 25 leagues beyond the bay of All Saints, Pin-ard counted above 400 sugar mills, each of which manufac- tured annually ab(mt 100,000 arrobas, or 2,500,000 pounds of sugar. AVhilo the Dutch were in possession of Northern IJra- ;^il, 250,000 chests of sugar were aunuallv remitted to Holland. Although the cultivation is now spread over a wider space, it is chieily conlinod to the same districts as in these epochs. In the interior, and where it would not boar the expense of send- ing to the ports of export, sugar is made into cakes called TUG AMAZON RIVER. 293 Ii(i}i(n?/i'ii, Miul coiisuiiu'd l>v ilic iiiitivcs. Tob.'icoo is culti- vuttil, but not to u i^i'i'tit cxtciil. 'I'lic tobuc'.'o is put nj) in rolls of from 200 t<^ .'{00 pounds each, ])r'|)iirc'd witli a syruj) of su^'iir, uud is i'X[)o.tcd to liuropo and to (luinca. The culti- vation of cotton is pur.-ucd to a considciaMt! extent in tlu^ norlhern jtrovinccs, as I'ar.i, Maranliani, IVrnandtuco and Baliiii ; and were the colonists enterprising^' and industrious, ]uor(> niij^ht he rais( d, and of a superior (piality. The cultiva- tion is chiellv iollowed in llu- talile-land or interior eh'vited plateau of the north, on acc(nint of the dryness of the clinuite. The [)lantalion!-s therefore, li(! j^'encrallv at a distance! from tlu! coast. The culture is ru(h' and primitive. Little or no capital is embarked in it, or is likely to be, so lon^' as the expense of transit — on nuiles, over jun;j,lo uinl wild wast<'S for hundreds of miles — absorbs a h(>avv' ])ercenta<4(! of the price. Tlie cotton is gathered in small is a white acid pulp, and end)edded in this aro from thirty to forty seeds, an inch in length, narrow and flat. These seeds aro the cacao of commerce. The cacao tree yields two ero])s annually. — Edico.rih' }'oij (he AiudWit. 294 INFLUENCE OF CUMATE. The Amazon River, Climate, &c. Prof. AdAssi/, in liis Locluvo bt'lV)vo tli(! "iVr»^ York Asmcid' lion for t/ii' ^l/' Sciciirc and Arl," dclivorcil in tho CTi'cat Hiill of the Cooper Justitutf, I'd). 11, lS(i7, rciiiiirks : "Tlu' Aiiia/on liows nciulv p!irall(>l to tlic Eiiuator in a woat- (mstcrly (lirct'tioii, tlio main tiinik not dcviatin}^ from the l'](inatoi" luoro tlian two or tlnvf dc^^fi-ccs, wliilc its S(mtliorn trilnitarics rise fr(»m twelve to iiftcen dej^rces sontli, and its northern, from six to Keven do;i;rces north; ho that the -widtli of the valley at sonic ]>oints is nearly as ^a'eat as its total lenj^th. The fact that this main jiortion of the Amazon ilows in one and tlie Hanu* latitude^, hrin^^s a result very dillerent, with rofereiieo to the climate^, from that ^vhich ^vc observe alon^' the hanhs of other larfj;(^ rivers Avhich ilow in a north-sontherly dir(>clion, or in a south-nortlx'rly direction. Our Mississi])i)i l)c;4;iHS its course in very cold rc<;ions, and ends it almost in tho tropics. The Nile 1ie<^nns nnch'r the l^piator, and further south, am^, ter- minates in the Mediti ranean, \vhere the climate is ahvays tem- perate. Yon see, therefore*, that those rivers are, as they flow on, under very chan<;;in}^' climatic iniluenct^s. Not so with tho Amazon, which occupies a Ixlt under the Equator, and retains tho same clinnitic conditions for its whole len adjoinin_u; Kepiiblics of South America. And this is a point of j^reat im])(U'tanco Avith reference to the fact that tho xVmazon is this year to be opened to the commerce oi the world ; for, in conse(]uence of the natin-nl ])hysic!d relntion of the Amazon, its tributaries, and the areas drained by these tributaries, the openinj;' of the Amazon does not only l)rin<]f the internal commerce of Ih'nzil into immi'diate ccmtact with th(^ commerce of the world, but also that of those Keimblics, the surface of which is mainly drained l)y the tributaries of the Amazon. Mark hoAV extensive this communication is. Hero we have the (hiianas — French, Dutch, and En<^lish (luiana — then tho Eepublic of A'enezuela, throu^^h ^'hich flows the Orinoco, and Avhich is connected directly with the Eio Negro throu,u;h tho ('asl([uiar(\ Here we have tho l{e])ub]ic of New (lr:inada, the eastt rn rivers of which all empty into the Ama- zon, several into the llio Negro, and others, such as the Japiira and the I(^ii, em]>ty iiito the Amazon. Then wo have the He- public of Ecuador, the principal rivers of which also em])ty into |,!i: THE AMAZON RIATR. 205 tlio Aiufizon. Then ^vo luivo Pcni, iho. tliroo }^'i'(>at rlv(>rs of vlilcli ('ni])ty into tlu; Amazon. Tlu-n tlui ri(>)>uI)lio of ]>(»livi;t, flic ^Ti'iit riviM's of ^vlli(•ll How also into lli(> Ania/on. And, tinally, \vo liavo the rivovH wliifli ('om(> i-azii it!-ii'lf ; tli(. I'roviiH'o of Matter (ri'osso, throu;^li wliicli (]i(> Ta])a- jos and Xin^^ii How, and the in-ovint'cvs of (loyjiz, tlir(ni;;h wliicli the Araj^nay and the Tocantnis How to nn>et tlio Amazon. So that those countries, whicli W(> are iu the hid)it of eonsiderin" only from tlu'iv maritime side, have an exti>nsivo artM whiei sh)))es toward the Amazon. '• When thinking' of Vciicznehi, we f,'en whole area of Venezuela, and even some parts of the (luianas, ail slop(^ toward the Amazon ; so that he v.'ho has a foot upon the mouth of these rivers has also tlu^ key to that internal tradi; witli these provinces. You see, tlieri'- fore, what an extensive prospect is o])en to the enterprise of Heafarin^' nati(Mis by the mere fact that the navi':^at'on of the Amazon will be free as the sea itself to tlie mercantile shi]>])injj; of all natitnis. Y'ou may realize what it is for us l)y consider- ing for a mom(!ut what it v.ould Ix! to the shipi)ing of England or of France, if the United States were at once to declare that tlie Mississippi lie open to their navigation; if tlu^ Hags of Europe could tloat at Cincinnati, or St. Louis, and all the trib- utaries of the Mississippi, as well as tne main river itself (stopi)ing at intermrdiatc> ports), should In- allowed to l)e ua.vi- gated l)y foreign ships. It is tliat step whicii the Emperor of Brazil has taken. It is thus that he opens his country to the enterprise of the world ; and no nation is more likely to bi; as greatly benetiti^d l)y it as the Ignited States. '"Now, 3'ou may ask, 'How can it l)e that a nation throws away its wealth in that manner into the hands of foreigners'?' A'ery serious considerations nnist htive weighed in the scale to induce the Government to divest itself to that extent of its internal property. The case is sim])le. The Avhole vallc^v of the Amazon has not yet l)een peopled. The whole tract of this oonntiT, which is as large as many Empires of tlie lirst rank iu the old World — the Avhole of that country draiuiHl by the Amazon does not nourish at this moment 250,000 individuals, incluiling the Indians ; and no doubt the Government of Brazil y (• ft: 20G INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. has tlio;T;^'lit that the only way of sotilinj.'; tliat rich country wi.s to offer its treasures to all nations. Let me, therefore, say a few words of tho eliaract(>r of that country, and the facilities which are offered there for settlement, for commerce, and for travel. In the th-st ]ilace, wIumi wc^ speak of the valley of the Amazcni, we ou^'ht to at onc(^ divest ourselvi^s of the ordinary idea which we conihinc^ with tho word ' valley.' There is not a l)ottf>m, with walls or hanks rising on hoth sides, and forminfj; an inclosure to tlie water that runs in the bottom of the vaUc}'. Hero the basin of the Amazon is an extensive i)lain. It is so Ihit that the slope is hardly mcn-e than a foot in ten miles ; and over the whole of this extent of 2,500 miles the slope is not more than 210 feet. It is only 15 feet from Obydos to the sea- shore, and it is only 200 feet from Taliatinga to tlu; sea-shor*^, and yet the distance is, in a straight line, over 2,000 miles ; so that really the Hlo])e is hardly a foot in ten miles. The imjuvssion to the eye is that of an absolute plain, and the flow of water is so gentle, generalh', that in many j^arts it hardly seems to How. It makes the impression of a fresh water ocean far more than a river, and the width of this basin com]iarcs favorably to its extraordinary l(>ngth. There is not one cliannel through which the ])ulk of the water flows, lait a multitudiiious nu.iiber of channels, conn(H'ted with one aiiother in tho, most various ways, so that instead of travelling in a straight course, you may ascend tlie Amaz(ni in any number of ]/arallel channels, and ])ass from one to another l)y tin}' number of int((rsccting com- nuniications. And this not-work of rivers sjn-cads over an area which is sometimes 50, 100, or U]nvards of 150 miles wid(\ In that region you have? to travel for about 250 miles from tho mouth of the Madeii-a before you come to the rising land over which the water falls in cascades. At the Tocantins, and Ta- pajos, and Xingu, you have to ascend 150 or ISO miles before you come to those higher grcmnds which determine rapids into water courses, and on the north side it is e(|ually at a consid- erabh' distance from the centre of the basin that the land rises into gates. Over the whole ex])anso of the valk>y, for hundreds of nnles on either side of the main channel, tlu^ bottom of t\m ^alley is as flat at the side as it is in a longitudinal direction ; so that it is an inundated plain I'ather than a river ; and if there are channels in which water flows more constantly than others, these channels are so frequently overflowed by the rise of the water, you have frecpiently, for a month at a time, tho water covering this wide expanse without break. But there is a great ditl'orence in tho character of these water courses, and a great difl'crence also in the nature of the water its(>lf. " Before, however, I enter into details concerning the river, THE AMAZON RIVEE, 297 let ip.o say fi few words concerning the climate. Tlie valley of tlio Amazon lias a rather temperate cliniat(\ Thonf,fii under the Ecjuator, it is not ;-mong the hottest parts of the i^dohe. The hottest point of the earth's temperature extends to the north of the valley of tlnt of sulimer^^<'d land, with tlu^ ennstaut ev;iporation,and the re;^ular Hov.- of tiie trade Avinds, which are constantly blowing in the face of the Amazon, and sending an air cooled hv th<^ amount of moisture^ received over the Avhoh^ of its surfaee. Tlio trade winds Llow in the mouth of the Amazon and ovt r the whole ^alley, so that thero is an unceasing cool breeze from the Atlantic to the base of tho Andes, reducing markedly the average t(>m])erature of tho valley. Indeed, tho average tem])era(ure of thc^ vidley is only 82 '. The niiixinnuu teinperature is from DO to 02° ; the mini- nmm about 72 ' to 7i\ It is only about Manaos, the junction ol the Eio Negro, that the temperature I'ises to 1)5 . Tho tem- perature between day and night is always perceptible^ and toward morning the nights are always remarkably cool. Under these circumstances, you s(^c that, far from shaiing tho intensity of heat characti-ristic of tro})icid regions, the valley of the Amazon is favored to a degree which will nuike it a pleasant luibitati(m for the']KMi])le of our race. During nearly a year of residence there, I do not feci that the climate had the slightest un])leasant inlluence. My companions enjoyed it as well as I did ; and, in fact, avo found it was as agreeable a residence as W(> could wish, prefera])le to the intense heat of the dog-days, ami so uniform as to save the iidiabitauts from those sudden changes of our climate so injurious to health. If the bracing air of our northern cliii'ate has a more stinudating intluenc(! upon the energies of man, wc knov/ how many it kills. It is tho strong and healthy that survive; and many diseases which are the result of our northern climate are only cured by a residence at the south, while the south is saved from all these inconveniences, if it has some of its own. I would sum up my description of the valley of tho Amaz(m as a h.iNdthy country, which will ])rove genial to tho white race as nuich as any other part of the world having a similar tem- perature. " I know that my statements are contrary to g(?nerally received notions, and that the valley of tlie Anuizon, in particulai', has a wry had reputation. IJut it docs not dc serve it ; and tho origdn ol' this reputation is one Avliicl) ought to be ex])lained. It is owing to the reports of the oiUcers of the (iovernment of #1 1 flu i< """" mm li 29S INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. Brazil, sont there to ndnnnistor tlio affairs of the country, who, (h^sirous of bohii^ rolicviHl from ix kind of oxilo in an nnsotth:'d Lmd, and -wishing to return to soeiety, to tlie capital, or to tho hrxury they may have enjoyed, in order to aeeoni])lish that end, represent tho country as injurious to health, and their residence there as a great saciilice, descrvinf; an advance in their social position. And that this is a true ex})lanati()n, I have by the acknowledg'nient of sonic gentlemen who h"d been there, and who had t]iems(dves ])layed tliat <^'anie. "Now, let us look at thii river and its banks. Tho average tem})erature of the water is 81 ^ ; the maximum tem]ieraturc is 84:-; tlu> lovv'cst tem])iTature of th(> river is 77 -^ to 78'' ; so that tlie watt'rs are constantly tepid. It is only the streams Avhieh flow thrcm,L;h the forest that are tem])erate and cool. Where there is dense vegetation (and nearly the whole siu'faee of tho land is covered with it), yon may find at all times cool water. Tho whole of this extensive area is covered b}' vt>getation. This plain is not, like other plains i;nder the tropics, ])artly descH't and partly cov(>red with vej^etation. The whole is cov- ered with the nujst luxuriant vegetation — a vegetation some- times so dense that it is almost impenc'trable. Of its character I shall i;'ivo some account at the close of this lecturi>. ''And now let mo point diilerent regioijs, whieh present different afi})ects. At the lower turn of its course two great tributaries join it I one of them comes from the lable lands of Guiana and the low lands between the Andes and Ciuiana) ; the llio Negro on its mn-thern shores, and tho Rio Madeira, on its soirthern shore, which comes from the mountains of Bolivia and the Andes at that latitude*. Tlu^se two tril)utaries are so large that, from their junction witli tho main stream, the stream assumes a greater dimension. The whole basin is full of water after it has receiv(Hl these two tributaries, and it is that jtart alone which generally goes by the nanu; of the Ama/onas. The Bio Anuizonas begins at the juni'tion t)f the Bio Negro, and extenils to the Atlantic. Above tlie junetiou of th(> Bio Ne,t;ro, and through the territ(jr> of Peru, it is called the Bio SoliuKies ; and it receives, from Peru to Bio Negro, two very im])ortant tril)utaries on its northern side. One is the Iga, and the other the Ja])ura. On the southern side it receives other tril)utai'ies, and tJien comes the Jlio Madeira, to which I have already alluded. That part of the Amazon which occu])ies the middle track of the i'ontin(-nt, goes by the name of the Soleniues. Tho upper part, which is in Peru, and which conu-s down from the Andes, is called Mirafmn, and it receives iiibutaries on the northern side and on the southern. The southern shore of tho THE AMAZON MVER. 291) »l Amazon, below the Mmleira, receives tlio Xiuf;n, tlio Ta])ajos, and Tocantius, all three of Avhicli tloAv from the northern slope of the table lanJs of Brazil. To the east of the Ilio Xe;j;i'() there are a number of rivers, which are hardly known nmon}^' Tis b_v tluMr nam{\s, and which are yet very important and remarkable for their peculiar character; very broad, but nijt lon<^. One of them opens into the Amazon with a m(mth oi over thirty miles. The Tocantins presents a front of sixty miles, and it is only one of the smaller trilmtaries of the Ama- zon ; so that, as you reach its mouth, it seems as if a broail ocean were spreading before you, and you were ])assing from the river into an open sea, instead of meeting an atHucnt of the river on which you navigate. So also the Xingu. It is not over forty miles in haigth, and has a width of over twenty miles ; so that these rivers are remarkable for theii" width. They arc comparatively shallow, and their cun-ent is very light. The natural conseijuenee is that they carry little material in suspen- sion. Tlieir waters are therefore clear, transi)arent, and some- what tinged l)y vegetable substance. The waters of the Tapa- jos are greenish, those of the Xingu arc a tinge of gray, those of the Trjcautius about the same, a little yellowish ; ]jut all three are clear waters, as are also the rivers 1 have named before. There are other rivers of the same character which an; tributary to the Madeira, but I need not nanse tluua jjartic- nlarly. Now the Madeira is of a totally dilierent character. It is a Very deep rivir, which {lows ra])idly, nnd carries with it a large amount of loose material, mud, and whitish clay ; so that its waters are tiu'bid, of a milky color ; and hence the Madeira is called the ' AVhite Water Iviver.' The same char- act(,'ristic is shared by all the rivers that llow into the Amazon to the west of the Madeira. The Purus, which is one of the largest of the tributaries, the Jurua, and the Japura, arc all three white water riviM's. They diller, however, from the Ma- deira in one respect — that though they are very deep, they are very tortuous ; their coiirso is not straight, but they are mean- dering. They are litei'ally destituti> of islands, Avhile the Ma- deira has uumertms isl;inds. The consecjuence is that these rivers admit of navigation to ,'i great distance. "^Vii officer in the lirazilian army (^Major Continho), who was my companion during the whoh^ journiy, and who is as faniilinr with the Amazon as our jiilots are with the 31ississippi, told me that he explored the prini'i])al course of the Purus for over- nOO miles, and found the river navigable for vessels drawing fifteen to eighteen feet. The I{io Negro, again, p-ri'sents a very ditrerent aspect. It is a river whit-h is very wide, but it is deej), and has a very slow course. It is dark and +rausi)arent ; dark, $ ■'«<^ 300 rSTLUENCE OF CLIMATE. a o\\\u'^ to tlio imnuMiso amount; of vegct.'iLlo matter lu>ltl in solution in the water; somcwliat like tliose ainbcr-colored streams "we find in our woodlands, wliieli are dark and yet transparent. Such is tint llio Nejjjro, (inly tliat Mistead of dark aiiilier, its tint is so rich that, seen from al)ov(\ ,;he whoh* river ai>i)ears as lilack as ink. There are other riveis wliich hav(^ the same character, hut not so dark. You se(>, therefore, tliat not only iu width and dejjth and bulk of water, hut also in tlio character of the water, evei'v ri^'j/ion of the Ama/on has its ])eculiarities. '• 1'he Amazon is the main stream ; it is a white Avat(>r liver ; it is the widest of all ; it is tliat which occu})ies the widest ar(>a, the ramilications of which j^.*) over the lar;;-est suiface, and which flows most evenly alou).; its -.vhole course ; and as it Hows from the mountains, an.l its main tributaries come iVoiu the mountains, it is for its whoh- course a white; water rivei'. Tiie lar{j;o amount of water Avhich tin; l{io Ni'^ro throws into the Amazon hardly tinges it :it idl, and you may trace the yellow isli white tint into tla; ocean about 50 mili'S Ix'fore you s(m> land. The front of the Amazon itself, as it enters the Atlantic, is 150 miles ; so that it is, as ytm miiy see, the lar<;est and most voluminous of all the rivers knowii. The liaidis of the river aie everywhen! clear, and thi\v ris(i jfradually above the level of the water. The rise is hardly over 20, 150, or 40 feet in the middle course. You have fre([V'entlv biinks of .about 50, (10, and sometimes 100 fi'et. In one re.L!,ion only do thc^ banks rise; to a {.);reater height, and back of the river are hills of TOO or 800 feet, which, owing to the (^ven aiijiearancc of the whole < ountry, give the impression to the eyes of a lol'ty rang(\ These n ally low hills (the highest not beiiig ov(>r 1,000 feet) appear, by contrast with the flat country, like our Alj)ine nn^un- tains. Of these hills I shall have occasion to say somi'thing more. They are characteristic of that region. Tlu ir structure is very remarkabl(>, as they arc thoioughly stratitied, and indi- cate what deposits formerly occui)ied the valk>y with morc^ pre cisicm than any other feature of tlie v;)lley itself. "Now as to tlu; change of level of thi:s immense stream, it varies within limits which are really astonishing. The river may be at tinu'S ','A), 40, or 50 feet higher than at otiier times. Y'ou may conceive what an amount of water must be condensed from the atmos])here, in oi'der to fill a plain so exteusivi; with an amount of water sullicient to raise the h'vel of the main cur- rent to such an extraordinary amount. ]>ut this does not take jilace simultaneously over the whole \alley; so that tjieic is the most extraordinary distribution of freshets over tluj whole basin. 1! THE AMAZON KHTR. 301 "Tho rains l)c\^iii on tli<^ Hovithoru sido of tlio Vijlloy in tho monilis of Scpti'uilx'r aiid Ocloltcr, and from tlu! table-land of Brazil and tlu; mountains of JJolivia tho soutliorn trii)utari('s of the Amazon lirst Ijc^dn to swell ut such a rate that through December they reaeli Avith their new ilood the valley of tho Amazon ; th<> <;nMt<\st ri^ein the Amazon bein;^' in the month of March, when in the ieL!,ion Ix^low th gr( at freshet icsulting from this melting of the snow in Eqviador is felt in the valley in October and Novem- ber ; it is felt in Novemb^ • as low as Manaos, so that in con- uectiou "with tlu^ waters c-oming down from the A.ndes and the watiU's coming from tht; table-land of JJrazil and the mountains of liolivia, the Amazon is lilled in its ci'ntre and on its southern side, and llow.s over to its northern side, the whole river ex- tending northward in conse([uiMice of this swelling — for dui'ing three months all the rivers which come to the Aniazon on its northern side are at their lowest stand as t>mi)ty as tlcy ever are. In turn, tliey will swi'll to a, similar In-ight ; but, in the month of Deceml)ci', the northern rivers are at their lowest ebb. Tlui soutlu'rn rivers How into them ; they push the wat.'rs of the main basin to a nujre northern latitude^ than during any other season. It rains in the main valley during the months of January, I'ebi'uary, and jiartly dui'ing ^birch also ; l)ut in March the rains extend chietly over the tabh>-land of Guiana and the noi'thern ))art of tlie Andes, and (hu'ing A]>ril and May the northern rivers begin to swell, and in June they have reached their maximum, so that by tlu! end of June, when the southern rivers have b(>gun to em))ty, the northern rivers llow- ing into the .Vnmzon rise to th(> same great levi^l. The liio Kegro at ^lanaos risi>s generally to more than forty-livi; feet ubove its low level, and that mass of water now pressing against the waters v.hich occupy the centre of the valley, pushes them southwjird, and these rivers are mnv moving in another direction. So that the whole How is, as it wei'c, thus the mahi How from west to t>ast on that gentU' j)lain whieh has such :i slight slope, aided by the iuterilow from the south antl tla? north ut o})posite seasons. The natural conse([uence is that, while the Avliolo Hows westwartl, it Hows westward in its northern- ki J '^1 ^\ i 302 EvFLUEN'CE OF CLIMATE. H t ! most rcacli (liuiiig our winter months, and it flows westward in ib; most sontlun-nmost r(\'icli durinu; tlic months of our summer, and in tliat manner the Ixjttom of the valley is constantly shift- ing to and fro. The natural eonsoquenee is that there arc ex- traordinary water eonnnunicMtions l)etween these rivers. " You may travel up the l\io Ne<;ro, and perhaps sixty miles distant from its mouth you will laid a white water river trilni- tary from the Amazon tlowinf^' into one of its own tributaries — a. lirandi from the main river tlowin,^ into one of its trilmtaries sixty miles ubovi' its mouth, moving; with it and nu'etin}iear, nevertheless, as if they were laud, owing to the d. use growth of all sorts of ])lants sulliciently high to conceal entirely the surface of the wati'r. I have navigated for miles and miles among meadows which have presented a variety of flowers as great as our prairies in the most favorable season of the year, and over these large meadows covered in this way with a([uatic vegetation the animal creation is as varied, the water-birds especially being so numerous tliat the scene is one of the most varied that can be conceived of. " The forest itself has a character of its own, entirely dilTereufc from the forest of other parts of the world. "With us in the temperate zone, in the more northern hititxules, all tlie forests consist of a few kinds of trees, and these trees are clustered togeihev, a large number of individuals of the same kind occu- pying exclusively a considerable tract of land. Not so with the tro])ical forests. l*lants the most varied, the most diversi- tied from on(> another, an; mixed togetlnn- in the nuist ])rofuse manner, so that you rarely see sevt>ral stems of the same tree side by side, but a mixture of tin; most diversified kind are crowded together, and form as dense forests as oui' densest. \iu\ then between them there arc a variety of smaller plants, and of parasites growing upon the trees, and of vines climbing from one tree to another; and it is dit'llcult, r-iometimes, to de- termine to which pliint, vino or tree the llowers or fruit you sc o belong. The variety is the more astonishing as at all seasons thfire are some of these plants in flower. Though there are somewhat markr land of (loyax and IMatto CJrosso that there are gold and diamond mines, nnd it is only in the lower parts of tlie Andes that you lind valua1)le mineral ju-o- durtions. 'rin'oughout this exten.sivo valley, as I have stated before, the mineral kingdom is re])rescnted only by sands, clays and loams, to which I sh;dl allude more in detail in a future lecture, but there are no rocks cxcei)t where the country begins to rise ; for instiince, on Mie llio Negro, above its jiinctioii v.ith the Ama/con, and on the Tai)ajos, the Tocantins, the Xingu, and the Madeira, above the waterfalls. There the solid rock begins, and there is land in which valuable mineral productions may bi; obtained; Init for the whole extent of this plain the chief wealth of the comitry consists in timl)er, in textile libres, in various fruits, and all the various productions of the vege- table kingdom. " In the lirst ]')lace, let me allude to the tiud)er. The variety is incredible. I have seen at Para, at a ])u])lic exhibition, a collection of Brazilian tind)er, choice and varied, and suscejtt- il)le of furnishing material for the most beautiful cabiiu^t v/ork, of 117 diti'ereut kinds, collected over a piece of land half a, mile square. We have not in the United States one-half of this numbi'r of dill'erent kinds of timber worth anything for build- ing pur[)oses, or for manufacturing ; yet tlu-re the variety is so great that from a snudl area of half a scjuare mile 117 dilierent kinds could be collected. I have brought home from this sliort expedition of ten mouths' survey, in which the study of phmts was only an accessory part of iny examination, specimens of 1300 ditierent kinds of valuabl;> tim])in-, remarkable for the l)eaut_v of their grain, for their hardness, the varii^ty of their tints, and their durability, which, if introduced into the com- mei'ce of the world, would change the art for which wood is suppli(Ml. And that wood is not yet used in any way. It is allowed to tloat down the river ; and the only impediment to navigation that 1 have perceived at any time was the quantity of tioaiing timber. So little have the inhabitants niadt; use of it that they have no saw-mills; and when they want timber for any purpose, they cut dowji a tree of sufficient length, and then cut it the size they wish with a hatchet. This Avaste is prac- ticed in reference to timber. "With reference to textile lihres, there is an endless variety, and we would be greatly benelited, so far as regards om* ship})ing alone, if wo would make use of those tissues which arc so peculiarly adapted for making cables, i»t THE AMAZON RIVER. 305 vl- rojios, and the like. There are, in particular, se\eral kiiuls of palm leaves wliich have a very resistant and stronj< 111 tie. These may l>e oljtaincnl in any (juantityon the l)anks of \\w. Itio Nefj;ro, and already the J*'n^lish have Ix^^jjini to export that liidsdi.d, hnt I am not aware that the AnKn'icans have yet bi'^Min to make use of it. The tibre is so light that the cables may float when made. Among other articles which are most useful, and wliich are produced in the largest amount, is a variety of fruit, most de- licious, of which tlu^ greatc^st variety of ))reserves are made, and of wliich W(^ hav(^ liardly any i(U\i. It is cuiif)us to see how, all the woi'ld over, the plants which pr(nhice fruit belong to particular families. If we compjire, a moment, the fruit trees and fruits of the tropical regions with ours, then; is the most striking contrast. Most of our fruits belong to one and the same n.atural family of the vegetable king(hun — the rose family. Cherries, jjcaches, ])lums, apricots, iipi)les, and jx^ju's, in fact, the choicest of our fruits belong to that family. It is only a few other kinds of native fniits that belong to other families, such as the walnut, and then the gra])e vines, of which Ave have a great variety anung the native, while in the old world there is one kind only. Now in tlu^ valley of the Amazon the principal fruits belong to the myrtle family. Tlierc! is as great a variety of fi'uits belonging to that family as wo have in the rose family. The Gojiaha (Spanish G'i((icse seed that the various pre])aratio!is of cocoa are made. Tlicn then; is anotlier fruit very extensively cultivated ihere, v/hich ])roduc(>s ii cooling hf^verage, of Avhich tlu^ ]3iazihans arc very fond. It is something hkc chocolate. Its cultivation covers extensive^ areas bctwc^'n the Madeira and the Tajiajos. ]>ut thi^ f^reat stapk'S of that cally tho product of a euphorluaceous phint — S'plionin rliisficd. A\'e have hardly a plant of that family to compar(> ■with it vhicli is at all similar in aspect. It is ])erha]is more like the nnilberi'v, and may be compared to it, thou<;h it j^i'ows taller, and do(>s not s])read so much. A wound is made in tlie bark of the tree by cutting it, and the sa]) which flows from it is collected into a nuuiber of cups, made of the leaves of trees, and is then poured into a larger vessel, dried, smoked and pre- ])ared in the way in which you sec it in commerce. Thus far india-rvd)ber has only been collected accidentally. Nowhere is it cultivated ; and it is (me of the miseries c»f the country that all the natural productioiis are still in their wild condition, and liav(; nowhere received th(^ culture which their importance W(ml(l necessarily conuijand. The consinpu'nce of this mode of collection is the extraordinar}' methods connected with it. The laborers go into tho forest to collect it, and tap tho trees in the most irregular mnman', and when they collect the sap ther(! aro many trees Avhieh thty pass lumoticed. In that way an immense (piantity of the material is wasted. I have been told that any one wlio would follow in the ordinary track of these collectors of india-rubber would thid as rich a harvest as those who made the first collection. And so it is .vith all the natural ]iroductions of the country. The ]3razili:in nuts (fruit oi BcrdioJlcfhi fXccl-sK), which are so (.xtiMisively itsed in the "West, and of which tlu^ lira/ihans nuvnufacture very excellent oil — these nuts, which arc produci-'d from fruit about the size of yonr two fists, fall to the ground, and are also collecttnl at random ; and I have l)een told bv one of the most intellitrent men con- nected with the triule of the Amazon, that he was satislied that annually about !irll),()()O,00() worth of the natural i)ioducts of th(* Amazon reuiained rotting on the groinid from want of hands to collect them, wheu, if there was an industrioiis j-opu- lation, all this wealth would bo saved. And if the population Ill ECUADOR — C'lima'jt;, etc. 307 was sufliciontly cxtciisivo Ui ciiltivati' n';^'ul;ivl_v tlioso v;ilu;il»lo ))r()(liu-ti()iis, you SCO ut oiuhi wluit iiiiucs of wcnltli would How into the connncrco of the AvorUl. " But tlu^ iirst rcquisiti' is that tlipvc sliall \)c •• s'lttlcd popu- lation, and a ))opulation living' ix'^ularly. The population which now occupit.'S that valley is indolent, is irrej^'ulai- in its modi' of lifo, and, m conscipicnci' of that, liahh^ to diseases v.hieh an; uHcrihcd to the unhejdthy cliiiiate. Tor what i-ould he expected of a population which p;oes into the wood with an inihttV'rent supi)ly of food, and that of a poor (luality, and will remain in the wet, will alhnv tlK-insclves to l)e )'ained upon without takin,!^' any 2)recauti(ni Tor chan;^e, hut that, after a while, tluy would jj;et iewv or rhcunnitism, and all other disoas(>s svhich carelessness and poor UhhI l)rin<^' on, and which ar(^ universally charjjjed to the climate? The Iirst stej) toward im[)i'ovin<^f Lrazil should he regular settkuuents — settlements on these neat !)anks which rise regularly ahovc the level of the water, and which are so inviting, not (udy on account of the variety of vegetation, hut on account of the picturcs(|ue nninner in which the rivers inter- sect tlies(! intiuitc forests. There is (me feature which is 2)ar- ticularly charming. It is the narrow channels of -Wi^Jer. which cut through the i'ort'sts, sometimes so narrow that tlu> hr...'ichcs meet together and form a. closed arch over the water, some- times so close that the* smallest boats tind it dilUcult to follow their courses. All these constitute one of the great chariiis of that region, to which y»ni may a(hl tlu; interest arising from the immense variety of animals of all classes which mingle in this luxuriant vogetatitm." Climate and Physical Features of Ecuador. The great feature of this country, extending from 2^ north to G -^ south latitude, i.' tla^ stupendous chain of the Andes, w'hicli traverses it in a douhle chain, running north and north- east, in a direction nearly parallel to the coast, and at an aver- age distance from it, on the west chain, of IK) miles. The two ridges are distan) from each other generally from 20 to 2-1 miles, sometimes receding and sometimes approximating, hut always ])reserving nearly the same direction. The elevated I'lain between them is from live to six leagues in breadth; and within its narrow bounds is concentrated the population of the ])r(,)vince of Quito. From the paramo of Assuay, which, rising from 14,701 feet to 15,7-10 feet, iniites, like an enormous dike, the East and West Andes, under the parallel of 2 liO' south, 37 leagues to the south of (Juito, the Ajides, as we proceed north to (^uito, present the appearance of a longitudinal valley, lined with a constant succession of soaring summits vn the east ii. ^' f '.i:. if 1 i* INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. and west. "NVliiit is ciilled tli(> vulloy or ])liiiu of Quito is nctu- ullv an Andean ridj^'o of an ahsolnto hci^'lit of from 8,Sf50 to l),r)15 foot. Tho i^roat niouutaiiiH, tlioii^di aj^pcaring (jnly as so ninny isolated tops of this suiiunit, when viewed from tiie dis- tant })hiins, yet seem to thi; inhal.utants of tiie eeiitral vaU; of (^uito as so many distinct monntains risin<,' from a plain un- clothed by forests; and are so arran^'ed that, vi(!wed from the eontral ])laiii, they appear in their natural shape, as ii' projeeted in the azure vault of the? (equatorial sUy. After the loji;^ rahis oi winter, when tlie trans[)arency of the air has suddenly increase.', Chimborazo (altitudi\ 21,500 feeti jm^sents a most niagnilient speetaele, a])pi'a]in«,^ from the shores of the Paidiic, lik(! a white cloud on the ed^'e of the horizon, detaching itself from the neif-hboring summits, and soaring with commanding majesty over the whole chain of the Andes. Between the Andes and the Pacific the surface occasionally rises into mount- ains, 1)ut presents no conthnious ridge. The principal rivers descending from the west slope of the Andes to the Pacific are, in their order from north to south, the Pati.t, and its affluent the Telembi, the Mira, the Santiago, the liio Verde, the Pio Esmeraldas, the Ciiones, the Guaya- quil, and its great ailiuent the Danle, the Navanjea, Juboues, and Tumbez. The country to the east of the Andes, is, in gTcat part, a vast d<>sert, over which yet roam only wild h(jrdes of Indians. It is intersected by several vast streams, the upper courses of still mightier rivers, all pursuing a direction prevail- ingly to the southwest to join the mighty (.)rellana, or Amazon, on its left bank. These streams are the Pulumayo, or I^'a, with all its head branches ; the Rio Napo, with its great head streams the Ahuaricu and the Curaray, and its hundred minor affluents. Clhnafc, (f'c. — "Although this country lies under the Equa- tor, yet the great elevation of its central valley, jind of the western table-lands, renders the climate of those sections mild and temi)erate. In the low country, along the coast, the heat is excessive, and the climate dangerous to foreigners. Under tropics, what are usually termed winter and summer, mean only the wet and dry seasons ; and the former is often superior in warmth. The dry season may bo regarded as the coldest and the most healthy. At Guayaquil, the rainy season continues from January to June ; and the dry, from June to December. The inundations at this pcaiod are so great that the coast at Guayaquil is often one sheet of water up to the base of the Andes, to which the inhabitants retire with their herds. Fevers, diarrhavas, dysenteries, vomiting, and sp>abms, then prevail, and the mortality is often very gi*eat. The temperature of the aii- VEGETATION IN ECUADOR. 309 !i; at Oufiyaquil is so uniformly between OC^ and 101'^ tliat tho peopio c-()iii[)l!iin of cold ^vlu•n tlu; thoDuoniotor suddiMily falls to HO^ or S4 '. At Popayan, in tho interior of Now (Jri'inuda, the driest months are June, July, and August, when tho south winds lilow from tlu^ snowy mountains and paramo of Purasi. On the tal)li!-land from (^uito to i*(;payan it may he said to l)o an eternal spring;, th(; temp(;r.'ituro being uniform during tho whole year, notwithstanding th;it violent storms of thunder and lightning fretpiently oceur. On the declivity of the Andes, from ;{,()()0 to 5,()UU feet in height, a soft spring temperaturo perpetually reigns, never varying more than 7^ or 8^ Fahr. Tho extremes of heat and cold are unknown, the mean heat of tho whole year being here fi'om GS' to 70 '. The climate is an eternal spring, at once benign and equal ; and even during tho four rainy months tho mornings and evenings are clear and beautiful. Vegetation never ceases in the ' evergreen Quito.' The 'nhal)itants of our wintry climes seo v/ith astonishment tho plough and the sickle at once in activity ; herbs of the same species here fading Avith age, there just beginning to bud ; one flower drooping, and its sister unfolding its beauties to the sun. Standing on an eminence, the spectator here beholds the tinta of s])ring, summer and autumn blended, while above these ver- dant hills and flowery vales rise tho lofty cones of the Andes, clad in eternal snows, or frowui . >.:, with naked rocks. Under the equator, it has been calculated that heat near the terres- trial surface diminishes one degree of Fahrenheit's scale for every 333 feet of peri)endieular elevation. At 10,000 feet of elevai'on, one degree of heat is lost for every 207 feet ; and at the height of 20,000 feet, one degree for 318 feet.'" The mean temperaiure of the table-land of South America, at diflerent points, is the following : At Quito, 50^; Bogota, CO""; Loxa, GC°; Pojiayan, 05 ; whilst at Caraccas it is 70 , and at Valencia, 78^. On the plains of tho Ormoco, elevated 500 feet, though the high tempertiture is 115"^, yet the medium temperature is 78'. Tho mean heat of the Pacific coast is 80-*, and that of the Atlantic coast, 82". The mean heat of the interior of South America is 80°, that of the plain of Venezuela being 85'^ Fahr. Wo have thus three climates — that of the coasts, the interior, and the high table-lands." Vvijrtafioit. — ''In the region of palms, tho natives here culti- vate the banana, jatropha, maize, and cocoa ; and Europeans have introduced the sugar-cane and indigo phtnt. After passing 1: if * This estimate clisa,o grand ridg<}s, which divide the country into three widely dili'erent i)liysit'al ri^gions, viz., the Coast, the Cen- tral, and the Eastern regions. '• The Western or Coast Pegion, between the Andes and the ocean, is rarely more than GU miles wide. It con^ists of an arid, rainless, and ])arren district, eoA'ered with sand, and inter- sectetl by chains of hillocks that cross it fiom east to Avest. In some ])l:ices of this district no rahi has fallen in the memory of man; but above the level of 500 feet slight showers occasioii- ally occur. The scanty vegetation is sustained by dews and dense fogs, or by artiiicial irrigation. The climate is sultry and unhealthy. There is no navigable stream exce^jt tins Piura ; and the few towns are generally situated close to the coast. The Central llegion, or Montana, consists of a lofty jrlateau, of about 12,000 feet of average elevaticm, Avhich, thcaigli ditlicult of access from the coast, contains numerous cities and villages, owing to the coolness and humidity of the clinuite at low levels. Amongst the mountains are many favored spots, with a fertile il !i a ^! 312 mnXTENCE OF CLIiL\TE. Mi i ! ir soil, amid the most magnificent sceneiy on tlio earth's surface, (mjoyin^^ a temperate and dehp;htfal climate. The Eastern Ke<,non consists of immense fertile plains, traversed by the head waters of the Amazon, and covered with gigantic forests, \vb.ieh extend up the ynountain sides to upwards of 5,000 feet. The climate hero is very humid, the crests of the ^Vndes inter- cepting the equatorial v.inds, Avhich come laden with moisture from the distant Atlantic, causing, in some places, almost incessant rain. This region of country is very imperfectly known to foreigners ; but the opening of the Amazon river to the commerce of the world will induce adventurers and emi- grants to visit this fertile and romantic portion of South America, where, at high elevations, arc to be found rich mines of gold and silver." DISTANCES FROM PARA, BRAZIL, TO JAEN, PERU. From Para (1-21' South latitude), to— Obydos, GOO miles. Maxaos, . 1,000 " Aga, or Tcffe, . 1,000 " Tabatinja, . 2,200 " Jaen, Peru (5^^ South latitude), . . 2,500 " Climate and Productions of Paraguay. The Republic of Paraguay is included mostly between 19^ and 27^30' south latitude, and nearly enclosed by the Parana and Paraguay rivers. On the north it has the Brazilian prov- ince of Matto Grosso. The above large rivers, interlocking with tributaries of the Amazon, form the liio de Ja Plata, the second river in magnitude in South America. The territory of Paraguay is about 470 miles in length, and 200 miles in breadth ; area estimated at 8-4,000 square miles, containing a population of ivbout 1,000,000 souls. The inhabitants are a warlike people, chiefly the descendants of Europe'\ns fi'om the north of Span}, with native Indians and negroes. A mountain range of considerable elevation stretches nearly througli the centre of the country from north to south, between ■ he j .iraua and Paraguay, sending the drainage in opposite V li .'ections. From the mountain regions the surface first pre- sents a succession of lincly diversified lower heights, and then stretches out into rich alluvial plains of great fertility. Asun- cion, the capital of Paraguay, is situated on a height on the left bank of the l*araguay river, in south latitude 25 IH', being 650 miles north of Buenos Ayres. Although mostly sur- rounded by Brazil, this country can ouly be reached by a hos- tile foe, to advantage, by the Bio de la Plata, which is navi- gable for a large class of vessels. nil \i Ik CLEMATE AND PRODUCTIONS OF rAU.VGUAY. 313 Climafr, rfr. — Tlio climate, for tlio most part tropical, lias its heat greatly motUtiecl by the inequalities of the Hurfiice. lii Jul . and August occasionally frosts occur. The whole country is remarkable for its salubrity. The soil is of great fertility, and vegetation aliuost unrivaled iji its luxuriance. In ilie for- ests are found a])out 100 difterent kinds of trees, furnishing timber, dyewoods, gums, drugs, perfumes, oils, fruit, ttc. A principal product is the pcrlxi iikiIc, or Paraguay tea, an ever- green, the leaf of which is nearly as much used for infusion, in this and the neighbcn'ing countries of South America, as the Chinese tea in the United States. The plant grows to the height of about a foot and a half, and has slender branches, with leaves resembling those of senna. The olijects of agri- culture include the greater part of the most valuable products both of troj)ical and temperate zones. On all the alluvial tracts Avhere cultivation is attempted, sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco of superior (juality, rice, maize, and culinary vegeta- bles yield a rich return. The large ])lains feed immense herds of cattle, which are slanghtercd chietl}' for their tallow, hides, and horns, as articles of export. Animal KhvjiJom. — The wild animals of Paraguay include most all the species peculiar to South America (except tlui ])dxe Ijoi, or sea-cow of the Amazon valley), of which Prof. Agassiz remarks . " As a whole, they are far inlVu'ior to the wild animals of Asia and Africa." The most jirominoit are the jaguar, or tiger, of which there arc great nundx'rs; the puniM, or cougar, called, also, the American lion ; the black bear, and ant-eater, the tapir, the ca])ibara or water-pig, river cavies, and various other amjihibious animals. Alligators are numerous in the river Paraguay, and have been seen 30 feet in length. The Avild boar, deer, and other species of animals less known, inhabit the forests. The boa-constrictor is IVmnd in most places adjoining the rivers. Among the feathered aibe arc tlio cassowary, or Amerii-an ostrich, the peacock, parrots of vari- ous species, parofinets, goldtinclu^s, nightingales, and several species of the humming-bird. AVild geese and ducks al)0und in the rivers and lakes ; and there is, also, a bird called tho toucan, resembling tlu^ crow, but having a very long beak, Avhich is most beautifully variegated with streaks of red, ^-ellow, and black. A remarkable circumstance in regard to tho Animal and Vegetable Kingdom is the fact that they arc both most wonder- fully influenced by chmato, in all its ]ihases, as you proceed from the Equator to either of the Earth's poles. ]\ I i\ l^-m su iNixuEXCE OF cr^nrATE. !lii uLk- : . M u Tlie Pampas and Llanos of Sonth America. Next to tlio Andes of South Aiuorica, tlic pampas ami n.-'iios, wliic'li extend tlirou,!L;li tlu^ centre of tlio continent from \'eneziiclH to Buenos Ayres, are of the ith great vio- lence, aro called pampciro.'^. The llanos', which aro more elevated plains, aro thus described by a h>arned and eloquent traveller: "There is something awful, but sad and gloomy in the uniform asjiect of these steppes. Everything there seems motionless. Seldom docs a small cloud, as it crosses the zenith, and announces the ap- proach of tho rainy season, cast its shadow on tho savannah. I know not whether the first aspect of the llanos excites less astonishment than that of the abides. Mountainous ecmntries, Avhatever may be the absolute elevati n of tho highest sum- mit, have an analogous physiogomy , but we accustom t)ur- selves with difliculty to the view of the llanos of Venezuela and Casanare, or the pampas of Buenos Ayri'S and Chaco, which recall to mind continually, during journeys of twenty or thirty days, tho smooth surface of the ocean. Owing to the une(|ual mass of vapors diil'used through the atmosphere", and tho vari- ous temperatures of the dili'erent strata of air, the horizon was in some parts close and distinct ; in others, mululating, sinu- ous, and as if striped — the heaven was there conftmnded with tho sky. The ll'mos and ]>iiii,jiii^ of South xVmerica aro real steppes. T'hey di'>play a beautiful verdm'o in tlu^ rainy season ; but in continued drought, a;5sume the aspect of a desert." i!!!:; PART XV. TEMrERATE AND COED ZONES OF SOUTH A)lEliI('A. Buenos Ayres, or the Argentine Confederation. This is ono of the largest and most iin])()rt;u)t federativo Sfcjitos in Soiitli Anierit'.'i, ])ein;^' very favorably situated in a climatic and commercial ];oint of view. Tlie characteristic fea- ture of the conntry is that of an immense level ])lain of fertile soil, and divcrsiiied by only a few slij^dit elevations. These plains ]n'esent one uniform expanse of wavinj:; grass, uninter- rupted by either wood or eminence, somewhat resembling i:he prairies of North America. They are the abode of innumerable animals, Avhich, under tlu! shade of the grass, find i)rotet'tion from the intolerable heat of the sun during the summer months of Ueceml)er, Janiiary and February. In winter, during the months of June, July and August, it is reckoned cold when the thermometer falls to -15' Fahr. ; but in some seasons it has fallen as low as 30 '. A southwest and southeast wind always cool the air, while a north wind invarial.)ly brings heat. East and north winds are tlie most common. Tlu^ southwest wind is always l)racing and h(\dthy, whiU' the north wind produces languor and headache. During the summer rains are frequent, and are commonly accompanied by thunder and lightning. Long continued droughts occasionally occur, at intervals of several years, followed by excessive and long continued rains. The niost striking feature in the scenery, and tljo greatest disadvantage itnder which this region labors, is the almost entire want of trees. There are no forests in this i)art of South Anu'rica, and no considerable growth of wood. It is not easy to account for this absence of tiinber ; for the su])])ly of moist- ure is greater than in many regions where woodlands abound. Darwin, however, sa^'s "that the limit of the forests coincides, in South America, with that of the region over which the damp Avinds travel ; Had iclivrv f/tci/ ijo Jadcn icif/i vioislnir from l/ic ylfltoi/if and Facljic oaan.i, Ihc coiudry is thicklj covcral icllJi wood" \. I inl ski ■ — "ip^ii'—l »■■■ II m llli 316 INFLUENCE OF CIJMATE. May not this theory satisfactorily account for the prairies and want of wood in portions of Nortli America, and the desert regions in other parts of the world? The ponpas of South America lie near the centre of the continent, being tlanked by the Andes, as are the prairies of the United States by the Iiocky Mountains ; both lying under similar climatic influences as regards elevation, moisture, temperature, and winds. Buenos Ayres, the chief city of the Republic, derives its nan. I'} from the peculiar salubrity of its climate. It is situated in 31 ;)0' south latitude, and 58 '23' west longitude, on the south side of the Ilio de la Plata, and enjoys a foreign and iuhmd trade of growing importance. The La Plata, which rises in the centre of Brazil, and interlocks with the iVmazon, is a large and noble stream, comparing i'av(n'ably with the St. Lawrence river of North America. Its mouth is upwards of 100 jailes in width, and furnishes navigation from the Atlantic to Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, a distance of about 1,500 miles ; its whole length being abo) .t 2,000 miles. The following Table exhibits the mean elevation of the Barometer and Thermometer for one year : MONTHS. January, .... February, March, .... April, .... May, .... »Tune, .... July, .... August, .... September, October, .... November, December, The mean temperature for the year was 62" Falir, It is only between 2-1^ and 48^ south hititude, on the Atlantic side of South America, running through the sub-tropical and temperate zones, ranging from 40° to 70" mean annual tem})cr- ature, that the white race can with safety, in regard to health and life, emigi-ate to, and take up their permanent abode. This region of country, however, is in many respects dissimilar MEAN OP MAX. TRMr. MEAN TP BAKOMKTEH. ' Fiilir. " Fahr . 29.50 92 72 . 29.58 89 73 . 29.01 82 71 . 29.73 78 62 . 29.70 08 58 . 29.77 06 54 . 29.05 07 53 . 29.84 06 52 . 29.74 72 55 . 29.07 81 59 . 29.01 88 68 . 29.45 86 71 CLIMA'Tl ANT) PRODUCTION'S OF CHILI. 317 to the same latitudes in the northcru hemisphere, as the pa/npus aro far inferior to the prairies of the United States, bein^^ better adapted to pasturage and the raising of cattle than the cereals. It embraces Southern Brazil, Para^may, Uruguay, and Buenos Ayrep,, or the Argentine Confederation. Chili, on tlie Pacilic side, has also, for the most part, a temperate climatt'. Here health can be enjoyed, and life prolonged ; Avhile the liio de la Plata and its numerous tributaries ali'orel uninterrupted navigation during the whole year, draining an immense and fertile region of country, abounding in large forests, contauiing many kinds of valuable wood, and rich vegetable productions. Climate and Productions of Chili. Tlie Hcpublic of Chili, lying on the Pacific side of South America, runs through eighteen degrees of latitude, extending from 25-^ to 4))-^ soiith latitude, emln-acing the Chilian Archi- pelago, Its breadth is various, being determined by the greater or less distance of tlie summit of the Andes from the ocean. In the north ])art of Chili the country rises in a scries of succes.sive terraces from the coast to the foot of the Andes. 3Io>'n('(iihs. — The grand belt of the Andes separates Chili fi'om the provinces of the La Plata ; and its western declivities occupy a considerable ])ortion of the surface. Three small ranges likewise extend in nearly parallel lines between the Andes and the ocean. Of thes(> parallel lines the Peuquones lidge is considerably liigher than the others, attaining an elevation, where the road crosses it fro)n Santiago to Men- doza, by the pass of the Portello, of 18, "210 feet. The highest mountains of Chili are : Manila, in south latitude 28 -15'; Acon- cagua, in 32-;W' (altitude, 2:},910 feet) ; Tupcmgato, in ;^3 20'; l)escal)esado, in '6') ; Blanquillo, in Ij5 M'; Longavi, in 35 30'; Chilian, in 3(5^; Antuco, in 30 oO'; and Corcovado, in 43 11'. Molina had not an opportunity of taking tlie altitude of the above mountains, but the Chilenos su]>pose them to rise ujnvards of 20,000 feet above the sea. Then^ are no fewer than 14 vohianoes in a state of perpetual (•oml)ustion in Chili, and all of them belong to the main ridge of the Andes. C'iiiiah: und Smsou--^. — The climate of ChiU is delightful and salubrious. The four seasons oet-ur here as regularly as in Europe, though in inverse order, being in the southern hemi- sjihere. Spring commences on the 21st of September, summer on the 21st of December, autumn on the 21st of March, and winter at our summer solstice, or 21st of June, From the com- nienccmeut of spring to the middle of autumn, between 24' I 1 ii'i !| 'li I { II «L ii H 318 IXFLUEXCE OF CLIJLVTE. ^ 9 iXtlJ .'111(1 '50^ soutli l:\tituclo, tlio sky is nlwavH sorono, it being raro that vain falls dnring that period, 'iho rains begin in tho middle oi' Ajn-il, and continue, with greater or less intervals, till (he end of Angnst. In the northern ]iiovinces of (\)|)ia))o and Coqninibo. little vain falls ; but in the ]Liiddle provinces, thi'Ci'. or four days' rain ollernates "with iii'teen or tweuiy dry days ; and in the southern ]ir(jvinees, tlu; rain sometimes con- t'nues nin(> or ten days uninterruptedly. In Copiapo and Co- ((uimbo, the comparativi^ v.-ant of rain is eom])ensated by very copious dews. The transitions from heat to cold, and r/Ve i'lr.'^ti, arc moderate, and their extremes are eciually unknown. The air is yo much cooled by sea-breezes on the one hand, and by the winds from the snowy Andes on the other, that the ther- mometer in the shade sehlom exceeds 7()'. In winter it rarely sinks to the freezing point, but a perceptible cold is generall}' felt till noon. Snow, exce]it on the Anders, is very uncommon. It is entirely unknown on the coast; and though it sometimes falls in the middle districts, it often melts ero it reaches the ground, and is seldom known to lit» above oiu^ day. On tho Andes, however, from April to November, which is ihc rainy season on the ])kuns, snow falls so abundantly as to render tho passes wholly impracticable for the greater part of the year. Thunder is unknown excejit amid tlu; Andes. The winds, in Chili, are considered by tiie inhabitants as nearly infallihle indications of the weather, and serve as barometers. Tho south winds, coming directly from the Antarctic pole, are cold, and attended Avith fair weather. The north winds, on the con- trary, aro hot and humid, and, on the cast of the Andes, are more suilocating than the sirocco. The scmth wind prevails Avhile tho sun is in the soutluu'n hemisphere. It relaxes about noon, jind is then supplanted for two or three hours by a fresh ]>i'eezo from the sea, which, from its returning regularly, is called the meridian-breeze, and the clock of the peasants. In the afternoon tlie south v.ind returns; and, at midnight, it is once more succeeded by the l)ef ore-mentioned breeze. "At lir.st, it appears rather surprising that the trade-wind, along the northern parts of Chili, and on the coast of IVru, shoid(l blow in so very southerly a direction as it does ; but when wo reflect that the Cordillera, running in a north and S(mth line, iiitercejits, like a great Avail, the (iitirc depth of tho loAver atmospheric current, we can easily see that the trade-Avind must be draAvn n;>rthAvard, foUoAviug the line of mountains, toAvard the equatorial regions, and thus lose part of that east- erly movement Avhich it otherAvisc Avould have gained fnnii the earth's r(.)tation" (Darwin). The east Avind is seldom felt iu Chili. The meteorological history records only one hurricane. MOl-N'TAIN SYSTEM OF THE ANDES. 310 raro The fjnloa of wind which havo lioeu at times so dostnictivi^ to shi])|)iiif^ on Uic coast of Chili, como from tlio northwest, and arc coiunion in winter, 'riic ni^'hts are niniLrniMeent, from the ck>arn(!ss of the atuiosplieve, iind the livilliancy of tlu! heav- enly bodies. Fierv meteors arc fn^quent, ]n-ococdinf; from tho Anch^s to t\w sea. Tho rnifma (I'l.sfniUs sel(h)m a|)))ears. In res])C('t of produeticnis, ChiH a])pears to lie divided hy uatun^ into threi> sections. That to the Jiortli of th<^ i»"Jd ])ar- ullel is l)arren, but aVionndw in eoi)])er and silver. The eentr;'l s valleys of the Andes avd supe-rior, in this respect, to the middle districts ; and these la.tter excel tlu- maritime tract. The soil of tlit; latter often resembles tho fat land of Bologna, Ix'hig of a reddish brown, friable, mixed with a little clay or marl, and sometimes pi'esenting white or brown ]iebbles. arsenical and martial ]>vrites, with shells, madrejiores, and other maruie produt-tions. That of the midland and Andinc vadcs is of a yellowish bhicl; color, jiorous, friable, tlints, and decomposed marine iiodies. In other ({uarters the soil is a stilt' clay, abounding in water-worn ]iebl)l(.'-:. Agriculture in this happy climate reciuires little attention. Many of the cereals and plants raised are the same as those of Euro])e ; whil(> the herbage, os])(>cially in th(> •alleys of the Andes, is tall and luxuriant, sustaining large num])ers of cattle, horses, and sheep. In fruit trees Chili is greatly inferior to the tropical eountriis of Am(uica. Mountain System of the Andes. The Andes Proper may be subdivided into four sections. The first, fornjing the southern section of the systcMu, and extending from the southern extremity of the continent to the Mth .southeru i)arallel, may be distinguished as the I'atagonian Andes, sometimes called Sierra Nevada de los Aniles, and is that porti(m of the system which is least known to geogra[)hei's. The second section, extending fnnn the -Wth to tlu; tiOth southern parallel, is the Andes of Chili a.nd Potosi. The third section is the Peruvian Andes, (extending fnnn the 2(Hh ])arallel to the plateau of .Umaguer, under north hititude 1 oO', aial sometimes called the Koyal Cordillc , or Crand Cordillei'a of Peru. The fourth section is the Cor jlleras of New Gran::d;i. The wi'stern of these ridgeti n;ns pa.i-allel to the shores of tho Pacific, and Is called the Cordillera of the Coast. The I n i ' •w^MiMaai 320 INFI^UENCE OF CLIMATI':. i oastorn, or that of the interior, is ciilled the Conlilhn-.a Ileal. The intcrnuHliato ])luin is the bahin of the celebrated Lake Titicaca, tli<> ])hysical J'eaturt>s of Avhich are scarcely less extra- onliiiary than its history is interesting'. Generally sjxiakin^f, th(^ western Cordillera is *l..i moat elcvati-d, attaining, iit many points, an alisolnte h« i^dit of from 2'2,ni (o'J oO S. lit.), "FebriKiri/ 5, 18G((. "Wo arc just ontcrinj:; tLis far-fiinicil, much abiisod, aiul (IroiuleJ strait. The ^veatllcl• is Hue, Imt ue, just IVom the tropics, art' inulHcd up in our f^rcat coats and furs. Tlio next two weeks will probably be the most oveutful, as they must be the most interesting part of our voyage. The navigation of a crooked and dangerous passage, l)ut slightly known, in the latitudes of almost constant gales, is quite a ditl'erent thing from a pleasure trip across the ocean in warmer latitudes. AVe have daylight to cheer us fi'om two o'clock, A. M., to half-past ten at night; but I dread the cold and snow which we must exjicct. I cannot pretend to give you the faintest idea of the intense blackness and loneliness of this coast. A large portion of the banks of the straits are perfectly treeless, shrubhiss, and gi'ass- less. The sky is seldom cloudless, the wind almost continually blowing a gale, and the sea has a cold leaden color, which adds to the general dreariness of the asjicct. We have not as yet seen any traces of the Indians, either on the Patagouian or Terra del Fuegiau shore, but llamas, gminacos, ostriches, and other wild animals and birds, besides seals and sea lions, have been frequently seen on the shores. "Off Cape Gregouy (o:]" S. lot), Fchritary 8. " I have just returned from a run on the shore, where wo were lucky enough to fall in with a band of Indians. They are strange looking fellows, and always on horseback. They are hugely built, perhaps six feet four or five inches tall, Avitli splendid chests, brsi-wny arms, but small, ill-shaped lej^s. I do not wonder that Drake and other early voyagers described these natives as giants. We had a large party, well armed, and compelled them to take us to their village, much against their wislies. I can assure you the long tramp we had was amply repaid by the novelty of the scene we l)eheld. At first the whole camp took tlight ; but on our oft'ering them some copper coin, we soon established a good feeling. They live in the rudest kind of huts, made of skins, banked up with earth. The faces and bodies of the young women and girls were be- smeared with red, yellow and black nmd, giving them a most grotesque appearance. Near by their village we saw ono of their " toldos," or tombs, which consists of a mound of earth, I 322 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. m ilankod on cither Bido by tlio cfTigics of tlieir horses, rudely cut out of wood, and l)its oi skin, cut like pennants, stuck on poles over and about the mound. While we were at the village, a jiarty of huuterri returned, bringmg guauaeoes, foxes, and Hcveral largo ostriches. " Entkkino the Pacific, Fehni";' ':». " Wo cleared the straits on the loth, and, after a boi8tei'ou.s passage of three days, arrived at this out-of-the-way refuse. Human eye never rested on grander scenery than that by which wo are now siirrounded. The mountains rise fi'om the water's edge to the height of 15,000 feet, covered with eternal snow. Wo have three huge glaciers in sight, one of which runs down to the water, and is two miles broad at its base ! These waters liavo never been surveyed to their Umits, and it is sup- posed they comnumicato inland to the Isle of Chiloe, in Chili. Th(jre are no natives near, nor has the gulf been visited since the time of Fitz Hoy, except by one or two scale s." The Straits of Magellan, or Magalliaens, forms a navigable channel of about 300 miles in length, and var^-ing in breadth from 2 to 40 mOes, between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans ; the most southern portion lying in about 54° south latitude. This channel was discovered in 1 510 by Fernando Magalliaens, who sailed through it. The Avestern shore of Patagonia hero presents numerous sinuosities, studded with islands of various dimensions, forming the Adelaide, or Patagoniau Archipelago. Through thcs(i islands there is a ship channel to the Gulf of Pencas, in 47 30' south latitude. The Axdcs of Pa!(ui'alled yard of the niined chapel; artists packed their apparatus, the engineers their instruments, and with a plenteous supply of brandy in each man's pocket, the guides were directed to commence the ascent. Then followed promis- cuously Americans, Englishmen, Mexicans, one after the other, singing, whistlinj^, jesting as we went, Not long did these noisy demonstrations last, for the breath came hard, and the hands and feet and senses were requu-ed for the hazardous journey. As we advanced, new difSculties arose ; ledges were a: 324 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. precipitous and barely passable ; rocks of round sandstone came roUinj^ and slidinfi; dowuAvard by us ; drifts of snow from the topmost ridges glided swiftly from their places as the sun rose in the heavens ; and huge flat ice-blocks at times came whii'ling by us like cannon balls. " AVheu on a rise of 14,000 feet the party separated, some taking the high snow ridges, others the gorges or gulleys. There is a mean difference in height between the two, often 800 feet. The gulleys run up to the summit, with occasional breaks, parallel with the ridges ; and the surface is composed of debris — a collection of centuries — a spongy, black earth, through which we sank to the knees, and where no snow or ice lay, biit through which, at noon-day, ran the drippings that trickled from the high snow cliffs. The leajiing fountains, winding througli the gorges, increased as they descended, and uniting, sometimes, below, swept in a thundering torrent down the mountain side. These streams had worn beds a hundred feet deeper yet than the general level of the gulleys. The formation of rocks and earth differed in no wise from that fur- ther down. Here and there lay huge pUes of gray limestone and sandstone, aivl specks of quartz, promiscuously intermin- gled, angled, some f at and edged, others with regular layers of lime and sandstone. Bents, fearfully deep, in the mountain side, disclosed curiously disposed strata of the upper and lower and intermediate sections of geologic formation. Great, gap- ing mouths in the rocky sides send out sulphuric fumes ; and in one mammoth opening lay heaps of sulphur, and, further back, pillars of purplish stone (the result of dri2)pings), thirty feet high. There are no evidences of recent eruption (perhaps none for two hundred years), but the fact that the summit is bare and black, and that occasional whirls of smoke are emiHed from the crater, indicates the smouldering condition only of the volcano at present. " The ascent was continued in an almost direct line toward the top. Up to within two thousand feet of the suuuuit level, the whole company were in motion, but scattered at great dis- tances fi'om each other, soiuo almost out of sight on the conical cliffs, some toiling abreast up the dark gulleys. At this time some began to fail and fall by the way, blood begnn to pass from the nose ami ears, and faces were swollen so that old friends knew each other only by the dress. A few contimied the journey a thousand feet higher, lay dovNOi, slept on the snow or black dust, gasped for breath, and awoke. Some dro})ped every few minutes (it was impossible to keep awake all the time), l)ut started up again as soon, catching the breath. •* The smi was by this time in mid-heaven, and beat do^ii ASCENT OF THE TEAK OF ORIZABA. 325 fiercely, blinding ns, and starting a thousand little rills from the exposed lodges, that seemed, in tlie sunbeams, silver veins, as they slid down noiselessly from the tall iee-pihars, and ran along the rocky sides, clear as crystal, till they Avent foamuig and kuipiug into the surging stream below. No sign of tree, or slunib, or grass blade, or liardy flower — all silence, and snow, and black desolation ; rifted rocks, weird, unseemly piles of fi'ozen earth and ice, upward ; mist and cloud Ix^low ; the sun and sky, deep blue, overhead ; beneath, the cloud-iield and the abyss. Snow banks would start off thoiuselves from their places, and, Avith a sharp, cutting sound, drop into the al)yss, and be seen no more. Shafts of ice thirty feet long, loosened by the falling boulders and snow slides, slipped from their moorings, fell upon the sandstone cliff below, ground into frag- ments, and, bounding onward between sun and cloud, sparlded like diamonds as they fell. The winds were shaip and. cold, but not high. Sometimes, in the deep hollow, it struck the sharp crag, and shrieked Hke the night tempest on a rocky reef. Once, and once only, it chopped round, and swept the mass of cloud away eastward, and then distant landmarks, and cities, and plains, were visible. Popocatapetl and all the Mexican volcanoes w^ere distinguishable, and, with a good telescope, we looked out, over the Chiquite Mountains, into the placid waters of the Gulf. In a few minutes the wind shifted, and cloud and mist trooped back again, and hung with a sort of affectionate embrace around the mountain top and sides. " Sound at this height was very distinct, although it ap- peared distant when actually near. Amid the silence that reigned, the sna]>ping ice shafts, and snow slides, and falling rocks, and even the little waterfalls, fell painfully upon the ear. The crashing noises one experiences in caverns when a stone strikes the floor, or a rill plays upon the rock, resemble very nearly the sensation ; and when a boulder broke upon the lower ledge, the sound quivered with a vibratory motion for a long time before it died away. The sense of isolation is acute, existence is a dream, the senses half benumbed, memory in a mist, and thought lost in a maze of uncertainty. Were it not, indeed, for the contimious struggle to retain vitality, the sensa- tion of losing breath, and the constant loss of blood, one migat easily be induced to dream on in a seeming sleep on a sunny snow ledge or cinder gorge. " Wo were now nearly 10,000 feet above sea level. Dis- tinctly, as if at our elbow% the sound of the guide's feet striking the solid drift, 1,000 feet away, fell u])on the ear. Evidently the Indian pilots, who did not eount upon our advaDcing so far, became alarmed, and indicated a wish to return. P' \m S2Q INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE. MMi " Two-tliirds of our party were out of sight, down the slope. Three alone, beside the affrighted guides, held their Avay. Blood oozed fi'om cars and nostrils and mouth, and veins stood out on the forehead like gi'eat black lines. Our footing became more and more imcertain, the ascent more abrupt, the stones constantly turning and cnimbhng away, and, betimes, huge masses of earth and boulders and scoria, loosened by the melt- ing snow, came thundering and hissing from above, fairly flying past our heads on to the next projecting ledge ; and great snow drifts, broken and cnimbled by the colliding rocks, avalanchcd down upon our heads a perfect storm of snow, and icicles, and black earth, and lava dust. One of the guides, smitten by a passing drift, rolled, half dead, three hundred feet down the slope, and was buried for awhile in the debris of snow and earth. " The mmiature cascades disappeared. Even the driiipings disappeared from the rocks ; for wo had passed the line of thaw. Snow was beaten down hard and compact, and glis- tened like ice as the sun fell upon it. But an abundance of loose rocks lay on the surface, poised for motion at the slight- est touch. The guide started more than one as he picked his way some distance in front. Wo heard by the footfalls that the courageous S. was pushing on. Ho was within 500 Jhf of the ioj), turning into a shallow guUey to avoid the falliug boulders, when a sliding, tumbling noise was heard, then a heavy dull click, then a fall, .and in a moment a hea\-y boulder came whizzing l)y on its downward course. Some one called out, ' S. has fallen !' The rock struck him on the shoulder, breaking it, and hurled him a hundred feet down the steep gulley. The guide reached him soon after, and we bore him slowly down the steep slope, abandoning, for the time, our enterprise. " Arrived at the tower, the mountain streams, swollen by the melting snow, went foaming and roaring down their rocky beds. Our horses were picketed as we left them in the morning. We passed another night within the roofless chapel, and with all the quaint stories and goV)lin fables associated with it, slept soundly till ' rosy thigers' of morn streaked the eastern sky ; and down again, with our wounded comrade, into the soft warm winds and pine groves, wo picked our way ; and yet further ou, to the balmier air of the lowlands, Avhere cool streams from the hills and peaks dancetl merrily through maguey fields, and in the orange shade, through broad pampas, to the Rio Bianco, where reigns perpetual spring or summer." ANTAECTIC OCEAN AKD CONTDsT:NT. 327 ig The Antarctic Ocean and Continent. The expanse of water surrountliug tlie South or xVntarctic Pole, called the Antarctic Ocean, may be strictly regarded as extending from the Polo to the Antarctic Circle, or GG^3U' south latitude. This portion of the globe's surface has been hitherto very imperfectly explored, and is even less familiar to naviga- tors tiiau corresponding latitudes in the opposite polar region, wivhin the Arctic Circle, which has been partially described in the beginning of this work. The Antartic Continent and adja- cent islands, discovered and explored by English, Fi'ench, and American navigators, is ascertained, however, to be much less habitable than the Arctic regions of North America, since it is limited in extent, and the vast space within the Antarctic Circle is mostly occupied either with sea or ice, in latitudes cor- responding to parts of the northern hemisphere far within the limits of umn's occupation, "^liile the absolute limits of veg- etable life have not yet been attained in the fiigid regions of the north, uot the mmutest trace of a moss or an alga) was discovered in the vast Antarctic Continent, traced by Sir James Eoss ; nor is it possible that any tribes of the human famil}- can exist in these high southern latitudes ; but the animal kingdom has numerous representatives. The penguin and the blue petrel are ever^-v^-here to be seen, and the hump-backed and finned backed whale abound ; also, the sea-elephant, and dif- ferent species of seals, which yield a valuable article of fur. The furthest j^oint in these southern latitudes hitherto attained (^78°10'^ was rnnciiod bv Capt. Jamcs lloss, in 18-12. He savs : " Still steering to the southward, along the coast, a mountain, of 12,'iOO feet above the level of the sea, was seen emitting fiame and smoke in splendid profusion. This magnificent volcano received the name of Momtf L'f(t)us\ It is in south latitude 77^^32', and east longitude 1G7^. An extinct crater to the east- ward, of a somewhat less elevation, was called Mount T> rror. In other parts of the coast are lofty mountain ])eaks of from 9,0t)0 to 12,000 feet m height, perfectly covered with eternal snow. The glaciers that descended from near the mountain summits projected many miles into the ocean, and ju'csented a perpendicular face of lofty cHfl's." The United States Exploring Expedition, under the command of Lieut. Charles Wilkes, in Ib-lO-'-ll, penetrated to 67"^ S., 328 INFLXTENCE OF CLIJLVTE. 159° E. (maguctic polo 90^ S., 140^ E.) The Antarctic Conti- nent was reached January 1(5, 1840, tlio middle of the summer in tills hcniisphoro ; temperature of air IJ2 ', and water iil'^ Fahr. Island, berg, and tield ice surroitnded the land. Only about 1,900 miles of the coast of this inhospitable region has been explored by the different navigators. Thus is exhibited the wonderful lohenouiena of nature as you approach either of the poles of our globe — the Arctic or the Antarctic, So in regard to every parallel of latitude that is passed in succession, although less marked, in going through the frigid, cold, temperate, sub-tropical, and tropical zones, until you reach the Equator, as well as on ascending to higher altitudes, the Animal and Vegetable Kingdom are found to change ; so much so as to place an eternal barrier between the two extremes — one abounding in animated life, and the other in the solitude of the desert. The Temperate find Sub-tropical Zones, which lie about equi- distant from the poles and the equator, are the only highly favored portions of the Earth's surface, as are abundantly proved by the facts exhibited in this compOation. An eminent "vsTiter remarks, when sj'jeaking of the different races of men, as influencad by climate : " History bears out this theory when it sums up what the nations of the extreme north and south have done for civilization. Were they stricken from the earth, it would feel it no more than the steamship does the Avavo which sends a shower of spray over its bows, without checldng the revolution of the wheels." In conclusion, it may bo said that one-third of the earth's surface is given up to hrd, too intense and enervating for the ad- vance of the human species, while rank vegetation and animals of an inferior order abound. About one-third is also given up to coU, too intense for advancement, man being compelled to toil inccssantl}' in order to gain food and clothing sufticient to sustain life. It is only within the remaining third of the earth's surface, or the Temperate Climates, ranging from 40^ to 70^ mean annual temperature, where the seasons are about equally divitled, averaging three months for Sjiring, Summer, Autumn, and Wintex', that the human race really thrives, and advances in moral and hitellectual culture, and where science and the arts are encouraged. INDEX. Adirondack Mountiiiiis, 27, 29. Agassiz'a Lctture en the Amazon River, Climate, itc, 21»4. Airrifulture, Ailnptation of riimato, to, 19-1. At,'ric'ultiire ill JJrazil, 2'Jl, Rm"). Airrifiilture in California, 219. Agriculture in ( Central Ameriea, 249. Agriculture in Cuba, 2")9. Agriculture in Eastern States, 121. Agriculture in Lake Suiierior Keirion, 99. Agriculture in Middle States, 121. Agriculture in Northern States, 121. Agriculture in Simtliern States, 122. Agriculture in "Western States, 123. Agricultural Products of Canada, Si, 1S4. Agricultural Products of Central Amer- ica, 2-48. Agricultural Products of Cuba, 259, 262. Agricultural Products of Mexico, 241. Agricultural Products of United States, 121, 124. Air and the Ocean, Temperature of, .39, 2.j2. Alabama, Airricultural Products of, 122, Alabanui, Climate of, 210. Albany, New York, Temperature of, 180, Aleutian, or Fdx Islands, 42. Aliaska, or Alashka, 41. Alle^lianies, or Apiialachian Chain, 193. Alleghany Mountains, 2'!, 29. Altitude, 'Alleghany range, 196. Altitude auii Temperature, 66, 90, 323. Altitude of Mountain Pcakti, 23, 29, 196. Altitude of the Andes, 310, 319, 322. Amazon open to Navigation, 295. Amazon Kiver, Climate, &c., 294. America, liritish, 28, 43. America, Central, 239. .Vmerica, North, 19, 101. America, Russian, 28, 41. America, South, 24, 277, 31,'. America, Vetrctable Kingdom of, 105. America, Cold Zone of, 40. Ameriea, Temperate Zone of, 15. America, Torrid Zone of, 15. America, \'egetalile Kingdom of, 105. America, Pacilic States, 222. Andes ot' South America, 310. Andes, Mountain System of, 319. Animals of South America, 313, Annual Mean Temiiornturo, 18, 90, 280. Animals of tlie Polar Reu'ion, 322. Annual Measurement of Rain, 168. Animal Rise and Fall of Lake Superior, 98. Antilles, or West India Islands, 254. Antarctic Drift, or Ilumlioldt Current, 277. Antarctic Ocean and Continent, 3';7. Apj)earauce of tlie Sun from th) North Pole, 34. Arctic Circle, 30, 37. Arctic Lands and Ocean, 30. Arctic Regions, 32. Arctic Sea, Temperature of, 39. Area of the Great I^akes, 95. Area, TemiK-rature, &c., of the United States, 118, 121. Argentine Republic, Climate of, 314. Arizona and New Mexico, 214. Arkansas, Airricultural Products of, 122. Arkansas, Climate of, 21o. Army Meteorological Register, 10. Ascent of Mount Hood, Oreixon, 149. Ascent of the Peak of Urizalia, 323. .\spinwall. Fall of Rain at, 251. Astoria, Oregon, 147. Asuncion, Paraguay, 313. Atmosphere, Measure and Weiglit, 14. Aurora Borealis, 36. Auroras on Lake Superior, 98. B Baiiin's Bay, 3S. Baiiamas, Cliiniitc of, 272. Bahia, Tempcr.atnro of, 287. Banana, ('ulture of, 262. Bav of .Slercv, 38. Belize, British Honduras, 248. Belle-Isle, Straits of, 63. Benecia, California, 154. Bermuda, Climate of, 273, 275. Bermuda Grass, 202. Border States, Agricultural Products, 121, Border States, Climate of, 195. Bolivia, Climate, itc, 310. Bolivia, Mountain Ranges, 310. ]5otanv, 23, 105. Botany of Brazil, 288. Brazil, Asrassiz's Lecture on, 294. Brazil, AL'ricultural Products of, 291. Brazil, Climate, &c., 285, 287, 294. 330 INDEX. Brazil, Rivera ot', 2S(), 804. Brazil, \'alleya of, 285, SOI. British Amerioa, ii'^, 43. V»riti.-li Aiiioricii, Ciiinafc of, 50. 52. Bui'iina Avres, t'liiimto uud Agricultural I'roducta of, 314. Buenos Ayres, Tciniieraturc of, 315. Butt'alo, Kew Voric, Clitnatc of, 17'.'. Burliugton, Veriuout, Climate of, 173. C Califirnia, Agricultural Products of, 121, 211). California, its Climate, &e., 215. Canada. y\t,'ricultural I'mducts of, 84. Canada, Climate of, 70, 70, 7S. Canaila, Climatic Division of, 67. Canada, Compared with Ohio, 184. Canada, Karly (Observations in, 70. Canada, Health Statistics, 82. Canada, Lower, or Eastern, 07. Canada, Uiiper, or AVestcrn, O'J. Caracas, Climate of, 253. Central America, Cliiuato mid Topogrnpty of, 239, 245. Charleston, South Carolina, 100, 1G2, 204. Charlottctown, I'rineo Edward'.-j Island, Teiniieraturo of, S3. Chicago, Illinois, 183. Chili, South America, Climate &o., 317. Cities and Military Posts, CO, 132, 141, 150, 151», ItiS. Climate of th.o Bahamas, 272. Clinuito of Bermuda, 273. Climate of British America, 44. Climatrt of Bolivia, 310. Climate of Brazil, 285, 294. Climate of Buenos Ayres, 313. Climate of California, 231. Climate of Canada, 9, 7o. 70. Climate of Central America, 239, 245. Climate of Chili, 317. Climate of Cuba, 258, 205. Climate of Florida, 2o5. Climate of Ecuador, 3o7. Climate of (Jrecnlaud, 35. Climate of (luiana, 284. Clinuitc of Ilaytl, '.i70. Climate of Jamaica, 270. Climate of Eahrndor, 00. Climate of Mexico, 243. CUmate of Minnesota, ISO. Climate, Monthly Becords of. 9, 208. Climate of the New England States, 172. Climate of Newfoundland, 04. Climate of New Granada, 282. Climate of North America, 19. Climate of I'acilic States, 155, 215. Clinuito and Productions of Paraguay, 312. Climate and Natives of Patagonia, 321. Climate of I'cru, 311. Climate of Kcd liiver of the North, 50. Climate of Russian America, 284. Climate of Soutii America, 24, 277, 310. Clinuito of Southern States, 195, Climate of South-western States, 210. Climate of State of New York, 177. Climate of United St.itcs, 12, 175, 222. Climate of Vancouver's Island, 88. Climate of 'V'enzuela, 283. Clinuite of West Indies, 255. Climate of "Western States, 182. Clinuitic Boundary , Climate, itc, of, 187. Colorado Desert, 217. Colomliia, or New Uranada, 282. Columbus, Ohio, Meieorologicnl Okserva- tions, 1S5. Connecticut, Agricultural Products of, 121. Consumption, Geography of, 112. Consumption and Fevurs, 120. Costa Rica, Climate of, 240, 231. Cotton Culture, 201. Cotton-growing States, 200. Cotton, Nortlu'rn Limits of, 199. Crossing the Plains, 187. <,'uba. Its Climate, iVrc, 258, 2G5. <'uba. Diseases in, 203. Cuba, As^ricultural Products of, 259. Cultivation of Tobacco, 199, 200. Cumaua, Temperature of, 270. Cumberland House, Temperature of, 56. D Dalles of the Columhia, 147. Dakota, Territorv of, 139. Dakota, Climate "of, 114. Deaths in Canada, 83. Deaths in the I'nited States, 126. Deaths in the United States Army, 171. Delaware, Agricultural Products'of, 121. Delta of the Missis; 210. sippi, Detroit Barracks, 130. ]>ev,' Poijit, Mean of th.o 101. Diamond and Gold Mines of Brazil, 304. Diseases and Deaths, 140. Diseases in Cuba, 203. Diseases of the Respiratory System, 112. E Early French Authors on Climate, 7i). Eastern States, Agricultural Products, 121. 1'1'uador, Clhuafe of, 8o7. Ivpiutor, Clinuite of, 287, 297. Eipiatorial Current, 17, 279. Ks([uimalt, Vancouver's Island, 238. Esipiiuiuux, 31, 281. European Climates, 22. Exploring Expeditioub, 30. F Fevers and Heavy Ruius, 162. -^.*i-,.iTi<-"°^--;*ir': INDEX. 331 75, 222. , b8. (I States, 115. iiiL'rica, li79. 7. lerica, 15. 1 States, 133, !-2. cftl Observa- lucts of, 121. 12. »9. f, 259. ure of, 56. 2G. riny, 171. cts'of, 121. Brazil, 304. •stem, 112. lato, Ti). roducts, 121. 1, 238. Fever, Yellow, 1G5, 204. riorida, AL'rieiiltunil TroJucts of, 122. Florida, Cliiiiate of, 205. Florida, Productions, iSrc., 205. Fluctuations on Lake Superior, 98. Forest antion, 114. Geori;ia, Agricultural Troducts of, 122. Georgia, Climate of, 200. Glaciers on tlie Coast of Greenland, 31. Glaciers of I'atagonia, 3_'2. Grape Culture in California, 220. Great Basin of Lake AVinnipeg, 51. Great Lakes, or Inland Seas, yO, 91. Great Lakes. Extent of, 94. Green Bay, >Jo, 02. Greenland, Climate of, 35. Greenland, East Coast of, 37. Greenland, Temperature of, 8?. Green Mountains of Vermont, 29, 173. Guatemala, Meteorological Observations in, 240. Guateiruila, Topoirrapliy, &c., 250. Gulf of Mexico, 213. Gulf of St. Lawrence, 03. Gulf Stream, ;i73. Guiana, Its Climate and Surface, 2S4. II Habits and Character, as Influenced by Ciinuite, 119. Halifax, Nova Scotia, Temperature of, 82. Hnrrisburg, Teun., Temperature of, 1S2. Havana, Temperature ot, 205, 270. Hayti. Climate of, 276. Healthy Locality for Females, 15G. Healthy Kcgions, 35. Healthy and Fruitful Regions, 109. Health Statistics of Canada, b2. Health Statistics of the United States, 126. Highest Mean Temperature, 277. Honduras, Central America, 240. Hudson Hay, British America, 45. Hudson Bay, Climate of, ;jo. Hudson River, (Jpening of, 179. Humboldt Current, 277. Humholut on the Climate of Cuba, 265. Hurricanes, 255, 31S. I Icebergs, 02. Llalio Territorj', 232. Illinois, AL'rie\dtural Products of, 121. India-rubber of Soutli America, 3i.»0. Inhabitants of Mexico, Climatic Inlluonce, 239. Inhabitants of the United States as Influ- enced by Climate, 119. Indian Corn rrcdnct, lli5, 201. Indian Summer in Canada, 80. Indiana, ALrricultural Products of, 121. Inliuence that Produces Rain, 17. Iowa, Agricultural Products of, 121. Irrigation, 214. Is'aud of licrmuda. Climate of, 273. Island of Cuba, Climate of, 258, 205. Island of Jamaica, Climate of, 'J70. Island of Orleans, Canada, 74. Island of Porto Rico, 204. Isthmus of Panama, 251, 2S1. Isothermal Lines, 10. (.b«c Map.) .T Jamaica, Climate of, 270. Jetl'ersou Barracks, Missouri, 152. K Kansas. Agricultural Products of, 121. Kentueky,'Agricultural Products, 121, 108. Key AVest, Temperature of, 205. Labrador, Chmato or, GO. , Lake Champlain, 173. Lake Erie, 9U, 92. Lake Huron, 90, 92. Lake Michigan, 90, 92. Lake of th.e Woods, 53. Lake Ontario, 92. Lake Region of North America, 93. Lake Superior, 90, 95, 93, 110. Lake Wnniipeg, 51, 52. Limit of iiie Woods, 101. Llanos of South America, 314. Los Angelos, California, 218. Louisiana, Agricultural Products of, 122. Louisiana, Climate of, 104, 210. Lower Canada, 07. Low Water iu the L.ake3, 93. 332 INDEX. M Macki'iiziu iiivcr, 40, lol. Miuli-ioii l'>Mrriicks, New York, 136. iMiiiriictii' I'ule, 3U. Maluriii, 11. Man, Where Found, 22. Mniue, A<_'riciiltural Proclucta of, 121. Maine, Climate of. i;i4, 172. Marvluivil, As;rieiilturnl I'roilucts of, 131. Massaelmsett!<, ALTriciihiiral I'roiliiet.s, 121. Mean Temperutures, CtJ, 'M, 132, 141, 150, l.'i'.t. Mean Temiieraturc in CiUifornia, 224. Moan TeniiKTature in Culja, 27o. Medical Statistics, 10, 112, 12. Mcteorolosjienl Observations at Havana, 270. Mcteorolojrical Phenomena, 32, ^(eteoroloi;ical I'esults at Milwaukee, 188. Meteorol(if,'ieal Kesiilts at Toronto, 8'). JIeteoroloi;ieal Table, C.G, 132, 141, ir.0, 159. Jlexieo, Climate and Topography, 239, 243. Mexico, Citv of, 240. Mexico, Mountain Peaks of, 29, 241, 823. Mexico, Natives of, 239. Miehitran, An;ric\dtural Prodncta of, 121. Middle States, Afrricnltural Products, 121. Middle States, Climate of, 172, isi. Military Posts and Cities, 133, 141, 150, lOO. Milwaukee, Mean Temperature of, 188. Minnesota, Afrrieulture, &c., 194. Minnesota, As^ricultural Products of, 121. Minnesota, Climate, etc., 137, 189. Mira^re on Lake Superior, 99. Jlississippi, Afrricultural Products of, 122. Mississippi liiver and Valley, 190. Missouri, Acrricultural Products, 121, 199. Missouri Kiver, 139. Montana, Its Climate, itc, 114, 23G, Jlonteroy, California, 157. Montlily Temperatures, 208, 209. Montreal, Climatic Observations, 73, 81. Montreal, Island of, 82. Mountain Peaks, 23, 29, 241, 317, 823. Mountain and Kiver Systems, 25. Mountains of Mexico, 241. ^lountain System of the Andes, 319. Mount Ilood, Orctron, 149. Mount St. Elias, Kussian America, 28, 41, N Nebrii'-.ka, Apricnltural Products of, 221. Kc'v Caledonia, British America, 44. New Brunswick, Climate of, 78. New Eufrland St;'.tes, Climate of, 172. Newfoundland, Climate of, (54. New Granaila, or Colombia, 282. New Hampshire, Agricultural Products of, 121. Now Jt^rsoy, Ajrricultural Products of, 121. New Mexico, Climate of, 214. Ne^v Orleans. Temperature of, 164, 216. New World, Hottest Portion of, 22. New York, Airrionltural Products of, 121. New York, Climate of, 177. New York, Meteorologiciil Obsorvntions in, 176. Nnrtblk, Viri.'inia. 152. .North .\mcriea, ('limate of, 19. North America, Forests and Prairies, 101. North America, Great. Kivers and Basins of, 28. North America, T.ake I'ccrion of, 93. North .Vmcrica, Mountains and Hivcrs, 25. North America, Temperature of, is. North America, Zones of T'enipcrature, 20. North Carolina, Atrricnltur.d I'roilucts, 122. Northern Limits of ('dtton-trrowinir, 199. Northern Pacitle liailroad Koule, 23C, Northern States, Climate of, 172. Northers, the, 212. North Pole, Appearance of the Siui, 34. North-western States, 109, 186. Norway House, British America, 47, 49, 52. Nova i^cotia, Climate of, 78. () Ohio, Agricultural Products of, 121, 183. Okak, Labrador, fio. Omaliii City, Nebraska. 1^7. ( )reiron, Agriculfral Products, itc, 121. 147. Crcjron and Wnshintrton Territory, 220. Oriaiba, Ascent of, ;!23. Ozark Mountains, 210. Pacific Coast, W.ashington Territory, 231. Pacific States an. liivas, Niearai;ua, -'47. lliver, l)a>ins and Valleys, 28. lioehestcr, New York, 'l'ciui>crature of, ISO. lioeky Mountains, -Jii, \i'M. Hoeky .Mountains, Climate, Snow, «S:c., 233. Kneky Moinitains, I'assses over tlie, 55. Ivussian .\nu'riea. 41. Ku>so-Anierieun Telegraph Expedition, 43. S Sacramento City, California, 'J25. Savannali, (iei.'ri;ia. Climate of, 'JOJ. St. .Anthony, .Miiuiesota, 111. St. AuiTusline, Florida, 103. St. l)oiiiin>.'o, ClinuUe ot', :i7i!. St. .lolin. New Krunswiek, 8-j. St. John, Newfoundland, (So. St. l.aurenee Itiver, 73, 05. St. Louir. Arsenal, Missouri, 153. St. I'aul, Minnesota, l[". San l)iej;o, Calilbrnia, 107. San Jose Valley, (.'alilornia, 222. San Salvador, Central Ameriea, 245. Saskatchewan, Valley of the, 40, 55. Scenery and Climate'of \Vasliinj,'ton Terri- torVj -j-js. Seasons ni California, 223. Seasons in the State of New York, 170. Season^ in the \'alley of Lake AVinnepej,', 53. Seasons, Temneraturc of, "^07. Sickness and Nlortality in tlie United States Army, 171. Sierra Nevada of ('alifori.. 2:i5. Sitka, IJussian America, 4'J. South America, Climate 01', '^4, 277. Soilih AiTieriea, Cliiiiatio .OivisiOil of, 270. South Carolina, Affrieultural Troduets, 122. Soutli Carolina, Clinuite ot', liio. So'ilhern States, Airricult'rul l'roducts,122. Southern States, Climate of, 105. South I'ass and Fremont's Peak, 234. Siuitli-western States, Climate of, \ih). Straits of l!i'llc-I>le, (",3. Straits of Mairellan, 321. Suh-Tropii'al Climate, lio". Sub-Troj.ieal States, lii4. Su^rar Cane, Culture of, :J57, 259, 202. Sullivan's Island, South Curoliiui, 10-'. Stnnnier Ti'mperature, 53. Sunnner and Wiiiter Tenii>erature, 38. Temncrate and (.'old Zones of South Amer- ica, 314. Temperate Zoncsi, 15, 280, 32?. Temperature, Anmiul Mean, 18, 300. Temperature of JJritisli America, tiC>. Temperature of Central Amoiica, l'47, 253. Temperature of llaliliix and St. John, 83. Teniperaluro of lluilsou l!ay, 40. Temperature of Mexico, i!41. Temperature of Montreal und Queboo, 75, h-_'. Temperature of North America, 15. 'femperaturo of Kussian Amcric, 08. Tem]>erature of South America, "JSO, Temperature of the Atlantic (Jeean, 27'J. Temperature of the Arctic Sea, 30. Temperature of the Northern Hemisphere, 14. Temperature of the Ued Kivcr Settlement, 57. Temperature of the Seasons, 207. Temiierature of the United States, 115, 123. Temjieraturo of the Uiij>er Lakes, 00. Temperature of West \ irf,'inia, 107. Temperature within the -Arctic Circle, 37. Tennessee, Au'ricultural I'roducts of, 122. Texas, Airricultural I'roduetb of, V^2. Texas, Cllnuite of, 210. Tierra del Fuefro, 322. Timher, lirazilian, 304. Titieaca, Lake of, 311. Tobacco, Culture of, 109, 2n0. Toronto, Canada, Indian Summer, 81. Toronto, ( 'anada, .Meteorolo^'ical Kesults, 85, Torrid /one, 15, 279. Ti'ade Winds, 207, 318. Tropical America, Temperature of, 253. U United States, Agricultural Product.s oil 117, 121. United States, Area and Population, 113. United States, C'limate of, 12, 115. United Stites, Climai' ' Boi'.iulary, 115. United States, Climaue Division, 122. United State.*, Deaths in the, 127. United States Kxplorin;; Expedition, 327. United Stati s, Uain in the, 128. Ui)per and Lower Canada, 07. Upper, or Western Canada, 00. !•, ..... I ..i-oj i.'vt..i,t t.r ii>i)i, 100. Valley of the Orinoco, 2s4. \'aneiiMver's Island, Climate of, 88, 238. Vegciahle Kinqfilom of America, 105. \'ci."'talilcs in Cuba, 202. Vegetation of llrazil, 2sS. \'cgetation of Ecuador, ;joO. W'gctation of the West India Islands, 250. X'enezuela, t^limate of, 2-^3. \'ermont, .•Vgricult\iral Products of, 121. Victoria, Vancouver's Island, 80. 1 IN l',ir 8 -t '■ X 3?'^l!il w n 334 INDEX. Virjt'min, Affricultnrnl ProJucta of, 121. Virginia, VuHoy of, ll»7. W ■WnsliiiiKtoii Territorj', 121, 228. ^VllHll!l'•^tou Tcirritory, CMimate, &c., 228. ^Vusllil)^'toll Territory, Mcteorologicul Ta- ble, 230. Waters of Luke Superior, 05. AVestern New York, 178. Western States, Cliinnto of, 172, 182. West Iiulia Iflandu, 2.")4, y70. West Iiuliu Itslaudn, Uealtli, WiiiJs, &c., 2.">:). West I'oiiit, New York, 143. West Virginia, C'litnulc of, 100. West Virginia, Uaiii full in, 1118. AVIieat, 23, 125, 310. AVliere to Einif;rate in South America, 310. White Mountuins, 27, 2'.t. Windft in the Northwest Territory, 54. Wind River Mountjiin, 234. Winds in South Anicrico, 287, 814. Winnepeg Lake, 62. AViHcoiiiiin, Ajrrieiiltural Producta of, 121. Wood and Timber of Hrazil, 204. Woods in North America, lol. Yellow Fever, 105, 252, 284. Yellow Fever in Havana, 204. York Factory, Iiriti»h America, 40. Z Zones, or Melts of Temperature, 15, 279. Zones, ('liinatic, 20. Zones, Cold and Friu'id, 20, 281. Zones, ('(^Id and Temjierate, 315. Zones, Frigid, 15. Zones of Temjierature, 25. Zones, Temperate, 15, 20. Zones, TroiJical or Torrid, 15, 21, 279. mmm^ fi, 234. iricu, 287, 314. rill Producta of, 121. Hnizil, 204. irica, lul. { i2, 284. una, 204. L Americn, 4G. inpcrftturc, 15, 279. id, 20, 281. lierate, 315. ■e, 25. i, 20. )rrid, 15, 21, 279. i .]