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HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 AVTTH 
 
 MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PART I, PHYSICAL; PART II., DESCRIPTIVE 
 
 By a. A.. CHJlSE, B.Jl, 
 
 AUTHORIZKI) FOR USK IN THK Hlfill SCHOOLS AND CoLLKCilATH iNSTlTriKS HY THK 
 
 Dkhai£I'.mi;nt of Education. 
 
 TORONTO : 
 CANADA PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 (LIMITKn.) 
 
 ll 
 
y ^.^ \o 
 
 Knured according to Act of the Parlian.ent of Canada, m the year one thousand eight hundred and eighty.«,ven. hy th« 
 CANADA. PUBLISHING COMPANY (Lim.t/o), in the Office ot the Xliniater of Agriculture. 
 
 I 
 
 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 IN the preparation of tliis book an attempt has been 
 made to keep steadily before the learner the import- 
 ant fact that upon physical or geological structure, 
 together with the cliaracter of exposure to climatic in- 
 fluences, depend all or nearly all the phenomena of our 
 earth ; in othsr words an attempt has been made to give 
 a scientific direction to the study of geography, itself so 
 scientific a subject. 
 
 The material has been obtained from many sources, 
 and is the latest and best. For Part I. the latest works 
 of Sir Charles Lyell, Sir J. W. Dawson, Professor 
 Geikie, Professor Dana, Professor Huxley and others 
 have been especially consulted. In Part II. the statistics 
 have been drawn altogether from the latest official docu- 
 ments ; the descriptive portion comes from many sources, 
 including numerous books by competent authors dealing 
 with particular countries, the eminently scientific works 
 of Dr. A. R. Wallace, articles in Encyclopedias and maga- 
 zmes, and official publications ; from the last mentioned 
 has been procured almost all the information regarding 
 the possessions of Great Britain,— Australia, New Zea- 
 land, South Africa and India, as well as Canada itself. 
 
 The seeker after accurate information about countries 
 and regions beyond the influence of the active modern 
 life of central and western Europe, North America and 
 the British colonies generally, soon becomes aware how 
 little is really known of by far the greater part of the 
 earth's surface. 
 
 As this book is intended for Canadian schools, natur- 
 ally the space in it devoted to Canada is altogeth3r out 
 of proportion to Canada's relative importance in the world. 
 This is particularly the case with the Maritime Provinces, 
 including Newfoundland ; but so great is the ignorance 
 regarding these provinces, even among intelligent people 
 of the inland portions of the Dominion, that a compara- 
 tively full description of the.n was deemed a necessity. 
 The United States, 30 closely connected with us by ties 
 of blood and intercourse, also requii'ed a detailed descrip- 
 tion. To the "mother-land " a greater space was at first 
 proposed to be given, but so much had to be said about 
 the " Greater Britain " in various parts of the globe, that 
 the relative prominence actually bestowed upon the 
 United Kingdom in the description of Europe was 
 regarded, on the whole, as sufficient. 
 
 It is to be regretted that tiie requirements of a school- 
 book, in reference to size, have in many cases necessitated 
 
 a more limited description than could be desired ; but 
 it will be found that the general description of each 
 continent, or part of a continent, in giving a comprehen- 
 sive view of the whole, and thus rendering necessary only 
 the filling in of minor details as each country passes 
 under review, has reduced to its smallest proportions an 
 evil in itself unavoidable. By this means, also, repetition 
 has been made unnecessary. 
 
 Lists of capes, islands, etc., etc., that form so large a 
 part of our ordinary text-books on geography, and that 
 are so destructive to the interest and utility of the sub- 
 ject, will not be found in this book. Such things can 
 best be learned by looking for their position on some good 
 wall-map as they are met with in the course of ordinary 
 reading; they thus are associated with some items of 
 interest and become a part of ordinary intelligence. 
 Neither will any " questions " be found appended-^those 
 insults to the intelligent teacher ! 
 
 In the Appendixes will be found much valuable in- 
 formation that it was not deemed advisable to insert in the 
 body of the book ; this should be taken up concurrently 
 with the study of the countries referred to. 
 
 The author earnestly hopes that teachers will per- 
 sistently and systematically apply to the study of each 
 particular country the principles laid down in Part I. ; 
 and also that they will not limit their own knowledge to' 
 what is contained in this book, but that they will read 
 widely so as to be able to give additional inforn ition, to 
 illustrate still farther, and to correct whatever may be 
 found inaccurate. 
 
 Scarcely any book has been written whicii its author 
 would not change in some details, if, with his acquired 
 experience, he had to do the work over again. The 
 present book is no exception to the rule ; but whatever 
 in this case might be done in respect to word or expres- 
 sion, in contraction here and expansion tiiere, the principle 
 and plan would remain unaltered. 
 
 The author's lack of training in reading proof, and the 
 scarcity, even in our capital city, of competent professional 
 proof-readers, will account for some of the "clerical errors" 
 that will doubtless be discovered,— defects which can be 
 easily remedied in a new edition, but which, it is to be 
 hoped, the character of the book in other respects will 
 cause to be overlooked. 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 ^1 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 M 
 
 PART I. 
 
 BUILDINC UP OF THE EAllTll 
 
 Si>il : Kocks .... I'ar. 
 
 Stratified Kocks 
 
 Strata, Klt^vation of 
 
 Strata, SufCt'ssior )f 
 
 I'erioclfl of Jiife on tlii> Kartli 
 
 First reriod— Kozoic 
 
 StHJond " — Palo'o/.oio 
 
 Third " --Mt'ttoiioic 
 
 3'\)urth " — Caiiiozdie 
 
 Post Tertiary (Post I'liocene) Period 
 
 Man 
 
 I'listratified — iKnooua or Plutonic Kocks 
 
 Metanioriiiiic Kocks 
 
 Earlier State of the Earth : Nebular Tiieory 
 
 LAND SUKFACE OF THE EARTH 
 
 Ujilieaval of Strata by Contraction of the Earth. . .Par, 
 
 Causes Modifying; Form of Land: Modifying 
 
 Ajrents-Kain, Kiver.s, Frost, Heat, lee, Waves, 
 
 Volcanic Action, Seilinient, Springs, \\ nuis. . . . 
 
 Forms of Land Surface : Distribution of Laud. . . . 
 
 Continents — Structural Plan 
 
 Alountains, ImiMutaneo of 
 
 Mountains, Characteristics of 
 
 I'AOK. 
 
 1 5 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 
 f. 
 
 (i 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 W 
 
 14 
 
 (i IS 
 
 Mountains, Apiiearanees of. 
 
 ! of Soi" 
 V^olcanoes 
 
 Dependence of Soil upon Strata. 
 
 Volcanic Phenomena 
 
 Voleanoi -i, .Vrrauf^enient of 
 
 Volcanoes, Causes of 
 
 Valleys 
 
 Plateaus 
 
 Plains Proper 
 
 Islands— Continent.'il 
 
 Islands — Oceanic (Volcanic, Coral) 
 Coral Reefs 
 
 Waters of the Land : — 
 
 Rivers, Origin of 
 
 Size of 
 
 " Sources of 
 
 " Currents of 
 
 " Windings of 
 
 " Erosion of 
 
 " Waterfalls and Rapids of 
 
 " Deposition of Sediment by 20, 
 
 " Rapidity of Denudatioi. by 
 
 Utility ;>f 
 
 Lakes, Origin of 
 
 " with no Outlet 
 
 " Destniction of 
 
 " Economy of 
 
 Springs, Origin of 
 
 " Temperature of ; Hot Springs 
 
 Mineral 
 
 THE OCEAN 
 
 Position, etc 
 
 Different Oceans . . 
 
 Offshoots 
 
 Character of Floor 
 Material of Floor, . 
 Depth near Shore . 
 Temperature 
 
 . Par. 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 f) 
 
 (i 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 i) 
 10 
 U 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 l(i 
 17 
 
 IS 
 
 !:> 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 3(i 
 
 lS-24 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 (> 
 
 7 
 
 Waves Par. 
 
 " Size and Kapidity of 
 
 " Force of 
 
 " lOartlKpiake 
 
 Tides, ('auses of 
 
 " Number of 
 
 " Spring nnd Neap 
 
 " lleigiitof : 
 
 " Phenomena of 
 
 Currents of the ( )cean 
 
 " Causes of 
 
 Warm, 
 
 " Periodical and Local 
 
 Cold 
 
 " Plienomena i^f 
 
 I' Aim 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 10 
 17 
 18 
 !9 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 
 THE 
 
 Par, 
 
 THH ATMOSPHERE 
 
 .\ir. Importance of 
 
 " Composition of 
 
 " Importance of (.'omposition of 
 
 " Weight of 
 
 " Density of 
 
 " Changes in Pressiu'e of 
 
 " Heat of 
 
 Mow the Ivirtli is Warmed 
 
 .\loistm-e of tlie Air , , 
 
 Condensation of Vapor— I lew, Frost, Mist or Peg, 
 Clouds, Kain, Snow, (ilaciers, Sleet and Hail. . . 
 
 Movnni iit.i of the Air .■— 
 
 Winds, Causes of 
 
 " Constant 
 
 Trade 
 
 " Causes of I )irection of 
 
 Calms 
 
 " Periodical ; Monsoons 
 
 " Land and Sea Ureeze • 
 
 " Local 
 
 " Variable 
 
 " Order of 
 
 Storms, Causes of 
 
 " IMienomena of 
 
 Climate 
 
 <'(u;ses Affect inij Climate : — 
 
 CurvatuH! of tiie Karth 
 
 Length of Day and Night 
 
 Winds 
 
 Ocean Currents 
 
 The Sea 
 
 Mountains 
 
 Land 
 
 Climatic Belts 
 
 1 sotherms 
 
 ORGANIC LI FK 
 
 Veijctalile Life : — 
 
 "Conditi.^nsof,... P'"' 
 
 /ones of Vegetation 
 
 Vegetation on Mountains 
 
 Oceanic Plant Life 
 
 Animal Life : 
 
 Dependence on Vegetation 
 
 Development 
 
 I>istrib\iti(vn : Regions of 
 
 t)ceanic 
 
 iv. 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 C 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 16 
 IB 
 17 
 IS 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 
 :{3 
 
 24 
 25 
 20 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 SO 
 31 
 32 
 
 33-42 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 TIIK 
 NOK 
 
 Pol 
 
 Do 
 
 ( 
 1 
 
 Ont 
 
 Qlk 
 
 Nkv 
 Nov 
 
TAHI.I^; OK ('ONTKNTH. 
 
 V. 
 
 ;i ;« 
 
 Mau — 
 
 l)i'|M'ii«lfiiO('i)ii Nivtiiml rioductioiw |'„r 
 
 Affected l>y I'hyHiciil (Jonditioiw 
 
 KH'ccts nil I'liyHJcivl OciiiditiiiMM ' 
 
 Types (if 
 
 Ah to keliffiim .,..,. 
 
 Sdi'iiilly and Cnnniiiu'citilly '.'..'.'.'........ 
 
 In NiitiiiiiH and (loverniiieiiti* .'. 1 ......... . 
 
 KelatioiiHlilii of CNiiiiitrieM , [\ 
 
 TIFK MAirn I AS A PLAN I'lT 
 
 'I'lie liiartliH Sliaix' i>,,,. 
 
 Hi/,H '.■.'.".'.".■.■.■.■ 
 
 " Motiotid— DiiiriHii 
 
 " Aiiniiiil 
 
 liuKliiiility of Day and Niifht 
 
 Why Kaitli's Motion is (Incnlar 
 
 I >i.stance of Kartli fioni Snii . . 
 
 Tlie riani^ts .".'.'.'..',' 
 
 Diifction, DiHtanee, Time 
 
 MaiM of the CJIohii, etc 
 
 (Ia|ie!< 
 
 I'l^ninsnhiH. . . 
 lnthinuseH ... 
 
 Jslands 
 
 (/oaHt VVatei'H 
 
 KiverH 
 
 Lakew 
 
 Cliniatn 
 
 MoistllH! 
 
 Vej^etation. . . 
 
 AiuniulH 
 
 Indnstries . . . . 
 
 I'l'Utiml Dii'isiimtt : — 
 
 Dominion OF Canada 
 
 Kxtcnt, etc 
 
 (Jcological Strncturo; Laurentiaii i'latei 
 
 Hnrfacd 
 
 Minerals .'....'.'.'.'..,' 
 
 CoaHt I jiiu) 
 
 Ishvnd.s ......'.'...' 
 
 CoaHt Waters 
 
 Rivers 
 
 Lak(!s 
 
 Climate 
 
 Vegetation 
 
 Animals ...'....'. 
 
 IndiiHtries '.....'..'. 
 
 A(,'ricultnre 
 
 Fi.shcrieH 
 
 Forest ,\\\ 
 
 Mine ..../. 
 
 Maimfactures 
 
 Commerce \ 
 
 Revenue 
 
 Commercial Routes . .,, 
 
 I'olitical Divinioiis '.'.'..'. 
 
 (JoveriiiiKmt 
 
 Inhabitants, Education, etc. ......'.'..'.. 
 
 Ontaisio 
 
 QUKIIEO 
 
 Nkw Hrunswick 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 !) 
 10 
 
 II 
 12 
 
 i;( 
 
 M 
 
 15 
 III 
 
 i:< lU 
 
 ■2 
 :i 
 I 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Til K Ni;\V WORLD 
 
 NORTH A ^rKRICA 
 
 Stiiictme: Rocky Mountmns | 
 
 MiiKTals 
 
 < >utlino 
 
 (yoa.st Ijine 
 
 17 
 
 IS 1,T) 
 
 ar. 1, 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 l> 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 ia 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 1(> 
 17 
 
 . Par, 
 
 fiH 10(1 
 
 I 
 
 •A 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 )i 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 l(i 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 1!» 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 ()(! 73 
 74 83 
 84 8!) 
 !tO jm 
 
 I'liiNcK KiiwAiti) Island j[„*"j5L 
 
 MaNITOIIA AND TIIK NoilTII WkmI' .. ' <I8 101 
 
 Hmri.su Coi.iiMiiiA iJ)" Km 
 
 NKWhOIINDi.AND |„J ... 
 
 ro.-iition and K.xteiit . . p.... i 
 
 «\ I 1.1 . I ai , 1 
 
 teoloKK^al I'eatiires <> 
 
 Mini'ials „ 
 
 Outline '.'.'.".'.'.'.'.",'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.."' 4 
 
 (JonHt Waters \ > 
 
 HankH ? 
 
 Rivers 7 
 
 Lakes \\ '„ 
 
 Climate ........,...',','.'.'.' 
 
 VcKelatioii '."....''...'. Irt 
 
 AninialH ..'..'.,, iV 
 
 Indimtries ii 
 
 Tnule '.'.'.'.".'.'.'..'.'.'.'.".'. ja 
 
 Routes !? 
 
 Towns '■'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. A 
 
 Inhuhitants '....'..'..'... ii! 
 
 I'jdiicat ion '..'.'.....'.'.'..... 17 
 
 •''n-ncli Territory '......'..,., lu 
 
 IiAIIKADoll ... ..„ 
 
 Unitki) Statics 112 1:m 
 
 Kxtent i> I 
 
 Physical (."haracter .; i 
 
 MiniTals / ' '< '] 
 
 Panu ri'oductH 2 
 
 l''orest (1 
 
 Pisheries '■'.'...'.'...'.'... !• 
 
 Mannfaotiires /, 
 
 ^ymnnK '■'■''■'■'■''.'.'.'.::'.'.'.'.:::■:::::, » 
 
 Trade ." 
 
 Iiihahitants ■........".. jV 
 
 Mdiication ..'.'....'..,. 10 
 
 (Joveriiment ' ,7, 
 
 Natural Siil)- 1 )iviHioiis '.........,.... . .!..,'.."' u 
 
 Kahtkiin ok Ati.antio Division LIH 120 
 
 Surface ., .^ 
 
 Appalachian Mouiitains . \'n 
 
 Minerals '.'.'.'.'.'.'. 17 
 
 Coast Features ,/, 
 
 (Joast Waters .'.'..'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'." .' 1<, 
 
 Rivers io 
 
 Lakes ' ,,. 
 
 Climate ^.j 
 
 Productions, ((tc no 
 
 Political Suh-DiviHions ■....'.....'...'....'.'..'. 24 
 
 Nkw Kncland ,.,„ j^^ 
 
 f!liaracteristicH ■> ,,. 
 
 Mahie '.■.■.;■'.■,;■; i? 
 
 New Jlainimliire ffi. 
 
 Vermont '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.','.'.■. 2'» 
 
 MassachuHetts .jj, 
 
 Rhode Fslaiid '........'... '» 
 
 Connecticut I... 
 
 MiDDi.K Atlantic Statks 125-128 
 
 Cliaractr>ristics, etc. . . . i>,,„ o., 
 
 New York tl 
 
 New.Jersey ! ! ! !; ! ! ! ! ! ! 1 ! S5 
 
 Pennsylvania. IjJ. 
 
 Delaware 07 
 
 Maryland ■■......'.'...'. sg 
 
 Virjfinia .'.'....'. Vt 
 
 I >iHtrict of Columbia M) 
 
 South Atla.vtio Statks 128 i:iO 
 
 CharacteristicH, ('tc 11,,,. 41 
 
 North Carolina ...■.■.'■.■.■. 4.' 
 
 South Carolina ^^ 
 
 • '''"'Kill !..'.' A, 
 
 Florida ,: 
 
 1.1 
 
Ti. 
 
 TAIU.K OF C'ONTKNTS. 
 
 I'AllR. 
 
 ( 'kn TKAi, Division i;'0 \Xi 
 
 l'hy«inil KtNvturt'.M I'lir, 40 
 
 MiiiiTiklit 47 
 
 KivciM 48 
 
 C'liniiitc 4i» 
 
 Vt'tfi'tiitiiiii 50 
 
 liuiiistrii'H 61 
 
 Citirs : Kiluuution f)2 
 
 MicliiKiin M 
 
 WisL'oiihiu 54 
 
 Minnesota 66 
 
 Dakotii 66 
 
 Ohio, liidiunii, Illinois, Iowa, Nohriiska, Aliitsouri, 
 
 Kansaa 5" 
 
 West Virginia, Kentuckv, Tcni phbop 58 
 
 Alitbaiuii, MiHHiHHippi, LouiHiunit, T(>xas, Indian 
 
 Territory W, (>0 
 
 RocKv Mt)i:NTAiN Division i:w I'M 
 
 rhysical CliianvcteriHticH I'ar. (il 
 
 Rivers (i2 
 
 Lakes CiS 
 
 Climate (»4 
 
 I'roiluctions 66 
 
 1 niliistries (M5 
 
 Sub- 1 >i visions 67 
 
 Cities tW 
 
 Alaska ()!) 
 
 (•KKKNLANn 134 
 
 Mkxu'o 134 137 
 
 CKNTKAL AMERICA 137 
 
 \Vk8T Inoiks 138-139 
 
 Extent Tar. 23 
 
 ( Jeological Structure 24 
 
 Cliniat" 25 
 
 Vetjetation 2(! 
 
 Animal Life 27 
 
 Kxjiortfl. 28 
 
 Sub-Divisions 2!1 
 
 lalamh ; — 
 
 Haliamas 30 
 
 .laniiici 31 
 
 Lei'ward 32 
 
 Windward 33 
 
 Trinidad 34 
 
 Bermudas 35 
 
 Cuba........ 3(i 
 
 I'uerto Rico 3" 
 
 French Islands 38 
 
 Danish Islands 3!) 
 
 Dutch Islands -10 
 
 Hayti (Independent) 41 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 141-147 
 
 Kxtent Par. 1 
 
 Outline "i 
 
 Structure 3 
 
 Minerals 1 
 
 Isthmus of Darien o 
 
 Capes <5 
 
 Islands 7 
 
 Coast Waters 8 
 
 Lakes 
 
 Rivers 10 
 
 Climate. 11 
 
 Vegetation 12 
 
 Animals 13 
 
 Ciimmunicatiou I'i 
 
 Inliabitants 16 
 
 Iiulustries l** 
 
 Government 17 
 
 Vol it will lhn»ii>n». 
 Hra/.il 
 
 117 
 
 Par, 
 
 (■iiian;i. 
 
 Veniv.iii'hi . . ..,,,,,,> it, 
 
 ("iihimliia .»,. 
 
 Keuador ,,.,.,,,.. 
 
 Peru 
 
 Holivia 
 
 Cliili . . 
 
 .Vrgi'iitiiie ConfiMleration 
 I' rugiiay, Paraguay 
 
 EASTERN HEMISPHERE. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 KUROPK 
 
 I4.-> 
 
 It) 
 VO 
 21 
 22 
 28 
 24 
 25 
 2(1 
 27 
 2N 
 
 148 
 14U-173 
 
 Extent Par. 1 
 
 Structure 2 
 
 Mountains 3 
 
 Minerals 4 
 
 Plains 6 
 
 (hitliiie ti 
 
 Peninsulas 7 
 
 Capes 8 
 
 Islands 
 
 Coast Waters 10 
 
 Rivers 11 
 
 Lakes 12 
 
 Climate 13 
 
 Vegetation 14 
 
 Animals 16 
 
 liiihistrics 16 
 
 (ioverniuents 17 
 
 Inhabitants IS 
 
 Religion lit 
 
 Kducation 20 
 
 Political Divisions 21 
 
 (JkK.M' BlllTAIN AND IrELANK. 
 
 l;)ri-l()3 
 
 Structure Par. 1 
 
 Minerals 
 
 Climate 
 
 N'egetation. .... 
 
 Industries 
 
 Revenue 
 
 Army and Navy. 
 
 lioutes 
 
 (ioverninent . . . . 
 
 Education 
 
 Population 
 
 Religion 
 
 ENdl.ANI) ANl> Wai,K.s 
 
 Sccvri.ANi) 
 
 rUKI.ANl) 
 
 Nktiikui.ands 
 
 BKI.ciUM 
 
 Si'AIN AND PoUTUGAI 
 
 SwrrzKui.AND 
 
 Itai.v 
 
 DkNMAUK : ICKI.AND 
 
 Okumany 
 
 ArsTKIA-HlNCAKV 
 
 TruKKV ; Danihian Statks 
 RrssiA 
 
 NoHWAY AND SWKDKN .. .. 
 
 (!hek('K 
 
 2 
 8 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 <l 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 1.-.7-169 
 
 ir.i 
 
 l(il-l()3 
 
 !('>:{ 
 
 1(13-11)4 
 1(14 t(>6 
 
 1(10 
 l(ir)-l(>(! 
 
 ICC. 
 
 1(17 
 l(17-Ui'.l 
 l(i!i-170 
 
 171 
 171-173 
 
TAULK OK (^ONTKNTS. 
 
 ASIA . 
 
 K.XtlMlt 
 
 I'liyxii'iil Ki'iituruH. 
 
 MimiitikiiiK 
 
 I'laiiiH 
 
 DrMiTti* 
 
 Mint'i'itlH 
 
 OiitliiiK 
 
 InIiiikIh 
 
 CiuiMt Wiit*>ni 
 
 l{iv'l'l'N 
 
 liikki'H 
 
 Cliiiiatii 
 
 \'i'l|(i'tiitiiin 
 
 AniiiiiilH 
 
 liiliikliitiiiitH 
 
 (■ovt'i'iiiucnt 
 
 .I'lvr. 
 
 I'AtIK 
 
 172- IM 
 
 1 
 J 
 ;< 
 ■I 
 
 r» 
 
 *! 
 7 
 
 s 
 
 !> 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 18 
 II 
 If) 
 
 Hi 
 
 i'iilUical IHi'iiii<>n» : — 
 
 TlIHKKY 
 
 AltAIIIA 
 
 I7r 
 
 I'KIWIA 
 
 Ml I.IICII I.STAN 
 
 Ako 11 AN IMTAN ..........". 17(i 
 
 India 
 
 InIio ('IIINA 
 
 CiiiNKsK Kmi'iih; 
 
 .Iai'an 
 
 SlIIKIllA AND CkntuAI. 
 
 Ahia. 
 
 177 
 
 I7!t 
 IHO 
 
 I7t'. 
 I7« 
 I7ti 
 I7(i 
 177 
 I71> 
 I7!t 
 I HO 
 ISl 
 IHI 
 
 AFKicA im-m 
 
 I'lxtont Par. 
 
 l'liy«ioul Kmitui-CH 
 
 Tim I )<'HnrtH ' 
 
 Mintiriil« '. 
 
 (/i>unt 
 
 IxIivikIh 
 
 KivoiH ;, ;;;;;; 
 
 Lakt'H 
 
 (jliiniite 
 
 Vcijfctutioii [ 
 
 AiiiinalH 
 
 Inimliitants 
 
 Kt'liKion 
 
 OoiiuiiL'rcc 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 ;i 
 I 
 
 f) 
 (i 
 
 s 
 
 !» 
 10 
 II 
 12 
 
 \:\ 
 It 
 
 i'l'lllllill lllll»lillU 
 
 I'lllYI'T 
 
 Nl ItIA, AllYHMINIA, H«)|i|)AN, HdtlTll TkNTIIAI, A KItH'A 
 CiiNdU I''UKK .SlATK, 'llIK (JoAHTH ,' 
 
 Md'Tll Ak^I.A: r.WK <',.|.t.NV. NaTAI,, OlMNdK 
 V ItKK Hl'ATK, TUANMVAAI 
 
 OCKANIA 
 
 Vll. 
 
 IN.'. 1W{ 
 INtJ 
 
 IHti IH7 
 
 187 I!t2 
 
 Vl'sniAI.AHlA ; Al'HTUAI.IA IS7 I!t0 
 
 K.xti'iil |i|^|. I 
 
 l'li)Mioal KKutun'N .i 
 
 Th.' (loMt ...'.'.','.'.'.'!.','"" 
 
 iiiviTN !'.!.'! 
 
 ( !liiuati' .'...!!...!'..'. 
 
 Vi'ijfi'tatioii .■....!!.,,'!"' 
 
 AniiiiulH '...'..! 
 
 liilialiitaiilH 
 
 liiihiMti'ii<H, (!iiloiii(<N, «>ti! ! . ! . ! 
 
 CilicM ,.'... 
 
 'raHinaiiia 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 A 
 (I 
 7 
 8 
 I) 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 MALAY AK(^I1I1'KI,A(3() ,.^„„ 
 
 IMiVHical Ki'atiircH 
 
 <Iliiiiat(' ",".'..."..'. 
 
 l''ll|'l'ntH. , 
 
 AiiirnalM _ .',','.',' 
 
 MiiicralM , . . , , .' 
 
 l'lM>|l|tt 
 
 Siiiuatni, .Ia\a, Honuio, I'dloluw, riii>i|i|iiiii>H 
 MKLANKSIA 
 
 . 7 11 
 
 11)1 \n 
 niaiactciiHtirH, I'.-opj,., ricHJiK.tioiiH, AiiimalM. i-tcPur I 
 
 Now (.\iiii<'a „ 
 
 Ni'w Miitaiii, Nt<w IrclamI, Soliinion iHJiiiiilN a 
 
 ,l";iji .' .' ■ " 4 
 
 TmiKa, MaiiiKa, Mai<iU(waH, New Mdliridt'H, Now 
 ('alixldiiia t, - 
 
 MK^UONKMIA 
 
 1 '(> L V N US I A . ......",....."!.. 
 
 NKW ZKAl.ANI), .SANDWICH ISLANDH^ NOR. 
 FOLK ISLAND 
 
 1112 
 11)2 
 
fo 
 
 so. 
 
 wi 
 toi 
 
 ]iai 
 th( 
 Th 
 
 Clll 
 
 lyi: 
 
 in 
 
 (|pf 
 
 (lifi 
 
 sai( 
 
 Exi 
 
 Nil 
 
 gra 
 
 Wl 
 
 Bel 
 
 .1.1 
 Fio. ] 
 
 ram 
 sane 
 l.y t 
 forn 
 duci 
 
 loose I 
 
 ti 
 
^^^jAuU-j^ n • i6^iv-tjK^_^«-<,.4^ 
 
 r^-A.RT X. 
 
 I'lI-S'SIO^-L 
 
 ^ 
 
 BdFLDING UP OF THE EARTH 
 
 1. Soil— l.:vorywhero the land surface of the vartli is 
 found covnrod witli a fine looso niutorial, generally termed 
 mil, consisting for th.; most purt of ii.inoral, or inor- 
 ganic, U'atter— the product of tlie docay of rocks— along 
 witli a varying, tliough small, percentage of organic mat- 
 ter—the remains of plants and animals. 
 
 T'ocks.*— Beneatli this soil, at varying depths and 
 extending to an unknown distance downward, are firm. 
 I'ard masses, usually called rock. These often rise above 
 the surrounding country, forming hills and mountains. 
 The rocks exposed to view in different cliffs, quarries, 
 cuttings, etc., are found to he of two distinct kinds : one, 
 lying in beds or layers, often curved, tilted, or contorted 
 m various ways ; tlie other, consisting of masses without 
 definite shape, V)ut having internal characteristics quite 
 different from the first. The rocks of the first kind are 
 said to he stmtijied,\ those of the second, unstratijiad. 
 Examples of the former are seen in the limnstonea of 
 Niagara, Guelph, and Kingston ; of the latter, in the 
 granite of the north shore of Lake Superior, and of the 
 White Mountains, and in the traji of Montreal and 
 Beloeil Mountains. 
 
 .iii'O 
 
 
 Flo. I.— A shows atratifled rocks in v 
 
 3U rocks in various positions and in different layers- 
 li, unstratified r()cl<s. 'a^trs, 
 
 2. Stratified (or Sedimentary) Rocks—After a 
 rain-storm we see at the foot of every hill layers of earth 
 sand, etc., that have been washed down and spread out 
 by the water. We know thac dams fill up, that shallows 
 rorm m still parts of rivers, and that the material pro- 
 ducing these effects is derived from the waste of the land 
 
 Ws::;:;:^!i:f^.'^^J^-^S^,t^j^-oil, sand., rave,, and all ,,. 
 t From the Latin stratum, a layer or bed. 
 
 [1] 
 
 uroun.l ; we see, also, the waves of sea and lake wasliing 
 i^way the shores mo.-e or less rapidly, and wo know that 
 the solid matter thus removed must be deposited else- 
 ^vhere. Each little bt,d of sediment left by running water 
 lia« peculiar markings-furrows, lidges, and veins; here 
 a little layer of coarse sund, there fine sand, and again 
 a layer of mud ; and from the Lotto-. , of oacli little 
 dried-up pool we can lift the fine sediment in a thin cake 
 that will often sub-divide more than once. Such is the 
 case also on ev.sry sediment-covered shore. 
 
 Moreover, in this sediment we find embedded the re- 
 mains of plants and animals that live in the water, and 
 also, occasionally, tie remains of plants and animals 
 b(;longing to the land. Hundreds of people are lost every 
 year at sea, and trees und smaller plants and dead bodies 
 of animals are carried away by tides, and finally sink ; 
 and we know that .some of these will be buried beneath 
 the sediment of the sea-floor. 
 
 The stratified rocks present appearances similar in 
 every respect to those of the beds of sediment forming 
 now in shallows and at the bottom of lakes and seas" 
 the petrifi.'d remains— /om7«— of both sea and land 
 animals and plants are abundant in them ; the marks of 
 running water, and the tracks of animals, are as clear as 
 those on sediment-covered shores to-day. By no other 
 proces.scs than by those going on now could these strati- 
 fied rocks liave been formed. 
 
 3. Elevation of Strata.-The great pressure to 
 which the beds of sediment were subjected by their own 
 weight and that of the overlying sea, turned them -nto 
 rock. The ground is never at rest, although the motion 
 may be imperceptible. The south and wect of Green- 
 land, west-central Europe, part of the coast of the United 
 States, and many other places are known to be slowly 
 sinking; while Newfoundland, the coast of the Gulf of 
 
BUILDING UP OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Mexico, and parts of Norway, Sweden, and Scotland are 
 known to be rising. Other places, in Italy especially, 
 have sunk and risen again more than once within his- 
 torical times. So also in former ages; the ground rose 
 and sank, and in the process countless ages elapsed. 
 One stratum rose, in part or in whole, from the water 
 and became land, and was 
 subjected to the wasting 
 influences of heat and 
 cold, rain and sun, running 
 water and beating waves, 
 and thus furnished sedi- 
 ment for new strata, as 
 other land had for it. 
 
 4. Successicn of Stra- 
 ta. — But after the lapse of 
 ages the old stratum again 
 sank and the newer one 
 rose ; the former received 
 a new deposit of sediment 
 and remains of sea or land 
 animals. And thus the 
 process went on, alternate 
 rising and sinking again, 
 until the earth as we have 
 it now was built up. But 
 each new stratum, though 
 deriving its sediment from 
 a former one, had charac- 
 teristics of structure, and 
 fossil remains distinguish- 
 ing it from those below it 
 and from the source of its 
 sediment. 
 
 PERIODS OP LIFE ON 
 THE EARTH. 
 
 5. A careful study of 
 the stratified rocks has led 
 geologists to ipr ognize four 
 
 distinct periods in the his- 
 tory of life on the earth. These periods are indicated 
 by an abrupt and almost total change in the character 
 of the fossils in the adjacent beds of eo.ch, —showing an 
 equally great change in the physical oonditions of the 
 earth. Though each period has strata differing widely 
 in character, yet some types of fossil remains are common 
 
 FlO. 2.— DiAORAM OF TUB SUCCESSION OF STRATA AND LiFK ON TlIK iJARTII. 
 
 to all the strata of that period ; and though each period 
 and each stratum shows a distinct advance in animal and 
 vegetable life, yet animals and plants of the lowest class 
 are found in each. Along with man at the present day 
 exist forms of animal life hardly to be distinguished from 
 plants, and microscopic in size ; whil« moss, mildew, and 
 
 mold live in the same air 
 as the highly organized oak 
 and maple. 
 
 6. First Period— 
 Eozoic, or "Dawn of 
 Life." — In the strata of 
 this period no plants have 
 as yet been detected, and 
 the one species of animal 
 was of the simplest kind 
 — a mass of jelly enclosed 
 in a thin shell. The Lau- 
 rentian rocks of Canada, 
 north of the St. Lawrence, 
 and stretching off from the 
 Thousand Islands toward 
 the west, belong to this 
 early age. 
 
 7. Second Period— 
 Palaeozoic, or "Old 
 Life." — Beginning with 
 the humblest corals, shell- 
 fish, and seaweeds, the life 
 of this period passes up- 
 ward into fishes, insects, 
 and lizard-like reptiles; 
 and into land plants, from 
 the lowly mosses to such 
 as the huge con(> bearing 
 trees and the gigantic 
 palms and ferns of the 
 coal measures. (See Dia- 
 gram.) To this period be- 
 long the limestone rocks, so 
 
 abundant in Ontario, seen at Niagara, Hamilton, Guelpli, 
 Kingston, and elsewhere, the fossil remains of - hich are 
 corals and shell-fish especially. (See Figs. 3, 4, 5.) 
 
 The most important By»toHi of strata ot this i)eri<id is the Car- 
 huuifiruKs* for it contains almost all the great "coal measures," so 
 
 * So called from the great luxuriance of its voifetatioii. 
 

 PERIODS OF LIFE ON THE EARTH. 
 
 necessary at the piesent day as a liource of fuel. Coal is known to 
 be the product of luxuriant vegetation in a moist, if not hot, climate 
 and HI swampy ground. Generation after ^.eneration of plants grew 
 a.id died and in decaying formed beds of peaty matter, which were 
 afterwards covered up by deposits of sand and gravel, and sinking 
 beneath the sea were converted by pressure into coa).* 
 
 8. Third Period— Mesozoio, or "Middle Life."— 
 The lower life of the Palseozoic, or "Primary," period has 
 almoit wholly passed away, and in its stead a higher 
 variety appears— mammals, animals that suckle their 
 young ; reptiles, whicli reach their greatest development, 
 some to a most gigantic and formidable size, such as 
 
 Fio. 3.— Fossil Coral (Palaeozoic). 
 the Ichthyosaurus, or tish-lizard, and the Plesiosaurus.* 
 Mow, too, appear for the first time exogenous trees— 
 those that have two-lobed seeds and a separable bark. 
 
 9. Fourth Period— Cainozoic, or "New Life" 
 often called the Tertiauy period.— Agair another new 
 life appeared ; the plants and animals resembled in some 
 respects those of our modern world. The forests con- 
 tained beeches, oaks, elms, etc. ; the characteristic animals 
 were mammals, often of a huge size; birds and reptiles 
 resembling those of the present day, became more and 
 more numerous. This period was further marked by 
 great volcanic activity. 
 
 10. The Post-Tertiary,tor Post-Pliocene Period.- 
 America, north of the parallel of 40°, and Europe, north 
 of 50°, are covered over with a loose material consisting 
 of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders. Tlie latter are of 
 various sizes— some angular, some rounded and smooth, 
 some belonging to the underlying rocks, or to (hose of 
 the neighboring r-^gions; but others of a totally different 
 character, unlike any within known distances. Besides, 
 this material contains remains of animals of both sea 
 and land that are now found only in arctic regions, such 
 as the reindeer, musk-ox, polar bear, arctic fox ; or that 
 
 8 
 
 are extinct, but whose character iitted them for a cold cli- 
 mate, such as the woolly rhinoceros, the Irish stag, and the 
 mammoth— the remains of the latter, with flesh and 
 skin and hair complete, being found at the present day 
 embedded in the frozen soil of Siberia. Moreover, the 
 boulders and the harder rocks beneath are grooved'and 
 scratched in the same way as are the rocks and boulders 
 by the glaciers of Switzerland. Icebergs are known to 
 carry great masses of lock and rubbish from their native 
 mountains far off into the ocean, and glaciers bring down 
 from the mountains long lines, called moraines, of similar 
 materials, and deposit them in the plains. From these 
 facts it is inferred that after the strata of the Tertiary 
 period had been deposited a great change took place in 
 the regions indicated-indeed in both the southern and 
 the northern hemisphere. Some geologists think that the 
 land sank beneath the sea— all except the higher moun- 
 tains,— while the northern, or arctic, part rose high above 
 the waters, and in greatly increased area. Previous to 
 this the climate had boen everywhere warm, if not tropi- 
 cal, as is shown by the coal and the fossil tropical plants 
 that are found in the rocks of Greenland. Now, however, 
 the climate became cold; glaciers formed in the exposed 
 mountains and the arctic land, and sent off icebergs with 
 loads of boulders and rubbish to be deposited on the 
 recently submerged land often a thousand miles away. 
 The glaciers scratched and polished the bed rock, tore up 
 and ground down boulders into mud, while the icebergs, 
 
 PW. I-LIBBSTONR (mAOARA), WITH FOSSIL StRMS OF CRINOIDS (PAL^GZOIC). 
 
 Striking the bottom of the sea, scored and grooved the 
 rock as they drifted onw.ard with the eurrents. Other 
 geologists suppose that one vast sheet of ice covered the 
 
 ' See FiRs. 2fi and 28. 
 
 to 2^^:^t^^l^\^, '^•'^-■•>' ^-' "« characteristics are such « 
 
BUILDING UP OF THE EARTH. 
 
 whole of these regions as it does Greenland now, and that 
 it was the slow southern movement of this ice that left 
 behind it all these marks of its former existence. 
 
 These new physical conditions, of whatever peculiar 
 kind, would of necessity be followed by the disappear- 
 ance of almost all the animals and plants of the former 
 age, and th^ appearance of others ; hence the character 
 
 Fio. 5.— Fossil Fish (Paleozoic). 
 
 of the remains in the glacial drift is different from 
 that of the fossils in the rocks beneath. Re-elevation 
 and re-subsidence of the same land, accompanied by 
 retreat and re-advance of the ice, are also inferred from 
 other appearances, among which old sea beaches, now 
 far inland, or far above the water, arc very common. 
 
 In the course of time, measured by ages not by years, 
 took place the last elevation of the land and the retreat 
 of the ice, followed by the gradual introduction of the 
 state of things that we have now, the glaciers of the 
 Pyrenees, of Switzerland, and of Norway being lingering 
 remnants of the bygone age. 
 
 Such is the Glacial Theori/. 
 
 11. Man. — But before the arctic climate and animals 
 
 had disappeared, man came on the scene ; for in the 
 
 glacial drift, in positions such as could imply co-existence 
 
 alone, stone implements and the bones of man have been 
 
 found associated with the remains of arctic animals; — 
 
 a fact which shows that the existence of man on the 
 
 earth dates from a period indefinitely remote. 
 
 Only by observing in modern waters the raindity of deposition 
 of sediment can we form any estimate of the lapse of time in geo- 
 logical ag3a : even the estimate can at best be only roughly approxi- 
 mate. 
 
 Such is the story of plant and animal life on the earth 
 as told by the unstratified rocks. But there is an older 
 life still, that of the earth before the time of stratifica- 
 tion ; its story is more uncertain, for we have few attain- 
 able facts from which to deduce that story. 
 
 12. Unstratifled, Igneous, or Plutonic Rocks.*— 
 At the present day volcanoes in various parts of the 
 world throw out melted matter that runs down the sides 
 of the mountains, filling up cavities and spreading out 
 over the stratified rocks in the valley below. (See " Land 
 Surface of the Earth," sections 9-12.) This melted 
 matter, or lava, when it cools is found to be unstratifled 
 rock. So, when rock of a similar character, havinsr 
 a similar position in reference to stratified rocks, 
 is found remote from existing centres of volcanic 
 activity, geologists infer that it also was ejected 
 in a molten state from a volcano. Rock of this 
 kind is supposed to have been, for the most part, 
 ejected by submarine volcanoes, and the name 
 trap has been given to it. It often takes the form 
 of masses of jointed regularly-shaped pillars, or 
 columns, and is then called columnar trap or 
 basalt. Other unstratifled rock, called granite, 
 found in huge masses, and in veins traversing 
 stratified rocks, is thought to have solidifled from the 
 molten state before reaching the surface of the earth. 
 This rock is found underlying all others, and in con- 
 sequence is regarded by many as the earliest formed 
 rock of the earth's crust. 
 
 Fie. a.— I'INOAL'S (,'AVK (CoMMNAR lUSALT), SCOTLAND. 
 
 13. Metamorphic (or Changed) Rocks. — Where 
 veins, or dykes, of igneous rock have traversed strata of 
 sedimentary rock, the parts of the latter adjacent to the 
 
 * IgncouK. or Plutonic, is a name applied to these mcka in consequence of 
 their belnj; formeu directly from irolton matter; Plutonic, however, is usually 
 applied to sfranite alone. 
 
 
THE NEBULAR THEORY. 
 
 former are found to be very much altered in character ; 
 they have become vitreous or crystalline, and their fossils 
 have been, in most cases, obliterated. Thus, limestone is 
 seen to have been turned into marble, sometimes retain- 
 ing its fossils. The Laurentian ro.ks, the lowest of the 
 stratiHed group, are of this altered character also; the 
 Plutonic gra; Ite underlies them, and heat from this is 
 supposed to have effected the change. 
 
 The grandest and wildest mountain scenery in the 
 world is found among these vifitamorphic rocks. (See 
 "Land Surface of the Earth," sec. 7, and Fig. 13.) 
 
 The order in wliich the strata occur is always that indicated in 
 the diagram ; no palwozoic stratum, for instance, changes place with 
 5".''t*',fr- But intervenuig strata are often absent. The "glacia 
 drift in Ontario lies on the top of the Lanrentian and the older 
 palaeozoic rocks, while there is a total absence of niesozoic and cain- 
 ozo.c formations. In New Brunswick the carboniferous rests up n 
 
 Si n'rl.n ""1" '^'''^M '" N"^'i,«°°«^ '' ^ests in One place upon u"r er 
 bilurian, an<l in another upon Devonian ; where all four strata occur 
 the order is as in the diagram. ' 
 
 t\J^%f^''^!^°'' "f «'''at'\,'s accounted for in two ways ; the Lauren- 
 tian after.it rose from the water may never have sunk again, and so 
 coud teceive no deposit ; this may have been the case with others 
 or, they may have sunk again beneath the sea and after receiving a 
 
 Sa'crfth!; ELt\^:'^s:::'i'f ■* '^^--"^y""-"^"'-"- <«- "La^„d 
 
 U. Earlier state of the Earth— The Nebular 
 Theory.— The material for the lirst stratified rocks must 
 have been derived from some pre-existing material. 
 Deepest down, and underneath all other rocks, there is 
 found granite, an unstratified rock, the result of matter 
 in a molten state. 
 
 Whence came this matter? What was the original 
 state of the earth? In digging mines and in boring deep 
 wells, a point is reached at which the temperature is 
 always the same ; beyond this point the heat steadily 
 increases ; at last it must become so great as to melt all 
 known substances. Hot springs and volcanoes also seem 
 to prove the existence of great internal heat. 
 
 If, as everything seems to indicate, the oldest rocks— 
 those from which stratified rocks obtained their material 
 —are the result of the cooling of melted matter, and 
 were the earliest formed, then, geologists argue, the earth 
 nmst have been once a mass of molten matter, and vol- 
 canoes show that deep within the earth molten matter 
 still exists, but whether occupying the whole of the 
 interior or only a part of it in the shape of great oceans 
 of fire, is still a disputed question. (See " Land Surface 
 of the Earth," sec. 9.) ' 
 
 The earth is known to be giving off more lie,vt 
 than it receives; this it has always been doing, conse- 
 
 5 
 
 quently the earlier the perio<l the greater the heat of the 
 earth. We can thus imagine the earth to have been a 
 mass of liquid fire, and even a mass of vapor,— which is 
 the form matter assumes under intense heat. 
 
 Astronomers, through their telescopes, have observed 
 in the heavens huge masses of faintly shining cloudy 
 matter, or " of glowing, or incandescent gas," one of the 
 gases, on account of the peculiar properties of its light, 
 being known to be hydrogen, a chief component of water! 
 From the two facts, that matter under intense heat 
 assumes the form of vapor— the vapor of each substance 
 having its own peculiar properties,— and that huge lumi- 
 nous masses of vapory, or cloudy, matter termed nkbul.e 
 exist in the heavens, many eminent scientific men 
 believe that the earth, and the sun, and all the planets 
 once formed a nebula, and that through countless ages 
 it gradually cooled down, throwing off, from time to 
 time, great masses, that afterwards, on cooling, formed 
 the earth, the sun itself, and the other planets ; some of 
 these, as the moon, having lost all heat ; some, as Venus 
 and Mars, being in nearly the same state as the earth ; 
 others, as the sun and Neptune, being in the fiery, or the 
 molten, cloud-covered condition.* 
 
 This " nebular theory," as it is termed, is but a theory, not a/ac< 
 as the teachings of the stratifie.l rocks are facts : the utmost that can 
 be said of it is that it is possibly true, and that many of the late dis- 
 cov'iries in science tend to sui)p,)rt the theory-the most important 
 being those made by means of the spcctroscojic which go far to prove 
 diat the sun the planets and the stars, are identical in composition 
 with the earth (See " Earth aa a Planet. ") 
 
 15. Thus the story told by the unstratified rocks is 
 less clear, less certain than that of the stratified rocks, 
 but at the same time infinitely more grand. The latter 
 does not take us beyond our earth ; it keeps us among 
 processes and amid scenes with which we are familiar, 
 which exist somewhere now, although perhaps on a 
 smaller scale than before ; hence its teachings are cer- 
 tainties. But the former, from its very nature, must 
 be uncertain; though for a time it confines us to the earth, 
 yet it is amid conditions thai are no longer present, and 
 that we can hardly realize. It does more ; it takes us 
 away from the earth, carries us to the heavens, and makes 
 us look upon our world as only one of the innumerable 
 stars, like them in its present or past condition, Avith a 
 like future history, and with them forming a part of one 
 universal plan designed by the Almighty Architect. 
 
 • See Lockjer'8 Elementary Lessons in .Xstronomy. 
 
LAND SURFACE OF THE EARTH. 
 
 1. The diversity existing in the appearance of the 
 land surface of the earth, in hill and mountain, valley and 
 plain, the very oldest strata coming out into view in some 
 places, although elsewhere buried far below the others, 
 has its cause -n operations of nature visible all around us. 
 
 Upheaval of Strata by contraction of the 
 Earth. — If a desk, inlaid with leather, be made of wood 
 not well seasoned, the leather will rise in little folds or 
 wrinkles as the wood becomes drier and consequently 
 smaller ; so also as apples dry, the skin, which is fastened 
 to the flesh, sin iveis ; and ice rises in ridges upon a 
 decreasing body uf water beneath. 
 
 The various strata of the earth, now so often seen 
 bent and crumpled in every form, were originally laid 
 down flat c: nearly so. When they were laid down 
 the earth was warmer than at present, and consequently 
 
 Fio. 7. — Cdrved Strata of Jura Modntains suewino denudation of somr 
 
 Folds. 
 
 larger. As the cooling process went on the solid outer 
 strata had to accommodate themselves to a smaller sup- 
 porting surface ; this of necessity was accompanied by a 
 displacement of a portion of the strata, which took the 
 form of great wrinkles, or folds. 
 
 Such is essentially the opinion of geologists, deduced from a great 
 variety of fiu;ts ; and such the method of reasoning pursued. They 
 also think that the changes took place, on the whole, very gradually, 
 as they are known to be doing now. 
 
 CAUSES MODIFYING THE FORM OP LAND. 
 
 2. As soon as strata are above water they come under 
 the influence of destructive agents that tend greatly to 
 modify the forms presented by mere upheaval ; though 
 the operations of these agents in most cases are slow, 
 yet, being continuous, in the course of time they pro- 
 duce prodigious changes. "The whole surface of the 
 land is being torn down, and is moving seaward.' 
 
 Modifying Agents.*-— Rain.— The brooks, formed 
 by rain, that run down and furrow hill-sides, and Anally 
 collect into larger streams, are more or less charged with 
 
 * See further under " Waters of the Land " ; 
 Atiiiii»|>here." 
 
 ' The Ocean ' 
 
 •The 
 
 mud. This mud can come only from the wearing away 
 of the rocks ; the process may be slow, but it is sure. 
 
 Rivers. — No better illustration of the efiect of rivers 
 can be given than that of the Niagara rivei-, which has 
 cut its way through solid rock for seven or more miles. 
 The Grand Canon of the Colorado has been worn to a 
 depth of from 3,000 to 6,000 feet. (See Fig. 16.) 
 
 Frost. — Eock absorbs water, and when in winter the 
 water expands in freezing, it shivers the rock. Frost is 
 one of the most efiective of modifying agents. 
 
 Heat. — Heat, from its chemical nature and its power 
 of causing everything to expand, is a powerful agent of 
 disintegration. 
 
 Ice. — In mountains, the glacieis, where they exist, are 
 s oping out deep valleys ; for as they pass onward they 
 tear up, grind and score the rocks beneath them, wear down 
 or round off projecting parts, and carry to the valley 
 below loads of rubbish that has fallen upon them from 
 
 Fio. 8.— Passaob worn by Wavrs Tuiiocaii hahdkst Rocks (North of 
 Scotland). 
 
 the mountains; while from beneath the end of each 
 issues a stream thick with mud, or detritus, that will be 
 deposited again somewhere in the valleys below. 
 
 Among the White Mountains the lower peaks are smoothed and 
 rounded to tlie vry tup. while the loftier ones show the same action 
 of glaciiTS to the height of over 5,000 feet ; tlie same appearances 
 iire seen .among the Thousand Islands, and in other places where the 
 Laurentian rocks are at the surface. 
 
 [ti] 
 
CAUSES xMODIITINO THE FORM OF LAND. 
 
 Waves.— Tlie shores of the Canadian lakes fully dis- 
 play tli.> power of waves in removing matter ; where 
 soft, the l)!inks often lose several feet annually, and 
 where hard, the process though slower is as sure; no 
 rock, however firm, can successfully resist wave-action. 
 The shores of the Bay of Fundy are of the hardest 
 basaltic trap, yet the beach is strewn with huge frag- 
 ments, with sand and gravel, while under them is the 
 smooth, polished floor of worn-down rook. 
 
 Waves wear away, or erode, the rocky shore in several 
 ways: by chemical action on the rock; by dashing 
 against it and tearing off fragments ; by hurling these 
 fragments against it, and by the incessant rolling and 
 tossing about of the beach stones. These all tend ulti- 
 mately to wear down to a level the parts affected by 
 wave-motion. Any difference in hardness in the rock, a 
 crack, a vein, or a depression, will give rise to an inde- 
 finite variety of shorooutline. 
 
 FlO. O.-ISLAND DKSTKOYED BY WAVES (North of Scotland). 
 
 still other agents, but with effects opposite in character 
 to the preceding, are at work, changing the form of land. 
 
 Volcanic Action.-In addition to the upheaval of 
 land by the contraction of the earth, volcanic action 
 going on in very many parts of the world, throws up 
 lava, and builds up mountain cones, and even mountains 
 sometimes within a few hours. 
 
 in tho year 1538 • ind i.rin'f AI. i^^^^^^ f * "''iV" ■"'' '" ""« »'>?•'' 
 
 Sediment.-Furthor change of contour i.s produced 
 by the accumulation into deltas, of the sediment brought 
 down by rivers. The Missi.ssippi annually l>rings doln 
 
 and pours into the Gulf of Mexico a mass of sediment 
 equal to a solid 268 feet high and a mile square. Its 
 delta is known to have advanced in places 262 feet in a 
 year. The Ganges, the Po, the Nile, and other large 
 rivers whose mouths are but little exposed to tides, are 
 also forming large deltas. 
 
 The same j.rocess is going on in lakes into which rivers emntv 
 Tl e rapid current of tlie river prevents sediment from fallingTo the 
 bo torn ; but when the quiet water <:f a lai<e is reached tl e ".fdiment 
 Mis and gradually hlls up the lake. The Rhone starts from the foot 
 of a glacier and enters as a muddy stream into Lake Geneva-It 
 
 aL a litHe'l V^'^H^l""""^ ^'l:'^'"',*'"* ""^ t'^" "I'P'^'- *^"d Port Va 
 Ja 8 a little lakeside town in the days of .Tulius Ciesar, is now two 
 
 ,T, ^11 f7""r''f ''''"',' *•''-' ''""^•'"'«. or land formed of sediment, filli ig 
 uj) all the distance between. ' '"""» 
 
 watTi!""" l''*''"'""*^^""' '■''■" "«'ble wherever running water enters still 
 
 Springs.— Though more limited in their action, springs 
 do their work of change, especially in limestone regions. 
 The baths of San Filippo, in Italy, have built up a hill 
 a mile and a quarter long, nearly half a mile broad, and 
 fully 250 feet high. 
 
 Winds.— While winds hcip in tearing down some 
 hills, they build others up. Long ridges of hills are 
 met with on tho shores of our lakes, composed of sand 
 blown up from the beach ; this is especially seen in Prince 
 Edward county. Holland and Denmark and the south- 
 east of England are lined with such hills and ridges ; in 
 England they have covered villages and destroyed great 
 stretches of farming land. 
 
 Thus, while the eroding agents, rain, frost, et ., are 
 tearing down the land, producing changes of one character, 
 the contraction of the earth and other causes are pro- 
 ducing other changes and tending to keep constant 
 the amount of land already above water. Whether this 
 amount is really constant, has not yet been ascertained. 
 Thus, too, throughout land and sea and air, there is 
 continual activity, continual change : Nature lias nothing 
 dead or inert. 
 
 KOUJIS OF TIIK LAND SURFACE. 
 
 3. Distribution of Land.-The dry land occupies 
 about one-fourth, or 52,000,000 square miles, of the 
 earth's surface. An inspection of the map will show 
 that by far the greater part of this land surface lies in 
 the northern half of the earth ; if a circle, having its 
 centre in England, were to be drawn round the earth 
 and enclosing half of its surface, almost all the land 
 would be contained within that circle. This fact has, 
 among other things, an important bearing on climate.' 
 (See "The Atmosphere," sees. 23-30.) 
 
8 
 
 LAND SURFACE OF THE EARTH. 
 
 4. Continents; Structural Plan.— The continents, 
 or great Urctchcs of land, seem to liave a definite plan 
 of construction ; each is evidently dependent upon its 
 mountain system. Without mountains there would be no 
 continents. 
 
 In America, close to the western side, a chain of 
 mountains, the Andes and Kocky mountains, extends in 
 a general north-Vvesterly direction from near the Ant- 
 
 The plan of Europe and Asia, the two continents 
 being regarded as one, is different in some respects from 
 that of America, but similar on the whole. The great 
 mountain chain, or primary axis of the continent, as it 
 is often called, runs in a general easterly direction from 
 Portugal to China, passing through the Pyrenees, the 
 mountains of France, the Alps, the Balkans, the Taurus, 
 the mountains of Kurdistan, the Himalayas, and the 
 
 -ao'ooo 
 
 lO'OOO 
 
 
 )immmi}limimimmm,immium,mmmmmmnm!!MI. 
 
 -M'OOO 
 lU'OOO 
 
 .4.^ 
 
 SOUTH AMKKICA FKOM TIIK ATLANTIC TO THE PACIFIC. 
 
 I 
 
 .,rrnrimm7n,,m,,mfmllllllllmiitmt 
 
 mii«mijijjiiiim.iiii.r/ii]iii,jiiijiMiiiijniiiiNi i i i ii mji,ni,m i j)jiii]»iu n: 
 
 Flu Id.— riioni.K. 
 
 NOKTH AMKRICAritO.MTIIR ATLANTIC TO TIIK PACfl'IC. 
 
 i>K STia-CTiRK OF NoiiTii AND SOUTH AMK,nicA. (This arranireniciit of the plans of the continental proaies is for the sake of eoinpadsoii : it does 
 not indicate that the hi^'hest land is on tlie east side of each continent.] 
 
 arctic Ocean to the Arctic ; on the eastern side of South 
 America, but at some distance from the coast, several 
 smaller parallel cliains, tlie Brazilian Andes, extend in a 
 general north-easterly direction, and thus give to the 
 continent a divergence towards the north. In iSIorth 
 America a similar state of things exists : the Appala- 
 chian chain of lower mountains, at some distance from 
 
 Kuen-Lun and other ranges of China, to the coast of 
 the Pacific. 
 
 To the north of this main axis lie several supporting, or 
 secondary ranges — the Vosges, Black Forest, mountains 
 of Bohemia, and the Carpathians ; and in Asia, beyond 
 the plateau of Asia Minor, Armenia, Kurdistan, etc., 
 the Elburz, Thian Shan, and Altai. 
 
 20000 
 
 I 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 
 i3 
 
 "■""'""""-""»ff?TO 
 
 ASU FUOa TUK ABCTICOCEA.HTOXHK BAy> OFBENQAL. 
 
 nmmii.mtm iimmim.vin 
 
 Tr m i m n r mmi rm , 
 
 F.UROPE FROM THK ARCTIC OCEAN TO THF, MKDITKRRANKAN 
 Kio. 11. — I'ROFiLK OF Strixtlrk OF EuRoi'K Axn Asia. 
 
 IHilmm^ 
 
 the coast, extends from Georgia in a north*easterly direc- 
 tion to Labrador, producing a wider divergence than do 
 the mountains of South America. Between these great 
 ranges in each continent lies a plain, a groat depression 
 of the land held up, as it were, from sinking by the moun- 
 tains, and extending, in North America, from the Gulf 
 of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, and in South America, 
 from the Caribbean Sea to Patagonia. 
 
 Africa resembles America more than it does Europe 
 and Asia ; but its chief elevation is on the eastern 
 side, and the secondary on the western. No great 
 height, however, is attained, except in Abyssinia. The 
 centre of the continent seems to be a great depression 
 shut in on all sides, from which the rivers escape to 
 the ocean often through deep gorges and over great j b- 
 cipices. 
 
Australia presents features similar to those of Africa 
 excepting tl.at, like America, it is not enclosed at tl„' 
 south. 
 
 In all the continents the slope of the main axis to tl„. 
 nearest sea is abrupt ; while the opposite slope and those 
 from the secondary axis are gradual. In all the con- 
 tments, too, there are cross ranges or elevations, forming. 
 so to speak, the girders of the continents. In North 
 America, to the north of the boundary between the United 
 States and Canada, the "Height of Land,"' an ele^-ation 
 hardly ever exceeding a thousand feet above the sea, 
 runs from the Rocky Mountains to Labrador. In South 
 America a similar elevation lies along the parallel of l.V 
 south, while the Acaray and Parim6 mountains cross at 
 the north. Europe and Asia have many cross ranges 
 which, to the south, stretch far out into the sea, thus 
 givnig the extremely irregular coast line to those con- | 
 
 STRUCTURAL PLAN OF CONTINENTS. 
 
 9 
 
 3. Both continents Kprc;ui widelv townrHa fh.. ..,,-ti, i ..u 
 .-..., a broad flat plain.; whil. thercZtract gta ly i. "^^^^^^ 
 south, ending ni rocky promontories. (f'eatiy tow.irUb the 
 
 4. They are bn.aiUst along the same parallel, viz., 50° north 
 thetoS" I"'""-"''"' "f «^''. ^-ith feN. exceptions, project towanls 
 
 .■lo>!!:iv'''T),°'''"r''" '="*^'\!'f H'"' '^-'Tespond to each other very 
 r^' ff"r *''r.' P'""J'*"<"' "f «""tl' America would fit int., the 
 
 i.nll of Guinea; the western projection of Africa woiilH fi'n ,,,. ♦ 
 Caribbean Sea and the (iulf o/ Mexico "'' *''" 
 
 beS^hJS^'Sfi::;?!-'*^"^'^ •- *^^ ^'^'-^-^ ci:if^a£';::;,;j::t 
 
 in fhl^'f" "'f "^ •" *?"?* •^''-"''' "f ^"''lanty, if not of identity exists 
 n the structure of the great land surfaces of the earth a simiLriVv 
 that extends even to details, it is impossible not to te convinced that 
 the causes that produced the whole were the same. If we know the 
 d rection and character of the mountain ranges, wo know theTorm 
 of the country; if we know the form of the country we know Th« 
 mountain ranges, This lie of the land harimfSt beariZ on 
 climate, productions, etc. (See " The Atniosphlre " "eL 2 " 30 ) 
 
 of 
 
 AFRICA KUOM TIIK OII.K OK (H'lVKA To TlIK INDIAN OCEAN. 
 Kl(i. 12. — I'uoKiLK OK Stkittiuk ok Afkica. 
 
 tinents on the south. Africa has cross ranges at the 
 north, through the middle, and at the south. 
 
 Though resembling each other in ver- many respects, 
 each continent has its own peculiarity. Europe has 
 been called the "continent of mountains"; America 
 the "continent of plains"; Africa, the "continent of 
 plateaus"; Asia, the continent combining all these 
 features, and on the grandest scale. 
 
 Further, it may be noticed that where a mountain 
 chain, or a series of rocky highlands ends, the sea comes 
 in ; only su(.ii can oppose a barrier to the destructive 
 action of water. The result of the absence, or partial 
 absence, of the secondary axis of the American con- 
 tinent, between latitude 10° and 30° north, is seen in 
 the huge gap of the Gulf of IMexico an.l Caribbean Sea 
 made by the Atlantic current, and checked only bv tlui 
 mountains, or hills, of the isthmus. 
 
 Further resemblances and contrasts in the continents : 
 
 west tlelt?' ^^"''•^ ■' '°"^"^' '""^ »°'^«' *" •'-""^•'- •• t'>- <>W. from 
 
 aW S*si:;n:!*ijStr *'"'^ ^^•^'*'""* •■"'-'-•"• -tl. and south, 
 
 o. Importance of Mountains. -Upon mountains 
 and lower elevations the existence of continents depends • 
 with their own rise they carry up great tracts of land' 
 also; they preserve the land from destruction by the 
 sea ; they largely control the size end direction of rivers 
 by determining the slope of the land. 
 
 The character of a coast line depends also upon moun- 
 tains or highlands. Where mountains skirt the sea, few 
 or no inlets exi.st; the coast is unbroken, except where 
 a gap admits the sea, or where a riv(.r, flowing in a low 
 valley between parallel ranges, has worn its w^y thiouoh 
 and let the salt water in to form a harbor, as in the cale 
 of the Sacramento river. (See North America, "Coast 
 Waters.") 
 
 Australia, Africa, South America, and the west of 
 North America, have almost unbroken coast lines. But 
 where the mountains are back from the sea, as in ea.stern 
 North America, or send otf spurs, or short ranges, that 
 end m the sea, harbors, bays, etc., are numerous ; the 
 coast IS hrnl-en, and the extent of coast line vastly 
 increased. Europe and Asia, the former especially, show 
 
10 
 
 LAND SIJRFA(JE OF THK EARTH. 
 
 this Ccalum in a marked degree. Interoounst! lictwei-ii 
 diiii'i-cMit coui»tri(!.s, and fienco coinnierco, is greatly facili- 
 tated l)y these indentatif 's of the land. Their influence 
 on climate is most inipon.nt, and, conse(iuently, on plant 
 life and ani. ml life, including the character and pursuits 
 of man. 
 
 Mountains, from whatever cause, are the source of 
 most of the minerals so necessary for civilized man. In 
 the political world mountains form natural boundaries 
 between nations. 
 
 6. Characteristics of Mountains — Mountains — 
 elevations of two thousand feet and upwards — appear as 
 isolated peak tt, always of a volcanic character; as chains, 
 
 Fio. 13, -Fan-shai'RD Stritti'hk ok tiik Alpm ; shnwinj; the strata poiitortuil 
 and (lemulcd, cxposintf the central iiietumorphic riiek (s) ; the same letter- 
 ing indicates the same strata. 
 
 a succession of peaks usually united for the greater part 
 of their height ; and as systems, two or more chains 
 running parallel and united in the same way as the 
 peaks of a single chain are united. 
 
 7. Appearances of Mountains. — The appearances 
 presented by mountains are due partly to the character 
 of the rock composing them, and partly to the manner 
 in which they were formed. 
 
 Trap rock, though often seen as single peaks, usually 
 extends in long comparatively unbroken ridges, one side 
 being quite steep and the other shelving off in a number 
 of terraces, the ridge often terminating in a bold bluff 
 .such as Thunder Cape on Lake Superior, and Cape Blomi- 
 don at the eastern end of the trappean range that skirts 
 the south shore of the Bay of Fundy. The long expo- 
 sure to denuding agents has given to these ranges their 
 rounded, generally uniform cliaracter. 
 
 Other mountains are but the most elevated portions of 
 the great folds in the earth's crust caused oy contraction 
 and settling. If the ridges are of moderate height, the 
 rocks appear in quite regular folds (see fig. 7), present- 
 ing a uniform appearance to the eye, with but little of 
 the magnificent in scenery. 
 
 But in the great mountain systems, which are usually 
 flanked by lower mountains of the folded structure type, 
 
 the most magnificent scenery is found j the centre rises 
 
 high in the ai.r in huge masses and " shoulders " of 
 
 granite, or shoots up in splintered, ragged crests of hard, 
 
 crystalline, metaniorphic gneiss or slates. (Fig. 13.) 
 
 The peculiar aiiiieariince of these suinuiits is due to the destnic- 
 tive agents of nature. .\t tlic base and far up these mountains, and 
 even to the Buniniits, the sedimentary strata are everywliere seen, 
 but twisted, contorted, and overthrown in every imaginable form ; 
 the ends of the strata show that a viiat amount of material has b. en 
 removed by denudation, and that the granitic tnasses and tlie splin- 
 tered crags of metaniorphic rock were by tiiis means brought to the 
 surface, where their hanier texture has kept them from wasting im 
 rapidly as tlie otheri'. It is estimated that from the top of the ITinta 
 Mountains, in Wyominif, strata to the extent of tiiree miles in |ier- 
 pendicular lieight have been removed by .leiiudation. 
 
 8. Dependence of Soil upon Strata.— The char- 
 acter of the soil depends upon the character of the strata 
 beneath, or, if alluvium, of the strata from which it is 
 derived ; the chemical constituents of the rock remain 
 after the rock is decayed. Plants derive certain neces- 
 sary elements of their growth from the soil ; if these 
 elements are absent, or present in insufficient quantity, a 
 poor or stunted growth is the result. If the chemical 
 constituents of a plant are known, an analysis of the 
 siiil will determine whether the soil is suited to the plant. 
 
 VOLCANOES.* 
 
 9. As formerly explained, volcanoes burst up from 
 beneath through the stratified rocks. The matter that 
 they throw out, gradually accumulates into a mountain ; 
 hence the cone .shape of most volcanoes. At the top of 
 
 C Vs- 
 
 I"io. U. — Strictihal Plan of a Volcano, x, the umlerlyinK tilted strata 
 Ihroujfh which the molten matter has hurst; /, the funnel o{ the volcano; 
 c, volcanic matter ejected and forniinff the cone ; v, the crater which has 
 heen blown out and is fillinij up ajjain till it maj' reach the cone-shape indi- 
 cated by the dotted lines, 
 
 the cone is a cup-like basin called the cratur, its edges 
 being composed of cliffs of lava or other ejections ; 
 within this is the orifice communicating with the interior 
 of the earth, "A lar"e area that has been flooded with 
 
 *The uliief volcanoes will be described unfk'rtheeountriea in which they occur. 
 
VOLCANOES- VALLKYS. 
 
 lava is perhaps th<- most Jiidoous and appal linjr Kcene of 
 desolation anywhere to be found oti the surface of tlie 
 globe." 
 
 10. Volcanic Phenomena. - Volcanoes throw out 
 melted rock, or lava, ashes, sand and dust, gases and 
 steam, and often torrents of mud. 
 
 The eruptions are accompanied by fearful noises within 
 the earth, and the heaving and rocking of the ground. 
 Sometimes the whole top of the mountain is blown 
 otr by tho explosions, or one side of the crater is torn 
 away; in each case a new cone is soon built up around 
 the vent. 
 
 Some volcanoes discharge only lava, such as Mauna 
 Loa in the Sandwich Islands ; others, such as Cotopaxi 
 and other South American volcanoes, discharge no lava. 
 
 The aviount of matter discharged is sometimes enor- 
 mous. (See "Volcanic Action," sec. 2.) In 1823 
 
 Fio 1.5. -OLn (I'Ai,.i.:ozoir) Volcano ; structure revealed liv .luniidiUnn • n 
 
 Kilauea, in the Sandwich Islands, discharged, it is said 
 over 27,000,000,000 cubic feet of matter; ashes and mud 
 from Vesuvius, in A.D. 79, overwhelmed the surround- 
 ing country, including Pompeii, Herculaneum, and other 
 towns. Equally destructive have been volcanoes in Java 
 and elsewhere. 
 
 . Tlie force of the fxplonion.t ia ofton prodisrioiis Tn isss fV,„ „. 
 
 America, .8 known t.. have hurled a distance of ni e S a ,.l« 
 
 ^:eat distances,. iJunng an eruption, in 1815, of Tomboro in the 
 ..land of Sumbawa, dust was carried over 800 miler 3'l nn«et 
 onTh™,''"'The*r,t?" '^^T'^^'' •" ^^/''« -eight™ "^^aUe'r fal | 
 
 Very few volcanoes are in constant activity ; Strom- 
 boh, in the Lipari Islands, has always been active within 
 historical tnnes; others are more or less intermittent- 
 still others are extinct or nearly so. France contains a 
 large number of extinct volcanoes. 
 
 11 
 
 11. Arrangement of Volcanoes. -Beginning with 
 l.erra del Fuego (itself the "land of lire"), a continu- 
 ous line of volcanoes extends along the western coast of 
 America, through tho Aleutian Is'ands, and down the 
 eastern coast of Asia and its islands, through the East 
 India Islands, and New Zealand, to Mount Erebus in 
 South Victoria Laud, thus sunounding the whole of tlie 
 Pacific. 
 
 Beginning again with Central America, another chain 
 extends round the earth by way of the West Indies, the 
 Canaries, the islands of the Mediterranean, the Red 
 Sea and Indian Ocean, through the East India Islands 
 and the islands of the Pacific,-the worst volcanoes being 
 where the two circles cross. This arrangement is the 
 linear arrangement. Another, consisting of groups, such 
 as IS seen in Iceland, is termed the central an-ange- 
 ment. There are said to be somewhat over 400 volcanoes 
 on the earth. 
 
 12. Causes of Volcanoes. -Several theories have 
 been put forth as to the origin of volcanoes. According 
 to one theory, the molten mass of the interior of the 
 earth is forced up through rents and openings in the 
 earth by means of the expansive force of gases, and of 
 the steam formed from water that has percolated throu-h 
 tho rock down to the heated mass. Another theory 
 supposes that the percolating water meets with chemical 
 substances deep down in the earth, and combines with 
 them producing such great heat that the rock is m^.ted 
 and forced upward by steam. A third theory— one grow- 
 ing in favor— attributes volcanoes to the same caus* that 
 produces mountains, viz., the contraction of the earth. 
 In -settling down upon the contracting mass below, the 
 earth's crust exerts a pressure sideways, or lnl.'r„Uy, 
 inconceivably great; pressure always produces heat,' 
 hence the heat develojiefl by the lateral pre.ssure of the 
 earth's crust must be enormous. Bodies under pressure 
 remain solid even though heated far beyond the usual 
 melting point; but if the pressure be relieved instant 
 melting takes place. The pressure of the earth's crust is 
 relieved along mountain ranges where the crust gives 
 way, and hence the rocks melt and are forced upward by 
 the pressure and by the expansive power of the steam 
 that is generated at the same time. 
 
 VALLEYS. 
 
 13. Valleys among mountains owe tlieir origin to the 
 '-ling or breaking of the earth's crust during the 
 
12 
 
 LAND SURKACn^ OF THK KARTII. 
 
 uftheaval of the inouutaiiiH. But their size and deptli 
 have been everywhere increastd by the erosive action of 
 running water, and in many cases, of glaciers also. In 
 plains of any kind tin- valleys have been produced by 
 running water, facilitated at times by breaks or contor- 
 tions in the strata. The erosions are often very deep. 
 In the plateau of the Rocky Mountains, the Grand 
 Canon {can-yun) of the Colorado river reaches 6,000 feet 
 in depth. 
 
 Fm. IC— Canon np jwv. CoLoriAro. 
 PLAINS. 
 
 14. Plateaus.— A plain elevated over 1,000 feet 
 usually receives the name of plateau. Some plateaus are 
 bordered with steep slopes, as is the case with Spain ; 
 others gradually sink, as does the great plateau east of 
 the Rocky Mountains ; some are flanked with chains of 
 mountains, as is the great plateau of Asia ; others are 
 luige platforms from which rise chains of mountains, — 
 such is th(^ Rocky Mountain plateau. 
 
 Many of tho larger plateaus are covered with Kand, 
 pebbles, or rock, and are in a great measure barren and 
 without rain. Such is the great region including the 
 
 desert of Gobi, Persia, Arabia, and the Sahara ; also the 
 great depression in i\w Rocky Mountain plateau. These 
 all contain salt lakes with no outlet, and often have large 
 districts covered with saline matter. 
 
 The character of the surface corresponds to the con- 
 dition of the underlying strata. If the strata have not 
 been materially displaced during upheaval the plateau 
 will be level ; if the strata have been contorted the sur- 
 face will be broken accordingly, unless where, by long 
 
 exposure to eroding in- 
 fluences, they have been 
 worn down to a level. 
 
 "Most of the great 
 table-lands of the globe 
 seem to be platforms of 
 little-disturbed strata, 
 either sedimentary or 
 volcanic, which have 
 been upraised bodily to 
 a considerable elevation. 
 These may be termed 
 Table-lands of Deposit. 
 But whatsoever its mode 
 of origin, the plateau 
 undergoes a gradual 
 transformation under 
 continued denudation. 
 No sooner are the rocks 
 raised above the sea 
 than they are attacked 
 by running water, and 
 begin to be hollowed out 
 into systems of valleys. 
 As the valkys sink, the 
 platforms between them 
 gfDW into narrower and more definite ridges, until even- 
 tually the table-laud is converted into a complicated net- 
 work of hills and valleys." (Geikie's Geology.) 
 
 The importance of plateaus consists in their forming 
 the original part of continents, in giving these shape and 
 direction, and also in being, to a great degree, the gather- 
 ing ground for the rivers of the world. 
 
 The hi-hest plateau is that of Thibet in Asia, varying 
 from 10,000 to 18,000 feet in height. 
 
 1.5, Plains proper —These are extensive tracts of 
 land, usually level, but often diversified with hill and 
 valley, rising nowhere much above 1,000 feet in height 
 
 m»mm^.WW 
 
PLArNS-ISLANDS. 
 
 They border the continents and strrtch up rivers far into 
 the interior. " The largest plain in the world is that which 
 beguinin^' in the centre of the British Islands, stretches 
 across Eun.pe and Asia." Its southern limit is formed 
 by the highlands of central and southern Europe, a.ul the 
 plateaus of Asia Minor and the south of Siberia; to the 
 north It gradually slopes away till it disappears under tJie 
 Arctic Ocean, while to the south of the dividing Urals it 
 falls off till, beneath the Caspian, it is 3,000 feet hclow 
 sea level. " For several hundred miles southward from 
 the Arctic Ocean traces of recent sea-shells are found in 
 the superficial deposits. Similar evidence likewise exists 
 around the Caspian and Black Seas. There is thus proof 
 Uiftt large portions of the great plain of the Old World 
 comparatively recently formed part of the sea-floor." 
 
 13 
 
 Arn'^irn '■'' ™""'"fe P'*'" stretches from the Gulf ,.f Mexico to th.< 
 P,ft,L l.>«'a»; ""'l in South America; from the Caribbean .Sea t 
 
 Nortf/'AmenVa It';'-'" "^ fc"'*^ ""'*«^'. ^^•""» ^^e ea«te n part 
 and not v«rJ f ' !•?'"'?" *''^' """""''i'"' an^ the sea, lies a namlv 
 
 "They (plains in general) are the tracts that have 
 received the detritus washed down from the slopes above 
 them, whether that detritus haa originall- accumulated 
 on the land or beneath the sea. Their surface presents 
 everywhere loose, sandy, gravelly, or clayey formations, 
 indicative of its comparatively recent subjection to the 
 operation of running water." 
 
 Where rivers overflow their banks and spread out into 
 wide sheets, the sediment contained in the water is 
 deposited, and the plain assumes a peculiar character • it 
 13 wholly level, no inequality appearing anywhere. Such 
 Ijlains are called alluvial plains, and their fertility is 
 practically inexhaustible. The plains of the Amazon 
 Orinoco, and La Plata ; the «' bottom lands " and delta of 
 the Mississippi, the plains and delta of the Ganges, of the 
 Euphrates, the Nile, the Po, and numerous other rivers 
 are all alluvial. ' 
 
 Sonio plains, like the vast prairies of North Amerien aro f™ l 
 
 Alluvial plains are often very slithtlv elevater) A +!,„, j 
 ™'revS'^^?,"l\'"'\*'"'-'''-'A'^'"--^ 
 
 unusual i„c.la™ofttS-[^,*S\-:;;::^^^^ 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 10. Islands occur in two positions: one, near conti- 
 nents ; the other, far remote in the ocean. 
 
 Continental Islands. -Those near continents are of 
 the same material as thr, continents themselves and have 
 the same characteristic productions of both plants and 
 annuals. They run often in chains parallel to the 
 oontin.nt, with water of no great depth between, or 
 tliey form prolongations of the continent itself. Like 
 peninsulas in general, they owo their existence to a range 
 of mountains running through them. Some of the.se 
 inlands are of great size. From their position and char- 
 acteristics they evidently are part of the continent itself, 
 and are usually called continental islands. 
 
 17. Oceanic Islanda.-The other islands have pecu- 
 
 imrities all their own. They are remote in the ocean, 
 
 iience the name oceanic; they are usually small, and 
 
 generally, though not always, occur in groups, and they 
 
 are composed either of volcanic matter or of coral-formed 
 
 Innestone. The former are of the usual volcanic conical 
 
 «hape, sometimes reaching the height of 14,000 feet as 
 
 lu the Sandwich Islands, and may be active volcanoes or 
 
 not. It is not probable that these ocean-mountains are 
 
 higher than the land-mountains, since the latest e.xplora- 
 
 tions give to the ocean an average depth of about 2 500 
 
 fathoms. ' 
 
 The coral islands are composed of limestone, the ma- 
 terial for which is extracted from the water by great 
 colonies of a marine animal of the lowest order, termed 
 a polyp. These animals cannot live in water of a tem- 
 perature under 68° Fahrenheit, nor can they live in 
 muddy water, nor ao a depth greater than 120 feet, nor 
 above water. Hence coral islands are found only in 
 warm climates, and only where the water is clear, never 
 near the mouth of large rivers. 
 
 The work of the coral polyp assumes several forms : 
 coral fringes, or belts of coral that lin<! the shores '; 
 coral reefs, lying at some distance from the shore and 
 encircling an island ; barrier reefs, great walls of coral 
 rock running parallel to large islands or coniinents, such 
 as the Great Barrier Reef to the north-east of Australia, 
 over 1,250 miles long, and from ten to ninety miles' 
 broad ; and lastly, atolls, or circular coral islands con- 
 sisting of a ring of land enclosin . et- , of water, 
 which is the usual form of coral is. 
 
 18. Origin of Deep Coral Reefs. -Coral reefs extend 
 sometimes to the depth of 2,000 feet. The txplanat.J-u. 
 accepted is the following : The coral polyp begins u, 
 build in the shoal water near land or upon a submarine 
 
 I'M 
 
 r'l 
 
14 
 
 LAND SdUFACK OK THK KAUTM 
 
 plateau within 120 feet of the Hurface of the water. It 
 builds only upward, a living polyp building upon tlie 
 work of a dnad one ; uh it builds, tlio foundation ground 
 Blowly subfjidcs, the building up keeping piico with tins 
 gubsidenco. Thus rcefn of any depth may be formed. 
 
 Atolls are foi'ined in the same way. At first thiiy are 
 a fringing reef round soni' volcanic island; the island 
 slowly subsides ; a ring of water will thus form between 
 the conical-shaped island and the reef ; at last the island 
 ainks out of sight altogethi^r, leaving a circular reef 
 enclosing a sheet of water — termed a liujoon — within it. 
 Tho reef, on account of having broken fragments of coral 
 and other material thrown upon it by the waves, gradu- 
 ally rises above water ; the looser material, under the 
 
 i 
 
 Kio. 17. --An Atull. 
 
 action of the sun, wind, and rains, soon forms soil ; seeds 
 are brought to it by the waves and by other means, and 
 an island is the result. 
 
 Coral fringing reefs occur in the West India Islands, 
 and along the coast of Florida ; reefs of both kinds, in 
 the East India Islands, but atolls are found only in the 
 Pacific. 
 
 " The facts connected with atolls and deep reefs prove 
 that the bed of the Pacific has lately been sinking, and 
 may be sinking still." 
 
 WATEUS OF THE LAND. 
 
 Rivers. 
 
 19. Origin of Rivers. — The water found on the land 
 surface of the earth is du(^ directly or indirectly to rain 
 
 or snow. Whatever of the.se is not ab.sorbed by the 
 ground, taken up by vegetable growth, or n-moved by 
 evaporation, is seen to pass oil' in the form of stn;am8. 
 Wat(!r everywhere naturally tends to a lower level, hence 
 all the surplus of a tract of country that has in any part 
 of it on(» lowest levf^l, will tend toward that levtil. Col- 
 lecting first at tho bottom of the smallest depressions, 
 tho water passes downward into larger depressions which 
 have received water from others also. By thus passing 
 onward from one single depression to others that belong 
 each in succt ssion to an ever-increasing an^a of country, 
 the united streamlets grow gradually larger till at last 
 the lowest level of the tract is n-acht^d. Sucli a tract of 
 country is termed a baxin, the extreme limit of which is 
 called a matnrnhud or divide. If the basin is wholly 
 enclosed, that is, if "roui ewry point there is a dip of the 
 land inward, the united streams will form a mass of 
 water, termed a lakti; such are the Caspian Sea, Salt 
 Lake, Lake Superior, etc. If, however, in addition to 
 a lowest depression within itself, tho whole basin has a 
 general dip towards a still deeper depression, tho united 
 streams will flow onward till this latter is reached. Such 
 a union of streams into one is termed a river; the 
 depression along which it fiows is termed a river valley, 
 and the spac(! between the banks occupied by the water, 
 a channel. 
 
 Tlio vurio>i« streams that unite to form tho river are tenned 
 ii^uihIh or trtliutariix ,* thi'y are often of such a size as to. be lar^e 
 rivers tliemselveH. Thus tl:e Missouri, an affluent of the Mississippi, 
 is one of tiiti great rivers of tlie worlrl ; some of the affluents of tne 
 Amazon are <>vi!r a thousand miles long. 
 
 20. Size of Rivers.— The size of a river as to volume 
 depends upon tho area of the basin, the amount of the 
 rainfall, and the extent of the evaporation ; the length 
 of the river depends upon the length of the lowest depres- 
 sion traversing the basin. 
 
 Where length and area of basin, and amount of rain- 
 fall are greatest, and evaporation is least, there will be 
 found the largest rivers. These conditions meet in the 
 Amazon. The rainfall is excessive, the area of the basin 
 (2,30'^,000 square miles) is the greatest in the world, 
 the central depression is the longest, and evaporation is 
 greatly impc.led by the dense forest growth throughout 
 the larger parfcot i:>-^ basin. The Mississippi, with half 
 the area, disc; 'ri ' <^'nly i fourth as nmch water ; but a 
 great pai-t of" 'i; bu-.iii is treeless, and therefore the evap- 
 
 * Often also hrancheK—9. Aiisleadinx term— for it is not descriptive of the 
 true rulauonship of the stream. The snb-iiivisiims of ii river in u delta might 
 properly tie termed branclieit 
 
PHKNOMKNA OF RIVKRS, 
 
 oration jh fxcosgivc 
 condtaiit rain. 
 
 it alHo iicH iiutHidc tho region of 
 
 - . Sources of Rivers. -A larg., portion of t\w 
 surpluH wat. r of a river banin dooB not innnodiat..ly pasn 
 off in thn form of Htro.in.s ; if it did, disastrous lood« 
 would follow eacl. rain-storm, and only dry river-beds 
 would at other tin.es exist. But largi, tracts of Jow- 
 lyinar laud, and innumeral.lo small on.-s, are filled with 
 a soft, spongy soil that takes up water A'ory freely, ...ul 
 allows It to drain off' again very gradually in the fonn of 
 brooks; such tra.^ts are culled swamps,- also, n.uch of 
 the ram that fall, enters into the soil and eventually 
 roappears as sprin-s. (See " Springs," sec. 34.) Again 
 m Switzerland and elsewhere, son.e of the surplus water 
 takes the fo •„, of a glacier, the gradual melting of which 
 gives rise to the stn-am, or torrent, that is seen to issue 
 from Its termination; and the innumerable lakes, lar^e 
 and small, that lie scattered throughout every river basin 
 •erve tho same purpose, viz., as reservoirs from which the 
 water slowly passes off" without producing ham,. (See 
 Lakes, .sec. 33.) If one of these reservoirs lies at the 
 upper extremity of the main depression of a basin the 
 river is said to rise, or have its source in it. Such how 
 ever, is the case with but few rivers, since the depression 
 seldom starts with tho crest of the watershed 
 
 15 
 
 or to son.e other peculiarity in the underlying ntrata. 
 n..f where the nver ,msse8 through a plain having but 
 ■■^ slight tl.p, an I wlure, in conHec,uence, mechanical 
 a«^t.oa .H least, the windings are caused by very slight 
 circumstances -a diff-erence in hardness of the banks, a 
 difference in height, or an obstruction of any kind. 
 
 t.. break with i„cr...t»«l (Zl Ztlmt,, 1 „l ;TI''7''':, -"''•■, *»>.••<■«■ 
 concavity in cut out on tlmt «T,I. ,,., I \^ V ,. <'"« '"^Hy "•""nilar 
 one «id« to the «? er "he Htroai,H« i V"''"f "'"'•"""^'y '^""' 
 
 c..urge acro,B the ,a[m ■•Tiro 'e bv tl'i!. n ''"''' ' " '""".' l'' "" 
 
 ene,J ami tho current r.tar ie h tTat It '' »Z f "'' " ^'"f^ '''"«*''• 
 
 l.y a rush of water dS a floo, ™i,, ""•';"»<'' Riiulually, or l.roken 
 
 -. Cuirent of Rivers.-The rapidity of the current 
 ot a nver depends upon the character of tho channel and 
 the vo ume of water in the riv er. If a channel is free 
 from obstructions, and steep, the current wUl be swiff if 
 the channel, though steep, is obstructed by rocks or'by 
 curves the current will be slower. In the upper part of 
 the channel the descent is usually steep and roc'cy • 
 hence, waterfalls and rapids are often found; farther 
 down It IS usually less steep, and the current is conse- 
 qnently slower, while the lower part of the basin is often 
 r.-'arly level, TJie force already acquired, and the pres- 
 
 trfal 7:; '^""'-.'"^ *'^ -^-^^ '-'^ p^^^--" -'-^^ 
 
 the tall of the ground is too slight to do so. "The 
 Amazon for the last 700 miles of its course falls but 
 one-fourth of an inch in everv mile and a-quarter; and 
 he Ganges has scarcely any perceptible Ml for the last 
 1,'VU iMiJes of its course." 
 
 23. Windings of Rivers.-The course of a stream is 
 along tl,e lowest depression of a basin, and will be straight 
 or crooked accordingly; the character of the depression in 
 tins respect being due to the original elevation of the land 
 
 -4. Erosion of Rivers.-In the upj,er part of their 
 courses, especially if the ground is .steep and rocky 
 streams are often found to pass through gorges that have 
 evidently been worn out by tho action of the water itself. 
 Absolutely pure water would produce little effect upon 
 compact rock ; but, in addition to matter held in solution 
 ordinary running water is found to contain particles of 
 solid matter, and also to some extent acids which are 
 derived from decaying vegetable matter. 
 
 Erosion of rock is produced, therefore, by two means • 
 ^.rst, and chief, by the mechanical action of the solid 
 .natter more especially by that of the gravel, stones, 
 and p,.bbles that are forced by tho stream along the 
 bottom ; and secondly, by the chemical action of the 
 acids. Erosion is always greatest where the water runs 
 most swiftly; for there both mechanical and chemical 
 action will be greatest. Tho action will be, in a great 
 measure, confined to the bottom of the stream ; hence the 
 gorges of the upper course of streams. (See cut of 
 ' Caflon of the Colorado." Fig. 16.) 
 
 But when the stream enters a plain where the current 
 IS slower, a great deal of the sediment falls to the bottom 
 thus protecting it from further erosion ; hence the action 
 ot the water will take place at the sides, and the stream 
 will "brclen out." 
 
 25. Waterfalls and Rapids.-An abrupt lowering 
 of the valley of a river-caused by the original upheaval 
 of strata or by subsequent erosions-produces a t,atrr- 
 Jall; If the lowering is not abrupt, but yet quite steep 
 a cascade is formed, while a more gradual descent with 
 a current too rapid and broken to be stemmed by boats 
 
16 
 
 LAND SURFACE OF THE EARTH. 
 
 receives the name of rapid. The tendency of waterfiilla 
 is to pasa into cascades, and ultimately into rapids. 
 
 26. Deposition of Sediment by Rivers, —Fre- 
 quently in the valleys of rivers broad depressions occur 
 causing expansions of water often of the si/e of lakes ; 
 in these the current is slow, and in conseciuence, sedi- 
 ment will fall and finally fill up the whole depression, 
 excepting the channel of the stream. 
 
 Also, wLtMi a sudden increase of water in the channel 
 of a river takes place, if the channel is too small to con- 
 tain it, or the current too sluggish to carry it off with 
 sufficient rapidity, the river will overflow its banks and 
 spread out over the adjacent land. On the disappearance 
 of the water, sediment will be found covering the over- 
 flowed district. This process ultimately produces alluvial 
 plains of great fertility. (See "Sediment," page 7.) 
 
 When a river reaches its mouth— the place where it 
 discharges its water— the current is arrested by the 
 quieter water of the sea, and sediment falls, — all the more 
 rapidly as tlje water of the sea is salt. A great mass of 
 land is thus built up, that finally, after rising to the sur- 
 face of the water, is elevated still higher by successive 
 rveillows, till at last dry and habitable land is the result. 
 *he rapidity with which such a delta advances depends 
 upon the amount of sediment brought down by the river, 
 and upon the degree to which the delta is exposed to 
 tide action and marine currents. Where the tide or 
 currents are strong the sediment will be swept away 
 and no delta can be formed. But even here bars and 
 shoals are formed in sheltered spots. (See " Mississippi," 
 "Gan<'es." "Nile," under the countries to which these 
 rivers respectively belong.) 
 
 Where currents drift along a coast, the sediment of 
 rivers is often carried away and gradually deposited 
 in eddica or quic^ter waters near the coast, forming suc- 
 cessions of long and low alluvial islands, such as are seen 
 along the eastern shore of the United States. 
 
 In whatever way sediment is disposed of, it gradu- 
 
 27. 
 
 ally builds up elsewhere new strata that may some day 
 rise up from the sea, and that will contain the remains 
 of plants and animals now living, just as the strata now 
 forming land show to us by their fossils what was the 
 character of the life on land and in the sea in earlier 
 ages. 
 
 28. Rapidity of Denudation. -" The whole of the 
 land is slowly making its way seaward." 
 
 It has been calculated that the water brought down by 
 the Mississippi removes one foot of land from over the 
 whole surface of its basin in 6,000 years ; the upper 
 Ganges, the same amount in 823 years ; the Rhone, in 
 l,r)28 years; the Po, in 729 years. 
 
 The estimated mean height of North America is 748 
 
 feet ; hence the whole basin of the Mississippi would be 
 
 worn down to sea-level in about four and a-half million 
 
 years, while the basin of the Po would disappear in 
 
 7,290 years. 
 
 These calculations are merely approximatidns ; no account being 
 taken of upheaval in the meantime. 
 
 29. Utility of Rivers to Man.— Rivers carry off 
 from the land the surplus water that would otherwise 
 stagnate or collect in fever-breeding marshes; in some 
 cases, in warm countries, agricultuns depends upon the 
 annual overflow of rivers, as is the case with the Nile and 
 many East Indian rivers. 
 
 Rivers also afford easy means of communication, and 
 consequently of carrying on connnerce, with inland 
 countries. 
 
 LAKKS. 
 
 30. Lakes occupy depressions in the land, to whicl^ 
 there is usually a drainage from all sides. (See "Rivers," 
 sec. 19.) I*i the inflow is greater than the evaporation 
 the excess will pass ofl' as a stream, or in the case of 
 large lakes, t\s a river. In this respect lakes belong to 
 the river system of countries. 
 
 Origin.— Lakes originate in diflerent ways. The in- 
 numerable lakes scattered over northern Europe and 
 America are thought to be due to excavation by glaciers, 
 or to the great masses of rubbish borne down from higher 
 "round by glaciers and de'josited on lo.ver ground, block- 
 ing up one end of a natural depression. (See sec. 10.) 
 
 Where lakes occur on plateaus, or heights of land, as 
 do the great American and African lakes, the depressions 
 in wliich they lie are due to unequal elevation of the 
 strata. In this case, the lakes are often of great extent 
 but of comparatively small d(>pth. Among mountains, 
 lakes lie in chasms produced during elevation ; these lakes 
 are sometimes of very great depth ; Lalce Maggiore, in 
 northern Italy, is 2,800 feet deep and only three miles 
 wide, while Lake Superior, which has an area of 32,000 
 square miles, is not half the depth of Maggiore. The 
 scenery on mountain lakes is, of course, much grander 
 tiian that on other lakes. 
 
LAKES— SPRINGS. 
 
 bdown by 
 
 over the 
 
 ,he upper 
 
 Rhone, in 
 
 ca is 748 
 woukl be 
 If million 
 ippear in 
 
 count being' 
 
 carry off 
 otherwise 
 ; in some 
 
 upon the 
 I Nile and 
 
 atior, and 
 ;h inland 
 
 to which 
 "Rivers, " 
 ^aporatioii 
 le case of 
 belong to 
 
 , The in- 
 irope and 
 y glaciers, 
 •om higher 
 ind, block- 
 sec. 10.) 
 Df land, as 
 lepressions 
 ion of the 
 eat extent 
 mountains, 
 these lakes 
 aggiore, in 
 jhree miles 
 , of 32,000 
 ;iore. The 
 
 L'h grander 
 
 31. Lakes with no Outlet—These lakes, almost 
 always salt, are .scattered abundantly over the interior of 
 continents, on the Rocky Mountain plateau (the Great 
 American Basin), and on the great plateau of Central 
 Asia. 
 
 In nearly all the districts around these lakes there 
 is abundant evidence of former outlets. On the hills 
 around tl.e Great Salt Lake of Utah, even at an eleva- 
 tion of 940 feet above the present level of the lake are 
 to be seen lake terraces, vi.., what were once beaches 
 and shallows of a sheet of water. The lake must have 
 reached this high pnhit, and there it had an outlet to the 
 Pacific. It was f.vsh also, for in the stratified deposits 
 of the terraces and elsewhere, the remains of fresh-water 
 shell-fish are abundant. 
 
 shrank slowly to itn j.r.s.nt level. TlcScal ellitnls held in 
 solution ni the incoming water, and eatheiv d Iv ^ f ! ,i tl^ ^ "^ 
 over which it had passeS, either ren.S cl Lfc* the vater^^f^he 
 
 recedes to some extent), as to give rise m> extensive industries! 
 
 Other salt lakes are evidently remnants of a time 
 when the ocean covered tlie surrounding regions Such 
 are the Caspian Sea, Sea of Aral, and Dead Sea. These 
 retain their original saltness, for the most part greatly 
 intensified. In the Caspian lives a variety of the common 
 northern seal; and one of the greatest seal fisheries in 
 the world is in the same sea. The shell fish of the 
 Caspian are mainly those of the Black Sea, and the 
 remains of these are abundant between the two seas, as 
 are also salt lakes and pools, and marshes. The steppes 
 of Southern Russia, with salt lakes and deposits of saline 
 or alkaline matter, were evidently once a sea also. ^See 
 under "Asia.") ^ 
 
 32. Destruction of Lakes.-Lakes may bo destroyed 
 in two ways Fach stream, large or small, that enters 
 a lake IS laden with sediment, and as the still water of 
 the lake will not hold the sediment, the latter falls to 
 the bottom. Thus, a fan-shaped layer, ever increasin.^ in 
 size, ,s formed at the mouth of the stream, which" in 
 time, will fill up the lake and leave an alluvial plain 
 traversed by a stream. 
 
 Where a lake i« situated on high ground the stream 
 issuing from it wid, in time, wear its way backward to 
 the lake and drain it. Evidences of this are of common 
 
 17 
 
 occurrence along rivers, where at different heights above 
 the mer gorges broad expanses of alluvial soil show 
 that lakes once existed. A similar fate seems in store 
 *nr Lake Erie, for the Niagara Ealls are slowly but 
 surely working their way towards it. (See sec. 25.) 
 
 33. Economy of Lakes.-When situated along a 
 river basni they collect any extraordinary inflow of water 
 ancUIlow It to pass off again regularly, and thus prevent 
 
 When of considerable size, they temper the clMnate to 
 some extent, at least in ti.eir immediate neighborhood. 
 Lakes serve as basins in which chemical deposits may 
 take place. Of these the most interesting and extensive 
 are deposits of iron ore, which chiefly occur in northern 
 latitudes. 
 
 For the geologist lakes are of deep interest, because they 
 receive the remains of the plo.nts and animals washed 
 down from the surrounding country, and entomb these 
 organisms in the growing deposits, so as to preserve a 
 record of the terrestrial life of the period during which 
 they continue." 
 
 SPRINGS. 
 
 34. Origin.-A part of the rain that falls unou the 
 ground soaks in, and in its passage downward\trikes 
 rock or clay that it cannot readily penetrate; as strata 
 are seldom horizontal, the water ^.ill follow along the top 
 of this rock, and at some point below where it entered 
 
 'vy] 
 
 ^\tf»^fnTl '"r";,'?;?-" •'"■ ^^'"!''- "' "" •'"••""^ «*™'""' ""PoscI to rain 
 at iiconil, « a joint, in inipervmua stratum, toniiina soviii.V- I, artesian 
 well, witli to|> lower than ex|«wed part ci a. ' ' "™'"'"' 
 
 will reappear at the surface as a spring. This is a simple 
 surface spring. If the strata are highly inclined the 
 water will make its way to the surface through cracks in 
 the rock. Springs of this character are often large. 
 
 Should there be a stratum of impervious rock or clay 
 over the porous stratum, the water will not reach the 
 surface. If, in this case, a hole be bored through the 
 upper stratmn the water will rise in the hole, and, ia 
 many cases, flow out at th(* top in considerable volume, 
 forming an "Artesian well" The point at which water 
 enters strata may be at an indefinite distance. 
 
18 
 
 THE OCEAN. 
 
 In addition to the mere percolation of water through 
 the strata, there are also underground streams and reser- 
 
 rl!iife. 
 
 \m 
 
 ^(''\:if 
 
 I'lU. I'.). — liKVSIiU.S, 111. LAN. ■ 
 
 voirs, especially in limestone. Sticks, leaves, and living 
 fishes have been thrown up by Artesian wells. 
 
 Soinn Hprin^ riow steadily throughout the year, a fact which 
 shows that thoir water comes from a source not affected by rainfall ; 
 others diminish or disappear duririg dry weather; the origin of the 
 latter is near the surface. Springs will be more numerous where 
 there are mountains ; for there rainfall is greatest, and the fiss\u-ed 
 and distorted rocks allow the water to enter freely, and supply 
 underground channels for its flow and reappearance. 
 
 35. Temperature of Springs — Hot Springs. — 
 Surface springs will be of about th(? same temperature ar. 
 the surrounding atmosphere ; deep-seated springs will be 
 colder. Hot, or thermal, springs are vory numerous, and 
 are found chiefly in regions of existing or extinct volcanic 
 action ; they are of all degrees of lu'at up to the boiling 
 point. The Geysers of Iceland, wliich send up boiUng 
 water to the height of over a hundred feet, have long 
 been known. Others, on a still larger scale, have been 
 recently found near the head-waters of the Yellowstone. 
 New Zealand also contains very many hot springs. 
 
 36. Mineral Springs. — Springs are often highly 
 cliarged with mineral matter. The sulphur springs of 
 Ontario, at St. Catharines, Preston, and other places, are 
 well known. The waters of some mineral springs yield 
 large quantities of salt on evaporation ; others arc; 
 charged with compounds of iron j still others, with com- 
 pounds of lime — these latter encrusting all near-lying 
 objects with a calcareous matter. Besides these there 
 are gas springs, that emit inflammable gas ; oil springs, 
 that afford petroleum ; bituminous springs, that yield a 
 kind of tar, or pitch, and others. 
 
 THE OCEAN. 
 
 I 
 
 1 . The Ocean occupies about three-fourths of the eartJi's 
 surface, or an area of 145,000,000 square milos, and has 
 its greatest development in the southern hemisphere. 
 
 The position and form of the ocean depend upon those 
 of the land : the same iorcv, that p-oduced the upheaval 
 of the mountain ridges and the consequent elevation 
 of the included portion of the earth's crust, produced 
 also the depressions in which, as the lowest piirt of tlie 
 earth, the waters gathered together. And as the various 
 strata of the laud show no evidence of having huen 
 deposited in deep sea, but on the contrary, show abun- 
 dant evidence of deposition in the neighborhood of land, 
 lieolojiists are of the epinion that the main bid of tln^ 
 existing ocean has always been the b( d, though tiie 
 
 ocean has often covered land from which it is now 
 exoluded. They are also of the opinion that the ocean 
 is growing deeper in its main depression, for the contrac- 
 tion of the earth is .still in progress, and the upheaval 
 and depression take place along the old lines. 
 
 Tlic saHnrstt of the ocean is in jiart, at least, original, the result of 
 the union of tiie chemical elements chhirhtr and smlium. These 
 elements still exist in different rocKs, soils, etc., anil iire carried by 
 rivt>rs into the sea. Some seientitic men hold that the ocean \v.ater 
 is slowly becoming Salter through (>vaporation, and that it is also 
 diminishing through absorption by the ground. 
 
 2. The Different Oceans,— The great mass of water 
 on the earth lies in the south, as the great muss u£ land 
 lies in the north. From this mass of water branches 
 extend northward between the great bodies of land. 
 
OCEANS -SEA-FLOOll. 
 
 The Allanlto Ocean cxUnuU between Africa and Europe 
 on the east and the Americas on the west, expanding 
 at the nortli into the Arctic Ocean. The length of the 
 AtJnnuc, reckoning from one end of America to the 
 other, IS .vbont 9000 nnles ; its breadth varies from 900 
 between Norway and Greenland to over 4000 between 
 Morocco and Florida. The general forni of the ocan is 
 that of a huge channel with its opposite shores parallel 
 and running first north-westerly and then north-easterly' 
 The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the oceans, contain- 
 mg twice the area of the Atlantic. It extends between 
 Asia on the west and the Americas on the east; after 
 reaching the equator it rapidly narrows till at the north 
 It shrinks to a passage thirty-six miles wide, by which it 
 
 NEWFOUNOLANC 
 
 TRINITY 0*Y 
 
 n imnrn i. 
 
 1!) 
 
 name often being lx>i-„e by bodies of water of quitu dif- 
 terent character. 
 
 Iiro,„,rl.y more laM,l-loclc..<l than ii LMilf A ^^A/ / i ' '^ '"'" '"■'"*'' 
 but ,iot dee,,, i.Klontation <.f c.«st aH tlw^A, .f^ r''^''n-'';'''''''*f' 
 
 generally betwcm an i.sland and tlu ni nlZl 1 ^/ f^' r"""">f 
 ^^. trait iBa narro^v passage iK^tween vSd "sfrwa^^^^ 
 
 The Atlantic has many more of these offshoots than 
 any other ocean; those of the Pacific are for the most 
 part shut off from the main ocean by islands, the Indian 
 
 Ocean has numerous and 
 important offshoots, but few 
 due to islands. 
 
 The Pacific is preemi- 
 nently the ocean of island.'' . 
 few are found in the others, 
 except the West India group 
 in the westein Atlantic. 
 
 4. Character of Sur- 
 face of Sea-floor.— Within 
 the last few years the At- 
 lantic has been largely ex- 
 plored, and the ocea.. is 
 shown to e-ceed the depth 
 of 3,000 fatiioms in only a 
 
 SEA LEVEL 
 
 m nmmii 
 
 SEA LEVEL 
 
 IRCLANO 
 
 
 , IRISH PLATEAU,'^ 
 
 "■"'"'"^'^"''"fi 
 
 PHii 
 
 
 
 ■SOOT 
 
 Fia 20— A T! n „i,„. • ■• ^^ ^ ™^^ ^ ^ 01 .i,UUU latiioms in onlv a 
 
 b 11. IK.M umratttrof tliti slope fr m the liiHh plateau. th(! depth Varies from 2 000 
 
 communicates with the Arctic Ocean. Its breadth aloncr 
 the equator, from Peru to Sumatra, is over 12,000 miles" 
 while its length north and south is about 9,000. 
 
 The Indian Ocean is but a swell of the gn^at southern 
 ocean enclosed at the sides by Africa and by Australia 
 with the islands north of it, and terminated by the hLdi- 
 landsof Asia. Its breadth and length are each about 
 b,UOO miles. Antarctic Ocean is the name giv.-n to that 
 part of the southern ocean within the Antarctic circle. 
 
 3. Offshoots of the Oceans.-Tl... offshoots of the 
 ocean, or rath.T those parts of the ocean that are more or 
 less enclosed by land, go by various names, the same 
 
 to 3,000 fathoms; off the 
 j island of St. Thomas, in the West Indies, the depth 
 of .3,875 fathoms was obtained. The northern part of 
 the Pacific is of about the same depth as the Atlantic, 
 but oir the coast of Japan the depth of 4,475 fathoms 
 was reached. The .soundings thus obt.'dn.^d, together 
 with the existence of islands such as the Azores, Cape 
 Verd IslaiKls, St. Helena, and others in the Atlantic, 
 and the great chain extending across the Pacific from' 
 near Chili to the coast of Asia, show that then, are 
 submarine plateaus and ridges, and that, upon the whole, 
 the ocean floor corresponds in form to the surface of the 
 exposed land, 
 
 tl.,.''sl,',',5^ ff' 'f .**r "^r" "'"'" "'"J*"'! arr- confined to the part of 
 the shore affected by the waves and t.. those shallow r'arts of thp 
 o. ea , where strong currents exist. The dashing o "1.™*' on the 
 b.'ach, with the ivccm.panying roll of the loose stones and sand in a 
 comparatively short tiu.e wear down the rock to a flat surf^e. wl le 
 
20 
 
 THE OCEAN. 
 
 the currents of the more oiien sea, though as certain in their action, 
 are slower in their effects, owing to the absence of the stones and 
 sand of tile beach. 
 
 In the de|itlis of the sea beyond the action of waves, the slugp>.-ih 
 currents have little or no i-roi'iing effect. Soundings have brought 
 up nnid, or onzr, of the ocean floor, an(i its fine character and delicacy 
 of material show that if the water of the abys:;es moves, it is but 
 slowly. 
 
 5. Material of Sea-floor. — Recent explorations have 
 shown that the sea-floor for a distance of two hundred or 
 three hundred miles from the sliore, consists of the sedi- 
 ment, or detritus, washed down from the liind, the 
 coarser part being nearest the shore or in the track of 
 sea-currents, the fine sand and clay being farthest away 
 or accumulated in depressions. Tliese latter contain abun- 
 dant remains of sea animals and land plants. Beyond 
 this band, and ranging to a depth of nearly 2,900 fathoms, 
 the floor of the Atlantic and Pacific is " almost uniformly 
 covered with a widespread deposit of fine creamy or 
 grayish mud, generally called ooze," which when dried 
 closely resembles chalk. The greater part of this ooze 
 consists of chalky, or calcareous, skeletons (or shells) of 
 a microscopic animal of the lowest order, living at the 
 surface of the ocean. 
 
 The greatest, or abysmal, depths of the ocean, how- 
 ever, are covered with fine red clay, the product, it is 
 thought, of volcanoes, for evarywhere no matter how far 
 away from volcanoes, volcanic matter sometimes in large 
 blocks, has been dredged up from the bottom. Some of 
 this material, called pumice-stone, may have been emitted 
 by submarine volcanoes. 
 
 6. Depth of Water near Shore. — The character of 
 the shore indicates the deptli of the water near it. If 
 the shoi-e is bold and rocky the water is deep, for either 
 the cliffs descend below the water, or the slope from their 
 base is steep ; while a low, shelving shore has the same 
 character when prolonged under water. 
 
 7. Temperature of the Ocean. — "In tropical regions 
 the sea is of necessity warmer than elsewhere. As the 
 distance from the tropics increases the temper ituie of 
 the -water decreases." Though this is true in general, 
 there are many modifying circumstances. 
 
 Land-locked seas, such as the Mediterranean, an; found 
 to possess a higher temperaturo than the ocean in ti)e 
 same latitudes ; the temperature in parts of the Indian 
 Ocean is as high as 94°. The surface water of the North 
 Atlantic is colder than that of the North racific ; in the 
 latter the temperature is about 70 , in the former between 
 44° and 54'. The reason for this is found in the fact 
 
 that the cold polar water is almost shut out of the North 
 
 Pacific, while it has a wide entrance into the Atlantic, 
 
 as it has also into the South Atlantic and Pacific. The 
 
 temperature of polar waters is about 32°, 
 
 But the warm temperature is confined to surface water 
 
 In the North Atlantic, after a depth of from 750 to 
 
 1,000 fathoms, the temperatures decreases, till at about 
 
 3,000 fathoms it is only three degrees above freezing 
 
 point. In the South Atlantic the warm layer is only 
 
 300 fathoms thick, after which a tem|)erature of about 
 
 33° is soon reached. In the North Pacific the bottom 
 
 temperature is about the same as that of the Atlantic, 
 
 but in the South Pacific it sinks to 31°, while the warm 
 
 layer is only 100 fathoms thick. In the tropical regions 
 
 it is a remarkable fact that the warm surface layer, having 
 
 a temperature of 76° or 80°, is only about 300 fathoms 
 
 thick, followed very closely by a temperature of only 40°, 
 
 and in very deep water 32°. 
 
 At great depths the water does not freeze even though it may be 
 below the temperatiiro of ;W°, because salt water does not freeze so 
 readily as fresh water, and because the pressure ()f tiie overlying 
 water is so great— iVi" being the freezing jioint of distilled water at 
 tht! surface of the sea. 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF THE OCEAN. 
 
 Waves. 
 
 3. The particles of water, on account of their very 
 slight degree of cohesion, move very readily among 
 th(!mselves ; hence one body of water may readily pass 
 over or through another without materially disturbing it. 
 Such streams, or currents, exist in untold numbers in the 
 .sea; the vast majority of these are merely local, but others 
 affect the wlin'o extent of the ocean. 
 
 The force with which wind strikes the surface of water 
 gives rise to inequalities, termed waves, varying from 
 ripples to great hills of water. Earthquakes and tides 
 also produce waves, 
 
 9. Size and Rapidity. — Waves are not so high as 
 they often seem ; the greatest observed height in the 
 open Atlantic, where they are the largest, has been forty- 
 three feet. 
 
 Except as a part of the general current produced by 
 Avinds, the water of a wave does not move forward ; an 
 object floating on the water rises and falls with the 
 waves, but in other respects is stationary. Motion, or 
 force, is communicated to the water, and shows itself 
 in the effect producfd on the water by r.iiKing it in heaps 
 while passing onward. In shallow water, however, .vaves 
 have an onward motion as a body. 
 
WAVES— TIDES. 
 
 The height and rapidity of waves depend upon the 
 force of the wind and the bicadtli and depth of the 
 water over whicli tli. y move. Tlie deeper the water and 
 the greater its bn^adth, the greater the height and tlie 
 force of the waves. 
 
 water^lOotifT '^"'f'^'^^f' tlmt .a wave 100 f,.,.t in brea.lth, .and in 
 
 eiTt til "i' '■""' '" ^?t'^'- 1-000 feet (1..,.!,, at the r.ato of forty' 
 eight miles ; whereas another 10,000 feet broad, and in water 10 000 
 
 Ssp^i'-hrurl '■'''''■''"" "'"''^'"'^ '""^ ''^ "^'^''y "f ""^ ^''^' *h-» lo" 
 
 10. Force of Waves. -On nearing shore the lowest 
 part of the wave striiv(.s tlie ground, and is retarded in 
 its motion, while the top, continuing forward, curls over 
 and breaks in foum. 
 
 The force with which these breakers dash upon the shore 
 is often very great. Whore a sliore is exposed to the full 
 sweep of the wind, the gales of winter send waves upon 
 it that strike with a force of three tons, or more, to the 
 square foot. In the Shetland Islands "blocks of rock, 
 up to nine and a half tons in weight, had been washed 
 together at a height of nearly sixty feet above the sea," 
 and " blocks weighing from six to thirteen and a half 
 tons liad been actually quarried out of the original bed 
 at a height of from seventy to seventy-five feet." 
 
 "At Plymouth, also, blocks of several tons in weio^ht have been 
 
 lanT'l.U,''! ''"^t""^ ?'""",*'"' '"-eakwater like pebble?. " '' h^st 
 land, also breakers have been known to dash l!»(i feet hisli with 
 
 Cd'o /';r" *P "rf *'!'-7r.^^^---»ll and break in do.T " At IJu , e 
 Head, on the Pentland Frith, the wind,.ws of a liKhthouse over 
 300 feet above sea-level, have been broken by pebblX -led 'uo bv 
 the breakers, and the lighthouse itself has beJn Loded wilh taJL^ 
 The disturbance in the water created by wind is felt 
 far away from the region of the disturbance. This is 
 manifested by the heaving of the water in long undula- 
 tions called ffroimd swell. It is this ground swell, especi- 
 ally after it has passed over deep areas of the sea, that 
 produces the grandest breakers. 
 
 11. Earthquake Waves. -The waves produc.d near 
 the shore by earthquakes are of a most dcistructive char- 
 acter; th..y roll in upon the shore in enormous volume 
 and With fearful rapidity and force. In 188.3, during the 
 earth.iuake that accompanied the destruction of Mount 
 Korakoa in Java (See "Land Surface of the Earth," 
 sec. 10), it was mainly the, enormous waves that causJd 
 the terrible destruction of life and property. In 1854 
 the town of Simoda, in Japan, was destroyed by succes- 
 sive waves that rolled on shore during an eartlKjuake : 
 m twelve hours and tw,.nty-eiglit minutes afterwards 
 these eartliquake-waves were felt at San Francisco, a 
 distance of 4,527 miles. 
 
 21 
 
 TIDKS. 
 
 „., Jf^'^^' rf "r,''^!''-''"'''*'',"' "f referenceK to form and motions of the 
 earth, and to the sun and moon, see "Tlie Kartb as a Planet.") 
 
 12. Causes of Tides.-It is a law of the universe 
 that every particle of matter attracts every other particle 
 of matter however distant, and " with a force inversely 
 as the square of the distance." It is this attraction that 
 gives weight to bodies. 
 
 Both the sun and the moon exert an attractive force 
 upon the earth ; that of the moon is greater than that 
 of the sun since the moon is nearer the earth. The parti- 
 cles of water, owing to their slight degree of cohesion, 
 display tlie influence of the attraction by rising up towards 
 the attracting body in a vast wave, or bulge. As the earth 
 moves rapidly on its axis from west to east, <,.ach portion 
 of the surface is successively presented to the attracting 
 body. Tlius the tidal-ioave travels round the earth. 
 
 Wero the earth one sheet of water, the tide wave— 
 which is .similar in charact(;r to ordinary waves— would 
 pass round the earth with perfect regularity ; but its 
 path is interrupted by the continents and islands, con- 
 sequently its course is devious in the extreme. In the 
 southern ocean the wave advances westward quite regu- 
 larly ; in the Atlantic it advances north in a curve that 
 crosses the ocean; in the Pacific and Indian oceans it 
 advances both west and north. 
 
 When the crest of the wave reaches a place, it is said 
 to be hiyh-water, or high-tidj ; and two or more places 
 that the tidal wave reaches simultaneously, have Ijigh 
 water at the same time, no matter how far apart, or In 
 what direction from each other, they may be. 
 
 But the endless variety of sea coast produces an end- 
 less variation in the time of high-water. Thus, when it 
 is high-water at the head of the Bay of Fundy, a few 
 miles away in various parts of Minas Basin (an offshoot 
 of the bay) it is not high-water till an hour later. 
 
 13. Number of Tides Daily-Causes. -About six 
 hours and thirteen minutes elapse from the time when 
 the outmost rim of the tidal w.ue reaches a place 
 till the crest of the wave arrives ; in other words, th.> 
 tide is six hours and thirteen minutes in rising. After 
 the crest passes, the water slowly f.alls for the same period 
 of time as it occupied in rising ; then a pause of a few 
 miimtes takes place, after which the water is again seen 
 to advance, and in six houi-s more it will again be high- 
 tide although no attracting body is visible ; another slow 
 retreat follows after a similar length of time. 
 
 is] 
 
 'U 
 
2-1 
 
 THK OOliAN. 
 
 TliUH, ill twi'iity four hours and fifty-two minutes then; 
 art' two liigli-tidi's and two low-tides. Tlie usual explana- 
 tion of this jiliinonu'non is as follows : — 
 
 Tho attriictiiijr body -moon or sun— attriictn tlu' wholo mass of 
 tluM'artli, land as wi'll as wati'r. Tlii' ^'^^)Ull(l is rigid if olio part 
 moves by attraction tlio wliolo moves at tlie same instant. Water is 
 not riKifl. its i)articles move freely amonj; themselves, and one part 
 may lie affected witliont materially atfectiiifj another part. When 
 the attract! 11); body raises up tin- mobile water in a heap beneath it, 
 the whole mass of the ^'round starts forward as well, but not to the 
 same extent ; the water still remains heapi'it up, but not as liiKh as 
 it otherwise would be. As the solid k'"'""' starts forward in obedi- 
 ence to attraction, tlie mass of water on the o|>po>ite .-lide of the 
 earth will not instantly follow, but lag somewhat behind and will 
 have the appearance of advancing on the land, -the shore is in reality 
 being pulled away from it. 
 
 14. Spring and Neap Tides.— The tides produced 
 by the sun alone are less than half the height of thos(! 
 produced by the uioou alone, though the influence of 
 neither planet is at any time absent from that of the 
 other. If the attraction of the moon and that of the 
 sun were exerted in the same line the effect upon the 
 water would be greater than that produced by one alone. 
 
 Km. i'l. SruiNU Tii>Ks; ll]e afrai'tien of tlu^ sun uiiil iikiuti cxertoil in tliu 
 s:uiic line, bi liotli fliiuies iliu \v;Uor is ropieseiitcil l>,v tliu sliaileii portiuns. 
 
 Thi.s state of things happens twice a month — at new and 
 at full moon. In the first case the attraction of both is 
 exerted on the same mass of water beneath, and on the 
 same part of the solid earth ; consequently the water 
 beneath will be raised higher, and the earth drawn more 
 powerfully from the water on the opposite side, and so 
 on each side the tides will bo higher. At the full moon 
 the moon and sun are on opposite sides of the earth, 
 nearly ; each attracts the water, and each produces a tidal 
 wave, the moon's being the higher. But as the moon 
 attracts the solid earth more pow(irfully than does the 
 sun, the distance that the earth in consecjuence advances 
 toward the moon counterbalances the gn'ater height of 
 the moon's tide. Thus these sprlnij tides are equally 
 high on opposite sides of the earth. 
 
 When the sun and moon exert their influence at risrht 
 angles, they tend to draw the water one from the other : 
 hence the tides will be low. These are termed iwap 
 Hd's. The hii.'lier the water rises the farther will it run 
 ntV wlien it falls. 
 
 15. Height of Tides.— The height to which tides rise 
 depends upon the clmracter of the coast, the kind of basin 
 they enter, and the degree to which the coast is exposed 
 to the direct advance of the tidal wave. 
 
 In the Pacific, where the water is deep, very little 
 change in height is noticed, sometimes scarcely over a 
 foot ; but wIktc the; tidal wave enters a wide-mouthed 
 basin with converging and perpendicular sides, such as 
 the Bay of Fundy, the water, unable to spread out as 
 the wave advances, must rise in perpendicular height. 
 At the head of one branch of the Bay of Fundy the 
 height of seventy feet has been reached. 
 
 Moon in quadrature 
 
 I'lo. i'^. Nkap TinK.s: attraction of muoii und sun at right aii;;le8 ; tho moon 
 tido lit'in^ hi^liur than the sun tide. 
 
 IG. Phenomena of Tides. —In the exposed and con- 
 versxinsr mouths of rivers the tidal wave often enters like 
 a bank, or wall, of wat(!r and with furious speed, some- 
 times causing great destruction. This /lorc, as it is termed, 
 is s(!en in the rivers of China, in the I loogly, the Garonne, 
 Severn, Amazon, and many others. In one of the Chinese 
 rivers the bore is thirty feet high. 
 
 In channels that expose a wide mouth to the wave, but 
 that have a narrow egress, the current produced is often 
 v(!ry rapid ; in Pentlanc' Frith the current runs from ten 
 to twelve miles an hour. Among islands two opposing 
 tidal waves often meet and, especially in stormy weather, 
 result in a whirlpool. 
 
 On very shelving shores, such as are found in Cumber- 
 land and Shepody Bays, offshoots of the Bay of Fundy, 
 the tide falls off for miles, leaving vast flats exposed. 
 Over these flats, too, the advancing tide takes the form 
 of the bore. 
 
 Lakes, even large ones, have scarcely any perceptible 
 tide due to solar or lunar influence, the whole surface of 
 such bodies of water lunng equally attracted at nearly 
 the same moment. 
 
 CUKRKNTS Ol' THE OCEAN. * 
 
 17. For obvious reasons very little is known about the 
 currents of the sea below the surface currents ; but the 
 
OCEAN CUKRKNTS. 
 
 2:} 
 
 the 
 
 Boundings madc! witli tlit; thoriiioinetcir liavo shown a 
 Huddoii fall of t('ni[KTaturo aftisr a o(M-tuiu dcpih was 
 reached ; also tlie soundings have reveahid tho oxistencn 
 of masses of water (between Scotland and tlie Faroe 
 Islands, for example) lying side hy side having very 
 difFurent temperatures. In (-acii of tlie.se cases only 
 currents moving from arctic legions could proiluce the 
 phenomena oliservinl. Surface currents, as the fhdf 
 Stream, are known to Imve temperatures widely diU'erent 
 from the surrounding water ; iience it is inferred tliat 
 under-currents have t]w sinne peculiarity. 
 
 Tlion-ani very in;iiiycirciiiiistiinui'Htliatni(«!ify, or wholly cliant,'t!, 
 tlm (Iircction of eum>iitn, - liarricis of luiy kind,' a projecting point 
 of Iiiiid, a concave Hliore, a ledjje of roiU, ridgcH far helow th(! sni'facc 
 or nsniK' as islands in the sea, winds, iinerpial temperature and con- 
 se()uently uneipial evaporation, confliclint,' currents, ineiiualities of 
 hefl, aiXMUnulatioiis of sediuient, etc. 
 
 18. Causes of Ocean Currents.— The (ir.st great 
 cause of ocean currents is //in inetpinliii/ mith irhich the 
 surface of the ocean is hcatnl. If one side of a vessel 
 containing water bo heated the water will flow od' from 
 that side and its place be taken by the water lying nc^xt 
 it. Thus a current is foimcid. Tho gn^at heat of the 
 tropical regions raises the temp(!rature of tlie ocean 
 witliin their bounds, and the water will consequently 
 ilow off toward the north and south. This in part "ives 
 rise to tho drift ciirri'nts. 
 
 A second cause exists in tli(! Iradr. winds. (See "The At 
 mosphere," sec. ) Winds, besides raising the water into 
 waves, drive i'. ' ward often with destructive effect, inun- 
 dating low-lyu.g districts such as exist along the North Sea. 
 Where the winds are constant the current of water so pro- 
 duced will be constant also. The north-east trade winds 
 north of the equator produce a current from the north- 
 east, while the .soutli-east trade winds south of the ecjuator 
 give rise to a curr(>nt from the south-east; the united 
 winds lilowing westward carry the watia* with them. 
 
 A third cause is the excnusir,: evaporation in the tropical 
 regiovn ; the water thus removed is replactid by the colder 
 water from beyond the tropics, for water naturally flows 
 toward a spot in which the ordinary level lias been 
 reduced below that of the surrounding water. 
 
 19. Chief Warm Currents. -The Equatorial Current. 
 Starting off the west coust of Africa, especially where 
 the trade winds liegin to bi; felt, this current, produced 
 by the union of the current from tla; nortli-ea.st nnd that 
 from tlio south-cast, flows westerly across the Atlantic to 
 South America, where it is obstructed ; resuming again 
 to the west of South America it flows acro.ss the Pacific 
 
 to China and tho East India Islands, with a breadtli of 
 about 3,000 miles, and with a velocity of from two to 
 three miles an hour. When, in the Atlantic, this current 
 reaches Soutli America it divides on the jirojecting cornt^r 
 of that continent ; one part, called the lirazilian Current, 
 flows .southward along the coast, and afterwards turning 
 to th(! south-(!ast, und(,"r the name of tli(; C'onnectiny Cur- 
 rent, joins a current from the polo and returns to tho 
 e(iuatorial cnrnsnt, thus describing a circle. Tiio northern 
 portion of the current flow., along the north of Soutli 
 America; on striking the West India Islands a part of 
 it is checked and turned from its cour.se, while' tlie other 
 l)art piiss(!s onward, enters the sliallow and confined basin 
 of th(i CJulf of Mexico, sweeps around it, pa.sses out 
 between Cuba and Florida, then turning northward flows 
 between the Bahamas and Florida, and enters tlie At- 
 lantic with a vf^locity of from tlir(H) to five miles an hour, 
 and is known as the Cu/f Stream. 
 
 The Gulf Stream, whoso watei's are of a dark blu(! color 
 readily distinguishable from tlie gi't^en water around it, has 
 a temperature as it issues from tho Straits of Florida of 
 about 80" ; its l)readth is about thirty-two miles and its 
 depth alK)ut 2,000 feet ; flowing along the coast of the 
 United States it rapidly broadens and loses depth. When 
 off" New York it turns more to the north-tsast, leaving tho 
 American coast ; one part of it now continues north-east 
 with Wi.ter from 10" to 15" warmer than the ocean, and 
 joining theg(!neral nortliern surfact; drift from the tropics 
 spreads out ov(>r all the eastern part of the North Atlantic, 
 ))atliing the .shores of Britain and Norway; tho other part 
 turns eastward, cross(!s the Atlantic and Anally joins the 
 north-east current to be again swept westward. (See 
 "The Atmosphere," s(^c. 27.) 
 
 In the western side of the Pacific Ocean tho southern 
 part of the Ecjuatorial Cuirent is, in part, turned from its 
 cours(! by the islands ; some of it runs down the coast of 
 Australia to join the cold current from the .south, whiU; 
 the greater part of the rest forcing its way through the 
 islands into the Indian Ocean, strikes the coast of Africa, 
 and, passing south-east along Madagascar and throu>di 
 Mozambique clianntil, Ix-nds eastward on reaching the 
 Cape of (lood Hope, and after a time is finally lost in 
 the drift current from the Antarctic Ocean. The north- 
 ern part of the etiuatorial current, on reaching the Philip- 
 pine Islands, ))ends sharply north, then turning north- 
 east, under the nanu; of th(^ Japati C^irrent, or Kuro 
 Sivo, it sweeps in a V)road, dark blue current past Japan 
 
THE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 anrl across the North Pacific, where it again bends south- 
 Wiird, till off tlie coast of Mexico it enters tlie general 
 westward How once more. This current is not so warm 
 as the Gulf Stream, for it does not originate in such 
 shallow water as the latter, nor in a land-locked basin. 
 A.S the surface of the North Pacific is much warmer than 
 that of the Atlantic (See "Tlie Ocean," sec. 7), the 
 effects of this current are not so marked as those of the 
 Gulf Stream. 
 
 20. Periodical and Local Currents. — Where winds 
 change according to the season the currents will change 
 also, as in the northern Indian Ocean. 
 
 The excess of evaporation in the M(>diterranean over the 
 inflow from rivers causes a strong current to set in from 
 the Atlantic through the Straits of Gibraltar. Similar 
 to this in cause are the currents entering from the 
 Caspian into its land-locked offshoots. 
 
 21. Cold Currents.— The great western sweep of the 
 currents carries the water away from the western shores 
 of Africa and South America ; the surface of the sea is 
 thus lowered in those regions, and, in consequence, water 
 from the Antarctic will flo^/ in to supply the place. 
 Hence there is a general set of the Antarctic water north- 
 
 ward, giving rise to cold currents along the west of 
 Africa and South America and for a similar reason along 
 the west of Australia. 
 
 Again, the Gulf Stream, with the warm surface drirt, 
 flows along the eastern side of the North Atlantic, thus 
 tending to lower the water on the western side; ccii- 
 sequently a cold Polar current sets down along Green- 
 land, and, meeting with another from Baflin Bay, flows 
 down the eastern coast of North America as the Labra- 
 dor Current, as far, at least, as the Chesapeake Bay. 
 
 22. Phenomena of Currents. —Floating material of 
 all kinds is apt to collect within a space around which 
 water flows ; hence directly to the north of the north 
 equatorial current there is a vast extent of the ocean 
 covered with sea-weed, and known as the Sargasso Sea ; 
 similar regions are found north of the Sandwich Islands, 
 and in other places. These masses of weed are not torn 
 from rocks, but grow where they are found floating on 
 the water. They are the home of countless myriads of 
 marine animals. 
 
 Tropical productions are borne by the currents to 
 regions far distant, and polar sea-animals and plants aie 
 met with in the temperate zones. 
 
 THE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 1. Importance of the Air.— Though all the opera- 
 tions of what is termed " nature " are closely united, yet 
 the phenomena connected with the air are so varied, so 
 all-pervading, that the air has justly been called the one 
 essential feature in connection with our earth ; not only 
 do heat and cold, light and darkness, storm and calm, 
 depend upon it, but even life itself, whether in plant or 
 animal, in the deepest sea or on the highest land. 
 
 2. Composition of Air.— The air is a fluid, and obeys 
 the same laws as other fluids. 
 
 Pure air is made up of a mixture of two gases, oxygen 
 and nitrogen, in the proportion by weight of twenty-one 
 parts in a hundred of the former, and seventy-nine of 
 the latter ; these proportions are everywhere the same. 
 
 But we know that other substances must be in the 
 atmosphere, although they form no part of pure air. 
 When water evapo-rates—thut is, turjis into vapor — we 
 can often see it pass off into the air ; air, therefore, con- 
 
 tains aqueous, or watery, vaj)or. When plants or animi»,l8 
 are decaying a gas is found to be given off, viz., carbonic 
 acid gas ; the same gas is present in the breath that 
 comes from the lungs of animals ; it is given off in large 
 quantities from active volcanoes, and also from some 
 extinct ones. Next to oxygen and nitrogen, these two 
 substances are the most important in the atmosphere. 
 
 Though their quantity is great yet the proportion they bear to 
 the whole body of the air is small ; of aqueous vapor there are from 
 four to sixteen parts by weight in a thousand of carbonic acid gas 
 the proportion is much less. The air resting on a surface a mile 
 square is estimated to contain 13,800 tons of carbonic acid gas, or 
 3,700 tons of pure carbon. 
 
 Tliere are other substances in the air in minute quantities, such 
 as ammonia ; snlid matUr of mnny kinds, seen in the dust, or motes, 
 m a beam of light ; of these, carbon, the black part of smoke, is the 
 most important; oxygen, chemically united with carbon, produces 
 carbonic acid gas. 
 
 3. Importance of these Gases.— The aqueous vapor 
 of the air gives rise to rain, snow, mist, hail, dew, and 
 frost, and is the cause of storms. (See also sec. 8), 
 Oxygen sustains animal life ; it enters the lungs, unites 
 
PROPEHTIKS OF THE AIR. 
 
 26 
 
 with the surplus carbon of the blood, producing the 
 carbonic acid gas which is given off in the brwth. 
 Plants in their leaves change this gas back again to 
 carbon and oxygen, retaining the carbon and setting free 
 the oxygen. 
 
 Thus what is thrown off by animals is taken up }>y 
 plants as nec( osary for their growth, and what is thrown 
 off by plants is taken up by animals. 
 
 4. Weight of the Air. -The earth attracts all things 
 
 to it and thus gives them weight; air, therefore, has 
 
 weight. 
 
 If a bottle Iiave air forced into it by inwins ..f an air-puniD and 
 then beclosey corked and weighed, it will bo found to we g n 
 than before the air was forced into it. 
 
 The force with which the air pre.sses downward upon 
 the earth is ascertained by means of a barometer;* tliis 
 force is nearly fifteen pounds to the square inch'at the 
 level of the sea. There the whole mass of the air is 
 overhead— extending to a di.stanco variously estimated 
 at from fifty to two hundred miles. 
 
 It is evident that if the weight of the column of air 
 be diminished, the mercury in the barometer will fall 
 accordingly ; the mercury in the barometer falls in pro- 
 portion as we rise above the sea, for then some of the air 
 is below us. By careful attention to this fact the baro- 
 meter has become of great value in determining the 
 elevation of places above sea-l«vel. 
 
 5. Density of the Air.- The air is a highly elastic 
 
 fluid, yielding to pressure and expanding indefinitely 
 
 when the pressure is taken away. Consequently the air 
 
 next the earth is denser than that farther removed. At 
 
 the distance of about three and a half miles above the 
 
 earth the mercury in the barometer stands only fifteen 
 
 inches high. This fact ^hows that half the weight of the 
 
 air is below that elevation. 
 
 Animals do not feel the great weight of the atmosphere nressine- 
 upon them, because the^ cavities of the body are filled wftrSc 
 gases that counteract the ,,ressure of the air; the.se guises nthdr 
 efforts to expand, ,.re.ss outward in all directions, witlTa force enual 
 to the inward pressure of the air. On ascending high mountains ,«• 
 on gmng up m balloons, the nose, ears, etc.. are apt to bleed -the 
 outs.de pressure being somewhat ren.oved. the internal gases ex.aV^ 
 and burst the more delicate blood-vessels. expana 
 
 6. Changes in Pressure of the Air. -The pressure 
 of the air decreases as the height above the sea-level 
 increases ; but the pre.'«sure at the sea-level is not uniform 
 over the globe, nor is the pressure at the same place 
 always constant. At one time the pressure may be high— 
 that is, t he mercury may stnnd somewhat over thirty 
 
 * The liarometer must here bo procured and fully described. ~ 
 
 inches in the barometer tube ; at another it may bo Inw— 
 that is, .standing somewhat less than thirty inches in 
 height. (See "Storms," sec. 21.) 
 
 The causes producing these changes are' not ftdly known. It in 
 known, liowever, that Imit nffrets the air by causing it to expand; 
 hen'^e, a he.ated portion, hy becoming more bulky tium the neighbor- 
 ing air. Ml part Hows off. Thus warm air is lighter than cold air. 
 Aiiwmtx ,v/mr IS found to be lighter than air, and if a great deal 
 ot this should Ix^ i)re8ent the pressure will be low 
 
 . As the barometer indicates any change in the pressure of the 
 air, aiui as aqueous vapor is more or less connected with all storms. 
 thM barometer is of great practical value for the sailor, and for the 
 fa'iner as well. 
 
 7 Heat of the Air. —It is very evident that we derive 
 our heat from the sun ; the, small quantity that may find 
 its way outward from the interior of the earth is inap- 
 preciable. But we know that the heat is almost all 
 confined within a space of a few thousand feet above 
 the earth. Beyond a certain elevation, varying from 
 near or at the sea-level in the polar regions, to over 16,000 
 feet within the tropics, the temperature is always below 
 the freezing point ; at still higher elevations the cold is 
 so intense that nothing can live. Yet the heat from the 
 sun passes through this icy region in order to reach and 
 warm the earth. 
 
 8. How the Earth is Warmed.-The atmosphere 
 permits the luminous direct heat »f the sun to pass 
 through it unobstructed— without warming it. This heat 
 is arrested by the earth, part of it is absorbed and warms 
 the ground, but the greater jiart is radiated back into 
 the air, not, however, as luminous or light-giving heat, 
 but as dark heat ; this dark heat the aqueous vapor in the 
 air vnll not allow to pass away readily: hence it " warms 
 up the air " by warming the aqueous vapor in it ; in this 
 manner the heat is retained. 
 
 So, when the sun is withdrawn, instead of an icy air instantlv 
 coming on and freezing everything, even in a summer's night a 
 warm covering lies over the whole land. In the higher regions of 
 the atmosphere, at a distance of hve or six miles, where the air is 
 thin, there is but little aqueous vapoi and hence there is nothin- to 
 prevent the heat froni passing off into space unperceived anci in 
 consequence, the cold is intense. So, if aqueous vapor were removed 
 life would perish from the earth, and all things be scorched bv dav 
 frozen by night. •' ■'' 
 
 amount of heat there is in the air, is indicated by the llurmcmker.* 
 tr.^^ I" ''f''': f^'f • Y'*^'* ^^"^ "'•dinary barometric pressure, pure 
 [nrl rqo'''"T?''iV''**''"f'''?*"''^"f 212°, and freezes at a tempera- 
 lure ot 61 . If the normal pressure is chanped, a change in the 
 phenomena attending these degrees of heat will take place 
 
 1 he pressure dimmishes as we rise above the sea-level and it is 
 found that water wdl boil at a much lower temiierature than 212°. 
 fc'oTK l"^!;^'''; '^t'i freight of 1,'?,000 feet, water boils at 190". 
 Hence the height of a place above the sea-level may be determined 
 by oliservmg the degree of temiieratnre at whicb w»ter boil- A 
 greater degree of pressure than that exerted by the atmosphere 
 would prevent water boiling at 2 12°, or freezing at 32^ 
 
 * The <ni,structioii and action of the thermometer must be fully explained. 
 
 
2G 
 
 THE ATMOSPHERK. 
 
 I 
 
 As the luiueous vapor arrests radiated heat, the wannest 
 temperature will be found nearest tlie earth. As a rule, 
 heat decreases as we. ascend, but not uniformly; a great 
 many circumstances iiillueuce it ; it is found, however, 
 that the temperature falls one degree for about every 590 
 feet of ascent. (See " Climate," sec. 29.) 
 
 MOISTURE OF THE AIH. 
 
 9. The moisture of the air is directly due to evaporation. 
 Everywhere on the earth, even in polar regions or in 
 sandy deserts, evaporation is taking place, though, other 
 things being equal, where the heat is gi-eatest evaporation 
 is greatest, for warm air can contain more aqueous vapor 
 than cold air. Wind, by carrying off aqueous vapor, and 
 thus constantly bringing other air to take up moisture, 
 greatly aids evaporation. Tlie greatest evaporation takes 
 place in the tropical regions, for there the heat is greatest 
 and water abundant. The dryness of air causes moisture 
 to be rapidly turned to invisible vapor, even in the coldest 
 weather. 
 
 Absolutely dry air does not exist in nature, since moisture is all- 
 Kjrviidiiig'. When we see steam or smoke from a factory extendinK 
 
 lAji v.iuiu^. »»iit;ii wB HfH Bteaiii t)r HiiioKe irom a lacrory exienaing 
 far away through the air, it is a sign that the air is heavily laden with 
 moisture. 
 
 Tlie magnitude of evaporation may be inferred from the fact that 
 all the rain, snow, rivers, lakes, etc., owe their origin more or less 
 directly to evaporation. 
 
 Rooms are made cool in summer by si)rinkling water on the floor ; 
 and a shower of rain cools the air. In each case evaporation takes 
 place, and the heat that produces it is abstracted from the air or the 
 wet surface. When, on the other hand, the moistiire " the air con- 
 denses—turns into mist or rain— the heat that is tal n up is given 
 oiit again where the condensation takes place. 
 
 10. Condensation of Vapor.— Warm air can contain 
 more moisture than cold air. If air is saturated, any 
 lowering of temperature, tliat is, any withdrawal of heat, 
 is followed by condensation. The moisture that the air 
 cannot hold as invisible vapor appears in different forms. 
 
 Dew. — In the summer when the ground, during the 
 night, by giving off heat, cools the air in contact with it 
 below the point at which it cannot contain all its moisture, 
 some of the moisture condenses and forms what is known 
 as dew. If the sky is clear dew forms rapidly, for the 
 heat passes away more readily than if the sky is cloudy. 
 
 Frost. —If the cooling continues till the point of tem- 
 perature indicated by 32° on the thermometer is reached, 
 frost is formed, Frost consists of minute particles of ice, 
 which is water in a crystallized or solid form. 
 
 }fist or Fog. — Dew and frost are formed from the 
 moisture of the air, in close contact witli the surface that 
 gives off its heat. If a mass of warm moist air is cooled 
 
 to the dew point by the cool ground, or other means, th« 
 moisture that it can no longer contain in an invisible 
 state appears as mint, or foij. 
 
 Clouds. — If the mist, instead of lying along the ground, 
 '\A high in the air, the term cloud is applied to it. 
 
 When warm moisture-laden air, borne along by wind, 
 strikes a mountain, the air is forced up where the tem- 
 perature is lower, it will, therefore, bo cooled, and mist 
 or clouds formed. Also, the warm air from near the 
 ground, is constantly rising with its load of moistn >; 
 this condenses and takes a visible form when the colder 
 regions above reduce the temperature to the dew point, 
 or where the air, being no longer so dense, cannot contain 
 Uie same quantity of moisture in an invisible state. 
 
 The air is constantly in motion, so that clouds assume eveiy 
 variety of form. When the clouds suddenly appear in a clear sky, 
 wo know a lowering of temperature has taken place; if clouds dis- 
 appear the temperature lins risen. In the tii-st case a body of cool 
 air may liave suddenly invaded the warm air ; in the sectmd, warm 
 air has mingled with the cool. 
 
 Rain, — If, after the formation of clouds, the conden- 
 sation still goes on, the mist particles unite and, becoming 
 too lieavy to be upborne by the air, fall gradually down- 
 waixls, th(! drops getting larger as they fall till they 
 become rnin. 
 
 The amount of rain that falls will depend upon the 
 amount of moisture in the air, and the degree to which 
 tlie air is cooled. Hence, where evaporation is greatest 
 rain will be most copious, as within the tropics; and 
 where it is least, rain will be least, as in the arctic 
 regions. (See "Climate," sees. 29, ,30.) 
 
 Rain washes from the air some of its gases and solid 
 matter, thus purifying it and adding to the soil what is 
 needful for vegetable growth. 
 
 Snov}. — When the mist condensed from clouds is 
 cooled down to the freezing point (32"), it takes the form 
 of crystals of ice, which, being blown together, form 
 snow. The ice-crystals, or disks, though of many beauti- 
 ful patterns, are all six-sided. 
 
 In ascending into the air we at last reach a point at which the 
 temperature is never above freezing point. This ijoint is called the 
 snow-line. It will vary in height above the ground according to the 
 character of the regions bene.atli. Over the ocean it is uniform in 
 height from east to west, and slopes off gradually from the tropics 
 to the polar regions, where it reaches the Kiirfa';e of tiie sea. Land 
 warms the air to a greater ilistance upward than does the sea : hence 
 the snow-hne is higher over land than over sea in the same latitudes, 
 re.aching sometimes nearly 20,000 feet above sea level. Over moun- 
 tains it is also higher than over plains, for mountains force warm air 
 far up into the atmosphere. 
 
 Glacier.^.— \n mountains that extend sibovo the snow- 
 line, snow accumulates in largo quantities, and gradually 
 sliding down the slopes becomes greatly compressed in 
 
 .j,,;^^mp 
 
MOISTIJHH— WINDS. 
 
 the narrow valloys Lelow ; this pn-ssurc, together with 
 tho partial molting of the snow wlicn it gets below the 
 Hnow-line, turns the snow into more or less aolid ice 
 This ice acts precisely like water; it Hows clown the 
 valleys towards the lowlands, turns corners, goes over 
 precipices and reunites; flows faster in the middle than 
 at the sides, and carries along with it loads of stone and 
 earth in long lines, called nm-nims, that have fallen upon 
 
 27 
 
 flo. 23.-GLAtiBKs. Sho^vin^' .nflial and iutuml »„„•„„„•. un,l buulder-capped 
 
 100 cone!). '^'^ 
 
 it from the mountain sides. Glaciers also have affluents, 
 as do rivers, each affluent uniting with the main glaciers 
 as completely as water unites with water, 
 
 Sleet and I/ail. -The ionner oi these consists of rain 
 and half melted snow; the latter of ice, the cause pro- 
 ducing which is not fully known : from their frequent 
 occurrence during thunder-storms they are thouijht to 
 owe to electricity their origin and often peculiar shape. 
 
 MOVKMliNT.S OK TFIK AIR 
 
 fVindn. 
 11. Causes of Winds. -When a pail of water is 
 dipped from a pond or cistern, th.- surrounding water is 
 seen to rush in and fill the hollow made by the removal 
 of the pailful. All fluids, air being one of them, act 
 in the same way. It is the downward pressure of the 
 fluid that forces the part next t\u>. vacancy sideways into 
 the vacancy. 
 
 I If wo stand near a large bonfire we feel a wind drawing 
 ! towards the fire; and we see sparks, smoke, etc., risir- 
 i rapidly upward. The fire heats the air, and, thus he8*> -, 
 the air ascends, creating a partial vacancy; the dow. ' 
 ward pressure of tho surrounding air fonn^s the neigh- 
 I'oring air sideways into the vacancy : motion of the air is 
 ffius caused, which is wind. 
 
 In other words, the heated and ascending air creates 
 an area of low pressure. (See "Changes in Pressure of 
 the Air," sec. 6.) The surrounding cooler air has a hiyh 
 pr,'sx„re, and air from an area of high pressure flows 
 into an area of low pressure. 
 
 In like manner tho sun heats up some portions of the 
 earth's surface more than it does other portions; vast 
 areas having unequal pressure, are thus formed, and a 
 movement of air from areas of high pressure will take 
 place toward areas of low pressure. All the various winds 
 Otoe their origin, directly or indirectly, to inequality in tlie 
 heating of the surface of the earth, 
 
 12. Constant Winds. -In the tropical regions the 
 heat is coustunt and tUe evaporation excessive— two con- 
 ditions that produce a constant area of low pressure ; there 
 will therefore be a constant flow of air from both' north 
 and south towards the tropics in order to supply the place 
 of that which has risen on being heated. But the place of 
 the air flowing in from the polar regions must be supplied 
 by other air. The heated air that rises within the tropics 
 flows off as an upper current towards the polar regions ; 
 when beyond the tropics it descends, in part at least, to 
 the surface of the earth, where the most of it keeps on 
 its course, l)ut some, turning round, flows back to the 
 tropics along with the wind from tho polar regions. 
 
 Thus there are two constant atmospheric currents, the 
 inflowing under current and the outflowing, or return, 
 upper current. Only, however, in the oce.-in, far away 
 from land, is the former of these fully felt; the land 
 often completely changes the character and direction of 
 wind. 
 
w 
 
 28 
 
 'HE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 Upper curri'iitH mo kii.iwn to cxiMt f.>r tho foUowiiiif r.NiHi.riH • 
 elomlH ii.'iir tli.> ••iirtli urn often He.Mi tl.mtitiK in oik- (lir.«tion, wliiln 
 irioH.) tur ul)(,v(. art) enmit in onother direotioti. In I7H:» volouniu 
 duMt from Skaptdr Jokul, in luclan.l, (100 milcH (li»taiit, fell on 
 nortliorn Mcotlaiiil, .leMtroyniK the oroph. In mU) a volcano in (iuatt^ 
 mala biirHt forth iiml hiuNd far up into the air vast iiuantitien of 
 (InHr. wliii'li \iMiu uiii.i. f.. >.,.^L. A I lAt 1^ .1 
 
 (hiHt, y/hu'U wan He.ii to pasH away eaKtward, althouKh the Htron^ 
 lilowniK "it the Hurface of the Ki-onnd. This dust 
 
 •(asterly wind was hlowniK ''" i.'"' nuriace or cne Ki-onnd. inisdiiHt 
 fell oil .(uniaica, HOO miles distant. A similar |>henomenon was wit- 
 nesHed in 1815, durmg an eruption of a mountain in Sunibawa, near 
 •lava. 
 
 Men nscendinK in halloons, or clinihinK lofty niountaiiis, often find 
 wind aliove tlu^ clouds hlowinjf in a dilferent direction from that 
 below the clouds. 
 
 13. Trade Winds.— Thcso are constant winds within 
 the tropics, that, north of the equator, blow from tho 
 
 It. Causes of Direction of Trade Winds.*— The 
 atnioHplioro revolves with tlio earth, and has its currents 
 as the ocean lias. If (ho narth were at rest, or if the 
 rotary motion in tho polar regions were as rapid as it is 
 in tho tropical regions, a current of air from tho former 
 would blow directly to the latter. But as the size of the 
 earth, as well as tho rapidity of its rotary motion, con- 
 stantly increases from tho poles, tho direction of a current 
 flowing from the poles must be constantly changing. As 
 this current advances it successively reaches portions 
 of the atmosDhere in more rapid motion than those it 
 
 Fro 24.— Map of the Winds. 
 
 north-east toward the ecjuator, and south of the equator, 
 from the south-east. When in the region of the equator 
 they blow westerly ; but they are greatly interfered with, 
 or even destroyed, by the land. They are first felt only 
 at a considerable distance west of Africa and of South 
 America ; they then blow steadily across the oceans at a 
 rate of from tif teen to eighteen miles an hour ; the low- 
 lying basin of the Amazon has but little eflect on them, but 
 they are destroyed by the Andes, and by tho East India 
 Islands, Australia, and the southern parts of Asia. 
 
 During our summer, when the greatest heat is in the region of 
 the northern tropic, the trade-winds are found farther north than 
 during the winter when the greatest lie.it is in t!i<' region of the 
 
 w^ni'^™„ T°- .^^r'' '^ *''"' '' "^'"""S" '" ^^'^ I'°«'t'"n "f the trade- 
 wiDds according to the season. 
 
 has just left, and not being able to fully acquire the 
 motion of any one portion before it passes onward, it 
 consequently lags behind and seems to move toward the 
 opposite direction, westerly ; as the current cannot obey 
 both the southerly and the westerly motion, it moves in a 
 course between them, viz., south-wfsterhj if it is a cur- 
 rent from north of the equator, and north-westerly if 
 from the south of the equator; or, in other words, it 
 becomes a north-east wind in the former case, and a 
 south-east in the latter. On reaching the equatorial 
 "belt of calms" the current turns and flows westward. 
 
 p], * f"" '■*"""''*" "" " f"™' •■""I Motinna of the Karth," sec "The Earth as a 
 
PKHIODK AL ANJJ LOCAL WINDS. 
 
 On tho othor hand, tho upper cum-nt of air tli.it 
 flows from tho tropics" toward th<i polcg, travfr.scH 
 regions of ovor-decreasing size and velocity; it will, 
 therefore, outstrip in motion tho air through which it 
 passes, and, north of the* (-(inator, it will l.Iow toward 
 the north-east, as a south-wj-st wind ; south of the 
 equator, toward the south-east, as a north->vest wind. 
 
 The Polar Winds are also constant, since the polar 
 regions form an ar.'u of constant high pressure, and 
 hence of constant outflow. 
 
 15. Calms.— A >.one, or belt of calms, varying from 
 300 to 400 mil<-s in width, runs arc md tho earth ; in the 
 oceans this zone lies, roughly speaking, between 3 and 
 9" north latitude, and on the land, about equally on both 
 sides of the equator ; hence it is called the zone of E(iU£>- 
 torial Calms. It is the region of the greatest heat and 
 of tho greatest evaporation ; so great are these that th(! 
 ascending currents of air, though unfelt, overcome all 
 uiflowing wind and a calm is the result. But these 
 regions are subject to sudden and violent storms of wind, 
 as well as of rain, thunder, and lightning. (See " Storms '' 
 aec. 2L) ' 
 
 There is another, but not so marked, belt of calms in 
 the neighborhood of the tropics. Cancer and Capricorn, 
 where the upper currents of the air descend and become 
 surface currents. The belts, >f calms change cheir posi- 
 tion for the same reason as do the trade-winds. 
 
 16. Periodical Winds-Monsoons. -Monsoons, or 
 >^mson winds, occur u ithin and near the tropics, affecting 
 the land and tho adjacent water; they really are nothing 
 more than the recurrence, in a more or less modified forn^ 
 of the trade winds after an interruption due to extensive 
 tracts of land. These winds belong, in the n.ain, to the 
 northern Indian Ocean and the adjacent land. 
 
 In the winter time the lofty plateau beyond the Hima- 
 layas becomes very cold, and is, consequently, a vast area 
 of high pressure whence winds blow south, east, and 
 west towards areas of lower pressure and warmer tem- 
 perature. Thus in the Indian Ocean they blow from the 
 north-east towards Southern A»fri;a; and in the Pacific, 
 from the north-west towards Australia and the islands 
 intervening. In tho sunnner time the same plateau be- 
 con)es greatly Iieated, and is, in consequence, turned into 
 an area of low pressure, towards winch currents flow 
 from all sides. Thus the south-west monsoons blow 
 from the Indian Ocean inland, and south-east, from the 
 
 29 
 
 southern Pacific ; and a wind from tho west is the pro- 
 valont one over Europe. 
 
 Tht) clmng.) of tf... nionK.K.nH, which occurs about tho l)o(finnin(r of 
 AJnl an.l Oct., ht, m uccomim..ie.i by He«;« «t..rMm that ur" Idt 
 with Mc.ii.,- H..v..rity .!V<-n in hiKh latitiul.%<. 
 
 In 1 1., W.«t In.liu iHUndH and tho Mouthom jiaitof tho Ilnit-d 
 HtatoK. lhom..ns.H)nH aln., oxi.t ; in tho Hnuinier thoy bl.,w fr. n, the 
 Hon h.woKt and ,n winter, fron. the north-wont. ^Fho alter wind 
 iH tho north-oaHt tia.lo.wind tnrm..l fr..n. itH c...,r«., by th., Kockv 
 Monnta.MH. In tho va.t phiins. farth.T n..rth, thore^ia the same 
 coini>arativ.'Ht.'adino«M.)f wind. " mo name 
 
 17. Land and Sea Breezes. — Land absorbs and 
 radiates heat nmch more rapidly than water; hence, 
 especially in warm regions, during tlio daytime land near 
 tho water becomes an area of low pressure, and conse- 
 quently there will be a flc-.v of air towards it from the 
 sea. But during the night tho rapid radiation soon 
 reduces the temperature of the .'and b.jlow that of the 
 sea, and tho land becomes an area of high pressure, from 
 which air flows towards the sea. 
 
 18. Local Winds.-These are due usually to the 
 physical characteristics of a country. The desert regions 
 of Africa, Arabia, and Australia become at times areas 
 of comparatively high pressure, and then lot, sufl-ocating 
 wind, laden with the flne desert dust, blows in intermit- 
 tent blasts in all directions outward, and over parts of 
 the desert itself. Tho Sirocco (called So:? no in Spain) 
 comes to the nortli Mediterranean shores; the Kamsin, 
 to Egypt during May and part of April and Jrme ; the 
 Simoom, in Arabia, Syria, and Africa ; the Ilarmattan, 
 on the coast of Guinea during December, January, 
 and February. Tiie Simoom raises vast clouds of dust 
 and sand, that have often buried whole caravans and 
 armies. 
 
 The low-lying lands in countries having high mountains are sub- 
 joct at certain seasons -usually wmter-t.. cold, dry, and often 
 uolt^nt winds falling upon them from the moiintainH. .Sucli are the 
 wi'lwr"' " Texas; y'«»«., of tho Peruvian [.lateau ; Pampiros, 
 with their clourls of dust ..f s.mthein H.mth America ; the Mistral, 
 .)f south-east 1< ranee; the liisp, or lilack WhvL of eastern France- 
 and the Bom, of Istria and Dalmatia. ei«i,ern n ranee , 
 
 19. Variable Winds.— Between the region of the 
 trade-winds and monsoon.s, and that of the constant polar 
 winds, lies a vast area L. which at all seasons, but 
 especially in spring and fall, the winds veer to every 
 point of the compass. But amid the variety, in our 
 northern hemisphere, northerly winds and the south-west, 
 or return, trade- winds are the most constant. In summer 
 the heat of the sun is sufficient to drive back the polar 
 wnids to high latitudes, and in consequence south-west 
 winds prevail ; these, coming from the region of greatest 
 heat and evaporation, bring heat and moisture; and 
 
 m 
 
30 
 
 THE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 where they meet the polar currents flowing towards 
 this area of low pressure, storms, ciouds, fog, and very- 
 changeable winds occur. 
 
 As water presents no inequalities of surface, and 
 absorbs and radiates heat very slowly, the ocean winds 
 era more regular than those of the land. 
 
 The winds of the land are much more varied : the 
 polar regions, especially the land within them, are areas 
 of almost permanent high pressure, of cold, dry, heavy 
 atmosphere. The winds flowing from them seek the 
 nearest areas of low pressure — the oceans. Hence 
 northern Europe and north-west America have north- 
 east winds, and eastern Asia and America, north-west. 
 In the lower temperate latitudes of North America, 
 where the polar winds naturally tend to the south-west, 
 the Rocky Mountains turn them aside, and they become 
 north-west winds. 
 
 In winter, when the sun's heat is least and the nights 
 are longest, polar winds prevail on both land and sea, 
 and bring dry, clear weather with cold in addition. 
 
 20. Order of Winds.— When the return trade-winds 
 and the polar wind-- come into conflict, sometimes the one 
 is displaced, sometimes the other. "In the northern 
 hemisphere generally, when the return-trade is displaced 
 by the polar current, the wind blows successively from 
 the west, the north-west, and the north, and settles in the 
 north-east; in eastern North America, the north-west 
 (see preceding section). When the polar wind is dis- 
 placed by the return-trade, the successive changes are 
 to the east, south-east, south, and Anally to the south- 
 west. 
 
 " In the southern hemisphere the order of transition is 
 reversed : the north-west wind is the warm, moist return- 
 trade, and changes by the west, south-west, and soutli to 
 south-east, and from the south-east by the east, north- 
 east, and north to north-west." 
 
 Storms. 
 
 21. Causes of Storms.— The name storm is given to 
 any sudden and violent commotion in the atmosphere, 
 accompanied by winds moving at a high rate of speed, 
 sometimes as liigh as loO miles an hour, and often also 
 
 by rain, hail, snow, and thunder and lightning. If a 
 bonii.o is made during calm weather, it is evident that air 
 rushes from all sides into the area of low pressure thus 
 formed, and a little observation shows that the inflowing 
 nir does not rubh directly toward the Hre, i)ut approaches 
 
 it by ciicling round and round it,— just as water, when 
 running out of a hole in the" bottom of any vessel, is 
 seen to circle round the hole before being drawn into it : 
 the smoke and sparks whirl round and round as they go 
 upward till they pass off into the upper air. The flercer 
 the fire, the more rapid the whirl— or, in other words, the 
 greater the difference between the low pressure of this 
 heated area and vi;e high pressure of the surrounding 
 area, the more furiously will the wind blow. 
 
 The cause of storms is identical in clmranter with the 
 cause of the iiifloio of air to the bonfire, and the direction 
 of the infloio of the air is the same in both. The move- 
 ment of air from an area of high pressure to one of low 
 2n-essure is circular in character. Such a circular move- 
 ment is termed a cyclone.* 
 
 22. Phenomena of Storms. -In the centre of the 
 storm is an area of low pressure, often hundreds of miles 
 in diameter, in a state of ijuietude ; around this the wind 
 is circling more or less furiously— in the northern hemi- 
 sphere, in a direction the reverse of that of the hands of 
 a clock ; in the southern hemisphere, with the hands. 
 
 Storms possess a forward motion in addition to the 
 circular one. Starting, generally, within the tropics, a 
 cyclone goes from a lower to a higher latitude— in the 
 northern hemisphere, moving first towards the nortli 
 west till the limit of the trade-winds is reached, and then 
 turning at right-angles and moving north-east with the 
 return winds ; in the southern hemisi)here, moving first 
 south-west, and then, from the limit of the trade-winds, 
 south-east. In each case the cyclones die away in hi"h 
 latitudes. 
 
 In America, the cyclones, under the name of hurricams, besrin 
 beyond the ea.stern West India Islands, cross to near Florida, and 
 then, turning, sweep up tlie Atlantic coast, finally crossing- over to 
 western Euroi^e and dying away. In s<.uth-east Asia the cyclone 
 (called tiiphnim) starts in the northern jiart of the Indian Ocean 
 moves easterly and then north-east, dying away beyond Japan. In' 
 the southern hemisiihere, near the Mauritius Islands, is another hur- 
 ricane region; the cyclone rises in mid-ocean, passes -vesterly and 
 then south-easterly. 
 
 A knowledge of this law of storms is useful to sailors; for, if 
 caught in a storm, a captain can tell in what directicm to sail in 
 order to escajie from it. If he is sailing in tiie northern hemisphere 
 beyond the tropics, and encounters a north-east gale veering north 
 lie will know the centre of the storm is to the louth-east, and that 
 the storm is i)assing to the north-east; he will therefore sail north- 
 we.st in order to get out of its influence ; if a northerly gale the 
 centre is to the east, and so on. ' ' 
 
 Tornadoes are cyclones on a small scale, varying in 
 width from a few hundred feet to several miles ; they are 
 often as violent as the great cyclones and equally destruc- 
 tive. The Mississippi basin is subject to these tornadoes, 
 
 * Kiom tlie Oroek wnid kuklos, a circle. 
 
CAUSES AFFECTING CLIMATE. 
 
 which move north-east and sometimes reach Canada. If 
 tornadoes occur at sea the violent whirl of the air draws 
 up spray and water and tlius forms watcrsporUs, so 
 much dreaded by sailors; if they pass over deserts, sand- 
 storm. s occur. 
 
 Tho origin of the areas of low pressure .-s-aaing these violent 
 storms, ,s unknown; but from the position of their sSngplice 
 Uey seen, to be connecte.l with the change of monsoon., an, afso 
 with the disturbing infiuences of large bodies of highly heate,! land 
 
 wm JirH'^V'^ Z i"'""'"^' i» opposite directionsfwh^e S-neei 
 will give rise to whir ing motions, as do two currents of water The 
 
 uie b( net that they originate in ihe miper regions of the air tlirou^l. 
 the force of conflicting currents, and tl'ien descend to the^ounT^ 
 
 CLI.VATE. 
 
 Causes npcihiij CHmate. 
 
 23. By climate is under.stood the prevailing atmos- 
 pheric conditions of any place— its degree of heat and 
 cold, moisture, rain, snow, etc. ; but m the phenomena of 
 chmate are ultimately dependent on heat, climate maybe 
 defined as those atmospheric conditions resulting from 
 the amount and character of the distribution of heat in 
 a given place. 
 
 24. Curvature of the Earth.*-We get our heat from 
 
 the sun in both winter and summer. We all know that 
 
 the sun's heat is not so great in the morning and in tlie 
 
 late afternoon as it is at noon. We see that the sun is 
 
 higher up in the heavens— more nearly ovorhead-at 
 
 noon than at any other time; we connect, and properly 
 
 so, the height of tlie sun with the intensity of the heat. 
 
 f^.J'Vl'^'' diagram below suppose that ab, cd represents a rav of lieit 
 fron; the sun at noon falling upon the surface M nearly ,™dcu 
 
 SiL'tti iltin i/ ' ^ ""^r"'? '^V'^'' '" th^- ^fi-noonrit 
 8 evident that in the latter position it will cover not only the surfice 
 
 M as at noon, but a so the a.iditiunal surface <ld' ; as tTie ,Wree o? 
 
 heat m the ray itself ,s tlie same in both p(.siti..n.;, and as it has a 
 
 i?reater sur i«;e t,. heat up in the latter than in Hie former rosiH^^^^ 
 
 ;Ji!:n iS!i*^:^5::r:uSi^i:::r ■'" '-- - ^-"" - ^^^^^ 
 
 Other things being equal, the amount of heat derived 
 from the sun's rays depends upon the degree of pn-pen- 
 dicularity with tchich the rays fall upon the earth, whether 
 at different seasons or at different parts of the same day. 
 
 In accordance with this principle, those parts of the 
 earth where the sun is overhead or nearly so, viz., within 
 the tropics, will be the v : rmest. The sun is much larger 
 than the earth and gives out heat from every part ; 
 hence, if the c^arth presented to the sun a flat surface,' 
 the heat would be uniform everywhere; but the eartli 
 IS apheiical, and tlierefore presents an ever-retreatin.r 
 
 - O 
 
 do,:^3:,!Trt;;:: i™ '^^r^:x\;^:L^^' ^"""' "-" '"'■ -"—^ 
 
 31 
 
 surface to the sun's rays, so that they are receix^e,} 
 upon a more and more slanting surface as the distance 
 trom tJie tropics increases; or, in other words, a per- 
 pendicular to the earth's surface will point to a part of 
 the heavens more and more remote from the sun as the 
 distance from the tropics increases, so that when this. 
 
 FlQ. 2S.-Si:n's Ravh. 
 
 perpendicular shows an angle of 90^ with the sun's direc- 
 tion from it, the sun will be on the horizon, and conse- 
 quently the heat derived from it will be very sli'ht It 
 is therefore evident that the heat gradually diminishes 
 from the region of a perpendicular sun to the region of 
 a horizontal sun, that is, from the equatorial regions to 
 the polar regions. 
 
 25. Influence of Length of Day and Night. - 
 During the day the earth receives and radiates heat ; dur- 
 ing the night it radiates only ; hence there is a gradual 
 lowering of temperature during the night. Were the days 
 and nights equal in length, the loss of heat during the 
 night would be made good during the day; but outside 
 the tropical regions there is every degree of dissimilarity 
 in length, reaching, in the polar regions, its maximum of 
 six months day and six months night. During the long 
 nights in these regions the continual radiation produces 
 an intense degree of cold, that leads to vast accumula- 
 tions of ice and snow. 
 
 If the sun to any extent approache.l a perpendicular, the heat 
 produced by the l.mg days in these regions would be unbearable -but 
 tiie heat is produced by a nearly horizontal sun, and is t' s. - 
 hcientlv powerfu to melt away the ice and sno; of the whiter 
 Canada, on the whole, lies midway between the tropics an,l the polar 
 regions, and lias what is called "„» ,.HraH., or .!,v's ,r S< » 
 
 that IS in summer the days are so long and the h.-ight . f the sun so 
 great that the amount ,f fieat produced is excessive ; while in vSr 
 the ),.Mg nidits and the low .„„ produce an e.xccJs of o, . tiee 
 ' influence of Land," sec. ;)0.) ^ 
 
 26. Influence of Winds. -Winds flowing from a 
 warm region to a cokler on(! cany the heated air far 
 
 I' SI 
 
32 
 
 THE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 beyond tlio place of its origin, and thus supply boat to 
 places that would otherwise be deficient. The south-west 
 winds of the northern hemisphere strike the western coasts 
 of North America and Kurope, and tlius make tliose por- 
 tions of the two continents warmer than the correspond- 
 ing parts of the eastern portions. The winds of the polar 
 regions also bring the cold air to places that otherwise 
 ■would possess greater heat. 
 
 27. Influence of Ocean Currents.— The currents of 
 the ocean that set towards the polar regions carry the 
 heated waters of the tropics far up even into the icy seas 
 themselves, and, both by warmi.ig tlie air that passes 
 over them and by bathing the; shores of distant countries, 
 give rise to a climate much milder than that of countries 
 remote from .such influence. All western Europe is 
 greatly affected by the surface drift-currents of tiie 
 Atlantic, and by the Gulf Stream. On the other hand, 
 the icy currents from the north, setting down along the 
 east coast of North America, reduce the temperature 
 below what it otKsrwIse would be ; similarly, the polar 
 currents, that strike south-western Africa and South 
 
 * nierica, make these regions colder than the correspond- 
 y ^ ones on the east side. (See >' The Ocean," sec. 21.) 
 
 28. Influence of the Sea.— The sea absorbs heat less 
 readily than the land, and radiates it less readily. Conse- 
 quently the sea tends to make the climate of countries 
 bordering on it less subject to extremes of heat and cold 
 than that of inland countries. The winds from the sea 
 reduce the heat of the neighboring land during summer, 
 and mitigate the cold during winter. Hence maritime 
 climate is never an "excessive climate," as inland climate 
 often is. A maritime climate is also damp. (See " Influ- 
 ence of Land," sec. .30.) 
 
 29. Influence of Mountains.— Mountains aflTect cli- 
 mate in different ways. When they lie acro.',s the path of 
 winds, the latter are forced up into the thinner and 
 colder regions of the air, where, becoming' chilled, much 
 of the aqueous vapor they contain is conJnsed and falls 
 in rain or snow ; the winds, having thus become colder 
 and heavier, fall to the plains on the other side, and <'ive 
 rise to a temperature quite different from that on the 
 side from which they came. 
 
 The Rocky MduiitaiiiK cross the path of the .south-we.xt, return 
 tradeH, as do also the inountains of Ireland and Enghiiid ; hence, tiie 
 climate of the western part of North America and of Ireland and 
 England is nioister and warmer than that of the corresponding parts 
 on the eastern side. 
 
 The Andes cross the track of the south-oast trades, and conse- 
 quently the eastern side is a region of alnio.st cimstant rains, while 
 so tlioi'ou^clily ha.s the atrieou.s vapor of the aii' iiecu londen.sed out 
 l)y tile lofty mountains that a vast di>trict i.i i'eru m rainless, and 
 elsewhere on the plateaus animal and vegetable remains do not decay, 
 hut dry up. A similar rainless district, from the same cause, occurs 
 in ihe southern portion of the ilocky Alountain plateau. 
 
 The Western Uliats of India intercept the south-west monsoons, 
 and (luring the prevalence of these winds south-western India is very 
 wet, while in the Khasi Hills, north of Calcutta, occurs the greatest 
 ainount of rainfall known— over (iOO inches per annum. The vast 
 height of the Himalayas takes out nearly all the remaining moisture, 
 and the rainless [jlateau of Gobi is the result. 
 
 Mountains are also barriers against cold polar winds. 
 Thus, the mountains of southern Europe keep off the 
 cold winds from the north, and a much warmer climate 
 consequently exists to the south of these mountains ; at 
 ihe same time their southern slope presents a surface 
 more nearly perpendicular to the sun's raysj this circum- 
 stance also tends to make the climate warmer. 
 
 As temperature decreases according to the height 
 above sea-level, mountains present every variety of 
 climate with the productions natural to each. Thus, 
 within the tropics, the climate ranges from the extreme 
 of heat at the base to the extreme of cold at the summit. 
 (See " Heat of the Air," sec. 7.) 
 
 On plateaus the same conditions as to climate exist as 
 are found on mountains : the lofty plateaus of South 
 America and Mexico have a climate of perpetual spring, 
 while a torrid climate exists at their base. 
 
 30. Influence of Land. — Apart from plateaus and 
 mountains, the land surface of the earth modifies climate 
 in its own way. It radiates heat more rapidly at one 
 time than at another : in the night more than in the day. 
 Consequently fluctuations in temperature are numerous. 
 In winter the temperature sinks farther and more rapidly 
 on land than it does on water : hence a greater degree 
 of cold exists on the land than on the water ; in summer 
 the land absorbs more heat than the water, and thus 
 becomes warmer. 
 
 Owing to the greater radiation of heat by the land, 
 moist, warm currents of air Irom the sea often become 
 chilled, and frequent rains are produced. The rainfall 
 on the coast is greater than in tlie interior of a country, 
 since part of the moisture of the air is condensed out 
 when it first conies in contact with land. 
 
 Thus the tendency of land is towards a climate more 
 or less excessive, at least outside the tropical regions. 
 
 The great variety of form in the land-surface produces 
 an equally great variety in climate ; local climates arc 
 innumerable: places a few miles apart, such as Toronto 
 and Hamilton, vary considerably in climate, each having 
 
3, and conse- 
 ; ruins, while 
 cmden.sed out 
 rainless, and 
 do nut decay, 
 cause, occurs 
 I. 
 
 st monsoons, 
 India is very 
 i th(' greatest 
 a. The vast 
 ing moisture, 
 
 alar winds, 
 ep off tlie 
 ler climate 
 ntains ; at 
 1 a surface 
 his circum- 
 
 :he height 
 variety of 
 ch. Til us, 
 iie extreme 
 le summit. 
 
 te exist as 
 1 of South 
 ual s[)ring, 
 
 atsaus and 
 ies climate 
 (lly at one 
 in the day. 
 numeroijifc.. 
 are rapidly 
 ter degree 
 in summer 
 . and tlius 
 
 ' the land, 
 en become 
 he rainfall 
 a country, 
 lensed out 
 
 mate more 
 egions. 
 e produces 
 imatcs arc 
 IS Toronto 
 ich having 
 
 its own physical conditions that affect it. 
 "Man's Influence on Climate.") 
 
 ORGANIC LIFE. 
 
 (See also 
 
 31. Climatic Belts. -It is thus seen that the condi- 
 tions affectmg climate are exceedingly numerous and 
 varied, and that mere distance from the region of a per- 
 pendicular sun is but one, though an important one, of 
 the factors in climate; other factors must be taken into 
 consideration. In July the climate of California and 
 Alaska IS the same, though these places are wide apart 
 m latitude ; and in winter the cold of parts of Ontario 
 IS as great as that of Iceland or northern Norway. Only 
 within the tropics, too, does there really exist a belt of 
 equal temperature. Tnis belt is of varying breadth, and 
 shifts Its position according to the season; in summer it 
 
 83 
 
 is almost wholly north of the equator, and extends, on 
 the land and in the Atlantic, far beyond the northern 
 tropic; but in winter, though the greater part of this 
 belt is south of the equator, yet in but few places does 
 It reach the southern tropic. This fact shows that the 
 mean annual temperature is greatest in the northern 
 hemisphere. 
 
 Any other division of the earth into zones or belts of 
 c imate must be arbitrary, except, perhaps, in the polar 
 climates. 
 
 lines connecting such places are termed i>othcrmaUincs N?meron« 
 
 ORGANIC LIFE. 
 
 VEGETABLE LIFE. 
 
 1. Conditions of Vegetable Life. -Vegetable life is 
 •lirectly dependent upon light, heat, and moisture, for its 
 existence, and to a large extent upon geological formation 
 for its character. 
 
 It is found in practical farmmg that not all crops grow 
 equally well upon the same soil; some grow best upon 
 heavy, damp, or clayey soil; others, upon light, dry 
 sandy, or gravelly soil. Part at least of this ditference 
 •irises from the chemical constituents ot the soil, or in 
 other words, from the character of the mineral sub- 
 stances necessary for the frame-work of the plant, and 
 found in the rock from which the soil has been derived 
 by disintegration. 
 
 We find on the sheltered, sunny hillside, plants and 
 flowers that we do not find where there is but little sun 
 and no shelter; some plants dwindle and die unless 
 exposed to the full rays of the sun, others perish unless 
 in the shade ; some live, and even flourish, in a long 
 drought, while others require constant moisture. 
 
 What we may thus see within the bounds of a single 
 farm, we find developed upon an infinitely grander scale 
 upon the whole surface of the earth. Tho trifling differ 
 ences in temperature on various parts of a farm, resulting 
 from differences of exposure or elevation, are developed 
 
 (0) 
 
 over the earth into the exceedingly great contrast in 
 temperature displayed by the tropica and the polar 
 regions. Such extremes in temperature must of necessity 
 produce equally wide extremes in plant life, from the 
 gigantic growths of the tropics to the lowest mosses of 
 the polar regions; between these extremes lies every 
 variety of intermediate form. Ontario, though in lati- 
 tude occupying the middle point, has yet more in common 
 with the colder extreme than with the warmer; the 
 summer heat, though often equal to that of the tropics, 
 IS yet of too short a duration to allow certain plants U> 
 come to the perfection that they attain farther south. 
 
 Moisture is essential, along with heat, for the support 
 of plant life, and, like heat, has its extremes, which are 
 also characterized by peculiar types of plant life. 
 
 Where heat is in excess, and moisture— whether in the 
 form of rain, springs, or river-overflow,— is at its mini- 
 mum, vegetation either wholly ceases or consists of plants, 
 such as the thick, fleshy-leaved cactus of America, that 
 absorb their needed moisture from the air. 
 
 Where heat is at its minimum (beyond the summer 
 isotherm of 32° Fahrenheit), either in elevation or towards 
 the poles, no vegetation exists. 
 
 Where moisture is in excess, either through rain or on 
 account of the swampy character of the ground, the 
 
 * Prom the Greek isos, equal, and therme, heat. 
 
 ' 11 
 
 I 19 
 
 ,1 ^ii 
 
 «f 
 
•mmfi^i 
 
Bi|*«»*«««w,^J 
 
S6 
 
 ORGANIC LIFE. 
 
 ii 
 
 characteristic plants are of a soft, spongy nature, arising 
 from their loose, open cell structure, and the large amount 
 of water contained in their tissue ; such are rushes. Hags, 
 and some grasses. 
 
 But where heat and moisture are both in excess — as 
 they are in northern Soutli America and in equatorial 
 Africa— vegetable growth is at its maximum, not only in 
 gigantic forms characteristic of excessive moisture, but 
 in variety, abundance, and luxuriance, in delicacy of 
 structure, and brilliancy of floral coloring. 
 
 Periodical moisture will be followed by periodical 
 vegetation of certain kinds. On the steppes of southern 
 Russia, in tlie plains 
 of the upper waters 
 of the Ganges, on the 
 Kalahari desert of 
 Bouth-central Africa, 
 and in very many 
 other places more 
 or less resembling 
 these, the periodical 
 rains produce a lux- 
 uriant plant growth, 
 that gradually dies 
 away with the ces- 
 sation of rain and 
 moisture, till no- 
 thing but a bare, 
 barren waste is seen. 
 
 Such a state of 
 deadness is analo- 
 gous to our winter 
 season. 
 
 Again, extreme, or 
 excessive, climates 
 
 present featutes in plant life in marked contrast with 
 those of moderate climates. The mean annual tempera- 
 ture, as a rule, regulates the character of vegetable 
 growth ; but some plants that require an excess of heat 
 at an important stage of their growth are found to be 
 better adapted to an extreme climate than to a moderate 
 one with a higher mean annual temperature. Thus, 
 England has a higher mean annual temperature than 
 Canada, but certain fruits, such as peaches, grapes, and 
 tomatoes, come to perfection here but not in England, 
 for the heat of our summer — the critical period for 
 fruit — is greater than that of England. On the other 
 
 Fig. 26.— Vbqbtation in tub Pal.£OZoic (Carbonifkrohb) Pbriod. (See Fijr. 2.) 
 
 hand, the greater severity of our winters destroys shrubs 
 and plants that live unharmed in England. Likewise 
 the moist air and more equable temperature of the 
 British Islands produce a luxuriance and beauty of 
 grass-growth that is impossible in Canada, where the 
 summer h>at parches tlio ground, the air is compara- 
 tively dry, and tlie frosts are so severe. 
 
 2. Zones of Vegetation. — Though no definite boun- 
 dary can be laid down between the region of one species 
 of plant and that of another, yet areas, separai 
 some extent in latitude or its equivalent in el^ve 
 
 are found to hr. », 
 each its charac- 
 teristic forms. In 
 adjacent areas the 
 characteristic forms 
 will be intermingled, 
 but not in their full- 
 est development: 
 the place of fullest 
 ■development will 
 mark the centre of 
 each area. Thus the 
 area of cotton ex- 
 tends into Tennes- 
 see, where, however, 
 the plant is stunted 
 in growth, its fullest 
 development taking 
 place much farther 
 south. Many scien- 
 tific men, therefore, 
 divide the surface 
 of the earth into 
 several belts or zones bounded by certain isotherms, not 
 by latitude merely. Within each of these zones of tem- 
 perature certain plant forms are predominant and charac- 
 teristic, though two adjacent zones may have other forms 
 equally characteristic of both. Each continent, more- 
 over, has certain plants that are found nowhere else, and 
 that thus characterize each, whatever other plants may 
 be equally characteristic of the same zone in all. (See 
 under each continent.) 
 
 1. The Equatorial Zone, bounded by the isotherm of 
 
 70°. It is t.hn /njK' of Tn.".xim',ijn hctit .iiid mnisture, and produces 
 pahns, bananas, cane, bamboo, climbing plants uf huge siie, parar 
 sites, etc. 
 
 tl 
 tl 
 
 {" 
 oi 
 
 of 
 
 nil 
 It 
 
 Kn 
 
 i-Ti 
 
 wii 
 ah 
 
 r;|p^P^#.*|^*^^JJf tji,, u«p^5;5i>^«ae 
 
i'LANT I. IKK— ANIMAL LIFK. 
 
 37 
 
 •^•„ The Tropical Zones, lyinj; lictwcfn the iHotlicnuN of 7!r 
 luul (3.y' on cm-li side ,.f the cciuatDr. Tlicy (■(nitiiin piilins, luiiiiiiiiirt, 
 l)im;-;ii>|il( s, trt'ti-.cniM, i(ptt<iii, MUKiir-cmic, licc, lit'lipcr, etc. 
 
 3. The Sub-Tropical Zones, < xtciulinK' fnmi tlw lattfi- 1.> 
 tlu! isotliciiu iif ().'t , arc cliariictcii/.i'd liy lij,' tii'i's, some paliiis 
 cactUHcH, iiuiLMiolias, lauri Is, iiiyitl.'s. In tins y.ntw and (lie piv- 
 ccdinKoni's the trees do not lose their foliii^v ; in all three there are 
 tracts of periodical barrenness. 
 
 4. The Warmer Temperate Zones, reac'hinK »« fur as 
 
 the isotherm of MA . Mere the palms i;o to an end ; and tlionKh 
 
 there artMtvtuxreens still, yet trei's that lose their leavis in winter 
 ((/((■(i/((((i(» tr(,.i) appear, snch as the ehestinit and oak. Figs, olives 
 ()ran^,'(!.s, grapes, are at their liest. ' 
 
 I'm. :;:. TuK l).\TK I'u.M (N. Afriiii). 
 
 ^'- The Colder Temperate Zoi .e, extending' to th.> isotherm 
 
 of 42^ , IS the K''<'iit zoni' of deciduons trii's, oak, he(!ch, m.iple, 
 elm, walnut. l?i'si(h. theso the cone-hearing' trees, pines, firs, etc., 
 oxi.3t in great forests. It i.s also the chief grain producing zone. 
 
 «. The Sub-Arctic Zone extends to the isotherm of 311". 
 It contanm pnu!, «priic<s tamarack, l>eech, iioiilar, hirch, willow, 
 gra.sses, etc. 
 
 7. The Arctic Zone has stunted willows, aiders, and hirch, 
 f.'ra.sses, iKthens ami mosses, and the rhododendron. 
 
 _«. The Polar Zone has chiedy lichens and mosses, some few 
 wui.'ws and sassafras, hut no trees or food plants.* 
 
 .3. Vegetation on Mountains.— From what Inus 
 iih-emly l).;(!ii said on ciimato, etc., it will ho. interred tliat 
 
 ' Miiiiily from Pajjc's IMiyslcnl (Icd^'rapliy. 
 
 v(>i,'('tation passcH tlirniij,'h the .saino .staf,'('.s in \crtical 
 ascciifc ii» it docs from tlio tropics to tlu* j)()lcs. On tli.i 
 mountains within tho tropics, ho-.ycvcr, then) oaii he no 
 <>.\cc.s,sivo climato; there can lie no alternation.s of sum 
 nier's heat and winter's eohl ; thi' ciiinah^ is comparatively 
 rej,'ular in tho sanu? area, liowevcu- mueii it may diller in 
 areas of diflerent ("h-vation. Con.seiinently w<i cannot 
 <'.\pe(!t vcffetahle oiiaraotoristics identical with tliose of 
 similar tomperatun's on plains wliero Um climaUi in 
 o.vccssivo. On this whole, liowever, simihir temperatures 
 produce similar vef,'etal)lo forms, from tho palms and 
 gijjantic yra.sse8 (bamlioos, etc.,) of tho tropics to tho 
 lichens and mo.s.ses of tlio polar zone. In the temperate 
 zontis th(!r'j will ho no tropical vegotivtion. 
 
 4. Oceanic Plant Life.— Th(» plant lifo of th«! ocoan 
 is restricted, Init it depends upon tlu; amount of iieat and 
 light it receives and upon tho character of tho liottom. 
 ITeat and liyht, especially the latt(!r, vary with <lie depth 
 of tho wat(!r; plants, Jiow(!V('r, called dintoitm, of exceed- 
 ingly simi)lo structuns luu-o Ixion found to (ixist at great 
 depth.s, where there can \m but littlo light or heat. Tho 
 character of tho plants depi^nds on the; de[)th of tlm water : 
 one kind {littoral phmts) will grow where tho tiths leaves 
 tho shore haro ; another, just at low wat(T mark ; a third, 
 beyond this again ; and still another, as has been seen in 
 the case of the Sargasso Sea, on tlie surfacfs of tin; water 
 itself. 
 
 Tho flora (or plants in general) of the temperate and 
 tho arctic seas is dull in color, whih; that of tho tropical 
 seas is often brilliant in hue, and most delicate in form. 
 
 ANIMAL MFi:. 
 
 5. Dependence upon Vegetable Life.— Vegetable 
 life depends for its support upon hc^at, light, moisture, 
 atmosplioric air, and tho .soil. TIk; thnio latter supply the 
 food, tho two formcir tho chemical means by which, in 
 coiuiection with tho niy.storions princij)lo called lifi', t\\o 
 crude, or inorganic, natural substance is transformed into 
 organic substance, the homo of lifo. 
 
 Animal life, on tho oth(T hand, though influenced by 
 
 climate to a l<ss degree than plant lit'-, reipiires organic 
 
 matter for its support It must therefore depend dir(!ctly 
 
 or indirectly ni)on vegetable life : those; animals that live 
 
 on vegotal)le food axo. the prey of ca.rnivorous animal.s. 
 
 Moreover it is f(]imd that Home animals feed only <in certain kinds 
 of jiljints, and that if these plants disapjpear froin any region the 
 animals that feed upon them disappuar as well. Also, if new plantrt 
 
 
38 
 
 ORGAN T(; LIB'E. 
 
 apiK'iw III any riyion, the aiiimnls wliowe natural fiHKl tlicsc plantu 
 are will appi'ar also. During tliDSf* partH of the year in wliioh vr^c- 
 tahlt! priiwth ceaNcs, and only the branches and fruits of sonic ticcs 
 and shrubs arc available for food, animals largely niiKratc to other 
 countries where food is still plentiful, or become torpid till vegetation 
 revives. 
 
 Again, a necessity of animal life is the gas oxygen ; this is gi\ en 
 off in largo (puiMtitics by growing ])lants. On the other hand, animals 
 give off from their lungs carbonic acid gas, a neccHsity of jilant life, 
 fl,iid they are also largely instrumental in spreading the seeds of plants. 
 
 But unlike plants, animals niaj' range in search of food over wide 
 areas varying considerably in point of clinuitc. Hence animals are 
 less deiKjndent upon climatic conditions than are plants. 
 
 G. Development of Animal Life.— Where, therefore, 
 vegetable life is at its fullest development, furnishing a 
 constant supply of food in almost endless variety, there 
 animal life is at its 
 
 fullest development; „ /^. .. ,' 
 
 consequently in the 
 equatorial and tropi- 
 cal zones we find ani- 
 mals in tlie greatest 
 number aiid greatest 
 variety. As distance 
 from these zones in- 
 creases, the number 
 of varieties becomes 
 smaller, though the 
 individuals are not 
 markedly fewer. It 
 does not follow, how- 
 ever, that where 
 vegetable growth 
 reaches its most 
 gigantic proportions 
 animals are of the 
 most gigantic size, 
 though such is the 
 case in southern Asia 
 and central Africa. 
 South America is devoid of large animals, as are also the 
 East India Islands fi,r the most part, while South Africa 
 abounds in them, though its vegetable growth is neither 
 gigantic nor profuse. 
 
 7. Distribution of Animal Life.— As in the vegetaljlo 
 world so in the animal. Each continent, though having 
 types of animal life common to all the others, has its own 
 peculiar forms whereby it is specially distinguished, 
 notwithstanding similarity to the others in latitude, 
 climate, soil, and lie of iuad. The rea? n for this pecu- 
 liarity is not known, but it is evidently connected with 
 
 phenomena of former geological ages. Tlie peculiarities 
 
 are so marked that scientific men indicate six zoological 
 
 regions, eacii with its own disiinct forms, though where 
 
 different regions meet characteristic forms intermingle. 
 
 Palsearctic (Old Arctic) Region comprises all l']uro|X!, 
 Africa north of the (Sahara desert, and Asia north of the Himalayas; 
 it is the native home of sheep, horses, pigs, hedgehogs. 
 
 Nearctic (New Arctic) Region comprises North Amt .ica 
 north of tilt! tropic of Cancel-, corresponding almost exactly with the 
 Puhearctic. Its peculiar animals are the iiraii'ie-dog, raccoon, oixis- 
 sum, skunk, mocking-bird, hiiniming-bird, and some others. The 
 domestic animals were imported from Europe, but the bears, wolves, 
 foxes, dc(ir, hawks, t^agles, rabbits, thrushes, and many others of 
 both regions, are closely allied. 
 
 Ethiopian Region comitrises all Africa and Arabia south of 
 
 the tropic of Cancer, and 
 the islanfl of Madagas- 
 car. Its peculiar animals 
 are the rhinoceros, gor- 
 illa, chimpanzee, baboon, 
 hyiena, lion, giraffe, ibis, 
 flamingo, and guinea- 
 fowl. 
 
 Oriental Region. 
 
 Beginning with the 
 mouth of the Indus this 
 region comjirises the 
 country south of the 
 southern slope of the 
 Himalayas, and thence 
 easttothe Pacific, includ- 
 ing Borneo, Sumatra, 
 and .Tava. Some of its 
 peculiar animals are the 
 tiger, civet, orang- 
 oiitan' and peacock, 
 while .he elephant, rhin- 
 oceros, crocodile, and 
 many others are similar 
 to those of the Ethiopian 
 region, though not iden- 
 tical with them. 
 
 Neotropical (New 
 Tropical) Region.— 
 
 This mcludesall America 
 south of the tropic of 
 Cancer. It has no very 
 large animals, but sur- 
 j)asses all the other re- 
 gions in the variety and 
 abundance of its life and 
 in forms jieculiarto itself. 
 Some of its ])eculiar ani- 
 mals are the armadillo, 
 sloth, chinchilla, marmoset, llama, aiii.oca; humming-birds, the 
 toucan, bell-bird, condor, etc. The serpents are numerous and often 
 large, resembling in this respect the Oriental region ; the lion and 
 the elei)hant of the lOthiopian region are represented by the jaguar 
 and the t.apir; tin; crocodile, by the alligator; the ostrich, by the 
 while the monkey tribe, common to the Ethiopian and Oriental 
 
 rh 
 
 regions, have here flat noses and prehensile tails 
 
 Australian Region, including New Zealand and the islands 
 east of Borneo and Java. Its animals are very remarkable, almost 
 all of a low tyi)e of life termed mnrnupinls, from having a pouch, 
 which is f()rmed by folds in the skin, and in which the young are 
 ciirried. The k.angaroo represents this class (Fig. 29). There are also 
 the wiiolly peculiar i)latypus, the lyre-bird, and bird of paradise. The 
 ostrich of the Ethiopian region is represented by the emu. 
 
 8. Oceanic Animal Life.— Animal life in the ocean 
 is controlled by the same circumstances as that on the 
 
 . jj****"*'* :'!**'-'ii^pmm^W' 
 
MAN. 
 
 39 
 
 land — food, and, to Hoiue extert, cliiiiatu. It, too, is 
 dependent ultimately upon vege iblo life : for the little, 
 often microhoopic marine animals that are the food of 
 
 the larger ones, subsist 
 r- > •- . "^ *. either upon the shore 
 or suriace vegetation, 
 or upon the minute 
 vegetable matter that 
 pervades the ocean 
 either as living diatoms 
 01' as the result of the 
 destruction of vege- 
 table tissue hy decay 
 or by the force of the 
 waves. 
 
 Of oceanic animal life 
 but little is yet known. 
 Tlune are tish that live 
 only at the mouths of 
 rivers ; otliers along 
 the coast merely ; some 
 cannot live beyond a 
 certain depth ; others 
 live only at a consider- 
 able depth.* Some are 
 peculiar to warm cli- 
 
 MAN. 
 
 Fig. 2!).— TiiK Kamiahimi, 
 Australia), 
 
 (fiiiiiKl only in 
 
 mates, others to cold, 
 and still otl lers m igrate. 
 The great food fishes — the cod, herring, salmon, and mack- 
 erel, are confined to the temperate and subarctic zones. 
 The herring is caught at all seasons and in water of 
 varying temperature ; the cod is found only in very cold 
 water ; on some of our coasts it is caught close in shore 
 in the spring, but it retires to deep water as the inshore 
 water rises in temperature. 
 
 Bright-colored fish, scii-fars, corals, and sponge.s, as well as the 
 lar^iT bivalvo and univalve sliell-fish, are found only within tlie 
 equatorial, tropical, and .subtropical zones, .lelly-fish of all ki]id.s 
 reach their perfection in the same zones. During long continued 
 calms, the water seems to cormpt, owing to the extraor'linary multi- 
 plication and union into njasses of tliis very low form of animal life. 
 Only continued agitation by winds can keep the water imre. 
 
 The forms in the warm zones are not more gigantic than those in 
 the cold zones. Exeei)ting in th(( case of sharks, tlie tempeiate zone.s 
 hav(! no larg(! marine animals. The spe>ni whale of the e(|uatorial 
 and troi)ical zones, is e()ualletl in size by the right whale of the arctii! 
 zone, whose food, the "pteropod," a little mollusk of the size ot 
 one's finger-nail, swims in countless nnllions or. the surface of the 
 water. The walrus and sea-lion are unknown in warm seas, while 
 seals of different kinds pervade the ocean everywhere. 
 
 * Recent explorations fiave proved the existence of animal life, though in 
 lower fonns, at the greatest deptli soiiniled, 4,47ri fatlionis. 
 
 9. Dependence upon Natural Productions. —The 
 intelligence, or reason, of man, by which he is distinguished 
 from the low(!r animals, enables him to adapt himself to 
 the most varied circumstances of climate and production ; 
 he can provide himself .shelter and subsist on the mo.st 
 varied food. In the wild, or uncivilized state, liowever, 
 man is as directly dependent as other animals upon 
 climate and local production : tlu- Bushman of South 
 Africa follows and subsists upon the herds of wild 
 animals; the Eskimo, upon the marine animals of the 
 north. 
 
 In civilized communities, when; the wants go far 
 beyond the mere supply of food, man is less directly de- 
 pendent upon local production of food, but still he is 
 dependent upon the resources of nature. The mines of 
 one region furnish matcjrial to supply the wants of another 
 region, which in its turn will supply the food or clothing 
 that the former does not produce. The like can be sa?d of 
 forest regions. Other regions may be favorably situated 
 for manufacture and commerce ; these l)(!come homes of 
 large communities, that exchange; their manufactures for 
 food or other rticles needed. If the natural resources, 
 of a region become exhausted— as in the case of mines 
 and fon!sts -the people depart (.dscnvhere ; some parts of 
 .Maine hav«! been deserted, and Nevada has recently lost 
 two-thirds of its inhabitants. 
 
 Hence man in all conditions is dependent upon natural produc- 
 tions. In the savage, aiid conseiiueiitly the most dependent state, 
 climatic and food conditions influence him exactly as they do the 
 lower animal.s. .\s civilization advances new wants arise which can 
 be .adequately su[)plied oidy by a division of labor ; thus, while one 
 man devotes his attention to .agriculture, another will become a 
 Weave-,-, a shoemaker, a blacksmith, or a carpenter. The sulxlivision 
 of labor renders mirtual dependence greater; hence the tendenc^y to 
 settle in closer comnnuiities, or towns, l)y all who <ave not engaged in 
 tilling the soil, and also the tendency of such communities to devote 
 thi'mselves as much as possil;le to the pi-e]iaration for use of some 
 one itommodity, for which, as indicated above, natural conditions 
 offer peculiar advantages -such as the existence of mines, forests, 
 fisheries, rapid streams, or facilities for inttu-change of commodities. 
 
 10. Effects of Physical Conditions.— Temperature 
 art'ects man as to the food eaten ; animal food produces a 
 greater amount of heat than does vegetable food. Hence 
 the Eskimo and the tribes of Siberia are animal-eaters, 
 while the tribes of the equatorial and tropical zones live 
 chiefly upon vegetable food ; those between these extremes 
 have a mixed diet. 
 
 The extremes of climate are injurious to full develoi>- 
 ment, mentally and physically ; both heat and cold 
 exhaust the vital functions ; the heat of tropical countrie.s 
 
M) 
 
 ORGANIC LIFE. 
 
 I 
 
 together with the Idck ot' incentives to liibor throuf,'h 
 the spontaneouH production of food by the soil, lends to 
 inactivity. In the polar n ■,'ioM.s tiio sol(! attention is 
 directed toward providing fuod. In tiie temperate regions 
 exertion is needed to assist nature in her productions, 
 but not continuous exertion ; the labor of a part of the 
 year secures food and other letjuireinents for the remain- 
 ing part ; systematic labor leads to active, industrious 
 habits, and when activity and energy are not employed 
 in gaining food they will be employed in other directions. 
 Hence, all the great conciuering, commercial, and civil- 
 izing nations of history belong to the temperate zones. 
 
 The races living on the seaboiu'd are apt to be enter- 
 prising, diirnig, and commarcial ; those on fertile plains 
 and lowlands will be industrious, agricultural, and not 
 venturesome ; deeming industrial pursuits of more im- 
 portance than freedom, they are inclined to be sub- 
 missive to rulers, and have always been readily overcome 
 by conquerors. The mountain races have always been 
 noted for their independence and their spirit. 
 
 " A damp, heavy atinoHpbere has a depressing effect (in ua, while 
 a bright, clear one exertn iin (pjiposite effect. So a race whose home 
 is in a dull or a bright climate, will i)artake of the nature of the 
 climate. Frenchmen have a sunny chniate, and tliey are lively ; the 
 English and Dutch have a heavy climate, and lack si)rightlineas." 
 However, none of the Germanic races are vivacious, though living in 
 a bright climate. The Celtic races are vivacious, though living in the 
 damp climate of Ireland, or the bright one of France. The hot, 
 burning regions of the deserts are said to make the people <iuick- 
 tempered and fierce. 
 
 In physical frame man is affected by climate ; it is 
 said that the inhabitants of elevated regions have fuller 
 chests and larger lungs than the people of low-lying 
 lands, and that the diy climate of North America makes 
 the body more shrivelled, dry, and sinewy than does the 
 moist climate of western Europe. 
 
 1 1 , Man's Bfitects on Physical Conditions. —"Man 
 has introduced, as it were, an element of antagonism to 
 Nature. . . . He has, with advancing civilization, 
 engaged in a contest to subdue the earth and possess it. 
 His warfare has often been a blind one, successful for the 
 moment, but leading to sure and sad disaster." But 
 latterly he attains his object, "not by setting Nature 
 and her laws at detiance, but by enlisting her in his 
 .service." 
 
 0)1 Climate. — By the removal of forests and the con- 
 sequent exposure of the soil to the sun, rainfall is 
 diminished, temperature is raised in summer and lowered 
 in winter. Permanent injury has been done to countries 
 bordering on the Mediterranean by the destruction of 
 
 forests ; the soil in places has become parched and barren. 
 In tiie West Indies similar results have followed like 
 acts ; and thoy are not. unknown in Canada. 
 
 By draining, the water of rainfall is carried ofl' more 
 rapidly, and swamps, bogs, ponds, and lakes are removed, 
 the result being that evaporation is lessened and tem- 
 perature raised. 
 
 0;i Flow of irrti'e;-. — T!ie destruction of swamps, etc., 
 causes a more rapid flow of water into the rivers, which 
 often produces disastrous floods. Also, by the embank- 
 ment of rivers the water is confined to the channel, and 
 the sediment is all carried seaward. (See " Land Surface 
 of the Earth," sec. 26.) By mines, wells, etc., the course, 
 and consecjuently the effects, of underground water is 
 changed. 
 
 On the Surface of the Land. — Forests are planted 
 where none existed before ; rivers are turned fr^oii; their 
 courses for irrigation or for reclaiming waste land , olial- 
 low arms of the sea are cut off by dykes and turned to 
 drv land j breakwaters, piers, and embankments arrest 
 the action of waves on the shore ; canals, railways, mines, 
 tunnels, and roads are being cut, and with tlie material 
 new deposits are formed. 
 
 On Distribution of Life. — Here man's influence is most 
 felt. Food plants and domestic animals have been trans- 
 ported from their native place to every quarter of the 
 earth where they will thrive ; while insects, mice, and 
 rats follow wherever man goes. Hurtful beasts, and 
 some not hurtful, and useless plants have been destroyed. 
 As liis knowledge of nature increases, those plants and 
 animals in any part of the world that are found m st 
 useful to him, he will naturally seek to extend as widely 
 as possible. 
 
 Thus, by his intelligence, man produces results that 
 nature alone could not. 
 
 1 2. Types of Man. — Man has inten lingled to so great 
 an extent, and " the different varieties run into one 
 another by such insensible degrees," that it is very diffi- 
 cult to make a satisfactory classification ; but " there at 
 lenst exist several definable types, eac'i of which so far 
 prevails in a certain population as to be ti>ken as a 
 standard." Thus in a connnunity, amid the infinite 
 variety of form and featuie, certain characteristics are 
 common to all the individuals, distinguishing them from 
 every other community ; and a group of communities in 
 their turn may have .some char.acteristic, common to each, 
 which is not found in another group. 
 
TYPES OF MAN. 
 
 41 
 
 Flo. 30.— ArHTiiAi.ioii) Typh. 
 
 Fio. 31.— Nkoroid Tvi'K. 
 
 lid. 3l'. .Movudi.iiiii Tu'K, 
 
 The foUowingf claHnification is that suggested by Professor Huxley. 
 It is based upon [ihynical characteristicH :— 
 
 1. AHKtmlioi,l{Vui 30). -Having "a chocolate-Brown skin, dark- 
 brown or black eyes, black hair (usually wavy), narrow skull, brow- 
 ridges strongly developed, projecimg jaw, coarse lips, and broad 
 nose." This type is best seen in Australia and in some hill-tribes of 
 Southern India. 
 
 2. Nqiroid {Flc. 31). -" Extending from Sahara to the Cape 
 district, including Madagascar. Skin and eyes, dark-brown or black ; 
 hair, usually black, and always crisp and woolly; skull, narrow; 
 br(>w-ri<lgfs, not iirominent ; projecting jaws ; nose, Hat and broad ; 
 lios, coarse and projecting. This type includes the Bushmen and the 
 Negritos of i,hd Andaman Islands, the people of Malacca, the Philip- 
 pines, and other islands to New Caledonia and Tasmania." 
 
 3. Moiu/oloid (Fi(i. 32).— "E.xtending eastward of a line drawn 
 from Lapland to Siam (not including the Russians). Build, short 
 and nqnat; yellowish-brown complexion; black eyes and black, 
 straight hair ; broari skiiU, usually without brow-riifges ; flat, small 
 nose; oblicpie eyes." Tlie Chinese and Japanese— both with narrow 
 skulls— are include<i in this 
 
 class, as are also the Eski- 
 mos of the Frigid Zone. It' 
 mcludes, also, the Malays, 
 Polynesians, and America.! 
 Indians, though varying 
 considerably from the typi- 
 cal form. 
 
 4. Xanthochroi, or Fair 
 Whites (Fig. 23).- "Tall; 
 8kin,almostcolorless; eyes, 
 grey or blue; hair, from 
 straw-color to chestnut ; 
 skulls, of varying breadth." 
 The prevalent inhabitants 
 of Northern Europe, traced 
 also into Northern Africa 
 and Hindustan. 
 
 .5. Mclnnnehrni, or Dark 
 Whites (Fig. 34). — "Com- 
 plexion, darkening to 
 brownish and olive, and 
 eyes and hnir to black ; 
 stature lower and frame 
 lighter than in the Xantho- 
 chroi type." This type includes the peoi)le of southern Europe- 
 Spaniards, Greeks, Arabs— and most of those usually called Kelts; 
 it extends also into India. It shows large intermixture with the fair 
 whites. 
 
 Another classification, — th.it of Blumcnbacn (1781), — givrs the 
 tyiJes as Caucasian, Mongolian, Negro, Malay, American. But more 
 extensive knowledge has .shown this to be a very faulty classification 
 
 FiQ. 33.— Fair Wiiitk Tvpr. 
 
 A third classification, that of I'rofehsor Max Miiller, is based 
 upon similarities in language— the Ari/an, or liiUo-h'uroptati, includ- 
 ing all Kuroi)eans (except 1 inns, Lapps, Hungarians, and Turks), the 
 mhabitants of Asia Minor, Persia, and India ; the Semitic, including 
 Arabs, .Jews, and the races of a large portion of Northern Africa ; 
 and the Turanian, including the races of all Asia except the South- 
 west and India, the Turks, Finns, Lapps, and Hungarians of Euroi)e, 
 the i'.Hkimos, of the Arctic regions, and the viirious Indian tribes of 
 America. 
 
 13. Man as to Religion.— Tlie belief, liowcver vague, 
 in the existence of beings superior to himself, seems to 
 l)e natural to man. No race, however degraded, has as 
 yet been found without some idea of such being.s ; and the 
 reverence paid to them, however varied may be the 
 motives from wliich it arises, constitutes what is caJied 
 
 religion. Tlie con jep- 
 tions as to what t tiese 
 beings are, are ex- 
 tremely varied, — from 
 dead men, devils, and 
 the powers or objects of 
 nature, to the Creator 
 and Supreme Ruler of 
 the universe. From 
 the remotest times 
 questions of religion 
 have had a great influ- 
 
 FiQ. 3-1.- Dark Wiiitk Typk. 
 
 ence upon men botli 
 as nations and as indi- 
 viduals. 
 
 The leading religions of the present day are : — 
 
 1. Christianitii— the various sects numbering over 400,000,000, — 
 professed by the most highly civilized and energetic nations. Its sub- 
 divisions, or sects, are Roman Catholic, the most numerous ; Pro- 
 tfotant; Gieek Church (of Russia, Greece, .''ervia, Bidgaria, 
 Roumania, and Christians of Turkey) ; Nestorian (of Persia); 
 Abyssinian. 
 
42 
 
 0RC5ANIC LIFE. 
 
 ■J. Afiihiimiiuilaitimn embriicen all miuth-wcotuni Ania, fully 'M, 
 
 all North Afri(ui, iniich in C'i'iitrivl 
 
 ItM Millii'i'ciit!* urn 
 
 000,000 i>{ fiillowcrH in IwVui, 
 
 Al'i'ii M, ami tlic TiiikH iiml CiiuaNxiuns <if Kiii'ci|h-. 
 
 vi'iy niiiiii!r:(UH ; tllili) air at Icaat ir>0,000,OJO. 
 
 3. ./i<(/((M/ii. -The iFfWH fiinn no nation, Imt arc HcatttTcd, nceni- 
 inffly, over thu vvholu world. It in cHtiuiattul that they niunl>i'r at 
 least 7,0U0,O00. 
 
 Other relief ioHH arc p'ricrally roiijfhlvcliiHNcd iis llnilhin : ImtMonm 
 of thi'si' ri'lijfioiiH arc, in tlii'ir (jurti form, of a vi'ry liit,'li cliaractcr. 
 
 Ilriilniiiiiinia, the follii\vcrn of wliich iiumliiT at IcihI L'J'i.OOO.OfK), 
 in itx pincNt form of V'iHhniiiHui, teaclicH a very iiigh morality, It lit 
 confined to India. 
 
 /Idililhiniii, foUoweiH of whicli are mere numerouK, it Ih thonf(lit> 
 than tiioHc of any other rt^ligion, is nn offshoot of HrahminiHin ; it, 
 too, when in itx purcHt form, is of a high type, 
 
 14. Man, Socially and Commercially.— Man lias 
 been calUsd a "groyarioua aninml," that is, endowed l)y 
 nature with instincts that lead to association in com- 
 tuunities. Part of this tendency to association is due 
 to the desire for safety, to mutual dependence, and to 
 natural advantages for int(>rcoursoand niunufacture. But 
 the earliest histories of tlie race, as seen in the Bible 
 narrative, and as deduced from language, sliow that coiu- 
 nmnities first arose from the association of families — 
 that is, kindred. The Israelites, Moabites, and others, 
 are seen to have been descended each from ti common 
 ancestor. The same is inferred with regard to the Higli- 
 land and the Irish clans ; and archieological history shows 
 the same in the various Germanic tribes — " Nottinsham." 
 for instance, indicates the " home of the descendants of 
 Nott." 
 
 In the lowe.st tyiJCH of man -those of the dense woods of Africa, 
 of Australia, or of Tierra-del-Fuego, wlumi we call mi rtiiii.i, the 
 instincts are scarcely above those of the mere brute. His sole object 
 in the gaining of food and the i)roviding of himself with weapons 
 for hunting or warfare; indeed, the ability to jirovide hiniself with 
 what he is lacking in by nature, viz., clothing, however rude, and 
 implements by which ho is assisted in gaining food or defending 
 himself, is almost the only thing that distinguishes him from the 
 brute ; his regard for life is aa little as that of the brute ; his intel- 
 lectual natu.o is dormant; he acts from instinct rather than from 
 reason. 
 
 In the enlightened nations- those of western Europe especially— 
 the intellectual a.id moral, or non-p •' ■>!. nature is highly cultivated 
 in all its varied tendencies, and not mere animal instinct, 
 
 IB the controlling principle; thego. .mkind, physically, mornlly, 
 
 and intellectually, enj,'age» earnest att. ..ti(m, and the social relations 
 are multitudinoui and complex. All the resources if sciencic and 
 art, the productions— animal, vegetable, and min^ri'— of every 
 comitry and climate, all the forces of nature ai e laid under contribu- 
 tion to satisfy the innumerable needs of this society. Such nations 
 alone have jiroduced effects upon the physical world, ana such are the 
 great commercial uiid governing nations of to-day. 
 
 Between these two e.xtrtsinc" lies every variety of Hocial and com- 
 mercial condition. BdrhiivuUK, nciai-barliariiux, scmicivilized, ciriliznl, 
 are some of the vague terms used to indicate these different stages of 
 social development. 
 
 15. Man in Nations or Governments.— It is held 
 that nations had their origin in the family — in the associa- 
 tion of kindred. — and that they have becciiiO enlarged by 
 natural increase, by subjection and incorporation of some, 
 
 and by union on eiiual terms with otiiers. Ifence ariHe 
 many of those peculiarities that distinguisii (bl!''niit 
 nations, and even whole connnunities within the snnn^ 
 nation. 
 
 But nations and cumnninitiea must have internal con- 
 trolling, organizing, or governing principles of some kind, 
 and those principles— or, what is the same tiling, the 
 «'xtent and character of the power possessed by those 
 who have the control, — constitute what we understand 
 by ijovernmnnt. 
 
 Types of Government. -As in the social relati..n so in the 
 jiolitiial ri^lation thiTc are extremi! types. The lowest tvpe of savags 
 IS almost "a law to liiiiiself," and is restrained only by the fear of 
 immediate piiysical snlfering, or by the custom of his tribe, tlii> chief 
 having but little control. Such is the government in Australian 
 trilics. lint in other savage tribes, only a few degrees removed from 
 these, the iliief's power is absolute that of life and death; such 
 is found in many of the I'acitic islands and among many of the 
 African tribes. In somi' tribes the chief is regarded almost as a god, 
 in others he is summarily tleposed or put to death through mere 
 caprice. 
 
 Tint nonmd races, such as the Bedouin Arabs and the Tarti'rs of 
 western Asia, who waiuler from place to place with their (locks and 
 herils, have a type of government termed /Kitndivlml, the highest 
 form of which is seeii in the Bible narrative of Abiaham, -lacob, ami 
 others, and, till within a linndred or so years, among the Highl.in'lers 
 of Scotland. In these the chief is regarded as the father of the trib(% 
 caring for and governing it as a father does a family, and controlled 
 only by wi'll-establishej custom. 
 
 In a more settled or more highly organized state the iiatriarelial 
 government passes into the Moivircltinl, such as is seen in tlie Biblical 
 account of the .lews after their settlement in Canaan, in tlie history 
 of the Tartar races of Asia, and of the Saracens of Arabia. 
 
 This form of government shows two distinct classes: one, the 
 Absolute Monarehy, in which the laws controlling the nation are in 
 the main written, but in which the chief ruler, whatever his title, is 
 superiiu- to the law, and can, of his own authority, make or abolish 
 laws. In these governments the nation at large has no control, though 
 the ruler is usually guided by ministers or by ciistom. Such goverii- 
 niejits are seen in Persia, China, in many of the states of India, in 
 Farther India, Turkey, and Russia, -Persia showing the extreme of 
 absolutism, and Russia the tendency to constitutionalism. In the 
 second class the inniiarchs are controlled by written absolute law. 
 by ancient custom, and by the enactments of tlu! nation through its 
 representatives, assembled as a national controlling council. These 
 are CniMtUutiimnl Mdiiiirchirn, the ccmstitution {or boily of laws 
 regulating the duties and jiowers of governor and governed) of each 
 country defining more or less distinctly the powers of the ruler. These 
 powers are different in different countries —in (lermany they border 
 on absolutism, in England they are exercised by the ministers. 
 
 The remaining form of government — the o])p(>site extreme to the 
 savage — is the Jir/mUican. In this the chicif ruler does not hold his 
 office for life as in other forms of government, but for a number of 
 years fixed bylaw. His powers are also fixed by law, and are different 
 in diflFerent countries. In the United States, for instance, they are 
 greater in some respects than those of the sovereign of England. 
 The chief ruler as well as the legislators are chosen directly or in- 
 directly by vote of the nati(ni. 
 
 16. Relationship of Countries.— Countries may 
 
 stand in different relationship to each other politically. 
 
 They may be wholly inde])endent. One may be wholly merged 
 in another. They may have the same sovereign but be independent 
 in other respects, as Norway and iSwedeii. They may form a federa- 
 tion, each country cont.-olhng its own local affairs. One may be .a 
 dependency of another, or a colony having more or less control of 
 its own affairs. 
 
r \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 i-l*^*' 
 
 ■^ -*^- 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 I'm. ;ir. Sllumxd ROTI'NDITY OK TIIK Eaiiti 
 
 THK EAETH AS A PLAN]<7r. 
 
 1 . Tho pli.uioiucna of tlm mrtJi in coiiut'otioi. witli liiiul, 
 water, air and life, and their mutual rolations, are for the 
 most part matters of co.ninon observation open to each of 
 us. But the relation of the earth as a whole to the rent 
 of creation, its position in that creation, and the causes of 
 many of its phenomena, are not open to common observa- 
 tion, but they have been established by long and patient 
 investigation or are still matters of theory. Wo have 
 therefore to accept as fact w'.iat has been established as 
 fact by eminent men, but to receive only as theory what 
 has not been proved to h^fact, however deep tho research 
 that led to the thciory. 
 
 2. Shape of the Earth. -The spherical shape of the 
 earth is one of the facts fully established by astronomers 
 Allowance being made for imperfection of sight and 
 consequent optical illusions, the ground beneath and 
 around us seems flat, although many of the observed 
 phenomena would be wholly inexplicable were the earth 
 truly so. Among such phenomena is the extended ran.'(. 
 ot vision from higher ground, which brings into view 
 distant objects that, though of I.u-ge size, have but little 
 elevation, while those of smaller size but of greater 
 elevation are clearly seen from the lower ground. The 
 following, among others, are proofs of the spherical form 
 of the earth : - - 
 
 " Fruiu Ihw Greek word Aorizo, to liound. 
 
 x..l„[f'.'"' •'*■''""■*'"'• "'? ">""" *'•<• "'""<"«' "f tho wirth no matt,..- in 
 
 inf.!r\!hi:t^i;ra/i::th.Xu':tr'^'' *'"'^''^""' '*>— „aoioto 
 
 The above facts prove tho general form of the earth 
 to be spherical ; the followi.ig are two proofs that the 
 earth is not perfecllif spherical :— 
 
 < >n<liff«r«rit parts of tho e,irth-in. South Amorica Imlia Vcr^t 
 KiisHia, Norway, ami othcrM M .. l...„rfi. f i ' """"' ^'Ifypt, 
 
 s»J"s,^ife,5'sS~ SS^- 
 tho lon^h of adoKroo, .noasuro.) on th hIocLio is w vwl/''^^^^^^^ 
 Huino ; tho earth, thorcfore, cannot 1,,' a n f, ct „ .L'po (^^^ ^}"' 
 l.-nKth of a doKron on a n.o'ri.lian in tho h. ar '4' ^^h-.w^^^^^ 
 (IcKn'o tlioro is tlio arc of a larger circlo and h.mr,. I . „ tuat the 
 
 curve, or i.s flattor ' '^' "''" * """'" Sf'idual 
 
 si.hero aro at th.. san>o <1 istanco f rou, tU contro ■ th ■ ■ th t th r f*'* 
 
 3 Size of the Earth.-The polar circumference of the 
 earth is determined by measuring a degree on a meri.lian 
 and the e(,uatorial circumference by measuring a degree 
 on the equator, in eacJi case the result being multiplied 
 by 360, the number of degrees in a circle. The diameter 
 

 44 
 
 THE KAllTH AS A PLANET. 
 
 will bo found by applying the well-known ratio between 
 diameter and circumference. The mecDi, circumference 
 will be about 24,858 statute miles (2r),000 in round 
 numbers), and the v^ea7i diameter 7912.409 miles (8,000 
 in round numbers), the equatorial diameter being about 
 26^ miles longer than the polar diameter. The equa- 
 torial diameter is 41,848,380 feet; the polar diameter, 
 41,708,710 feet. 
 
 The mountains arc so small in comparison with t'tw size of tho 
 1. irth that they make no apiireciable difference in the .ippearance of 
 • the eartli as a wliolc. 
 
 Tho area of the earth may be readily calculated from the data 
 given ab()V(\ 
 
 The cause of the difference between tho equatorial and tho polar 
 diameter has not been fully determined. The Nebular theory would 
 explain it. The fluid mass of the cooling, revolving earth would 
 tend, in accordance with a well-known law, toward the part that 
 revolved most rapidly, viz., tho e(iuator ; and when this fluid mass 
 solidified the equatorial regions woidd be left in a bulging form. 
 
 4. Motions of the Earth ; Diurnal Motir n.— The 
 sun, our source of light, is not always present to us or 
 in the same direction from us ; at night the same change 
 in the position of other heavenly bodies is observable also. 
 Either the earth turns round or the whole heavens do. 
 The revolving of the earth is the simpler explanation of 
 the phenomena; that the eatth does revolve is proved 
 by astronomers and demonstrated by experiment.* A 
 revolution (from west to east) takes place once in twenty- 
 four hours (23 hr.s., .56 min , 4 sec), and causes the 
 phenomena of day and night. 
 
 The part about which all other parts seem to revolve is termed 
 thu axis ; and the points on opposite s.ides whore this axis is at the 
 surface are called the pnles. It is evident that the nearer a ])lace 
 is to the axis (or ^)()les) the more slowly it will revolve ; it has to de- 
 scribe a smaller circle in the same time in which a more remote point 
 describes a larger one. 
 
 It is evident that the heads of those dwelling on the opposite side 
 of the earth to us (the antijioilen) iH)int in a direction the revers(( of 
 what ours do ; V)Ut the heavens are all around the earth and conse- 
 quently the heads of the antipodes point to the heavens. IJ/i means 
 away from the earth ; iloirn, towards the earth ; luiucc! these terms, 
 though in one sense the same to us md the antipodes, in another 
 are exactly the ojjposito. But like everything else on the earth, the 
 antipodes arc held to tho earth by atlrnctH)\ of </ravitii~t\mt property 
 of all matter by which each body attracts all others witii a force 
 directly as the weight, and inversely as the square of the distance 
 asunder. Were the earth to cease revolvmg, everything on its surfr.c(^ 
 would shoot off with fearful velocity ; at the equator the rate of speed 
 at whicii objects move is over a tiiousand miles an hour. Were the 
 earth to lose its attractive power, anything impelled from it would 
 go to the object that exerted the strongest attractive influence. 
 
 5. The Earth aid the Sun ; Annual Motion - 
 Astronomers iiave al.so proved that tho earth, besides 
 revolving on its axis, revolves around the sun once in 
 365 J days (305 days, 6 hrs., 9 min., 10 see.)— one such 
 revolution beiug called a year. This revolution, together 
 with the position of the earth's axis, produces the 
 
 ■ Sec Loi'kver's AstroiKimv. 
 
 phenomena of the seasons, and the different lengtlic of 
 day and night. 
 
 The ]iath of the earth around the sun is called its orbit; 
 the figure that it describes is not a perfect circle, but 
 an ellipae, — the sun being somewhat nearer one end than 
 the other. 
 
 Now, if tlie axis of the earth were perpendicular to the 
 .space enclosed within this ellipse, — called the plane of 
 the earth's orbit, — it is evident that day and night would 
 be equal over the globe from north pole to south pole ; 
 for the sun being much larger than the earth, and cast- 
 ing out light from all parts of its surface, floods with 
 light the half of the earth turned towards it. 
 
 It is evident, too, that there would be no change of 
 season in any place, for the sun's position would never 
 vary with regard to any place,- -the heat would gradu- 
 ally decrease from the torrid of the equatorial zone to the 
 frigid of the polar zones ; each place would have one 
 unvarying climate the year round. 
 
 But these are not the phenomena we have. It is 
 found that the axis of the earth is 23^ degrees from a 
 
 Flo. :)(i.— DlAUllAM 'IF SBASuNS. 
 
 perpendicular to the plane of the orbit, and moreover 
 that the axis points always in the same direction, — its 
 position at any one time is always parallel to its position 
 at every other time. On these facts depend the phe- 
 nomena of seasons and of inequality in day and night. 
 
 Hence it is seen that at one time (.rune21st) tho north poh; of the 
 I'arth will bo inclined 23.V degrees toward the sun, and the light of 
 the sun will shine ^'iS degrees over the pol(! in consequence ; but as 
 only one-half of the earth can ha\o ligtit at the same time, therefore 
 the light iloes not reach the math poh' i.y Zih degrees, and also the 
 sun nnist be i)er()endicular at a spot half way between thcs(^ ex- 
 tremes of illumination, or 2H^ degrees north of the point midway be- 
 tween tho jioles— at the Trnpicof Cancer. (See D in diagram.) This 
 position of the sun will give the greatest heat to tho aorthiTU half of 
 the earth and proilucH .Summer, while the southern half will receive 
 the lea.-*t heat and h.ivi^ Winter. 
 
MOriU^^S OF THE EARTH— THE PLANETS. 
 
 45 
 
 As the earth passes omvanl, in three iiuv'ths (Sept. 21) it arrives 
 where the north pole will point neither to nor from the sun ; con- 
 sequently the limit of illumination will be at the poles, — clay and 
 night are of equal length,— we have the Autumnal Equinox, and the 
 chantje of Monsoons. (See "Atmosphere," sec. 1(1.) Still passing 
 onward, the earth in three more months (Dec. 22) reaches a position 
 where the north pole i)oints away from the sun 23^ degrees, and 
 consequently the sun's light will not reach this pole by the same num- 
 ber of degrees ; but, half of the earth is still in the sunlight, and 
 therefore tlie sun shines 23^ degrees beyond the south pole and is 
 perpendicular half way between these extremes of illumination, — 
 at the Tropic of Capricorn. Then there is summer in the south 
 part of the earth and winter in the north. In three months more 
 (Ma.-ch 21) the earth will again be where the north pole points 
 neither in the direction of nor away from the sun, and again day 
 and night are of equal length— we have the Vernal Equinox and 
 another chant/e of Monsoons. Three months more finds the north 
 ix)le again pointing towards the sun. 
 
 6. Inequality of Day and Night.— By the diagram (fig. 36) 
 it is seen that in the position D the north pole is in continual light, and 
 the space around it for 23A degrees— that is to the Arctic (Hrcle— is 
 also in continual light. The sun seems to revolve on, or a short dis- 
 tance above, the horizon. A little way beyond this point it is evident 
 that the sun will be invisible for a short time — it will disappear below 
 the horizon and soon reappear— consequently the night will be very 
 short and the day very long. A few degrees farther away the night 
 will be sensibly lengthened and the day proportionally shortened, but 
 still the day will be much the longer. Finally, where the sun is per- 
 pendicular, at Cancer, day and night are equal ; beyond this point 
 the state of things is reversed and the nights are longer than the 
 d^ys, till at 23J degrees from the south pole, viz., at the Antarctic 
 Circle, continual night is found. The progress of the earth's revolu- 
 tion round the sun gradually reverses tlie.se conditions, and then re- 
 stores them again. 
 
 When the earth reaches B (see diagram) the north pole enters the 
 light and remains in ic for si.x months. Thus this pole has six luontlis 
 of day and consequently of night also ; places removed from it have 
 shorter ])eriods of continuous liglit. 
 
 It is evident therefore that when the sun is periiendicular at 
 Cancer— the Summer Solstice,* the places north of that tropic have 
 their longest day, and when it is perpeiuliciil;i" -ler Capricorn- ?/»■ 
 Winter Solstice, the same ])laces have their shortest day ; in other 
 words, at the Sunniier Solstici! the sun will be iiighest in the lieavens 
 to places north of tlie Tropic of Cancer, and lowest in tiie lieavciis 
 when tlie sun is at the Winter .Solstice. Om' Summer .Solstice is 
 the Winter Solstice for those south of the Tropic of Capricorn. 
 
 7. "Why the Earth's Motion is Circular.— It is a law in 
 natUH! that when a body is acted upon by two forces, not in ojiposite 
 directions, it will obey neither, but move in a straiglit line between 
 them. The earth is .such a body ; it is acted on by a force that pro- 
 pels it forward, and also by the attraction of the sun; it obeys 
 neither fully. If the force of propulsion and that of attraction hiid 
 each acted but once and then ceased, the earth would have gone on- 
 ward in a straight line ; but both forces are in continual action, 
 and as the earth in conseciuence has to continually change its course, 
 circular motion is the result. t 
 
 8. Distance of Earth from the Sun.— The greate.st 
 distance of the earth from the sun — or when the earth is 
 in aphelionX — occurs at tlie summer solstice of the north- 
 ern heiniaphero, 92,903,000 miles, and its lea.st distance — 
 perihelion\ — at the winter solstice, 89,897,000 miles, 
 tlie mean being 91,430,000 miles. 
 
 Although the earth is nearer the sun by three millions of 
 miles at one period tliiin at another, yet this greater 
 
 * From the Lutlii m.l tlie sun, ami sto to stutiil. 
 
 t See I.nekyer's Aatrmioniy for tlie causes of the elliptical character of the 
 orbits of planets. 
 
 I Trom the Greek apo away, peri around or near, iiiul Iwlius the sun. 
 
 proximity to the source of heat is, in the northern hemis- 
 phere, more than counterbalanced by the oblique sur- 
 face on which the rays fall. In the southern hemisphere, 
 it is fully counterbalanced by the greater mass of water, 
 and by the shorter period during which the sun is per- 
 pendicular. Were the mass of land as great in the 
 southern hemisphere as it is in the northern the tem- 
 perature in the former would be higher in the summer 
 and colder in the winter than at present. 
 
 It is evident that the northern hemisphere receives direct rays of 
 the sun for a longer period than the southern does ; for as the earth 
 is 3,000,000 of miles farther from the sun at the summer solstice 
 than it is at the winter solstice, this difference of distance must be 
 traversed twice while the north pole is inclined in the direction of 
 the sun, or, in other words, is in continuous light. The earth, too, 
 moves more rapidly from the time of the autumnal equinox to the 
 time of the vernal equinox than it does from the vernal to the 
 autumnal. 
 
 At the summer solstice the earth turns its course somewhat in the 
 direction of the sun ; the force of propulsion and the sun's attraction 
 are then acting in a measure together. The rapidity of the earth's 
 motion is consequently increased, so much so that at the autumnal 
 equinox it is so great that it overcomes the sun's attraction, and the 
 earth passes by the sun. The two forces are now opposed ; but the 
 sun's attraction gradually overcomes the other, tiil at the winter 
 solstice, it turns the earth, in a circular course, back again. Once 
 more the two forces are acting somewhat in concert, and the earth's 
 motion increases in rapidity, — but to a greater degree than before, 
 since the earth and sun are now nearer each other by 3,000,000 
 miles. In con.sequeiice of this, at the vernal e<(uinox, the earth 
 passes by the sun with greater raiiidity than at the autumnal 
 eijuinox, and goes 3,000,000 miles further from the sun than before, 
 ere the sun's attraction again checks it at tiie summer solstice. In 
 this latter position it is evident that not only is the distance to be 
 travelled bad: again greater than that between the winter solstice and 
 the M'rnal equinox, but the attractive force of the sun is lessened, 
 ami the motion of th(^ earth conseciuently slower— circumstances that 
 kee|> the northern hemisphere in the direct rays of tlie sun for a 
 longer time than the southern. 
 
 !>. The Planets. — Tlie earth is liut one of a luimber of bodies 
 that revolve around the sun receiving their light and heat from 
 it. This collection of heavenly bodies, so related, is termed the 
 Solar Sii.ttem, and each is called a jilanit in contradistinction to the 
 starx, —other heavenly bodies that do not revolve around the sun. 
 
 Tile solar system is believed by astronomm's to be itself revolving 
 around some other centre in the remote heavens. 
 
 Tiie following table gives the names and some other facts in con- 
 nection with the planets of the solar system : — • 
 
 Dianie- 
 
 N'uines ami Order tors in 
 
 of I'lanets. Knglisli 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Distanue froni 
 Sun in .Miles. 
 
 Revolution 
 in bays. 
 
 Kotation 
 
 in Days 
 
 and Hours. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Satel- 
 lites. 
 
 Still .S.'>3 380 
 
 
 224.700 
 
 305.25li 
 
 080.979 
 
 2,000.000 
 
 4,332.. .84 
 
 10,7o0.2i9 
 
 30,0.80.820 
 
 00,120720 
 
 D. II. M. 
 
 25 10 
 
 1 5 
 
 23 21 
 
 1 
 1 37 
 
 9 65 
 10 29 
 9 30 
 
 
 Mereury 3,058 
 
 Venus 7,-"ilO 
 
 Kaith 7,920 
 
 Mars ^ 4,303 
 
 Asteroids 
 
 Jupiter S4,S40 
 
 Saturn ,™''-'L' 
 
 3.^1,302,000 
 00,134,000 
 
 »i,4:io,ooo 
 
 139,.ill,000 
 2o0,0u0 OuO 
 475,0'.)i.O(IO 
 872,137,000 
 1,753,SH!),00U 
 2,745,098,000 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 '4 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 Neptune ; 37,278 
 
 
 I 
 
 Most of the planets are attended by one or more smaller bodies 
 that revolvi^ around tlieiii, and that reilect upon them the H^ht re- 
 ceived from the sun ; such .secondary olanets, or satellites, are called 
 moons. Our moon is 238,000 miles distant, 2,100 miles in diameter, 
 
4G 
 
 THE EARTH AS A PLANET. 
 
 and revolvp-i around the earth in 27 days and 8 liours— in round num- 
 bers, 28 days— a month. 
 
 From appearances i)resente(l by the moon wlieii viewed throiigli 
 a telescope, many astronomers believe that i)lanet to have passed 
 through tha various stages that the earth has jjassed through, and to 
 have beconis at last dead, there being no atmosphere and no water. 
 Ihe i)lanets Mars and Venus, on the other hand, present every 
 appearance of being like tiie earth. 
 
 . 10. Direction, Distance, Time.— In order to indicate direc- 
 tion there must be some fi.xed point established. The North Star 
 supplies this need ; it is always in the same spot in the heavens ; the 
 north pole "'ways points to it at all seasons of the year— a fact that 
 shows the niv;onceivable distance of the star. Direction towards this 
 starts called nortk; opposite it, south; towards the right, when 
 facing the star, £■((,•<<; towards tlie left, west ; intermediate points go 
 by different but descriptive names. 
 
 Fixed places are also needed from which to indicate distance. 
 Ihese are supplied in the i)oles. In mathematics a circle is divided 
 into 300 parts, called (.Iti/rcrs; and as the shape of the earth is 
 that of a circle (or thereabouts), its surface is said to be divided 
 into degrees, hence from the north pole to the south pole would be 
 180 , and half way between them tlO" ; tliis latter place is termed the 
 cquatorii.r., cqunlizir); distance fnmi this, north or .south, isternied so 
 many degrees from the ecpiator, or so many degrees o\orth or south 
 latitude The liaif of the earth north of the ecjuator is termed the 
 northern hcmi.yihrre (half sphere), the half south of the equator, the 
 southern hemisphere. 
 
 To determine distance east and west, or Jomiitude, a certain jil.ace 
 has to be hxed on by common consent, no natural position existing, 
 -hiich country has usually selected its own capit.il as the starting 
 point, but most nations of Kuroi)e and also of America have lately 
 agreed upon Greenwich, London. Any ))lace east or west of (Jreen- 
 wich, or of places directly north or south of (ireenwich, is said to 
 be m east or vest loiu,itiide respectively. As longitude extends liidf 
 w.iy round the globe, east and urst longitude will v et at 180 from 
 Cireenwich. 
 
 Time, apart from the year and month, is reckoned from the 
 moment the sun reaches the highest point in tlie heavens ; all places 
 that have tlie sun in tins ixisition at the same inomeut {noon) are said 
 to be under tiie same wt(7V>//(ni [i.e., mid-ilitii); and, as every jilace has 
 a mid-d.ay, every place will have a meridian. To us ncuth of the 
 Iropicof Cancer the sun is in tlie south when at its highest point ; 
 to those south of the Tropic of Capricorn it is in the north ; between 
 the tropics it is in the north or south, or perpendicular, according to 
 tlie season; at the tropics it is i)erpendicular, or to the south of 
 Cancer and to the north of Cai)ricorn, according to the season. As 
 tiime IS reckoned from meridians, no two places can have the same 
 time unless they are on the same meridian. 
 
 As this latter fact has been found attended with inconvenience in 
 railroad and steamboat travel and traffic, certain meridians (in America 
 
 the 00th, , .)th, 90th, 10.)th and 120th) have been selected as standards 
 from which to reckon time, one hour's difference (i.e. fifteen degrees 
 of longitude) existing between the time of each standard ; all places 
 between these standards liaving the same time. All the chief towns 
 on commercial routes have adopted this scheme instead of adhering 
 to their own local time.* 
 
 11. Maps of the Globe, etc.— In a picture of the globe the 
 outline will be a circle ; a line indicating the equator will be straight, 
 as will also a line drawn at ri^ht angles to the equator from the north 
 to the south pole. The eye is supposed to be fixed upon the inter- 
 secting I)oiiit; hence all other lines representing meridians, or degrees 
 of latituue ( /taritl/eisj will bo curved as they apjjear to be when 
 drawn on a hand-globe. 
 
 On a hand-globe meridian lines, or circles, and the equator have 
 the centre of the sjihere as their centre, but parallels do not ; the 
 former are (/reat circles, the latter small circles. Tiie lines indicating 
 the tropics (or solstices) and the lines indicating the extreini' limit of 
 illumination over the poles (polar circles) are also small circles. 
 
 As each circle has 300 degrees, one degree upon a f/reni ci'rr/f must 
 be longer than a degree upon a small circle. Hence a degree on 
 the earth along the e(iuator or along a meridian is longer than a de- 
 gree upon a parallel of latitude or the tropics or polar circles. 
 
 The following table gives the distance in miles along the equator 
 and along certain parallels, i.e. degrees of longitude :— 
 
 T.UiI.E SHOWINfl THE LENOTH OP A DKOREE OB' LONGITUDE FOH EVERY 
 DKGUEKS Ol' L.VriTUDK IN GEOGUAPHICAL AND ENGLISH M1I.E.S. 
 
 Bt'S. of 
 Latitude. 
 
 Geog. Miles, 
 
 Eng. Miles. 
 
 Desr. of 
 Latitude. 
 
 Geog, Miles, 
 
 Eng. Miles, 
 
 
 
 60.00 
 
 69.07 
 
 50 
 
 38., 'J7 
 
 44, ,35 
 
 5 
 
 511.77 
 
 68.81 
 
 65 
 
 34.41 
 
 39,. '•,8 
 
 10 
 
 5!). 09 
 
 07.95 
 
 00 
 
 30.00 
 
 34.63 
 
 Vo 
 
 57. !W 
 
 00.65 
 
 05 
 
 2.0,30 
 
 29.15 
 
 20 
 
 58.38 
 
 04.84 
 
 70 
 
 20.52 
 
 23.60 
 
 2,'i 
 
 54.38 
 
 62.. 53 
 
 75 
 
 15., ')3 
 
 17.86 
 
 30 
 
 51.00 
 
 59.75 
 
 SO 
 
 10.42 
 
 11.98 
 
 35 
 
 49.15 
 
 .58., 51 
 
 85 
 
 5.23 
 
 6.00 
 
 40 
 
 4.^.. 98 
 
 62.85 
 
 90 
 
 0.00 
 
 0.00 
 
 45 
 
 42.34 
 
 48.78 
 
 •• 
 
 
 
 Between the tropics and the polar circles lie the so-called tem- 
 perate -onts. IJetwti'u the tropics, the torrid zone; within the liolar 
 circles, Xho. fritjiil ::.one. 
 
 * See Lockyer's Astronmiiy fur a full account of tlio complex character o*. 
 time ; and also for solar, mean solar, and sidereal time. 
 
Jted as standards 
 e. fifteen degrees 
 idard ; all i)Iaces 
 1 the chief towns 
 tead of adhering 
 
 of the globe the 
 will be straight, 
 r from the nortli 
 1 upon the inter- 
 iians, or degrees 
 ear to be when 
 
 le equator have 
 els do not ; the 
 lines indicating 
 [■xtrcnu' limit of 
 lall circles. 
 
 ircat ci'rr/p must 
 ce a degree on 
 inger than a de- 
 r circles, 
 ong the equator 
 
 'UDB FOU EVERY 
 SI.ISH MILES. 
 
 l08. 
 
 Eiig. Miles. 
 
 
 44.35 
 
 
 30.r,8 
 
 
 34.53 
 
 
 29.15 
 
 
 23.60 
 
 
 17.86 
 
 
 11.98 
 
 
 6.00 
 
 
 0.00 
 
 '. sii-callcd trm- 
 itliin the i)olar 
 
 plox character oi 
 
 :p-A-rt II 
 
 :POXiITIO-A.L GI-EOGI-E,.A.:PI3:-5r. 
 
 THE NEW WORLD, OR WESTERN HEMISPHERE. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 The term " New World " merely relates to the discov- 
 eries of Columbus, who, in reality, gave a new world to 
 Europe. In other respects America is at least as old as 
 either of the other continents. The Laurentian are the 
 oldest stratified rocks, and they form a very large portion 
 of the northern half of the continent. Not only do they 
 do this as a mass, but they reappear in both of the axes 
 in long, narrow bands here and there throughout a great 
 part of their length, thus roughly outlining the continent 
 from the first. 
 
 "Western hemisphere" indicates that half of the 
 earth's surface lying west of Europe, contained within the 
 meridians of 20° west longitude and 160° east longitude.* 
 
 The name "America" perpetuates a mistake. The 
 first to describe in a book the newly discovered land, was 
 Amerigo Vespucci, a companion of Columbus on his first 
 voyage, who afterwards became an explorer himself and 
 published the first account of the discoveries. 
 
 A striking feature of America is the vastness of the 
 scale on which the physical features are constructed, and 
 at the same timd the simplicity of the plan; — huge 
 mountain-crowned plateaus, that stretch from end to end 
 of the continents ; plains, whose breadth and length are 
 measured by thousands of miles, and wliose waters collect 
 in streams unequalled in length and volume, or, before 
 passing off in rivers, form the mightiest lakes in the 
 world ; — a plan the same in both continents— a great 
 plateau, with mountain chains close to one side ; a sup- 
 porting, but inferior, divergent chain on the other, with 
 the whole of the enclosed space a low-lying plain, the coast- 
 line being practically unbroken. 
 
 * Haii the (^hiTicse discovered America, they would possibly have called it 
 the " Kastorn hemisphere, " 
 
 In extent it encircles nearly half the earth, stretching 
 from tlie icy regions of the one pole to the borders of 
 those of the other. Exposed to every variety of climate, 
 it is yet free, almost wholly, from those physical condi- 
 tions that have reduced vast regions of Africa and Asia 
 to barren wastes. No such deserts as those of Arabia 
 and Beluchistan are seen, still less such as Sahara and 
 Gobi. Everywhere, except where rigorous cold forbids, 
 the soil will repay man for his labor. It is only to be 
 regretted that the same, or an equ'vlly energetic, race as the 
 one that now peoples the northern portion, did not fall heir 
 to the whole continent, seeing that so great a part of the 
 indigenous races were incapable of further advancement, 
 and disappeared before the incoming strangers. 
 
 The great cleft of the Gulf of Mexico, which almost 
 severs the continent of the New World, is paralleled by 
 that of the Mediterranean of the Old World. But the 
 two regions thus formed in the latter, at least in prox- 
 imity to the dividing water, are not unlike, either in their 
 vegetable or their animal productions ; while in the New 
 World the dividing water marks a decided difference, as 
 well in animal life as in vegetable life. The extraordinary 
 exuberance of vegetation, and the equally gaudy coloring 
 of the multitudinous varieties of insect and bird of the 
 southern division, are in marked contrast with the dark 
 forests and generally homely color of insect and bird in 
 the northern half. 
 
 The introduction of the Old World peoples into the 
 New was necessarily followed by the introduction of 
 those plants and animals upon which they had been 
 accustomed to rely for sustenance. The lapse of years, 
 however, has developed in these plants and animals a 
 distinct variation from the original types, as it has also 
 in man himself, — the result of some as yet nndiscoveied 
 peculiarity existing in air or soil. 
 
 [47^ 
 
Feet 
 
 SUOOO 
 
 15000 
 
 10000 
 
 5000 
 
 
 
 6UO0 
 
 10000 
 
 1(000 
 
 iOOOO 
 
1 I 
 t 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 1. Structure. — The general plan of the structure of 
 the Continent is given in Part I., sees. 4, 14, 15. 
 
 The great plateau of the western side increases in 
 height from about 800 feet near the Arctic, 8,000 feet 
 in Mexico; its greatest breadth is about 600 miles. 
 From the eastern border of the plateau rise the Rocky 
 Mountains in several parallel chains, connected by cross 
 ranges, the highest peaks, rising from 12,000 to 15,000 
 feet above the sea, being found between the parallels of 
 35° and 40° north latitude. On the western side are the 
 Sierra Nevada to the south, and the Cascade Mountains 
 to the north, their eastern slope being abrupt, but 
 the western long and gentle. The highest peaks of the 
 former are from 10,000 to 15,000 feet; the latter are 
 lower but contain volcanic cones, some still active. The 
 culminating point on the continent is Mount St. Elias, 
 17,900 feet. 
 
 There are also several low ranges, called coast ranges, 
 between the plateau and the ocean; these, in British 
 Columbia and Alaska, consist in part of islands. 
 
 The eastern axis of the continent begins with the 
 plateau of Gasp^ (about 1,500 feet high) and ends in 
 Alabama, the lowest part being near the centre of the 
 system, and the highest towards the south and the north. 
 On each side the descent is gradual. The culminating 
 point is Mitchell's Peak (6,782 feet) in North Carolina. 
 
 The great Laurentian area determines the whole of the 
 pliysical features of north-eastern America. (See under 
 "Canada.") 
 
 The great central plain is divided into two basins or 
 slopes by the "height of land" that runs irregularly 
 across the continent in the neighborhood of the fiftieth 
 parallel, seldom exceeding a thousand feet in height. 
 (See "Canada" and "United States.") 
 
 2. The Rocky Mountains.— The Rocky Mountains show a 
 regular succession of sedimentary rocks, from the lowest Pateozoic 
 up to nearlj; the last of the Mesozoic. "During the enormous 
 interval of time represented by these massive formations, what is 
 now the axis of the continent remained undistu.-bed except by a 
 gentle and protracted subsidence. In the great depression thus 
 produced, all the Palaeozoic and most of the Mesozoic rocks were 
 accumulated. Then followed the first great upheaval : two lofty 
 ranges of mountains, the Sierra Nevada and the Wahsatch, 400 miles 
 apart, were pushed up from the great subsiding area. Tliete move- 
 ments were followed by a jjrolonged subsidence, during which 
 cretaceous seiiiinents accumulated over the Rocky Mountain region 
 to the depth of 9,000 feet or more. Then came another vast uplift, 
 whereby the cretacetnis sediments were elevated into the crests of 
 
 mountains, and a parallel coast range was formed fronting the Pacific. 
 The Rocky Mountains and the table-land, now permanently raised 
 above the sea, were gradually elevated to their present height. Vast 
 lakes existed among them, in which enormous masses of sediment 
 accumulated. The slopes of the mountains were clothed with an 
 abundant vegetation, in which we may trace the ancestors of jnany 
 of the living trees in North America. One of the most striking 
 features of the later phases of tlria history was the outpouring of 
 
 freat floods of basalt and other lavas from many points and fissures. 
 n the Snake River region alone the basalts have a depth of 700 to 
 1,000 feet, over an area 300 miles in breadth. " (Geikie's Geology. ) 
 
 3. Minerals.— CoaZ is usually found wherever the Car- 
 boniferous formations of the Palaeozoic rocks are found 
 
 in the Alleghanie.s, from northern Pennsylvania to 
 Alabama, though mainly in Pennsylvania ; in Nova 
 Scotia and New Brunswick ; and in a region extending 
 from Michigan to Missouri or further ; — while the Creta- 
 ceous formations of the Mesozoic rock furnish the coal in 
 the Rocky Mountain region, both on its eastern flank and 
 within its ranges ; in the latter case the coal is chiefly in 
 British Columbia, and in the former mainly in Canadian 
 territory and in Colorado. Iron is almost always met 
 with wherever there is rock other than granite; its 
 occurrence with coal in Pennsylvania is of the highest 
 importance commercially. Gold is abundant throughout 
 the western plateau, but in the Alleghanies it is found 
 only from Virginia to Alabama; it is also developed 
 locally elsewhere, as in Nova Scotia and Quebec. Silver 
 is everywhere in the western plateau, more abundant, 
 perhaps, in the eastern part than in the western ; it 
 abounds, too, in Uk. region of the great lak( s ; a little 
 is met with in the Alleghanies. Coj>per is almost as 
 widely spread as iron ; but wliile few districts are without 
 it, the region of Lake Superior produces it in greatest 
 abundance. Lead is also widely distributed, but its 
 principal development is in th»i region extending from 
 Micliigan westward into Missouri. Tin^ Mercury, and 
 Zinc, are developed locally, as are also many other vain- 
 able minerals. One of the crystalline rocks, called ser- 
 pentine, is everywhere found to be rich in metals of 
 various kinds. 
 
 4. Continental Outline.— The present shape of a 
 continent is due to the relative directions of its axes. 
 The main axis of North America runs north-west, the 
 secondary axis north-east ; the shape of the continent is 
 therefore triangular. 
 
 [50] 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 51 
 
 ing the Pacific, 
 lanently raised 
 ; height. Vast 
 BB of sediment 
 uthed with an 
 sstors of many 
 most striking 
 outpouring of 
 ts and fissures. 
 iepth of 700 to 
 e's Geology. ) 
 
 iver the Car- 
 are found — 
 isylvania to 
 
 ; in Nova 
 n extending 
 le the Creta- 
 \i the coal in 
 rn ilank and 
 
 is chiefly in 
 in Canadian 
 always met 
 »ranite ; its 
 the highest 
 
 throughout 
 
 it is found 
 J developed 
 bee. Silver 
 i abundant, 
 western ; it 
 ( s ; a little 
 3 almost as 
 
 are without 
 
 in greatest 
 ed, but its 
 inding from 
 ercnry, and 
 
 othtr valn- 
 I, called ser- 
 i metals of 
 
 shape of a 
 of its axes. 
 ;h-we8t, the 
 continent is 
 
 The greatest leiigtli, measured along the main axis, is about 4,800 
 miles; tlie greatest l)readth, along the fifty-seciiml i)arallel, is iiViont 
 J,250 miles. The area of the whole continent ia estimated at 9,000,000 
 square miles. 
 
 The character of the coast-line also depends upon the 
 
 mountains ; the absence of these in the north and north- 
 
 tast has resulted in an extremely broken coast, wiili 
 
 numerous islands, broad channels, and large bodies of 
 
 almost land-locked water. 
 
 This state of things might be caused either by the inroads of the sea 
 on the low-lying land, or by the fact that tiiis part of the continent 
 is only now rising from the ocean. Shells of shell-fish now living 
 in northern seas have been found in the soil of the island of Disco, 
 off Greenland ; hence it is thought that northern America is slowly 
 rising. 
 
 To a similar cause — the absence of barrier-mountains, 
 — is due the great gap forming the Gulf of Mexico, 
 worn out of the southern part of the continent by thu 
 north Equatorial Current. 
 
 Where the continental axes give off no side spurs, the 
 coast will be regular. Such is the case in the two American 
 continents. Where, under such conditions, inlets are 
 found, they almost always run parallel to the coast behind 
 narrow peninsulas or islands formed by drift sand or by 
 low hills subsidiary to the axis itself. On the eastern 
 side of America the inlets are mainly of the former charac- 
 ter ; on the western side they are exclusively of the latter. 
 
 Where a mountain range ends inland the country will 
 be very rocky, as is SPfn in Georgia and Alabama ; if at 
 the coast, the outline will be very irregular, and numerous 
 islands will exist. Such a condition is seen at the endintr 
 of the main axis of North America in Alaska, and of 
 the secondary axis in Gasp6, the Maritime Provinces of 
 Canada, and in Newfoundland. 
 
 5. Coast- Line.— Next to Europe, North America has 
 the greatest extent of coast-line in proportion to area ; 
 Europe has one mile of coast for every 192 square miles of 
 area; America, one mile for every 288 square miles of 
 area ; but a glance at the map of the two continents will 
 show that almost all the irregular coast of Europe is in 
 the highway of commerce, 'vhile in North America the 
 irregular coast is in the nortli and north-east, where, 
 excepting in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, there is no com- 
 merce. 
 
 6. Capes. — In consequence of the lack of mountain 
 spurs projecting into the ocean, North America has but 
 few capes important in tlm gre.at ocean-traffic. On tl e 
 eastern side, Cnpe Race., in Newfoundland, is important 
 in the passenger and mail-carrying traffic. Mail steamers 
 
 call there and send ashore messages to be forwarded by 
 telegraph to various parts of the continent. Cape Coa 
 and Sandy Hook, oft' Boston and New York, respectively, 
 and Caj)e Uatteras in North Carolina — a stormy coast, 
 wliere the continent takes a sharp turn to the north, — 
 are the only other capes of importance. 
 
 Cape Sable in Florida is not approached by vessels, since outside 
 of it lies a long, dangerous coral reef, the "Florida Keys." Only 
 locally important are trie other caijes and headlands. The great tralfio 
 does not skirt the shore. On the west coast there is no important 
 cape, except Cape Flattery at the entrance to the Strait of San .Itian 
 de Fuca. Corrientcs bulges out from Mexico, and Mendocino from 
 California, while 8t. Lucas terminates Lower California. 
 
 Cape Lisbiirne in Alaska is said to be the most westerly ca[)e on 
 the mainland, the northern point of Boothia the most northerly, and 
 Cape ('harli's in Labrador the most easterly ; while ('ape ('niinuhia 
 in Grant Ltvnd, latitude 83^ north, is the most northerly laud yet 
 discovered. 
 
 7. Peninsulas. — There are but three bold peninsulas 
 in North America : one, Yucatan, is the only mountain- 
 spur sent oif by the main axis of America j Florida 
 is a coral reef raispd above the ocean, — still rising, it is 
 thought, — and capable of resisting the destructive action 
 of the waves. The peninsula oi A lanka is simply the long, 
 extended termination of the main axis of the continent. 
 Of the remaining peninsulas of importance, Nova Scotia 
 and Lower California, the first is a subsidiary range of the 
 Appalachians, and the second the prolonged termination 
 of the western Coast Eange. Labrador is not properlj; 
 a peninsula ; it is an integral part of the continent. 
 
 8. Isthmuaes. — There are two very important isth- 
 muses — Tehuantepec, connecting Central America with. 
 Mexico, and dividing the Gulf of Mexico from the Pacific; 
 the IstJuiius of Panama, only twenty mihs acro.ss in 
 one plac^', connecting the two Americas, and separating 
 tiie Caribbean Sea from the Pacific. 
 
 9. Islands. — Apart from the West Indies, the islands 
 of North America, excepting those of the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence on tlie eastern coast, and Vancouver and Queen 
 Charlotte Islands on the west, are not important com- 
 mercially or politically; but the number and large size 
 of those at the north of the continent, including Green- 
 land, render them important from a continental, or land- 
 surface, point of view. Though the Arctic climate renders 
 them otherwise useless, they give shape and size to the 
 general northern outline. 
 
 Along the whole of the eastern coast, as far north 
 as Newfoundland, there are gnat numbers of long, 
 narrow islands close to shore, consisting, to the south of 
 the New England States, almost wholly of sand deposited 
 by the coast currents. From the New England States 
 
 Mi 
 
PACIFIC OCEAN 
 
 8E0TI0N FROM VANCOUVER ID. TO NEWFOUNDLAND 
 
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 OCSAN 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 northward tlio islands are in ilie main rocky, though very 
 many, including the dangerous Sable Island otf Kova 
 Scotia, are entirely composed of sand. On the western 
 coast islands are almost lacking till Vancou\'(!r is reached • 
 thence they form almost one continuous string to the end 
 of the Aleutian Islands, and all of one character— an 
 incomplete mountain chain suli.sidiary to the main axis. 
 
 10. Coast Waters— On the eastern side of the con- 
 tinent tlio great bodies of water — Baffin Bay, with its 
 continuation into 
 the Atlantic (called 
 Davis Strait), Hud- 
 son Bay, Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence, and Gulf 
 of Mexico, are all 
 important as ma- 
 terially modifying 
 the continental out- 
 lino ; besides, the 
 two former are the 
 scene of important 
 whale and seal tisii- 
 eries. The Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence is also 
 the scene of exten- 
 sive fisheries, and is 
 on the high-road of 
 Canadian commerce 
 with Europe ; the 
 Gulf of Mexico fur- 
 nishes access to a 
 long stretch of coun- 
 try highly import- 
 ant commercially ; 
 while tlie possibili- 
 ties of Hudson Bay 
 
 are yet in the future,-only in the year 1885 has any 
 serious attempt been made at an exjiloration. The 
 channels, or straits, by which these communicate with 
 the mam ocean, are Belloi.sle, Florida, and Hudson, 
 respectively. Other inl.-ts of the oast are of local import- 
 ance only, as are also those of the western coast 
 excepting the Gulf of California,^-a gulf 700 miles long 
 in reality 0(;cupying a valley between two of the chains 
 of the continental axis. The inlets and channels of 
 the north are of necessity numerous. They are, for 
 
 53 
 
 the most i.art, imperfectly explored, and are usually 
 filled with ice. Beiiring Strait, at the narrowest 36 miles 
 wide, connects the Pacific and Arctic oceans, thus divid- 
 
 Fia. 37.— AllCTIC SCENBRV. 
 
 ing Asia from America. 
 
 1 1. Rivers. -The characteristic rivers of America are 
 on a grand scale. The nearness of a continental axis to 
 the coast does not permit the existence of large livers on 
 the coast side of the axis, except where the latter is a 
 plateau and the river traverses it longitudinally. Hence 
 
 the rivers on the 
 east and west of 
 North America that 
 run directly to the 
 ocean, are short, 
 while the Colorado 
 and Columbia flow 
 for great distances 
 along the western 
 plateau. But the 
 vast space between 
 the axes, having, in 
 the United States 
 but one central de- 
 pression, of neces- 
 sity must give rise 
 to a very large river. 
 Hence the Missis- 
 sippi and Missouri, 
 with their many 
 large affluents, form 
 a volume of water 
 surpassed in size 
 only by the Ama- 
 zon. The length, to 
 the source of the 
 Missouri, is about 
 
 4..S00 miles ; the area drained is given as 1,350,000 square 
 miles. 
 
 The St. Lawrence, with the great lakes, is situated in 
 a depression along the central swell of the continent, 
 and with a united length of fully 2,200 miles, drains an 
 area of over 000,000 s<fuare miles. 
 
 The ^Mackenzie, though unexplored, is evidently, from 
 its situation, a large river, notwithstanding the great 
 quantity of water that is carried into Hudson Bay by 
 the Saskatchewan and Churchill rivers to the south of it. 
 
 \-\ 
 
54 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 _ Though America, both North and South, haa not " Hurrendered 
 Itself to the owan," yet the rivers, from their great wizc imkI the 
 level cnaracter of the cmintrieH they traverse, form vast HystemM of 
 "natural canals," by means of which almost every part of the con- 
 tinent, however remote from the sea, way lie reached by boats. 
 They thuH become highways of commerce. The Mississippi, together 
 with Its affluents, has, it is said, 35,000 miles of navigable water ; 
 the Missouri can bo navigated to the base of the Rocky Mountains, 
 nearly 4,000 miles. 
 
 12. Lakes.— Tlie lakes of North America are very 
 numerous and important, especially in the northern half 
 of the continent, where they form such a connected 
 system of water-way that "a traveller, starting in a 
 canoe from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, can traverse the 
 continent to the Arctic Ocean at the mouth of the 
 Mackenzie; he can reach various points on Hudson 
 Bay; or by the Red River and the Mississippi he can 
 paddle on the waters of the Gulf of Mexico." 
 
 The great central plain has few, if any, lakes ; but 
 
 the western plateau has very many throughout its whole 
 
 extent, the largest being Great Salt Lake ; the Alle- 
 
 ghanies enclose a number, but they are all small except 
 
 Lake Champlain. 
 
 (See "Canada," sec. 10; also F i. I, "Land Surface of the 
 Xittrth, sec. 30. ) 
 
 13. Climate.*— North America stretches from the 
 equatorial climatic zone far into the polar zone, and 
 thus has the sun at every degree of altitude above the 
 horizon ; its peculiar physical structure exposes it to the 
 full effects of all the influences that modify clim-ite. 
 
 The great central plain, comparatively destitute of trees 
 on its western side, becomes, in summer, greatly heated 
 by a sun almost vertical over its southern portion, and the 
 warm v,-inds thus occasioned pass far to the north, pro- 
 ducing a tropical heat even into Canada, and : using the 
 temperature of the soi-thern portion of the plateau ten 
 degrees (90°-94°) above that of the surrounding country, 
 while a temperate summer-heat of 60° is produced far 
 up into Alaska. 
 
 The isotherm of 80° (mean heat of July) in the Pacific approxi- 
 mates to the twentieth parallel ; but on touching Lower California 
 It runs directly north over the i)lateau as far as tlie Columbia river 
 then curving north-east it touches Canada and turns south-east, pass- 
 ing below the Great Lakes, and crossing the Atlantic in a general 
 eastern course from Washington, skirts the northern part of the 
 bahara. fhe isotherm of 70" runs through the centre of California far 
 up into the great Canadian plain, to about the parallel of 5,5°, where 
 it curves and runs south-east to the lakes, the course of which, and 
 the bt. Lawrence, it follows past Quebec ; then bending shari)]y to 
 the south-west, it enteis the Atlantic at about Boston, and, crossing 
 over, runs through the north of Spain. The isotherm of 60° strikt-s 
 the co.ast of California near the former isotherm, follows up the coast 
 we^t of the coast ranges to the north-central part of Alaska, where 
 It bcncis sharply a nd follows a south-east course, touching Hudson 
 
 Kh,^'!,lM hi",'^•^!^""/^^ climate of a 'jontinent or a country, constant reference 
 kloulU be made tu Part 1., "Climate." 
 
 Bay m.d (■ntering the Atlantic across Newfoundland. The isotherm 
 "f .50° runs in a direcfion nearly parallel to the last, at a distance of 
 three or four degrees ; while the isotherm of 40° runs almost parallel 
 to 70° north latitude, but bends north in a loon that takes in Baffin 
 Bay. 
 
 It will be seen from the preceding that the heat on 
 the land is much greater than that on the water in the 
 same latitudes ; also that the belt between the isotherms 
 of 80" and 60° runs diagonally across the continent from 
 the extreme north-west. The cause of the latter pheno- 
 menon is found mainly in two facts, viz., the centre of 
 the great plain, in Canada at least, is not in the centre 
 of the continent, but between Hudson Bay and the 
 mountains ; and in the second place, the great mass of 
 land, covered with perpetual ice and snow, and the large 
 bodies of cold water, are to the north and north-east, 
 not the north-west; consequently the flow of cold air 
 will be from the north and north-east. Thus the warm 
 winds from the south will be confined more to the west. 
 
 Within the tropical zone, near its centre, there are 
 temperatures much higher and also much lower than 
 80° ; the latter are found on the plateaus of Mexico, the 
 former in the belt of low-lying land around the Gulf of 
 Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and along the low Pacific 
 coast. 
 
 In winter, on the other hand, the vast expanse of land 
 becomes correspondingly cooled through excessive radia- 
 tion ; the ocean is now warmer than the land, and the 
 isotherms bend downward from the western coast, and 
 turn to the north-east only when they reach the region 
 influenced by the wijids of the Atlantic and other bodies 
 of water. 
 
 The i.sothenn of 80° (mean temi>erature of January) just touches 
 the south of Central America ; 70° lies along the parallel of twenty ; 
 ()0° along the parallel of twenty-four ; 50' crosses the continent in the 
 latitude of the northern part of the Gulf of Mexico; 40° slojies from 
 the Columbia river to Kentucky, and thence crosses to the Atlantic ; 
 while 32° falls from Sitka Island to the Atlantic in the latitude of 
 Washington, where it takes a great, sweeping curve to Iceland. 
 North of this all the isotherms show a similar form, all about parallel 
 to that of 3'J ■ ; that of 20° crosses the northern part of the peninsula 
 of Ontario, and curves to the north of Nova Scotia. 
 
 1 4. Moisture.— It follows, from the preceding, that the 
 heat of the southern portion of the great plain will keep 
 back the cool polar winds, and thus produce a season 
 during which comparatively little rain will fall. From 
 about the thirty-fifth parallel northward, to about the 
 sixtieth, rain is apt to fall at all seasons; in the southern 
 part of this district, however, it is much more copious 
 during spring and fall, in the northern part, during 
 ummer. Beyond the sixtieth parallel is the region of 
 summer rain, and in the north, of cloudp and mist. 
 
CLIMATK— PRODUCTS. 
 
 o& 
 
 FlateauH within or near the region of a vertical sun 
 wlwaj'S become highly hej,icu up, a circumstance tliat 
 destroys the effect usually produced upon warm, moist 
 air by elevated land. Hence the Rocky Mountain 
 plateau (including Mexico) has but little moisttire ; the 
 "Great American Basin," to the north of the Gulf o." 
 California (between the Wahsatch and Sierra Nevada 
 Mountains), is rainless in its southern, or "American 
 desert " portion ; while other portions of the plateau in 
 the same region have only from nine to twelve inches of 
 rainfall annually. Even the coast of the Pacific has a 
 comparatively small rainfall ; at San Francisco the rain- 
 fall is but twenty-three inches, much less than p,t Toronto. 
 Not till Oregon is reached is there at all a copious supply 
 of rain ; but from Oregon northward the rainfall is, in 
 many places, excessive, for the plateau is then beyond 
 the influence of a vertical sun. / 
 
 The high, sloping plain, or plateau, from two hundred 
 to four hundred miles in width, that forms the eastern 
 approach to the Rocky Mountains throughout their 
 whole extent, has also but a slight rainfall ; thij arises 
 partly from the same cause that produces the dry climate 
 of the mountain plateau, and partly, especially in Canada, 
 from the dr; air of the mountains falling upon it. 
 
 East of the great central plain the physical conditions 
 are quite different : the Alleghanies run parallel to, not 
 across, the return-trade winds from the Gulf of Mexico ; 
 the waters of the north Atlantic are colder than those of 
 the Pacific; these conditions, together with the exposure 
 to the cold north-east winds coming direct from the 
 ocean, produce a copious and almost uniform fall of rain 
 throughout the whole extent, and in the northern part 
 —Nova Scotia, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Newfoundland- 
 give rise also to fogs. 
 
 In winter the polar winds, meeting the moist south- 
 westerly return-trade winds from the Gulf of Mexico 
 and the Pacific across the low-lying plateau of Central 
 America, cause a deposition of rain in the extra-tropical 
 regions south of the winter isotherm of 32°. Naturally 
 the heaviest fall will V)e just to the north of the Gulf— in 
 the neighborhood of New Orleans it is fifty-four inches, 
 where, indeed, as on the sorthern coast of California, 'he 
 seasons approach the tropical in character. (See Part I., 
 "Atmosphere," sec. 30.) North of the winter isotherm 
 of 32°, the rain will be turned into snow ; wherever in 
 the great plain the rainfall of summer is light, the snow- 
 fall of winter will be light, and wherever the rainfall of 
 
 summer is copious the snowfall of winter will be copious. 
 Thus, in the region of the great lakes, the snowfall in 
 greater than in the plains to the w^st. At Toronto the 
 average annual rainfall is 2.S inches, the snowfall C9 
 inches (in 1884 it was 81 inches); at Winnipeg the 
 average is 17 inches of rain and ^)'^ of snow. All along 
 the northern Alleghany region, except on the immediate 
 coast, the snowfall, like the rainfall, approacles the 
 excessive. The plateau east of the Rocky Mountains has 
 hut a light snowfall, even where, north of the Columbia,- 
 on the mountain plateau there is an excessive one, the 
 causes being the same as those that produce the dry 
 climate. The winters of these dry regions are clear and 
 cold ; those of moister regions have a more cloudy sky, 
 while an equal degree of cold is more keenly felt. 
 
 The southern part of the continent (Mexico and Ceritral 
 America) has a tropical climate — the retreat of the si'n 
 being followed by a period of almost continual rain, the 
 fall in the low-lying coast being excessive, at Vera 
 Cruz reaching 183 inches; the central plateau being 
 quite low in the southern part, shares in the tropical 
 climate, the southern portion of Central America lying 
 in the region of almost daily showers. 
 
 Fio. 38.— The Pin.tApple. 
 
 15. Vegetation.* — The range of vegetation in North 
 America is like that of climate — from tropical to polar. 
 The vegetation of the tropical districts. Central America, 
 the coasts of Mexico, and those parts of the United 
 
 I 
 
 • See " Vegetable Life," Part I. 
 
 'Jl 
 
 (■-"I 
 
56 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Htatps hordering on tho Oulf of Mexico, comprisos indigo, 
 (lyewoodH, nicdicinal plants, lianamiH, coffee, cotton, sugar- 
 cane, rice, oranges, pine-apples, and other fruits. 
 
 Tho fertile lands b««yond this tropical, or sub-tropicai, 
 region, and on the IVIexicai plateau, produce the various 
 food grains and fruits. Wheat bar a range as far north 
 as Sitka on the west and (Jaspd on tho east; Indian 
 corn is distributed ecjually widely, but is best developed 
 midway between extremes ; barley, rye, and oats are 
 confined to tho mere northern portion of the area; 
 feaehes, nudons, and the grapo reach their highest degree 
 of perfection in the central region, while applos, pears, 
 
 Fio 39.— The Banana 
 
 and plums are finest farther north. Potatoes require a 
 cool climate, and hence are found in their poii'ection 
 only on tho highest part of the plateau of Mexico, and 
 north of the fortieth parallel. 
 
 Forest grou-th is found everyAvhere except in the dry 
 regions ; the hundredth meridian approximately indicates 
 the boundary between tho treeless regions and those 
 containing more or less of forest growth. North of the 
 fifty-fifth parallel, forest growth is everywhere found till 
 the polar region of mosses is reached. The mountain 
 
 ' See " Animal Life," Part I. 
 
 rangcts are also clothed with forest, and no too are the 
 plateau of Mexico and the }.lateau8 outside the "great 
 American Basin." Tho forests of the low coasts of 
 Mexico, as well as those throughout almost the whole 
 of Central America, are characteristic of all moist 
 tropical regions, — dense and luxuriant. 
 
 Tho treeless plains are not barren, but are covered 
 with grass, that even in the driest part of the year does 
 not wholly disappear. On tho otherwise barren districts 
 of the plateaus, the sage bush, and some stunted, prickly 
 shrubr, and plants of tho cactus family are met with. 
 
 16. Animals.'- — Tho vast grassy plains of North 
 America are peculiarly adapted for the maintenance of 
 herbivorous animals in countless nuriibers. The bison 
 and the antelope roamed the prairies from Texas to far 
 up into Canada, but have now given place to the beeves 
 of the "ranches." Deer of various kinds, including the 
 moose and cariboo of Canadian forests, abounded till 
 thinned off by the settlement of the country. The dis- 
 appearance of these is followed by the disappearance of 
 carnivorous animals that prey upon them — wolves, coyotes 
 (or prairie ivolves), bears, panthers (often called the puma, 
 or American lion), and others. Very numerous, and 
 widely distributed, too, are the rodentia (that is, the 
 gnawing animals), giving rise to an important industry 
 -hunting and trapping; such animals are the beaver, 
 the mink, and the musk-rat. 
 
 Confined to a narrower range are the sable, marten, 
 otter, and the Arctic fox, highly prized for their fur ; the 
 white bear and the small, shaggy musk-ox of tho Arctic 
 regions — the latter animal being but little known; the 
 grizzly bear and the bighorn, or llocky Mountain sheep, 
 of the Rocky Mountain region ; the peccary, a small, 
 fierce animal of the hog kind, in the southwestern 
 United States; and a few monkeys in the extreme south. 
 
 Of reptiles, the serpents are most widely distributed. 
 Of the venomous kind, mostly confined to the warmer 
 parts of tho continent, the rattlesnake is the most wide- 
 spread, some being found even in western Ontario. 
 Very few serpents are found in the sub-arctic zone, and 
 none at all in the arctic and polar zones. Nowhere in 
 North America do they reach the formidable size that they 
 uttain in the tropical regions of South America, Africa, 
 and southern Asia. The other chief reptiles, the turtle 
 and tho alligator, belong to the tropical part of the con- 
 tinent. 
 
too are the 
 B the " great 
 »w coasts of 
 it the whole 
 f all moist 
 
 are covered 
 he year does 
 •ren districts 
 ited, prickly 
 net with. 
 
 3 of North 
 intenaiice of 
 The bison 
 Texas to far 
 o the beeves 
 ncluding the 
 jounded till 
 y. The dis- 
 apearance of 
 lives, coyotes 
 id the pitmn, 
 nerous, and 
 that is, the 
 mt industry 
 the beaver, 
 
 ble, marten, 
 leir fur ; the 
 t the Arctic 
 known; the 
 ntain sheep, 
 ry, a small, 
 uthwestern 
 reme south, 
 distributed, 
 the warmer 
 ! most wide- 
 rn Ontario, 
 ic zone, and 
 Nowhere in 
 ize that they 
 rica, Africa, 
 s, the turtle 
 of the con- 
 
 POLITK'AL DIVISIONS. 
 
 Of birds, the water-fowl are exceedingly numerous. 
 They migrate in countlesM numbers in the spring, north- 
 ward to the lakes and seas of northnru America, and in 
 the fall to the bays, inlets, and lakes of the middle and 
 southern United States. Of song-birds. North America 
 possesses few as compared with Europe, but tho mockin"- 
 bird of the Southern States is unsurpassed in power of 
 voice and range of note. 
 
 As most of our northern birds— pigeons, swallows, 
 sparrows, finches, thrushes— migrate southward during 
 winter, hawks and other birds of prey follow them. 
 Crows, buntings, pheasants and some others do not 
 migrate Our most powerful bird, the eagle, is found 
 over a wide ex- 
 tent of the conti- 
 nent, while the 
 wild turkey, a na- 
 tive of America, 
 has an equally 
 wide range. Par- 
 rots are found 
 only in the tropi- 
 cal regions. 
 
 Of the marine 
 animals, other 
 than fish, the seal 
 is the most im- 
 portant; and 
 though its range 
 is along the shores 
 of the whole con- 
 tinent, the chief 
 
 «7 
 
 FlO. 40 HaRVKST ScgNK ON TUB Ambrioan Plawr 
 
 Tho great plains of the centre of the continent and of 
 the east coast, extending through every variety of 
 climate, diitermine the leading pursuit of the people of 
 North America to be ayricUture in all its forms—stock- 
 raising and cultivation of useful plants, from cotton and 
 medicinal plants to barley and oats. The huge mass of 
 mountains containing metalliferous rocks points to mining 
 as another important industry ; and the motive powei 
 furnished by great beds of coal, often in close proximity 
 to iron, and by numerous rapid streams, show that manu- 
 facturing will also be an important industry. 
 
 Natural facilities for manufacture, together with an 
 extensive sea-coast and a ready means of communication 
 
 with the interior 
 through great 
 rivers and lakes, 
 indicate a com- 
 mercial country. 
 These advantages 
 for commerce are 
 enhanced by the 
 existence, along a 
 large part of the 
 coast, of exten- 
 sive submarine 
 plateaus of the 
 highest import- 
 ance for fisheries. 
 The oceanic fisher- 
 ies, beside afford- 
 ing vast quantities 
 of food, also train 
 
 of";tcreTj;C T ^^/trrr'-^ -^ -^•^ ' -n to the sea. and thus furnish a su;p;rforTe m^r- 
 vancouver Island. From the blubber, oil is obtained, i cantile navv. 
 
 and the skin is used in various xvays. Next in import- 
 ance IS the whale ■ like the seal, its range is throughout 
 the extent of the ocean, but the principal fisheries are in 
 the bays and seas of the north of both oceans. The 
 walrus is valuable mainly for the ivory that its tusks 
 supply ; it is hunted but little. The sea-otter furnishes 
 a very valuable fur. (See, for food-fishes, etc.. Part I., 
 " Marine Animals.") 
 
 17. Industries—As climate, physical conformation, 
 and geological structure determine the productions of a 
 country, ro tho productions determine the occupations of 
 the inhabitants. 
 
 It may be seen, from the map, that al] the great river 
 basins directly or indirectly turn eastward, while a great 
 barrier shuts them off from the west, a fact that directs 
 American commerce towards Europe. 
 POUTICAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 Politically North America is divided into the following 
 countries : — 
 
 Dominion of Canada (with Newfoundland, forming 
 British America); United States (including Alaska); 
 Mexico ; various independent states comprised under the 
 term Central America ; Greenland ; the Bermudas, and 
 West India Islands— belonging, with one exception, to 
 different European nations. 
 
 itM 
 
 mi 
 
PACIFIC 
 
 MOUMTAI N 
 
 CENTRAL 
 
 Canada Publishing Co., Toronto 
 
UNTAIN CENTRAL EASTERN 
 
 MERIDIANS 
 
 60 
 
 ^ELLE I8LT64 
 
 «£WFOVJ<iI>LAJiD 
 
 ENGLISH MILES ' 
 
 111 06 
 
Fi». 41.— Parlumbnt BciLDi.NQs, Ottawa. 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 1. The Dominion of Canada, with an area estimated 
 at 3,470,257 square miles, occupies all of the northern 
 portion of the continent except Alaska. Its greatest 
 length, measured along the llfty-second parallel, is given 
 as 3,200 miles, and its greatest breadth, measured from 
 Point Pelee, in Lake Erie, directly north to the extremity 
 of Melville Peninsula, is somewhat over 1,900. But 
 the part of value as the abode of man has a breadth not 
 greater than five hundred miles. 
 
 The southern boundary of the Dominion extends through Juan 
 de Fuca Strait and Gulf of (ieorgia to the parallel of 49" north • 
 thence alonj? that i>arallel to the Lake of the Woods ; here it turns 
 directly north for aljout twenty-five miles, and again turns south- 
 east, following the Rainy and Pigeon rivers to Lake Superior ; from 
 this point it follows the chain of lakes and the St. Lawrence to the 
 forty-fifth parallel, and runs along that parallel to the Green Moun- 
 tains ; these it traverses for a distance, and then, leaving them, runs 
 an irregular north-east course to the little river St. Francis, in about 
 lat. 47i° ; this it follows soutli-east to the St. John river ; thence along 
 this river to a little beyond the sixty-eighth meridian, where it turns 
 directly south to the St. Croix, which it follows down to Passama- 
 quixldy Bay, 
 
 In the west, Alaska begins at the Dixon Entrance north of Queen 
 Charlotte Island ; after passing up to the head of Portland Canal, 
 the boundary follows the crest of the coast range to the hundred 
 and forty-first meridian ; this meridian then forms the remainder 
 of the west^rr. '-^lundary. Elsewhere the bomidurj- in the ocean. 
 
 [60 ; 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 AJi.-'^''%^''"*"''',' P^y^'oal features of Canada, as a part of North 
 iUnerica have already been given-in Part I, "Land Surface of 
 the harth, sec. I'J, and elsewhere. But beyond the bounds of the 
 older provmces ni the east, and north of tiie jiarallel of 56" or 57° in 
 the west, very little is accurately known. South of this the countr. 
 nas been explored to a considerable extent by government surveyor 
 and other comi)etent persons. Maps and charts not r>repared fron 
 the reiwrts of these have but little value. 
 
 3. Geological Structure ; the Laurentian Plateatu 
 The most remarkable feature in the structure of Canada, 
 perhaps of America, is the great extent and peculiar 
 foroi of the Laurentian strata. A band of crystalline 
 rock, the first formed part of the continent, giving 
 shape and character to the whole, and varying from 
 three hundred to seven hundred miles in breadth, starts 
 with Labrador, and, in a roughly circuiir form, sweeps 
 round Hudson Bay and passes off to an unknown dis- 
 tance northward, thus forming the largest part of the 
 land surface of north-eastern America. The outer rim 
 of this circle as marked by an almost uninterrupted chain 
 of river and lake — the St. Lawrence and the great lakes, 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES -MINERALS. 
 
 61 
 
 the waters connecting Lake Superior and Winnipeg, the 
 Churchill River lakes, and Lake Athabasca and Great 
 Slave Lake beyond. 
 
 The plateau varies somewhat in height, but excepting 
 the Laurentide Hills, it hardly ever exceeds a thousand 
 feet above sea-level ; Lake Abittibi, south of James Bay, 
 on the crest of the plateau, is about nine hundred. It is, 
 upon the whole, level or undulating, with its highest 
 elevation nearer the outer than the inner rim ; but, on 
 approaching the rims, the descent is almost always quite 
 steep, giving rise to rapids and waterfalls on every stream 
 — the innumerable "portages" of the Canadian "voya- 
 geurs." The inner rim of the cr cle does not always reach 
 the water of Hudson Bay ; on the south and west, non- 
 ci'ystalline formations (Cambrian and Devonian) extend 
 inland, in some places, two hundred miles. These districts 
 are bounded landward by a distinct rim of hard ancient 
 rocks that have a steep slope to the centre all round. They 
 are low, level, swampy, and, as far as known, generally 
 free from lakes. The Laurentian plateau on the other 
 hand abounds in lakes throughout its whole extent. 
 
 West of Quebec city the Laurentian rocks do not quite 
 reach the St. Lawrence ; a narrow band of the same kind 
 of rocks as those that skirt the shore of Hudson Bay 
 (Palteozoic), runs the whole length of the river as far 
 as the Thousand Isles. There a narrow isthmus of 
 Laurentian crosses the river, enters New York State, 
 and expands into the Adirondack Mountains, forming a 
 complete inland peninsula. West of this point none of 
 the Ontario peninsula is Laurentian. Associated through- 
 out the whole extent of the Laurentian, as far as is 
 known, are great areas of other crystalline rock (called 
 Huronian, from being largely developed north of Lake 
 Huron); also, here and there, as in Montcalm county 
 north of Montreal, up the Suguenay, and between Lake 
 Huron and James Bay, areas of volcanic, or trap rock 
 are found, and north and west of Lake Superior granite 
 is met with. 
 
 From the Lake of the Woods, a belt, similar in character 
 to that along the St. Lawrence, skirts the Laurentian 
 on its western boundary; west of this, and extending 
 to the base of the Rocky Mountains, is a totally different 
 geological formation (the Cretacrons, of the Mesozoic 
 age. Sec Diagram, Fig. 2). The same appears again in 
 the Rocky Mountains, and beyond in Vancouver and 
 Queen Charlotte Islands. This is the most extensively 
 developed formation '"n western North America. 
 
 In none of the formations referred to above does the 
 solid rock appear at the surface ; only in the channels 
 eroded by rivers, at waterfalls, rapids, and in hills, is the 
 solid rock visible. (See Part I., "Building up of the 
 Earth," sec. 10.) 
 
 4. Surface Characteristics.— It will have been 
 seen that the Rocky Mountain plateau, the Laurentian 
 plateau, and the Alleghany system, determine nearly the 
 whole of the surface of Canada. The first has its high- 
 est part at the eastern side, and consequently slopes to the 
 Pacific. Between that plateau and the Laurentian lies 
 the great depression whose waters are carried off north 
 tlie great depression whose waters are carried off north 
 by tlie Mackenzie, while, to the east, the St. Lawrence 
 and the northern from the AUeghanies. The great depres- 
 sion of Hudson Bay receives all the water from the 
 inner slope of the Laurentian plateau, and also from the 
 peculiar depression lying between the parallels of 49° 
 and 55°, which is drained by the Churchill, the Sas- 
 katchewan, Assiniboine, and their affluents. 
 
 Nowhere, except in the western plateau and in the 
 Alleghany region, is the Dominion elevated. New 
 Brunswick may be termed hilly rather than elevated, 
 and Nova Scotia undulating; the Laurentian area is 
 rugged and rough, but not high ; the great plain of the 
 west has differences in altitude, and is everywhere 
 marked by inequalities of surface characteristic of all 
 plains. 
 
 "6, Minerals. — In only two of tlie Provinces of the Dominion, 
 Kova Scotia and British Columbia, have the mineral rescjiuces 
 received special attenti(jn, and in tiiese only gold and coal have been 
 sought for. Narrow strips along tlie great lakes and the St. Lawrence 
 have been partly exi)lored, but all beyond has been neglected. 
 Within the last few years governniuut surveyors, esi)ecially of the 
 f;eological corps, have been busy in the North-west, and have shown 
 that region to be rich in minerals. 
 
 Iron seems to be widely distributed over Canada, 
 especially in the Laurentian and allied rocks ; but only 
 in tl e older Provinces, particularly Ontario, Quebec, and 
 Nova Scotia, has it been mined to any extent. The 
 absence of coal in the first two Provinces has been 
 a great hindrance to the development of the iron-pro- 
 ducing industry. 
 
 Coal is most abundant at the extremes of the Domin- 
 ion — Nova Scotia and British Columbia ; but a species of 
 coal, called lignite., valuablfi as a fuel, but inferior to the 
 anthracite and bituminous varieties, is found in prac- 
 tically inexhaustible quantities in the whole of the region 
 
 
62 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 I 
 
 between Turtle Mountain (in southern Manitoba) and 
 the llocky Mountains. 
 
 " The district of the North-west Territory, which, so 
 far as yet known, affords the most abundant and valuable 
 deposits of mineral fuel, is that in proximity to the Bow 
 and Belly rivers and their tributaries, extending east- 
 ward from the base of the mountains to about the 111th 
 meridian . . . It is quite possible that the country 
 holding the same relation to the base of the Rocky 
 Mountains farther north, may yet prove throughout 
 equally valuable as a source of fuel."* 
 
 Beside the lignite, valuable deposits of bituminous 
 coal are found along the base and within the ranges of 
 the Rocky INlountains, and in some places the still more 
 valuable anthracite coal occurs, as it also does in Queen 
 Charlotte Islands, t 
 
 Lignite has also been found near James Bay. 
 
 Gold. — Like coal, gold is found most abundantly in 
 British Columbia and Nova Scotia, but in by far the 
 greatest quantity in the former. It is also found to some 
 extent in Ontario, both to the north of Lake Ontario 
 and north and west of Lake Superior ; at the Lake of the 
 Woods ; and in Quebec. 
 
 Silver is not found in large quantities in the Dominion. 
 The richest mines are in Ontario, north of Lake Superior 
 and Lake Huron ; Quebec also furnishes .some. 
 
 Copper has been mined cniefly in Quebec and Nova 
 Scotia, but it exists in large qut^ntities in the region of 
 the upper lakes, and apparently, also, in the llocky Moun- 
 tain plateau. In New Brunswick it has been long known 
 to exist over a wide space of country. 
 
 G]j2)si(m has been largely mined in Nova Scotia, and 
 to some e.xtent in New Brunswick and Ontario ; but it 
 is met with quite widely, in the region of James Bay, in 
 the North-west, and elsewhere. 
 
 Limestone is also spread over the whole Dominion, but 
 in quite different geological formations. 
 
 Other important economic minerals, such as apatite 
 and manganese, are but locally developed as far as 
 known. 
 
 6. Coast Outline. — The striking feature in the coast 
 outline of Canada is its extreme irregularity. Had the 
 
 * From " Notes on the Coiils .ind Liifiites of the Ciiimdiaii Nortliweat," by 
 G. M. Dawson, Assistimt Director Geoliisficiil Survey (18S4). 
 
 t ''The coals and Ii){nitc8 of the JNorth-wcst Territory and British Columbia 
 are entirely of tlie Cretaceous and Tertiary aije .... Tlie fuels of the 
 Eastern Pro\ inces and States and of Great Britain, are included in the Car- 
 boniferous system." 
 
 country thus indented a more genial climate the com- 
 iiercial advantages of the irregular coast would be of 
 the utmost importance. As it is, only the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence, the Bay of Fundy, and tl^e tortuous inlets of 
 British Columbia, afford means of maritime intercourse. 
 The value of Hudson Bay is yet to be tested. 
 
 Peninsulas are not numerous in Canada, nor are they 
 important, except in the case of Nova Scotia, which is 
 important both on account of its being a Province of 
 the Dominion, and of its being in the path of the great 
 oceanic traffic. The isthmus of Chignecto joins it to 
 New Brunswick. Boothia (containing the magnetic pole 
 of the earth) and Melville peninsulas, are barren projec- 
 tions of land in the north. 
 
 Gaspe peninsula, the south-eastern extremity of 
 Quebec, lying between the St. Lawrence and Bay 
 Chaleur, is hardly to be distinguished from the mainland. 
 
 7. Islands. — Excepting Newfoundland and Long 
 Island, all the important islands of North America 
 proper belong to the Dominion ; one, Prince Edward 
 Island, foims a rrovince by itself; two, Vancouver and 
 Cape Breton, are integral parts of provinces. 
 
 Anticosti and the Magdalen Islands in the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence, and Grand Manan at the mouth of the Bay 
 of Fundy, are of great importance for their fisheries. 
 
 Hablc Island, <iff in the Atlantic, eiglity-five miles east of Nova 
 Scotia, is a semi-circular island of loose gray sand. It is twenty-two 
 miles long .iid about one broad; but with its shoals and bars it is 
 over fifty miles long. It lies so low In the water that vesriels are often 
 within a few miles of it without being aware of its presence. "In 
 bad weather it is a continuous line of over fifty miles of foaming 
 breakers, produ'.'ing a most terrific effect, the isl.and seeming to shake 
 to its foundation as the whole body of the Atlantic breaks upon 
 it." As this dangerous island, sometimes called the "graveyard of 
 America," is diri'ctly in the track of Atlantic travel, the Govern- 
 ment maintains upon it a superintendent and eighteen men, whose 
 duty it is to be constantly on the lookout to rescue the crews of 
 wrecked vessels. Only these government officials are permitted to 
 live on the island. 
 
 The islands of the Arctic regions, though often large, are barren 
 and unimportant. 
 
 8. Coast Waters.— Like the islands of the same 
 region, the coast waters of the north are many and 
 large, but practically of no commercial or political im- 
 portance ; Hudson Bay, the Gulf of St, Lawrence, 
 and the Bay of Fundy, on the ""st, are important in 
 every respect ; the coast waters of Briti^jh Columbia are 
 of mere local importance. 
 
 Hudson Bay, having an outlet 400 miles long through 
 Hudson Strait, has hitherto been frequented only by 
 the few annual ships of the Hudson Bay Company, or 
 
 
COAST WATERS— LAKES. 
 
 63 
 
 by whaling vessels. In consequence, its character and 
 
 resoarces are yet practically unknown. 
 
 It is possible that this bay may yet become the channel through 
 which mucli of the trade between the North-west and Enghmd will 
 be carried on. Hudson Bay is very largo ; including its southern 
 prolongation, James Bay, it measures about 1,000 mile.s in length, 
 and more than (iOO miles in width in its northern part. " Its total 
 area is in the neighborhood of 600,000 square miles, or upwards of 
 half that of the Mediterranean." 
 
 James Bay "is so shallow that a person may fre- 
 quently touch the bottom with an oar, when almost out 
 of sight of the low shore in a boat." Owing to the large 
 amount of fresh water flowing into it, its waters are 
 only brackish, or even fresh in some places. 
 
 The Gulf of St. Lawrence, forming the wide entrance 
 into the St. Lawrence river, gives a peculiar broken 
 character to the eastern extremity of America. It is of 
 great importance for its fisheries. The value of the fish 
 taken in 1883 by Canadians living on the Gulf coast in 
 the various provinces, was nearly 86,000,000, beside the 
 herring of the shallow waters around the Magdalen 
 islands. The cod and similar fish are caught in the cold 
 polar waters of the Gulf during the whole of spring, 
 summer, and fall. 
 
 Icebergs are carried into the Gulf througli the Straits 
 of Belleisle by the Labrador polar current that sets 
 down through this strait. The shallow waters at the 
 south, around Prince Edward Island, become warm in 
 summer ; but elsewhere only a surface layer, sometimes 
 not more than a foot thick, is warm, while all below is 
 very cold. Violent storms, especially from the east, are 
 frequent in the Gulf ; the high and rapidly converging 
 character of the land of the western and northern shores 
 forces the easterly winds into a narrower space, thus 
 increasing their violence. 
 
 The egress northward is through the Strait of Belle- 
 isle, past Cape Bauld in Newfoundland ; the southern 
 egress is between Cape Ray of Newfoundland, and Cape 
 George of Cape Breton Island. In spring and summer 
 icebergs are encountered much more frequently by the 
 northern passage tlinn by the southern. 
 
 The Bay if Fundy, over a hundred miles long, 
 and sixty at its greatest breadth, lies between the 
 cliffs of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, opening up 
 a water way to the most productive parts of both pro- 
 vinc(>s. Its fisheries are very valuable, especially in the 
 spring and eivrly summer, bofore the rising temperature 
 of the water forces the fish seaward. (See Part I., 
 "Ocean," sec. 15, for other reference to Bay of Fundy.) 
 
 9. Rivers. — The rivers of Canada, excepting the great 
 ones already referred to, though numerous, are for the 
 most part short, and only locally important as means of 
 internal communication. Except in the lower courses of 
 the larger of these streams, navigation for vessels, other 
 than mere boats,.is impossible ; but in the eastern half of 
 the Dominion, where they flow from a wooded region, 
 they furnish ready means for the conveyance of timber to 
 tide- water ; and the innumerpble rapids and falls with 
 which their course is marked, afford an unlimited supply 
 of motive power. The most important of these secondary 
 rivers are the St. John and the Ottawa, in the east, — 
 neither of which can be navigated continuously more 
 than a hundred miles, — and the Eraser, in the west. 
 
 10. Lakes. — The lakes of Canada have already been 
 
 referred to. They form the most remarkable chain in 
 
 the world, encircling, as they do, the whole of the vast 
 
 " Laurentian continent," from the Arctic ocean almost to 
 
 the Atlantic, and present a water surface in the interior 
 
 of the continent of probably not less than 150,000 square 
 
 miles. What the resources and capabilities of Lake 
 
 Winnipeg, and those to the north of it, may be, has yet 
 
 to be determined ; but the five lower lakes, in addition to 
 
 having a considerable effect upon the climate in their 
 
 neighbourhood, afford means for very extensive inland 
 
 intercourse, and are exceedingly valuable for their 
 
 fisheries. 
 
 The foUi ving table shows the maximum measurements of the 
 lakes; but the estimates, especially regarding their depth, vary 
 materially : — 
 
 L.VKES. 
 
 Superior . 
 Huron . . . 
 Michigan 
 Erie . . . . . 
 Ontario. . 
 
 Length, 
 
 Bre.adth, 
 
 Depth, 
 
 in Miles. 
 
 in Miles. 
 
 in Feet. 
 
 400 
 
 IGO 
 
 1,200 
 
 280 
 
 10.-3 
 
 1,800 
 
 335 
 
 88 
 
 1,000 
 
 240 
 
 .58 
 
 270 
 
 1!»0 
 
 55 
 
 600 
 
 Height 
 
 al>)ve 
 
 Sea-level, 
 
 in Feet. 
 
 602 
 582 
 600 
 574 
 247 
 
 The northern i)art of Lake Superior has stn'eral bays and harbors 
 ^Nipeiion Bau, Bhtck Bail, Thumitr 7i(i.i/— formed by projections of 
 the laud or by islands. At the extremity oi thi^ peninsula forming 
 Thunder Bay stands Thunder Cai>e, a bold, .-tonny promontory 2,000 
 feet higli. At some distance to the south lies Inlc Jioiiale (beliiiiging 
 to t\w. United States) the largest island in the lake. Near the eastern 
 end is the islaml of Michipicutfn, with a bay of the same name, to 
 the east. 
 
 The shores of the lakes wherever they are formed by the Lauren- 
 tian or lluroniaii r.tck-, are steep, nigp-d, ;«i.'i often [■.ietnrestiue. 
 On the southern shore, in Schoolcraft County, Michigan, occur the 
 famous Pictured Rocks, cliffs of variegated sandstone, worn into 
 fantastic shapes by the action of water. 
 
i 
 
 ^'''y'/y/^/'/y/y/-/^^. 
 
 ■:'z:-::;.yMfXvy: ,, /V, . , y/y,/yy„yy,y ■y.,.f^i^yZi^X<mf(^^yyy^y^i;z;M&^;!;;i!^yM%^^ 
 
 Fio. 42.— TnR Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence to the Falls op MoNfMORENCi, Elevation above Ska-Level, Deitii of Lakes, etc. The vertical scale is 
 \erv nmtiy times jtreiitcr than tho horizontal, conseiiuently the rapidity of descent from lake to lake, and of the bottom ot the lakes, is greatly exaggerated. 
 
 Through Whitcfisli Bap and tho Stc. Marie {St. Marij) river the 
 water of Superior passes into Huron. The rapid of Sank' Stc. Marie* 
 occurs on this river ; boats overcome it by means of a canal on the 
 United States side of the rajud. 
 
 In the northern part of Lake Huron lies the large island of Grand 
 Manitoulin, with Cockhurn, Drtuiumnd (belonginj< to tlie Unite(l 
 States), and St. Josej}h islands, ami some smaller ones at the west. 
 These shvit off tlic JVorth Chanmi from the rest of the lake on 
 the north, and, witli the Bruce Peninsula, the Gconiiun and 
 NottumiUKja bays on the east, (irand Manitoulin is eighty miles 
 long and twenty broad ; it is well wooded, rugged, anil quite 
 elevated. 
 
 Through the St. Clair Itiver and Lake and the Detroit Hirer, the 
 water passes on to Lake Erie. Lake St. Clair is almost filled uj) 
 with sediment. It is a lagoon rather than a lake, and wide marshes 
 border it nearly everywhere. 
 
 The outline of Lake Krie is singularly regular, being broken only 
 by th" narrow projections of Point Pelec, Point aux Pin.i, r.iid Lomj 
 Point, with tho "bays" or harbors of Piijcon Jiaii, Mondiau Harbor, 
 and Long Point Bay, enclosed by each respectively. The only i.slands 
 of any consequence in the lake are Point Pelec Island, off the point 
 of tiie same name, and Lon;/ Point Island. 
 
 " The comparatively shallow waters of Lake Erie foreshadow the 
 time when this lake will become a broad river valley, and tlie cataract 
 of Niagara will then either be reduced to half its present height, or 
 entirely obliterated." 
 
 Tile Niamra River carries the water of the other lakes into Lake 
 Ontario. Like that of Lake Eric, the outline of Lake Ontario is 
 qiiite regular, excei)t at its north-tustern side. There tlie fantastically 
 shajied peninsula of Prince Edxmrd County, having a very narrow 
 istiimus, shuts off from the lake the equally'fantastically shaped Bay 
 ofQii:nte\, a very long, shallow inlet. Point Peter is the extremity 
 of the i)eninsula. In its neighborhood are e.xtensive shallows, and as 
 squaUs are ai)t to oceur there, navigation is not very safe. 
 
 From this point to tho end of the lake then; are'niany low, sandy 
 islands, besides others that are rocky. 
 
 The wide extent of water-surface afforded by the lakes 
 produces during summer, on account of the great evapo- 
 
 * Sv Saute Marei ; the pronunciation nno is merely local. 
 t The old pronunciation Can'-tn is fast disappearing, Quin'-tc taking its plate 
 
 ration, an area of low pressure, which, in a region of 
 variable winds, often produc ^ -udden storms, or squalls ; 
 indeed, the storms and waves of Lake Superior are said 
 to equal those of the Atlantic ; and, for the same reason, 
 — the sudden condensation of vapor, — the fogs of all the 
 lakes, but especiallv of Superior, are quite deiise and 
 frequent 
 
 11. Climate. — The inhabitable part of Canada 
 stretches east and west, and, if the physical conditions 
 affecting climate were the same throughout, the same 
 climate would prevail throughout. But the western 
 plateau region has a climatic character of its own, affect- 
 ing likewise that of its eastern flank. The prairie region 
 has another, that of the Hudson Bay and the great 
 lakes another, and that of the eastern coast still another. 
 
 The whole of Canada excepting the western coast, has 
 an excessive climate, as has already been explained. The 
 physical conditions that tend to produce an excess of 
 heat in summer, tend to produce an excess of cold in 
 winter. This excessive cliniiite exists in the western 
 plains to a greater degree than in the eastern part of the 
 Dominion, where the ocean and the great lakes exercise 
 a more or less moderating influence. 
 
 The moisture througliout the eastern part of the Do- 
 minion is, as has been shown, sutflciently abundant 
 and well distributed. Tlie western plains, in the neigh- 
 
 [M] 
 
PRODUCTS— TNDUSTRI ES. 
 
 65 
 
 borhood of the mountains especially, are like the plains 
 farther south, dry. They have little rain in summer and 
 little snow in winter. 
 
 12. Vegetation.— The population of Canada has, till 
 within the last few years, been confined to its most 
 southern parts. In these the natural capabilities and 
 productions of the soil are well known. The lands to 
 the north and west are just being opened up, and time 
 will be required to determine their capabilities. 
 
 East of the great lakes ivheat is profitably raised as far 
 north as the forty-ninth parallel. To the west the range 
 is higher, reaching, possibly, in the neighborhood of the 
 mountains, the fifty-fifth parallel, though in Jiis laH' r 
 region the crop is in constant danger of injury from early 
 frosts. (See " North America," sec. 13,— "Iso^'.iei ns.") 
 
 Indian corn, though grown to some extent over a wide 
 area, is regarded more as a garden vegetable lian as a 
 farm product, excepting in southern Ontario, where it can 
 be profitably raised as a crop. 
 
 Rye, barley, and oats are hardy, and can be grown far- 
 ther north than wheat or Indian corn. 
 
 Of orchard fruits, apples and j^ears do not seem to 
 grow well, except in Nova Scotia, western Quebec, and 
 Ontario. Plvms and cherries grow more widely ; while 
 peaches and grapes, especially the former, are confined to 
 the lake districts of southern Ontario and to western 
 British Columbia. 
 
 Forests are spread over the whole Dominion east of 
 Lake Manitoba— that is, in the region of abundant 
 moisture. Westward of this lake, south of the North 
 Saskatchewan, trees occur in small groves as far as the 
 110th meridian; from tliis point to the foot hills of the 
 mountains the country in treeless, except in some river 
 courses. North of the North Saskatchewan, where the 
 moisture is greater, forest growth extends almost to the 
 Arctic regions. The mountain region is covered with 
 forest. 
 
 As Canada is, in the main, in the cold temperate zone, 
 the characteristic forest trees are of the pine family. In 
 the southern portion lohite pine is predominant, but in 
 the Maritime Provinces and Labrador, eastern Quebec, 
 and the north generally, spruce and fir (balsam) prevail. 
 Maple, elm, beech, and hemlock are widespread : poplar 
 and birch are found over the whole Dominion, even to 
 the Arctic regions. 
 
 Comparatively low trees are local. The famous Douglas 
 pine is found only on the western plateau and the shores 
 of the Pacific. Chestnut, butternut, walnut, and oak are 
 confined, in the main, to the southern part of the western 
 peninsula (u Ontario. Hickor ', bassivood, and button- 
 wood, though more widely distributed than the preceding, 
 ar( t'ounu chiefly in southern Ontario. Cedar and tam- 
 arack (larch) occur in almost all damp districts of the 
 Dominion. 
 
 13. Animals.— These have been referred to under 
 " North America," sec. 16. 
 
 U. Industries.- The industries of Canada, in so far 
 as important commerce, either internal or external, is con- 
 
 cerneil, have hitherto been those of all new countries, 
 
 the procuring and disposing of those crude or direct 
 natural productions that individual strength and resources 
 can deal with most readily. Hence lumbering, agricul- 
 ture, and fishing have been the only industries of import- 
 ance. But with the increase of population, and the 
 increase of wealth, these resources of the country are 
 becoming more fully developed than ever ; and the grow- 
 ing wants of the country, along with increasing facilities 
 of intercommunication, are leading not only to other 
 industries, such as mining, that can be carried out only 
 by wealth and combined effort, but to those also that 
 have for their object the preparation of the crude pro- 
 ducts of nature for immediate use, — in other words, 
 manufacturing. 
 
 15. Agriculture, the great source of the supply of food 
 in its difierent forms, will always be the leading industry 
 of Canada. The vast treeless western plains, the valleys 
 of British Columbia, and the plains of Ontario, Quebec, 
 and the Maritime Provinces, which are being rapidly 
 deprived of the forests that still remain, are all, more or 
 less, adapted for cultivation or for pasture. And as 
 agriculture is more and more becoming a science, better 
 and better results are being obtained without danger of 
 exhausting the soil. (See Appendix I. («).) 
 
 16. Fisheries.— The other great food-producing indus- 
 try is the fisheries. It is carried on in the oceanic waters 
 of both sides of the Dominion, and in the inland waters 
 as well. 
 
 Fisheries and ngriculture are inexhaustible sources of 
 wealth, if conducted intelligently. Mines may give out 
 without possibility of renewal ; forests may be destroyed, 
 
 /] 
 
•60 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 t 
 
 i V 
 
 but their restoration, if possible, must l)i! tin." work of 
 more tluiu ono generation, and must form, pnictic-iiUy, a 
 part of agriculture. Agriculture is fast becoming a 
 science ; lisluiry shows little or no progress towards 
 becoming such ; — little or nothing is known of the habits 
 or conditions of life of the great food-tishes. Human 
 intelligence and skill are employed, with slight exception, 
 in destroying marine life, and not in seeking, while 
 "reaping the harvest of the sea," to perpetuate and 
 increase its productiveness. (Appendix I. (c).) 
 
 17. The Forest.— By consulting Appendix I. (d), it 
 will be seen that the forest industry, next to agricul- 
 ture, is the greatest of the Dominion, In the Maritime 
 Provinces, and in 
 southern Quebec and 
 Ontario, the best tim- 
 ber is already gone; 
 and though some 
 farmers still own a 
 grove of pine trees, 
 yet everything like 
 a fo-est has disap- 
 peared. Only in the 
 back country do for- 
 ests now exist, and 
 capitalists or wealthy 
 companies alone 
 carry on this indus- 
 try, in which, not many years ago, every farmer was 
 moiJ or less engasred. 
 
 18. The Mine.— The mineral wealth of Canada has 
 yet to be developed. Very little systematic effort has 
 hitherto been put forth in mining. The causes of this 
 have been, in part, referred to ; others are, distance from 
 market, the hostile tariU's of other countries producing 
 the same minerals, or the greater natural facilities 
 possessed by those countries for mining, manufacturing, 
 and exporting the same minerals. Gold and coal consti- 
 tute two-thirds of tlie value of the mineral exports of 
 Canada. (See Appendix I. (e).) 
 
 The inter-pnnincial trade in iiiiiicriil iirmlucts is mmfiued to coal, 
 salt, coal-oil, and iron. 0>al goes from 'Nova Scotia to Xew Bniii:,- 
 wick, Prince Kdwanl Island, .and (Quebec,— little to Ontario. Salt 
 and coal-oil are sent in but liniite<i (luantities from Ontario to the 
 Maritime Provinces; and iron, but to a limited extent, from Nov.-v 
 Scotia and < 'lebec to the other provinces. 
 
 19. Manufactures.— An essential element in success- 
 ful manufacture is cheapness of production, the existence 
 
 Flu. lo.— LrjiiiKRiNci .'nce.nk. 
 
 of a market being implied ; and cheapness of produc- 
 tion depends mainly upon a combination of physical 
 conditions, — materials for manufacture, motives power 
 (running water or coal) within a cunveniiut distance, and 
 natural facilities for distribution. The unc(jualled facili 
 ties for distribution, and the abundance of coal and iron 
 possessed by lingland, enable her to import raw material 
 of every kind from all ijuarters of the earth, manufacture 
 it, and then distribute it at a lower price than can other 
 nations, equally intelligent and skilful, but physically 
 less favorably situated. 
 
 A little exatnination will show that Canada possesses 
 these physical conditions only in a moderate degree. 
 But the natural facilities possessed, and the existence 
 
 of a rapidly increas- 
 ing home-market, 
 cannot fail to main- 
 tain in Canada im- 
 portant manufac- 
 tures, at least of 
 those raw materials 
 that the country pro- 
 duces. 
 
 As yet, apart from 
 Hour and lumber, 
 Canada's manufac- 
 tured exports may 
 be, in the main, re> 
 
 VhMtMtH'MtOll 
 
 garded as the surplus 
 after the home-market has been supplied ; and though 
 the total amount of these exports is considerabk', yet, 
 except in the case of two or three, no large quantity 
 of any ono article has been sent abroad. (See Ap- 
 pendix 1. (/).) 
 
 20. Commerce of the Dominion.— The products of 
 the Dominion are numerous, and are ca, .ile of large 
 increase, except those of the forest. Th(! exportation of 
 these products, and the importation of .Ljoods from other 
 countries, constitut(> Canadian commerce. Canada im- 
 ports various articles of fcinij and luxury not produced in 
 our climate — sugar, tea, rice, fruits, wine, etc. ; manufac- 
 tured articles, either those that are not made here or that 
 are required to supplement such as are made — fabrics 
 for clothing, ornaments, ii^wellery, etc. ; materials for 
 manufacture or use in manufacture — cotton, wool, 
 tobacco, etc. The trade with Great Britain and the 
 United States is about equal — nearly ninety per cent. 
 
of produc- 
 d£ physical 
 tiv(! power 
 ihtanco, and 
 ailed facili 
 al and iron 
 iw material 
 lauufacture 
 ti can other 
 
 physically 
 
 a possesses 
 ite degree. 
 e existence 
 lly increas- 
 e-market, 
 il to main- 
 'anada im- 
 manufac- 
 i least of 
 ' materials 
 ountry pro- 
 
 apart from 
 i lumber, 
 
 nianufac- 
 ports may 
 1 main, re- 
 the surplus 
 nd though 
 irabk', yet, 
 e quantity 
 
 (See Ap- 
 
 jroducts of 
 e of large 
 ortation of 
 from other 
 'anada im- 
 rodiicod in 
 
 mauufac- 
 ;re or that 
 — fabrics 
 terials for 
 on, wool, 
 I and the 
 
 per cent. 
 
 REVKNUE— GOVERNMENT -POPULATION 
 
 67 
 
 of the whole; that with the West Indies and New- 
 foundland is next in importance. (See Appendix I. {//).) 
 
 Among maritime countries Canada holds the fourth 
 jduce at least, only Great Britain, the United States, 
 ami oerhaps France, owning more tonnage in vessels. 
 
 A very large number of the vessels owned in the 
 Maritime Piovinces are engaged in what is termed " the 
 carrying trade," that is, in carrying goods from one 
 foreign country to another. " Coasting trade," however, 
 that is, the carrying of goods from one foreign port to 
 another in the same country, is not open to them, at 
 least in the United States. These vessels are manned 
 almost exclusively from the Maritime Provinces, and 
 thus a very large portii-n of the people, especially of 
 Nova Scotia, follow a sea-faring life. 
 
 21. Revenue of the Dominion.— The revenue of 
 the Dominion is derived from the sale of public lands, 
 from licenses of vitrious kinds, from duties imposed on 
 imports, and from excise duties, or taxes upon certain 
 manufactures. (See Appendix I. (k).) 
 
 22. Commercial Routes.— The commercial routes of 
 an inter-provincial character are formed, in the first 
 place, by th(j large rivers and lakes with the canals 
 associated, and by the oceanic waters ; secondly, by the 
 railwayr,. (See maps.) The latter connect with the great 
 railways of the United States that lead to the ocean. 
 
 The Canadian Pacific Railnnid is transcontiiiftital, pxtciidiiip 
 from a teiiii)()raiy tenniiiUH at Montreal to tlin Pacific at Coa! Hiii-bur, 
 on liuecn Ciiailottu Strait. The (irand Trunk (and Oreat Western) 
 conveys frcifjht and pas.-ienKers to and from the United States at 
 Sarnia, Windsor, and Niagara; and to and fnni the ocean at Port- 
 land (Maine), summer and winter, and at (Quebec in Bumnier; while 
 the Intercolonial, connecting? with the Grand Trunk at cjuebec, 
 terminates from Moneton, N.B., by one branch, at St. .Tohn, and by 
 another, at Halifax,— these two cities being tiii^ chief winter jiorts in 
 the eastern Dominion. l?oth of the two great roads have very many 
 side branches that act as feeders to the main lines, those of tin- 
 Grand Trunk being especially numerous. The number of miles of 
 railway in Canada may be reckoned at about 12,000. 
 
 Canadian goods also reach the ocean at Boston and at New York 
 by railroads through New York State. 
 
 The traflSc on the hikes, esjiecially on the two lower ones, is for 
 the most part with the United States. 
 
 23. Political Divisions.— These are the piovinces 
 Ontario, Quebec, N<>w Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince 
 Edward Island, Manitoba, and British Columbia; the 
 districts Keewatin, Assiniboia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, 
 and Athabasca; the North-West Territory, and the 
 Nortu-East xerntory (the western part of Iiabrador). 
 
 These constitute a Federation known as the Dominion 
 oj Canada. The capital is Ottawa, in Ontario. 
 
 24. Government. — By the British North America Act of 
 
 18fi7, eiwih province has the control of its own purely local con- 
 cerns, the fed(!ral governtnent dealing with all matters of an inter 
 ])rovincirtl character -postage, coinage, conni\erce, fisheries, criminal 
 lasvs, -and exercising a supervision over the Acts of the legijlatures 
 of the various provinces. 
 
 But as Canada is an integral i)art of the British Kmjiire, the con- 
 trolling pow(!r m which is the government of (ireat liritain and 
 Iniland, the ,\ets ot the Canadian (Jovernment ant subject to the 
 suporvisicni of tlie Homo (Jovermnent, it being understood, however, 
 that nothing that concerns Canada done shall tie disallowed, except 
 the making of treaties with foreign countries, anci the violation of 
 any()f the terms of the Biitish North America Ac*- —the whole 
 spirit of tlie rel.'itionshii) *'f the mother country to the colonies being 
 the conccission of the utmost freedom of acti<ni compatible with tlie 
 maintenance of the Imperial authority. 
 
 No r(!ven\ie whatever is <leriveil from Canada V)y the Imperial 
 Governmtait. Canada is practically independent; the bonds that 
 unite us to tiio mother laud t)eing those that at all tinu's, and in 
 every country, have most strongly inHuenced men of high character. 
 — tradition and affection. 
 
 Th(t Home Govc'rnment appoints the Governor-General; the 
 Dominion Government, the Lieutenant-(!overnors of the provinces 
 and tile subordinate Dominion officials ; the provincial officials being 
 aiipointr'd by the Provincial ( lovernnients. 
 
 All the acts, legislative or executive, of the provincial or the 
 geneial government ani performed in the name of the Sovereign. 
 
 The Legislature of the Dominion ci nsists of two bodies : one, the 
 House of Commons, is elected i)y the people of tlii^ different pro- 
 vinces from constituencies inrlicated by the Commons itself; the 
 other, the Senate, is "ajipointed by the Crown," in reality by the 
 (!rovvn's ministers. These two bodies must concur in each measure 
 before it can become law. 
 
 I'-ach province has a government similar to that of the Dominion, 
 except that Ontario, Manitoba, and British (volumliia have but a 
 single legislative body, viz., the one. elected directly by the people.* 
 The North-West districts are too thinly settled for jirovincial organi- 
 zation ; th(!y are, therefore, under the more immediate control of the 
 Dominion Government, and have a governor and a council appointed 
 by the Crown. 
 
 25. The inhabitants, numbering 4,324,810 in 1881, 
 are of many nationalities— natives of the British Islands 
 and their descendants con.stituting the majority. (See 
 under each province.) There are some Eskimos in 
 Labrador, and farther north. The roaming Indians are 
 almost all confined to the western territories and Labra- 
 dor. Others, in the various provinces, have reservations 
 of their own secured to them, and have, in a great 
 measure, adopted the customs and ways of living of 
 civilized life; still others own property, and in all 
 respects live as ordinary people. 
 
 In religion, the Christian worship is universal. In all 
 the provinces except Quebec, the Protestant sect is 
 largely predominant ; in Queliec it constitutes a very 
 smtU minority. Perfect freedom of worship exists 
 everywhere in the Dominion. 
 
 Education is liberally provided for by the local govern- 
 ment in all the provinces, as well by High Schools and 
 Colleges as by Public Schools. It is thus heartily recog- 
 nized that the welfare of countries defends u"on the 
 intelligence of their people. 
 
 "See further in Authorized Htstory of Canada. 
 
CANADA PUBUSHIN8 C9., TOROMTO, 
 
'A 
 
 MAnHiWft, NJKTHItur ft CO.,AIITrHiri md WgltU,IU(^AkJ, N.T. 
 
i !' 
 
 Fio. 44.— CiTT OK Toronto. 
 
 PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. 
 
 1. Extent.— Starting at about the central part of 
 Lake St. Francis, on the south the boundaries of Ontario 
 extend westward, traversing all the southern waters of 
 Canada, as far as the western part of the Lake of the 
 Woods ; thence on the north and west, along tue English 
 and Albany rivers, with tlio connecting lakes, to James 
 Lay; and from the south-eastern end of this, alons the 
 meridian of 79|°, to Lake Temiscamingue ; thence along 
 the Ottawa to a point directly north of the central pait 
 of Lake St. Francis, the remainder of the boundary being 
 a line running irregularly southward. 
 
 Excepting British Columbia, Ontario is the largest 
 of the provinces ; its area is about 220,000 square miles. 
 
 2. Geological Features.— The peninsula enclosed 
 by the lakes rises very gently from the lakes on each 
 side to the crest of the swell that runs from the southern 
 end of Lake Huron, in a direction parallel to lakes Erie 
 and Ontario, till it meets the branch Laurentian swell that 
 passes into New York State. In the hollow formed by 
 this branch swell and the main Laurentian swell, lies 
 
 l701 
 
 the Ottawa river. These three ridges are the water-sheds 
 of Ontario. 
 
 Along the shores of the lakes, especially Ontario and 
 Erie, lies a low, narrow strip of land ; in some places, as 
 from Queenston around to Toronto, this ends at a veiy 
 abrupt escarpment of limestone rock, that is plainly 
 visible at many points. 
 
 In the Laurentian region the country is rugged, with 
 much wild, picturesque scenery, Vjut containing many 
 tracts of fertile land. 
 
 The rocks west of the Laurentian, and underlying the "glacial 
 drift," are chiefly limestones ; they are of the i)alffi(i/<iic age, and of the 
 same series as those skirting James Bay— the old r Silurian ; they 
 extend as far west as a line drawn from Port Credit to Georgian Bay. 
 Then follow the Silurian proper in a broad, uniform band, extending 
 from near Wtxxlstock to Lake Huron, and including all the Niagara 
 lieninsula except the Lake lirie coast ; the Devonian occupying all 
 the Lake Erie shore and the rest of the jDeninsula. (See Part I., 
 ¥ig. 2.) 
 
 3. Minerals.— The metalliferous minerals of Ontario 
 lie almost exclusively in the Laurentian region. What 
 their extent and variety are, is not known. There is an 
 abundance of iron, and in manv nlaoen aloncr tho nnr+.h 
 
ONTAHIO— PHYSICAL KKATlJIiKS. 
 
 7T 
 
 sJiort) of tli<) upjier lakes, a>jij)er has been t'ouud, and 
 also lead ore (galena) here ami there.* "Silver islet," 
 on Lake Superior, is very rich in dlvnr ; 87,024 ounces 
 of pure silver were obtained in 1881. Xinc also is 
 said to exist along Lake Superior. Iron orn is tlio only 
 metalliferous ore mined to any extent in Ontario. The 
 iron producing counties are Frontenac, Renfrew, Lanark, 
 Carleton, and Hastings. f Apatite \ (phosphate of lime), 
 of excellent quality, used largely as a fertilizer when 
 prepared, exists along the Ottawa in ai)parently large 
 quantities. Gold is mined to some extent in North 
 Hastings. The Lake of the Woods region promises to 
 be rich in gold. The western peninsula, in Lambton, 
 yields large quantities of petroleum; about 15,500,000 
 gallons of the crude petroleum 
 were produced in 1881 : far- 
 ther north, in the neighbor- 
 Jiood of Goderich, wells have 
 been bored that yield strong 
 brine, from which most of 
 the salt used in the central 
 Dominion is manufactured ; 
 472,000 barrels were made in 
 1881. 
 
 4. Outline.— The outline 
 of Ontario is ve." y in ^gular. 
 Tiie south-east is br Ven by 
 the peninsula of Prince Ed- 
 ward County, and the Niagara 
 peninsula; the south-west pro- 
 longation lying between the lakes is peculiar in character ; 
 it is a peninsula shaped like a barbed arrow-head, — the 
 barbs being Niagara and Bruce peninsulas, the isthmus 
 lying between Toronto and Georgiun Hay. (See "Canada," 
 sec. 10, for other features in the outline.) 
 
 5. Minor Lakes.— The minor lakes exist almost 
 exclusively in the Laurentian region, or in the northern 
 part of the region (the older Silurian) that overlies it to 
 the south. (See Pt. I., "Land Surface of the Earth," 
 sec. 30.) 
 
 • In 1884, ir),"i tons of load were mode at the Kingston Smelting Works from 
 293 tons of yalena from Carleton county. 
 
 tTlie total oiitimt of ore from these comities in 1884 was about 80,000 
 tons. The ore from Hastings is found to make the finest of steel. 
 
 t The mines ale owned mainly by cupitalists in Eii^'Iaiid and the United 
 States. The erude apatite, the output of which was large in 1884, is worth, 
 in Montreal, .*!'• a ton. At liroekville a few tons were manufactured into 
 fertilizers ; all the rest was exported crude. 
 
 Siindii', iKU'lli of TnniMto, ncciiiiics ii(l('|ircHHiiin on tlu' cri'ntof the 
 ric^n nitiiiiiig from l.aku Hunm iii>rtli't<aMtwiir(lly (m««! hcc. 2), und 
 drams otl' thruuj/h tlin Sfvcni River into (MoiKiiiii Hay. Kimt of 
 this lake liuH a wlmli' fiiiitiiHtic cham— He uya;!, a ring of watiir i-ncloH- 
 iiiK ik liwRf ishuiil ; Htiham, Stiirijeim, I'if/om, Chiiaonfi, Stonii- all 
 but thf KrHt licitiK in ruality only one Uiutt, very irregular limly of 
 watiir, -and Hire. Tlif wholti of tliiw, with iiiiimTou-t Hniailor oncM, 
 drain off into the wt-Btcrn fnd of thu Hay of (Juinti'? throuKli tiie 
 Trent liivcr. Farther eant Htiil, are Jiiiltuu Lake and nunilx'rlerta 
 others, runnintf off into the Ottawa River through the Riileau River. 
 North of Lake .Siincoe is Miinkoka with it« connected lakeM, Jamiik 
 and Jiii^nniu, liavinjf m its outlet into (ieorKian Hay, the Muskoka 
 Hiver, Farther to the north, on a line witli the northern part of 
 Lake Huron, iH NiiiinKim/, which, after Kt'ttintf the waters of other 
 lakeM to the north, overHows into the north of (leorKian 15ay through 
 the rocky, wild French River. Directly north, Imt on the very top 
 of the Laurentian " heiifht of land," is Lake Ahitlilji, which drains off 
 intoJaniex Hay thrnuKli the Abittilii River. West from this. Lake 
 Nipiijun, the largest of hundre<lH of lakeH in that region, is but a 
 short diHtance north of the central part of Lake Superior, into which 
 it runs thnnigh the Nipigon River. In this region the watershed is 
 close to Lake Hui»nior, and on its western Bide begins that chain of 
 little lakes, known as Uainy Biver, that passes into Jtaini/ Lake, 
 
 thence into Lake of the Wnmln, and 
 finally through Lake Winnii)eg and 
 the Nelson River into Hudson Hay. 
 The En(^lish River (north-west 
 boundary) is one chain of lakes— 
 Luc Seui (Lonely Lake) and Ijake 
 i>t. Joseph b'ing the largest. From 
 
 this last the 
 James Bay. 
 
 Albanii flows into 
 
 Fio. 4,'). NiAo.MiA Fai,u.:. 
 
 6. Other Rivers (See "Can- 
 ada," sec. !l). — In the west, PUjfon, 
 part of the boundary between the 
 United States and Cfanada, flowing 
 into Lake Superior; Sawjren, flow- 
 ing into Lake Huron, and the 
 'Jhmw^ into Lake St. Clair. On 
 the Houth the (Irnntt, starting wheru 
 the Saugeen Ktiirts, and flowing intc 
 Luke Erie, and the Muira into Bay 
 of (^uinte. 
 
 In the east, the Mndaviaska and 
 Montreal, running into the Ottawa. 
 On the north, the Moose, emptying 
 into James Bay. 
 
 The Niatiara is only thirty-four 
 miles long, but it is one of the 
 remarkable rivers f)f the work!. 
 Fourteen miles from its mouth occur tin" Falls fif Niagara. Divided 
 into two channels by Gout Island, the greater mass of the wat(^i 
 falls over the clitf on the Canadian side, ii (lei'iiendicular height ot 
 lf>7 feet, forming the ''Horseshoe Falls." On the United States 
 side the cliff is 158 feet high, the volume of water being small in 
 comparison with that of the other, but breaking in foam from the 
 very top ami forming wild rapids far up the stream. Below the fall, 
 for two miles the stream flows (piiet, but strong, lietween perpen- 
 dicular cliffs over 200 feet high ; then another rapid occurs, in wliich 
 is the "Whirlpool," fi)rmed by a liend in the channel. AtQueenstou 
 the level of the lake is reaclied — the whole fall in the river bed being 
 3,^0 feet. Several fine bridges cross the river, the chief one being 
 at Clifton— the famous .Suspension Bridge. (For the St. Lawrence 
 and Ottawa, see under Quebec.) 
 
 7. Climate. — Ontario has its maximum breadth along 
 the meridian of about 82° 30', which passes through 
 Point Pelee, on Lake Erie (lat. 42°), and the mouth of 
 the Albany River (lat. 52°). It has thus a greater 
 extent north and south than any other province of the 
 Dominion except British Columbia. But as almost the 
 whole of it is within the influence of the lakes, and the 
 
 !l>! 
 
 11 
 
 (E) 
 
72 
 
 ONTARIO. 
 
 soutliorn peninsula is witliin the warm temperate zone, 
 
 Ontario is less exposed to extremes of heat and cold than 
 
 any other inland province. 
 
 The following statements regarding the average temiiiv 'urea at 
 Toronto in forty-three years, are taken from the report, for 1883, of 
 the directors of the Mapietical Observatory, Toronto: — 
 
 Mean tem|)erature 44°. 27 
 
 " " warmest month (July) 07°. 0!) 
 
 " _ " coldest " (January).. 22°. 87 
 
 " highest temiierature 91°. 
 
 " lowe.st " -12°. 
 
 " ran ire of " 103°. 
 
 Highest temperature 99°. 2 
 
 Lowest " ,..-26°. 5 
 
 Lake Erie shore will show a higher mean annual temjierature 
 than 44°. 27, and a much higher viiuer uiean than 22". 87 ; while tlie 
 extreme north is said to b.ave a summer mean of 00', a winter mean 
 of zero, and an annual mean of 32°— the k.it a fact that shows the 
 little value of "mean annual temperatures" in indicating the capa- 
 bilities of a "cold temperate" climate. (See "North America," 
 sec. 13; and " Canada," sec. 11.) 
 
 Moisture. — Rain is not excessive in 
 Ontario; it is fairly distributed from 
 April to October, but is much more 
 abundant in sjjring and fall than in sum- 
 mer. The average annual rainfall dur- 
 ing the last 43 years was about 28 inches, 
 with an average of 111 rainy days ; 
 wiiile the snow-fall was G9 inches, the 
 extremes being 43^ inches of rain, and 
 123 inches of snow. 
 
 8. Vegetation.— The vegetation lias 
 already been referred to. (See "Cana- 
 da," sec. 12.) 
 
 9. Industries.— The great industry of Ontario 
 is farming/ tlie extent of tliis industry is indi- 
 cated by the fact that the census of 1881 gives the 
 number of the agricultural class in Ontario at 304,630, 
 the number in the whole Dominion having been 
 602,630. 
 
 The Forest industry stands next in importance. The 
 value of the products of sawmills alone in 1881 was over 
 $16,500,000. 
 
 Manufactvring ranks third. In 1881, $81,000,000 
 (not including value of raw material) were invested in 
 manufacturing, and goods to the value of $158,000,000 
 were produced.* 
 
 The chief m.inufactures are flour, himber, cloth, boots and shoes 
 agruulturai implements, cheese, carriages, furniture, cars and 
 engines, leather, and oil. 
 
 Mining is not as yet an industry of Ontario, nor 
 is shipping, though the number and value of vessels 
 on the inland waters are considerable. 
 
 The Fisheries are highly important to the province ; 
 
 the amount of fish exported is small, the home market 
 
 evidently taking nearly the whole. 
 
 For further reference to this and the other industries, see 
 Appendix I (t) and (7). ' 
 
 Lake Huron, with its offslioots, is the most important 
 for its fisheries, yielding more than half of the value of 
 the entire quantity of fish caught in the Province. 
 It supplies three-fourths of the trout, over half of 
 the whitetish, half of the pickerel, and a third of the 
 sturgeon. Lake Ontario gives most of the bass and 
 maskinonge ; Lake Erie, most of the herring and the pike. 
 
 * These fiu'urcH incluile all kiu.ld of manufactures for dumestic. interpro- 
 vincial, uiid foreign trade. >-., o 
 
 10. Trade.— The extent of the 
 foreign trade of Ontario is shown in 
 a great measure by the tables of Appen- 
 dix I. (a)-(A). 
 
 11. Education.— In educational facilities Ontario is 
 surpassed by no other country in the world. Public 
 Schools, within the reach of all, are absolutely free; 
 High Schools, one or more being witliin each county, and 
 either free or with but nominal fees, carry to a higher point 
 the training received in the Public Schools. In each of 
 these elliciency is sought through a course of study 
 prescribed for the pupils, through a careful literary and 
 professional training of teachers at Normal, Model, and 
 High Schools, through ofllcial inspection, and by means 
 of nmnicipal and provincin,l support. TTniver.<',5t.y r!o]Ie'"e 
 and University of Toronto complete the system of educa- 
 tion provided by Government. 
 
SUBDIVISIONS-CITIES— TOWNS. 
 
 Education forms one of the departments of the Pro- 
 vincial Government, and is in charge of a cabinet 
 minister— tlie Minister of Education. 
 
 In addition to the public system of education, the 
 leading religious denominations have colleges, and some- 
 times schools, of their own, free from Government 
 control. 
 
 12. Sub-divisions. -The principle of self-government 
 —local control of purely local matters— extends through- 
 out the British empire, as well to the smallest communities 
 as to the different countries that constitute the empire. 
 In the mother-land, but more especially in the colonies, 
 the principle is carried out to a very full extent ; in 
 dependencies, India for example, in a modified form 
 suited to circumstances. 
 
 In Ontario, and in some of the other provinces, the 
 organization of tlie communities of whatever character, is 
 the same as that of thn province at large. Some parts 
 of the country, however, are too thinly settled to render 
 organization for a full local government convenient or 
 possible. In this case the provincial government must 
 exercise a more or less direct control in local affairs, the 
 principle of self government, wever, being carried out 
 as far as circumstances allow. 
 coJuy IfY^t coinnuinity, or si.b-divisinn, of Ontario is termed a 
 
 ohtah, an .n.g..u.atio„ of its own ^n^;; cS f o^H L;::^ f V?^ 
 clllot SoTtm.^d Jo'"!;:., 7"""' '' '""■"' '■"^''"^' a'n.ayoi'andco; T 
 
 th:c;i;^co;;nc;ii:^ ^'""^'^'^'" '^-'^ ^^■''"">'^-"' theSdict!i^n ::f 
 
 need'rt''S""coot Z'^l^^"' ^'""i ?[ '";""«iP'-^' government, and 
 
 Ontario has forty-five counties and, in the northern 
 part of the province, five "districts" without countv 
 organization. 
 
 13. Of the inhabitants, 1,923,228 in number, accord- 
 ing to the cen.us of 1881, three-quarters were bom in 
 Ontario, a fifth in the British islands, 45,454 in the 
 United States, and 55,81G in different foreign countries, 
 the remainder being natives of the other provinces. 4 
 large number of the inhabitants of the ^a^tom onuntir-— 
 especially of Glengarry, Stormont, Prescott, Russell, and 
 Renfrew-are of French descent. Over a third of the 
 
 73 
 
 inhabitants of Essex are also French. Indians of different 
 tribes, to the number of 15,325, are settled for the most 
 part on special reservations, the principal of these being 
 in Manitoulin island, in Algoma, and in the counties of 
 Brant, Hastings, and Middlesex. 
 
 14. Cities.— There are eleven cities in Ontario- 
 Toronto, Hamilton, Ottawa, London, Kingston, St. Cath- 
 arines, Brantford, Guelph, Belleville, St. Thomas, and 
 Stratford. 
 
 Toronto (population, 86,415 in 1881 ; present esti- 
 mate, 112,000), the capital and, next to Montreal, the 
 largest city of the Dominion, owes its prosperity in 
 some measure to its being the seat of the provincial 
 government; but, like other important cities, the greater 
 part is due to those physical conditions that are 
 favorable to commerce. It possesses a well-sheltered 
 
 Fio. 47.— Boot and Shoe FiciOHy. 
 
 harbor on that part of the lake coast that is most con- 
 venient and accessible to a wide extent of rich farming 
 country, the collected products of which it can readily 
 despatch, either by land or by water, to the markets of 
 the United States or of Europe. The same causes render 
 it convenient for the distribution of goods, eithei- those 
 imported or those manufactured at home. Toronto is a 
 commercial rather than a manufacturing city, though, 
 like all large cities, its manufactures are both numerous 
 and important. The chief of those are, machinery of 
 various kinds, articles of iron, agricultural implements, 
 articles of leather— boots and shoes especially,— furniture, 
 clothing, musical instruments, and malt and distilled 
 liquors. Beside these, it distrilnites the goods— such as 
 paper, furniture, and knitted goods— of many of the large 
 
'?4 
 
 ONTARIO. 
 
 ii 
 
 l'5 
 
 factories situated in country towns and villages where 
 motive power and needful nuaterial are more convenient, 
 
 or property cheaper. 
 
 The city rises gradually back from the lake, reaching in about a 
 mile and a half an elevation of somewhat over a hundred feet. It 's 
 healtliy, and is said to be less subject to extremes of heat and cold 
 than any other northern inland city on this contment. 1 orouto is the 
 educational centre of the province, as well as the capital and commer- 
 cial centre. It contains tiie- University College and *"« University 
 of Toronto, the School of Technology, MciVIaster Hall (liaptist), 
 Wyclitfe College (Church of England), St. Michael's College (Roman 
 Catholic), Knox College (Presbyterian), Trinity College (Church of 
 England), the Normal and Model Schools, and Osgoode Hall,— the 
 latter containing also the chief law courts of the province. 1 here are 
 but few railways in the iirovince that do not communicate directly 
 or indirectly with Toronto, bringing in the varied products of the 
 country, even from as far as Lake Nipissing. The churches and 
 other public buildings are, for the most part, fine structures. Univer- 
 sity College, esi>ecially, being unsurpassed in architectural design by 
 any building for a similar purpose on the continent. 
 
 Many of the private residences are also fine substantial buildings, 
 marked by good taste rather than by showiness. In enterprise, 
 energy, intelligence, and in substantial and rapid progress, loronto 
 is a typical Ontario city. 
 
 Hamilton (population, 35,961 in 1881 ; present esti- 
 mate, 42,000), the next in size to Toronto, lies at 
 the head of a little, almost land-locked, basin of water 
 called Burlington Bay, the extreme western end of 
 Lake Ontario. The general flatne.ss of the city is 
 relieved by a bold limestone bluli', termed "the moun- 
 
 Fia. 48.— CoTTdX Factoiiy 
 
 tain," an alirupt exposure of the rock along the edge 
 of the sudden rise that the land takes around Lake 
 Ontario at varying distances from the water. A large 
 number of the residences and the public buildings are 
 built of stone, which gives to the city a substantial 
 appearance. Physically less favorably situated for com- 
 merce than Toronto, Hamilton has, nevertheless, a large 
 wholesale trade, and its manufactures are important. Its 
 stoves, eastings, machinery, glassware, sewing machines, 
 boots and shoes, clothing, and agriculturrl implements, 
 are found in all parts of the Dominion. 
 
 (Jttaica (population, 27,412 in 1881; present esti- 
 mate, 30,000), the capital of the Dominion, is situated 
 about 125 miles up the Ottawa river, where that stream, 
 after passing over a ledge of Laurentian rock, and form- 
 ing the Ohaudiere Falls, receives the Rideau, pouring in 
 a "curtain" of water over rocky banks forty feet high. 
 
 The importance of the city in Canada is altogether 
 duo to its being the capital— the centre from which the 
 political affairs of a vast country are administered. But 
 the character of its physical situation would, of necessity, 
 have made it important— provincially at least. In years 
 gone by, the facilities that the Rideau, assisted by short 
 canals, offered for communication with the western coun- 
 try, and its safe distance from a possibly hostile frontier, 
 caused this place to be regarded by the Imperial Govern- 
 ment as a desirable site for a city, from both a military 
 and a commercial point of view. It is the rapid develop- 
 ment of the lumber industry in the upper Ottawa valley 
 that has given the city its chief commercial and provin- 
 cial importance, an importance that must increase when 
 the rich mining capabilities of the surrounding country 
 
 come to be developed. 
 
 The presence of the falls necessitates the r.-handling of tlie vast 
 numbers of logs that descend the river. A large portion of these are 
 s wn nto lunLr by numerous mills dnv.n by the u..e<,ualled water- 
 power afforded by the falls; the rest ar- made read.v to pass the 
 'descent bymeuns\,f artificial water-ways, or " slides," in order to 
 be transported to the St. Lawrence. , ^. „ , i „ ^u,. 
 
 luduitriallv, therefore, Ottawa is em,.l.atically .a l"'"^'"/- ty, 
 
 thou'^h woollen goods and flour are also important articles of nianu- 
 
 hctue The census of 1H81 ivturns t)ttawa as manufaetuni.g 
 
 m er tothe value of nearly .S2,0()0,000,. exceeding greatly m this 
 
 respect every other city in the Dnmnuon, even St. John, New 
 
 ^■"'iHtawahas the "extreme " Canadian cliniate,-cold .and clear in 
 
 "■"rh;:p;::;a;;u!:;e';'re^.nted by the city on the high banks and 
 bluffs of 'tl. riv..r is p,ctures„ue and ''"racfve, wh^ w:v^..rfa s 
 like th(^ Chaudiere give a charm to any l)lace. Ottawa u.i t.inis 
 ranv handsome structures, -churches private residences stores, 
 1,'ulks et" The Parliamentary and Departmental buildings are 
 eipeci'ally fine, and are regarded as models of architecture. 
 
 Lomhm (population, 19,740 in 1881 ; present esti- 
 mate 22,000), in the centre of the rich agricultural 
 wstern peninsula of Ontario, is well situated as an 
 inland commercial town. Its growth has been rapid 
 and substantial. And while its wholesale trade in goods, 
 imported directly from other countries, is large, its own 
 manufactures are im])ortant. 
 
 These manufactures consist of agricultural imple- 
 ments, furniture of all kinds, machinery, railroad cars, 
 boots and shoes, reHned petroleum, and malt li-iuors. 
 Its mineral springs attract a number of visitors during 
 summer time. The Western University and Heilmu^h 
 Ladies' College are situated in London. 
 
CITIES— TOWNS. 
 
 'n 
 
 Kingston, the "limestone city" (population, 14,091 
 in 1881 ; present estimate, 15,000), was foiinerly of 
 greater relative importance in Ontario than at present. 
 It has not increased with the same rapidity as other 
 Ontario cities. 
 
 Its position, at the outlet of Lake Ontario, is import- 
 ant in lake and river navigation, and, in consequence, its 
 leading industries are connected with such navigation. 
 
 Vessels built for lake navigation only, here transfer 
 their cargoes to barges and other river boats to be taken 
 to Montreal or further ; while these, in their turn, 
 transfer to the lake boats cargoes brought from Montreal. 
 A considerable amount of building and repairing of 
 vessels is also carried on. 
 
 In addition to these industries and a considerable 
 trade in grain, especially barley, Kingston manufactures 
 engines, machinery, leather, knitted and cotton goods, 
 brick, cut stone, malt liquor, etc. It has also smelting 
 works for extracting metal from the ore. Queen's 
 College and University, the Military School, and tlie 
 Provincial Penitentiary, are situated here. 
 
 The river trade has not kept pace with the growth of the country. 
 Rapidity of transportation lieiug a necessity in modern commerce, a 
 great deal of the water traffic has been transferred to the railroads. 
 This, together with the opening up, on the other side of the lake, of 
 a large market for Canadian grain, and a more direct route to th(^ 
 ocean, has materially alfected tiie prosjierity of Kingston. Though 
 the agricultural region around Kingston is not extensive, the mineral 
 region is one of the best in the world. The iron of Madoc makes the 
 finest of steel. With the develojmient of the iron :nines in the 
 counties to the north, Kingston should become the centre of the iron 
 trade and iron manufacture for central Canada. 
 
 The Rideau Canal, traversing tlu! Rideau River and the Rideau 
 and other lakes, connects the city with Ottawa; but t!ie railroads 
 and the tit. Lawrence canals have almost destroyed its usefulness. 
 
 Of the smaller cities, each having about 10,000 inhabitants, Oni'l/ili 
 has a large trade in grain and c.ittle, and manufactures flour, agric\d- 
 tur.Tl imi)lements, sewing machines, music;il instruments, and malt 
 and distilled liquoi s. The Agricultural College and Experimental 
 Farm are near Guelph. 
 
 Brnntfnrd, on the Grand River, is for the most \YMt engaged in 
 the ])roduce trade ; but it has extensive maimfactuirs tjf niachiner- 
 and agricultural implements. It contains the Institute for t.ie jjlind. 
 
 .SV. Catharines is in the best fniit region of Canada. The Welland 
 Canal 8upi)lies water ]i(i\vi'r for Hour mills and ditfcrent factories. 
 Like Kingston, >St. Catharines has suffered througii the transfer to 
 the railroads of a large part of the traffic l)y water. It has mineral 
 springs that .are much resorted to in summei. 
 
 St. ThiminK, where threi; railroads intersect, has grown rajMdly in 
 the last few years. It has :in inland country trade, 
 
 IMhvilh. on the Bay of QuinttS, has a, large trade in lund er, 
 dairy i)roduce a;id grain, Viarley especially. It ;;ontains the Institute 
 for the Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 Stratforff, the newest city (1885), is a very active railway centre, 
 with extensive railway workshops. It has a large trade in grain and 
 dairy produce. 
 
 1 5. Towns. — A characteristic feature of Ontario towns 
 and villages is that, while each one is a local and often 
 important maiket for local agricultural or other products, 
 
 each also has, in addition to a flour mill and a saw mill, 
 one or more manufactories. These, in the majority of 
 cases, not only supply the immediate neighborhood with 
 the articles manufactured, but send their goods through- 
 out the Dominion, and often to other countries. The 
 cities and larger towns by no means monopolize the 
 manufacturing. 
 
 All the northern and east-central towns, and also those at the 
 mouths of rivers along Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrer. •?, are 
 largely concerned in the lumber trade. Of these, the principal are 
 Oivm Sounft, Collincnmoil (which have steamboat communication with 
 Lake Superior), Barrie, Lindsay, PHerOorouiih, and Prrth: Port 
 Hope, Napance, and lirockvillc, on the south,— the last having 
 chemical works als(j ; in a wild country, in the extreme west, at the 
 outlet of the Lake of the Woods, is Eat Portage, one of the great 
 lumber centres of Canada. 
 
 Fio. 49.— Oil-Wklis and Derricks. 
 
 Many of the chief manufacturing towns are along or near the 
 principal lines of railway. Prcscott, at the jimction of a railway to 
 Ottawa, has no special manufactures. Cornwall manufactures woollen 
 goods, machinery, cotton, and paper ; Cohourq (containing Victoria 
 (,'ollege and University) has large car works; Jioinannvill" and 
 Oahawa make agricultural implements, furniture, and musical instru- 
 ments ; Whilhii, leather, agricultural and other machinery, carriages ; 
 (lalt (the ".Manchester of Canada''), machinery of allkinds, edge 
 tools, woollen, and knitted goods. In the neighlmrhood of the last 
 town are PariK, A'/r, PriKton, etc., having large woollen nulls, 
 l)reweries, agricultuial iniplenient works, and other factories — it is 
 tlie manufacturing region of Ontario. 
 
 Tlie towns to the west, Iiiiierifill, Woothtoek; Chatham, Sinicoi , and 
 others, have manufactures of implements, etc., suited to agricultural 
 communities. Pctrolia is the centre of the oil-producing region. 
 
 The chief port towns, other thiin those already mentio-ied, are : 
 on Lake Superior, I'urt A flh iir, on the north-western coa.st ; on Lake 
 llnron, Soitthaiiiptoti, with a line of steamers to Lake Superioi, 
 Kincardine, (loderich, — with extensive manufactures of salt, from 
 salt-wells in its vicini y, — Sarnia, tlie western t' iniinus in Canada 
 of tlie (■ rand Trunk Rail. vay. The jiort towns of J,aUe Krie are oi' 
 little imiiortance, the chief lieing Port Stunliii anil J'urt JJorer. 
 Port (\>lhrinie anil Port Dalli'iunie ,ire small jilaces at the ends of 
 the Welland Canal. Windsor, a thriving town, is tlie western 
 terminus of the Great Western Railway. At Amhersthur;/, tiie 
 Canada Southern Kuilwi^y crosses the Detroit River. Nir,r-nra, at 
 the mouth of the Niagara River, is not well situateil commercinlly, 
 and does not grow. 
 
 I- 
 
Canada. Eablishing Co>, Toronto 
 
S CRotlv 
 
Fig. 50.— Views ok Quebec and Montrkal 
 
 PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. 
 
 1, Extent.— The southern boundary o£ Quebec in- 
 cl.ides that of the Dominion north of the States of New 
 York, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, as far as 
 the St. Francis River ; a line running irregularly to the 
 river Patapedia ; and this river, the Restigouche, and 
 the Bay of Chaleur ; the eastern boundary is the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence and about the meridian of 57° on the 
 north-east ; the northern boundary runs along the parallel 
 of 52° to the " Height of Land " ; this it follows to the 
 eastern boundary of Ontario. The area of the province is 
 188,688 square miles. 
 
 2, Geological Features.— Quebec has three distinct 
 physical regions, each depending upon different geological 
 features. 
 
 The western ridge, or main axis of the Appalachian 
 chain, ente)-3 the province, with Mount Sutton (4,000 
 feet high), somewhat to the west of Lake Meraphra- 
 magog, and extends, under the general name of Notre 
 Dame, to Cape Rosier in Giisp6, being everywhere, after 
 -caching the neighborhood of the city of Quebec, within 
 
 a few miles of the St. Lawrence. The elevation is hardly 
 beyond that of hills till the Shickshock Mountains, a 
 parallel range to the north, between the Matane and 
 St. Anne rivers in Gasp6, are reached ; there some peaks, 
 such as Bayfield, Albert, and Logan, are from 3,500 to 
 4,000 feet high. 
 
 Gaspe is a table-land about 1,500 feet high, from 
 which the Shickshock range rises, as do other parallel 
 ranges of lower elevation, and of a less continuous 
 character, farther south. But little, however, is accur- 
 ately known of the interior of this peninsula, the settle- 
 ments being confined to the coast and its neighborhood. 
 These Appalachian mountains, although forming the 
 southern watershed of the St, Lawrence basin, are not 
 always the highest of the range. " Tiie Shickshock Moun- 
 tains, though the highest land, do not form any part of 
 the water-parting of the peninsula (Gaspe), for the Ste, 
 Anne des Monts, the Matane, and the Chatte, taking 
 their sources in the lower country to the south, cut 
 gorges through the range so deep that their cnunuel^- 
 
 r7t>.1 
 
QUEBEC— PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 79 
 
 •where crossing it, are not more than 500 or 600 feet 
 above the St. Lawrence." The larger rivers in the soutli- 
 east all have their upper basins to the south of the main 
 range. 
 
 The whole of this region has its strata very much 
 disturbed, broken, and folded, and, as far as ascertained, 
 consists of three narrow belts; the centre one, of cry.stal- 
 line rock, "extends from Sutton Mountain to a few 
 miles north of the latitude of Quebec, and reappears in 
 the Shickshock range;" the southern one, of pala'ozoio 
 (Devonian) rock, extends from the Vermont border to 
 Gasp6; while the northern one, a. narrow belt of the 
 oldest (Cambrian) paheozoic, extends from the Vermont 
 border to Quebec^ and thence skirts the St. Lawrence 
 shore to Cape Rosier. 
 
 "Notwithstanding the general hilly, and sometimes 
 mountainous, and thickly wooded character of Eastern 
 Canada, there are many fine stretches of agricultural 
 and pastoral lands, most of which are due to the modi- 
 fication the surface has undergone during the formation 
 of the glacial and later deposits of the Post-Tertiary 
 Age,, which have filled in and obliterated many of the 
 irregularities of the surface of the ancient disturbed and 
 corrugated rock formations." 
 
 The second region includes the rest of Quebec south 
 of the St. Lawrence, It is of a totally diflFerent physical 
 appearance from the former region. "Excepting the 
 isolated trap hills, at Montreal island and in its vicinitv, 
 which probably mark the sites of volcanic vents, this 
 area is absolutely devoid of mountains or even of 
 prominent hills. It presents a broad level or slightly 
 undulating expanse of generally fertile country." 
 
 The strata are paheozoic of the two oldest series. 
 
 The third region is that north of the St. Lawrence— 
 the eastern part of the great Laurentian area. (See 
 "Canada," sec. 2.) 
 
 3. Minerals. -Like Ontario, Quel)ec possesses no coal 
 deposits. Wherever the crystalline (metamorphic) rofiks 
 occur, economic minerals are found associated with them, 
 though not always in large quantities. 
 
 Iron is found throughout the Laurentian area, and is 
 worked chiefly in the neighborhood of Three Rivers ; it 
 is found al.«o in the crystalline belt south of the St. Law- 
 rence. Gohl is found in considerable quantity in Beauce 
 county in the crystalline belt, and several large mines are 
 worked there. In the same belt the largest and most pro- 
 
 ductive copper mines in Canada are located. Apatite, in 
 apparently inexhaustible quantities and of excellent 
 quality, exists in Ottawa county especially, the richest 
 mines being located along the RiviiTe du Liuvre. In the 
 same county are extensive deposits of graphite (plumbago, 
 or black lead). Silver occurs in the crystalline areas 
 north and south of the St. Lawrence. Mica is mined to 
 some extent. Marble and Building Stone are quarried, 
 the latter in large quantities. (See Appendix I, {I).) 
 
 4. Outline.— Quebec is more compact than Ontario, 
 although its southern part, from Quebec city eastward, is 
 divided from the northern part by the broad waters of 
 the lower St. Lawrence and by the Gulf. This part of 
 the province terminates in the peninsula of Gaspe. 
 
 5. Capes.— The course taken by vessels in navigating 
 the lower St. Lawrence is usually along the southern 
 shore. Mail steamers from Europe land passengers and 
 mails at Father Point, near Rimouski. At the end of 
 the peninsula are Cape Eosier and the fantastically 
 shaped Cape Gaspe, while Point Macquereau (mak-er-6) 
 is in the south-east, at the entrance of Bay of Chaleur. 
 Point des Monts is below the Saguenay on the north 
 shore. 
 
 6. Islands.— The large island of Anticosti, in the 
 western Gulf, thickly wooded with spruce and pine, has 
 but few inhabitants, and at present is chiefly valued for 
 its fisheries of cod and herring. In the southern Gulf are 
 the Magdalen Islands, the most important being Grind- 
 stone, and Amherst islands ; they are very valuable for 
 their cod, lobster, and seal fisheries. Bonaventure Island, 
 oflf Perc6 (Gaspe peninsula), is also engaged in the 
 fisheries. 
 
 The whole northern shore of the Gulf, from Anticosti 
 eastward, is thickly lined with small islands, the south 
 shore having none below Father Point. West of this 
 latter point on the south the islands are quite numerous, 
 some being in mid-channel of the river, a perfect archi- 
 pelago existing east of the island of Orleans. This island 
 lies just below Quebec, and is about twenty miles Ion". 
 
 At the ui)i)er end of Lake St. Peter are a number of low, flat 
 .alluvial islands; at the junction of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa 
 •,iv*>Montre,d Inland Ci-im\V>^ long), containing the city ol Montreal 
 with ita' Mount Royal," of trap rook, Isle Jems and I,le Perrot, 
 while a little way ud the .St. Lawrence, .it tho Kiwr end of T •t'-o 
 Ht. J' rancis,. is Oraiuie Isle. The islands of the river, like "the 
 iidj.acent mainland, are generally fertile. 
 
 In the Ottawa, at some distance above the city of Ottawa, are th« 
 large islands of CalumH and Allumctte. 
 
 :% 
 
80 
 
 QUEBEC. 
 
 7. Coast Waters.— BenidpH the (iulf of St. Lawrence ])ri)|ier 
 (Hee " Caniidji," Hec. H), there are no hcxiies of water »rimn<l the coast 
 lieyond those formed hy little irre^fularitie.-! of coast mitliue; (Jdipi" 
 July, about 25 miles long, at the extremity of the jieninsiila, and Hay 
 of Seven Jalandi, on the nortli shore of the (iulf, tieiug the largest. 
 
 8. Rivers. —The rivers of Quebec run into the St. Law- 
 rence either directly or indirectly through the Ottawa. 
 The descent from the crest of the watersheds to the 
 depression occupied by the St. Lawrence is direct, the 
 affluents running in a course at right angles to the main 
 river, — the Ottawa excepted, for it lies where the 
 Laurentian area curves to the north-west, and it takes 
 its course from that curve. As the Laurentian plateau 
 has a considerable elevation, and the crest of the water- 
 shed is comparatively close to tlif^ St. Lawrence, the 
 rivers of necessity have a 
 swift current, and abound 
 in falls, rapids, and gorges, 
 — some of the latter being 
 very deep. (See "Canada," 
 sec. 9.) To the south the 
 elevation varies. In the 
 south-west a long stretcli 
 of level country lies be- 
 tween the river and the 
 mountains ; consequently, 
 excejit in the vicinity of 
 the mountains, there are 
 few falls of importance. 
 Below Point Levis the 
 rivers ai-e mostlv mere 
 
 Fin. "il, — Lacmivk Rai'IDh. on tfm'; St. f.wviiKxrR. 
 
 torrents. 
 
 The St. Lmrrawe is properly a Quebec river. On 
 issuing from Lake Ontario it is 2.'?2 feet above the level 
 of the sea, and first meets with tide-water at Three 
 Rivers, distant "272 miles — an average fall of about 
 lOJ inches in a niile. The fall, however, is not uniform 
 throughout. Till a short distance below Prescott the 
 current is moderate ; tlicn a sudden fall in the bed 
 causes a rapid -the Galops. At some distance farther 
 down another fall with another rapid, the Plat (Flat) 
 rapid, occurs, followed shortly after by the Lonff Saiilt, 
 eleven miles of nearly continuous rapid, ending at Corn- 
 wall, where the Province of Quebec is reached. On 
 leaving Lake St. Francis three rapids follow in quick 
 succession, the Coteau, the Cedars, and the Cascades. 
 Where the river leaves Lake St. Louis occur the famous 
 Lachine rapids, nine miles above Montreal, the last and 
 
 finest of the rapids. At one point in the Cedars the 
 current is said to run at the rale of thirty miles an 
 hour. The Cornwall canal at the Long Sault, the Beau- 
 harnois at the next three, and the Lachine ending at 
 Montreal, are the chief canals. Below Montreal the 
 current is but slight, and there is no serious obstacle to 
 navigation in the river till Lake St. Peter is reached. 
 Through this the channel has been deepened to twenty- 
 seven feet by dredging, so as to allow the largest ocean- 
 going steamships to pass up.* But, as with all places 
 filling, or filled, up with sediment, the channel often has 
 sharp curves, so that care is required in navigating it; 
 this is also the case at some distance above Quebec, where 
 islands and long ledges of rock rise just above the water 
 
 in mid-channel. B t 1 o w 
 Quebec, however, though 
 islands are numerous, the 
 channel is never narrow. 
 This part of the river may 
 be regarded as the pro- 
 longation of the Gulf, for 
 just below the island of 
 Orleans it is ten miles 
 wide, and at . Point des 
 Monts twenty-five. The 
 volume of fresh water car- 
 ried down by the river is 
 so great that for a long 
 distance below the city of 
 Quebec the water is per- 
 fectly fresh, the tide at the 
 city and above it being merely this water " backed up" 
 by the pressure of the salt water advancing from the 
 Gulf. Some suppose that the volume of water passing 
 out of Lake Ontario is greater than that which enters, 
 and that, therefore, a subterranean source of supply 
 must exist. 
 
 A serious drawback to the usefulness of the St. Law- 
 rence, as of all northern rivers, is the fact thn,t it freezes 
 over and remains frozen for five months of the year. 
 
 The Ott((ira, some 750 miles long, lies throughout its 
 whole course in a peculiar depi'ossion of the Lauren- 
 tian area. Starting in the little lake Eschwahara, some- 
 what to the south of the " Height of Land," at a point 
 directly north of the city of Ottawa, the river flows 
 
 • The wiirk of deepeniiiG: liegan in 1840 ; at that time the channel WTis but 
 eleven tcut deep. 
 
ra VSICAL FEATURES-PRODUCTS— INDUSTRIES. 
 
 81 
 
 westward in an extremely tortuous course abounding in 
 lakes, a thoroughly typical Laurcntian stream, till it 
 reaches Lake Temiscaming ; there it turns at right angles, 
 and, till the C'haudiOro Falls at ()ttawa are reache-l. 
 it is a succession of rapids, falls, and long, deep, and 
 often broad reaches of quiet water, frequently flowing 
 between high, perpendicular banks. Below Ottawa 
 there is a long stretch of unbroken stream as far as the 
 village of Grenville ; then fully twelve miles of rapids 
 occur, the chief one being the Limy Sanlt, six miles in 
 length. The Grenville canal leads past this rapid. Other 
 rapids occur before the St. Lawrence is reached. The 
 principal of the three outlets of the river discharges its 
 discolored water into Lake St. Louis. 
 
 The Saguenmy, for the last 75 miles of its lower 
 course, flows between clifls that are often 1,200 feet or 
 more in height. Its waters are deep and dark, abound- 
 ing in fish. Near the upper end of this reach, a short 
 arm of similar character, called Ha Ha Bay, puts off 
 from the main stream. The wild scenery and the excel- 
 lent fishing bring numbers of tourists to this river. 
 
 The otluT chief riv«Ts flowiii),' from the Laurentian area are the 
 (latinmu ami tln' ilu Lwre into tlin Ottawa, and tlie St. Maurice 
 into the St. Lawrence, Tliis river, wliich }i:us very many tributary 
 streams, is said to he 400 miles long. 
 
 From the Apiialacliians come the Richelieu out of Lake Cham- 
 filam, the Yamaska, the ,St. Francis, the Chandiere, the Jitchemin — 
 all but the first havuig their U|)i)er com-ses to the smith of the main 
 axis of the Appalachians, and crossing this axis through deep 
 gorges. 
 
 9. Lakes.— Beside the expansions along the St. Law- 
 rence and the Ottawa, the whole of the Laurentian area 
 is dotted over with lakes, the largest being Lake St. 
 John, from which the Saguenay starts. In the Appala- 
 chain region the chief are Lake Champlain, the cluster 
 Memphramivjoij, Mngog, Massawippi, St. Franci% Aylmn; 
 drained by the St. Francis, and the Megantic and Spider 
 by the Chaudiere. The latter are about 1,100 feet above 
 the sea-level, the former from .500 to 900. 
 
 10. Climate.— The climate of Quebec is somewhat 
 more extreme than that of western Ontario in the same 
 latitude,— it has not the modifying influences of the 
 lakes. The hoat of the southern part in summer is as 
 great as that of Ontario, while the cold of winter is 
 greater than in the same latitude of Ontario where 
 affected by the lakes. 
 
 The raiiifall is greater, as is also the snowfall, 
 (See "North America," sec. 13, 14; also "Canada," 11.) 
 
 11. Vegetation. -South of the St. Lawrence, even 
 to the extremity of Gaspd, the ordinary grains are grown, 
 though the height of the land in Gaspd exposes wheat 
 and peas to injury from early frost. All west and south 
 of Quebec city as far as the Appalachian region, is a tine 
 agricultural country; in some parts of this area grapes 
 and tomatoes ripen well in the open air. Large quan- 
 tities of tobacco are raised, and also of flax and hemp. 
 
 The forests are practically inexliaustible. They cover 
 nearly all north of the St. Lawrence and the Appala- 
 chian region to the south. But fires have destroyed very 
 extensive areas, especially on the lower St. Lawrence. 
 Except the narrow settled strip along the two great 
 rivers— very narrow on the upper Ottawa and the lower 
 St. Lawrence,— the whole of the province north of these 
 rivers i= given up to forest, not more than half of it 
 being either surveyed or explored. The same may be 
 said of the country on the soutn of the St. Lawrence 
 east of the city of Quebec. White pine is found chiefly 
 in the counties along the Ottawa, and to some extent in 
 the south-east Appalachian region. Spruce is the prin- 
 cipal softwood everywhere. Large forests of maple, 
 with birch intermingled, exist in the western half of the 
 province, while ash and birch are the chief hardwood 
 trees in the east. 
 
 12. Industries.— The leading industries of Quebec 
 are the following : 
 
 Agriculture.--ThQ greater part of the inhabitants are 
 engaged directly or indirectly in farming, and much 
 attention is being paid to scientific agriculture through 
 agricultural schools. Dairy farming is attracting special 
 attention, much of the province being well adapted for 
 grazing. In stock-raising, the eastern townships have 
 always taken a leading position in Canada. 
 
 Lumbering. — This is the chief commercial industry of 
 the province, and will long continue to be so. The 
 innumerable streams that lead directly to the main 
 artery, the St. Lawrence, afford everywhere excellent 
 and ready means of transportation for forest products. 
 From one end of the province to the other this industry 
 is everywhi're pursued. 
 
 Fishing is a highly important pursuit in Quebec, hut, 
 as an industry, it is altogether confined to the regions 
 east of Quebec city, indeed, to Gaspt- and the North 
 Shore. 
 
82 
 
 (QUEBEC. 
 
 Manu/acturinij holds a prominent position, but, as in 
 Ontario, the articles inanufacturc-.d aro mainly consumed 
 locally or in tho DoiniTiion, few comparatively going 
 abroad. Tho principal manufactures are flour, refined 
 sugar, boots and shoes, fur goods, soap, locomotives, and 
 maple sugar. 
 
 Miniiiij is more of an industry than in Ontario, but does 
 not hold a prominent position. (See Appendix I. (m) ). 
 
 1.3. Trade.- Quebec is finely situated for trade, for 
 through its ports must pass not only its own ocean 
 commerce, but that of all the Dominion to the west. The 
 great drawback to the city is the long period during which 
 no vessels can ascend the river. (See Appendix I. (n) 
 and others.) 
 
 14. Shipping.— Quebec stands second in the Dominion 
 in extent of shipping, Nova Scotia being the first. In 
 1881 the census returns as owned in tho province, l.O'Jr) 
 vessels, having a tonnage of 301,000 ; of these 293 were 
 steamers, averaging 451 tons each. 
 
 15. Education.— As in Ontario, education is amply 
 provided for through municipal and provincial support. 
 There are ordinary and superior schools, besides others 
 corresponding to the High Schools of Ontario. 
 
 There are also Model Schools and Normal Schools for 
 the training of teachers, three universities— McGill at 
 Montreal, Bishop's College at Lennoxville, and Laval 
 (Catholic) at Quebec,— and a number of colleges. 
 
 Where Protestants are sufficiently numerous they have 
 their own schools and inspectors. McGill Normal School 
 is Protestant. 
 
 The control of the educational system is in the hands 
 of a Superintendent of Public Instruction assisted by a 
 Council, a majority of whose members are Catholics. 
 
 10 Subdivisions. -QucbHc is subdividedfor immicipal pur- 
 poses" onZchX°a.ne princple as Ontario-n.to count.e.s town- 
 hm>s and parishes. Tliero are sixty counties, t^Y■lve of ^Yh"; '. 
 fhp south-east are termed the " Eastern Townships ; these .iie 
 Wlype'Sbydet"^^ "f the old United Empire Loyaists 
 
 anf contoin mosf of tlie English-speaking inhabitants of Quebec, 
 excepting those who live in the cities. 
 
 17. Cities.— Quebec (population, 6:?,446 in 1881 ; 
 present estimate, 64,000), the capital, is one of the 
 historic cities of America— among the earliest founded, 
 and with its political fate involving, possibly, that of 
 the whole continent. It is the third commercial city 
 of the Dominion, but is surpassed by Hamilton, St. 
 
 John and Halifax, as well as by Montreal and Toronto, 
 in the amount and value of its imports. Its imports in 
 18S3 were valued at about $5,000,000, its exports at 
 $9,209,000. 
 
 The export trudc; of Quebec consists mainly of forest 
 products ;— it is the great centre of the ocean lumber 
 trade of Canada. Its trade in fish, both as an export and 
 an inter-provincial conunodity, is considerable ; in agri- 
 cultural produce there is but little trade of importance. 
 The industries of the city, apart from th.o various saw 
 mills, are not n-.mcrous; there is some ship-building with 
 manufactures of tobacco and fur, soap and machinery ; 
 tanning, and boot and shoe making are carried on 
 extensively, forming about one-half the value of all the 
 manufactures of the city. These were valued at about 
 610,000,000 in 1881. 
 
 The shipping of Quebec is important. In 1881 there 
 were owned in the city, 101 steamers averaging 363 
 tons; 76 sea-going vessels averaging 651 tons, and 101 
 other craft averaging 59 tons. 
 
 The importance of Quebec has hitherto been as a 
 military stronghold. The city consists of an "Upper 
 Town" and a "Lower Town"; the latter, situated along 
 the waterside of St. Lawrence and the St. Charles— a 
 small stream that here enters the St. Lawrence— has 
 the chief business houses connected with shipping ; the 
 former is built on the top of the high, steep banks that 
 everywhere line the north shore. At the angle where 
 the St. Charles unites with the St. Lawrence, the banks 
 form a bold bluff" 400 feet high, called Cape Diamond ; 
 on this a strong citadel is built that commands the 
 approaches to the city. 
 
 Some seven miles below the city the little river Mont- 
 morency falls over th(^ cliff" into the St. Lawrence, a 
 perpendicular height of 250 feet. 
 
 Montreal (population, 140,747 in 1881 ; present 
 estimate, 200,000), is the largest city in Canada, and 
 one of the large cities of the continent. Its position 
 marks it out as an important commercial centre. 
 Ocean steamers and sailing vessels, except the very 
 largest, bring their cargoes up the river and discharge 
 them here for distribution to the west, and then take 
 on board the freight of the river boats and railroad 
 cars,— goods of all kinds, that often come from points 
 iieyond the great lakes and outside of Canada. While 
 the St. Lawrence furnishes a water-way directly to the 
 
CITJi S AND TOWNS. 
 
 83 
 
 markets oi Europe, the Rirhelieu, with i nhort l:ttnal^ 
 and locks, opens up, thiough Lake Oham plain an ^ tli 
 Hudson, a water-way to tho ah 'st equally important 
 markets and seaports of tho I , (i States, 
 
 The arlifica exported are im t'arni products of the 
 west, and of the fine n (cultural region in its own 
 neighborhood — grain, flouj lairy produce, cattio, sheep, 
 horses, etc.; the minerals the counties to *'to nortli- 
 west, furs from the west auu the north, lumber fron 
 Ottawa basin, and inanufactureH from Ontario 
 Quebec. 
 
 Its own manufactures are extensive ard important; 
 consisting of cotton and woollen 'abrii fined sugar, 
 
 articles of tobacco, leather and kather j^uods, clothing, 
 (including articles of fur), ei;gines and machinery, castings 
 
 FiQ 52. — Tns TRArPERs' Return. 
 
 of all kinds, soap, furniture, articles of wood, rubber 
 goods, paint, paper, cars and locomotives, nails, saws, 
 flour, and very many more. It is by far the >^iost manu- 
 facturing city in the Dominion, the census of 1881 
 returning the value of the manufactures at nearly 
 $51,000,000. 
 
 The amount of trade carried on in ]\Iontreal is shown 
 by the fact that, in 1883, goods to the value of $27,. 
 000,000 were exported, and to the value of 648,000,- 
 000 imported. In consequence of being the centre of 
 external commerce, Montreal's trade is laigely wholesale. 
 
 In shipping Montreal holds an important position. 
 
 In 1881 there were owned in the city 100 steamer.s 
 
 averaging 841 tons each, 17 sea-going vessels averaging 
 
 43.*^ tons, and 123 other craft averaging 178 tons each. 
 
 The drawback to the city as a sea-port is the saiiie as that to 
 (i^ueLiec, with the iiiii)ortaut addition of a long river-navigation, often 
 
 through sliallow and narrow oh: lelg, necessitating the einj)loyment 
 of Hteain tugs for the n uic< other vessels. 
 
 Tho city is situated c Jie eiistern side of the island of Montreal, 
 which 8h)|)«d gradually un to a short ridgr ■ ■■ ' mp rock, called Mo\int 
 Royal, which has its highest and l«)ldeNtKi nontingth.- city. The 
 chief l)usini'Hs <(uarters, the newer pwrt ot die city in the neighbor- 
 hood of the mountain, a.s well as the colleges, numerous churches 
 and ecclesiastical structures, and "ublic hiiildings generally, are 
 built, for tlio most part, of a daik ^,'iey r bluish limestoiie, that 
 presents a handsome massive appearance. 'J')m>i, and t'"' mount; i, 
 with the beautiful residences high up on its su «, mak. tontri , 
 
 the opinion of strangers, the finest city in .vinerica. No • i 
 
 A '"'a has such massive wharves, piers, and river enibanknn 
 
 •ity here, for in the spring tho ice-gorges, or "slovei," at tiii« 
 t he river, are of a very dangerous character. 
 
 North of the St. Lawrence, except in tho neighborhood of Mon- 
 ■rejil, all tho little towns and villages are engaged in the lumber 
 iiade; below (Quebec, in the fisheries in addition. I'hrrc liiitrs, at 
 the mouth of the .St. M.auricc, is finely situated for the lumber trade. 
 It has also snieltiu),' works .md foundries, iron being mined to a 
 considerable e.xtent in its vicinity. On the lower St. Lawrence are 
 tho summer resorts, Marrttu linii and Tmlousmc ( T(td'-oo-«ack). 
 Hull, oi)positi^ Ottawa, is a thriving "lumber town," with manufac- 
 tures of wo<idenv,'are, etc. 
 
 South of the St. Lawrence, below Quebec, the lumber trade and 
 fisheries occupy tho litlle town? and villages, the manufacturing 
 being done mainly in tho eastern townships and in the neighborhood 
 of Montreal. Tho most imi>oitaut placid are Lvvin, opposite Quebec, 
 the western termination of tho Intercolonial railway, lliviire du. 
 Loup, much farther down, being the original termination ; St. Henri, 
 near the city of Montreal, and Sorcl, at the mouth of the Riche- 
 lieu, both thriviiu Unvwu. St. Johmt, on the Sorel, is also a 
 thriving town. On the line of the Grand Trunk railway are the 
 cities St. Hiia >the and Richmond— &t the junction of the t^nebec 
 branch of the i and Trunk, — and the towns Sherbrookc, Len noxrille, 
 and <yoaticook—a]\ having important manufaetnies, and all thriving, 
 active places. 
 
 18. Commercial Routes.— The Grand Trunk, Inter- 
 colonial, and North Shore Railroads, are the great 
 railroads of Quebec. From Montreal another railroad 
 runs south into the United States, and still another, 
 south-east, to Portland ; a perfect network traver.ses tlie 
 Eastern Townships. 
 
 19. Inhabitants.— According to the census of 1881 
 there were 1,073,820 of the inhabitants of French 
 descent, 81,515 of English, 54,923 of Scotch, and 123,749 
 of Irish. Of these 1.170,718 were Roman Catholics, 
 and 188,309 Protestants. In some jiarts of the province 
 there is a strong infusion of Indian blood in the inhab- 
 itants. The English-.speaking portion of the population 
 is found in the larger cities and in the eastern townships. 
 
 There were also 7,515 Indians in the province, settled 
 chiefly at the villages of Oaughn.iwauga and St. Regis, 
 and at reservations in Two Mountains, Montcalm, 
 Yamaska, and Laprairie counties. 
 
 These have, to a greater or less degree, adopted tlie 
 customs of civilized life, livinjr in frame houses, cultiva- 
 ting the ground to some extent, and making trifling orna- 
 mental articles for sale. They have some churches of 
 their own, and some schools. 
 
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 Fio. 53.— ScRNKs iH New Brusswiok. 
 
 PROVINCE OF NEW BRCNSWICK. 
 
 6 
 
 tlO 
 
 
 u 
 
 1. Extent — New Brunswick, one of the "Maritime 
 Provinces," is rectangular in shape, and has an area of 
 27,174 square miles, with a length of 210 miles and a 
 breadth of 180 miles. Its boundaries are: on the north, 
 Quebec, tho Restigouche river, and Bay of Clialeur; 
 on the east, the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Northumber- 
 land Strait; on the south, the Bay of Fundy, Chignecto 
 Bay, and Nova Scotia; on the west, tho United States. 
 2. Geological Features.-New Brunswick has one 
 of the most remarkable geological features of the con- 
 tinent. An area of carboniferous rock, containing one of 
 the thickest and most extensive deposits of coal" in the 
 world, begins at Miscou Island, off the mouth of the Bay 
 of Chaleur, its western boundary running in a direct 
 south-westerly course to the latitude of about 45° 30'; 
 the southern boundary runs directly east from this point 
 through Cape Breton Island to the Atlantic. This area, 
 containing nearly 10,000 square miles, "resembles a 
 gigantic letter V," enclosing within its arms the lower 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence and Prince ]<]dward Island. It is- 
 
 [ 8.T ] 
 
 thought that the same rocks underlie the southern and 
 eastern Gulf of St. Lawrence, for Prince Edward Island 
 belongs, in the main, to the same series, which reappears 
 in the Magdalen Islands and Newfoundland. 
 
 West of the carboniferous lies a broad, parallel belt 
 of palaeozoic rock (Cambrian), traversed throughout its 
 whole length by an irregula. uid of granite, and in its 
 northern part containing two belts of metamorphic rock, 
 all the north-west of the province being occupied by 
 other palaeozoic strata (Silurian). 
 
 Along the Bay of Fundy is a n.etamorphic belt con- 
 tamnig small areas of granite and of all the paheozoic 
 rocks. New Brunswick is within the Appalachian 
 system, and consequently its elevated ridges run parallel 
 to the chief ridge. The.a are, the paheozoic and granitic 
 ridge west of the carboniferous area, and the smaller 
 one near the southern coast. The former is the main 
 watershed of the province, the rivers west of it draining 
 off into the St. John, those to the east, in part into 
 the (iu\t of St. Lawrence and in part into the St. 
 
 ■'il 
 
86 
 
 y':W BRUNSWICK. 
 
 John. The granitic country, as well as a great deal 
 of the metamorphic country along the Bay of Fundy, 
 is rough, hilly, and unproductive ; but the elevations 
 are nowhere more than 1,500 feet above Kca-level. The 
 great carboniferous area is level or gently undulating, 
 and, for the most part, fertile. The iinest land is found 
 in the alluvial intervals, islands, and old terraces that 
 abound along the rivers, especially the St. John and its 
 affluents. 
 
 3. Minerals. — The mineral resources of New Bruns- 
 wick are extensive and varied, but, as in Ontario, 
 mining is still in its infancy. Coal (bituminous, or 
 "soft,") occurs in various parts of the province, — near 
 Bathurst, Newcastle, Richibucto, Buctouche — but the 
 only place yet disco-;ered in which it is found in work- 
 able quantity is at the head of Grand Lake. This 
 district is a source of large local supply and of export. 
 Bituminous Shales — slate-like rocks, from which oil is 
 obtained by distillation, are found in Albert and West- 
 moreland counties.''' Gypsum (sulphate of lime) is very 
 abundant, tlie deposits being large and of a pure 
 quality. It is found chiefly in Albert, King's, West- 
 moreland, and Victoria counties. The chief mines are 
 in Albert, at Hillsbovough, where the beds are about 
 sixty fiet thick. Freestone, an easily worked sandstone 
 for building purposes, is abundant in the west, but is 
 quarried chiefly in Gloucester, in Albert, and Westmore- 
 land counties ; Grindstones are largely exported from 
 the same quarries. Red Granite, of a fine quality for 
 building or ornamental purposes, is largely quarried 
 in Charlotte county; it is rapidly superseding, in the 
 Dominion, the famous " Peterhcnd" granite of Scotland, 
 to which it is fully equal in beauty. 
 
 Limestone is abundant in south-eastern New Bruns- 
 wick ; but the best is found in the metamorphic rocks of 
 the Bay of Fundy coast. Mamjanese, used in bleaching 
 and glass-making, is found in various places — near 
 Bathurst, and in St. John and Albert counties. 
 
 All the minerals referred to above, exc(>pt granite, are 
 found in the carboniferous area of New Brunswick. 
 
 Iron is found in the Silurian belt of rocks near Wood- 
 stock, Carleton county, and in York county ; it is mined 
 but little. Copjjer is found on the south coast, but not 
 
 •The Albertite-a. black, hard mineral, regarded as "a variety of asphalt, 
 originally tiuiil like ])etroleum, and derived from the dcconipoaition of vtife- 
 tablo or animal iiroducts," is found in Albert, King's, and Westmorland 
 counties, but tlie mines fornieily worl<ed at Ilillsiiorough and etsesvbere liuve 
 become completely exhausted. 
 
 ill workable quantity. Some Gold also is found in the 
 Silurian belt. Galena (ore of lead) is found in Carleton 
 county and elsewhere, but is mined only to a limited 
 degree. Antimoni/ occurs in York county, and is mined 
 to a considerable extent. Plumbago, though found in the 
 metamorphic region in the west, has been mined only 
 near St. John. 
 
 4. Outline. — The outline of New Brunswick, though 
 regular on the whole, presents a number of locally 
 important irregularities, valuable in coast traffic as har- 
 bors or landmarks. 
 
 Capes. — The most important capes met with in coast 
 traffic are: on the east, Point 3fiseou (mis-co), Point du 
 Chhne (shane), and cape Tormentine ; on the south, cape 
 Spencer and Poi7it Lepreau (le-pro). 
 
 5. Islands. —The islands are few and not important 
 — Miscou and ShippeyaM (gan) on the north-east, and 
 Grand Manan (ma-nan) and Gamjiobello in the south- 
 west, are the chief — all valuable as fishing grounds, the 
 number of herring taken around the last two, in drift- 
 nets and weirs, being enormous. All along the eastern 
 coast there are very n.any long, narrow islands of drift- 
 sand, dangerous to navigation. 
 
 G. Coast Waters. — These are highly important, for 
 they surround New Brunswick on three sides, and are 
 connected with large rivers that extend far into the 
 country, bringing almost every part of the province in 
 contact with ocean navigation; but, above all, the innu- 
 merable little bays, curves, and shallows along the coasts, 
 attbrd feeding and spawning grounds for myriads of fish, 
 the taking of which is one of the two chief industries of 
 the province. 
 
 Bay of Chaleur (shal-uf), or Bay Chaleur, forming 
 more than half the northern boundary of the province, 
 is said to be without shoal or reef ; its waters are cold, 
 like those of the Gulf north of the Magdalen Islands. 
 The fisheries are very important, consisting of salmon, 
 cod, herring, mackerel, and lobster ; the value of the 
 catch of 1883, as reported to the Dominion Government, 
 being $656,000. The bays on the east are Miramicld 
 (mere-a-mc-shee), Shediac (shay-de-ac), and Verte ; on the 
 south, the Bay of Fundi) and its offshoots, Passama- 
 quoddy and CMgnecto (shig-n6c-to), branches of the 
 latter being Shepody (shep-o-dc) and Cumberland. It is 
 in the upper part of tliis latter bay that the tides rise so 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES— RIVERS. 
 
 87 
 
 high ; scarcely less high are tlie tides in Shepody bay, 
 while in both, the tide at low watei runs off for miles, 
 leaving bare vast mud-flats, which at high water are feed- 
 ing grounds for fish. (See Part I., " Ocean," sec 15, 16.) 
 
 7. Rivers.— The rivers of New Brunswick are pro- 
 vincially important in the two chief industries j though, 
 excepting the St. John, they are not large, even provin- 
 cially, yet their lower v iters are deep, and they can be 
 navigated for relatively long distances. Unlike the 
 rivers of Ontario and Quebec, they have, ae a rule, no 
 falls, the geological structure of the country, here as 
 elsewhere, determining the character of the rivers. Tlie 
 tide water reaches a comparatively long way up each, 
 and they thus become valuable for their fislieries ; at the 
 same time their numerous affluents afford means of 
 transporting to the coast the products of the forests in 
 the interior. On the east the rivers are most numerous ; 
 on the south the motaniorphic hills skirting the coast 
 throw the water into the basin of the St. John, the one 
 river of prime importance. 
 
 The Sl John, about 500 miles long, is in maj:v 
 respects a remarkable river. Its head waters are in the 
 main axis of the Appalachian range, in the county of 
 Dorchester, Quebec, near the parallel of 46°. It follows 
 the trend of the mountiins to the Lit+le Falls ; thence to 
 its mouth it runs irregularly south-east. Its upper basin 
 includes nearly all the country bounded by the parallels 
 of 46" and 48°, the Appalachian axis, and the Silurian 
 belt. Across the latter the basin is very narrow, but 
 it expands again on reaching the carboniferous area, into 
 a cui)-like depression occupying all south-central New 
 Brunswick. The basin is thus relatively very large, and 
 the volume of water consequently great. 
 
 The river, instead of running parallel to the Appala- 
 chian ridges, runs nearly at right angles across them ; 
 throughout a large part of its cour.se it is bordered by 
 hills on both sides, often close to it, rising 200 or 
 300 feet above the surface of the water. Along these 
 hills, and on the tops of tlie lower ones, river-terraces and 
 other Ijeds of gravelly material are frequently met witli, 
 showing tliat the river had once occupied a much higher 
 level, and that it has worn out its valley and channel to 
 its present position. In other places the ancient bed has 
 been filled up by the glacial drift, and the river has been 
 turned from its course into new channels, the Grand 
 Falls resulting from one of tliese detlections. This 
 
 fact, in the opinion of geologists, shows that the river 
 has existed from palajozoic times. 
 
 St. .John harbor, several miles wide at its entrance, affords 
 shelter in its outer portion from all winds but the south. Where 
 the harbor n.arrows to the river a small rocky island rises some fifty 
 feet out of water, beyond which is the inner harbor— deep but not 
 very capacious, sheltered from all winds. The approach to tlie upper 
 I)art, at the city itself, is somewhat dangerous, the channel beinir 
 rather narrow and lying between a bar and a rocky shallow. V mile 
 beyond the city the river passes between two perpendicular cliffs 300 
 feet ajiart, causing a idienonienon of rare occurrence-a tidal water- 
 fall. The narrowness of the gorge will not allow the water to pass 
 through rapidly enough to preserve the level, above and below • hence 
 when the tide in the harbor is low, there is a fall outward of the 
 water from above, and when the tide is high in the harbor, there is a 
 fall inward. At " half-tide," during both rise and fall, the water is 
 at a level in the gorge, and vessels can pass through for about half- 
 an-hdur. Sometimes, when there is a heavy freshet in the river 
 there is scarcely any fall upward, and then, at low-tide in the harbor' 
 the rapids above the gorge are as wild as those above the falls at 
 Niagara. 
 
 The intervals, or alluvial meadows and islands, first met with 
 alKMit thirty miles up the river, are often only a few inches above 
 w-ater level, and so are flooded during freshets, the higher ones only 
 at very great freshets. The crop on the low intervals is grass; on 
 the others, grass and grain. Many of the larger ones are covered 
 with a dense, heavy forest growth of hardwood— eltn i)redominating. 
 (Jnly the highest intervals have any dwellings on ti m. About 225 
 miles from the mouth occur the Grand Falls, 74 feet liigh. To this 
 point the river is navigable for light craft, except during the period 
 ot lowest water, larger ones ascending to Fredericton, 85 miles from 
 the m()uth. Above the Grand Falls there is a stretch of 40 miles 
 of njivigable water to the Little Falls, ot Edmonton, near the mouth 
 of the Madawaska. 
 
 1 '^u^ scenery along the St. John is ainong the finest in Canada, 
 \vhothertheriver runs between ridges of bold hills, through gorges 
 like those near St. John and the Grand Falls, or amid the low 
 alaiyial islands, that are fringed to the water's edge with dense 
 shrubbery. 
 
 The other important rivers of New Brunswick are 
 the Restigouch'i (res-te-go6sh), famous for its salmon ; the 
 Miramichi, 225 miles long, navigable for river vessels 
 for about 100 miles, and for large vessels over twenty- 
 five miles. Its affluents are very numerous, and spread 
 out over a wide area, starting in the Silurian belt. 
 Across the mouth of the bay stretch a number of islands 
 of drift-sand. The fisheries of the river are very valu- 
 able ; and large quantities of timber are brought down 
 to tide water, which extends about fifty miles into the 
 river. Besides these are the Richihucto (rish-e-biick-to), 
 Petitcodinc (pet eco-de-ac), and the St. Croix (croy)— the 
 only river that has falls in its lower course. Important 
 affluents of the St. John, are the St. Francis, Madawaska, 
 Tohique (toe-beek), Aroostook, Nashwauk, Oromocto— 
 which forms some shoals in the main river— Washade- 
 Dioak, and Kennebecasis. 
 
 8. Lakes.— These are numerous in the Silurian 
 regions, and are formed by the blocking up of depres. 
 sions by the glacial drift. The chain of the Chepntneti 
 cook lakes, drained by the St. Croix, are the most 
 
88 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 important; in the carboniferous area the chief are 
 Oromocto and Grand Lake, the latter draining into the 
 St. John through the deep, sluggish little river Jemseg. 
 
 9. Climate.— Owing to its maritime situation, New 
 Brunswick has a climate less subject to extremes than 
 the climate of Ontario. The mean winter temperature 
 in the coast regions is much higher than that of Ontario 
 in the same latitude, but the summer temperature is 
 lower ; in the interior the tendency is more to extremes, 
 being colder than on the coast in winter and warmer in 
 summer. 
 
 As in all the Alleghany region, the rainfall is abundant 
 in summer, and the snow, away from the coast, deep in 
 winter. The springs are tedious and disagreeable, the 
 coasts, and for some distance inland, being often buried 
 in fog ; but the summer and fall are clear and pleasant. 
 The winters are not so clear and dry as those of Ontario, 
 and the spring opens somewhat later than in the south 
 western part of the latter province. 
 
 10. Vegetation.— The fruits and grains of New 
 Brunswick are those of Ontario and Quebec. The forest 
 growth is similar to that of eastern Quebec, the pre- 
 dominant trees being of the pine family, viz., white pine, 
 spruce, and hemlock ; the hardwoods being chiefly birch, 
 elm, maple, and teech. 
 
 11. Industries.— The chief industries of New Bruns- 
 wick are connected with fishing and lumbering. The 
 value of the former in 1883, according to government 
 reports, was nearly $3,200,000 ; one county, Charlotte, 
 catching fish to the value of $1,335,000. The fishing is 
 carried on almost wholly in open boats, and in nets and 
 weirs along shore. Comparatively few vessels are fitted 
 out for deep-water fishing on the banks of Newfound- 
 land, or elsewhere, at a distance from shore. 
 
 The lumber trade is still the great industry. Saw- 
 mills abound along the rivers, the larger ones being 
 within reach of river boats, which in their turn transfer 
 the sawn lumber to ocean-going vessels. Pine is becoming 
 sctrceand more difiicultof access,— spruce lumber, in the 
 sh<ipe of deal, being the chief kind exported. Great 
 Britain takes by far the larger part of the lumber and 
 
 timber. 
 
 Agriculture is not yet a leading commercial pursuit, 
 the chief articles exported being horses, sheep, hay, and 
 potatoes. Cattle are exported to some extent from West- 
 morland county by the way of Halifax. 
 
 The farm produce does not suffice for home consump- 
 tion, considerable quantities of provisions,— bread-stuflFs 
 and salted meats especially,— being imported from 
 Ontario, Quebec, and elsewhere. The farming country 
 is chiefly in the south-east, and along the valley of the 
 St. John. 
 
 Manufactures are not numerous, but they are import- 
 ant. In addition to the various preparations of lumber 
 and fish for market, there are large cotton and woollen 
 factories, sugar refineries, foundries, engine works, boot 
 and shoe factories, ship yards, tanneries, etc. 
 
 Shipping is extensive, both in the number and size of 
 the vessels built and owned, and in the number of men 
 employed in navigation. (See Appendix T. (o) and (p) for 
 Industrial Statistics.) 
 
 12. Trade.— The export trade of the province is 
 largely connected with the two main industries— the 
 forest and the fisheries. (See Appendix I. (q). ) 
 
 13. Education is well provided for by means of 
 Common, Superior, and Normal Schools, supported in 
 much the same way as in Ontario. A Superintendent of 
 Education, Board of Education, and County Inspectors 
 carry out the system of education. A provincial univer- 
 sity is established at Fredericton, and denominational 
 colleges at Sackville and Memramcook, Westmorland 
 county. 
 
 14. Subdivisions.— There are fifteer counties in New 
 Brunswick, subdivided into parishes. The system of 
 government, though local, is not the same as in Ontario. 
 
 15. Cities.— Fredericton (population 6,218 in 1881), 
 the capital, a neat, pretty little town, is situated on tie 
 St. John, 85 miles from its mouth, at the head of r/ - 
 gation for larger river boats. The exports are all in 
 connection with forest produce. There are several large 
 sawmills in the vicinity. The Parliament Buildings, 
 University, and Normal School are the chief public 
 buildings. 
 
 The site of the city is low, alluvial ground, river-sand 
 or clay being everywhere not more than a foot from the 
 surface. A low hill at the rear of the city shows at its 
 base the former channel of the river. 
 
 St. John (population 26,127 in 1881 ; with Portland, 
 41,353) is finely situated for trade and manufacture. The 
 harbor is well sheltered, and never blocked with ice, the 
 strong current carrying all the ice of the river out 
 to sea. 
 
iontiump- 
 iad-stuffs 
 3d from 
 country 
 )y of the 
 
 3 import- 
 if lumber 
 I woollen 
 rks, boot 
 
 id size of 
 r of men 
 id (p) for 
 
 ovince is 
 ries — tbe 
 
 ) 
 
 means of 
 ported in 
 lendent of 
 [nspectors 
 al univer- 
 ninational 
 stmorland 
 
 es in New 
 system of 
 n Ontario. 
 
 in 1881), 
 ed on tLe 
 id of r.' - 
 are all in 
 veral large 
 
 Buildings, 
 lief public 
 
 , river- sand 
 at from the 
 hows at its 
 
 1 Portland, 
 cture. The 
 ith ice, the 
 1 river out 
 
 Fuel IS near and abundant, and of superior quality 
 for manufacturing purposes. Eaw material from other 
 countries can be brought cheaply in vessels to tbe city 
 itse^, while the ocean and river water-ways, together 
 with railways reaching all points, afford excellent oppor- 
 tunity for distribution of manufactures. Though the 
 city s commerce as yet depends mainly upon the vast 
 quantities of lumber and timber coming down the river 
 and upon the fisheries, yet the development of the 
 mineral and agricultural resources of the upper country 
 and the advantageous situation in every point of view 
 of the city Itself, must ultimately make St. John far 
 ^rger and more important, in both the province and the 
 Uommion, than it is at present. 
 
 In number, tonnage, and size of vessels owned, St. John 
 js said to rank the fourth city in the British Empire 
 being surpassed only by Liverpool, London, and Glasgow • 
 ^he number and excellence of ships and barques owned in' 
 ^t John IS especially remarkable. (See Appendix L (g) ) 
 In addition to the preparation of lumber, there is 
 extensive ship-building and manufacture of engines 
 nmchinery, castings, edgetools, saws, hardware, nails' 
 agricultura implements, cotton and woollen goods, boo-I 
 and shoes leather, paper, lime, etc. The iron works and 
 rolling mills are said to be the finest in Canada 
 
 that runs bare at low wlter Hil 1 an^ tl""*"^ Oourtenay Bay 
 city on the north an.l west The h,n .1 ^^ *^''""?'^ surround the 
 there are numerous fine^me reside, Z^ *'*' "T^" "^ brick, but 
 the churches ate in the best st vf. «f 1^ v ". '^*''«'h"U«es. M any of 
 ment buildings treCdtnV^fblntti'f.''''r ^""^ *P ''>« ^"^^"i- 
 custom-housp, hospitals tc ** \°f,'^"*'«'l structures -the post-office, 
 Carleton, a part of the city wM fin« ^^T^" ''^^ °*' ^^^ "^^r is 
 b^k-^round ; while Portland 2 f^lrT'^^'^^ °" ^^'' •?'"« '" *'»' 
 inhabTtants in 1881, is continuous wTKl'^f^' ''V"*^'" "» IS.-'^-'O 
 sidered a part of it. In IS??", fiL , ^ '• '^°'"' ''."^ ^''""'d be con- 
 including all the WneL „„«rfP. . T'^Tf'^ "^".'y ^^^^ "^ the city, 
 wholly rebuilt it hasm.f vJ^ '^' '?J *''""*^'' '* ^^^ soon aim .«t 
 to the yalue of le^rte* ^ "J^^f d from the disaster. Property 
 
 removal seyeralthouBT;:ffffitrts*''''"^*''''""^ ""^ "*^ '«'* by 
 
 wat'er , burtCvl^w iSiOTeXlTs 7 '"?f tf^^-^ed from the 
 not equalled eyen by ?Ke\v f rom M,dr'' V''^ ^'P'-"^ Carlet,.,,, is 
 of Quebec. "" Montreal mountam or the citadel 
 
 St. Stephen an active town at the head of deep-wafer 
 
 navigation of the St. Croix, and St. An,lrer„sXt the 
 
 mouth of the same river, are engaged in the lumber 
 
 rade and fisheries chiefly. Maryville, near Fredericton, 
 
 contains very large saw mills, and the largest cotton ani 
 
 CITIES-RAILWAYS-IiNHABITANTS. 
 
 «9 
 knitted-goods factories in the Dominion. Woodstock, 65 
 mil. s above Fredericton. on the St. John, is in a fertile 
 region of the Silurian belt; in addition to the lumber 
 trade, it has a manufactory of extract of tan-bark, and 
 there are iron mines in the vicinity. Edmonton, 265 
 nu les above St John, is a growing town. SackviHe, 
 at the head of Cumberiand Bay, is in a fine farming and 
 stock raising country ; its extensive dyked marshes, the 
 finest land m the province, produce large quantities 
 of hay and grain. Mount Allison College and Female 
 Academy are situated hero. Moncton, a fast rising 
 town, on the Petitcodiac, is the headquarters of the 
 Intercolonial Railway, and has the railway workshops- 
 it contains also a large sugar refinery. Shediac, RillJ. 
 buao Chatham, FewcautU on the east coast, and Bathurcl, 
 on the north, have large trade in lumber and fish _ 
 obsters and oysters forming an important part of the 
 fish-exports from the first three. Ship-building is also 
 carried on, especially at Chatham. 
 
 16. Commercial Routes.-New Brunswick has suf- 
 fered from lack of railways to open up the country. 
 The Intercolonial, and St. John and Maine (from St. John 
 to Poitland) are mainly for passenger traffic. The New 
 Brunswick and Canada (to Edmonton and thence 
 perhaps, to Trois Pistoles) tends to open up the western 
 part of the province. Another, that will be of <rreat 
 advantage in this respect, is being constructed from 
 Fredericton to Chatham, through the centre of the 
 province. 
 
 17. Inhabitants.-New Brunswi. .- was part of 
 ancient "Acadie," and was originally settled by the 
 French, whose descendants still form the bulk of the 
 population on the upper St. John, and a very large 
 portion of the inhabitants in the east and north-in all 
 about 5 . ,000. The early English settlers were Loyalists, 
 from New York mainly, who came to St. John in 1783 
 founded the city, and had land given them in the 
 neighborhood and up the river. The population wa. 
 61\,l66 \\\ 1881. 
 
 18. The Government is like that of Quebec, having 
 both a Legislative Assembly and a Legislative Council. 
 
 !# 
 
m\ 
 
 
 o & fi 
 Q ^ ft 
 
 O 
 
 12; 
 
 H 
 U 
 
 
 3 
 
a 
 
 t 
 
 o 
 
 ..Ji^^^lf^.^ ,^^SHIPPIN(; COAL ' 
 
 f'm. ri4.-S(K\KH IV Nova Soitu. 
 
 
 PROVINCK OF NOVA S(X)TIA. 
 
 1. Extent—Nova Scotia, including the peninsula 
 proper and the island of Capo Breton, stretches north- 
 east and south-west from about latitude 43^° to latitude 
 47 , and from about longitude SOf" to 66|^°. 
 
 Its southern part is, therefore, in the latitude of 
 Toronto, and its northern part in that of Lake Superior 
 Its breadth ,s nearly uniform throughout the greater 
 part of Its extent, while the salt water is not n.ore than 
 thirty miles distant from any one point. Excepting 
 where the province joins New Brunswick, the sea and 
 Its offshoots form the entire boundary. The area is 
 -:u,yU7 square miles. 
 
 2. Geological Features. -Nova Scotia is merely a 
 short ow, and broadened subsidiary terminal ridge of 
 the Alleghany system; it nowhere reaches 1,200 feet 
 above the sea-level. 
 
 There are two ranges in the province: one, the highest, 
 called the Cobequid {cob'-kid), consisting of palLoic 
 (Silurian) and Laurentian rock, extends, with some 
 breaks, from Cape Chignecto through Cape Breton 
 
 [91 
 
 Island and into Newfoundland, forming the watershed 
 ot the northern and eastern part of the peninsula; the 
 other, consisting for the most part of a broad granitic 
 bolt, begins with th., southern extremity of the province 
 and, after running directly north nearly to the Bay of 
 Fundy, curves to the east till it reaches the Avon river 
 From this point it continues as a narrow, and for the 
 most part uninterrupted, band to Cape Canso The 
 broad part of this belt, which lies nearer one side than 
 the other, forms the watershed of the western part of the 
 province. 
 
 The rock through which the granite protrudes, and 
 which occupies all the Atlantic seaboard for half the 
 breadth of the province, is the oldest of the paluiozoic 
 rocks (Cambrian) ; while all north of the Cobequid ridge, 
 nearly all of Cape Breton except the northern peninsula^ 
 and a considerable area south of Minas Basin and Cobe- 
 quid Bay, are occupied hy the important carboniferous 
 series of rocks. In these lie the best coal mines of 
 Canada. (See "New Brunswick," sec. 2.) Other paleo- 
 zoic rocks, older than these Lost, are found in different 
 
 
 iW 
 
92 
 
 NOVA aCOTIA. 
 
 M 
 
 Hitherto accident or display of ores, alonj? water-courses or on hill-sides 
 has alone shown the existence of minerals. The application of science to this 
 important subject is needed almost as badly here as in Ontario. 
 
 places. Along the whole length of the south shore of 
 the Bay of Fundy, a distance of 125 miles, extends a 
 ridge of triip-rock, nowliere more than four miles wide or 
 more than COO feet higli, terminating in its nortli-eaKtern 
 extremity hy the hold MulT, Ch^w Blomidou, fully 500 feet 
 liigh, and in its south-western extremity hy Brier Island. 
 The characteristic trappean slope is here toward the Bay 
 of Fundy, the shores of which, from Blortiidon to the 
 Annapolis Gut, are clitl's often over 200 feet high, kept 
 perpendicular by the disintegrating power of frost, and 
 by the unceasing action of the waves. 
 
 The narrow valley of red sandstone (triassic), never 
 over twelve miles wide, between t])is ridge and the ridge 
 called the South Mountain formed by the granitic belt 
 and some Silurian deposits, is the finest and most fertile 
 part of Nova Scotia— the Cornwallis and Annapolis 
 valley. 
 
 3. Minerals.— Nova Scotia stands out prominently as 
 
 the leading mining province of the Dominion, surpassed 
 
 by British Columbia in production of gold, but of no 
 
 other mineral ; its products of the mine are greater than 
 
 those of Ontario and Quebec combined. 
 
 Although but three or fiiur minerals are systematiiallv mined 
 yet the surveys conducted by the government peoldgical corps, though 
 limited hitherto, tend to show the existence of rich deposits of many 
 others of great economical importance.* 
 
 Coal. — That part of the carboniferous formation, the 
 " middle coal measures," that contains all or nearly 
 all the workable seams of coal, is largely developed in 
 Nova Scotia, extending from Cumberland Basin, at the 
 head of Chignecto Bay, directly east through Pictou and 
 into Richmond and Cape Breton counties, in Cape Breton 
 Island. 
 
 In Cape Breton the chief mines are at and near Sydney, 
 the coal area stretching from Mira Bay to Cape Dauphin, 
 and sinking under the Atlantic, where they are capable 
 of yielding, it is estimated, 1,866,000,000 tons of' coal. 
 On the mainland the chief mines are at Pictou and New 
 Glasgow;— in the Albion Mines at the latter place a coal 
 seam attains the extraordinary thickness of thirty-six 
 feet. The mines in Cumberland county are situated at 
 Spring Hill and vicinity, and at the "Joggins" on the 
 shore near the mouth of Cumberland Basin. Other 
 mines exist in Richmond and Inverness counties, and in 
 Antigonish. 
 
 The total amount of coal raised from the mines in 
 1883 was nearly 1,000,000 tons. 
 
 '•»«. 
 
 Fio. ,W. — UpitioiiT Fossil, Trkk. 
 
 Gold. — The gold i-egion of Nova Scotia comprises the 
 paleozoic (Cambrian) belt of the Atlantic coast, and the 
 crystalline area in northern Cape Breton. Upwards of 
 fifty mines are in operation at j)resent (1886). The area 
 of the gold-bearing rocks is estimated at over 6,000 
 square miles. 
 
 Iron. — Iron is found mainly in the Silurian and crys- 
 talline area of tin Cobequids, in similar rocks at 
 Nictaux in Annapo is county, in Cape Breton, and to 
 some extent in the trappean range and the carboniferous 
 area. Systematic survey will, doubtless, show that it 
 exists everywhere in the Silurian and Metamorphic 
 rocks. An important fact is the existence of iron near 
 the coal deposits in Pictou county ; indeed, coal is here 
 nowhere very far remote from iron. Only one mine has 
 been extensively worked — that near Londonderry, Col- 
 chester county. 
 
 Gypsum. — The deposits of gypsum are very extensive 
 in Nova Scotia. They occur chiefly in the carboniferous 
 area. The beds are extensive, and vary in thickness from 
 a few inches to 120 feet. 
 
 ."^'^mi'^®'?"^',''*"^ f?ypsum in Nova Scotia are on an unequalled 
 scale, llie beds are frequently traceable for miles by exposures 
 presenting faces fifty feet in thickness. In Antigonish it occurs on 
 ht. yeorge s Bay as a crystalline cliff two hundred feet high • and 
 similar exposures are met at Plaster Cove, Mabou, und many places 
 on the Bras d'Or." 
 
MINERALS-PHYSICAL FKATIJIIKS. 
 
 93 
 
 Oyimuiii, whi'n Kroiiiirl, jh extoiiHivfly umciI hh a ffvtiUy.cr, and 
 when faluiMcil, f.iiniM i,hinU'V nf I'aris, ho largely fiiiiiloyed for arclii- 
 tecturul purpose'!). 
 
 It ia exported cliiefly from Windsor and the vicinity. 
 
 Limestone in everywliero in the carboniferous area, and 
 is quarried extensively. 
 
 Other minerals, though existing widely, are mined but 
 little ; these are It'dd and copper, both found in all the 
 geological formations, — nMuyaueae, nrnmic, some silver, 
 zinc, tin, nickel, and p/inu/jayo. Grindstone and whet- 
 stone grits are found along Cumberland Basin and 
 vicinity, and fine building stone (sandstone and granite) 
 " is afTorded by every harbor from Pictou to Amherst." 
 
 4. Outline.— Taken as a whole, the outline of Nova 
 Scotia is quite regular; the northern part, from Bay 
 Verte to Cape St. Lawrence, in Cape Breton, is a curve 
 with but one break; the Atlantic shore extends in a" 
 tolerably straight line north-east and southwest, one 
 break occurring between Cape Breton and the main land, 
 and another about midway between the extremities of the 
 latter; the west Atlantic shore rounds off regularly, while 
 the trappean shore of the Bay of Fundy is absolutely 
 uniform, no break occurring. The termination of the 
 trappean North Mountain, and of the Cobequid ridge at 
 the head of the Bay of Fundy, gives rise to a very irregu- 
 lar outline in that disi,rict. 
 
 In relative extent of coast line, Nova Scotia is sur- 
 passed only by the British Islands. 
 
 5. Isthmuses.— The broad isthmus of Chignecto, be- 
 tween Bay Verte and Cumberland Basin, connects Nova 
 Scotia and New Brunswick. St. Peter's isthmus connects 
 the two peninsulas forming Cape Breton Island ; it is only 
 about half a-mile wide, and is intersected by a canal that 
 connects Bras d'Or Lake and St. Peter's Bay. 
 
 6. Peninsulas are somewhat numerous in Nova 
 Scotia, Cape Breton Tslo.nd consists of two peninsulas ; 
 the central granitic ridge is prolonged into the Atlantic 
 at the eastern extremity of the mainland ; the trappean 
 North Mountain extends, in the south-west, into the 
 Atlantic, in a long, narrow neck, called Digby Nech, 
 while the Cobequid ridge, projecting into the Bay of 
 Fundy, makes a oroad peninsula of the western part of 
 Cumberland county. Numerous small projections line 
 the Atlantic coast. 
 
 7. Capes are as numerous as peninsulas. The chief are 
 Cape North, at tho northern extremity of Cape Breton; 
 
 En/umi'i to tho south of this, over 2,000 feet liigh, the 
 highest point in the province; Canso, terminating the 
 granite ridge in tho north-east; Samhro, near the 
 entrance to Iialifax harbor ; Sable, on Cape Sable Island 
 at tho southern extremity ; Chitjitecto, the western ter- 
 mination of the Coi)e(iuid ridge ; Cape Split, a shivered 
 trappean headland at the entrance to Minas Basin ; and 
 Jiloinhlon, a perpendicular basaltic blufl", rising out of a 
 clifF of red sandstone, and overlooking Minas Basin. 
 
 8. Islands.— The islands are innumerable, but, with a 
 
 few exceptions, are of little importance. They all lie 
 
 near the shore, and, for tho most part, are rocky. Off 
 
 the south-western extremity of the province, a region of 
 
 conflicting and changeable currents, tidal and others, lie 
 
 a number of low islands composed of drift sand deposited 
 
 by the currents. Both currents and islands are a source 
 
 c1 'anger to navigation in these waters. 
 
 Apart from CapH Breton, the prinei|)al island of the province is 
 Ule Mailavu; a fertile and populous isiland south of Cape Hreton. 
 ^ext in importance is Ihnlardirie, lyini^ between the two peninsulas 
 of Cape Breton. Others ivre Pictoii, island in tho north, (Jape Suhle 
 island m the south- west, and Lon;/ island and lirier island, portions 
 of the North Mountain, severed from the ridge by deep passages of 
 water. (For .S'a6/c /jtfa/K/, see " Canada." sec. «.) 
 
 9. Coast Waters.- The innumerable little arms of 
 the sea on the Atlantic sea-board, are the natural accom- 
 paniment of the islands and peninsulas : they are the 
 water-filled depressions on a rocky mountain slope. These 
 inlets large and small, beside being, for the most part, 
 good harbors open all the year, are the feeding and 
 spawning grounds of multitudes of fi.sh, and are thus the 
 cause of Nova Scotia's greatest industry. Only the inlets 
 horn the Bay of Fundy and those of Cape Breton are 
 important commercially; these stretch far inland, and 
 thus bring a large part of the country in contact with 
 navigable water. 
 
 The tides of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts are not of 
 great height, but those of the Bay of Fundy and its 
 ofTshoots vary from fifty feet at Cape Chignecto, to 
 seventy at Amherst. 
 
 Aloni? the iSfi eater part of the shores of the offshoots of the Bay of 
 Fundy, mud-covered flats of alluvial land, often miles in extent, are 
 laid bare at low water. At the mouths of the rivers entering these 
 offshoot.s tho flats are higher, and are overflowed only during spring 
 tides; in oon.sequence of this they .are covered with a thick growth of 
 salt grass. Many of these marshes have been "dyked in " and con- 
 verted into soil of inexhaustible fertility. The Tantramar Marsh, 
 ten miles broad, between Amherst and Sackville, N.B., belonging 
 mainly to New Brunswick, and the Grand Prd, between the Avon 
 and the Cornwallis rivers, are the most important. A similar dyked 
 marsh runs fo:' many miles up the Annapolis river. 
 
 The most important coast waters are :— on the north, Ba;/ Verte, 
 Pictmt ffarhnr, St, (Imnir's Pnu ; in C-i'je Breton, Bras <l'()r Lake— 3. 
 broad e^cpansioii of two narrow inlets called Great Bras d'Or and Little 
 
 J'iil 
 
01 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 
 I 
 
 ?I^ 1 /""b^'*'''' ^'"■'^. St.Pfttr'iBay. on the Atlantic coa.t. 
 [.hMabmtoBay-mmu'Qt^ with Ht. (;e()rK..'ii !}ay by th« Strait, -i 
 Gut, of Ganm, a inil.< and a half wi.le, halifnx Hnrhnr, one of the 
 Biient harb()>H in the world. This harlx.r in about oirht niileH Ionian.! 
 from one to thrive nn'.fH broafl, naiTMwinif at the city of HaFifax 
 but eximnding aKaiii into the iH-autiful Hnlfnrd Hanin, »m long hh the 
 harbor itnelf and much broa.ler. The hurlx.r in i...rf«t!y hh?.. in Til 
 weathorn and on y larrly d„,.H it fr.-».«.ov..r at thocitv, and then but 
 temi^.ranly. Other bayn are M.,r„„rrr, Bai,, Muhmv Ba>,, I'oU 
 MeUwai/, inrmouth Ila riot; and fit. Mary's Hay. 
 
 ^,.7}^^ J!""^ ,"^ ''"/'''y. ''"'"'' iJ, '^'"'"y "■'''"'"* natural harbovH, 
 except i\M Anna,,„l,» Ban,,,. This beautiful Hhr.-t of water nuiv 
 U) .esrarded as the ( e(.|«.ninK an.l expimdiMK "f H"' l"»er part .if 
 th« H"^"''f""-' '■'.'■'■'■ r/'"'" '* '•""•'" 'hrnuKh n.e trapp,Mn ridge into 
 
 has n afll' I, """';. • '^' '". ''''"•'"'"T ^•""■■'' "'*'''>' <'"' that the river 
 has made through thw ridge, is about two miles long, and fr.m. a-half 
 
 Thi !«"'■•''"•'"■'''''• "^ a mile wi.le, l)etween almost l«T|K.udicular cliffs. 
 Ihe Bamn is a nun-- of wealth in its fisheries; vast quantities of herring 
 
 ^l\ '^r- ''■ '/t '■"■" *"^':" .'" " ''"■'■>■ >'<""•>•• Mhw, I'hannH expands 
 into Af,na, Ba^in and (Uc,,„;d /lay, tUv latter running almost <lry 
 at o« tide. The waters of these and of CUmreto Ba„ an.l C„.,l 
 hfrland /<rt,nn-eHppcially the last-are v.-ry turbid, owing t.. the dis- 
 turbance of the Hediment at the b.ttom by the 'rabid currents f 
 ••(UT-? and falling tides. (l.V,r the Bay of i<\Jy, see Part i. 
 Ocean, Hec. 15, and "Canada," sec. 8.) 
 
 10, Eivers.— The conformation of tho country pro- 
 vents the existence in Nova Scotia of rivers conmieroially 
 important. Those connected with the waters of the 
 Bay of Fundy, all narrow and winding,— the Annapolis, 
 ComwaUk, A i-i>'i,Shubenacadie, and y^v/ro,— contain from 
 forty to fifty feet of water at high tide, but run dry, 
 excepting a little stream of fresh water, at low tide.' 
 The Annapolis can be ascended by schooners for twenty 
 miles ; the others, for only four or five. The East River of 
 Pictou, the St. Mar)/a of Guysboro, and the Tua&et of 
 Yarmouth, are tho largest of the other rivers. 
 
 11. Lakes are numerous in the Cambrian area of the 
 Atlantic coast, but they are not important. The largest 
 are lakes liossignol, in Queen's county, and Shijy Harbor, 
 in Halifax county. 
 
 12. Climate.— The climate of Nova Scotiu is like that 
 of New Brunswick, saving that there is not so great a 
 tendency to extremes. It is more temperate than that 
 of any other province of the Dominion, western British 
 Columbia excepted. Nova Scotia is one of the healthiest 
 countries in America. 
 
 13. Vegetation.-The forest growth is that of New 
 Brunswick, showing, on the whole, a somewhat more 
 northern character than that of New Brunswick. All 
 the ordinary grains and roots are grown. Of fruits, the 
 apples of Nova Scotia, especially of King's and Annapolis 
 counties, rank highest in the English market. Pears 
 and plums are abundant, but grapes rarely ripen in the 
 open air. 
 
 14. Industries. -At tho head of the industries of 
 Nova Scotia stand the Fisheries, carried on mainly by 
 tho Atlantic counties, Lunenburg and Digby being the 
 chief. The valuo of tlio exports of the fisheries is 
 greater than that of similar exports from all the rest of 
 tho Dominion together ; while the value of the fish caught 
 forms nearly half tlie value of those taken in the whole 
 Dominion. 
 
 Lumherimj is the industry next in importance. As 
 with the fisheries, so with the lumber— the Atlantic 
 counties produce the most, Cumberland, however, export- 
 ing very largely also. Spruce is the chief kind of wood, 
 followed by birch and maple, pine being comparatively 
 scarce. 
 
 Agricuhure is the ch.ef industry of the counties other 
 than those of the Atlantic sea-board, — in other words, 
 of the counties in which granite is absent, and the strata 
 are other than of the Cambrian series. 
 
 The carboniferous counties are the chief grain-growing 
 ones, wheat and oats being the chief grains. The sand- 
 stone (Triassic, see Fig. 2) counties, Annapolis and 
 King's, produce over two-thirds of the fruit, while the 
 latter and Colchester— itself part sandstone— produce 
 the largest root crops. 
 
 Stock-raising in Nova Scotia is carried on extensively. 
 
 Mining. — (See sec. 3, above.) 
 
 Manvfactures.—'tl ova. Scotia has few manufactures 
 as yet, but its extensive deposits of coal and iron, 
 so near together, will undoubtedly make it some day 
 the manufacturing centre of Canada. The chief articles 
 manufactured are, ships, refined sugar, leather, boots and 
 shoes, iron, machinery of various kinds, and preserved 
 foods. Hants, King's, Yarmouth, and Lunenburg are the 
 chief ship-building counties. 
 
 Shipping.— ''In proportion to its population Nova 
 Scotia has more shipping than any other country." But 
 the ships of Nova Scotia are for the most part engaged 
 in the foreign carrying trade. (See Appendix I. (r) for 
 statistics of industries.) 
 
 15. Trade. -The trade with the United States, as the 
 nearest market, is extensive ; that with the West Indies 
 is also large. Breadstufis and manufactured goods of all 
 kinds come in large quantities from Ontario and Quebec ; 
 excepting coal and some fish, but little of Nova Scotia's 
 productions find their way to the inland provinces ; even 
 
INDUSTRIES-CITIKS AND TOWNS. 
 
 95 
 
 (See Appendix 
 
 coal goes no farther than Montmal. 
 I. (r). ) 
 
 16. Education in well provided for by means of 
 
 public, or coTuinon schools, and "county acadomies," 
 
 the latter receiving an extra grant from government. 
 The means of support are about the same as in Ontario, 
 —partly local, partly provincial. A chief superintendent 
 and county inspectors control the system. A Normal and 
 a Model School are established at Truro, and a Provincial 
 University (Dalhousie College) at Halifax. There are 
 also denominational colleges— ylcac/w (Baptist), at Wolf- 
 ville, Kinijs (Church of England), at Windsor, St. Francis 
 Xavier (Roman f'atliolic), at Antigonish. 
 
 17. Subdivisions.— Tlioro are eighteen counties in 
 Nova Scotia, subdivided into townships, and governed 
 much the same as in Ontario. 
 
 18. Cities.— //rt^i/rto; (population 36,100 in 1881 ; pre- 
 sent estimate 43,000), the only city in Nova Scotia, is 
 situated some seven miles from the mouth of Halifax 
 harbor, upon a tongue of laud between the harbor 
 proper and the "North-West Arm." Its position is 
 favorable for foreign commerce, but as the agricultural 
 counties have a seaboard of their own, their export and 
 import trade with the United States and the Dominion 
 have comparatively little connection with the capital, 
 and the country in the neighborhood of the city is not 
 agricultural. The Intercolonial and the Windsor and 
 Annapolis railways, which terminate here, bring some 
 traffic to the city, but of the articles brought the greater 
 part is for provincial use. The upper provinces have 
 ports of their own. In winter, however, considerable 
 export trade froiii the other provi-.es passes through 
 Halifax. 
 
 A considerable amount of the products of the fisheries, 
 and to some extent those of the forest, are exported from 
 Halifax. But the import trade with the West Indies 
 and Europe is extensive, and the Intercolonial carries a 
 great deal of foreign freight to the upper provinces. 
 Owing to its excellent situation for foreign trade and 
 home distribution, and to the presence of coal and iron 
 in its near neighborhood, Halifax should become the first 
 manufacturing city in Canada. 
 
 Its manufactures are at present limited, the chief being 
 boots and shoes, furniture, clothing, and malt liquors'! 
 There are, however, a large cotton-mill and a sugar- 
 refinery. 
 
 Halifax (lerivDH coimiderahle iiniiortance from the fact that it ia 
 the only place -.n tho Dominion whore the Im|ierial Kovernmt nt main- 
 tauiH a garriHoii. It is aUo tho BUinnier otation of tho North American 
 Squadron. Lartfe (luantitU'N of militury stores are kept in tho oitadel 
 and in the Imi«uiar Dock Yard. Both the city and the harbji- are 
 stronKly fortified. 
 
 Halifttxis not a broad city. It hes for tho mo»t part at the bate 
 
 -__ . ._ ..... „ „..,i^, ^-.vj. »j iioH nil biiu luiwi nuri ac me oaM 
 
 and alonff the Hide of the gniir that forms the tongue of lan<l projectin» 
 into the harbor. The higheHt jH.iut of this ridge, neai the centre o? 
 the city, 18 occuined by the ciladel, one of the HtrongBBt fortifioationn 
 in America, and cDniinanding tlie whole hivrbjr. The extremity of 
 the tongue of land is now a liirgo publ o park, with fine pictur. nque 
 driy.:,. Between tluii and "Citadel Hill*' are mont of I' principal 
 residoiicosof thocity, Boine of the finest, however, being along the 
 North- West Ann." In the same district lie tho horticultural 
 gardens, an attractive feature of the city. Halifax has all the 
 natural facilities for becoming one of the most popular of summer 
 resorts. (See ApiMindix I. (t). ) 
 
 19. Towns.— The towns of Nova Scotia difter from 
 those of Ontario in that they have little or no nmnu'^c- 
 turing. They owe their importance, which is mainly 
 local, to the mines in their vicinity, or to their possessioa 
 of a good harbor. 
 
 Yarmouth (population about 7,000), owns more ship- 
 ping proportionally than a- ; other town in the world, 
 the vessels being remarkable for their large size and 
 excellent workmanship. Its industries are almost alto- 
 gether connected with the sea— fishing, shipbuilding, 
 navigation, and some manufacture of rigging, canvas, 
 etc. ; woollen cloth is also manufactured. It is the most 
 active town in the province. 
 
 Lunenburg (population over 4,000) is the next most 
 
 important ship-building town, and the most important 
 
 for its tishvjries. 
 
 Windsor, on the Avon river, in a fine agricultural country, has 
 almost all the trade in gypsum. It has also some shipping. Pictou 
 on Pictou ha,rbor, is thejiort for shipping coal from the New Glasgow 
 and other mines. It has also coiiBiderable shipping and trade 
 Sydney, in Cape Breton, exports more coal than any otlie 
 >ova Scotia. Dartmouth, op[x)8ite Halifax, has foundries and a 
 
 in fish, 
 r town in 
 
 sugar rehne«y. Agricultural towns, each with some manufactures 
 are Amherst (pop. 4,600), ot the head of Cumberland Basin ; Truro 
 at the head of Cobequid Bay, containing the Normal and Model 
 ochools; AtUiuonish, on an inlet from George's Bay, on the north- 
 east coast, contains St. Francis Xavier College. Annapolis, at the 
 head of Annapolis Basin, more important in the early history of the 
 pKvrince than it is at present, has steamboat connection with St. John 
 end Boston, and ships a great deal of fruit to England. Dinby is a 
 pretty little town, a summer resort, at the lower end of An'naiK)lis 
 Basin. Live:~pool ships large quantities of lumber, as do many other 
 little towns on the same coast. 
 
 20. The Commercial Routes are mainly the sur- 
 rounding waters ; but beside the Intercolo7. '%l railway, 
 which has a branch from Truro to Pictou, there are the 
 Windsor and Annapolis, which connects Halifax with 
 Annapolis; the Western Counties, between Digby and 
 Yarmouth ; the Eastern, from Truro to Gut of Canso ; 
 another, connecting the Spring Hill coal mines and Parrs- 
 boro'; and one not yet completed, from Nictaux iron 
 mines, in the upper Anuapoiia valley, to the Atlantic. 
 
96 
 
 ^OVA SCOTIA-PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 
 
 II !^ 
 III' 
 
 I; 
 
 h ill. 
 
 ii 
 
 21. The Inhabitants uuiubered 440,572 in 1881. 
 Descendants of the Highland Scotch constitute almost all 
 the j)opulation of Oape Breton and of Antlgonish, Pictou, 
 and Colchester counties, the language and many of the 
 manners and customs of their forefathers still surviving, 
 especially in Cape Breton and Antigonish. FrenTh 
 Acadians are numerous in Digbjj Yarmouth, Richmond, 
 and Inverness counties. They are found also in consider' 
 able numbers in Halifax and Antigonish counties. Lunen- 
 burg county is largely peopled by the descendants of tl... 
 discharged German soldiers who were in the employ of the 
 British government in the war with the revolted colonies, 
 arxd who were granted land here at the close of the war.' 
 Elsewhere the people are mainly of £njluh descent^ 
 Halifax containing very many Iruh. 
 
 22. The Government is like that of New Bruns- 
 wick. 
 
 i 
 
 PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 
 
 1. Extent, etc.-Prince Edward Island lies in the 
 southern p.rt of the Gulf of St. Lavrence, extending in 
 a crescent shape between latitude 46° and 47°, and longi- 
 tude 62° and UV. It is about 130 miles ia length and 
 35 miles in extreme breadth, its area being 2,133 square 
 miles. 
 
 2. Geological Features. -As a rule the island is 
 level, or at most slightly undulating, except n(;ar the' 
 middle, wliere the country is quite broken, and hills 400 
 feet high are met with. The shores are for the most part 
 steep, owing to the action of the water upon the soft, 
 red sandstone rock of which the island is almost wholly 
 composed The strata seem to belong to a transition 
 period, between the Paheozoic (Carboniferous) and the 
 Mosozoic (Trias) formations. The soil is fertile and easily 
 cultivated. 
 
 3. Minerals -Tlu strata of this province havo as vet vielded 
 noeconom.e minerals. It is thought, l,on■,ivt■^ by RooloKLts that 
 
 ne Carbo„,fa-ous coal-bearing strata -.vhich are k\,own t d^l eneath 
 the water <^;i the ^ova Seotia sh..re, an.i which the n-rl l\lutllw 
 overh™, may be reaelied by bori.ig to n,> very ^r.-at depth a that 
 
 ^?Lf hn^lf ; , Traces of gold have been niet with on tlie west 
 
 coa-st, but It IS not known Ijow rich the dejiosits may be. 
 
 4. Outline. -Tho outline of the island is very broken, 
 mora especially on tho south side, the soft, coarse-grained 
 rock not being able to resist the action of the waves and 
 the ice. In consequence, projections of the land are 
 
 numerous. East Cape, West Cape, and yorth, Caps arc 
 the extremes of the island, while Cape Traverse, on tho 
 south, is the nearest point to tho mainland, nine miles 
 distant. 
 
 5. Islands.— These are few and wholly unimportant. With 
 the exce|)tion of Governor Islan ;, n -ar Charh)ttet()W.,, they are all 
 on the north, and consist of lonj?, low stretches of sand, or '.and 
 stone, broken through in one solitary spot by a mass of volcanic tn.p! 
 
 6. Ooa3t "Waters.— Prince Edward Island is sur- 
 rounded by shallow water, either because the depression 
 of the strata under the water is nowhere great, or 
 because of the deposition of sediment derived from the 
 wa.sting away of the shores. These shallow waters, as 
 in the other maritime provinces, are the feeding-grounds 
 of valuable food fishes. 
 
 . In \vinter ice fills these waters, and though Northumberland Strait 
 nine miles wide at its narrowest part, is never frozen across, yet the 
 ice 1.S often packed so thick and close that the government steamer 
 sometimes hnds very great difficulty in forcing\a way through ft 
 Un such occasions communication is made with New JJrunswick bv 
 an open b.i • which is dragged over the jilaces where the ice is com- 
 pact. The ice does not till the strait till late in December nS- 
 tion opens early in Ai.ril. Ocea.si-mally lieavy ice strands on the 
 iioi h shore, delaying tho arrival of warm weather. 
 
 The indentations are numerous, one, IlilJsborough Bay, 
 c. the south, nearly severs the island, the isthmus left 
 being about five miles wide. Richmond Bay is of a 
 .similar charactor on the north side, opposite which, on 
 the south side, r.i Eijmont Bay ; while Cardigan Bay lies 
 at the east end of the island. 
 
 7. Climate.— The climate of Prince Edward Island is 
 as equable as that of Nova Scotia, and is in marked con- 
 trast with that of the parts of Ontario— the regions 
 north of Lake IFuron and around Lake Nipissing_in 
 the same latitude as tlu; island. Tho fall sea.son is longer 
 than on the mainland, but the springs are somewhat 
 tedious, for tho surrounding waters, which becorue thor- 
 oughly chilled in tho latter part of winter and filled with 
 floating ice, do not warm up again so readily as does a 
 wide stretch of land. Fogs are not common, for there 
 is no conflict between cold and warm masses of water, 
 and consequently of air, in the southern Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence as there is in the Atlantic in the same latitudes. 
 The summer and fall are very plea.sant seasons. The 
 July i.wtlu'rm of 70° crosses southern Ontario, but it 
 fall.s much below Prince Edward I.-.ii,d, while the 
 January isotherm of 22° crosses both, soutliern Ontario 
 being over two hundred miles farther south. 
 
 8. Vegetation.-All the ordinary grains and fruits 
 (except peaches and grapes) grow well and give excellent 
 
CLIMATE— INDUSTRIES— CITIES AND TOWNS. 
 
 97 
 
 crops. Tho sandy loam sril is especially well adapted 
 for root crops and oats. 
 
 Forest growth is wholly of the northern type- 
 spruce and fir being the prevailing trees; but maple, 
 beech, birch, hemlock, cedar, tamarack, and poplar are 
 abundant. 
 
 9. Industries.— As might be inferred, /«rHtin^, in its 
 various branches, is the chief industry, the farm produce 
 exported being mainly potatoes and oats, both in large 
 quantities. Stock-raising is fast becoming a leading 
 pursuit. 
 
 The Jisheries are the next most important industry, the 
 value of the catch in 
 1882 having been 
 nearly $2,000,000. 
 Fishing is pursued al- 
 most exclusively along 
 the coast, but few 
 vessels going to the 
 deep sea. 
 
 The chief fish taken 
 are cod, mackerel, her- 
 ring, lobsters, and 
 oysters. 
 
 The forest industry 
 is relatively much less 
 important than that of 
 any otiier wood-pro- 
 ducing province. 
 
 The mativfactures 
 are for the most part 
 for home use, only a 
 
 few being for exporta- Fia. 5,i.— cod-Fishino 
 
 tion. Of the latter tho chief are preserved moats and 
 other articles of food, starch, and ships. (See Appendix 
 I. {u).) 
 
 10. Iho Trade of the province consists mainly in 
 the exportation of tlio products of the farm and the 
 fisheries, and the importation of goods similar to 
 those imported into the Dominion at largo. (Sec Appen- 
 dix I. (/•). ) 
 
 11. Education is provided for by means of rublio 
 and GraniTrmr (or High) Schnnl.s, and by ;i Normal and 
 a Model School. There are two colleges. Prince of 
 Wales and St. Dunstan, the latter belongin'' to the 
 Roman Catholics. 
 
 12. Subdivisions.— There are three countie.s in the 
 island, each enclosing one of the three chief bays. 
 
 13. Cities and Towns.-The capital, Charlottjtown 
 (population, 11,485 in 1881 ; present estimate, 15,000), 
 is a pretty little city on a fine harbor in Hillsborough Bay. 
 Its trade is relatively important. In 1883, 180 vessels, 
 British and foreign, entered at the p<^H. 
 
 The city is built a little back from the water, at no 
 great elevation above it. It is very open and airy, the 
 streets being remarkably wide, the whole presenting a 
 very pleasing appeai-ance. There are some fine buildings, 
 the Legislative Buildings being the principal. 
 
 Summerside (popu- 
 lation about 3,000), on 
 Bedeque {be-dvk) Har- 
 bor, is next in import- 
 ance to Charlottetown. 
 These two ports do by 
 far the greater part of 
 the produce trade of 
 the island. At both, 
 the shallowness of the 
 water necessitates the 
 building out from the 
 shore of long wharves, 
 at which vessels may 
 discharge or take in 
 cargo. 
 
 Gcorrfftomn, on Cardi- 
 gan Bay in tho cast, is the 
 otiier chief jjort. It lias 
 some trade in produce and 
 fish. 
 
 Many of the little vil- 
 lages, es|ecially on the 
 northern coast, have of late 
 become places of snninier 
 resort, Ontario furnishing a large portion of the visitors, sea-bathing 
 and fishing being the chief attractions. Jiustico is the chief of these 
 summer resorts. 
 
 U. Commercial Routes.— As in Nova Scotia, the 
 sea is tho chief highway ; but a railroad runs in a very 
 irregular course from Tignish, in the north-west, to 
 Souris, in tho north-east, both important fisliing villages; 
 branches extend to Georgetown and other places. 
 
 15. The Inhabitants are the same as those of the 
 other maritinio provinces. Of a population of 108, o91 
 in 1881, near'y a half were of Scotch descent; a fifth, 
 English ; nearly a quarter, Irish ; and about a tenth.. 
 French. 
 
Fig. J7.— ScKNEs in thk Nobth-Weht. 
 
 MANITOBA AND THE NORTH-WEST. 
 
 1. Geological Features.— The « North-West " con- 
 sists of two distinct regions. The first, the great Archaean 
 (Laurentian and Huronian) area, bounded on the west 
 by a chain of hikes extending almost to the Arctic, is a 
 rugged country for the most part, undoubtedly aboundincr 
 m useful minerals, as this formation does elsewhere • it 
 IS well-wooded, filled with endless winding streams and 
 chains of lakes, the waters of which reach Hudson Bay or 
 the larger lakes, over innumerable falls, rapids, and 
 "chutes." 
 
 West of this, l,ut of totally different geological struc- 
 ture, lies the second region,-the great prairie, extending 
 to the Rocky IMountains. (See " Canada," sec. 2). 
 
 At its southe.-n end this region is about 750 miles 
 wide, but as the eastern boundary trends more decidedly 
 north-west than does the western boundary, the plain 
 narrows rapidly till at the north it is only between .SOO 
 and 400 miles wide. North of thp parallel of fifty-four 
 It is no longer strictly a prairie, but becomes covered mors 
 or less thickly with forest growth. 
 
 [98 
 
 The Rocky Mountains, which form the western bound- 
 aiy of this plain, are fringed with foot-hills everywhere 
 except in the neighborhood of the forty-ninth parallel. 
 There the mountains rise almost abruptly from the plain, 
 reaching their highest elevation between the parallels of 
 5r and 52°. 
 
 North of the fifty-fourth parallel the whole plain dips 
 north-westerly ; south of that parallel it dips north- 
 easterly, the descent being about five and a half feet in 
 a mile, the ^owest level, about 700 feet in elevation, 
 l)eing reached in the ManitoI)a lake-region. But the 
 descent is by no means uniform. 
 
 The lowest area, somewhat over fifty miles wide, with 
 an average height of about 800 feet, is bounded on the 
 west hy an almost abrupt rise in level, marked by a 
 series of hills -the Pembina Mountain, Riding and 
 Duck Mountains, the Porcupine Hills in Manitoba, and 
 the Bas<iuia and other hills beyond— running in a gen- 
 eral north-westerly course. From the peculiar fine, soft, 
 alluvial nature of the soil of the southern part of thia 
 
MANITOBA AND NOETH-WEST TERRITOEIES.-PHYSICAL FEATUKES. 
 
 region, and from appearances around its southern ed^e 
 (two hundred miles south of tlie international boundary) 
 and elsewhere, it has been inferred that this area was 
 once a great lake, the outlet of whicli was into the Mis- 
 sissippi. It nowhere shows marked effects of the action of 
 running water or other denuding agents. It is a region 
 of great fertility, the richness of the alluvium being 
 further increased by the accunmlations from decayed or 
 burnt vegetalile matter. 
 
 Beyond the boundary the next area reaches a height 
 of about 1,600 feet, and extends westward for two 
 hundred and fifty miles, when another rise occurs, the 
 level beyond being two thousand feet above the sea at 
 the rise, and four thousand feet at the base of the Rocky 
 Mountains. The rise, called the Great Coteau, is a broken, 
 rough region, extending parallel to the first rise. This 
 level is more deeply trenched and more diversified than 
 the lowest level, a condition caused by much longer ex- 
 posure to denuding agencies. The last level, four hundred 
 and sixty-five miles broad, has a more varied surface 
 than the other two ; it is much more elevated, and has 
 been acted on by eroding agents to a greater extent 
 both before and since the glacial period. It contains 
 high hills or little plateaus, such as Cypress Hills and 
 Wood Mountain, and "the universal denudation that 
 has taken place is evidenced by the size and depth of the 
 valleys of rivf>rs and streams, the great ravines and 
 'coulees,' (coo-ldys, i. e., water-rourses) which have been 
 cut and are still extending \.u. o\y .5 in the soft sand- 
 stones and clays, and the isolated pi. -^ ard ' buttes ' 
 (single, abrupt mountains) which now sta., ' r out on 
 the plains of lower level." All this region is better 
 adapted for grazing than for tillage, though thei-e are 
 large tracts of excellent soil, which need only suflicient 
 moisture to make them highly productive. (See " North 
 America," sec. 14). 
 
 The rocks that underlie the middle and western sec- 
 tions of the plaui are not Pahuozoic, like those of all the 
 region between this plain and the Atlantic ; they are 
 Mesozoic (chi(.fly Cretaceous), the disintegration of which 
 produces a warm, rich soil. 
 
 In some places, especially in Assiniboia near the Cot- 
 eau de Missouri, are stretches of land made compara- 
 tively unproductive by the presence of a good deal of 
 alkali; but it has been shown that these lands too can 
 be wholly reclaimed by tlie use of maiu^v,), Consider- 
 
 99 
 
 able alkali exists in the surface soil throughout the 
 whole of the prairie country. 
 
 2. Minerals.— The minerals yet known are few ; the 
 Laurentian area probably is everywhere characterized 
 by the same minerals as in the older provinces. Liy^iite, 
 as has been stated before, ("Canada" sec. 3), occurs ex- 
 tensively on the Souris River ; in the Cypress Hills, and 
 near Moose Jaw and Medicine Hat in Assiniboia, on the 
 line of the Canadian Pacific Railway; along the Bow and 
 Belly Rivers, and near Edmonton in Alberta; and also 
 along the Athabasca and Peace Rivers in Athabasca. It 
 is mined at Medicine Hat, on the Bow River, and near 
 Moose Jaw. Petroleum is known to exist on tho Atha- 
 basca and elsewhere. 
 
 3. Rivers.— A low watershed crosses the plains in the 
 neighborhood of the forty-ninth parallel ; from the Rocky 
 Mountains east to the hundred and fourth meridian, 
 where the Coteau de Missouri (Great Coteau) crosses 
 the international boundary, the watershed is on the 
 Canadian side, the rivers draining oflT into the Missouri, 
 or its affluent, the Milk River ; east of that meridian the 
 watershed crosses into the United States, and by a deep 
 curve gives rise to the upper part of the valley of the 
 Red River. 
 
 Between this watershed and the fifty-fourth parallel 
 
 lies a valley, or rather system of valleys, separated in 
 
 the western part by very low and dispersed elevations, 
 
 but in the eastern, meeting in two valleys, those of the 
 
 lower Saskatchewan and the Assinihoine. In the middle 
 
 region of the great plain the rivers "now flow with 
 
 uniform though often swift currents, in wide trough-like 
 
 valleys excavated in the soft material of the plains, and 
 
 frequently depressed from one hundred to three hundred 
 
 feet below the general surface. In these valleys the 
 
 comparatively insignificant streams wander from side to 
 
 side in tortuous charuels, which they leave only at times 
 
 of flood." 
 
 The principal river is the Saskatchewan, the main stream 
 being formed by the union of two others, the North and tho 
 South Saskatcliewan, both rising in the Eocky Mountains. This 
 river la navigable from tlie rapid? at its outlet into Lake Winni- 
 peg, to Edmonton on the iiortlu rn branc/h near the foot of the 
 mouutaiiia; tlie principal alHueut of the northern stream ia tho 
 llnttle Jtiirr; thi souther!^ branch ia formed by the union of 
 tho Bow and Ilelly rivers. 
 
 The Asiiiiiitioine starts near the parallel of 52°, and runs close 
 to the eastern side of the second prairie level, somewhat east of 
 south to about the parallel of fiO", when its course is easterly to 
 the ned liivfr. Its southern affluent is the Souris, the western 
 the Qu'Appelle (ca pel), which starts with tho western boundary 
 
 ;:lH'l 
 
100 
 
 MANITOBA AND NORTH-WEST TEKBlTOlllES. 
 
 b.(. 
 
 J I 
 
 I 
 
 of the second prairie level, and runs through a fine agricultural 
 
 country. , , , • ,. t 
 
 The Nehon, a thorouf^hly characteristic Laurentian river, 
 about 360 miles lonj;, carries all the waters of these rivers, with 
 those oi the lied, into Hudson Bay. 
 
 In the east, beyond the i)arallel of 54°, the Churchill, most of 
 the water of which gathers from the Laurentian area, is almost 
 a succession of innumerable lakes, but with fewer rapids and 
 falls than the Nelson; in the west the Mackenzie carries off 
 into the Arctic the waters of the Liard, Peace, and Athnhanca, 
 together with those of the chain of great lakes along the edge 
 o» the Laurentian area, (tthor rivers of smaller size exist in 
 large numbers, but can be of little importance at any time 
 except as canoe routes during summer. 
 
 4. Climate. — The climate throughout the prairie re- 
 gions resembles that of Manitoba; but in the south- 
 western part, in the Bow River country, it is milder in 
 wii7+er, so much so tliat cattle, if properly cared for, can 
 
 ,0 through the season without shelter. V'arm winds, 
 
 Fia. .'■)8.— A Prairie Herd. 
 
 called the Chinook winds, often come down from the 
 mountains, producing a rapid rise in temperature. Else- 
 where, and here too, at times, tlie terrible " blizzards " 
 occur — furious, intensely cold winds, carrying with them 
 snow blown to the finest dust, that penetrates every- 
 where, produces smarting pains wherever it strikes the 
 body, and packs as liard as the liardest ice. No human 
 life can hold out long against such storms. 
 
 6. Vegetation. — In no part of the plain regions is 
 forest growth wholly absent e.Kcept in the south-west ; 
 even thei-e many of the river courses, or " couldes," are 
 full of trees ; elsewhere clumps of trees are frequently 
 met with along the streams, or in low places. (See 
 "Canada," sec. 12.) 
 
 6. Political Divisions. — Except in tlie case of 
 Manitoba, the political divisions of the region between 
 Ontario and Hudson Ray on the east and tlie mountains 
 on the west, have not yot received provincial govern- 
 ments. 
 
 North of Manitoba, and stretching to the Arctic is the dis- 
 trict of Kci'tratin, wholly Laurentian in character. West of 
 Manitoba and Keewatin lie Assinihoia and Saskatcheicnn, the 
 
 parallel of 52° separating them. In the latter is Battleford, 
 formerly tiie seat of government, the chief place being Pnnce 
 Alhert a rapidly increasing town at the junction of the two 
 Saskatchewans ; in the former, Keyina, the seat of government 
 for the North-Wesfc. West of these lies Alberta, with Edvwntoii 
 on the North Saskatchewan, and Calvary on the Canadian 
 Pacific Railway as the chief places ; north of Alberta is the 
 district ot Athabasca. Elsewhere the territory, called the North- 
 West Territoni, has no political organization. The Hudson Bay 
 Company have trading posts, called "forts," at many places in 
 all these territories, the chief being York Factory on Hudson 
 Bay, at the mouth of the Nelson. The trade, which is with 
 the Indiana for furs, once very important, is rapidly becoming 
 
 less. i_ 11 • 
 
 The islands and coast waters of the north are wholly unim- 
 portant, politically and commerci illy. 
 
 East of Manitoba and north of Ontario lies the Northern 
 Territory, Laurentian like Keewatin. (See Labrador for North- 
 Kant Territory). 
 
 MANITOBA. 
 
 1. Extent —Manitoba extends from the international bound- 
 ary' northward to latitude 53°, westward to the meridian of 
 101° 30', and eastward to 91° 10', the south-eastern boundary 
 being coterminous with that of north-western Ontario. Ic 
 occupies all of the first division of the western plain, while its 
 southern portion extends over nearly the vrliole of the second 
 division ; the eastern part of the province is in the Laurentian 
 area. 
 
 2. Geological Features. — Underlying the alluvial 
 or glacial deposits of the lowest depression of the plain, 
 are limestone rocks of the later Palajozoic (Devonian) 
 formation ; these are seen along the banks of rivers and 
 lakes, in nearly horizontal beds. The country, therefore, 
 not liaving been affected by denudation, and with hori- 
 zontal underlying strata, is level. Around the lakes, 
 especially where rivers enter them, the land is low and 
 fiat, often swampy. 
 
 3. Rivers.— The Bed River, the valley of which 
 begins 200 miles south of the international boundary, is 
 the chief stream of the province. It flows between banks 
 eroded from the prairie, and still widening slowly, the 
 water in consequence being charged with sediment ; at 
 tlie places wliero the limestone rock occurs along its 
 banks, the brejidth is less than elsewhere. The river is 
 not deep, and in dry seasons is not navigable in the 
 
 ; soutliern part of the province; in wet seasons it often 
 
 I overflows its banks and produces destructive floods. 
 
 I The Winnipcij R'urr, the outlet of the Lake of the 
 
 I Woods, is a characteristic Laurentian river, consisting of 
 
 j little lakes, and numerous waterfalls and rapids, with 
 
 '■ stretches of (|uiet water between them. Its scenery is 
 
 I most beautiful. 
 
 4. Lakes.- — The great lakes of Manitoba, all con- 
 i nected, are Winnipeg, Manitoba, and Winnipegosis ; the 
 
PHYSICAL FEATUEES.-CITIES AND TOWNS. 
 
 101 
 
 first is by for the largest, being 272 miles long, sixty at it,H 
 greatest breadth, (one mile at the narrowest portion), 
 but only from fifty to sixty feet deep ; the others are 
 much smaller. The outlet for these In.kes is the Nelson 
 Kiver, which reaches the Hudson Bay through the de- 
 pression of the Laurentian area. 
 
 5. Climate. — The climate of Manitoba is excessive. 
 The mean temperature from 1871 to 1881 was 33°.06 
 (Fahrenlieit) ; the mean highest temperature was 95°.34 ; 
 the mean lowest -40".51. The hottest month is July. 
 The summer temperature, from the middle of May to the 
 middle of September, sometimes sinks below freezing 
 point; in 1881, 31° on May 20th, and 27° on September 
 15th, the maximum 
 on these days being 
 respectively 82°.7 
 and 55°.7, while from 
 the middle of No- 
 vember to the first of 
 March the minimum 
 temperature of by 
 far the greater num- 
 ber of days was be- 
 low zero, ranging 
 from 1° to -40°. 5. 
 
 The mean rainfall 
 from 1871 to 1881 
 was about seventeen 
 inches, ranging from 
 over twenty- four 
 inches in 1878 to a 
 little more than eight 
 in 1881; the snow in 
 the same period averaging nearly fifty-three inches. 
 
 The spring months and the late fall months are tlie 
 driest ; as a rule most rain falls in the latter part of May 
 and in June. (See sec. 4, also "Canada" sec. 11.) 
 
 The Red River opens for navigation in the latter part 
 of April, and closes early in November.* 
 
 6. Vegetation. — Forest growtli in south-western 
 Manitobn is confined to the banks of streams, —a clump 
 of woods on the prairie marks the presei" i '-r water ; 
 the trees are poplar, elm, ash, basswood, and some oak. 
 Along the lakes and in the Laurentian resrion the forest 
 
 Pio. 59.— Indian Encaufmbnt. 
 
 ♦The above has been compiled from the published reports for 1883. 
 
 is almost continuous, and pine, spruce, and other north- 
 ern trees are found. 
 
 All the ordinary grains grow well and yield a high 
 average per acre, but early frost sometimes damages the 
 wheat ; potatoes and root crops yield excellently ; or- 
 chard fruits have yet to be tested. 
 
 7. Industries.— The only industry as yet,— one 
 rapidly increasing in magnitude, and even now important 
 commercially,— is grain-raising; stock-raising will soon 
 be added to this. There is no lumbering except a little 
 on Lake Manitoba and the other lakes. Neither mining 
 nor manufacturing can be said to have begun. 
 
 8. Education is provided for much as in the older 
 
 province.^. There are 
 several colleges and 
 higher schools. The 
 government has but 
 one legislative body, 
 as in Ontario. The 
 inhabitants of Mani- 
 toba, as of all the dis- 
 tricts, are from the 
 different races of 
 older Canada, with, 
 however, more Indi- 
 ans and half-breeds 
 than elsewhere. 
 
 9. Cities and 
 Towns. — Winni- 
 peg, the capital, is 
 situated at the con- 
 fluence of the Red 
 and Assiniboine riv- 
 ers, and is the distributing point to all the regions 
 west. In 1870 it had a population of 250 ; 7,985 in 
 1881 ; the present estimate being 35,000. The city has 
 all the modern improvemetits. There are many line 
 buildings, both public and private ; among the former 
 are the University of Manitoba and St. John's College. 
 The situation is low, rendering drainage difficult and ex- 
 posing the city to inundation. 
 
 There are many other towns grovvinc up rapidly in important 
 places; chief of these is Portaqe la Pniirie on the Assiniboine, 
 where several factories have been started. Others are Emerson, 
 near the border, on Eed River: St. Boniface. opposite^Vinnipeg; 
 Selkirk, below Winnipeg on the Bed Kiver ; and Uiandon on 
 the Assiniboine, west of Portage la Prairie. 
 
 !ni 
 
ii' 
 
s 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 -*CAWtliNGJIA].iyiO)q 
 
 I 
 
 Fio. CO.— ScENKK IN British Columbia. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 ! 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 .r 
 
 
 
 1. Extent.— The boundaries of British Columbia 
 are— on the nortli, the parallel of 60° ; on the west, the 
 Pacific Ocean and the frontier of the United States Ter- 
 ritory of Alaska ; on the south, the parallel of 49°— tlie 
 international boundary ;— and on the east, tlie Rocky 
 Mountains and the meridian of 120°. Vancouver Island 
 extends south beyond the 49th parallel. The area of 
 the province is 341,305 square miles. 
 
 This mountain province has an average breadth of 
 about 400 miles, tiie mountain mass being nuu-h nar- 
 rower than it is fartiier south ; beyond the fifty-sixth 
 parallel little is really known of the country. 
 
 2. Geological Features.— There are four chief 
 ranges, the Jiocf,->/, the G'o[,l, the Coast, and the Van- 
 convfr mountains, running parallel in a north-west and 
 south-east direction. In the Eoc-ky JFountains the lofti- 
 est peaks are in the southern portion; the highest, Mount 
 ]Murchison, near the parallel of .52°, has an elevation of 
 about 13,500 feet. Glaciers are met with anionor these 
 
 higher summits. 
 
 Passes through narrow vallevs are 
 
 r lo.-i] 
 
 numerous and of various elevations, from 2,000 feet at 
 the Peace River Valley in the north, to 7,100 at the 
 South Kootenay pass in the south ; the Canadian Pacific 
 Railroad crosses by the Kicking Horse Pass, 5,300 feet 
 high. The strata of this region are almost wholly of lime- 
 stone of the later Pala'ozoic times. 
 
 Between this range and the Gold range lies a long, 
 straight, and wide valley, known to extead from the 
 international boundary fully seven hundred miles nortli- 
 ward. 
 
 The mountains composing the Gold series consist of 
 several subordinate ranges— tlie Parcdl, Selkirk, and 
 Columbia toward the south, and the Cariboo toward the 
 north. Some of the peaks are o\er 8,000 feet high. A 
 Xi'vy large portion of the region, regarded as tlie oldest of 
 the Rocky Mountains group, is composed of crystalline 
 rocks with areas of granite. 
 
 Westward to the Coast ranges— often, but improperly, 
 called the Cnscn<fe mountains— extends a plateau aver- 
 aging a hundred miles in width, and having a mean 
 
 ;:■;!■, 
 
 Vi. 
 
104 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 ii; 
 
 elevation of about 3,500 feet, but descending to the sea 
 in its south-w«istern part. In places it is nearly level 
 and uniform ix character, but usually it is rugged and 
 hilly. It contains the chief pasture and agricultural 
 lauds of the province. Trappean and other volcanic 
 rocks cover much of this district. 
 
 To the west of this plateau are the rugged Coast 
 ranges, composed mainly of crystalline and granitic 
 rocks, some of the peaks reaching an elevation of 9,000 
 feet. Glaciers are found among them, especially in the 
 north. As these mountains descend to the water, very 
 numerous and deep narrow inlets are met with. 
 
 The Vancouver range, extending through Vancouver 
 and Queen Charlotte Islands, is a detached, water-sur- 
 rounded subsidiary range of the great system of the 
 mainland, the highest elevation being about 7,500 feet ; 
 these islands a,re therefore quite elevated in character, 
 though considerable areas are plateaus. As on the main- 
 land, the shores are everywhere indented with narrow, 
 deep reaches of water bordered by perpendicular walls of 
 rock of a dizzy height. 
 
 3. Minerals.— The mineral wealth of the province, 
 as yet in a great measure undeveloped, forms its chief 
 
 III 
 
 Fio. (il— Got,.. Washino. 
 
 resource, .and is the centre around which fho. main in- 
 dustries cluster. Gold is found tlirougliout the province, 
 the main belt of auriferous rock running just inside 
 
 the Rocky Mountains and including the districts known 
 as Kootenay, Cariboo, Omineca, and Cassiar. From 
 1858 to 1882 the gold produced in British Columbia 
 amounted to $46,685,334, the greatest yield, |3,745,850, 
 being in 1864. 
 
 Cort(f deposits, important botli in extent and value, 
 are found on the mainland ard in the islands. At Nan- 
 aimo is found bituminous coal of a quality specially 
 adapted for ocean steamships, and superior to that of 
 any other on the Pacific coast. The chief market for it 
 is San Francisco, where it is in great demand. At Co- 
 mox, still further north, the deposits occupy a wide area. 
 Large fields of Lignite e\ist near New Westminster, in 
 the Nicola Valley, and along the North Thompson and 
 Skeena rivers. Anthracite coal beds are found in Queen 
 Charlotte Islands. Over 150,000 tons of coal are annu- 
 ally exported. 
 
 Iron ore in great masses is found on Texada Island, 
 situated in the Gulf of Georgia, in close proximity to 
 the chief coal mines. Sifver has been found near Hope 
 on the Fraser River, at Yale, and in other localities. 
 Copper occurs in various places both inland and on the 
 coast, the most promising lode being one on Howe 
 Sound. 
 
 4. Outline.— Viewed as a whole, British Columbia 
 is compiict and regular in outline ; the deep, often long, 
 udets of the sea, with their towering perpendicular walls, 
 are but the lower-lying valleys, or gorges, of tlie moun- 
 tains, filled with sea-water : while their counterparts, high 
 up from the sea-level, are tlie courses of rivers or the beds 
 of lakes. They have in consequence but little effect on 
 a general view of the outline of the province. 
 
 5. Islands.— It follows from the above facts that 
 islands, peninsulas, and capes are innumerable, Of the 
 former— Vancouver being regarded as an integral part 
 of the province— the Queen Chnrlotte Islands are the 
 \a.r^est— a mham, Moresby, and Prevost Islands being 
 the chief of the group. They are little known as yet, but 
 they are rugged, deeply indented on the coast, covered 
 with a dense forest gi-owth of spruce, hemlock, and yellow 
 cedar; they have a very equal)le climate, snow falling on 
 the hills, but rarely in the valleys ; winter is a season of 
 almost continuous rain and wind. Fish of all kinds are 
 .abundant; wliile coal of the best quality, and gold and 
 other metals are known to exist. Tli.! other principal 
 island? are not yet explored— Pt«, Banks, Princess 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 105 
 
 Royal. Teocada, to the north of the mouth of tlie Fraser 
 River, has coal mines. 
 
 6. Coast Waters. — These are as numerous as tlie 
 islands. The chief ones between the mainland and Van- 
 couver Island are Queen Charlotte Sound on the north, 
 the Gulf of Georgia on the south-east, and Juan de Fuca 
 Strait on the soutli ; Ilaro Strnit lies between San Juan 
 Island and Vancouver. Uowe Sound, 
 Jervia Inlet, and Bute Inlet are the chief 
 arms of the Strait of Georgia ; Hecate 
 Strait lies between the mainland and 
 Queen Charlotte Islands farther north. 
 
 7. Rivers. — The rivers are numerous, 
 
 and such as characteiize a mountain region, 
 
 — exceedingly devious in their course, 
 
 often interlacing in appearance or reality; 
 
 bending in sharp curves around the ends 
 
 of ranges of hills, or cutting their way 
 
 through them only to return in the same 
 
 direction that they have come ; winding 
 
 between banks often hundreds of feet in 
 
 perpendicular height, or tumbling in falls 
 
 over cliffs ; forming lakes or confined to 
 
 a narrow channel, through which they 
 
 must rush wildly ; — such are all the rivers 
 
 of British Columbia. 
 
 The FroKcr starts in the valley west of the 
 Eocky range in latitude 5,r, follows the valley 
 over a hundred miles north-west, sweeps round 
 the end of the Oariboo mountains, and then 
 runs south through the middle of the centrpl 
 plateau for .350 miles or more to the Gulf oi; 
 Georgia; its chief affluent, the Thompson, 
 starts m the southern Cariboo mountains and 
 ^""8 south-west. The I'nce starts near where 
 the Fraser makes its curve, and runs north 
 mto a low-lying and fertile region near the 
 parallel of ,50°, and then turns east and passes 
 down the mountains to flow into Athabasca 
 if 4." '^^^ CnJumbia starts in some lakes 
 about latitude .50°, in the same valley as the 
 eraser, runs north-west for over l.^O miles, 
 curves sharply to the south, widens out into a 
 iong reach known as the Arrow Lakes, and 
 crosses into the United States, where it bends 
 south-west and goes on to the Pacific. The 
 K<h)tcnny in its head-waters overlaps the Cohim- 
 ha. but runs south-east till the end of the Pur- 
 cell range is reached in the United Rttvtes.when 
 It curves north again, widens and deepens into Kootenay Lake, 
 and then enters the Columbia, In the north is the Skeena ; f ar- 
 tlier north, the .Wcfcfen flows into Sumner Strait, above Fort 
 vvrangcl, in Alaska. 
 
 8. Lakes are innumerable, and of true mountain 
 character— long, narrow, often also very irr- ^ar in 
 
 Fig. 62.— BiQ Trees 
 
 outline, and frequently very deep. Besides those named 
 above the principal are Okanagan, discharging by a river 
 of the same name into the Columbia, and Shushwap in 
 the south ; Stuart, Tacla, and liabine in the north. 
 
 9. Climate. — "With its southern part situated nearly 
 five hundred miles farther north than the southern point 
 of Ontario, and extending over seven hundred and fifty 
 miles still further north, British Colum- 
 bia lies wholly within tlie cold temperate 
 zone, its northern portion entering the 
 sub-Arctic zone ; in addition to this the 
 greater part, exclusive of mountain peaks, 
 is from 2,000 to 4,000 feet above sea- 
 level. Such conditions would imply a 
 rigorous climate. But one of the great- 
 est agents in modifying the effects of ele- 
 vation and of distance from the region of 
 a perpendicular sun— oceanic winds from 
 the tropics — produces here some of its 
 most marked effects ; and the varied char- 
 acter of the physical features makes a 
 climate of equally varied character. 
 
 At Esquimau, "Vancouver Island, where the 
 elevation is but slight, in the years 1874 and 
 1876 the lowest temperature recorded was 8" 
 (Fahrenheit), the ordinary lowest temperature 
 being about 20°, the highest, 83° ; at New West- 
 minster, farther inland, the lowest was 7°, the 
 highest, 92°; in the interior on the central pla, 
 teau of the Thompson River, in about latitude 
 60°5, (700 feet above the sea) the lowest in 1874 
 was -29°, the highest, 98°. This latter, with 
 some local variations, indicates the general 
 climate of the southern half of the Province. 
 
 Within the same periods the rainfall at 
 Esquimalt ranged from 17.65 inches in 1874 
 to ,83.42 inches in 1875 ; at New Westminster, 
 in six years the mean (rain and melted snow) 
 was 59.66 inches ; at Thompson River in 1875 
 it was only 11.84 inches, including melted snow. 
 The dryness of the interior is due to the in- 
 fluence of the Coast Ranges ; the ranges far- 
 ther east are wet at their summits on the 
 western side, but dry elsewhere. In the north- 
 ern part of the Province moisture is generally 
 prevalent; it is excessive everywhere on the 
 coast. In general the temperature resembles 
 that of eastern Canada, though the south- 
 western district is decidedly warmer, especially 
 in Vancouver Island. (See Part I. "Atmos- 
 phere," sees. 27-29; and Part II. "North 
 America," sec. 13). 
 
 10. Vegetation. — Forest growth is luxuriant wher- 
 ever there is abundant moisture. The characteristic tree 
 is the huge Douglas pine, often reaching 300 feet in 
 height and measuring thirty feet in circumference, and 
 
lOG 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 growing in dense, dark forests — a tree exceedingly valu- 
 ahle for masts, owing to its tougliness; the Metizies pine 
 is also very large. Besides several other varieties of 
 pine — red, wlutt', andp/<(/t/;t7W, — there ar(^ the nd cfdar, 
 often 150 feet high, and 15 in diameter; the yelloin 
 cedar, tamarack, and maple ; the yea', with wood of rose 
 color; the arbutus, close-grained and heavy, like box- 
 wood ; and the oak, of large size. Many others are found, 
 more or less valuable, some being confined to the coast 
 alone. In the plateau regions forest growth is sparse ; 
 the country is a "rolling prairie," covered with grass 
 and affording excellent pasture. 
 
 All the grains of eastern Canada grow and yield tine 
 crops. 
 
 11. Industries. — Mining is as yet the chief industry 
 
 of the Province, but it is only now that gold is being 
 
 sought for in the rock itself rather than in the alluvial 
 
 deposits. 
 
 The Fisheries of British Columbia are among t}ie richest in 
 the world, and form the aeconi threat itidustry of the Province. 
 All the gulfs, bays, rivers, and lakei swarm with fish, Chief 
 among these, and forming almost the only export in fish, are the 
 salmon, for which the Fraser is famous. On this river especi- 
 ally, and all along the coast, canning establishments are located, 
 which afford employment for a considerable part of the popula- 
 tion. In 1H83 the value of the fisheries was given a $1,644,645. 
 Other varieties offish are the oolachan, or candle fish, herring 
 cod, bass, flounder, skate, sole, halibut, and sturgeon. Great 
 numbers of seals are annually caught off the coast. Oysters 
 are found, though of an inferior quality. The whale fishery is 
 carried on to some extent. 
 
 Lumbering, though capable of great development, 
 is in its infancy ; considera1)le (juiintities of tiuiber, as 
 logs and masts, are exported annually, some going even 
 to Australia. 
 
 Agriculture. — The rugged and mountainous charac- 
 ter of the country makes the agricultural areas compara- 
 tively snuill, far removed from each other, and difficult 
 of access ; the principal are the New Westminster dis- 
 trict, the river valleys of the interior, and Queen Charlotte 
 Islands. In the fii-st, as well as in Vancouver Island, 
 fruits grow t-^ perfection. The valleys are covered with 
 tall grass, and afford excellent ranges for cattle. In 
 some parts of the southern interior iri-igation is necessary. 
 Through the diversity in soil and climate every fruit, 
 cereal, vegetable, and flower peculiar to the temperate 
 zone, can be grown in some region or another. Thei'e is 
 as yet a lack of local markets and of shipping facilities. 
 
 In the Ponce River region, tlmug)! h\v north, therp is 
 a great extent of fine agricultural land ; summer frosts, 
 however, may do some damage at times. 
 
 There is but little manufacturing, except in connej- 
 tion with the preserving of fish and the preparation of 
 luml)er. 
 
 1 'J. Trade. — The articles exported are gold, coal, fish 
 and fish oils, furs, . kins, and lumber. 
 
 13. Education is as carefully provided for as in 
 eastern Canada, and in nmch the same way. 
 
 U. Inhabitants.— The population is about 60,000, 
 and is of a mixed character, as in the other provinces ; 
 but there is also a large number of Chinese. The 
 Indians are numerous, but of a more peaceful and in- 
 dustrious character than those of the east. The coast 
 Indians, many of whom are in the employ of the pro- 
 prietors of fish-caTuiing and oilextiacting establishments, 
 live almost altogether on fish. They are essentially 
 maritime in their habits, and are skilled and fearless 
 in the mamigement of their well-built canoes. They 
 live in independent village conununities, often differing 
 in <lialoct and customs from neighboring villages. 
 
 15. Commercial Routes. — 
 
 The Canadian Pacific Itailway will aid greatly in the advance- 
 ment of the province ; it is the only commercial route to the 
 east. From the Kicking Horse Pass' through which it crosses 
 the Rocky MountainH, its route lies across the Selkirk and Gold 
 ranges, and along the Tluimpaoii and Fiaser rivers, to Vancouver, 
 near the entrance to Burrard Inlet. 
 
 16. Cities and Towns. —Victoria, the chief city 
 and capital, with a population of 5,9l.'5 in 1881 (present 
 estnnate 10,000), is a delightful place, and occupies a com- 
 manding conunercial position at the south-eastern ex- 
 tremity of Vancouver Island. 
 
 Esquimau, 3\ miles distant from Victoria, possesses 
 a magnificent harbour, and is the naval station for the 
 British fleet in the North Pacific. Janaimo, on the 
 east coast of Vancouver, derives its importance as a ship- 
 ping port from the vast deposits of bituminous coal in the 
 vicinity. Xew Westminster on the Fraser River, the 
 chief town on the mainland, has a population of nearly 
 5,000. It is the market of a flourishing agricultui'al 
 district, and the seat of a lai'ge salmon-canning industry. 
 Buvravd Inle(,the principal harbour of the mainland, is 
 the chief centre of the lumber trade. Hope, Yale, and 
 Li/tton are the most thriving villages in the interior. 
 The great highway, leading north from Yale, is the Yale- 
 Cariboo Wagon Road, over 400 miles in lenffth : it ex- 
 tends north to the Cariboo mines, and was constructed 
 at a cost of over $500,000. 
 
PHYSICAL Fr.ATURE8. 
 
 107 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 
 1. Position and Extent.— Newfoundland,'' tho 
 only British province iu Northern America not belonging 
 to the Dominion Confederation, is situated between the 
 parallels of 46°,37' and 51", 39' north latitude, and the 
 meridians 52°, 37', and 59°, 25' west longitude. Its 
 greatest length from Cape Ray to Cape Bald is 317 
 miles ; and the greatest breadth from Cape St. Francis 
 to Cape Ray is 316 miles. Its area is about 42,000 
 square miles. In shape a rude isosceles triangle with the 
 broad base to the Atlantic and the apex to the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence, this island is, as it were, a defence to the 
 Gulf from the storms of the ocean, and a stepping stone 
 from the New World to the Old,— for the distance from 
 the eastern point of Newfoundland to Ireland is but 
 1,640 miles. 
 
 2. Geological Feature3.--Newfoundland consti- 
 tutes the extreme north-eastern extension of the Ap- 
 palachian system of mountains, the valley intervening 
 between it and the rest of the system to the south-west 
 being below the sea-level and covered with water ; the 
 direction of the ridges, +he highest peaks of which are 
 but little over two-thousand feet, is the same as that of 
 the system in general. A contuiuous ridge, called Lony 
 Range, extends from Cape Ray to the extremity of the 
 northern peninsula ; another skirts the shore from Cape 
 Anguille, north of Cape Ray, to the Humber ; a third 
 ridge, the Mkldle Range, crosses from Fortune Bay to 
 Notre Dame Bay; a fourth, the Black River Range, 
 crosses from Placentia Bay to the western side of Bona- 
 vista Bay, while in the Avalon peninsula there are two 
 similar parallel ranges. Soon after rising from the waters 
 to the south the island reaches its highest general eleva- 
 tion, varying from twelve to forty miles from the coast ; 
 tlience the dip follows the direction of the ranges. The 
 watersheds ai-e formed by these different ridges 
 
 Very little is yet definitely known of the interior of 
 the island ; but between tlie Long and tlie Middle ranges, 
 and again to the east of the latter, there is an extensive 
 undulating plateau containing a few ranges of low hills. 
 In addition to these ranges there are a great number of 
 isolated and shai-p-peaked sununits, called To/tn, rising 
 from the plateau, some of them reaching 2,000 feet in 
 height. There are also wide areas of savanna country — 
 
 * Almost tho only prouunciation heard in the Maritime nrovincea 
 13 Newf'nlaiid'. 
 
 level, meadow-like tracts, with a coli if tine black mould, 
 forming rich pasture land ; while around the head of 
 every inlet, and along all the rivers are considerable 
 areas of excellent agricultural land. The Random Sound 
 island and district in Trinity Bay aie especially fertile. 
 
 Tlie strata include those ordinarily found in the Appala- 
 chians, — the Palicozoic o{ all the different formationB, an*! the 
 Laurentian The latter seem to cover more than half of the 
 island; they form tho Lonj; Uange, the south-west of the island, 
 tho Grand Lake region and north-central part generally, and 
 also occur in the south-east of the island ; the Huronian,' con- 
 sisting here largely of sandstones, cover a large portion ^*. the 
 south-east, including most of the Avalon peninsula. Siluria- 
 strata are also largely developed. 
 
 Other orystalliiio rocks (particularly a species called se, ...- 
 tine), the same that in Canada and the United States are so 
 
 important for their minerals, are mot with over large areas, all 
 
 along the western and northern coasts, and between White and 
 Bonavista liays, where they extend far inland, and occupy nearly 
 the entire basin of the Gander Hi vor, including the peninsula be- 
 tween Bay of Exploits and Bc:iavistaBay. The highly impor- 
 tant Carboniferowt rocks are found over a considerable area in 
 the south-west, extending between Long Range and the sea on 
 the west, and north-easterly to Grand Lake. 
 
 3. Minerals. — As in the Dominion, the mineral 
 wealth of Newfoundland is neither developed nor fully 
 known ; but the crystalline and other rocks, that are so 
 prolific in economic minerola on the mainland, are believed 
 to be equally so in this island. As yet Copper has been 
 the only mineral mined, and although the working of thia 
 ore is still in its infancy, so great has been the quantity 
 exported, that Newfoundland ranks as the sixth copper- 
 producing country of the world; between 1869 and 1879 
 over 175,000 tons of ore were expoi-ted, valued at about 
 $4,675,000. The ore exists everywhere in the serpentine 
 rocks ; the chief mines are at Tilt Cove and Bett's Cove 
 on the north-western shore of Notre Dame Bay. The 
 copper ore has hitherto been exported to Svv'ansea in 
 Wales, to be smelted ; but of late smelting furnaces have 
 been erected at Bett's Cove for the extraction of the 
 metal ; and here the mining is of a systematic, thorough 
 chaiacter. The amount of this metal in Newfoundland 
 seems practically inexhaustilile. 
 
 Lead is thought to exist widely ; it has been found 
 in the Laurentian and most of the Pakeozoic rocks, but 
 has not as yet been mined to any considerable extent. 
 Mines of good quality exist af tlie head of Placentia Bay, 
 and north of St. Geoi ... y ■ n the ?(iutli-west. 
 
 //•ort is known to v • i .le Laurentian regions and 
 elsewhere, but no mines have been opened ; gold has also 
 been found ; nickel has been mined to some extent. 
 
 "OypsiDu is, perhaps, distributed more »■! ofusely and in 
 greater volume in the Carboniferous country than in am- 
 
 m 
 
 #■ 
 
108 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 M 
 
 part of tho Aiimriciiii continent of tlie sanio extent" It 
 is especially dovelo|)cd around St (iKjrge's Buy. 
 
 Coal. — The CarlMjniferous region also contains bitum- 
 i-mua (or soft) coal in workahlo seanis ; no mines have 
 yet been oponed, but from tlio appnuancos presented 
 in thj exposure of one seam it is calculated that under- 
 lying an area of tli ■ tty-ei<,'ht scjuaro miles near St. George's 
 Bay, there aro almut fi.^.OOO.OOO chaldrons. This is but 
 one of the many seams in tho same region. Marble of 
 almost every shade of colour is found on both the east 
 and west coasts ; yranite, and other building atone, grind- 
 stone and tohetntone-grita, and limestone are also met with 
 abundantly. 
 
 4. Outline. — As might be inferred, the outline of 
 Newfoundland is exceedingly broken ; the gradual sink- 
 ing beneath the sea of the numerous mountain ridges, of 
 necessity gives rise to a very irregular, tortuous coast 
 outline,— the long deep valleys become bays and inlets ; 
 the ridges, peninsulas ; and the detached hills or higher 
 eminences of ridges become islands. In consequence, 
 the coast everywhere, except at the heads of the inlets, 
 is rocky and forbidding, often presenting high walls worn 
 perpendicular by the undermining power of the waves of 
 the Atlantic. 
 
 Of the Peninsulas, the two most important are the 
 Northern and the Avnlon peninsulas, the latter joined to 
 the other part of the island by a very long, narrow 
 isthmus. 
 
 The Islands are numerous, especially on the eastern 
 coast Hf'lle Islf, a dreary, barren mass of rock at the 
 north, gives its name to the strait entering the Gulf. 
 
 The Capes are mainly in the open sea. The well-known 
 Cape Race is a bold headland where the European mail 
 steamers make a call ; the coast is very uninviting and 
 has been the scene of many shipwrecks. A strong in- 
 draught into the great bays exists, and also an irregu- 
 lar current and undertow caused by two tidal waves that 
 are here confluent; St. Mary and Ray are the other 
 capes on the south, tho latter oeiuj fifty miles from Cape 
 Breton Island. On the west are Angnille, — a wild coast 
 stretching from Cape Ray to this point, — and St. George ; 
 on the north, Norman and Bald; on the east, St. John, 
 Freels, and *S^ear— the eastern extremity of the island. 
 
 5. Coast Waters. — The inlets of the sea are numer- 
 ous and, for the island itself, highly important; they 
 modify the outline very markedly, stretching far into 
 
 the land ; and more important still, they are the resort 
 of untold multitudes of the most valuable of the food 
 fishes, cod, herring, salmon, and lobsters. 
 
 Fia. 03,— Dbydjo Codfish. 
 
 The chief bays on the south are St. Mary's, having 
 fine salmon fisheries, with a fertile soil on the coasts; 
 Placcntia, the largest of the coast waters, ninety miles 
 long and fifty-five wide at the mouth, with unsurpassed 
 fisheries of cod, salmon, and herring ; Fortiinr, one of the 
 principal scenes of the herring fishery. The rest of the 
 southern part of the island has a straight shore, indented 
 with innumerable harbours and narrow inlets. On the 
 west tlio bays aro St. George's, around its shores being 
 some of the most fertile valleys in the island, but almost 
 without human inhabitant; Bay of Inlands, with three 
 branches, having very valuable winter herring fisheries. 
 In the cast the bays are JIare, almost girdled with lofty 
 hills ; White ; Notre Dame, a magnificent sheet of water 
 over fifty miles wide and eighty long, the whole coast of 
 which for msmy miles inland being covered with mining 
 gi-antj and licences for digging copper ; Bonavista, with 
 numcf oup fertile islands ; Trinity ; Conception, the most 
 import;. !+, co;amer''i:xlly of all the bays, having around 
 its shiji .s !^. ^-Avvh larger population than exists around 
 ai'/y Cv.'i"! b;iy ; Strait of Belleisle, between the island 
 and Labrador, its narrowest place being about twelve 
 miles wide. This strait never freezes over. 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 ICD 
 
 6. The Banks of NewfoundUnd.— " The remarkable sub- 
 marine plaiim 'at 801110 diBtanco (a hundred iniltm), from the 
 ■horuB of Nowfoundiand, whoro the ttneat oodtlah are taken, 
 and when- they am most abundant, are not, aa was long be 
 lieved, niainoH of uund borne thither by the Gulf Htriam and 
 the Kiver St. Lawrence. Thuy form a rooky Bubmarine plateau, 
 whose eastern and southern borders descend steeply to a great 
 depth. TheOrand Hank extends over fuj' ' nine degrees of 
 latitude from north to south ; from west i east It covers in 
 some places five degrees. The depth of water varies from Hfty 
 to three hundred and sixty feet. Beyond the Grand Jiank to 
 the eastward lies the Outer, or False Hunk, upon which the sea 
 is from six hundred to nino hundred feet in depth. To the 
 west there are several smaller banks. At the west end of the 
 Great Hank Boundiuf^s have shown a depth of nine thousand 
 feet; t'lu depth around the bank is from ton thousand to fifteen 
 thousand feet. Tiio wateron the bank is not warmer than that 
 surrour lin« it at a depth of three hundred to six thousand feet, 
 namel'. 3!)".2 to 12 .8. The fishing grounds do not extend over 
 the whole bank, but have an extent of about two lumdred miles 
 in length Haa sixty-seven miles in breadth. For nearly four 
 hundred years this 'cod meadow has been fished by large 
 fl'Otsof various nations without showing any decrease in pro- 
 ductivenoHH. The cod taken on the Hanks is larger and finer in 
 quality than the fish taken along the shores of the Island or of 
 Labrador,"* 
 
 7. Rivers. — Newfoundland hm numerou.s rivers flow- 
 ing in the valleys between tlie rid{,'es of hills ; but few 
 are of any considerable length ; two or three, however, 
 are quite large. The Exploits River starts near the 
 south-west corner of the island, twelve miles from the 
 sea, and runs north-easterly to the I3ay of Exploits, two 
 hundred miles distant ; for fourteen miles in its lower 
 course it is a large river varying from a jnile in width 
 at its mouth to half a mile fai-ther inland ; it has several 
 waterfalls, the Giund Falls, about thiity-five miles from 
 the mouth, being particularly tine. The river abounds in 
 excsUent salmon. The Hnmher, issuing from Deer Ltike, 
 is the next largest river and is of a true Laurentian type. 
 At certain points in its course perpendicular rocks, 
 several hundred feet high, spring from the deepest water. 
 It flows into the Bay of Islands. 
 
 The Gander rises near the southern coast, and after 
 passing through a lake of the same name enters Gander 
 Bay. The Codroy in the south-west is a small stream, 
 but flows through a valley containing the finest land in 
 the Island. 
 
 8. Lakes. — Takes are so numerous that, were th 
 island mapped out in detail, more than one-third of the 
 ■whole surface would probably be represented by water. 
 From tlie top of some of the highest hills from sixty to 
 one hundred and fifty ponds and lakes have been counted. 
 The lai'gest lakes are all exceedingly nari-ow, and for 
 
 * Hatton and Harvey's "Newfoundland," 1883. 
 
 the most part are merely expansions of the rivers on 
 whose course they lie. 
 
 Qram^ Lakf, fifty-si '. miles long, is the largest in the Island; 
 its Hurfaoe is only fifty fe«t above sea level, but its deeiwst 
 IM>rtion is over three hundred feet below sea level. Its "vaters 
 pass off into the Iluniber. 
 
 Rfil Iiiilian Lake, on the course of the P'xploits Kiver, ia 
 thirty-seven miles long, and from half a mile to threo miles 
 wide. Urtitf Gander Luke has a breadth of only two miles, and 
 Dir.r Lake, on the oourse of the Ilumbor, is only ten feet above 
 high tide level. 
 
 9. Climate. — The climate of Newfoundland is in- 
 sular, n(tt exposed to so great extremes as a cc,'::ti;,.iii,al 
 climate, and in addition having some peculiar features of 
 its own. The thermometer rarely sinks below zero in 
 winter, or rises beyond eighty in suTrnnor. The Arctic 
 current that passes down the eastern coast, produces a 
 chilling effect that is unknown on the west coast ; tlie 
 icebergs that come with this current in spring ind early 
 summer still further lower the temperature. As ii\ all 
 northern maritime countries, the moisture-laden ntmos- 
 phere makes the cold more keenly felt than does a dry 
 atmosphere, even though the cold of the latter is much 
 gi-eater. 
 
 At St. John's the mean temperature from IBo? to 18fi4 was 
 41", 2 (Fahrenheit); the maximum temperature S.S" ; the mini- 
 mum 1" ; the mean temperature of Toronto is some three de- 
 grees higher. But St. John's is exposed to the efifects of the 
 Arctic current. At St. George Bay in 1874, tliij mean was 4,H°.8. 
 the lowest 1'," ; at Toronto 44". 8, the lowest T.li. Winter begins 
 and ends much at the same time as in southern Ontario, but 
 the frost does not penetrate so deeply, nor is the snow-fall so 
 great ; the air, however, is less clear, and high winds are much 
 more common than in Ontario, though these do not extend far 
 out to sea. The fall is especially fine and is much longer than 
 on the continent, but as in Nova Scotia, the springs are late. 
 The climate of the west coast is mnch better in every way than 
 that of the east. 
 
 The moisture is not excessive; including melted snow, the 
 average annual fall is 58.30 inches. During a portion of the 
 year, summer especially, fog is vary common on the Banks and 
 on the coast ; but only when the southerly or south-easterly 
 winds blow, does the fog roll in on the land, or penetrate 
 beyond a few miles inland ; often too, while the sea is shroud- 
 ed in fog, the whole island is clear.* 
 
 10. Vegetation. — All the northern trees— ;3me, 
 tamarack, sprucf, birch, and others — are found, often in 
 dense forests, along the rivers and lakes, and at the 
 head of all the bays ; oak, beech, maple, chestnut, and 
 walnut are not found. Wild flowers and plants are of 
 much the same kind as in southern Quebec and Ontario ; 
 grasses are luxuriant ; all the garden vegetables thrive 
 well J fruit, — apples, pears, and / U7ns, — do not grow 
 
 • Sea-fog is not injurious to health, rather the reverse ; it never con- 
 tains noxious gases as does the land-geuerated fog. 
 
 '' f|l 
 
110 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 
 Il 
 
 41 
 
 ) I 
 
 V 
 
 
 well on the exposed eiistern part of the island. Of the 
 food grains, barley and oats do well everywhere, but 
 wheat does not seem to thrive in the east or south ; what 
 the west and interior will do has yet to be shovrn. 
 
 II. Animals.— If^W/ow;; of all kinds, both of the 
 water and of the land, abound in Newfoundland. 
 The caribou, or reindeer, are very numerous ; their feed- 
 ing grounds are mainly the "barrens,"— open, stony 
 ground covered with low vegetation, found near Grand 
 L.ake especially, — and the moss and lichen-covered 
 savannas of the interior. They migrate to the south 
 during the winter. Jienrs and tvolves are very scarce ; 
 there are said to be no moose; reptiles and noxious 
 animals are unknown. 
 
 The famous Newfoundland <%s have nearly all disap- 
 peared ; very few tine specimens are to be met with. 
 
 12. Industries.— The great industi-y of Newfound- 
 land is the Fisheries, the annual value being $8,000,000, 
 four-lifths of the whole value being derived froni the Cod- 
 Jishery. 
 
 No other country in the world approaches this enor- 
 mous yield in the cod-fishery ; Norway comes second, and 
 Canada third. 
 
 The people of Newfoundland generally fish near the shore in 
 open boats or on the Labrador coast; very few engace in 
 bankmg, although it is much more remunerative, tlie outfit 
 however, is more expensive. As in New Brunswick, the fish! 
 ermen are slow to adopt new and iini)roved methods in their 
 work, ihe Bank fisheries are now prosecuted chiefly by the 
 Americans, French, and Nova Scotians. 
 
 The water from the Arctic Ocean, at times ice-laden, flows 
 down past Labrador, surrounds Newfoundland, fills the Gulf 
 and bathes the eastern shore of America as far as Cape 
 Hatteras. " ihese icy waters swarm with minute forms of 
 nte constituting in many places avast ocean of living slime- 
 and the all-perva<ling life which evicts there, aiTords the true 
 bolution of the problem which has so often presented itself to 
 those engaged in the great fisheries— where the foou comesfrom 
 that gives sustenance to the countless millions of fish wiiich 
 Bwarm on tlie coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador, and in 
 JJomimon and Unites States' waters, or wherever the Arctic 
 current e.xerts an active influence." In the Arctic seas the 
 waters are characterijoed by a varietv of colours, and it is found 
 that If a fine insect net bo towed after a ship it becomes covered 
 with a hlin of green in green water, and with a film of brown in 
 brown water, •' It is a living slime, and where it abounds there 
 are also to be found swarms of minute cr-istaceans (/. ,■. Khell- 
 hsli) winch feed on the slime, and in their turn become the food 
 Of larger animals."" These films are diutoms. (See Part I 
 " Organic Life," sec. 8.) 
 
 The cod appears on tlie coast of Newfoundland early in June 
 preceded by the caplin on which it feeds,— beautiful little fish 
 with which the waters of the coast are alive for two months 
 and of winch myriad^iaie taken to be used as bait or as manure- 
 tor land ; the caplin on its departure is succeeded by the squid 
 
 or cuttlefish, and this by the herring, late in September, on both 
 of which the cod feeds until it retires to deep wuter early in 
 November, when the fishing season ends. 
 
 The Seal fishery follows next in importance. The num- 
 ber of seals taken varies considerably from year to year, 
 much depending upon the state of the weather in the 
 sealing season, this being during the months of March and 
 April. The fishing grounds are off the coast of Labrador, 
 off north-eastern Newfoundland, and in tlie Gulf of St.' 
 Lawrence. 
 
 The young seals are born on the floating ice about the middle 
 of February, and being fed by the mothers, they are in good 
 condition by the middle of March ; about the first of April thev 
 take to the water. Before this occurs the seals are easily 
 slaughtered with clubs by thecrewsof the vessels hunting thenv 
 after that tune other and more difficult methods of capture have' 
 to be resorted to. Seal fishing is a rough, dangerous emplov- 
 ment ; the vessels are sometimes crushed by the ice, or driven 
 by the fierce spring storms away from the ice-fields, and the 
 hunters that are still ou the ice, are left to perish. 
 
 » Hatton and Harvey's "NewfomidlaiKl." 
 
 Pio. G4.-Kii.LiNa Srai,. 
 The Ilerrimf fishery is very important. Beside the 
 fish exported, vast numbers are used as bait in tlie cod- 
 fisli(>ry. The chief centres of tliis fishery are Labrador, 
 r."ii'u> Bay, Bay of Islands, St. George's Bay, and For- 
 tuiK^ l>ay. 
 
 Tlici Exploits Iliwr is tlui chief centre; of the Salmon 
 fishery, though the fish ai'o found in nil the rivers. 
 
 Lobsters fislu'iy is ncjirly as valuable as tlie salmon 
 lishcry. (See Append. I., v.) 
 
 J/ininy.— Copper iiloiw. is mined; in 1881, ore to the 
 value of |!.')9G,000 was exported. 
 
The Lumber capabilities are not developed yet ; no lumber at 
 all having been exported, but a great deal imported. 
 
 Agriculture, until within late years, was syBtematically dis- 
 couraged by the great fish merchants of England, and con- 
 sequently only slight clearings existed around the villages. At 
 presenv attention is being seriously turned to the cultivation of 
 the land, and surveys are being made and roads constructed 
 with a view of opening up agricultural lands, for the fisheries 
 cannot support the increasing population. 
 
 The Manufactures are but few and are wholly domestic, con- 
 sisting of boots and shoes, furniture, some machinery, tobacco, 
 twine, nets, ropes, and leather, — all at St. John's. 
 
 13. The Trade of NewfouucUand consists in exports 
 of the products of the fisheries and of the copper mines, 
 and in imports of l)readstuffs, meats, clothing, and numu- 
 factif-i.ii goods. 
 
 Great Britain and Brazil take each about a third of 
 the exports ; Portugal tak"s a large amount, the 
 United States, Canada, and the West Indies being the 
 next best customers. See Append. I. [w). 
 
 14. Routes. — A railroad extends from St. John's to Tilt 
 Cove; anotlier is projected to Ilawke Bay on the north-west, 
 with a branch to the Hay of Islands, and a third to near Capo 
 Anguillo to connect by means of a ferry fifty miles wide, with 
 a railroad in Cape Breton ; by this means the sea-voyi.ge to 
 Europe will be greatly shortened. 
 
 15. Cities and Towns. — ^S'^. John's, the capital, 
 (population 30,000) is situated on a harbor of the same 
 name, opening to the Atlantic. The entrance to the 
 harbor is very narrow, and between liills, often perpen- 
 dicular, six hundred feet higli. Tlie liarbor — one of the 
 finest hail)ors in the world — is nearly land-locked ; it is 
 a mile long, and a half a mile wide, the water being from 
 fifty to sixty feet deep. A fine graving dock has lately 
 been erected, capable of holding the largest vessels. 
 
 St. John's is .a " fish city" as Ottawa is a "lumber city," 
 almost the solo export Ix'ing fish. Of late years many 
 line buildings have been ei'(>cted in it. The manufac- 
 turer of the island are confined to this place. 
 
 Harhnr Ctnire (yiop. 8,000) on Conception Bay, is a thriving, 
 active town, witli a good doiil of tnulo. JlDiiiiristci. on the bay of 
 the same namo, is ono of tlio oliicHt Bottloments in the is^land. 
 llf'irt'H Ci)iitciit, on Tri)iity Bay, is the landing place of the 
 A lantic cables. On tlu! hlioros of llio different bays thorn are 
 a ..unibcr of little towns varying in population from liOO to 
 1,500. 
 
 10. Inhabitants. — The total jjopulation is about 
 IS.'), 000, consisting of Irish and English and 1 heir de- 
 scendants. Tlie pc'ople are all .settlcnl on tlui coast. 
 
 Tlie Indians, who inliabited tlu) island in ]arg(! num- 
 bers when first (iiscover(>d, have all disa})pearetl. 
 
 17. Education is provided for by means of Public 
 Schools. High Schools have y(!t to be established. 
 
 PHYSltWL FEATURES. 
 
 The Government is like that of Canada. 
 
 Ill 
 
 18. French Territory. —South of Newfoundland 
 the French own the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon ; 
 these islands are vei-y valuai)le as fishing stations, and a.s 
 a centre of extensive trade with Newfoundland and 
 eastern Canada. 
 
 By different treaties the French have been granted 
 concurrent rights with British subjects in the fisheries on 
 the west and north-east coasts of Newfoundland from 
 Cape Ray around to Cape St. John, a region known as 
 the French Shore. No territorial rights have been 
 granted. 
 
 LAliRA]JOR. 
 
 1. Extent andCharacter.— Labrador comprises tlie 
 body of land surrounded by the tlie Strait of Belleisle, 
 th.^ Atlantic, Hudson Strait and Bay as far as Rupi^rt 
 River ; on tlie south tiie boundaries are Rupert, Mis- 
 tassini, and Betsiamites Rivers. Newfoundland lias jut- 
 isdiction over the eastern piirt, enclosed approximately 
 by the nun-idian of 65°, the parallel of 52° as far east as 
 a line drawn directly north from Blanc Sablon (in Strait 
 of Belleisle). The t<!i ritory to the south belongs ciiiefly to 
 Quebec ; ail the rest is the North -East Territory of the 
 Dominion. It contains about 425,000 square miles. 
 
 Little is known •' f the country beyond the coast. It 
 is in the main a rugg(!d Laurentian region, with bold, 
 rocky, tre>iless shores, east and north, and for tiio most 
 part in the west, except the southern portion. The in- 
 terior is a plateau from 1,500 to 2,500 feet liigh, .some 
 mountain peaks reaching a height of 4,000 feet. 
 
 Miucrah are known to exist, but no mining has taken place. 
 One beautiful mineral is widely found — the labrailorile, a kind 
 of felspar with exquisite p'ay of colors. 
 
 Tho east coast han innumerable little indentations, and one 
 deep one, IlamiUou Intel, 150 miles long ; Uuijaia lUtij lies on the 
 north, an expansion of Hudson Strait. 
 
 There are some Wwr.s, but their character is but little known 
 — tho Rupert and Eaxt Main being tho chief ones known; they 
 are ail of the characteristic Laurentian typo. Lahe Mi-'itaxaini, 
 drained by the Kupert Itiver, is said to be tho largest of tho 
 1,1 hes. 
 
 2. Climate. — Tho climate is oxceudingly severe, snow lasting 
 till .lime. In summer tho thermometer sometimes marks 75°, 
 but spirits freeze in tho intense cold of winter. Only a few 
 h;inly Vegetables e.-iu be growii in the easterti part ; early frosts 
 are severe; in tho south-west the climate is more moderate, and 
 some grain, it is said, can be raised. 
 
 There is a good deal of forest land in the south-west and all 
 j along Hamilton Inlet. 
 
 i 
 
112 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Animal life seems to be abundant — white and othe. 
 bears, reindeer, foxes, wolves, martens, otters, beavers, 
 sables, minks, and waterfowl and other birds. 
 
 > 8 
 
 
 f' i 
 
 W 
 
 Fig. 65.— For-Bearino Animals. 
 
 3. Value. — Connnercially the country is very valu- 
 able ; the -wild animals of the land furnish furs, and the 
 sea supplies inexhaustible quantities of fish. The coast 
 waters form one of the great fishing regions of the world, 
 but they are subject to violent storms, which are often 
 attended with great loss of life among the fishermen. 
 
 Newfoundland fishermen, and very often their fami- 
 lies, go to Labrador about the end of June, and remain 
 there, living in huts, till early in October. But Ameri- 
 cans and Nova Scotiaus also frp(ju(Mit the coast in large 
 numbers. The fish taken are the snnie as those taken in 
 the waters of Newfoundland. The annual value of the 
 catch is over $5,000,000. 
 
 4. Inhabitants. — -The inhabitants of the south slioie, 
 as far as Blanc Sablon, are of French origin, neai-ly 
 5,000 in number ; those to the east and north aie of 
 British origin, mainly English, and number sonie 2,500 
 souls. They are engaged in the fisiujries during the 
 sunnner, and in hunting during the winter; in the 
 settlements the greater number nro in the employ of 
 the Hudson Bay Company. During the summer a mail 
 
 steamer from Newfoundland visits the coast every fort- 
 night. 
 
 The Indians, (Montagnais, Crees, etc.,) about 4,000 in 
 number, live in the interior ; they have almost all been 
 in a measure christianized by Jesuit missionaries. 
 
 The Eskimos, who number about 1,700, Ive Lo the 
 north of Cape Webeck ; they are expert ii' f ching, catch- 
 ing seals, and in handling their canoes, or kayaks, in the 
 rough seas. These people are of low stature, with coarse 
 features, small hands and feet, and black, wiry hair. As 
 a rule they live in underground houses till some time in 
 January ; then they abandon these for their dome-shaped 
 houses of frozen snow. They are almost all under the 
 christian training of the Moravian missionaries, who 
 have stations at Ilopedale, JVain, Okknk, and Hebron. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1. Extent. — In shape the United States approaches a paral- 
 lelogram, the general oompactneaa and regularity being broken 
 only by the Great Lakes. The extreme length from the 
 eastern point of Maine on the Atlantic coast to the longitude 
 of Cape Flattery on the Pacific, is nearly 2,800 miles, The ex- 
 treme breadth from the southern point of Texas to the parallel 
 of forty-nine, is about 1,000 miles. The area, includnig Alaska, 
 is given as 3,602,<J<)0 square miles, or about that of Canada; 
 the inhabitable area, however, is much greater than in Canada. 
 The northern boundary coincides with the southern boundary 
 of Canada; the east, west, and south-east are washed by the 
 sea. To the south-west is Mexico; the river Rio Grande lies 
 for a considerable distance between the two countries, the re- 
 maining part of the southern boundary being an imaginary 
 line running irregularly west from near "the Organ Mountains. 
 
 2. Physical Character.— Physically, the territory 
 of the United States forms one of the most self-contained 
 countries in the world. The ea.stern continental axis is 
 almost wholly within it, and the grandest and most 
 characteristic development of the western axis is alto- 
 gether so. The rivers, with hardly an exception, begin 
 and end within its bounds ; die sduthern tributaries to 
 the Canadian lakes are mere brooks — the watershed is 
 everywhere near the boundary. The u.seful minerals are 
 all found in profusion. The climate passes from tlu 
 perpetual sujinner of Florida to the arctic winters c^ 
 Maine. Tiie productions include all the necessaries ar 
 almost all the luxuries of life, from the oranges, cotton 
 and sugar of the tropical South, to the wheat, wool and 
 fish of the cold North ; -what one part lacks the otiier 
 supplies. The oceans and the great rivers are natural 
 highways for national intercourse. The varied climate 
 with tlie varied productions give rise to diverse industries, 
 
 '■L 
 
t every fort- 
 
 lout 4,000 in 
 Qost all been 
 aries. 
 
 , liip lo the 
 cihing, catch- 
 lyaks, in the 
 , with coarse 
 ry hair. As 
 some time in 
 dorae-shaped 
 11 under the 
 )naries, who 
 I Hebron. 
 
 ichea a paral- 
 bciiig broken 
 ;th from tlie 
 the longitude 
 ilea, The ex- 
 ;o the parallel 
 uding Alaska, 
 It of Canada ; 
 m in Canada. 
 2rn boundary 
 ashed by the 
 ) Grande lies 
 tries, the re- 
 in iniaf^inary 
 I Mountains. 
 
 lie territory 
 ^If-contained 
 ;ntal axis is 
 b and most 
 axis is alto- 
 ption, begin 
 'ibutaries to 
 vatershed is 
 ninerals are 
 s from th( 
 winters r^ 
 essaries ar 
 iigcs, cotton 
 it, wool and 
 s the otiior 
 are natural 
 ried climate 
 B industries, 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 and the productions and industries of one section liave 
 their complements in the productions and industries of 
 another. Perhaps China and India are the only other 
 countries that naturally need so little material assistance 
 from the outside world. 
 
 climaWp*Vr!f K '■"• 7^^ f ^"^""^^ P^y«'«*> characteristics, 
 cnmate, &c., have been referred to under " North Amerira " 
 more p^articular reference to these will be made undetrch sub: 
 
 4. Minerals.— The mineral wealth of the United 
 States is exceedingly great. The Coal Measures are 
 estmiated to cover an area of 185,000 square miles but 
 the workable portion of this " probably does not exceed 
 
 The carboniferous coal measures include several de- 
 tached areas : The rwrtJ^astern area, extending from 
 Xcwport in Rhode Island northward into Massachusetts ; 
 the Alleghany area, extending from New York and Ohio 
 to Alabama, having the greatest development in Penn- 
 sylvania : the interior area, including the central part of 
 Michigan, a great deal of Illinois, and part of Indiana 
 and western Kentucky, and a part of Minnesota, Iowa, 
 Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, and xVorthern Texas. Other 
 coal areas are found in the upper Mesozoic (Cretaceous) 
 and the Tertiary strata of the Rocky Mountains, es- 
 pecially in Colorado, Oregon, and Washington. 
 
 Pennsylvania produces all the anthracite, a-.d nearly 
 half of the bituminous coal ; Illinois and Ohio each 
 about a third as much of the latter as Pennsylvania- 
 Maryland, West Virginia, Indiana, and Iowa being the 
 other chief coal-producing states. 
 
 Iron is very widely distributed, twenty-three of the 
 states mining it. But the great iron producing states 
 are Michigan, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and 
 Alissouri. 
 
 Copper is jnst as widely distributed as iron, buo not in 
 such extensive deposits ; one state, Michigan, furnishes 
 nearly five-sixths of the whole amount mined in the 
 country; Arizona, Vermont, North Carolina, Montana, 
 
 iand California follow next in order of productiveness. 
 
 J^ Zinc is mined mainly in New Jersey, Missouri, Penn- 
 
 %lvania, and Virginia. 
 
 Lead is abundant in the region including eastern Iowa 
 and Missouri, and north-western Illinois. California 
 yields nearly lialf of the Alercury used in the world. 
 
 Twenty-two states yield gold, and eighteen silmr; of 
 the gold, California in 1880 yielded over half the amount 
 
 118 
 
 
 mined, Nevada, Dakota, and Coloradr '-eing the next 
 most prolific states. Of silver, Colorado, in the same 
 year, produced over two-fifths of the quantity mined, 
 Nevada nearly a quarter, Utah, Montana, Arizona, and 
 California the greater part of the rest. Colorado, Cali- 
 fornia and Nevada are the great mining states for the 
 precious metals. 
 
 5. Farm Products.— Great and important as are 
 the mineral productions of the United States, the farm 
 products are vastly more so. Every state is more or less 
 engaged in agriculture of a kind suited to the circum- 
 stances of climate and soil. 
 
 The states of the north-central region— Illinois, 
 Indiana, Ohio, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri,— 
 together with New York and Pennsylvania of the 
 Atlantic region, are the great food producing rotates. Of 
 these Illinois takes the lead in the production of Indian 
 corn, rye, oats, wheat, and live stock. Barley is raised 
 to the greatest extent in New York, Wisc.asin, Iowa, 
 Minnesota, and California, the last raising tw.ce as much 
 as any other state, and ranking sixth in the production 
 of wheat. 
 
 Pig. 66.— Rich FnaoDa 
 
 The Rice region fringes the southern waters, beginning 
 with North Carolina. Of the states in this region South 
 _ai. .!!!!.„ j.!..,,,Ke3neari_y mdi or tno rice, tiieaiost of the 
 remainder coming from Georgia.and Mississippi. 
 
 The Cotton region includes the rioe region, but extends 
 fai-ther north, into southern Virginia, Kentucky and 
 
 li 
 
■ 
 
 ALtUT, 
 
 il^^M Lomtltiide Wti l IW) from Or» '-n »W. H« 3 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 1 _, SCALE OF MILL* 
 
 ""^ij 100 Tso 200 iiio sjo 
 
 __^___ I. ™ 
 
 Canada Pub. Co., Toronto 
 
 iiu 
 
 106 
 
 06 
 
CENTRAL 
 
116 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 i 
 
 Missouri ; these states, however, produce comparatively 
 small quantities. Mississippi produces the most, but is 
 nearly ecjualled by Georgia and Texas. 
 
 The SiKjar region corresponds with the rice region ex- 
 cepting that itdoes not include North Carolina; Louisiann., 
 however, yields almost all the sugar and nearly three- 
 quarters of the molasses. 
 
 Potatoes are abundant everywhere north of Maryland, 
 — New York and Pennsylvania raising the most ; »weet 
 potatoes are raised but to a small extent in the northern 
 districts. New Jersey being the only State that grows in 
 abundance both the common and the sweet varieties. 
 
 The quantity of Tobacco raised is inconceivably great ; 
 in 1880 it amounted to nearly 473,000,000 pounds, 
 every state, except four of the Rocky Mountain states, 
 producing it. Of this vast quantity Kentucky raised 
 over a third. The tobacco region lies between the par- 
 allels of 35° and 40°. 
 
 Stock Haising is an exceedingly important industry 
 everywhere ; in general the greatest amount of the 
 various kinds of stock is found in the leading agricul- 
 tural districts ; while Texas and the prairie states rear 
 the greatest number of beeves. 
 
 In the production of Wool Ohio stands first; over 
 "25,000,000 pounds were raised by that state in 1880; 
 California stands next, followed by the leading northern 
 agricultural states. 
 
 The great Dairy States are in the north. New York 
 far surpassing all others ; in proportion to their size the 
 New England States produce both butter and cheese in 
 very large quantities ; the North-central States, in this 
 as in other branches of farming, take a leading position, 
 California and Pennsylvania nearly equalling them. 
 
 6. The Forest industry is of great magnitude; 
 physical conditions of climate and soil largely confine it 
 to the north-eastern Central States. Nearly a quarter 
 of the sawn products of tlie forest in 1880 came from 
 Michigan, a quantity far exceeding that from any otlier 
 state; Pennsylvania, the next in order of production, 
 jQanufactures only two-fifth<< as much. The other 
 states next in importance in this industry are Wisconsin, 
 New York, Indiana, Ohio, Maine, axi^ Minnesota. 
 
 7. The Fisheries in the United States waters, ex- 
 cluding the oyster fishery, though very valuable, are 
 much inferior to those in Canadian waters. !^,iuth of 
 New Jersey, fishery is carried on in open boats onlj, and 
 IS comparatively unimportant ; but north of that state^ 
 
 especially in Massachusetts and Maine, by far the inost 
 valuable part is carried on by well-equipped vessels 
 which go for their cargoes to the Banks of Newfound- 
 land, Labrador, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and elsewhere 
 in the open sea. In the east the coast of Massachusetts 
 and the south-east coast of Maine are the finest tishin" 
 grounds. On the Pacific coast, including Alaska, the 
 fishery is very valuable, but except in the case of salmon 
 is developed but little. The oyster fishery is practically 
 confined to the coast from Connecticut to Nortli Caro- 
 lina, the most prolific region by far being the Chesapeake 
 Bay. 
 
 8. Manufactures.— Tlie manufactures of the United 
 States are very extensive, and exceedingly varit-u in 
 character, but with the exception of agricultural imple- 
 ments and articles of food the greater part are produced 
 in tiie Atlantic States from Maine to Maryland. Agri- 
 cultural implements, breadstufi's, and prepared meats, ai-e 
 maimfactured chiefly in the leading agricultural states of 
 the north-central region, and in some of the Atlantic 
 States ; manufactures in iron come from those states 
 that furnish the ore. 
 
 9. Shipping. — In tonnage of vessels the United 
 States ranks second in the world, the amount owned 
 being about two-thirds tliat of Great Britain. This in- 
 dustry for some years past has been declining] the 
 foreign trade is mainly carried on in foreign vessels, 
 none, howevei', but vessels built and owned at home are 
 permitted to trade between port and port of the United 
 States. In 1881 the amount of shipping owned was 
 somewhat over four millions of tons. 
 
 10. Trade. — The Trade of the country, import and 
 expoi't, though very great, amounting in 1882 to nearly 
 !$1, 458,000,000, did not, in that year, equal half that of 
 Great Britain; it was nearly equal to that of France. 
 Foremost, as regards value, in the list of articles exported 
 stand wheat and flour, and then follow cotton, tobacco, 
 pickled pork and hams, butter and ciieese. Coal oil is 
 also largely exported, and in recent years manufactures 
 of cotton have been sent abroad in large quantities. 
 Considerably more than one half of all the exports go 
 to Great Britain and Ireland, the rest being taken 
 chiefly by Canada, France, and Germany. 
 
 11. Inhabitants.— The census of 1880 gives the 
 total number of inhabitants in the United States as 
 50,442,066. The increase has been very rapid ; ir 1870 
 the population was under 39,000,000. 
 
 i 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 m 
 
 ■was 
 
 According to the last census nearly 7,000,000 of the inhabit- 
 ants were born in foreign countries. Thd number of inuiiigrants 
 arriving in 1882 was over 700,000. Immigrants come from 
 ahnost every country in the world ; of late years Germany has 
 given a third of the total number ; Great Britain and Ireland 
 over a fifth ; Norway, Sweden Italy, and Canada supplying 
 nearly all the remainder. 
 
 All creeds and nationalities are ciiual in the eyes of the law, 
 full rif'hts of citizenship being conferred as soon as the 
 foreigner becomes naturalized. In 1882, however, the immi- 
 gration of Chiuese labourers was prohibited, and Chinese were 
 declared incapable of becoming citizens. The Chinese, nearly 
 250,000 in number, are mainly in California, and the plateau 
 states and territories. 
 
 Very little of the foreign -born population is found south of 
 Pennsylvania; the manufacturing and trading towns and 
 districts take nearly all. In almost all the manufacturing 
 towns of the east and centre the proportion of foreign-born 
 inhabitants is from a fifth to a third ; in some few cases in 
 New England it is nearly a half. Large numbers of Germans 
 and of the immigrants from Great Britain take up farms in the 
 West, the former showing a decided tendency to settle in com- 
 munities by themselves. 
 
 12. Education is provided for by the laws of each 
 State, the central government not interfering in educa- 
 tional matters. There is, however, a great deal of 
 illiteracy among the negroes and the lower-class whites 
 of the South. 
 
 13. Government. — The government is a Federal Union 
 similar to that of Canada. Each of the original states was 
 sovereign and independent, but on the framing of the Constitu- 
 tion for the proposed union, each surrendered certain specified 
 powers to the general government, retaining all others. The 
 United States has, therefore, a written Constitution. The 
 confederating Provinces of Canada, on the other hand, sur- 
 render •. ■>U their powers to the general government, receiving 
 back <-■ ■ :ain specified ones ; all others are lodged with the 
 gene; ,■ ,jvernment. 
 
 As in Canada, the general government of the United States 
 takes cognizance of all matters that concern the nation as a 
 whole: all dealings with foreign countries, (this power not 
 being possessed by Canada), matters relating to postage, coin- 
 age, general defence, national, or public, lands, &c., while the 
 states deal with all matters pertaining to themselves alone. 
 
 Every male citizen of the United States, native or natural- 
 ized, with very triHint; exceptions, over twenty-one years of age, 
 has the right to vote. 
 
 The government consists of three branches— the legislative, 
 executive, and judicial. The executive power is vested in a 
 president, who, together with a vice-president, is elected for a 
 term of four years by electors chosen for the purpose by popular 
 vote of the states; each state chooses as many electors as it 
 has representatives in Congress. The President chooses his 
 own cabinet ministers, seven in all, subject to the approval of 
 the Senate. These ministers have no seat in Congress, and 
 are not directly responsible to Congress, but to tlio President. 
 Tlie President is commander-in-chief of the army and navy ; 
 ho appoints federal oflicers and makes treaties with other 
 countries, subject in both cases to the approval of the Senate. 
 All bills passed by Congress are submitted to him before they 
 can become law ; if lie vetoes a measure it may become law 
 Uolsvithstanding, by a two-thirds majority m each branch of 
 Congress afjain voting in its favour. 
 
 The legislative body, called Congress, consists of two 
 bra,nches, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The 
 legislature of each state elects two senators by a majority vote, 
 
 (II) 
 
 for a peroid of six years, The Senate may originate any 
 measure except financial measures. The House of Repre- 
 sentatives consists of members chosen by popular vote in each 
 state. There are at present 325 representatives apportioned 
 among the states according to population. With each census 
 the number and apportionment of these are changed. 
 
 The judicial branch of the federal government consists of a 
 supreme court and various inferior courts. All the judges of 
 these courts are appointed by the President, subject to the ap- 
 proval of the Senate. The supreme court consists of a chief 
 justice and several associate judges. The decision of this court 
 in all matters brought before it is final ; it is the highest court 
 in the nation, and has power to set aside Acts of Congress if 
 found unconstitutional In Great Britain and Canada, Par- 
 liament is the highest court. 
 
 The government in the separate states is mainly the same 
 in form as the federal government. Each state has a governor 
 and two branches of the legislature, and the duties of governor 
 and legislature are analagous to those of the general govern- 
 ment. 
 
 The Federal Capital is Wakhinoton, situated at the head of 
 the Potomac estuary in the District of Columbia. 
 
 14. Natural Subdivisions. — Physically the United 
 States falls into three leading natural subdivisions, — the 
 Eastern or Atlantic Seaboard, including tlio Alleghany 
 region; the Central Area, extending from the Alleghanies 
 on the east to the Rooky Mountains on tiie west ; and the 
 WeMern Platea-a Jter/ion. 
 
 The height of the Rocky Mountains and their com- 
 paratively abrupt rise from the eastern side of the 
 plateau causes a more marked difference in the climate 
 and organic life of the adjacent areas of the Central and 
 PlateHU regions, than is usually found on the borderland 
 of physical .subdivisions. The AUegiianies are neither 
 abrupt nor high, and in consequence differences in cli- 
 mate and oi-ganio life in the adjacent areas of the Central 
 and Eastern subdivisions, are not strongly marked, 
 though this mountain region intensities tiio contrast 
 everywhere seen between a maritime and an inland 
 country. The south-west return-trade winds, moreover, 
 which blow parallel to the trend of the Alleghanies, 
 iiJive a tendency to counteract iii adjacent areas the dif- 
 ferences produced by these mountains ; while the same 
 winds, by blowing across the trend of the western 
 plateau ranges, and thus losing moisture, increase tin; 
 diflerences between the western border-regions caused 
 by the abrupt rise and greater elevation of the land. 
 In the southern portion of the Eastern and Central 
 divismii.'i! where the mount.ain ])arrier has disappcarod, 
 there is little or no dill'erence in physical characteristics, 
 both portions being maritime and semi-tropical. (See 
 " North America," sec. 1.'5). 
 
118 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE EASTERN OR ATLANTIC SEABOARD 
 DIVISION. 
 
 If). Surface Features.— Tlio width of this division 
 varies ; it reaches its inaximum in the soutliern portion, 
 wliere it exceeds two hundred miles, and its niininiuni — 
 about sixty miles — somewhat north of the centre. From 
 Florida to Cape Hatteras the breadth is uniform ; at 
 Cape Hatteras the land, instead of continuing in a north- 
 easterly direction, turns to the north, till in the state of 
 New Jersey, the water approaches the neighbourhood of 
 the mountains. At New York there is a decided east- 
 ward trend of the land, and the breadth of plain is thence- 
 forth greater, reaciiing in some places about one hundred 
 and fifty miles. 
 
 Nowhere throughout the whole extent of the coast is 
 the shore high ; in the northern part it is rocky and for- 
 bidding almost everywhere, but yet low ; in the southern 
 part in most places it is not even rocky, but passes under 
 the sea with a very gentle slope. Everywhere there ex- 
 tends with a breadth varying from ten to fifty miles, a 
 low, level, sandy plain, with swamps which become large 
 and numerous towards the south. This plain is wholly 
 of Tertiary formation. West of this sea-board plain is 
 a higher level, very narrow in the middle, but in the 
 south over 60 miles broad. In the north-east this belt 
 is hilly and broken, the soil for the most part being poor; 
 ia the middle it is undulating, containing some of the 
 ricliest and most attractive districts on the continent ; 
 the southern portion has a poor, sandy soil, usually 
 covered with pitch-pine trees, and known as the " pine 
 barrens." 
 
 Back of this l)elt lies the upland region, rising into the 
 mountains. 
 
 16. The Appalachian Mountains. — These moun- 
 tains form the western boundary of the Atlantic plain. In 
 structure they are the same as in Canada ; central masses 
 of crystalline rock ai-e met with in various places, but 
 paheoznic rocks, here and there pierced by granite, 
 form the greater part of their bulk. Silurian strata 
 predominate, but from the centre, southward, carbonifer- 
 ous strata cover a wide area. On entering from Canada 
 these mountains, here called the Green Mountains, run 
 directly south into Connecticut in two or more parallel 
 ridges, one of tiiese, the White Mountains, containing 
 Mount Washington, nearly six thousand three hundred 
 feet high. The Adirondacks to the west do not properly 
 
 belong to the Appalacliian system of mountains (see 
 ' Canada," sec. 2). In the neighbourhood of the Hudson 
 the Appalachians are known by several local names, 
 among others the CatskUh. From this point the moun- 
 tains tuni again to the south-west, having three distinct 
 ridges. "Tiie most westerly embraces the Alleyhnny 
 Mountains in Pennsylvania, and the Crimberlarid in 
 Teiniessee; the middle is a broad belt of long and narrow 
 ridges, separated by valleys of a similar chanicter, and 
 broken by transversedefiles; while theeastern, which is the 
 most beautiful and picturesque of the three, extends to 
 Oeorgia under the name of the Blue Ridge ; the valley 
 between the last two ridges is highly fertile. The highest 
 elevations are found in this region. Mount Bukley having 
 a height of 6,600 feet." The summits here are often 
 treeless and dome-shaped, a circumstance that gives rise 
 to names some of them bear, — such as Mitchell's Dome, 
 Pioniingo Uald. 
 
 17. Minerals. — The minerals of this region, found almost ex- 
 clusively in the mountains, are characteristic of the strata 
 found in Canada. In the northern part the metaliferous 
 deposits do not seem to be very rich, yet in places in all the 
 states they are rich enough to be profitably worked, — especially 
 the deposits of iron. Copper, lead, and antimoinj are also found. 
 Marble, granite, and limestone, for building or other purposes, 
 are met with everywhere, several fine varieties of the first 
 occurring in Vermont, 
 
 But the mineral wealth of the country is nowhere in such 
 magnificent deposits as in the central region of the mountain 
 chain — from northern New Jersey to Virginia. The annual 
 value of the co(d alone is nearly equal to that of all the gold and 
 silver produced in the whole of the United States. In the 
 central region of the Appalachians iron-bearing strata are as 
 extensively developed as the coal-bearing strata, and even more 
 extensively than the latter in North Carolina and other of the 
 southern districts. Tlie close proximity of iron and coal 
 throughout all this region is of the highest industrial import- 
 ance. Silver and gold are found in small quantities throughout 
 the ranges,— gold mining yielding profitable returns in North 
 Carolina. Zinc is mined in Pennsylvania, and extensively so 
 in North Carolina ; it is known to exist in all iht southern 
 moimoain area. Copper occurs in many places, but excepting 
 in North Carolina, is mined only to a small extent. Petroleum 
 is found mainly in Pennsylvania; enormous quantities are 
 pumped from the wells every year (in 1882 nearly 1,1()2,000,000 
 gallons). Numerous milt sprinnn from which laVge quantities 
 of salt are made, occur often in close proximity to the oil wells. 
 
 18. Coast Features.— Were it not for Cape Hat- 
 teras and Cape Cod the outline of the Atlantic coast 
 would be almost unbroken, for the peninsula of Delaware 
 and eastern Virginia, and that of southern New Jersey, 
 conform to tlie trend of the coast, their soutliern exten- 
 sion almost closing the mouth of the bays west of them. 
 Florida is a continen+al feature. 
 
 The Capes are numerous, but only a few are important: 
 Cajje Fear and llaUeras in North Carolina; Cnjie Charlea 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 119 
 
 in Virginia at tlie entrance to Chesapeake Bay ; Cape 
 Mmj and Handy Jlook in New Jersey, at the entrance 
 to Delaware Bay and New York Harbor respectively ; 
 Cnpe Cod at the northern end of the peninsula of the 
 same name, and Cape Ann — both in Massachusetts. 
 
 The last two, with Hatteras and Sandy Hook, are the only 
 capes heard of except in navif^ation of a very limited local 
 nature. Cape May is one of the most frequented of the 
 watering places in the United States. 
 
 All these capes are low-lying, and all are sandy except C-pe 
 Ann. 
 
 Ix/a/K?;) frinpe the coast almost throughout its entire lengih, 
 but they are all close in shore ''xcepting Ijoiuj Island, the islands 
 of Massachusetts — Nantucket and Martha's I'iiieyard, — and a few 
 on tlio coast of Maine, particularly Mount Desert. As already 
 stated, the most of tiiese coast islands are alluvial, composed 
 of sediment deposited by ocean currents, or of sand washed up 
 by the ocean waves and then often raised high above the water 
 by the action of winds. Even where the nucleus is not alluvial, 
 as in the case of the first three mentioned, the greater part of 
 the island is still composed of sand ; the bars and thread-like 
 projections that line Long Island, are identical in form and 
 character with those lining the Carolina coast. On the New 
 Jersey coast a few rocky islands are found ; but on the coast of 
 Maine they form almost an archipelago. 
 
 19. Coast Waters — ^As might be e.xpected from the 
 character of tlie shore, tlie waters in the neighbourhood 
 of the coast are shallow ; this is more markedly the case 
 off the southern and soutli-eastern New England coast ; 
 the shallow water, less tiian a hundred fathoms in depth, 
 extends south to at least the parallel of forty, and east 
 of Cape Cod for fully a hundred and fifty miles. This 
 high elevation of the submarine part of the continent 
 produces numerous shoals, including that at the entrance 
 to New York Harbor and the Nantucket shoals, where, 
 in a heavy sea, even schooners will strike bottom. These 
 shallow waters are the scene of extensive tisherie.s. 
 Some of the " banks " are as far from land as is the 
 Grand Bank of Newfoundland. 
 
 None of the bays or other inlets are open except those of the 
 New England States, — Cape Cod Bay, Ciisco liaij, and others on 
 the coast of Maine. Albemarle, Pamlico, and other " sounds " 
 on the Carolina coast are shut off from the ocean by the 
 alluvial islands, in some cases to such an extent that the water, 
 everywhere shallow, is only brackish. Clw-iapeabe liaij is 
 almost land-lockod ; in length, irregularity, and numerous off- 
 shoots, it closely resembles the mountain inlets of British 
 Columbia ; its oyster fisheries are the most extensive in the 
 world. Delaware lUty is more open to the sea than is the 
 Chesapeake; its shores are sandy to a much greater extent 
 than those of the latter, and in consequence are less adapted to 
 the propagation of oysters. The spring fisheries, however, are 
 valuable. Low; Island Sound, 120 milis long, is so completely 
 sheltered that navigation would be perfectly safe in it in all 
 weathers, were ii, not for tlie extensive shallows and bars that 
 everywhere border it, especially on the southern side. It is the 
 highway of a very great traffic between New York, the New 
 England States, and the Maritime Provinces of Canada. Large 
 sailing vessels or deep draught steamers do not navigate it ; the 
 
 " Sound Steamers," for passengers, are widely known for their 
 great size, their speed, and palacc-likc character. 
 
 20. The Rivers are numerous but are of necessity 
 short, and, except in their lower courses in the " tide 
 water " region, are seldom navigable. These lower 
 courses take tl s form of estuaries — ^broad. often deep, 
 expansions of a river exposed to the action of the 
 tides. On nearly all the rivers thi'ougliout the Atlantic 
 sea-board where the so(!ond level of the land pas.ses 
 down to the first level, low falls occur ; above these 
 on the larger streams such as the Savannah, are long 
 stretches of water navigable for smaller river boats. 
 Large vessels can ascend to the head of all the estuaries, 
 and on the chief rivers river-boats can often go as far 
 as the falls, especially at liigh tide ; for in these rivers, 
 as in the St. Lawrence, the salt water at flood tide backs 
 up the fresh water for a long distance. Thus on the 
 Savannah, ocean ships ascend to the city of Savannah, 
 while steamers of over a hundred tons burden go as far 
 up as Augusta, a direct course of more than a hundred 
 miles. To the north, the Hudson is the only river free 
 for a long distance from obstructing falls in places where 
 the water is otherwise deep enough for navigation. 
 
 From Georgia to New York the course of the rivers to 
 the ocean h south-easterly, — at right angles to the moun- 
 tain watershed ; north of New York the river courses ai-e 
 southerly. This last peculiarity is evidently due to the 
 influence exerted by the Laurentian Adirondack Moun- 
 tains upon the course taken by the Appalachians. On 
 approaching the Adii'ondacks the Appalachians turn 
 southward and the rivers follow the direction of the 
 ranges. The devious course of the rivers in Maine are 
 due to the same causes as that of the St. John in New 
 Brunswick. 
 
 From Georgia to southern Virginia the rivers have 
 their head waters on the eastern range of the Appala- 
 chians ; but those further north, as far as the Delaware, 
 start on the central or Alleghany ridge, and break through 
 the Blue and other eastern ridges, often iu deep wild 
 gorges. The gorge on the Potomac, near Harper's Ferry, 
 and especially the one on the Delawa-e where the preci- 
 pices rise to the height of twelve hundred feet, are the 
 most striking examples of this characteristic feature. 
 
 Of the chief rivers the Saraiiuah lies between Georgia and 
 South Carolina, the lioauoke is in North Carolina, the James with 
 an estuary fifty miles long, in Virginia; the Potomac between 
 the Virginias and Maryland, is about four hundred miles long 
 including its estuary ; this estuary, reaching nearly to Washing- 
 
120 
 
 LNITKD STATES. 
 
 ton, is one liundrwl niilcR Ions. »"'! i" places sovnn milps broad. 
 Near Wartluiijjton the rivor has a dimoeiit of oiahty ftnit in two 
 iniios, iiicludin« a fall thirty tlvn foi-t hi>;li Tho .S'H«7ncA<j;imi 
 mainly in Ponnsylvania anil" €'iitcrinn into Ghe8a|)oak;. !«iiy, iti 
 ahnost wholly anionj; tho niountainM, and Ivmn i, dev'oiiH in 
 itsoourHoand oontaum nniuerous waterfalls and rapidH. Tlio 
 Dtlitwaie, expanding into tho bay of tho saino name, w.uch ih 
 really only tho estuary of thonvor, forma tho boundary botw.'oii 
 Pennsylvania and Now Jersey; the tiile m the rivov reaches 
 Trenton in Now Jersey, l.W miles from tho sea, but o. ean-i>oini< 
 vessels cannot pass beyond Philadelphia. Tho //h./soh, which 
 has its head waters ainonj^ tho liaurentian Adiroudivck Moun- 
 tains, is oommorcially one of tlio most important rivers in 
 America. For it lias not only tho commercoof the numerouj 
 cities ami of an extensive arKicultural country in its own noi^l' • 
 borlKHHl, but also in a large measure tho commerce of the Gieat 
 Lakes. Tho Krio canaU btitween HulTalo and Albany, and tho 
 Hudson Uiver, form ono of tho chief waterways leadiiif< from the 
 west to the ocean. The length of the river is about .'150 miles, tho 
 tide reachiiiK Troy, KiO miles from tho river's mouth Where 
 tho river winds throujjh the Hi^;hIands, (Catskill Mountains) 
 the scenery 18 very fine; this is more especially the case just 
 below tho Ilifihlands where basaltic clifls, calleti the Palisades, 
 500 feet hi^h, line the west shore for fifteen miles. Tho Von. 
 Ufcticut, startiuf* in Vermont, passes between that atato and New 
 Hampshire, crossinf? two other states on its way to tho Long 
 Island Sound. Its chief fall occurs at Hartford. The Kennebec 
 and Penobscot, both in Maine, are very imiwrtant in the lumber 
 trade, that of tho Penobscot being tho largest in the United 
 States. The falls on tho latter are at Bangor, si.vty miles from 
 the sea. and on tho former at Augusta. On the Keune))ec such 
 names as Iceton iwint out one of the chief industries, 
 
 21. The Lakes are few except in tlie e.xtreme nortli- 
 east. Ill l\\\\\w, whore tJiey are inmimerablo, tliey are 
 wliolly of tho ghu'ial clianu-ter ; tlie mountain Lakes, ex- 
 cepting a few, are within the Ixirders of Caiuuht. Of 
 these Ldke, Champlnin i.s the most important ; it lias a 
 true mountain eliaraoter— long, d rrow, deep in places, 
 clear, and abounding in line scenery. Tt lias become a 
 commeivial highway between C'anada and New York, 
 Champlain canal connecting it with tho Hudson at 
 Albany. It is about ll'O miles long. L<iko. Gvonje, a 
 beautifully transparent sheet of watei-, lies to tho south- 
 west of Liike Champlain. In western New York are 
 several lakes e.xeavated in the older paheo/.oio strata, 
 and having in most places rocky, often perpendicular, 
 shores. The chief of those are Cnyioja, Snieca, and 
 OtU'idiX. 
 
 22. Climate.— The climate of the Eastern United 
 States is maritime in character, varying according to dis- 
 tance from the tropical regions, and less liable to sudden 
 and marked changes than the climate of the Central area, 
 or of the eastern half of tho Plateau region. It is not so 
 decidedly maritime, lioweNcr, as is tho climate of west(>rn 
 Europe, for the prevailing winds are not so directly 
 oceanic ; the south-westerly winds do not ivach the land 
 from the ocean ; they therefore do not have the coui- 
 
 jiaratively eijuablo cliaract<>r of purely oceanic winds ; 
 the prevailing winter winds are nortli-we8U<r!y, and 
 lience are land wjnd.s. Some shelter from these in 
 all'orded by the mountaiii.s, but not enough to prevent 
 the temperxtiM-o in the north eastern part from sinking 
 very low. ,V11 this northeastern distiict, as well aH tho 
 maritime parts of Caiuula, is exposed to the chilling 
 luu-th-eastern oceanic wind.s. Tlie.sti winds bring abiiii 
 dant moisture both lussnow and rain, but while retarding 
 spring and making it a tedious .season, tlnv do not pro- 
 duce such intense cold as do the drier nortnwe.st winds 
 in the .same latitudes on the western side of the Ajipala- 
 chian range. The spring in soutli western Maine is later 
 than in tlie Eiustern Townships of Quebec, though Maine 
 is farther io tho south. 
 
 In the mountain n'gions tho climato is cooler and the 
 valleys are subject to rapid and great variations in tem- 
 perature ; this is especially the case in tli« northern por- 
 tions where, as in the Connecticut valley, changes amount- 
 ing to si.xty degrees in si.xteen liours have taktMi place. 
 Snow, which is very abundant in the north-eastern 
 portion of the Alleghanies, falls to some extent through- 
 out the whole range. (See Pt. T. sec. 27, itc, and Pt. 
 U. "North America," sec. 1:5). 
 
 2;J. The Productions and Industries have been 
 referred to under " I'liifed States," .sections f) i). 
 
 Nearly one-h.alf of the population a.id wealth of the 
 nation is in this division of the ccuintry, and more than 
 three-fourths of the foreign trade pas.ses through its 
 ports. 
 
 '24. Political Subdivisions. -Tho Eastern Division of the 
 
 United States coiitaiiis seventeen statew; thcHo are usually sub- 
 divided into three groups, more or loss resembling each'other 
 in physical characteristics. 
 
 2."). New England States.— These States comprise 
 Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massacliusetts, Rhode 
 Island, and Connecticut. They r(!S(Mnl)le each other 
 closely in soil and jjroduction.s, and to a more limited ex- 
 tent in climate. Tlie soil i.s only modei-jitely fertile, tho 
 alluvial deposits in some of tht; river-valleys, Jiowever, 
 are rich, and yield excellent crops. 
 
 20. Characteristics.— Agriculture, though in most 
 places scientitically pursued, is not a commercial industry, 
 and br'-adstuHs have to bo obtained from other States. 
 Almost .■ill the Fisliiiin on the Atl.uitic coast, except tho 
 oyster tishery, is carried on by New Engl.and, particularly 
 by Massachusetts and ■Maine ; the Minimj industry is 
 
Pt 
 
 PHYSICAL FI'lATrUKH. 
 
 uimnportui.t ...xcopt, in nmor two }..irti,.ul.irs. Tli., wator 
 powor HuiM.li.Ml l.y tin, MunuT.M.H ntpi.l littlo sfroHnis 
 al.mK tl'o Ix.un.lHry hHwoni tl.o Jirst, h.hI mv..,,,! ur...,.s .,f 
 H.«VHt,..„, is «t,ilix..,l t,. a v..,y K'.vat oxt.M.t in .lrivi„« 
 tlu. iimrimM-ry „f /•„,./,„,,... „f al.i.ost .-VMy kind N.-sv 
 
 K..Kl'tM.I, t..u, J.as l.,n« 1 , for,m..,st, in K,h„;,,i,n,„l 
 
 Jmnt„l,ons, tvoui its tw„ ^rvat univo.Hi.i..M. Ilarvanland 
 \ 'il.., t„ Its ln;,d, and o„nn...n Hdu.ols I „ .■„„«,,,„,.»,.„ it 
 Ims l„MM, fon.Mu.st i„ int..iI,K..„..o and in intHLvtual 
 pol.tU'al. and industrial activity; tl.r innltitu.l..H „f its 
 ponplo that l.av,, ..n.i«rat..(l to all parts of tla, llni<.n 
 
 """■'■ "'I "^"y *•<» ♦'"' «"'«t»'n, north-rntral Htat..s, hav,', 
 
 carnod w.th tluMn and ,vsl„l,lisl,.,d in tlu-ir nnw |,„„h,s 
 tlH« lov., of l,.arninK "s wHl as indnstrial activity S,. 
 •""d.lnus tl.ia iKMMi tim .aso that N.-w Kn^land .annut 
 l>.".sanl to h,.i,| thnsan.o rriativ,- position in inflli.^.n... 
 and icai-nin- now as it did in y,.ars ^r.,nn l,y. 
 
 Tho thr,.„ northern states, also, on ,uvonnt of th..ir 
 gonoral rn,:,^,;,..,! oh.n t.t.M-, aro l,„ttor sui.,.,1 for ^ra/in-^ 
 than tor a.,ria.ltur. prop.r ; Iwmu-o tJu-so stat.s. .sp." 
 cmlly Vcnnont, have Jon;, l,.... w,.|i known for th.. 
 •'xcoilonco of thc-ir dai.y prodnrts, N.-w |<:ni,dan.l l.utt.T 
 oonunan.lin- th,. lMV|...st priro in <h,. n.arkrts. 
 
 -'7. Maine.* M„i„.. is t,i.„ ,,„,,,,,, „,. „„. j^.,,^^, 
 
 I'^-Kland S(a„.s, an.l th. i.-ast attraetivo. I5a.-k fr h.- 
 
 '■"i'st n-.ou it, is ,,,„„.|,^ ,,,„, „„,,,,„,,„.fi^.,. ,,,,,.,.^^^ ^^.|| 
 cou-r tho ^.r,.at..r part of tho nortlaTu half of tho state. 
 
 Thoindnstrios, i,;.,Miti„n to tho nianufarlnrin.^ aro 
 in c...nn<.,.tion with tho Fon-sf. a„d /V.v^ovV'.v. 
 
 121 
 
 Tho tlMliorinH aron.«xt in importan.-o to those of Massa 
 
 ••iMisotts. Av. has, of lato years, tn important 
 
 ^ mti.le of oxp(.rt. esp,.,-ially on the K.-nnrhor River 
 
 S/n), liuihll,,,, was .M.ro an important industry, i.ut 
 lias greatly ih-eayeil. 
 
 Citie8.-/W/Af/»,/(p„p. ;t;i,HlU) is the iarwest eity 
 111 thoHtate, and one of the ehief eonnnereial eities of 
 New Kn^land. It has important manufaeturesof euKines, 
 loeouiotives, and heavy iron art irirs K«'i..'ra|lv. [f, i„*|„! 
 terminus of the (Jran.l Trunk Kaihvay of Cana.la, and is 
 the wint(.rport of M<.ntroaloeeaii steamers. • arhor 
 
 is K<w><l, well sheltered, lon^, Uut not v.-ry c,. , n- 
 
 1.ui"™;.m'v" '■"'';["'• ■' '.""l"»<U' II'" Kmnu.lKM.. in a lull,, city. 
 
 l>ut M.|> active ni thooninutry in.luHtrirH (,f tl„. „ut,„ ^ 
 
 /'""//»»•. ...1 tlu, l'cn..l.Hcot. JH tin, cunirc of tlu, lurnlmr tni.l,,. 
 
 I'M. New Hampshire. Tho surface of this stato is 
 
 n.u-h aiul hroken ; there is little fertih, .soil except in the 
 river vaUey.s. Th., nuaintain .sc.mery is especially fine, 
 Ml. Wa.shinKton and th., White M.amtains l...inKsunMner 
 
 ••csort.s. On Mt. W.-shin^Mon t!n,r., is a nu-t •olo^rioal 
 
 ol.s,.rvatory, e.stal.li.she.l l.y tlu- K.-dcral (.'..v.-rnmcnt. 
 
 Th., /m/;/N/r/M an, those (.f northern New Kn^darul - 
 iiu'lnding «|iiarryinK •>" an .'xtensive scale. 
 
 The .•lii..f ( ■///,..., all Kniall, ar.. ( •„,„■„,■,/, tlu, capital ; M„„rh,Ht,'r 
 
 U,' I'mi "". ''T""""'\ >' '"^val Htat. the' only harl..,,./ ,1 
 
 tlu. httU, Hi np ,.f cast thai Iho stale iMmHcsses. 
 
 ■-".). Vermont is wholly a moin.tain stat.- ; the 
 <-'reen Mountains oftc , r.v.ch a h.'i^d.t ..f mumv than 
 1,000 feet. 
 
 A,jrl,-vlt>,rr isnu,r.. of a leiulin- pursuit than in New 
 Hampshire <u' Maine, and stock-raising an.l dairy farm- 
 ing,' ar.' carri.'.l on .'.xt.Misively. 
 
 'I'lu, Cili,:, an, all v.M-y Hinall, MoNlprlin; tlu, capital is a 
 I'TraM I 'T ' "r'r""" ''■"'>■ "^'"^^•^'' "" '-'- ' ■I--. - m iH 
 
 'I'"'". >>, t only of tuo Htatc, lait of tlu, l'r..vuu,c of QucIm.c ' 
 
 * For area and i...i,„latiou of tho stat.,H.K,v, A,,,,.,,i(iix II. 
 
 .'50. Massachusetts.-Tu <nltivati.,n, politi,.a| in- 
 "'"■•"•<■- ••""iiniero, cMrnt of maimfacturos, and ^.neral 
 iiidtistriai activity, .Ma.ssMchus.-tts has Ion- held the fore- 
 most place in the United States. 
 
 It has t!:e most i.roken and irre.i^ulnr const of mII tin, 
 Athmtic atates : its headlaiuls encio.se Cap., Cod Hay, 
 Ma.^.sacln.s.■its iJ.iy, an.l iJuz/ard's l!ay. The w..st..rn' 
 l>artof tlu, Sli.t.., is cros.sed l.y tho Alle-hani.'.s, and is 
 rou-h an.l l.rok.-n ; I.ut this ran«o is her., at its low.'st ; 
 eksewher., it exce.ls ;5,r.00 f.-.-t in h.-ight. Tho .soil is' 
 
 .1 
 
 f?! 
 
 :i 
 
 III 
 
122 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 ' 
 
 not luiturally fertile, but liaa been made liighly produc- 
 tive by intolligcnt cultivation ; the valley of the Connec- 
 ticut, however, has a very rich soil. The Houth-east is 
 low, sandy, and often very marshy. 
 
 In the Fisherien, Massachusetts is the foremost state 
 of the Union ; its fine fishing-Heet, especially from 
 Gloucester, is une(iualled in the world. 
 
 Mamt/dcturiruj is the great industry of the state ; the 
 artich's made are of every conceivable kind, from shoe- 
 laces and pins to ships. The chief manufactures consist 
 of cotton and woollen goods of all kinds ; leather and 
 articles uf leather ; iron implements and combinations of 
 wood and iron ; machinery and castings and innumerable 
 articles of wood. Massachusetts is surpassed in value of 
 numufactures only by New York and Pennsylvania. In 
 1880 the value of the manufactures was over $G^\r 
 000,000. 
 
 In general snipping Massachusetts excels every other 
 state, and in foreign conunerce stands next to New 
 York. 
 
 Some little Minimj of iron and of an exceedingly hard 
 kind of anthracite coal, is carried on. 
 
 Cities. — On account of its muiuit'actures, Massa- 
 chusetts is one of the most densely peopled states of the 
 Union ; it contains very many cities, some of them of 
 large size. 
 
 Boston (population 302, nOO), the capital, and largest 
 city, is situated on rising ground at the western extremity 
 of Massachusetts Bay. The harbor, though capacious 
 and safe, is not deep; the entrance is protet.ed by 
 numerous islands, sandy for the most part, and sometimes 
 high. 
 
 The industries of the city are the same as in the state 
 at large, but include others peculiar to maritime towns. 
 Numerous raili'oads frf)m all directions terminate here. 
 
 The first city of New England, Boston is one of the 
 
 first in the United States in population, manufactures, 
 
 and conunerce; it surpasses all others in the number, 
 
 variety, and excellence; of its educational institutions — 
 
 colleges, public and high schools, schools of science, 
 
 libraries, museums, kc. 
 
 Boston is one of the few old cities of America, and like all 
 these cities, its streets have not that monotonous regularity that 
 characterizes the ordinary American town. It has numerous 
 suburbs, cities themselves, such as Ctunhridne. containint; the 
 celebrated Harvard University, and Chelsea. 
 
 Lowell, Fall-Riwr, and Lawrence liold the first place in the 
 manufacture of cotton and woollen goods ; Haverhill and Lynn, 
 
 liftvo the loadin« boot and shoe factorioH; Worcetter manufao. 
 tiircH ttKriciiltural and other macliiiiery, and Sprinnfleld, fire 
 arniH iiml railroad civim ; lloli/iikr has larj^e paper mills ; (ilnucfx- 
 (cc, ami its noiKhborinn town of Marhlehead, are the chief tishin^ 
 towiiH of the United Htates ; Newtmrnport is also an important 
 tlHhiii){ town, buildin({ uniny shipH likewiso. 
 
 ;J1. Rhode Island, though the smallest state in the 
 Union, is relatively the most important in its u\anufac- 
 tiu-es, especially of cotton and woollen goods. Laurentian 
 strata form a large portion of the state, which is in ccm- 
 secjuence rough and broken ; the coast is often low, sandy, 
 and swain[iy. Carboniferous strata, containing exceed- 
 ingly hard anthracite coal, are also found. 
 
 Ai/ricnltviY takes the form chiefly of dairy farming and 
 market gardening to supply the numerous cities of the 
 neighborhood. The Finheriea are important, but are 
 carried on mainly to supply New York with fresh fish. 
 
 Cities.— Manufacturing towns and villages are very numer- 
 ous. Providence and Newport are the capitals of the state ; the 
 latter, on Newport island, is a famous watering place, the shore 
 shelving off very slowly. Providence (population 109,857) is 
 one of the important cities of the United States ; it lies on a 
 little arm of the Narragansett Bay, a body of water that pene- 
 trates deeply intc the state. Its commerce, both foreign and 
 coastwise, is quite extensive ; its manufactures are very great, 
 including, beside the ordinary manufactures of New Jingland, 
 l)lated and silver ware. Brown University is situated in this 
 city. Jlrintol is the chief seoport. 
 
 ?>-2. Connecticut resembles Rhode Island physically 
 and in the character of its agricultural pursuits. The 
 Appalachian ranges in the west are very low, but make 
 the country broken and hilly, a feature that character- 
 izes the east of the state also, but to a less degree. The 
 minerals that have been mined are iron ore, marble, and 
 hroum samhhmc, the last largely employed as fronts for 
 buildings, especially in New York. 
 
 The numerous watei'-falls are utilized to such a degree, 
 that, in the extent of its manufactures, this very small 
 state is unsurpassed, and in \alue of its aggregate pro- 
 ducts is excelled only by six. It supplies nearly half of 
 all the hardware, more than half of all the plated-ware, 
 and nearly all the pins and clocks used or exported by 
 the United States. In tiu; number and variety of small 
 articles manufactured, this state takes the lead. 
 
 Cities. — Ilarlford, the capital, at the head of navigation on 
 the Connecticut llivcr, is a finely-built, compact city. It is 
 well known for the great amount of money that it has invested 
 in the insurance business. Its characteristic manufactures 
 are machinery, fire-arms, sewing-machines, and plated-ware; 
 but it has all the other leading New England manufactures. 
 Nciv ILiven, the largest city in tlic statu, and a, acaport, ia the 
 seat of Yale college, which holds e(]ual rank with Harvard 
 college, liridfu'port. New London, and Stoninjiton are tlie chief 
 ports, all having lines of palace steamers to New York. 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 128 
 
 MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. 
 
 3.3. TIio Hecoiul j^miip of Atlantic States coiiiprisas New 
 York, Now Jersey, FtMinsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, 
 and Virginia, The.so in climate and natural productions 
 Htand midway lietween the cold-teniperato New England 
 States, and the suli-tropical South Atlantic States. 
 
 The Appalachians, low and narrow throughout southerti 
 New England, liero become much more massive, and have 
 their mineral wealth in its gi-eatest perfection. 
 
 The Climaf^, except in the northern part of New York, 
 cannot be called extreme ; the changes of tcMuperature 
 are never very sudden or very violent ; the heat, though 
 not more intense than farther north, is, however, more 
 continuous; in winter, except in the mountains and in New 
 York generally, snow usually gives place to r-in, or if 
 snow falls, it lasts l;ut a short time. 
 
 The Veijetatioii is not different as a whole from that of 
 New England, but there are some productions, either not 
 found farther north, or not found in perfection, — sweet 
 potatoes, peaches, grapes, and melons. 
 
 The IndiistrifH, instead of being confined to two or 
 three leading kinds, as in New England, are of all kinds. 
 The states of this group hold the first or a leading posi- 
 tion in agriculture, fruit raising, stock raising, mining, 
 fishing, manufact nig, lumbering, and shipping. The 
 manufactures differ but little from those of New England, 
 excepting that cotton and woollen goods do not have the 
 same prominence as in New England. 
 
 lifiih'omls are very numerous, and Canals also, especi- 
 ally in the northern statcM of the group. 
 
 In Educntiim and general intelligence the Middle 
 Atlantic States are liut little behind the New England 
 States. The universities of Cornell (at Ithaca, New 
 York), New York, Princeton, and Johns Hopkins (at 
 Baltimore), take high rank, being in many respects 
 scarcely, if at all, inferior lo Harvard and Yale of New 
 England. 
 
 The great wealth, population, resources, and industrial 
 and conunercial activity of New York and Pennsylvania, 
 give these states an important influence in the general 
 politics of the country. 
 
 34. New York is one of the largest, and in many re- 
 spects, the most important of the Middle Atlantic; States. 
 Its surface cha'-acteristics are varied ; the north is occu- 
 pied by the Adirondacks, a spur of the Laurentian rocks 
 
 of Canada, which rise into many liigh hills or mountains, 
 Mount Murcy, the highest peak, reaching an elevation of 
 5,402 feiit. Southward of this lies a more fertile country, 
 but lirokeu by the Appalachians. The centre and west 
 of the state is plateau in character, the southern side 
 being the highest and sloping off into T'cnnsylvania ; 
 but the northern side terminates in a limestone escarp- 
 ment, not far from Lake Ontario, — the same escarpment 
 that crosses into Ontario at Queenston. Waterfalls, in 
 consecjuence, exist on all the streams entering the lake 
 from this region. 
 
 The whole of the plateau region, as wt«ll as the valley 
 
 of the MohawK ^>ing at the southern boundary of the 
 
 Laurentian country, is fertile and well cultivated. 
 
 Of the Rivers other than the Hudson (see sec. 20), tlie Geneiee 
 in tlie west is the most important ; ita lower courBe ig through 
 the most fertile land in the state— tfie Genesee valley. There 
 are falls on the river, one over the escarpment at Kochester is 
 about a hundred feotliifih ; all are utilized in driving machinery. 
 Ihe Molumkianot a navigable stream, but furnishes important 
 water-power; several of the larger rivers of the states to the 
 south,— the Ddtiware, Smquehauua, Ohio, and others,— have their 
 upper valleys in New York. The East River, really a strait 
 connects New York Harbor and Long Island Sound. In this 
 nver, opposite the upper part of the city, is the famous " Hell - 
 Gate," once a dangerous tidal rapid, occasioned for the most 
 part by rocks in the channel. 
 
 Agriculture is a leading industry, especially of the 
 western half of the state; in dairy products, in the 
 growing of fruit, potatoes, buckwheat, hay, and hops. 
 New York surpasses all other states ; grapes are grown 
 extensively along the Hudson and in the lake districts 
 of the west-centre, peaches in the west generally. Lon<^ 
 Island and the districts bordering on the Hudson, are 
 largely given up to market gardening and city dairying. 
 
 The Afinirif/ of iron-ore is extensively pursued in the 
 Laurentian country, and thu quarrying of marble and 
 building stone in the Appalachian region. 
 
 The Fisheries of Long Island are valuable, but in tlie 
 main the fish caught are taken fresh to the i.-arkets of 
 New York ; oysters and other shell-fish form an im- 
 portant part of t '. fisheries. 
 
 la aggregate value of Mdaufaetures New York far 
 surpasses all other states. It produces a large number 
 of important articles, but has none that may be called 
 characteristic, such as the New England States and 
 Pennsylvania l.:iAe, evrepting tlse ,n:iiuifacture of flour 
 and the refining of sugar and molasses ; in these it ranks 
 first among the states. Outside of the large cities manu- 
 facturing is pretty evenly distributed. 
 
 iliil 
 
 
V \ '- ■ 
 
 124 
 
 UNITKI) STATES. 
 
 1'] 
 
 ' il 
 
 ||.: If 
 
 l:i| 
 
 In Foreign Commerce this state lias no equal. The 
 amount of shipping owned in Ne'v York is greater than 
 that owned in any other state. 
 
 There are many Educational Institutions — Normal 
 Schools, Medical Schools, Colleges, and Universities. 
 
 The Railroada are numerous — all centering in New York ; 
 those leading from Canada are tlie Erie, New York Central, and 
 another from Montreal. There are several Canals, the chief 
 being the Erie canal from Buffalo to Albany, and the Cham- 
 plain canal from Lake Ghamplain to the Hudson at Albany. 
 
 Cities.— JVew York (population, 1,206,300) is the 
 largest city in the New World, and in wealth and com- 
 merce is surpassed only by London and Liverpool in 
 Eui'ope. The liarbor is capacious and safe, although the 
 entrance to it, called the " Narrows," — a passage between 
 Long Island and Staten Island six miles below the city — 
 is shallow, and at low water cannot be passed by deep- 
 draught vessels. Staten Island, five miles below the 
 city, completely shelters the harbor from all southerly 
 storms. The city is situated almost wholly upon a 
 slightly elevated tongue of land, — in reality nn island, 
 called Manhattan Island,— formed by the Hudson and 
 East Rivers at their entrance in^D the northern part of 
 the harbor. An extensive water frontage is thus afforded 
 for commerce. The manufactures are numerous and im- 
 portant — refined sugar and the various preparations of 
 tobacco being leading commodities. New York is a 
 commercial rather than a manufacturing city ; its ex- 
 cellent position at the moutli of a navigable river flowing 
 from a long distance inland and artificially extended to 
 the great lakes, makes it the point from which a vast 
 trade in both imports and exports is carried on with 
 foreign countries. It has, in fact, half of the foreign 
 commerce of the United States. 
 
 Within a radius of ten miles from near the j' 'Ction of the 
 Hudson and East rivers are Brooklyn, Jersey City, Hoboken, 
 Newark, Elizabeth, Long Island City, and numerous smaller 
 town:;, the total population of which, together with that of New 
 York, is over 2,000,000. 
 
 There aro many citieH of large size in New York. Albany, 
 (population, '.t0,7r)8 in 1880) the cajjital, is eituated 150 miles 
 up the Hudson, at the liead of river navigatioa ; it has 
 numerous manufactures and an important transfer trade in 
 cattle, lumber, and grain. Brookhjn, on the Eastliiver opposite 
 New York, has a water frontage of ten nuies, and contains a 
 Navy Yard and several refineries for sugar and petroleum. 
 liuffalo is the third city in the state; besides its important 
 manufactures, it dnoB a. very liirgn tniiisfcr trade. A fleet of 
 steamers and sailing vessels brings to its port grain, lumber, 
 and cattle from the west ; these aro transferred to the railroads 
 aud the Erie Canal to be taken to New York and ISoston. 
 Hc'-hester, seven miles from the mouth of the Genesee river, 
 manufactures flour very exteudively, and exports great quiui- 
 
 tities of fie'd and garden seeds. Sijr<ii-ii-<r and O/io/irfai/a contain 
 the chief brine wells. O.nceijo and Oijdenshurp have an important 
 trade with Canada in grain and lumber. Troy, Utica, Auburn, 
 and Saratoga, the latter a summer resort on account of its 
 mineral springs, are important inland cities. 
 
 35. New Jersey has its north and north-western part 
 in the broken Alleghany country ; the rest is the low, 
 sandy coast region with characteristic marshes ; islands 
 similar to the cotwt I'tgion fringe the shore everywhere. 
 In the valleys of the highlands Mie soil is fertile ; else- 
 where it is very light but well adapted for fruit and foi 
 market-gardening, /ron especially is largely mined, and 
 copper to some extent. Building-stone is extensively 
 quarried ; sand suitable for glass-making, and clay for 
 earthenware, exist in large quantities. 
 
 Agricultural pursuits are in a great measure confined 
 to the cultivation of orchard and small fruits, — peaches, 
 grapes, strawberries, cranberries, <&c., — and of garden 
 vegetables. Agriculture proper, including the raising of 
 grain and of common and sweet potatoes, holds an impor- 
 tant place, as do also stock-raising and dairy -farming. 
 
 The Manufactures are similar to those of New York, 
 but include silk goods, earthenwai'e of all kinds, and 
 glassware. The aggregate value of the manufactures in 
 1880 was nearly ,$200,000,000. 
 
 Cities. — Trenton, the capital, at the head of navigation on the 
 Delaware river, is said to manufacture more earthenware than 
 all the rest of America. Newark manufactures clothing, 
 jeweh\y, and silk goods, and Patterson, at the Falls of the 
 Passaic, locomotives, silks, and cottons. Jersey City, at the 
 mouth of the Hudson, is almost a suburb of New York City. 
 Lony Branch, Cape May, and Atlantic City are fashionable 
 watering-places. Frincetcn is the seat of Princeton University. 
 
 36. Pennsylvania. — The Appalachian Mountains, 
 bearing very many local names, occupy the greater part 
 of this state ; only a narrow strip in the east is alluvial. 
 The parallel mountain ranges enclf)se several valleys, 
 some of which are quite narrrow, others are from fifteen 
 to twenty miles in width. Some of the ridges have fiat 
 table-lands on their summits; many have sharp cr".3ts 
 M'ith rocky sides, and most are covered v.-ith timber. 
 
 The Anthracite Coal region is an irregular ti'act one 
 liundred miles long and thirty broad, lying between the 
 east branch of the Sus(|U('hanna and the Lehigh rivers, 
 the total area being about 472 sijuarc? miles. The .'•■outh- 
 west(;rn part of the staU;, between the Alleghany 
 mountains and Oliio river, is the great iron and bitu- 
 minous coal region. Petroleum and salt abound in the 
 niitli-western part of the state. Large (juantities of 
 
V \ 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATUKES. 
 
 125 
 
 slate are quarried in the Delaware and Lehigli valleys. 
 The south-eastern part of the state has no coal. 
 
 The valleys and the south produce grain, grass, and 
 fruit. The annual aggregate value of the grain, hay, 
 potatoes, and tobacco is very great, but is exceeded hy 
 that of the fruit, animal and garden products. 
 
 The Delaware and Ohio rivers, and Lake Erie are the 
 great natural trade routes of the state. 
 
 In Manufactures Pennsylvania holds a very prominent 
 place ; in 1880 the total value of these was $745,000,- 
 000. In the same year 
 half of the iron and steel 
 of the United States was 
 manufactured here, the 
 value having been nearly 
 $146,000,000. In the man- 
 ufacture of glass, mixed 
 goods, and chemicals, Penn- 
 sylvania ranks first. 
 
 Cities Philadelphia, 
 
 one hundred miles from the 
 ocean, at the confluence of 
 the Delaware and Schuyl- 
 kill rivers, is the second 
 largest city in Americiv ; 
 it has a very long water 
 frontage on the former 
 river, which is here navig- 
 able for the largest ocean 
 steamers; it is also the 
 principal port of the an- 
 thracite region. Its foreign 
 trade is very large, West 
 India produce forming a leading feature. In 1880 the 
 population was 847,170, of which nearly a quarter were 
 engaged in manufactures. 
 
 Hurrinhiini, the capital, on the Susquehanna river, has ready 
 access to the coal and iron regions, and is largely enmu'ed in 
 the manufacture of fiessenier steel and other products of^iron 
 FttUlmrn, at the confiuence of the AUcglianv and Monon- 
 gahela rivers, is the centre of the coal and iron trade It has 
 extensive niannfactures of iron and steel, foundry products 
 machinery of ..d kinds, and glass; its trade down the Olrcl 
 and Mississippi is very great. /.riV, on the shore of Lake 
 I'.rie, has an excellent liarbor, and exports largo (luantities of 
 eoal, iron, and potroiouni. 
 
 M. Delaware is undulating in the nortJi, Init else- 
 where it is the low characteristic coast region. Tlie soil 
 is generally light but, as in New Jersey, is well adapted 
 
 Fig. G7.— Coal RREAKHn and Shi'ii. 
 
 for fruit of all kinds, especially peaches, melons, and 
 small fruits, and for garden vegetables. The raising of 
 these constitutes the chief part of the agriculture, 
 though wheat and Indian corn are important crops. 
 
 The Manufactures are of the ordinary kind, preserved 
 fruits forming a leading article. 
 
 Cities.— These are hover, the capital ; Wilmington, the largest 
 city, a very active manufacturing town in v/hich most of the 
 manufactures of the state are produced ; of these the chief 
 are gunpowder, iron and articles of iron, and ships. 
 
 38. Maryland.— Maryland is divided by the Chesa- 
 peake Bay; the east is the 
 characteristic low, sandy 
 plain, while the west, at 
 some distance back from 
 the Bay, rises into the Ap- 
 palachian ridges. These 
 ridges are often steep and 
 bold, but enclose valleys of 
 great fertility. 
 
 The swampy districts 
 produce a good deal of 
 timber, including white 
 oak, hickory, cedar, and 
 cypress. The Agriculture 
 is the same as that of Dela- 
 ware and New Jersey, in- 
 cluding, however, a much 
 more extensive cultivation 
 of tobacco, — the tobacco 
 region being to the west 
 'if the Chesapeake Bay. 
 
 The Minerals are im- 
 portant, coal and iron be- 
 
 ing extensively mined. 
 
 The Fisheries are extremely valuable, especially the 
 oyster fishery. In 1880 oysters to the value of nearly 
 8."),000,000 were taken in Maryland alone. Immense 
 <iu,uitities of (.'ame, especially ducks and geese, frequent 
 the waters of this state. 
 
 The Manufactures are similar to those of the rest of 
 the group of states, but canned fruits and oysters consti- 
 tute lending products. 
 
 Cities.— IhiUiimre , (population, :}32,.S18) fourteen miles from 
 Chesapeake Bay, is an important market for flour, oysters, 
 fish, tobacco, and canned fruits. It has uii extensive trade with 
 Liverpool and Bremen. Aiiii'ipolis, a small citv, and seat of 
 the tl. S. Naval Academy, is the capital. 
 
 t:!r 
 
126 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 mi 
 
 i I ' 
 
 I 
 
 Fio. 08.— The Capitol -Washington. 
 
 39. Virginia. — The physical features, productions, and 
 industries of Virginia embrace all the varieties common 
 to this whole group of states; the great swamps in 
 the south-east add a characteristic of the South Atlantic 
 States. The mountains, which sometimes reach the 
 height of 5,000 feet, and are, as a rule, forest-clad, 
 contain coal, iron, slate, marble, and building-stone. 
 The winters are short though sometimes cold ; the sum- 
 mers are pleasant and healthy. 
 
 The climate and productions of the south-east portion 
 are those of the coast region. In places the climate is 
 affected by several large swamps, among which are the 
 Chickahominy, White Oak, and Great Dismal swamps ; 
 the ]!' t is thirty miles long and ten wide. 
 
 The great fertility of the valleys and of nearly all the 
 eastern slope, makes agriculture the leadinc; industry, 
 while the bays and rivers afford excellent facilities for 
 commerce. In tlie production of tobacco Virginia is the 
 second state in tlie Union. 
 
 Cities. — Richmond, on tlie James river, is the capital and the 
 largest city. It is the seat of extensive tobacco factories, ware- 
 houses, flour m^Ua, and iron works. Norfolk, on the Eliza- 
 beth river, ranks next to Richmond ; it carries on a larf^e ex- 
 port trade, and with Portaviouth, is the most important naval 
 station in the United States. 
 
 40. The District of Columbia.— This district, physi- 
 cally the same as Maryland, contains seventy square 
 miles. It is governed by a Board appointed Ijy the 
 
 17. S. Congress. Its chief importance is due to its contain- 
 ing Washington, the capital of the United States, (popu- 
 lation, 147,293). 
 
 This city is situated on the Potomac ; it is handsom.ely 
 laid out and contains many important buildings, among 
 which are the Capitol, the Smithsonian Institute, the 
 Observatory, the White House of the President, and 
 several museums. 
 
 SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES. 
 
 41. These states comprise North Carolina, South Caro- 
 lina, Georgia, and Florida. 
 
 They ha\-o the low coast section at its maximum 
 breadth, and tlie Appalachian mountains at their maxi- 
 mum height. The marshes and swamps, found everywhere 
 on the coast, are here developed to their greatest extent. 
 
 The ordinary Appalacliian minerals seem to be abun- 
 dant, but only iron and copper are mined ; gold also is 
 found, especially in Noi'th Cai-olina. 
 
 The Climate varies according to the lieight of the 
 land ; in the coa.st district it is warm and moist, and 
 conse(iuently somewhat unhealthy ; in the mountains the 
 oompiiratively slight elevation end the noanicss to the 
 tropics, produce pleasant suunners and mild winters, snow 
 not lasting long. The middle section is much drier than 
 the coast division. 
 
PHYSICAL FEATUEES. 
 
 127 
 
 the 
 and 
 
 The Vegetation in the low district here liecomes 
 characteristic of the sub-tropical region, — live-oak (ever- 
 green), magnolia, juniper, palmetto, cypress, and pitch 
 pine, along with many medicinal plants ; in the hight^r 
 regions it is of a more northern type. The live-oak and 
 pitch pine are exceedingly valuable in ship-building, and 
 are largely exported. Of cultivated plants, cotton and 
 rice are characteristic. 
 
 Of the Industries, agri- 
 culture is the chief ; the 
 cultivation of cotton and 
 of rice hold by far the 
 most important position ; 
 the former, to a large ex- 
 tent, is confined to the 
 low district, the latter 
 wholly so. The low islands 
 along the coast produce 
 what is termed the "sea- 
 island " cotton, the long, 
 silky fibre of which makes 
 it the most valuable of 
 all cotton. The soil of the 
 higher parts of the coast 
 region is sandy, and only 
 moderately productive; it 
 yields, however, excellent 
 crops of sweet potatoes, and is specially adapted to grape 
 culture. In the southern part of this subdivision tigs 
 and pomegranates are grown. The two higher regions 
 produce Indian-corn and all kinds of fruit in abundance, 
 and also large quantities of wheat and oats ; excepting 
 in North Carolina, very little tobacco is cultivated. In 
 all these states tlie raising of early fruits and vegetables 
 for the northei-n market is an important brancli of 
 agriculture. 
 
 Lumbering is also an important industry ; live-oak and 
 pitch pine timber constitute the chief export, thougli 
 the value of sawn material in 1880 was from $2,000,000 
 in North Carolina, to $5,000,000 in Georgia. 
 
 The spring Fishery in the shallow watei-s of the North 
 Carolina coast is very valuable, for the Arctic current 
 is felt at Cape Hatteras. 
 
 Manv/nctitring is limited ; excepting the production of 
 lumber and the preparation of rice for market, it is 
 largely confined to the extraction of tar, turpentine and 
 resin from the pine tree. , and oil from the cotton seed. 
 
 Fio. 69.- 
 
 -Branch op the Cotton 
 Plant. 
 
 There is also considerable manufacturing of cotton and 
 woollen goods, and of flour. 
 
 Education is in a nmch more backward condition than 
 elsewhere in the Atlantic States; but of late years 
 schools have greatly increased in number and efficiency. 
 
 Everywhere the negro population is very large; in 
 1880 it amounted to ever 531,000, the white population 
 being somewhat over 867,000. In North Carolina the 
 negroes are least numerous ; in South Carolina they 
 form nearly two-thirds of the population. Among this 
 class the greatest amount of ignorance prevails. 
 
 42. North Carolina.— This state has no special 
 characteristic in physical features, in climate, produc- 
 tions, or industries apart from the rest of the group. 
 
 The Cities are all small. Raleigh, the capital, is but a small 
 town. Wtlmington, at the head of the estuary of the Cape Pear 
 river, is the chief town of the state. New Berne is the next in 
 importance. 
 
 43. South Carolina.— South Carolina, politically, 
 has always been one of the leading states of the Union • 
 commercially it is inferior to both North Carolina and 
 Georgia. 
 
 The Cities, as in North Carolina, are small excepting 
 Charleston. This city, among the finest in the United 
 States, has a spacious harbor, one of the two in the state 
 capable of admitting large ships. It is one of the chief 
 commercial cities in the South Atlantic States, The 
 population in 1880 was 50,000. Columbia is the capital. 
 
 Beauport, on Port Eoyal Island, has the other harbor acces- 
 sible to ocean-going vessels. 
 
 44. Georgia excels the other states of the group in 
 its manufactures, of lumber and cotton especially, and 
 in its coal and iron mines. 
 
 The Cities of considerable size are more numerous 
 than in the other states of the group. Atlanta, the 
 capital, (population, 37,500 in 1880) nearly doubled its 
 inhabitants between 1870 and 1880. It is one of the 
 most active cities of tlie south, having a very extensive 
 inland trade. Its situation at the end of the Appala- 
 chian mountains, over a tliousand feet above the sea, 
 gives it a very fine climate. Its manufactures are varied, 
 the chief being iron from the oi-e mined in the vicinity, 
 flour, cotton goods, and paper. 
 
 Savannah is the chief port of tho state and the principal cotn- 
 niercial city of the South Atlantic Bti. fces. It has a good har- 
 bor, deeper and better than tliat of Charleston, the water, as is 
 usual on this coast, being shallow at the entrance. In value 
 (if its oxport of raw cotton it is the second city in the Union. 
 It also has a large trade in lumber and rice. 
 
 i 
 
 ;l 
 
 *,mH 
 
 ll 
 
128 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 It 
 
 
 45. Florida, in many respects, differs materially 
 from all the other states of the Union ; only the nortli- 
 ern part has the geological characteristics of the neigh- 
 boring states ; elsewhere the surface accumulations are 
 partly marine but also partly fresh water or open air 
 accunmlations, the rock beneath being coralline. The 
 most of the state is West Indian in character. 
 
 The surface of the peninsula, nowhere more than two 
 hundred feet above the sea, is varied by slight swells and 
 shallow depressions; the latter often contain lakes or swamps 
 of considerable extent. The southern part of the peninsula, 
 except the coast, is pvactically unknown, no exploration having 
 as yet been attempted ; it is said, however, to be in the main 
 swampy, consisting of " everglades." The coasts are character- 
 istic:— Imed with low islands or peninsulas, often of great 
 length, running parallel to the coast and formed of sand, 
 broken shells and coral ; long shallow stretches of water in 
 conse<iuence exist behind the islands ; the St. John's river in its 
 lower course is merely one of these inlets. 
 
 The Climate is in general moist and very equable, for 
 the seas maintain a considerable uniformity of tempera- 
 ture throughout the year ; the coasts and low places are 
 unhealthy in sunnner. 
 
 The Vegetation is very luxuriant everywhere ; besides 
 that of the states to the north, it contains types belong- 
 ing to the tropics— mahogany, lignum-vitre, satinwood, 
 cocoanut, and others j while the cultivated tropical plants 
 consist of sugar-cane, oranges, lemons, pine-apples, bana- 
 nas, figs, olives, and others of a decidedly West Indian 
 character. 
 
 The Animals, along with those common further north, 
 include the alligator and the turtle, and several new 
 varieties of poisonous serpents. Game is very abundant, 
 as is also fish. 
 
 The special features in the IndiiMries consist in the 
 raising of oranges and other tropical fruits, and in the 
 sponge fishing of the south. The former is rapidly 
 rising in importance. 
 
 The Cities are small. Tallahassee is the capital ; Jackson- 
 ville, on the St. John's river, is the largest town ; A'tv/ West, on 
 one of the dangerous islands— the "Florida Keys'"- to the 
 south, carries on sponge fishing; Pensacola hniS a large lumber 
 trade ; St. Augustine, the oldest town in America, is a cele- 
 brated winter resort for invalids from the north. 
 
 CENTRAL DIVISION. 
 
 46. Physical Features. — Away from the neighborhood of the 
 mountains the great central plain presents little variety in 
 physical conformation ; there is a vast extent of country either 
 level or very gently undulating; except in Missouri and KanR.'vp, 
 there is no elevation deserving even the name of hill. Tlia 
 regions near the mountains have all the characteristics of 
 plateaus — tlie plateau of the western side being similar in 
 character to the western level of the Canadian plain. The 
 
 ** Sl° ^- ^ * ^"'y gradual rise northward from the Gnlf 
 
 of Mexico, till, near tlie Canadian boundary, it reaches an 
 elevation of about nine hundred feet above sea level. Where the 
 influence of the lateral elevations ceases to be felt the two great 
 rivers, the Missouri and the Ohio, are situated. Within the 
 triangle enclosed by these two rivers the slope of the land ia 
 altogether southerly ; elsewhere the slope is directly toward 
 the central valley— a peculiarity due to the retreating character 
 of the lateral rises in combination with the general elevation of 
 the country northward. 
 
 47. Tlie Minerals are liighly important; in addition 
 to the coal, iron, and copper already referred to, zinc, as 
 well as lead, is abundant, especially in the coal area of 
 Missouri ; marble and limestone are found everywhere 
 except in the Gulf States ; petroleum and brine wells 
 occur in the states bordering on Pennsylvania; Michigan, 
 however, produces over half of the salt made in the 
 United States ; the precioris metals are met with in large 
 quantities only in Dakota. 
 
 A CREVASSe.ON THF i*1ISSlSSIPPI RIVER 
 
 Vio. VJ.— .V CiiEVAsisi!;. 
 
 48. Rivers.— The vast extent of this interior country, its slone 
 towards one common but distant depression, and its abundant 
 though not excessive, rainfall, give rise to rivers remarkable for 
 their length of course and for their volume of water. 
 
 The Mississippi has its head waters in some small lakes in 
 northern Minnesota, in a Laurentian country ; there is a sudden 
 all of about seventy feet at Minneapolis, but from that point 
 to the Gulf of Mexico there is no hindrance to navigaMon. 
 although in places the current is somewhat strong. The direct 
 distance from the head-waters of the river to its mouth is 
 about 1,300 miles, but so great is the sinuosity that the lencth 
 IS increased to at least 2,300 miles. Throughout the greater 
 partof IS course the river lies in a flat and usually peSfy 
 evel valley of rich alluvial soil, called "bottom "land, bounded 
 by bluffs from 200 to 500 feet high; the strata in these bSS 
 are the same on both sides of the river, though the valley is in 
 places over sixty nnles wide. The valley has been fo med b? 
 erosion. In the lower part of the course the banks, owing to the 
 depos, .on of sediment, are higher than the ground immedately 
 beyond them so that dur.ng periods of flood the water overflows 
 and covers the surrounding country. Many hundred miles of 
 enibankinents. or lenks, have been erected along the river to 
 pro ect the country from these inundations. " The whole area 
 of tl^e dplta, which be^inP. jn.t below th. Red river, is about 
 h>,6Q0 square miles ; abo.it one-third is a sea marsh, only two- 
 thirds lying above the level of the Gulf." 
 
 (See Part I. "Land Surface of the Earth " section •? r<^^^.i 
 ment), 20, 23, 2r,. 28 .nd " North An.erica" Section 11.) ^ 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 129 
 
 The other great rivers, flowing from the western plateau 
 region, are characterized by phenomena similar to those of the 
 Mississippi. They all have rapid currents where they pass 
 through the plateau region ; but as this region is dry and tree- 
 less th 3 water in the late summer and the fall is very low. 
 Their affluents, though often several hundred miles long, are 
 seldom navigable even in full water. The Missouri is over 
 3,000 miles in length, the Arkansas, 2,000, and the Bed about 
 1,500. The Bio Grande, having its head water in central Col- 
 orado, nearly 2,000 miles from its mouth, is throughout a 
 plateau river, and as it is for the most part in the dry region, its 
 waters are shallow. 
 
 On the east the only important affluent of the Mississippi is 
 the Oliio, about 1,000 miles in length; its volume of water is 
 said to be greater than that of the Missouri, but subject to very 
 great fluctuations. The river, which in the low-water season 
 is not navigable in the upper part o£ its course, has but one 
 obstruction, a rapid near Louisville ; this involved the con- 
 struction of a canal. The other rivers from the AUeghanies 
 are, eycepting the Ciimberlnnd and Tennessee, important afflu- 
 ents of the Ohio; all have numerous rapids and falls with 
 stretches of deep water. The streams running off into the Gulf 
 of Mexico are generally free from obstructions; during the 
 season of full water they can be navigated by steamers almost 
 to their source. 
 
 49. The Climate of the central division, like that of 
 the Atlantic seaboard, varies from the equable semi- 
 tropical climate of the Gulf of Mexico to the extreme 
 climate of Dakota and Minnesota. In the Mississippi basin 
 snow occasionally falls as far south as the Gulf of 
 Mexico ; on the coast of Texas ice is formed even to the 
 border of Mexico, while the lakes modify the climate of 
 the states tliat border on them. (See "North America," 
 sections 13 and 14.) 
 
 50. Vegetation — Forest growth is found abundantly 
 all through this division except in the states of the west- 
 ern border. The states of the nortli contfiin the greatest 
 amount of forest and produce most lumber. Pine and 
 spruce are tlie characteristic trees of tlie north ; walnut, 
 oak, hickory, and Cottonwood of the centre, and pitch 
 pine of the south. (See section G.) 
 
 51. Industries. — This region is preeminently Agri- 
 cultural; all the liardy gi-ains grow to perfection — wheat, 
 oats, rye, barley— from the Canadian border to the 
 Gulf States; while Indian-corn, from the latitude of 
 nortliei-n Illinois to that of soutliern Tennessee, attains 
 a luxuriance and productiveness nowhere else equalled. 
 The region of Indian-corn is also that of tobacco, followed 
 southward by cotton, sugar-cane, and rice, wliile sweet 
 potatoes are cultivated everywhere south of the fortieth 
 parallel. The rearing of live-stock, except in tlie soutli- 
 ci'n part of tlio Mississippi basin, forms .uu important 
 industry, — it is the only important industry on the tree- 
 less, grass-covered praii'ifs and the plateau country, from 
 the Mexican to the Canadian border. 
 
 Mining is extensively carried on in tlie Alleghany 
 region, as well as in the lake region and in the neighbor- 
 hood of the Ozark Mountains ; Lumbering is a leading 
 industry of the north ; it is also important in the low- 
 lying districts of the soutliern Mississippi basin and the 
 Gulf coast. 
 
 The Mmiufacturea are all connected with the natural 
 productions, and are everywhere important except in 
 tlie Gulf states ; flour, meal, preserved meats, leather, 
 agricultural machinery, lumber, and distilled liquors in 
 the grain-growing states ; ii'on, steel, and heavy ma- 
 chinery in the iron and coal producing states ; oil-cake 
 and oil from cotton seed, turpentine and tar from the 
 pines of the Gulf coast, with some refining of sugar and 
 molasses, and cleaning and polisliing of rice, in the 
 southern section. (See sections 4-7.) 
 
 52. In Education the northern section, settled largely 
 by emigrants from the North Atlantic States, is in 
 advance of the southern section; but this section too 
 has lately made excellent progress. 
 
 The Cities of tlie northern half of this division of the 
 United States are both numerous and important ; their situa- 
 tion is invariably where the greatest natural conveniences exist 
 for commerce, either domestic or foreign; with scarcely an 
 e.xception they are found on the rivers or the lakes. All ihese 
 cities are rapidly growing in population and importance; the 
 greater part increased in population from fifty to eighty per 
 cent, betweii 1870 and 1880; several a hundred per cent., and 
 one at least over three hundred per cent. All contain manu- 
 factures of the characteristic productions of the state. The 
 cities of the southern half, on tlie other hand, are less numer- 
 ous, and with the exception of New Orleans, are but small; 
 Nashville, in Tennessee, with a population of over 43,000 in 
 1880, is much the largest of these. This city, too, is almost 
 tiie only one, excepting New Orleans and tlie cities of Texas, 
 tliat shows ail increase of population instead of a decrease 
 between the dates referred to. 
 
 53. Michigan is divided by the lakes and forma two 
 peninsula!:; the southern peninsula, tlie seat of the 
 population and industries, is level, with a fertile soil of 
 sandy loam everywhere except in the nortli ; tlie north- 
 ern peninsula is rugged and uninviting, but contains the 
 great iron and copper mines. 
 
 Of the cities, Detroit, (population, 116,340) the largest city, 
 and one of the great cities of tlie United States, is engaged ex- 
 tensively in the transport trade between the west and eiist; 
 much of this trade passes through Canada The extensive 
 water front on the Detroit river—here a fine deep stream over 
 half a mile wide— is fully utilized in the extensive and rapidly 
 increasing commerce of the city, fimjitmw and Bai) City have 
 extensive maiinffictures of salt "and liimhor. Aim ,"( Wwr hiis a, 
 university. At Bmt Huron the Grand Trunk railway crosses 
 from Sarnia into the United States. 
 
 54. Wisconsin is of much the .same character ar 
 Micliigau in surface and soil ; tlie northern part is n 
 
 m 
 
130 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 P! 
 
 I 
 
 111 
 
 „:| 
 
 Laui-entiau region, rough, poor, ind thinly inhabited ; 
 
 there is much poor, sandy soil in t'le centre of the state. 
 
 The chief city is Milwaukee (population, 115,587) with a fine 
 harbor on Lake Michigan ; it is one of the large cities of the 
 Union. Its export of wheat and floor is very great, beinc 
 second only to that of Chicago. o ^ > e 
 
 55. Minnesota has a somewhat uneven surface; there 
 is a rapid rise of the land from Lake Superior, followed 
 by nearly as rapid a fall into the valley of the Red 
 River. The northern portion of the state is Laurentian 
 and well wooded, containing innumerable lakes; the 
 southern portion is generally very fertile. 
 
 St. Paul, the capital, is at the head of navigation on the Mis- 
 sissippi ; Its manufactures are important ; the city more than 
 doubled its population between 1870 and 1880. Minneapolis, the 
 largest city in the state, is situated at the falls of St. Anthony, 
 • "^^k *''°™ ^*- ^*"^ 5 ^^^ population increased from 13,000 
 '* Iv^ to nearly 47,000 in 1880 ; the suburbs of this city and 
 ot bt. Paul are almost united. Lumber and flour are the leading 
 products. The city has been created by the falls. Dulutli, at 
 the head of navigation on Lake Superior, has a large trade on 
 the lakes. 
 
 56. Dakota Territory in its northern part, is but a 
 continuation of Manitoba and Assiniboia; it contains the 
 rough "Coteau de Missouri," and a characteristic region 
 of salt or alkaline lakes to the east ; the central and 
 north-east portions have a "rolling" surface — the 
 peculiar feature of the plateau states ; in the south-west 
 are the barren "bad-lands" and the Black Hills— the 
 most easterly outliers of the Rocky Mountains. The 
 climate is dry ; high winds are very frequent. 
 
 57. The states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Ne- 
 braska, Missouri, and Kansas have superficial character- 
 istics and natural productions very nearly alike; the 
 central district is low-lying prairie for the most part, 
 tlie east and the west approach a plateau in character. 
 The only elevations are the Ozark Hills in Missouri, 
 famous for their iron, especially Pilot Knob and Iron 
 Mountain. West of the Mississippi the climate is dry, 
 so much so that barrenness of soil results from it in the 
 extreme west, and a very uncertain rainfall in many 
 other places. The soil is naturally fertile, the best being 
 the " bottom lands " of the numerous rivers. 
 
 Cities. — Several of the most important cities of the 
 country are found in these states. 
 
 In Ohio, Cincinnati, (population, 255,139), is among the 
 largest in the Union ; its trade both by water and by land is 
 very extensive ; of its numerous industries meat-pankino. di=- 
 tiliuig, and brewing are the most extensive. Cleveland, with "a 
 fane harbor, is next in importance ; it has a large lake trade in 
 coal, petroleum, iron, flour, and grain. Toledo excels Cleveland 
 in Its exports of live-stock, flour, aud farm produce in general. 
 
 In Indiana, Indianapolis is important in milling and in the 
 industries attached to mining. 
 
 In lUinoie, Chicago, though only fifth in size among the citi»8 
 of the United States, ranks next to New York in commercial 
 importance; it is the largest grain market in the world. The 
 manufactures, all characteristic of the division, were valued in 
 1880, at neaily ?250,000,000, salted meats alone amounting' to 
 one third of this sum. The position of Chicago at the head of 
 l^ake Michigan, a lake that penetrates deep into a wide- 
 extended country rich in natural resources, insures to that citv 
 a commercial preeminence. The growth of Chicago has been 
 very rapid ; in 1850 the inhabitants numbered 30,000, in 1880 
 
 _ In Missouri, St. Louis (population, 350,518) is the largest and 
 in every respect the most important citv -* the M'so-"--jpi 
 valley, and the only important city wti ' > '-(ississippi. 
 
 situated about twenty miles below the c i -, if the Mis- 
 
 sissippi and Missouri rivers, it is the ceni ■ ^il the trade 
 
 with the vast agricultural, stock-raising, and ...line reeions of 
 the west. 
 
 58. West Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, are 
 
 mountainous in the east, and produce the characteristic 
 
 minerals, including petroleum and salt in West Virginia ; 
 
 in the west they are slightly undulating, the soil being 
 
 everywhere highly productive. Stock-raising is the 
 
 prominent industry in the elevated country. 
 
 One city. LouisviVe, in Kentucky, is among the leading cities 
 of the country. Its trade in tobacco, pork, and flour is verv 
 large ; while its manufr -res, similar to those of the other 
 great cities are both nui rous and important. The population 
 ot the city in 1880 was 123,758. i-umuon 
 
 T,J" Tennessee, Nashville and Knotville; and in West Virginia 
 yy heeling, are the chief towns. ' 
 
 59. Of the remaining states of the central division, the 
 southern half of Alabama and Mississippi, nearly all 
 Louisiana, and a broad belt of Texas, are comprised in 
 the low-lying {ov post-tertiary ) coa^t division of the United 
 States ; the same formation extends up the Mississippi 
 to the mouth of the Ohio, where the elevation is not 
 much over 300 feet above the sea-level. The boundary 
 westward is marked by a low range of sand hills ; beyond 
 this, at a distance of over a hundred miles, the country 
 rises gradually from the prairie into the plateau region. 
 In the northern part of Alabama the Alleghanies ter- 
 minate, and in consequence the country is rough and 
 broken ; northern Arkansas contains part of the Ozark 
 Hills, which also continue on into the Indian Territory. 
 North-western Texas, especially in the large tract known 
 as the " Staked Plain," is dry and barren, while the 
 central part is a gras.sy plateau with clumps of forest 
 and wooded river-courses. 
 
 60 The Indian Territory \h owned by the Indians, tho 
 greater part of whom were transported by the United States 
 government from the states east of the Mississippi. 
 
 Arkansas has no city of importance. In Alabama, Mobile. 
 the chief sea-port on the coast, is well situated for trade ; it is 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 181 
 
 an important town ranking third in the United States as a 
 cotton market. 
 
 In Mississippi, Vicksburg, on a high bluff, is the chief town ; 
 its trade is almost wholly in cotton. 
 
 In Louisiana, New Orleans, about a hundred miles from the 
 mouth of tne Mississippi, is one of the most important com- 
 mercial cities in America; in 1879 its exports were valued at 
 over $81,000,000; cotton alone forming seven-eighths of the 
 whole. Within the last few years the export of caVitle, grain, 
 and flour has as&amed large proportions. The city is below the 
 high -water level of the river, and has to be protected by levies 
 or dykes. In 1880 the population was over 216,000. 
 
 In Texas, Galveston is the only important city ; ib is on a 
 low island and has a shallow entrance to its harbor. Its ex- 
 ports are for the most part cotton and hides. 
 
 THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN PLATEAU STATES 
 AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 61. Physical Characteristics. — From the plateau, 
 which is bounded by the Rocky Mountains on tlie east 
 and the Sierra Nevada with the Cascade Mountains on 
 the west, rise very many short ranges that run in a 
 general parallel direction to the main ranges; by this 
 means are produced numerous long and sometimes narrow 
 valleys. Many cross ranges occur, and wliere in intersect- 
 ing a valley they enclose a portion of it, a "park" is 
 formed, often of exceeding beauty and fertility. Of the 
 parallel ranges the chief are the Waitsatch in Utah, the 
 Humboldt in Nevada, the Bitter-Root between Idaho and 
 Montana, and the Blue in Oregon ; of the cross ranges, 
 the rUitah in Utah is the best known. 
 
 The plateau is highest at its eastern side, sloping off 
 very gradually to the west. Within tiie plateau there 
 are three main cross depressions ; one in the north, 
 another in the middle, and a third in the south. The 
 waters of the north and the south depression find their 
 way to the ocean ; but those of the middle depression 
 enter salt lakes or are absorbed in the deserts, forming 
 salt marshes. This +ract, known as tlie Great American 
 Basin, occupies the eastern half of Nevada, and much of 
 Utah and northern Arizona ; the southern part is 
 altogether a barren desert, the vegetation elsewhere being 
 scanty. The noi-tliern basin is comparatively level, the 
 other two are broken. 
 
 While almost everywhere exist evidenctis of territic 
 volcanic action in former ages, only here and there 
 throughout the plateau do active volcanic phenomena 
 occur ; Mount Hood in Oregon emits some smoke ; mud- 
 volcanoes are found in Colorado and elsewhere ; and the 
 
 greatest geysers known exist around the head waters of 
 the Yellowstone. This Yellowstone region, in north- 
 western Wyoming, which contains lakes, nmd-volcanoes, 
 hot-springs, water-falls, and magnificent mountain scenery, 
 has been set apart by the United States government as a 
 National Park. 
 
 The eastern base of the Rocky Mountains and the 
 country beyond are identical in character with the region 
 similax'ly situated in the Canadian North-West, — a series 
 of " foot-hills " and a high plain or plateau deeply scored 
 with water-courses often wooded, eroded by rivers and 
 other agents, dry, and, where not absolutely arid, covered 
 with rich, succulent grass, with a soil requiring only 
 more water to make it highly productive. 
 
 West of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains 
 the low coast ranges enclose fertile valleys and are joined 
 to the main ranges by short spurs. The Sierra Nevada 
 lie wholly within California, and, with a coast-range, en- 
 close the low-lying central California, one of the finest 
 and most fertile valleys in the world. The collected waters 
 of the innumerable streams, usually only winter torrents 
 descending from the Sierra, are carried off to San Fran- 
 cisco Bay by the Sacramento and San Joaquin (wau-keen) 
 rivers. 
 
 62. Rivers. — In all the river-courses, whether through moun- 
 tain passes or along valleys, there are deep gorges or cafions, 
 sometimes, as in the lower waters of the Colorado, hundreds of 
 miles long, having on both sides perpendicular walls of rock 
 descending, in the Colorado, over 6,000 feet below the general 
 surface of the country. Waterfalls are numerous, and often 
 of great height and exceedir. g beauty. The Falls of the Yellow- 
 stone, and those of the Yc Semite (yo-sdvi-it-e) in east-central 
 California, are especially remarkable. The great river of the 
 south, entering the Gulf of Californi j,, is the Colorado ; except 
 in its lower course it is not navigable ; it flows through a 
 barren country. In the north the Voluvibia is navigable from 
 its mouth for over 150 miles ; several long, deep stretches of 
 water, one 250 miles in length, occur between the various falls 
 and rapids farther up on the river. 
 
 63. The Lakes are numerous, chief among which are Great 
 fJalt Lake{aee Part I. "Land Surface of the Earth." sec. 31), 
 Utah Lake — fresii water, with an outlet into the preceding, and 
 Pyramid Lake. 
 
 64. Climate. — In central and southern California the climate 
 is almost tropical, there being only winter and summer; the 
 winter is the season of rain, the summer of drought ; during the 
 latter the ground is quite parched and vegetation burnt up. 
 Cold winds are apt to fall suddenly from the mountains upon all 
 parts of the valley. The heat is never very great, the oceanic 
 winds preserving an equable temperature everywhere. (See 
 " North America," sections 13 and 14.) 
 
 6.5. Productions. — Forest growth occurs where rain 
 is abundant, — on the coast ranges, the western side of 
 the Sierra Nevadas, and on the higher peaks of the 
 
 n 
 
 In 
 
 « 
 
 fi 
 
132 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 plateau ranges, and quite generally in Oregon and 
 Washington. In the dry regions only cactus, sage, and 
 some stunted sliruba are found. The river courses, 
 where not through canons, are generally wooded. The 
 Boil is highly productive where it obtains moisture from 
 rain or melting snow, or from irrigation. Irrigation in 
 very largely practiced, especially in California, and abun- 
 dant crops of all the grains are raised. 
 
 66. Industries. — Mining is still the great industry oi 
 this region ; the vast amount of its precic ;s metals has 
 had a marked influence on the population, wealth, and 
 legislation of the country (see section 4). Agriculture, 
 however, is now the chief industry of California and 
 Oregon, the former state surpassing in some productions 
 all others in the Union (see section 5). Fruit Culture 
 has assumed large proportions in southern California — 
 the grape, orange, lemon, fig, and others yielding excel- 
 lent crops. Stock-raidng is a leading industry where- 
 ever there is grass ; California, Oregon, and the other 
 states and territories along the Rocky Mountains, espe- 
 cially Montana, raise vast herds of cattle, while the first 
 named state stands next to Ohio in yield of wool. 
 
 Manufacturing of various articles is carried on exten- 
 sively in California ; dried fruits, wine, and distilled 
 liquors are sent east in considerable quantities. 
 
 67. Subdivisions.— In this division there are four states — 
 Colorado, Nevada, California, and Oregon,— and the territories 
 Arizona, New Mexico. Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, Montana, and 
 Washington. 
 
 68. Cities.— In California is San -Francisco, (population, 234,- 
 000), one of the great cities of the United States ; its trade witli 
 the east by railroaf' , by the way of the Isthmus of Panama, and 
 by Cape Horn, is very extensive ; it is likewise the only port for 
 trade to China, Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific islands. 
 Besides the trade in home productions the city has a large 
 transport trade in tea and other articles from China and else- 
 where. Los Anpeles, in the region of the tropical fruit, is a 
 famous resort for invalids; Sacramento, the capital, and San 
 Jose are important towns. In Oregon, Portland has a large 
 trade in flour, wheat, and lumber. In Utah, Salt Lake City, 
 founded by the religioup sect called Mormons, and still for tlie 
 most part peopled by them, is a city of considerable size near 
 the Great Salt Lake ; the uountry is dry, but produces excellent 
 crops, mamly through irrigation. Carson in Nevada, Frescott 
 in Arizona, Santa Fd in New Mexico, Denver and Lmdville in 
 Colorado — all mining towns— are the other chief places. 
 
 69. Alaska.— This extensive region, formerly belonging to 
 Enssia, is but little known. The climate of the coast is milder 
 than that of the inland, and very moist ; the agricultural as 
 Well as the mineral capabilitio?. .are unknown ; fish swarm in 
 the waters, and form the only food of the coast Indians. Furs, 
 dried fish, and oil are exported. Sitha is an Indian village 
 with a few United Stater officials stationed in it._ Forests 
 exist all along the coast ranges, and in some place^. it is said, 
 on the banks of the Yid.on, the chief river. 
 
 GREENLAND. 
 
 70. Except the western and the south-eastern coast almost 
 nothing is known of this vast region. As far as has been 
 ascertained the whole interior, at least north of latitude 67°, 
 is covered with one immense glacier, but of what depth or 
 of what height above the sea, it seems impossible j;o find out. 
 Along both coasts the force of the waves breaks off enor- 
 mous masses of ice from the glacier as it pushes into the 
 sea, and these masses float away as icebergs. Even in the 
 southern part July is the only month in which snow does not 
 fall ; the cold of winter is intense. Some potatoes and garden 
 vegetables are grown in the south. There are no trees ; only a 
 few stunted shrubs of birch, willow, and elder are met with ; 
 some grasses are found along tha sheltered fiords, but mosses 
 and lichens are abundant. The seas abound in animal life of 
 the largest kinds, which afford almost the only food of the 
 native inhabitants :— different species of the whale family, in- 
 cluding the white whale and narwahl ; seal of several varieties, 
 walruses, sea-lions, &c.\ of the fishes, sharks, halibut, cod, 
 salmon, and many others. Sea-fowl are innumerable. Of the 
 land animals, reindeer seem to be plentiful, and are hunted in 
 summer; the musk-ox, arctic fox, and polar bear are also 
 found. 
 
 The exports consist in products of the marine animals, rein- 
 deer hides, and feathers of the eider duck. 
 
 The country is owned by Denmark. The inhabitants, about 
 10,000 in number, are nearly all Eskimos, some of whom are in 
 part christianized ; they live mainly on the west coast, and are 
 quiet and inoffensive. Their winter houses are of stone, their 
 summer ones consist of tents made of hide. Of the Danes 
 there are not more than three hundred ; they live in little 
 villages along the best sheltered fiords of the west coast. The 
 chief villages are Godthaab and Uppernavik. 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 1. Extent.— The extreme length of Mexico is about 2,000 
 miles, the greatest breadth 750 miles; the narrowest part is the 
 Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 140 miles. The area is given at about 
 760,000 square miles. 
 
 2. Physical Features. — Mexico is but a continua- 
 tion of the western plateau of America, rising slowly 
 towards the south till the maximum elevation of 8,000 
 feet is reached at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Apart 
 from the mountain ranges the plateau here is remarkably 
 level as a whole, both from east to west, and from north 
 to south ; no serious obstacles are presented to travel in 
 the direction of the ranges ; cross ranges exist mainly in 
 the north-west, running down to the Gulf of California. 
 There are several depressions in the plateau, the most 
 remarkable of which contains the city of Mexico, and is 
 surrounded by the most famous volcanoes in the country 
 ■ — Toluga, Popocateptl, and Iztaccihuatl, over 17,000 
 feet high. 
 
 There are three ranges of mountains rising from the 
 plateau : the eastern, or Sierra Madre, is the continua- 
 tion of the Rocky ^Mountains ; the western range is a 
 continuation of the Pinaleno Mountains of the Unitea 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURE S. 
 
 188 
 
 States ; the central range, called by various names, 
 though higher in itr. orthern portion than the others, 
 is the lowest of the three. Tlie chief volcanic region is 
 in the neighborhood of tlie parallel of nineteen, where 
 lies Jorullo, the sudden rise of which in 1759 destroyed 
 a fertile plain. 
 
 3. Coast Features.— The descent from the plat«iau 
 to the coast, consisting for the most part of a succession 
 of terraces, is everywhere rapid and everywhere difficult, 
 but few natural passes existing. The low alluvial plain 
 of the Atlantic seaboard of the United States is con- 
 tinued around the Mexican seaboard. E\ cry where, as 
 in the United States, the coast is lined -with low islands 
 shoals, and lagoons. The westei-n coast is also low, the 
 broadest part being along the Gulf of California. On 
 the western side there are no lagoons, and the harbors 
 are numerous and good. 
 
 Outline.— The outline has no irregularities except the two 
 remarkable peninsulas of Lower California and Yucatan ; the 
 former, almost unknown as to its capabilities, is the prolonged 
 southerly extension of a coast range, sinking finally beneath 
 the sea at Cnpe St. Lvais ; the latter is a broad plateau-like spur 
 of the continental axis, projecting northeasterly. 
 
 4. The Rivers are small and of a mountain character. Lakes 
 are somewhat numerous, one of the principal being Lahe 
 Tezcuco, near the city of Mexico; it has no outlet and its 
 waters are consequently salt. 
 
 d. Minerals. — Mexico is exceedingly rich in minerals 
 of all kinds— gold, silver, copper, mercury, iron, tin, 
 precious stones, marble, and others. The chief metal 
 mined at present is silver ; the largest mines, mainly 
 owned by foreign companies, lie between the parallels of 
 nineteen and twenty-three, though the north-western 
 Pacific slope is thought to be almost covered with silver 
 ore. Gold is mined chiefly in the north-west. 
 
 6. Coast Waters.— The Gulf of Mexico has a length of about 
 1,000 miles, and a breadth of 800 ; from Yucatan to Florida 
 the distance is about 450 miles, the passages between each 
 peninsula and Cuba being about 120 miles. Away from the 
 immediate coasts, which are lined with islands, shoals, and 
 lagoons, —the result of the deposition of sediment in the quieter 
 shore- waters,— the Gulf is almost free from shoals, reefs, and 
 islands. The waters are said to be deep in the Gulf proper, 
 but careful surveys have not yet been made. The Equatorial 
 Current enters between Yucatan and Cuba, and after sweeping 
 around it, reproducing the phenomena of the Sargasso Sea in 
 the centre, reunites with a current that had been deflected 
 along the south of Cuba by thq peninsula of Yucatan, and passes 
 out into the Atlantic between the Bahamas and Floridc as the 
 Gulf Stream. The temperature of the Gulf waters is from six 
 to nine degrfifis warmer than that of the ocean in the BR^r.B 
 latitude. The southern part of the Gulf is termed the Bay of 
 Campeachy. 
 
 The Gnlf of California is the water-filled valley between the 
 plateau and a disappearing coast range ; it is said to abound in 
 fish of many kinds, including a snecies of oyster from which 
 
 pearls are obtained. Some of the bivalve shell-fish are very 
 TeT' '^"'^^^ '" ^^ south-west coast gives the Gulf of 
 
 7. Climate.— Mexico is mainly within the tropics, 
 and so has phenomena of climate and production peculiar 
 to tropical, but not equatorial, regi(«ns. Following tho 
 retreat of the sun southward the north-east trade winds, 
 from October to May, bring cool weather and the dry, 
 though not absolutely rainless, season j while the south- 
 western return-trade winds, advancing with the returning 
 sun, produce the so-called wet season, from May to 
 October. The rainfall, however, is comparatively slight 
 on the plateau, but on tlie low coasts it is heavy, espe- 
 cially on the eastern side, where the north-east trades 
 from the Gulf are moisture-laden, and produce rain when 
 tliey come in contact with the cooler huul. The northern 
 part of tlie plateau, beyond the tro2)ic, has the same 
 climatic featui-es as the southern plateau of the United 
 States. (See "North America," sections 13 and 14.) 
 
 The situation and physical conformation of Mexico 
 give rise to a very varied climate :— the hot, moi.st, and 
 unhealthy climate of the coasts east and west, where the 
 thermometer in some places shows a mean annual tem- 
 perature of 10 r; the temperate climate of the lower 
 parts of the plateau ; and the cool, diy climate of the 
 elevations above 6,000 feet. 
 
 8. Vegetation.— The vegetation, unsurpassed any- 
 where in variety and abundance, corresponds to the 
 climates ; in the low moist regions it is wlioUy tropical 
 in kind, size, and luxuriance— tree-ferns, palms, mahog- 
 any, el)ony, rosewood, tropical fruits of all kinds, and 
 gum-producing trees— camphor, copal, rubbev, &c.; in 
 the temperate regions oak, cedar, and pine predominate ; 
 while the high colder regions have little forest growth^ 
 through insufficiency of moisture cactuses abound, as 
 does also the mezquite, a tree resembling the honey -locust 
 in leaf, fruit, spines, and wood, the roots of which almost 
 ecjual anthracite coal as fuel. The cultivated plants are 
 also typical of the regions ; in the hot regions suga-- 
 cane, ooflee, fruits, manioc, medicinal plants, ri(!e, cotton, 
 olives, cocoa palm, cacao-^from which chocolate is 
 made; in the temperate, European fruits and grains, 
 indigo, vanilla, tobacco, capsicum or Spanish pepper- 
 consumed in vast quantities— and the maguey, agave or 
 pulque, from which the favorite drink of the Mexicans 
 is made, and whose fibres are woven into cloth or twisted 
 into ropes. 
 
 I 
 
i 
 
 
 ll'l 
 

 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 185 
 
 .g 
 
 CM 
 
 3 
 
 d 
 
 8 
 
 .a 
 
 a. 
 
 Fia. 71.— Gatheui.no Cochinbai,. 
 
 9. Animals.— Mexico beloiifjH, for the most part, to the Neo- 
 Tropical region and its aniniala are those of Houth America. 
 Along with these and the couhinual insect, from which a, bright 
 Hcarlet dye is obtained, are found the ordinary animals of 
 regions farther north— bisons, wolves, bears, &o. Domestic 
 animals are abundant. 
 
 10. Industries. —3/iHi/((; and 
 Agriculture are the chief indua- 
 trits; both are rudely con- 
 ducted. Irri^jution is almost 
 universal in at^riculture. With 
 few exceptions, agricultural 
 products are all consumed at 
 home. The rearing of cattle 
 and sheep is carried on to some 
 extent in the northern part of 
 the country. The Manufacturex 
 are unimportant, commercial- 
 ly; distilled liciuors, wine, 
 uugar, cotton goods, earthen- 
 ware, glass, and paper are made 
 to some extent. Tho Exports 
 consist of silver, gold, copper 
 ore, hides, medicinal plants, 
 cochineal, and the natural pro- 
 ductions of the warm regions; 
 in 1880 the value of theewports amounted to about 833,000,- 
 000, silver alone forming nearly two-tliirdsof this sum. Fully 
 two-thirds of the trade is witli the United Btates. The Imports 
 consist of textile goods, machinery, iron, dried fish, oil, &c. 
 
 11. Inhabitants. -In 1881 the population numbered a little 
 over 10,000,000; of these over half were of pure aboriginal 
 descent; those of European descent numbered only about 
 600,000, various mixed races forming the rest. Only in the 
 north are there any savages. All races and 'classes are equal 
 in the eyes of the law, und the highest offices have been held by 
 })ure blooded natives. The Spanish latKjmne — the language of 
 the conquerors and colonizers,— is universally spoken. Tho 
 people are generally of an unprogressive, indolent character. 
 Railroads entering the United States have been constructed, or 
 are in process of construction. The llonuni Ciitliolic form of 
 worship is universal, and until lately was the only one allowed. 
 Education is very backward, but some advancement has been 
 made in recent years. 
 
 12. The Government resembles that of the United States — a 
 federal republic ; but its lack of stability has been a great mis- 
 fortune to the country. 
 
 13. Cities. — Mexico has many large towns, five of them con- 
 taining over 50,000 inhabitants each. The City of Mexico, with 
 an estimated population of 250,000, is situated iii the magnifi- 
 cent plain of Mexico, in tho neighborhood of the great volcanoes ; 
 the temperature hardly ever exceeds 74°. The public buildings 
 are numerous and fine — churches, banks, government buildings, 
 libraries, charitable institutions, schools, theatres, A-o. The 
 business, even the leading retail trade, is in the hands of 
 foreigners ; the domestic trade is considerable. In the city, 
 as everywhere throughout the country, are monuments of the 
 civilization of the ancient people of Mexico. Zucalecns, San 
 Luis, Aijuax Calientas, and Guaniujnnto in the mining districts, 
 and Vera Cruz, the chief sea-port on the Gulf of Mexico, are the 
 other principal places. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 l-t. Character. — Central America is of but little 
 importance politically or commercially. Very little i.s 
 really known of the whole reunion. The continental axis 
 
 lias here lo.st its plateau character, and tho country for 
 the most part consists of mountain ranges running in 
 various directions, enclosing elevated viMcyn, some of 
 which are almost plateaus in extent. The mean height 
 of the land is not so great ..s in Mexico, thougli some 
 peaks are nearly 14,000 fec't high. The south-central 
 part of Nicaragua is a comparatively low plain, while a 
 remarkable transverse depi-ession occurs near the south- 
 west; elsewhere tho country is ir.ountainous. There are 
 very many volcanoes in this region, and earthquakes are 
 frequent. 
 
 15. The Rivers are merely mountain torrents. Lake Nica- 
 ragua, 100 miles long and 40 wide, and, in places, 240 foot deep, 
 lies in the transverse depression, only 128 feet above the 
 Pacihc ; on all sides tho descent to it is steep. The San Juan 
 river, containing several rapids, flows from it into the Carib- 
 bean Sea. It has been proposed to uti'izo this river and lake 
 as a highway to the Paciflc, several Ic w-lyii.g passes existing 
 in the mountains between the lake and the ocean. 
 
 16. The Coasts on both sides in everj respect re- 
 s(;mble those of Mexico. 
 
 17. The varied Climates and climatic regions are 
 like those of Mexico; they approach, however, to a greater 
 unifoimity in temperature on account of tho inferior 
 general elevation of the land, and to a greater degree of 
 moisture with a more unifor'm distribution ; the southern 
 par-t is almost in the region of continual rain. 
 
 18. The Productions and animals are those of Mexico — of the 
 Neo-Tropical region, without the northern t^ pes. The Exports 
 are the natural productions of the forest, wiUi medicinal plants 
 and coffee. 
 
 19. The Inhabitants, as in Mexico, are mainly descendants 
 of the aborigines ; hut the mixed races are numerous ; the 
 niixed Indian and negro race is rapidly dying out. The white 
 inhabitants are cliieHy settled on the western side. In the 
 great forests tiiat cover the eastern slope there are numerous 
 savage tribes, hostile to each other and independent of the 
 various governments. Everywhere, as in Mexico, exist monu- 
 ments of former civilization ; the overgrown ruins of mare than 
 one large city have been found in the densest forests. 
 
 20. The Government, except in Balize, is similar in all the 
 states, being an imitation, or caricature, of that of the United 
 States ; but revolutions are of almost annual occurrence. Edu- 
 cation is at a very low ebb, 
 
 21. The Political Divisions are Guatemala, Balize or British 
 Honduras, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Itica, 
 
 22. Cities. — In Guatemala,themostpro3perous and advanced 
 of the states, the chief city is Guatemala, a populous, active 
 town ; it has several schools, a public museum and library, and 
 many handsome buildmgs— though built very low through fear 
 of earthquakes. From its activity Guatemala is often called 
 the Paris of Central America. 
 
 ';ll 
 
186 
 
 THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 WEST INDIES. 
 
 If 
 
 I 
 
 23. Extent — The West Indies comprise n curved 
 cliaiu of islaiuLs exteiuiii.K from the coast of Florida in 
 the United Stat.'s, to the Uulf of V.-nezuela in South 
 America, thus slmtting oil' that part of the Atlantic 
 Ocean called the Caril)l)(,an Sea and the Gulf „f Mexico. 
 The whole area of the land surface is estiniatctl at about 
 90,000 scjuare miles. 
 
 24. Geological Structure — Coral is everywhere 
 found; it forms tho foundation of the sand-covered 
 islands, and either surrounds the shores of the others oi- 
 exists as reefs and banks more or lass distant from them. 
 The Bahama Islands are wholly of coral rock covered 
 witli blown .sand formed of small fragments o£ coral 
 and shells. This sand, in many places blown into hills 
 two or three hundred feet high, is often converted into 
 limestone rock by the effect of rain-water. 
 
 All the larger islands— Cuba, Jamaica, Hayti, and 
 Puerto Rico— and as far as Virgin (Jorda, are chiefly of 
 Paheozoie formation (including the Carboniferous,) with 
 extensive developments of granite in the mountain chain 
 that runs throughout them. This chain attains, in 
 Cuba, the height of 8,000 feet. 
 
 The islands southward of this are in the main of vol- 
 canic origin; some of them contain extinct craters ; two, 
 Guadaloupe and St. Vincent, have active volcanoes. 
 "The surface of these islands is very irregular and 
 broken, mountains rising abruptly from 2,000 to 5,000 
 feet above tho level of the sea. On the east side of the 
 chain the rocks tower almost perpendicularly from the 
 sea, affording no harbors ; on the western coast the slope 
 towards the sea is much more gentle." 
 
 The submarine rV- -acter of these islands is peculiar. 
 As far as is knc • islands are only the most ele- 
 
 vated portions cf a suLiiiarine plateau of varying breadth 
 and elevation. In the Bahamas tie islands are, for the 
 most part, along the eastern edire of this plateau. 
 " Banks," or shoals, are exceedingly numei-ou.s, rendering 
 the entrance rrom the Atlantic into the Gulf of Mexico 
 very intricate and dangerous; the largest bank, the 
 Grand Bahama, is 800 miles long and 80 broad. The 
 larger islands occupy the greater part of the plateau, the 
 shoals around them being in ninst places but a few miles 
 in width. Among the southern islands the plateau is 
 not so marked, the volcanic peake.; apparently risisg 
 
 from a great depth in the sea ; coral reefs, however, are 
 found often inany miles from the shore. Tho whole 
 character of these islands,— their trend paralle' to the 
 axis of the continent, and tho existence of a submarine 
 plateau,^ proves that they are themselves merely a very 
 low portion of the secondary or eastern axis of the 
 continent. 
 
 26. Climate.— The climates of the West Indies is 
 tropical, no snow .ner occurring. In April the short wet 
 season begins, lasting from two to six weeks, corres- 
 ponding to oui- spring ; then follows the short dry season 
 or summer, in which the thermometer stands at about 
 eighty, the* heat being tempeied by the regular land and 
 sea breezes ; the sky is particularly clear and the stars 
 exceedingly brilliant. In July begins the long wet 
 season, preceded by the failure of the land and sea 
 breezes, and by a period of an ahiiost suffocating atmos- 
 phere. This is the time of the hurricanes ; thunder 
 stoi-ms of fearful violence occur, especially in the after- 
 noon, accompanied by deluges of rain. In the dry season, 
 October to April, the atmosphere is delightful, the cool 
 north-east trade winds blowing without intermission. 
 
 Eartluiuakes are frequent in the mountain islands, 
 more especially in those of volcanic formation. 
 
 2G. Vegetation is altogether- tropical; the indigenous 
 trees and the cultivated plants and fruits, including 
 tamarinds, limes, arrow-root, and ginger, are the same 
 as in tropical Mexico and Central America. Indian- 
 corn is raised .'\erywhere, but little or no wheat or 
 other grain excej)t rice. 
 
 27. The Animal Life is that of the Neo-Tropical 
 region, but is i'»-mai kably poor in the higher ord(!rs, the 
 mammalia ; hin/s are numerous and of gaudy colors ; 
 serpnits are found only in the paheozoie islands, but as 
 a rule, are not venemous ; iN.-ii'rts are exceedingly 
 troublesome; the centipede, scorpion, tarantula, —whose 
 bite sometimes causes death,— and the ji.nr,.,. A-]ii<roe"> •. 
 species of ant that burrows ni the flesh, are the most annoy- 
 ing ; Jiti/i, are abundant and in many varieties, shell-fish 
 
 being the most characteristic, from the huge conch to 
 the tiniest shell as delicate in color as in structui-a. 
 Other marine animals of lower types abound— sponges, 
 soa-faus, sea-pens, sea-anemones, sea-cucumbers, and 
 star-fish with many rays ; turtles and land-crabs are 
 also numerous. 
 
PHYSICAL FEATUllES. 
 
 13' 
 
 28. The Exports consist mainly of the products of tht? 
 sugar-cane (sugar, niohisses, and rum), tobacco, fruit, and 
 HO ne coflee, with cabinet and dye woods from the lai-ge 
 islands. The Imports, are breadstuffs, salted meats, 
 textile fabrics, and luirdware. There are no manufac- 
 tures except cigars and lime juice. 
 
 29. Subdivisions.— The West Indies are Rroupt-il um followM • 
 tlie nullum,!^, extenduitj from near Florida to latitude 20" south 
 
 -all owned by Great Britain; the Gieaier AiUUteH—Cuhu. 
 Jatnaioa, Haiti, and Puerto Rico; the Li'Hscr AntilleH, nioHt of 
 which are owned by Great Britain, comprise the remainder. 
 The latter are again divided into the /.<'<'it)a»f/— those between 
 Puerto Kicoand Martinique— and the Wimlward.' 
 
 30. The British Isbnds— The Bahamas extend about 600 
 miles ; thuir number in very jjreat, but only about thirty have 
 vegetation. Fruit, turtles, shell-ttsh. cabinet woodn and salt 
 are exported; the latter comes in large quantities from Turk's 
 and Caioos islandH, wliere it is made from sea-water by evapor- 
 ation. Andro:!, tho largest of the group, is the only one that has 
 runnmg water; flsewhere fresh water is obtained from wells 
 whose contents rise and fall with the tide. Of the inhabitants, 
 about 40,000, the black and mixed races far outnumber the 
 whites. The government is representative,— a legislature 
 elected by the people, but with all office-holders appointed by 
 the crown. Nasmiu, the capital, on Providence island, lias the 
 only harbor in the group, tho approach to the other islands 
 being by boat. 
 
 31. Jamaica is about 151 miles long, with an area of 4,300 
 s(juare miles. Tho Blue Mountains reach a:; elevation of over 
 7,000 feet ; the surface is undulating where not broken by the 
 mountains. The island is exceedingly beautiful and fertile, and 
 the vegetation is luxuriant even to the mountain tops. The 
 forest trees and the cultivated plants and fruits are the same as 
 in tropical Mexico and Central America ; onl; about two-tifths 
 of the land is under cultivation. The exports are mainly sugar, 
 molasses, and rum; but cocoa-nuts, coffee, pimento, and other 
 productions are sent abroad to a limited extent. The island 
 has many harbors. Kiniintnn is the capital and chief town ; of 
 its population, (about 40,000) only one-eighth are wliite. 
 
 32. Leeward Islands. — These have all the same characteris- 
 tics—lofty volcanic peaks surrounded by a low plain of coralline 
 formation, fertile soil, luxuriant vegetation, and a healthy 
 climate, with streams of water on nearly every island. All 
 have exports similar to those of Jamaica, and all are thickly 
 peopled. The islands form a federation on tho representative 
 principle, the chief officer being styled President. Antigua, the 
 largest island, but streamless, is tho seat of the federal govern- 
 ment. 
 
 33. The Windward Islands are physically and politically sim- 
 ilar to the Leeward Islands. Barbadoes ( Imr-bd-d'z ) is the most 
 important of the group. It is mainly coralline, and contains 
 coral terraces a thousand feet high. Forest growth has disap- 
 peiired. The area is 166 stiuare miles, almost all of which is 
 under cultivation. In 1876 nearly 38,000 hogsheads of sugar 
 and 24,000 puncheons of molasses were exported. The popu- 
 lation, nearly 180,000, is very dense, but only about one-eighth 
 Kre white. Brid(jctinm is the chief city ; it has a large distribut- 
 ing trade, for Barbadoes is rapidly becoming the commercial 
 centre of the Windward Islands. 
 
 34. Trinidad — area, 1,755 square miles — is a continental 
 isliind, neither ooralline nor volcanic. It has mountains 
 over 3,000 foet high. The climate is moist, for the island is 
 
 The Spaniards apply the term Wimlivard to all between Puerto 
 Rico and the Gulf of Para, and I.eenard to those along the coast of 
 VfiioEuela. 
 
 near the region of constant rains. Thn "pitch-lake" is well 
 known; the ^ntch seems t<> have a slow boiling motion but is 
 n.)t hot; It IS quarried and used as fuel. Water covers the 
 
 1 r/wyl<? ^ "^f,' "'""'""• '^'*'*' population of the .sland, about 
 I..0,000 11. rapidly increasing. Trinidad is the most prosperous 
 and active of the British West Indies. Coolies from China and 
 India are largely em jiloyed on the plantations. Port of Spain 
 18 tlie capital. The government is that of a crown colony. 
 
 35. The Bermudas, 380 miles from Cape Ilatteras, consist 
 It IS Haid, of 3(.i> iHlands; only a few however are inhabited. 
 J hese IS landH on account of being situated in the Gulf stream 
 are wholly VVest Indian in charactor,-in their coral formation, 
 their vegetable pnxlucts, and the brilliant marine animal life 
 of their clear waters; the forest growth, however, is inior, con- 
 sisting of small cedar trees, but large enough to build liuht 
 craft. Large quantities of early vegetables-potatoes. cabba«e, 
 onions pease, Ac, are sent in early springto the markets of the 
 United States I-resh water is obtained from rain alone. 
 Ihese islands have many good harbors; they are the winter 
 station of the British North American fleet, and contain a 
 royal dockyard. Hamilton is the seat of government,— which is 
 representative ; this city is the winter resort for invalids from 
 the continent. 1 he populatiim of the islands is about 14,000. 
 
 J^!\- Vl? ?P*","'' Islands.-Cuba is by far the largest island 
 
 40 fi' r.n 1 "-'"i" • '^ i^ "''^•"" '"" ""''^« '""«■ »"<! varies from 
 au to UO miles 111 breadth ; the area is 43,220 sciuare miles. The 
 coa , especially on tiie north, is very low. containing nutny salt 
 lagoons,-the scene of salt numufacture,— and sulnect to floods 
 in the wet season, This coast is unhealthy even in the drv 
 season ; the elevated interior is healthy at all times. Minerals 
 exist, but only copper is mined; highly bituminous coal is met 
 with and even mined in some places; natural oil wells abound, 
 lu^V* i^u""' ""l"""^- •f''"-'-'*' (iriiU'tli covers half tho island. In 
 1H77 the popnlation miinbered 1,425,000, half of these beit.s; 
 whites, the remainder free blacks, Chinese coolies, and slaveH ; 
 the latter are to be freed in 1890, Education is very backward. ( )f 
 Uio cities, Ilavanm (popnlation about 240,000) is situated on a 
 hno harbor, and has a very great trade in sugar, &c.; a railwav 
 connects the city with various places. Other important towns 
 are Matanzu^ Cardnias. Sa,iti<u,o, Trinidad and Cienfunos. Cuba 
 IS represented in the Kpanisli Cortez (Parliament). ' 
 
 ^JJ' ^,^^^° ^'^° *^he other island owned by Spain, ip about 
 100 miles long and 40 broad. It is a beautiful island, and 
 Its cultivation of fruit for exportation is carried on much 
 more extensively than elsewhere in the West Indies. It has 
 several towns with a population ranging from 20,000 to 40.000 
 each ; of these San Juan is the chief. 
 
 38. French Islands.- These are but six, chief of which are 
 M'n-tmique and Giiadaloupe; they are fine islands, engaged 
 wholly in the cultivation of sugar-cane. 
 
 39. Danish Islands. — Are all small, St. Croix and St. 
 llKmias being the chief; the latter is an important station in 
 the passenger and mail traffic with Europe. 
 
 40. Dutch Islands.— These are all under the coast of South 
 America. 
 
 K'A^v.'^^fP-^"^^"*"""-^*''' or St. Domingo, 407 miles long and 
 IhO broad, is in every physical feature a typical West India 
 island; but commercially it is of the least value of all The 
 exports, almost wholly of forest products, are trifling and of 
 inferior quality; sugar and cotton once largely expo- ted are 
 now not produced. The people are nearly all blacks or of 
 mixed race, ignorant, lazy and almost barbarous; cannibalism 
 13 said to exist among tham. Politically the island is divided 
 into i\"o republics, Jluili in the west and San Domintjo in the 
 east; the chief town in the former is Port-au-Prince, and in the 
 latter ban Domingo; blacki alone hold o.; e, and in San Do- 
 mingo can alone own property. Corrupt French is anoken in 
 Hayti, and corrupt Spanish in San Domingo. 
 
 I 
 
1 i 
 
 TSTIIMUS 
 '^j OF PANAMA 
 
 OCALE OF MILB8 
 
 CunadaPu^ Co. Toron 
 
 itji' i-"ii'a, 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 139 
 
 <: 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 X 
 
 ■ 10 
 
 «0 
 
 0.1- 
 
 S3 
 
 u 
 
 *w» 
 
 \A\d 
 
 SOUTH AMEBIC A. 
 
 1. Extent. — Tho greatest length of South America lies along 
 the meridian of seventy, from 55" south to 12" north, and the 
 greatest breadth along the parallel of five, south latitude, be- 
 tween the meridians of 35' and 81° west longitude. Tlie area 
 is estimated at about 7,000,000 square miles, being somewhat 
 less than that of North America. In length and breadth 
 the two continents are about the same. The southern continent 
 lies much farther to the east, the whole of it being east of the 
 meridian of Hamilton, Ontario. 
 
 2. Outline. — In outline South America is remarkably regular, 
 not a single break occurs to effect materially the general shape 
 produced by the relative directions of the continental axes, 
 
 3. Structure. — The great mass of the Andes, the 
 main axis of the continent, lias nuicli less tlie nature 
 of a plate.-^Ai than the main axis of North America. 
 Beginning with tlie southern extremity of Tierra del 
 Fuego, tlie mountains, witli a bi-eadth varying from 20 
 to 40 miles, pass northward as a single range to 
 central Chili where two ranges exist about sixty miles 
 apart; in Bolivia the mountain mass, consisting of 
 many ranges, reaches its greatest breadth — over ."lOO 
 miles. From this point tlie Andes assume a peculiar 
 character, tlie numerous ranges are either connected 
 by cross ranges, or, starting from some huge mass, 
 or "knot," as a centre, radiate in many directions, often 
 to reunite at another knot. These knots are especially 
 numerous in Peru. The last occurs in southern Columbia- 
 from this three ranges radiaie, the eastern curves oil" to 
 tlie north-east and east ending at the Gulf of Para, a 
 branch running to the coast west of the Gulf of ilara- 
 caybo; the central range dies out in northern Columliia, 
 while the western, the broadest and lowest, passes on 
 tlii'ough the Isthmus of Darien, where in places it is 
 not more than ICO feet liigh 
 
 The valleys enclosed by the ranges vary in width 
 from twenty to sixty miles ; they are usually low- 
 lying, but, especially in the neigliljorhood of tlie cross 
 ranges, they occasionally rise into high, broad plateau- 
 like plains, such as tlie plateau of Bolivia. 
 
 The height of the valleys varies from 0,000 to 11,000 feet 
 above sca-lcvi'l ; of the passes (of wiiich tlie number is not 
 great, except in Peru), from 10,000 to 15,000 feet; the highest 
 peaks from IH 000 to 2:t,2!»0,— tho last being the height of 
 Aconcaiiua in (^hili. The lieiglit of tlio Aiulciin mass is very 
 great compared with tho widlli, while tlie number of lofty ))eaks 
 is especially reinarkalilo. The greater j)art of these are active 
 volcanoes, the most rmowiied being Aciniciiiiiiii in Chili; Soral'i 
 and Illiiiiiiiii in Holivia; Arcqiiira in Peru : Cliimhimuo. Colo- 
 paxi — two of the most famous in the world — Aiitisaiii and liiii- 
 hiimha in Ecuador. Volcinioes are numerous throughout tho 
 entire length of the Aiidrs. As the Andes are masses of 
 moimtaiiiH, the rise from the low lands on each side is quite 
 rapid. 
 
 The eastern or secondary axis of the continent is 
 decidedly plateau in character ; its highest range 
 is in tlie east, culminating in the Espinhaco, moun- 
 tains at the parallel of twenty. From these latter 
 mountains a swell of land from .'5,000 to 4,000 
 feet Iiigli, but containing some peaks much more 
 elevated, runs in a zig-zag north-west direction fully 
 2,000 miles inland as far as the Madeira Kiver, ami 
 forms the watershed north and south. From this swell 
 many low ranges, generally parallel, extend to the north 
 and to the south forming numerous valleys between 
 them, till tho whole, plateau and mountains, sinks 
 into the surrounding plains. 
 
 In the north is another plateau ; along its southern 
 edge rise tiie Acaray and Parime Mountains which 
 send otl" low, short spurs northward. This plateau 
 and the Brazilian plateau were doubtless islands ere 
 the plains of the Orinoco, Amazon and La Plata 
 were formed from the alluvium eroded by the rivers 
 and sea from the adjoining highlands. 
 
 Elsewhere the land is low, not reaching a thousand 
 feet in elevation. Otw. i/irat ]>/<ii)i stretches from the 
 mouth of the Orinoco to the southern extremity of 
 Patagonia ; there is no distinctly marked watershed 
 between the basin of tli{^ Orinoco and that of the 
 Amazon ; the Cassitjuiare Kiver unites the upper 
 
 ! waters of both basins, while only a very slight swell 
 of land separates the basin of the Amazon from that 
 of the La Plata. The great plain of the Amazon is 
 
 ; nearly 2,000 miles long and 1,000 broad, and so low 
 is this plain that wliere tlie .Vmazoii enters Brazil 
 
 I 1,400 miles froiii the sea, it has an elevation of only 
 
 ! 2r)0 feet above sea level. Still more level is a portion 
 of the Plain of tin' Orinoco, there being absolutely 
 no difterence of (>lcvatioii ; i\w I'lain, of the. La Plata, 
 over 1,000 miles long and in places fully 400 broad, 
 is scarcely more sloping excc})t where it rises towards 
 the mountains. From soutiieru ('hili a iiiirrow plain 
 skirts the \\estcrn l>ase of the Andes northward, 
 attaining near its starting place its maxiiinim breadth 
 of about 100 miles. 
 
 I. Minerals. — The mountains of South .Vmerica 
 ha\e long been famous for their mineral wealth; every 
 Andean ^t;)te lias tiie same metals, though nut always 
 to the same extent. Gold, silrrr, (piicksiln'r, copper, 
 inn), lead and ///*, are universal, while cool is abun- 
 dant in southern Ciiili and in Columbia; emeralds 
 

 I 
 
 ! 
 
 ill 
 
 140 
 
 a so are found in the latter str.te. Silver is especially 
 abundant; the mountain of Potosi in Peru is said to 
 be composed wholly of ore. In the Brazilian plateau, 
 besides gold and iron, diamonds are found, and in greater 
 abundance than in any other country in the world 
 But except where the mines are owned or conducted 
 by foreigners-in Brazil, Chili and Peru-n.ining is 
 only rudely carried on ; the absence of proper fuel 
 for smelting is a great drawback to tins industry. 
 5. Tne Isthmus of Darien, or Panama, connect- 
 ing the two continents is thirty miles wide at its 
 narrowest part. It is crossed by a railway which 
 tranships large quantities of freight from one ocean to 
 the other. 
 
 the western extremity. There i« no^ninfula in the conSn" 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 I'lO. 70 -RolNDIXO C.MT. HonN. 
 
 . 7. Islands.— The ishuids are small, nnimnortant a.ul f^w 
 m number except where the Andes break uVSCpi" 
 under the ocean m the south. The Galap.„os off the west 
 for t r *fi' T"*?' '^'•«^,«ronp of volcanic islands be t knovvM 
 for their fine turtles. The Chinrim and other islands-bZl 
 IB ets on the coast of Peru-are renowned for thefr de, osi\s o 
 Suano, which is extensively used as a fertilizer espSly in 
 fnand-i. /"'''' ''''""'""^'' "'^ ^'""' '' Robinson cSe" 
 large island with some scanty forests of dwarfed trees The 
 cl mate is very disagreeable, though the temperature never falls 
 ve.y low; fog, ram, snow and wind are almost constant- wate 
 
 fowl are nnmprr.n= Th° "il-b^tTrt- -, ""suuii,, watei- 
 
 „..,,„, ,""■.,•■ , ••"••■ !-Taritn rtie ainuug the lowest 
 
 ot the human family; they are thoroughly savage and k 1111 
 
 loZZt "'"°'"^^° *^" '^''*"^- . ^'^^y '"^^'^ "° ««"»«d house ani 
 go naked, or nearly ,so, even in the severest weather. Their 
 
 and moist; there are no trees, bat herbage is alwavs Dlentifiil 
 Domestic animals, fish and sea-birds are abundant 
 
 8 The Coast Waters, owing to the lack of 
 marked coast indentations, are for the most part un- 
 important. The Strait of Magellan ; heUveen Tierra 
 del Fuego and the mainland, is over 300 miles long 
 has heavy tides, and many intricate passages; it il 
 in consequence difficult for sailing vessels to navi- 
 gate. The Caribbean Sea is said to be shallow for 
 a body of water of such extent; it is free from reefs 
 and shoals, except near the enclosing islands. 
 
 The southern division of the equatorial current sweeps 
 the east and north-east coasts, but the eroding effec- on 
 tiie land is checked by the coast ranges on the east, and 
 counterbalanced on the north-east by the enormous 
 quantity of sediment brough down by the Amazon. 
 
 , ?- Lakes.— South America is devoid of lakps Ti,^ «„i„ 
 akes of considerable size are among the mountains and ?i? 
 
 10. Rivers—Like the northern continent, but to 
 a nmch higher degree, South America possesses the 
 conditions that give rise to great rivers,-vast tracts of 
 country possessing abundant rain and sloping towards 
 a common depression that has an inclination of its 
 own toward far-distant oceanic waters. In extent of 
 ■■uer basin along with abundance of rain South America 
 m Its great Amazon River, stands unrivalled, while the La 
 Plata, the Orinoco and many of the tributary streams 
 of the Amazon itself, equal or even surpass in bovh 
 
 ^','f-!x/?? ''"'""'^ '"°'*^ ""^ *''« g''^^^<^ "^•e'-s of the 
 Old World; twelve of the tributaries of the Amazon 
 
 are over 1,000 miles long. (See Part L, "Land Surface 
 ot the Earth," sections, 19, L'O, 22). 
 
 The Amazon, under the name of the Maranon has its by 
 
 iroT^'r '% '" ^'«''* "f "•« l-'^'^ifl'^. among the moun-" 
 tan 8 of central Peru in about latitude ten, south After a 
 
 ai I'i^t'' tm'r °' TY '^^^''""dred miles among ihemoun^ 
 tains it turns and descends flowing in an almost dirp^V 
 
 . i g''LT'7ooi"mlres^'''^ir"' 't. '"'''' '-^"f 'oTthe'^vt 
 miles ; no cataracts exist below the mountains. Thougrthe fall 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 141 
 
 in the river-bed is bo slight the current is said to flow at the rate 
 of three miles an hour, and to be felt in the ocean at least 150 
 miles from land, the water at that distance being still fresh. 
 The river forms no delta, for the sediment that must be 
 brought down in vast quantities, is swept away by the ocean- 
 currents. 
 
 The river is really a system of waters. " Its vast expanse, 
 its system of back-channels joining the tributaries and linking 
 a series of lagoons too many ever to be named ; its network of 
 navigable waters stretching over one-third of the continent ; its 
 oceanic fauna— porpoises and manatees, gulls and frigate-birds 
 — remind the traveller of a great inland sea. The side channels 
 through the forest, called by the Indians i(jarapes, or canoe- 
 paths, often run to a great distance parallel to the river 
 and intersecting its tributaries, so that one can go from 
 Santarem 1,000 miles up the Amazon without entering it." In 
 the period of high water, which varies in different parts of the 
 basin, the Amazon overflows its banks inundating a wide extent 
 of country. As yet there is little traffic on the river, but navi- 
 gation is free to all nations. 
 
 The largest affluents from the north are the Negro and the 
 Yapura, both similar in character to the Amazon, as are all the 
 other tributaries from the plain; from the south, the Madeira 
 and the Tocantiim, the latter from the table-lands, having many 
 interruptions to navigation. 
 
 The Orinoco, a deep broad river, has its basin confined to 
 Venezuela ; after a winding courise of about 1,500 miles — the 
 upper half containing many rapids and falls,— the Orinoco forms 
 a delta a hundred miles long before eutering the ocean. The 
 head waters of the Orinoco are connected with those of the 
 Negro by the Caniiiquiare, a deep navigable river, the little 
 plateau forming the watershed between the two basins being 
 absolutely level. 
 
 The La Plata, or River Plate, is really the estuary formed 
 by the union of the /'(in/ Ha and the Uruguaij ; it is about 200 
 miles in length and almost the same in Ibreadth at the mouth. 
 The water is charged with sediment which forms extensive 
 shoals along the south shore. From the sea to the head of the 
 Paraguay the distance is over 2,000 miles, the greater part being 
 navigable for large vessels. Only a space of three miles 
 separates the basin of this river from that of the Amazon. 
 
 The Sao Fnnicixcn, 1,200 miles long, though a highland 
 river has but one fall from the beginning of navigable water to 
 the mouth — over 1,000 miles. Like the southern tributaries of 
 the Amazon this magnificent river forms a natural highway 
 southward through a beautiful and fertile valley between two 
 ranges of mountains. The Magdalena in the northwest, 900 
 miles long, is in a rough country and so is diflicult of naviga- 
 tion; but it forms a much used means of access to the interior 
 
 n. Climate. — South Ainorica lias all tlu> physical 
 characteristics that insuie an equable climate : an ex- 
 treme climate such as that of the plains of North 
 America is here an impossibility. Almost all the conti- 
 nent is within the region or the intluence of a perpen- 
 dicular sun, and the small portion that lies beyond 
 is so narrow tlwit its climate is insular. The moun- 
 tain climate passes through all grades from the 
 tropical to that of perpetual snow; nowhere does the 
 variation in temperature from season to season ex- 
 ceed twenty degrees. The heat of th<^ i)lain-country 
 within the tropics is alK)ut 80", seldom going beyond 
 90°. 
 
 On the mountains a tropical climate exists to an elevation of 
 1,000 or 5,000 feet ; — in Ecuador sugar-cane grows at an eleva- 
 tion of 8,000 feet ; between the elevations of 5,000 and 10,000 
 feet the temperature passes from the warmth of summer to 
 the coolness of autumn. The region next above has for the 
 most part a very low temperature, and like all mountain 
 regions is exposed to sudden changes. The plateau of Bolivia 
 and Peru is in this third region which is termed ihe Pumi; in 
 its higher iwrtions it is wild and desolate with only a few 
 Indians as inhabitants. The snow-line is reached at different 
 heights, even in the same latitude ; on the north side of Chim- 
 borazo in Ecuador at 15,914 feet, on Cotopaxi at 15,279, and 
 lower yet on others. 
 
 The greater part of the continent is in the region 
 of the trade- winds — north-east and south-east; the 
 advance of these winds is not seriously checked till 
 the Andes are reached. In consequence, the whole of 
 this vast region, with some local exceptions, is well 
 supplied with moisture ; the north-east wind sweeps 
 up the plain of the Amazon, giving abundant rain 
 everywhere, but excessive in quantity at the foot of 
 the Andes. In cro.ssing these mountains the winds lose 
 nearly all their moisture, and a desert from latitude 
 30° south to Cape Parina is tiie consequence — both 
 on the coast and mountain side The north-west has 
 abundant rain, for here the mountains are parallel to 
 the trade winds ; in the south-west, the " return- 
 trades " from the norch-west give abundant and even 
 excessive rain on the west coast, but none on the 
 east ; the east is scantily supplied by occasional showers 
 when the wind is from the east. 
 
 The rainy season follows the sun ; in general this season 
 begins in June and lasts till December, but there are variations; 
 north of the Amazon and in eastern Peru, Ecuador and Colum- 
 bia, rain may occur at any time. Along the desert coast of the 
 west dense fogs or light rain are of almost daily occurence be- 
 tween June and September ; this phenomenon is probably 
 caused by the influence of the polar current that sets north 
 along the coast. South of the tropic there is an approach to 
 our four seasons. 
 
 12. Vegetation.— South America also possesses in a 
 marked degree the two essentials for the hiuhest 
 development of plant life, — heat and moisture. No- 
 where else in the woi'ld does forest growth n-ach such 
 gigantic proportions or extend over so vast an aiea, 
 and nowhere «;lse are found climbing and parasitic 
 plants in so rich profusion or characterized by so 
 great a delicacy and splendor of blossom. The foliage 
 is most luxuriant, forming a thick canopy high in the 
 air ; the leaves are especially remai'kable for their 
 great length and breadth and the large proportion of 
 them that are thick and fleshy. 
 
 Forest growth is found wherever there is rain, and in the 
 selvas it is exceedingly dense ; the base and sides of the moun- 
 
U2 
 
 SOUTH AMEllICA. 
 
 n 
 
 111 
 
 
 tains are everywhere covered with forests except in the desert 
 
 tLtl'^^n' ^{"^ T" *^^/^ }^^ ''"^^ ^^'"^y^ have magnificent 
 timber. On the selvas of the Amazon dense undergrowth is 
 not found except where there are openings along the rivers or 
 elsewhere ; the greatest luxuriance of undergrowth is met with 
 in the ya oys of the mountain slopes of the east coast ;— here 
 vegetable life runs not. ' 
 
 The Llanos of the upper Orinoco are parched in the drv 
 season and then both vegetable and animal life are torpid • after 
 the wet season, when the flooded plains are again out of water 
 the Llanos are covered with magnificent grass and herbaceous 
 plants; the Pampas of the Argentine Confederation, besides 
 their scatterea palm groves and their grass, have at differ- 
 ent seasons vast stretches of weeds or of gigantic thistles. 
 
 Tlie climatic conditions are the same throughout 
 all tlie low-lying pa.-t of the valley of the Am'kzon. 
 and hence a similarity in 
 forest growth exists over 
 all this vast region; the 
 various kinds of tree 
 found on the lower Ama- 
 zon, — and no where else 
 in the world are they so 
 numero"s, — are the kinds 
 found on the upper Ama- 
 zon, the Negro, and the 
 Madeira. Indeed, the 
 warm moisture-laden 
 trade winds that sweep 
 up the valley along the 
 
 equator and, at the foot 
 
 of the mountains, become 
 
 even violent at times, 
 
 carry tropical vegetation 
 
 with them far up the 
 
 mountains, clothing with 
 
 forest-growth the whoh^ 
 
 of the range except the 
 
 very highest peaks. 
 
 The foirnt trees include mahogany, dyewoods, india-rubber 
 tree, palms of various kinds,— ivory, sago, wax, cocoanut— 
 
 myrtles, tree-ferns, the cow-tree— yielding a sweet, milky sap ' 
 
 and the chinchona from which is obtained the " Peruvian 
 bark," the source of quinine, the medicine so valuable in fevers 
 The homo of this last tree is between the parallels of 5° nortii 
 and 20° south, and at an elevation extending from 6,000 to 9 000 
 feet above sea-level. The cultivate plants include the yam 
 plantain, pine-apple, Indian-corn, cocoa, cassava- from whicli 
 tapioca is made— the aloe and other medicinal plants, tobacco, 
 coca, (a kind of narcotic universally used,) coffee, sugar-cane' 
 nee, and, in the temperate regions, potatoec, peaches, grapes' 
 and wheat. >^ t- y 
 
 13. Animals. — Al)undance of aniniid lifs depends 
 upon alnindanoe of food; nowhere is ford so al.uiulaut 
 as in South America, and nowhere is animal life so 
 
 Fio, 7a.— Brazilian Fokest. 
 
 nearly all low, and wl.en n.^t low ^,>. fo/ .he most 
 part the lowest of the kind; insec, reptile, and bird 
 life exist in untold beauty, variety, and number; but 
 the more highly organized forms, the mammalia, are 
 inferior. 
 
 The European domestic animals, especially the cattlb 
 and horses introduced by tiie early colonists, have 
 increased amazingly, and now wander in millions, 
 more than half wild, over the llanos, pampas and 
 campos of the continent from one end to the other. 
 The rivers abound in fish, often of great "Aze ; those oi 
 
 the Amazon are largely 
 marine in character, and 
 form nearly the whole of 
 the food of the Indian 
 tribes living along the 
 banks of the river. 
 
 There are two marked 
 zoological regions , the 
 tropical, embracing all the 
 tropical and forest country 
 excepting the cooler parts 
 of the Andes south of 
 Cape Parina; and the 
 extra-tropical, comprising 
 the remainder of the con- 
 tinent. There are some 
 animals such as the pu- 
 ma, jaguar, opossum, and 
 humming-bird, that are 
 common to both regions, 
 but each region has its 
 own peculiar types. 
 
 teeming or so varied. But i\w types of life 
 
 are 
 
 fu f ^^ * ^®',°"8 a species of bear, the tapir, the peccari, 
 the toothless sloth, ant-eater and armadillo, (the last covered 
 with armor into which it can who-.y withdraw), the water-hog, 
 the monkey in endless variety including the prehensile-tailed 
 monkey- the lowest of its class- the howling monkey, the 
 slender-limbed spider monkey, and the beautiful marmoset; 
 all the gaudy birds, the most beautiful of the humming-birds, 
 (one not larger than a bee), the toucan with its huge bill, the 
 uraponga or bell-bird, the parrot endless in variety, number 
 and color the low-typed wading birds, and numerous others, 
 some with a ftne song ; the bat, one Ppecies measuring two 
 feet across the outspread wings, and another, the leaf -nosed 
 or vampira bat, that rub« up the skin of sleeping men and 
 beasts and sucks the blood ; the boa and all the most brilliantly 
 colored snakes, some of which am pnigonnuo • the turtle -Hi 
 ifir* '^'l^^,,'^J>e lizard, including the iguana; the whole of 'the 
 arge and the gaudy insect tribe, with the destructive red ant, 
 tbe tarantula-spider, scorpion, and huge mosquitoes that infest 
 every part of this region. 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 148 
 
 are 
 
 Of the extra-tropical region the characteristic animals are 
 the ostrich -like rhea rf the pampas and Patagonia, the condor 
 of the Andes which soars to the height of 20,000 feet, and 
 the penguin of the southern islands,— a sea-bird with unde- 
 veloped wings, whicli, when on land, sits erect on its webbed 
 feet and short powerful legs; to the Andes belong also the 
 domesticated llama and alpaca with the wild vicuna and 
 guanaca, animals of the camel kind, all useful for their wool 
 
 vnhL?! ^T'^n"" ^"^ *^'° ^'P'^''* •"''"g tl'e finest and most 
 valuable. The llama 13 largely used as a beast of burden • it 
 can carry a hundred pounds weight at the rate of twelve or 
 fifteen miles a day. The beautiful littb chinchilla, a burrowine 
 rodent with exceedingly soft fur, is also a native of this region. 
 
 14. Intercourse is carried on in tlie plain-countries by means 
 of t.-,e rivers, railroads being few ; on the mountains, Indians, 
 llamas, mules and donkeys are "mii», 
 the ordinary means of convey- 
 ance for travellers and goods 
 alike. Eailioads constructed at 
 great expense and in the face 
 of extraordinary difficulty exist 
 in all the i-iountain countries 
 except Ecuador ; railroads from 
 Buenos Ayres to Val- 
 paraiso, and from Cal- 
 lao to tlie navigable 
 water of the Amazon are 
 in courseof contruction, 
 
 15. The Inhabit- 
 ants, tlie number of 
 whom is estimated at 
 28,000,000, consist of 
 differentclasses : first, 
 the descendants of 
 Europeans, Span- 
 iards, in all countries 
 except Brazil, w'l)icli 
 was colonized by the 
 Portuguese ; they are 
 the ruling class and 
 the great land own- 
 ers and planters, re- 
 siding mainly in the 
 cities; second, ihe 
 
 mixed races, descendants of Europeans and native. ; 
 these constitute a large and important part of the 
 population everyvjiere; third, the native Indians; of 
 these the greater part who live in the Andes are more 
 or less civilized ; they have embraced Christianity, and 
 form the laboring class, farmers, servants, &c., &c.; some 
 arc wealthy and own large estates ; most of them cherish 
 tlio memoiy of their greatness before the Spanish con- 
 quest ; fourth, the xoild trihrs of the interior, -r.<mw of 
 whom are very savage and are said to be cannibals— tlie 
 Patagonians and Fnegians. In all the countries the 
 population is spai-se, in Brazil particularly so. Negro 
 
 
 slavery exists in Brazil alone, but will cease, according 
 to a recent law, within a few years. 
 
 16. Education is much neglected except in Chili, 
 Buenos Ayres, and Brazil. 
 
 17. Industries.— There are no manufactures of importance, 
 agricul uro, mining, and herding being the chief employments: 
 ihe foieign trade consists in the export of the forest products, 
 nrnrlnff ^""I'^T''' coffe^, cocoa, copper, silver, and animal 
 Wnrl'l n f •' ^°"^^ ^"'^ tallow-, and in the import of manu- 
 factures o all kinds, cotton goods predominating Nearly all 
 the trade is with Great Britain and the United States. 
 
 ii?; J*^* Government, except that in Brazil, which is a 
 limited monarchy, is Eepublioan. modelled on the pattern of 
 
 the United States. But Chili 
 and the Argentine Republic are 
 the only republics in which the 
 government is settled, and these, 
 with Brazil, are the only pros- 
 perous countries. In all the 
 countries except Ecuador re- 
 ligious liberty is secured by law. 
 
 POLITICAL 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 19. Brazil*, hav- 
 ing an estimated area 
 of 3,275,000 square 
 miles, occupies all the 
 central basin of the 
 Amazon, and almost 
 all the eastern hijrh- 
 land region. Its nat- 
 ural advantages are 
 exceedingly great; 
 the highlands abound 
 in minerals ; the cli- 
 mate though warm is 
 healthy ; moisture no- 
 where is wanting ; 
 vegetation both na- 
 tural and cultivated is luxuriant; barrenness exists 
 nowhere. 
 
 The Industries.— The resources of the country are almost 
 wholly undeveloped. Mininij for diamonds is extensively 
 carried on ; there are some gold mines, but they are worked bv 
 foreigners ; iron is the only other metal sought to any import- 
 ant extent. Auricultui-e is the chief occupation ; tropical plants 
 and trnits— matO, or Paraguayan tea, plantain, manioc, bana- 
 nas *c., A-c., are grown for home use, as well as some wheat 
 in tUe south; coffee, sugar, and cotton are produced larcelv 
 and these with some india-nihher. cabinet and dye-woods and 
 hides, torin the exports. 
 
 Of the Cities, lih de Janeiro with a population o' nearly 
 300,000 m 1872, is the capital and largest town ; it has a fine 
 
 For area, poimlatioii, (Src.soo AppenJis III. 
 
144 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Hi 'I 
 If i 
 
 land-locked harbor. Bahia and Fernambuco are other larue 
 cities. 
 
 20. Guiana. — The low plain of the coast of 
 
 Guiana is prolonged beneath the ocean for an unknown 
 
 distance, and the old sea-l)eaches found far inland, 
 
 and even at the foot of the plateau, show how the 
 
 plain has originated. The plateau region is rough, 
 
 but well wooded. Only the coast-plain is cultivated. 
 
 The only industry is apriculture, and the only plant culti- 
 vated for commercial purposes is the sugar-cane. Sugar, 
 molasses, and rum, together with cocoa, and cabinet and dye- 
 woods, form the articles of export. 
 
 Guiana is divided between the Britinh, Dutch and French; the 
 part owned by the British is the most important commercially; 
 it contains the chief river, the Essequibo ; on the islands in its 
 estuary are the chief sugar plantations. Oeorcjetown at the 
 mouth of the Demerara is the chief city. Paramaribo is the 
 chief place in Dutch Guiana, and Cayenne in French Guiana. 
 
 21. Venezuela, besides containing part of the 
 northern plateau and the eastern chain of the Andes, 
 contains all the valley of the Orinoco. The vegetation 
 and animals are of the usual South America kinds. As 
 in all the other counti-ies of this continent, the resources 
 of Venezuela are wholly undeveloped. 
 
 The exports are the products of the tropical forest, (india- 
 rubber, chinchona,) together with coffee, cocoa, some cotton, 
 medicinal plants,— such as sarsaparilla and aloes,— and animal 
 products. Mining in connection with copper and gold is pur- 
 sued to some extent. 
 
 Caracas is the principal city. 
 
 22. Columbia consists in the west of a mass of 
 mountains, but in the east it forms a part of the great 
 plain. The valleys among the mountains are hot, but 
 eveiy variety of climate exists in the more elevated 
 regions. 
 
 The productions and exports in no way differ from those of 
 Venezuela. Agriculture is rude, but the mining of gold, silver, 
 emeralds and coal is vigorously carried on. 
 
 The country is a confederation of nine states with Bogota- -a, 
 city elevated 9,000 feet above sea-level — as the general capital. 
 Colon, or Aspinwall, and Panama, on the Isthmus, have import- 
 ant trade by rail. 
 
 23. Ecuador. — In suiface characteristics Ecuador 
 is similar to Columbia. The west coast is hot and un- 
 healthy, with abundant moisture and a luxuriant vege- 
 tation ; fruits are exceedingly plentiful. The lower 
 i-idges and valleys of the west are barren, but the higher 
 valleys are productive ; the valley or plain of Quito, 
 {>,.'iOO feet high, has a luxuriant vegetation but no 
 forest growth, with a climate having no trace of winter. 
 
 There are many volcanoes around the plains of Quito, some 
 of them the grandest in the world. All the towns lie at an 
 elevation of from H,.')00 to O.-lOO feet above the sea. 
 
 Lcuador is the most backward of all the South American 
 states ; there are no railroads, but all travelling is carried on 
 by pack mules, llamas, and Indians. It is not rich in minerals, 
 but some gold is obtained from the river-beds. Quito, situated 
 near the foot of the volcano of Pichincha, is the capital and 
 largest city, but Gmnjaqiiil is the chief comni-arcial centre. 
 
 24. Peru is one of the most active and (Miterprising 
 countries of South America ; its western coast-plain and 
 western coast-ranges ai-e altogether d(!sert except where 
 cro.ssed by streams that originate among the peaks 
 covered with perpetual snow. The river-valley in which 
 Lima is situated is many miles wide and is extraordin- 
 ai-ily productive ; it is one field of cotton and susrar- 
 cane. It is to the.se riv(M- valleys, rather than to its 
 silver mines, that Peru is indebted f(n- the greater part 
 of its wealth. 
 
 The country is exceedingly rich in ailver, but though over 
 000 mmes are said to be worked, very few of them are impart- 
 ant. Wool of the llama, vicuna, alpaca and sheep— for large 
 flocks of sheep are reared— are the other important commercial 
 products of the highlands. In the lowlands, previous to 1878, 
 puano from the islands and native nitre from a barren elevated 
 plain ni the south were exported in vast (juantities; but in 1878 
 Chih seized the best guano islands and the best nitre fields. 
 Sunar 18 the next most important export, followed by chinchona 
 hark, rice, cotton, and the ordinary tropical products; coca is 
 raised in enormous quantities. 
 
 The cities of the coast are Lima the capital, Callao, (popula- 
 tion about 100,000) the port town of Lima, and the most im- 
 iwrtant commercial city, and Paijta, famed for its ships and 
 sailors ; all have houses only one story high and built with sun- 
 dried brick,— for this coast has suffered from many sev^ire 
 earthquakes. Cuzco, the old capital of the Incas, and Arequipa, 
 are the chief cities of the mountains, and have a beautiful 
 climate. There are no cities in the eastern plain, 
 
 25. Bolivia, excepting that it now possesses no 
 coast, in excry respect resemliles Peru in physical 
 features, in minerals, and in vegetable and animal life. 
 
 It is however richer in r/oW, .s/7rcr and tin. The gold is ob. 
 tained as yet only from the alluvium of the rivers ; the famous 
 silver mountain of Potosi has had over 5,000 mines in it ; the 
 difficulty of procuring fuel for smelting hrs been a great hin. 
 derance here in mining. 
 
 Bolivia is less advanced politically and commercially than 
 Peru ; lack of sea-coast and means of communication have 
 been injurious to progress ; even yet there are but a few miles 
 of railway in the country. Tropical growth in the eastern 
 plains 13 exceedingly luxuriant, and what trade exists in pro. 
 ducts of this growth, is carried on by iul-iuis of the affluents of 
 the Amazon, The exports consist almost altogether of the pro- 
 duct of the mines, including nitre. 
 
 The chief city and capital is .Sucr^ (aoo-cray). 
 
 2*'). Chili extends from latitude 1S° south, to the 
 extreme point of Tierra del Fuego, the eastern boundary 
 being the main watershed of the Andes. Horizontally 
 it has nearly :i.!! .•jimjites from the low tempuraturo and 
 wet and storms of the south, to the hot, absolutely rain- 
 less, and almost windle.ss district of the north ; even 
 greater is the vertical range— from perpetual snow to 
 
PHYSICAL FEATUUES. 
 
 14fi 
 
 perpetual heat. In tlie south there is too much wet for 
 wheat, but oats, potatoes, «ko., do well ; from lat. 52" to 
 37°, all tlie pjuropean grains and fruits grow finely ; 
 tluMi follows the sub-tropical climate of Florida, witli 
 the cliaracteristic productions, as far as Valpai-aiso, 
 after which comes the desert 
 
 Silver, nitre, and 
 eHpecially copper 
 are exported in 
 large quantities to 
 Europe; while 
 wheat and flour, 
 agricultural pro- 
 ducts generally, 
 timbor and coal 
 from the south, are 
 8C!it to various 
 parts of the west- 
 ern and Bouih-east- 
 ern coasts Auricul- 
 ture is tlouriahinf;, 
 for the western 
 plain is in general 
 highly fertile. 
 Earthquakes are 
 frequent, but arc 
 not so severe as 
 those of Peru. 
 Chili is the fore- 
 most of all the 
 South American 
 
 states in agriculture and manufactures, in education and 
 intelligence. EnglJHh, French and Germans are numerous, 
 most of the commerce and industries are in their hands. 
 
 The chief cities are N<inti(ipo, the capital and largest city in 
 South America; its port, I'rt?;>ar<nXo. is also one of the largest 
 cities. 
 
 27. The Argentine Confederation, consisting of 
 fourteen states, is almost altogether a pastoral country ; 
 
 . -Oaicuos 
 
 the agricultural part is chiefly along tlio western side of 
 the Parana in its soutiiern course, and in north-eastern 
 Patagonia ; there is aL;o some mining in the northwest 
 Vast herds of sheep and cattle feed on the panipa.s, and 
 the products of these— wool, hides, bone.s, dried and 
 salted beef— are the oidy exports ; horses also tye very 
 
 numerous. 
 
 IndiatiH occupy 
 over half of the 
 country — all the 
 central part from 
 south to north ; 
 many of the tribes 
 are hostile to the 
 whites, and carry 
 on war witli one 
 Kiiuther. 
 
 The number of 
 foreign immigrants 
 is very great, whole 
 districts being set- 
 tled by them ; they 
 are chiefly from 
 Italy, Spain and 
 Great Britain. The 
 trade is largely 
 with Great Britain 
 and France. 
 
 The chief city is 
 JIuenoa Ayres, the 
 
 Lashoing Ca'I'ti,!.;. 
 capital of the Confederation. 
 
 28. Uruguay and Paraguay have no distinctive physical 
 features ; m both agriculture is extremely rude ; the chief trade 
 consists in the produi.ts of vast herds of cattle and horses ; 
 iiiatii or Paraguayan tea is also exported. Vegetation is every- 
 where luxuriant, Montevideo, an important commercial city, is 
 the capital of Uruguay, and Asuncion of Paraguay, 
 
 i 
 
m 
 
 
 THE OLD WORLD, OR EASTERN HEMISPHERE. 
 
 Introductory Remarks.— Physically the plan of 
 the Eastv>rn Hemisphere is characterized by a complexity 
 wholly ab.^nt :;n the Western Hemisphere. The conti- 
 nents of the latter, with their simple structure, extend 
 north and soath and permit of the operation of simple 
 climatic principles, with modifying circumstances, that 
 affect vast areas ; but the Eastern Hemisphere, along 
 with a north and south extension almost as great as 
 that in the New World, has its chief extension east and 
 west. I< :s evident that this combination of extensions 
 must mctke the operation of climatic principles much 
 more complex. The complexity is increased still further 
 by the existence within this hemisphe:o, and throughout 
 its whole longitudinal extent, of vast, almost oceanic, 
 bodies of water, having a ten)perature much higher 
 than that of the open oceai., and divided and broken 
 in upon by large masrses of plateau-like land— Italy, 
 Turkey and Greece, Asia Minor, Arabia, India, and 
 Farther India. Added to this is the exceedingly ir- 
 regular elevation of the main continental axis with its 
 direction athwart the course of the prevailing vdnds. 
 
 In the great northern plain the climatic principles are 
 as simple in tlieir operation as in the northern plain of 
 America; but the multiplicity of land-form elsewhere 
 destroys all simplicity, and introduces wliat often appear 
 as contradictions of those principles in climate anJ pio 
 duction. Were a lofty range of mounfeiins to run from 
 the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean along tlu; 
 parallel of thirty-five, tlie oHmatic phenomena of 
 southern Asia would be repeated in the southern United 
 States ; as it is, the open plain to the north of the Gulf 
 
 146 
 
 of Mexico is exposed in its southern part to polar 
 winds,— an impossibility in southern Asia, and almost 
 so in southern Europe, though lying farther to the north. 
 
 Of the widely-cultivated vegetable productions so 
 useful to man, the Old World has produced nearly all, 
 —only maize and the potato being native to the New 
 World ; all the domestic animals, except the merely local 
 llama and vicuna of South America, also had their home 
 in the Old World, where still dwell almost all the 
 highest types of the higher animal life. 
 
 To the Old World, too, ])elongsall our modern civiliza- 
 tion ; for whatever may have been the civilization of 
 Mexicans or Peruvians, it disappeared before tlie conquer- 
 ing Spaniard without leaving a trace of its influence 
 upon the incoming civilization, or even of its existence 
 except by architectural remains and in the writings of 
 Spanirh historians. Around all the soutliern waters of 
 the Asia-Europe continent have existed different types 
 of civilization that have more or less influenced others 
 and profoundly aflected vast numbers of the human race. 
 The civilization of China, Hindostan, Persia, Asia Minor, 
 Egypt, and Pliamicia, originated in unknown antiquity '; 
 that of Palestine, Greece, Rome, Arabia, and Western 
 Europe, is altogether historical. The vigorous civili- 
 zation of Western Europe, particularly that of the 
 Anglo-Saxon type, is spreading far and wide over the 
 world, not only in the colonies, but in the homes of the 
 more ancient civilizations, in Italy, Greece, Palestine. 
 Egypt, India, and China, thus repaying these countries 
 for what it itself owes to them 
 
PHYSICAL i'EATURES. 
 
 147 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 1. Extent— Continental Europe lies between the 
 parallels of 36" and 71° north, and between the meridians 
 of 9.5" west and 65" east; including the islands, the 
 soui/hern and the western extension are somewhat 
 greater. On the south it is separated from Africa and 
 Asia by the Mediterranean and the connected waters. 
 The Caucasus Mountains, the Caspian Sea, and the Ural 
 Mountains are natural boundaries on the south-east and 
 east, but the Ural River, which is the remaining part of 
 the eastern boundary usually assigned, is not a natural 
 boundary, for it flows through a country everywhere 
 identical in its physical characteristics. Indeed, there 
 is no real natural boundary between Europe and Asia 
 in this region ; even the Urals are so low that there is 
 as little difference between the countries east and west 
 in climate and productions as there is in physical con- 
 formation ; — Europe is but the westward extension of 
 Asia in the form of a huge peninsula, • 
 
 The area of the continent is 3,857,122 square miles, 
 — somewhat larger than Canada. 
 
 2. Structure. (See Pt. I., page 8.)— The main axis 
 of the continent,— the mountain chain on the southern 
 side of the plateau, — is perhaps scarcely less continuous 
 than that of America, even though the larger scale on 
 which America is constructed be taken into considera- 
 tion ; but the secondary axis is much more broken and 
 irregular. Neither axis, however, is at al! equal in 
 height or in massiveness to the axes of America. 
 
 The plateau itself is quite low, hardly ever exceeding 
 2,000 feet above the sea. In most places it is broken 
 and irregular, particularly so in the Balkan region ; it 
 is intersected by numerous and low-lying river-valleys, 
 and in one place sinks into a great plain, the plain of 
 Hungary. 
 
 3. Mountains— The Alps, especially in Switzerland, - ;th 
 their culminating point, Mont Blanc 15,781 feet hi^h, the high- 
 est peak in Europe, are the loftiebt and most massive part of 
 the main axis. Starting at the Gulf of Genoa they run north- 
 ward under the name of Maritime Alps; then curving east- 
 ward and dividing, the southern range passes on unt.cr the 
 na.mea ot Pennine, Leponfinejihcctian, Carnic, andjulian Alpx, 
 to the valley of the Save River, while the northern range 
 passes on under the names of lieniesfi and Norir. Alps, to the 
 
 ?f' ^n« ? tTl"^/'^""^- ^" *1>«^ ^IPS numerous peaks are from 
 11,000 to 14,000 feet high ; elsewhere in the main axis the peaks 
 ^.u J.^"'°'^ a greater elevation than 11,070 feet,— the height 
 i u'l'*!,' '?"" ' ''[Jftin; uui the great majority do not 
 reach half tliat height. The Pyrenees, a broad mass of low 
 nountains, have one peak over 11,000 feet high. The Cevenne 
 .J/ountei«« in France rarely exceed 6,000 feet, while in the 
 Balkans the height approaches 10,000 feet. 
 
 In the broken, irregular Secondary Axis the elevation ia less; 
 the peaks in the plateau-like Jura and its continuation the 
 Voii(]es and Black Forest, the Bohemian Forest, the Ore Moun- 
 tains, Giant Mountains, the Harz and other ranges, have an 
 elevation of from 4,000 to 5,276 feet, very few being much over 
 4,500 feet high ; the Carpathians are higher, one peak being over 
 9,500 feet. The spurs that part off southward from the main 
 axis are in general low, hut the Appenines, a range 800 miles 
 long, to which Italy owes its existence, reach near Naples the 
 height of 9,500 feet, and in Sicily the height of 10,875 feet, Mt. 
 Etna. The other spur, the Pindus, a range that expands into 
 the plateau of Greece, has no high peak except an outlier at the 
 eastern end of a short cross range, Mt. Olympus' which ia 9,750 
 feet high. 
 
 Of the mountains that cross the European plain, the Urals 
 in many places are but hills, rarely over 2,000 feet high, the 
 highest peak being 5,400. The approach to them is every- 
 where gradual, almost imperceptible; they have more the 
 character of a plateau than of mountains. The Scandinavian. 
 Mountains, over 1,100 miles long, constitute a plateau for the^ 
 most part, one portion being over 200 miles wide; some of th» 
 elevations are over 9,000 feet high. Everywhere in the higher 
 valleys glaciers are found, while in the northern half of the 
 peninsula they descend to the sea. 
 
 The region of Volcanic Phenomena lies south of the parallel 
 of forty-two, including southern Spain and Portugal, southern 
 Italy and the adjacent islands, and Greece and southern Tur- 
 key with the islands of the Archipelago. The only active vol- 
 cano at present on the mainland is the well-known Vesuvius 
 near Naples ; it has been in almost continuous eruption for a 
 century. In Sicily is the equally well-known Ftna, a gigantic 
 mass of volcanic matter; in the Lipari group is Stromholi,a. 
 low, barren island, the crater of which is always aglow ; in the 
 southern Archipelago is Santorin, a group of active volcanic 
 islands, some of which have risen from the sea in the present 
 ctiutury. Elsewhere the volcanic phenomena consist of hot 
 springs, mud-volcanoes (in southern Sicily), and fissures in rocks 
 from which issue carbonic acid gas, and sulphuretted hydrogen ; 
 these latter phenomena are seen especially in the Phlagrean 
 Fields near Naples. Earthquakes are of constant occurrence 
 throughout this region, southern Italy, Greece, and the Archi- 
 pelago being specially afflicted. Within the last three years 
 Spain, the islands of Ischia and Capri near Naples, and Kos 
 and Khios in the Archipelago have suffered very severely. 
 
 4. Minerals. — Europe is not rich in the precious 
 metals, but the most useful minerals are very abundant. 
 The coal areas are chiefly in the British Islands, and 
 in the region including Belgium and northern France, 
 extending east into Germany and Austria ; coal is found 
 also in southern Russia. Iron is universal in the moun- 
 tain regions; Copper is equally widespread. Tin is 
 found in England, Saxony, and Bohemia ; Lead is met 
 with everywhere, but is richest in England, central 
 Geimany, and Spain; Mercury is almost confined to 
 Spain and south-western Austria. Silver exists in many 
 places, but central Germany and eastern Austria con- 
 tain the richest mines ; Gold exists in considerable 
 quantity in the Carpathians and the Urals • the. latter 
 mountains are rich in all kinds of minerals. Preciovs 
 Stones are found in many places, but the diamond only 
 in the Urals. Salt (mineral) is largely developed in 
 
 I I* 
 
 - ■ill- 
 
 t if: 
 
 i I 
 
FI:!i ■: 
 
 i 
 ti 
 
PHYSICAL FEATl'llES. 
 
 149 
 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 U 
 
 
 I 
 
 England, Spain, Austria and olsewJiore, wliilo lirine | 
 springs are met \\\A\ over a large area. Many other 
 minerals exist but they have merely a local development, 
 or are met with only in small rjuantities. 
 
 5. Plains. — In the east the whole breadth of Europe 
 is a plaiiu Narrowed by the (Carpathian mountains, it 
 skirts the northern side of the oentr*<i plateau and ter- 
 minates with the mountains of Norway and Great 
 Britain, and with the Bay of Biscay,— the N'>r*ih Stvi being 
 but a sliglitly submerged jjart of the plain. The central 
 plateau encloses another plain, the plain of Hungary. 
 These plains are not flat, but are gently undulating ; the 
 only break in the great eastern plain is made by the 
 Valdai Hills, the height of which, however, is onlj 
 1,100 feet. 
 
 6. Outline. — The outline of a continent depends 
 upon the character and po.5ition of its axis. In Europe 
 the mountain-spurs, or plateaus, that part off southward 
 from the axis, in combination with the curving course 
 of the axis itself, give rise to an irregularity much greater 
 than is found in America, where there is but one solitary 
 plateau-spur, Yucatan. 
 
 The north-western outline is much more regular than 
 the southern, for a low narrow plain, locally indented 
 indeed by the waves of the North 8ea, tills up the rough- 
 ness of the northern side of the axis. The gap between 
 Denmark and Norway has little effect on the general 
 outline, but the British Islands with their connecting 
 isthmus sunk but a few fathoms below the surface of tin; 
 water, form properly an important modifying feature of 
 the whole western coast. The total length of coast line 
 is nearly 20,000 miles. 
 
 7. Peninsulas. — All western Europe is one great 
 peninsula with its broad isthmus lying between the 
 Black and the Baltic Sea ; in itself it is an aggregate 
 of peninsulas, the continental axis terminating in the. 
 Pfnlnsula. Politically all but the Crimen form either a 
 single country or more tliau a single country : J-iraniluur- 
 ria between the Atlantic and Baltic with its connected 
 waters, — a compound peninsula, indeed, with its main 
 isthmus between the Gulf of Finland ai ;1 the ^Vhite 
 Sea; Denmark, Simin awl Portidjal, It.ahj, Tnrkey and 
 Greece, and in effect, (h-eat Britain, for only a very 
 narrow and shallow neck of water lies between the 
 chalk-cliffs on the opposing shores of France and Eng- 
 land 
 
 H. The Capes Uiat, are Und-mttrku in iiavit^iitiou are St. Vin- 
 cent in Portugal, FinUterre in Hpuin,— the extretno wostern 
 point,— C7('ar in Ireland, l.an,. j End in England, ami La Hague 
 n\ Franco; Matapan in Greece, and North hi Norway, aro 
 extrenio poiiita. 
 
 !>. Islands. -The islands are excoediuKly uumurouB and in 
 many ruapectH aro highly importan';. Apart from the Britwh 
 Inles, the Atlantic iHlandaare but the inequalities and foot liilla 
 of the aide of a niountaincham tliat aiiiks beneath the sea ; 
 along the North Ben the islands aro low, Hat, and sandy like the 
 coast ; all were evidently on< '• a part of the mainland ; witliin 
 historical ^n.iea many have been wasbedaway, and others have 
 been separated from the coast. In the Mediterranean, the 
 islands are hir^e and important, and except where volcanic in 
 origin, all consist of a narrow plateau or a low mountain-chain 
 running parallel with the main axis of the continent, or with a 
 near-lying spur ; the islands of the Archipelago, other than 
 volcanic, are the ecattcrcd termination of the eastern j>'ateau- 
 spur of the main axis. 
 
 10. Coast Waters. — No other contirent at all 
 equals Eunjpe in the number and impo'tance of its 
 coast-waters. In addition to their decided effect upon 
 the climate these seas are the .scenes of great industries ; 
 they are the sources of supply of an important article ot 
 food ; thej' not only extend far inland bringing remote 
 regions in coixtiict, but they send off' arms on every side ; 
 great rivers flow" into them .so that those regions that 
 ;ire not reached by the sea itself, or by its arms, are 
 [■cached by affluents of tlie sea ; thus no other continent 
 is so well supplied witii natural means of internal commu- 
 nication. For untold ages these seas have been the high 
 Wiiys of connncrce, and (;ivJlization from tlm i-emotest 
 limes has had its home upon their shores. 
 
 The Mediterraimm, •i.liOO miles long with an area of nearly 
 1,000,000 square miles, is oceanic in character. A ridge crosses 
 it from Sicily to Africa, 1,200 feet deep ; east of tliis the bottom 
 lies nearly 11,000 feet below the surface, and to the west nearly 
 10,000 ; the ridge at the entrance from the Atlantic leaves the 
 water only 1,000 feet deep. The western shores, north and 
 south, are comparatively regular, but the eastern are very 
 broken. Shoals, the result of blown desert sand and Nile 
 sediment, exist along the eastern lialf of the southern coast, but 
 cud abruptly at a few miles from llio shore. The color of the 
 water is a deep but briglit blue, except in the east where it has 
 a purplish tinge. 
 
 The evaporation is so great that not only is the water much 
 Salter than that of the ocean, but it is increasing in saltness, 
 for the amount of water poured into the sea by the rivers falls 
 short of the amount evaporated. In consequence there is a 
 steady inset from the Atlantic luid from the Black Sea. From 
 the former the inset seems to bt; conhned to the middle part of 
 the strait, while at both sides and at the bott(Mn the current is 
 alternately in and out, f-illownig the tides. There is but little 
 tide and that only in the west ; fluctuations, however, are pro- 
 duced by winds. The temperature of the water is twenty 
 degrees warmer than that of the Atlantic, only atiiin surface- 
 layer becomint; cool in winter. The situation of the Mediter- 
 ranean, between two very different climatic areas, exposes it to 
 violent storms. 
 
 Marine vegetable life is poor, except n,ar the shores, conse- 
 quently marine animal life is also poor; vei'y little exists at any 
 
160 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 If 
 
 1 
 
 
 ooiiHiderable aittance from the shore. The tuiuiy, wirdine and 
 anchovy aro abundant, m aro ali^ i shell fish. Fine Hiwngea are 
 obtained around Oroeoe, aiut corals of dilToront colors o-arv- 
 whore. 
 
 The Adriutir, r,00 miles lon« and 100 broad, an arm of the 
 Mediterranean, is rapit ly filling up in its northern part— the 
 Gulf of Venice ; the dol;a of the I'o advances '200 feet a year 
 The west shore is low, ' he east is hi«h and lined witl- moun- 
 tain-islands. Other parts of the Mediterranean have various 
 names, tlui Oiiir of J.w.in, Gulf of (inion, (lulf of Turauto, the 
 Archipelaiji), hmian Sea, and the Levant at the eastern end. 
 
 The niarl- Sea, about 700 miles Ions and 400 wide, is much 
 less salt than the Mediterranean ; in the late fall tho BtroM« 
 westerly winds ruiHe the level of the eastern Mediterranean 
 above that of tho I Hack F?ea, and then a current of salt wator 
 runs from the former seu into ti>o latter throii^fl, '.e connectin},' 
 cliannels— the Dardanellos, Sea of Marmora, and the ilos- 
 porus; were ic not for this current the Black Sea woulil bo 
 fresh. The water is over 10,000 foet deep in the centre, and 
 varies greatly in temperai ire according to the season. Oceanic 
 animn Is— seals, dolphinn and porpoises, as well aa mackerel, 
 mullet, solo, t- n;l other lisli are numerous. Tho shores west and 
 north-west are low, elsewliero they aro bold and rocky. HtorniH 
 are frequent and violent. The connected .SVn ()/'.,4ioi', is very 
 fresh and shallow, e.xtensive marshcH lining its 'shores almost 
 everywhere. 
 
 Ihe liaij of liisn ij is not deep; its heavy tides, strong cur- 
 rents and open clmructor, make the navigation difticult and 
 even dangerous. It has val aiible sardine fisheries. Tlio eastern 
 part, where the ;)lain dip . under the water, is very shallow ; 
 the north-east shore is bold. 
 
 The North Sen is ncaly 000 miles long and ;i00 broad, with an 
 area of 1,400,000 sciuuie miles. Tho shore south and east is 
 very low, protected only by low hills, or " dunes," of blown 
 sand and by artificial dykes; on tho west aro the chalk-clilTs of 
 south-eastern Kiighuid, and the rooks of the north-east end of 
 Scotland. It is everywhere shallow, not over (JOO feet deep 
 e.Ncept in " gullies " ; there aro very many " banks," tho cliief 
 of which is tho Dogger Bank ; here tho water is only from tifty 
 to a hundred feet deep. Storms are frequent and heavy, and 
 fog often prevails. Marine vegetation is abundant, and the 
 watoris discoloured with " diatoms;" l<"ncefish are extraordin- 
 arily plentiful— cod, haddock, herring, halibut, sole and others; 
 it is one of the very best fishing grounds in the world. Fish to 
 the value of over #125,000,000 are taken annually. 
 
 The Baltic, 900 miles long and 200 wide, is rapidly filling 
 up in tho north ; vast quantities of sediment accumulate ut the 
 river mouths and along the southern coast where fresh water 
 lakes, called " haffs," are formed by it. Th,. (juantity of fresh 
 water poured into this sea is very great; in consequence it is only 
 brackish in the two northern arms, the Gulfs of Bothnia and 
 Finland, and stroiig currents set outward through the connect- 
 ing channels— the Belts, Sound, Cattegat and Skager Rack. 
 Canals connect the head waters of its chief affluents with the 
 rivers flowing into the Black and Caspian seas, and with the 
 White Sea. Few fish are found in this sea. 
 
 The U'hite Sea is shallow ; it is open not more than live 
 months in the year. Like all the northern oceanic waters it 
 abounds in fish and other marine animals. 
 
 11. Rivers. — The genernl watershed of Europe, 
 nortli and south, .starts witii the Ceveimes and rui s 
 north-easterly to the Urals, passing through tlie. southern 
 Alps of Switzei'laud, the soutlieni mountains of Bohemia 
 and the Valdai Hills in Russia ; thus it does not con- 
 form to tlie axis of the continent. 
 
 Fo% • of tlie rivers of Europe in point of Itmgth or 
 volume e.jual tho cliiuacteristic rivers of America ; but 
 in extent of navigiilile water Europe is scarcely inferior 
 to North America. Tn America the tendency of tho 
 streams is to unite in one great stream, in Europe 
 tlio tendency is for tlieiii to keep separate. Tlius in 
 northern Europe a large number of important rivers, 
 navigal.hf for vessels of light draft ahnost to tlieir source, 
 run parallel to one another at comparatively small, but 
 nearly regular, distances apart— the Dwina, Nivnian, 
 ViHtuln, Oder, Elbe, WvH^r, lihin,; S,'liie., and Loire. 
 The same plienomenon is seen on the south-eist in the 
 niucii larger rivers,— the UrnI, Vol,,,,, Don, Dn„}ur, 
 Dni,'^ter xmA others The rives of 8outlicrii Europe, 
 including Spain, flow from a plateau region dinsctly into 
 the .sea, and in coiise(|ii(Mice are rapid foe the ino.st 
 part and hut little available for navigation ; such are the 
 rivers of Turkey and the Khone. All the rivers of the 
 north and east flow thi'ough plains, and are consequently 
 sluggish in curnmt and winding in cour.se, the direct 
 length being oftm doubled by tlu^ windings ; this circum- 
 stance brings a far larger area in contact with navigablo 
 water. Ail have sand-bars which shift tlieir position with 
 any unusual iiiHow of water a feature common to all 
 rivers similarly situated. ]Mo.st of the rivers of Europe, 
 in part or in whole, are frozen over fn.m three to six 
 months during the year ; almost all those of the western 
 plain region are effected by the tides, and liave broad 
 estuaries— circuiistances tliat materially add to their 
 commercial importance. 
 
 The length cf tho rivers, except the great rivors of the basins 
 of tho Black and Caspian seas, is from 400 to (iOO miles. The 
 Vohja, a stream startii i^ in tho Valdai Hills and emptying into 
 the Caspian by very many moutlis, has a length of about 2 500 
 miles ;the i»o/i and i»H(V/iftr each about l.;iOO miles, the latter 
 being a deep river at all seasons. Tho J)anuh,\ the next to the 
 largest in Europe, with its headwaters in the Black Forest 
 18 nearly 2,000 miles long ; navigation for large boats begins at 
 Ulm. It has very many alHuents, a large number of which aro 
 navigable, the Inn, Theirs (tice), Drave, and Hare being the most 
 important. Owing to the rapidity of the current navigation 
 west of the Carpathians is somewhat difficult even for steamers. 
 Where the river pierces these mountains lie the " Iron Gates '' 
 a shallow rapid, hurtful to navigation, but in process of 
 being removed by the Austrian Government. The Rhine 
 ".tarts in Mt. St. Gothard in southern Switzerland, passing 
 through LakeCoiistance where itsmuddy waters becomeblueand 
 clear; froni this lake to Mannheim its navigation is interrupted 
 by several falls and rapids, but below that point it is unob- 
 •.'}°!^ „ " Holland it divides and subdivides, forming below 
 with the il/«,is (Mouse) a hupe dolta, Its scenery in tl:e plateau 
 country is very fine, the picturesqueness being heightened by 
 the existence of many fortifications and old castles along the 
 mils, ihe trade of all kinds on this river is exceedingly great. 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 16t 
 
 12. Lakes. — Tho lakes of Ruropo are almost all 
 among tho Alps or in tli« low lands around tho Baltic 
 Sea. Of tho latter tho largest are Ladoga with an area 
 of over 6,000 scjuare miles, and Otifija in Russia, and 
 Wenor and Wi-tti'.r in Sw('d()n. Of tho Alpira lakes, 
 all excwvlingly beautiful, (Jiitwva, Conntance, and 
 Neinchati't in Switzerland are tho largest, hut they do not 
 exceed 200 H(iuaro miles in area ; their height above sea- 
 level is about 1,'JOOfeot; of the Alpine lakes in Italy 
 tho chief are Afayyiori; and Cnmo, long, deep, and narrow, 
 with beautiful scenery. (See page 7, " Sediment." and 
 page 16, " Lak(3s.") 
 
 13. Climate. — Tho climr to of Europe varies gn atly ; 
 in tho west wliero tho low-lying land is exposed to the 
 direct and continuous action of tho warm return tr.ide 
 winds and of the surface drift of the ocean, and in the 
 south where tho heated waters of the Mediterranean 
 
 »5^^: 
 
 Houth-eaat to tho month of the Dannbfl and aoroM the Diack 
 and Ciispian Huait ; 'iO** followH <lown tho Hcantlinavian Moun- 
 tains from North Cape to Houth-oentral Hwwlon and then runa 
 Houth-oaHt, finally crossing the north of tVie Caspian ; 10" takes 
 a similar direction somewhat to tho uast, but crosses central 
 Russia ; 0" Htrikos tho VVliito Hea and runs parallel to 10", 
 The July isothorm of HO", after following the southern and 
 eastern Hhore of the Mediterranean, crosses soutli-uastern 
 Turkey ; 70" passes from north-western Hpiiin through 
 central France, north-eaHt to the Urals in latitude 5,0° ; ttO° 
 crosses the middle of the KritiHli fHleH north-east to the White 
 Hea ; and M)' puHHiis through Iceland to beyoiul North Cape, 
 where it drops to the coast. 
 
 In comparuig tho nlirnates of Europe and North America the 
 comparison should ho made between tho woHtern sidcit of the 
 continents, (or there tho climatio conditions are the same as far 
 as wind and ocean are concerned ; but it must be rememborotl 
 
 that other physical condi- 
 tions are totally different; 
 western America is bordered 
 by a lofty plateau, and the 
 ocean is shut off from the 
 polar seas; western Eu-ope 
 is low and the ocean is open 
 to tho polar inflow. (Beeseo, 
 18, 14, " North America,") 
 
 No. 70.-VIKW ON THK RHINK.— TOWKU AN» UlJiM.l) CasTLKS. 
 
 Jievor cool and the influence of the perpetual furnace of 
 the African desert is felt, the temperature is remarkably 
 equable, showing an annual variation of only fifteen 
 or twenty degrees ; but away from such influences, to 
 the north and east of the main axis, in the great eastern 
 plain, the variations are nearly as marked as in North 
 America; north-eastern Russia has a January tempera- 
 ture of -10", and a July temperature of 50.° Naturally 
 we look for the winter temperatures of Europe beyond 
 the axis to increase in severity from west to east rather 
 than from south to north, seeing that tho centre of 
 intense cold is within the great land-mass to the east, 
 and the opposing warm winds are from the west. 
 
 Tho January isotherm of 40° drops from the north Atlantic 
 south-east across Ireland, south-west England, central France, 
 and then curves east through central Italy and southern 
 Turkey ; 32° after crossing Iceland north-easterly to near Nor- 
 way, drops south to the mouth of tho Elbe and thence curves 
 
 Mointure ia abundant in Europe generally, but it is excessive 
 everywhere in the extreme west ; tho only dry parts are 
 the eastern plateau of Spain and the Kirghis steppes north of 
 the Caspian, 
 
 14. Vegetation — In character the vegetation of 
 Europe, in both forest-growth and fruits and grains, does 
 not differ from that of extra-tropical North America ; 
 the sub-tropical fruits of the south— figs, olives, lemons, 
 oranges and almonds, — are replaced by mosses, lichens 
 and stunted willows and birches in tho extreme 
 north. The common food-grains are cultivated even 
 beyond the parallel of sixty, barley being grown in 
 Iceland and almost to the northern extremity of Norway ; 
 the wheat region is in central Europe north of the main 
 axis ; the region of the vine and Indian corn stretches 
 across the continent south of the parallel of forty-eight, 
 including the southern plateau. Forests still exist on 
 
 i'M 
 
152 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 II 
 
 ■ 
 
 •m 
 
 all the mountains, in noith-eastern Prussia, and Russia • 
 the latter country is said to be two fifths forest. 
 
 15. Animals._Except in the types characteristic of 
 the extreme north-the reindeer and arctic fox,-animal 
 life IS remarkably uniform over Europe ; the wild boar 
 wolf, lynx, fox and bear are found wherever there are 
 large forests and mountain fastnesses ; the wolf especi- 
 ally in the Carpathians and in the forests and steppes of 
 Russia. Domestic animals a.'e everywhere in lar<re 
 numbers ; even the can>el is found in the south-east 1 
 that Asiatic part of Europe. Birds are very numerous 
 especially m the moist, equable climatesof western Europe' 
 the number and variety of singing birds are particularly 
 remarkable; the I'ange of the nightingale extends north to 
 the Baltic. Sea-birds, whose feather., and eggs are 
 important articles of commerce, are innumerable on 
 all the islands and coasts of the north-west. The 
 serpents are harmless except the adder and spotted snake • 
 no large reptiles of any kind exist. Fish abound in the 
 Atlantic— sardines and pilchard in the south-west, her- 
 ring and cod in the north-west, and salmon in the rivers 
 and estuaries ; of shell-fish, oy.sters are found in the 
 waters of the north-west, but they are inferior to the 
 American varieties ; lobsters and crabs are numerous in 
 the same region. 
 
 16. Industries. __In Europe all the resources of 
 nature are utilized to the very highest degree ; each in- 
 dustry employs the greatest skill and the profoundest 
 science ; nowhere is agriculture, mining, fishing or manu- 
 facturing so thoroughly studied or carried to so high a 
 degree of perfection. 
 
 Agricnlture is the great industry everywhere, e\en in 
 the densely peopled west ; Mimn,) is a leading industry 
 in all the plateau and mountain ivgions except Spain 
 Italy, and Turk.y. FLshiug emplojs hundreds of thou- 
 sands of people in the maritime countries. Mnnnfm-tnr- 
 incj of necessity accompanies the great facilities "for dis- 
 tribution offered by the proximity to oceanic waters of 
 so groat an extent of country abounding in mineral 
 wealth ; consequently the agricultural products of the 
 sea-board countries do not suffice for the maintenance of 
 the large populations of the innumerable cities to winch 
 manufacturing gives rise. Nnvujntimi here accompanies 
 manufacturing ; manufactured products are transported 
 to all corners of the worhl and nnwrought material is 
 brought in from every quarter. The western nations 
 are largely maritime. 
 
 17. The Governments vary from the republican of 
 
 France and Switzerland to the extreme despotic in 
 Russia and Turkey. 
 
 Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy and 
 Russia form the six Great Powers of Europe ; they exer- 
 cise an important influence over the foreign relations of 
 the minor states. 
 
 The existence of so many natural boundaries within the 
 coutiuent has been instrumental in the establishment of t e 
 Rreat number of independent states that Europe "Stains A? 
 the present day the tendency is toward a unLn^ of Tlf Z at 
 
 ot{L^eTTrVvryTrS.°"'^^°^^"-^"*--P* -^- -tural 
 18. The Inhabitants._(See pages 40, 41, section 12.) 
 Of the Aryan or Indo-European family, there are several 
 types represented in Europe, but except perhaps in 
 Russia, there is very little pure blood. The Germanic 
 race occupies all Germany, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, 
 Holland, most of Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Eng- 
 land, and the Lowlands of Scotland ; the Slavonic race 
 occupies all Russia, eastern Prussia (Poland), the coun- 
 tries of the lower Danube (including those to the east 
 and south of Hungary proper) and Bohemia ; the Greek 
 m Greece, and largely in Turkey ; the Latin in Italy, 
 and part of Switzerland ; the Celtic in the Highlands of 
 Scotland, in Wales, Ireland, France, and perhaps Spain 
 and Portugal; in the last three the people by mixture 
 with the Latin races through extensive colonisation, are 
 often regarded as of the Latin race. The Ba.scjues of the 
 Pyrenees are thought to be connected with the Finns,— 
 a Mongoloid race ; this race is found also in south-eastern 
 Russia. ./.,rs are numerous everywhere, but especially 
 so in Russia and central Europe. 
 
 The total population of Europe in 1880 was nearlv 
 .•5l'5.OOO,000. 
 
 19. In Religion, Christianitv prevails everywhere 
 except among Turks and Jews. Tlie Germanic race is 
 generally Protestant except in southern Germany and 
 Austria ; the Latin race is generally Roman Catholic, as 
 IS nlso the Slavonic excej)t the Russians ; so also are 
 most of the Finns and Hungarians ; the Lapps are in part 
 heathen. (See page 41, sec. 13). 
 
 20. Education is liberally provided for by law 
 among all the Germanic nations ; in the other nations, 
 except France, education is much neglected. 
 
 21. Political Divisions.-These are Gre.at Britain 
 a.id Ireland, Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Neth.-r- 
 lands, Belgium, France, Spabv Portugal, Italy, Germany 
 Switzerland, Austria a^.c. Hungary, Servia, Montenegro, 
 Roumania, Turkey, Greece and Russia. 
 
GEEAT BEITAIN AND IKELAND. 
 
 1. Structure. — The sunken part of the European 
 plain above which the British Islands rise, ends about 
 a hundred and eighty miles west of Ireland, where 
 occurs a rapid descent to oceanic depths. (Fig. 20.) 
 The identity in character of the chalk cliffs, twenty- 
 seven miles apart, on the opposite sides of the Strait 
 of Dover, is one proof among many of the former con- 
 nection of Great Britain with the continent. 
 
 Though differing materially in physical structure the 
 
 two larger of the British Islands resemble each other in 
 
 the general north-east and south -west direction of their 
 
 mountains and elevated ridges, in the irregularity and 
 
 ruggedness of the western coast where the hills sink 
 
 beneath the sea and the Atlantic waves exei !: their full 
 
 eroding power, and in the comparative regularity of the 
 
 eastern coast, which in many places of both islands lias 
 
 a low, flat shore fringed with shoals formed iu the quiet 
 
 waters. 
 
 In number the British Islands exceed five thousand, the 
 most being barren, uninhabitable roclts ; the two largest are in 
 
 tlie east of the fe'roup, and thus have the others as barriers 
 against the Atlantic. The total area is 120,832 square miles — 
 England, 50,823; Wales, 7,3()3; Scotland, 29,820; Ireland, 
 32,531; Isleof Man, 220; Channel Islands, 75. 
 
 2. Minerals.— The Minerals are alike in the two 
 islands — coal, iron, lead, copper, salt, some silver, and 
 other metals, and jwat ; Ireland has no tin, and coal is 
 far less abundant than in Great Britain, but the peat is 
 in inexhaustible quantities. In the larger island ncai:ly 
 all the formations of the earth's crust (Fig. 2) exist, and 
 somewhere come to the surface, bringing their minerals 
 within the miner's reach — a circumstance of the greatest 
 economical importance. 
 
 3. Climate. — Surrounded by water and exposed to the 
 oceanic south-west winds and warm ocean currents, the 
 British Islands have a very equable climate, the mean 
 temperature in winter being about 40°, and in summer 
 60°; naturally the west of each island is more equable than 
 the east, while the north, though quite as equable as the 
 south, is of a lower general temperature; in Shetland the 
 mean summer temperature is 50°. The climate is every- 
 where moist, but it is especially so in the west of both 
 islands, over a hundred inches of rain falling annually in 
 tiie mountains of Wales and Cumberland. In some parts 
 fjf eastern England, however, the rainfall hardly exceeds 
 twenty inches. Snow, nowhere deep, is almost unknown 
 in the south, especially in the Isle of Wight and the 
 south-west. 
 
 v.:<M 
 
iH ' 
 
 f!i" 
 
 Hf* 
 
 m 
 
 ENGLAND & AYALES 
 
 Longitude 
 
 West trom 
 
 lireenwlch 
 
 Oiuiada B:i'Mishing Co.. Toronto. 
 
ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 15fi 
 
 4. Vegetation of both forest and field does not 
 materially diflfer from that of Canada, but the moist 
 climate gives and preserves a freshness unknown in 
 America (see page 36, sec. 1, last paragraph). Wheat 
 grows even in the Orkney Islands, but oats and barley 
 are more suited to the hilly country of northern Scotland, 
 while grass and crops other than grain are better adapted 
 to the moist western districts of both Great Britain and 
 Ireland. 
 
 5. Industries.— The great natural advantages of the 
 British Islands, together with the energetic and thoroughly 
 practical character of the people, have made the United 
 Kingdom pre-eminei.' among the nations in almost every 
 branch of human industry. The British Islands occupy 
 the centre of the land surface of the globe ; they lie in the 
 highway between Europe and America j tlie equable cli- 
 mate obstructs labor but little. Tliey are surrounded by 
 poas that abound in fish and that penetrate far inland in all 
 directions, furnishing unrivalled facilities for trade ; iron 
 and coal— those two all-important minerals in modern 
 industry— lie side by sideandinineyhaustible quantities, 
 while nearly the whole surface consists of rich plains or 
 grass-covered hills. 
 
 Mining.— Of the minerals mined coal and iron constitute 
 over nmety-four per cent, of the value, which in 1881 was 
 nearly £91,000,000; of coal 154,000,000 tons wove raised, and of 
 iron ore 17,u00,000 tons ; the value of salt was £1,150,000 ; of the 
 tm £840,000 ; of the lead £729,000; of the copper £264,000. 
 
 Ag:riculture, with its connected industries stock-raising and 
 dairy-farming, is most scientifically conducted nearly every- 
 where, but the food produced, though in very great quantities, 
 falls far short of the needs of the dense population. 
 
 Fishing employs nearly all the coast popu'ation every- 
 where ; in no other country is this industry so vastly developed 
 In 1877 nearly 250.000,000 of herrings were caught by Yarmouth 
 boats. 
 
 Manufactures are of every kind, but cotton, woollen, and 
 metal iioods, and crude iron vastly exceed all others. In 1881 the 
 value of the cotton goods e.cported (£79,000,000) greatly exceeded 
 that of the total manufactured exports of France, the next 
 most important manufacturing country. 
 
 Shipping.— Greatly as the United Kingdom surpasses all 
 other nations in other industries, it surpasses them still mo e 
 m shipping. Ill 1885 it owned almost half the vessels and half 
 the tonnage in the world. 
 
 Trade.— The foreign trade is enormous. In 1883 the total 
 value of the imports and exports was nearly £733,000,000, while 
 the trade of France, the next chief commercial country, did not 
 reswh half that amount. Tlie Imports are of uU kinds, but the 
 cliief consist of raw material for manufacturing,— cotton, wool, 
 tnnber, sugar, etc.— and all kinds of food,— breadatuffs, meat, 
 t<!iL, coffee, etc. ; while the Exports consist of the manufactures 
 aiul final. 
 
 6. Revenue, etc. — The revenue is derived from im- 
 port dutie", mainly on tobacco, spirits, wine and tea ; 
 
 from excise, income and land tax, the sale of stamps, 
 licenses, the post office, and the telegraph. 
 
 7. Army and Navy. — Great Britain, though with a 
 regular army of nearly 200,000 men, besides the Indian 
 army of over 125,000, and volunteers and others, making 
 a total of nearly 800,000, is not a military power; but 
 as a naval power it surpasses all others in the world : 
 "a British war- vessel is within a day's sail of every 
 place." 
 
 8. Routes. — Means of internal communication are excellent ; 
 turnpike roads, the finest in the world, canals and railroads are 
 exceedingly numerous ; but the rivers, e.Kcept those of England 
 and the Shannon in Ireland, are not of commercial importance. 
 
 9. The Government is a limited constitutional 
 monarchy, (see the History). 
 
 10. Education is well provided for; schools of a 
 high class and colleges are numerous and good ; the 
 Universities of Oxford and Cambridge have long lieen 
 celebrated, while excellent universities exist in Dublin, 
 Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and elsewhere. 
 
 11. Population.— In 1881 the total population was 35,220,702; 
 of England alone, 24,008,391; of Wales, l,3r)9,895 ; of Scotland, 
 3,735,573; of Ireland, 5,174,830; of the Isle of Man, 63,492; of 
 the Channel Islands, 87,731. England and Wales contain 415 
 persons to a square mile, a density exceeded by that of Belgium 
 alone. (See also " British Colonies," Appendix III.) 
 
 12. Religion. -r?rfect religious freedom exists ; in England 
 and Wales the Episcopal form of Church government is estab- 
 lished by law; in Scotland the Presbyterian form; in Ireland 
 there is no established church. 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 13. Physical Features. — England and Wales, 
 lying south of the River Tweed, the Cheviot Hills and 
 the Solway Firth, form the most important member of the 
 United Kingdom. Wales is a mass of low mountains 
 that die away in the broken plain of Hereford in western 
 England. Much of this mountain region consists of 
 dreary, barren, thinly inhabited moorlands, broken by 
 masses of crags of a wild and picturesque beauty. The 
 Snowdon range in the north-west reaches the height of 
 3,.570 feet. England is undulating, but the Citmhrian 
 Jlills in the north-west is an isolated group of low moun- 
 tains whose long narrow valleys contain lakes often of 
 great beauty ; it is the "Lake Country " of Eii.ylaiHl. The 
 Fennine Ramjp, two hundred miles long, rises in Cross 
 Foil to the height of nearly 3,000 feet; but it is mainly 
 a series of rocky hills and of bleak, barren moorlands that 
 
11 
 
 %'■■■' * 
 
 ml- 
 
 m 
 
 Canada PubUabiag Co , lorontcu 
 
PJIYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 f 2fap 
 
 50 
 
 form a plateau over forty miles in l)reaclth. The penin- 
 sula of Cornwall and ])evon is mountainous in character, 
 containing extensive tracts of moor, sucli as Dartmoor. 
 
 The Uplands are low, broad, rounded ranges, usually 
 fertile and well cultivated. All start out from Wiltshire 
 as a centre; one of limestone, including the CotsiooJd 
 Hills, extends north-east, and ends in the higher moors 
 of Yorkshire, forming the coast clitts between the Hu)n- 
 ber and Tees; this ridge divides the agricultural country 
 of the south-east from the mining and manufacturing 
 country of the north-west. Another, composed of chalk, 
 reaches the coast in the wolds of Norfolk ; the North 
 Downs run east to the Strait of Dover at South Fore- 
 land, while the F.outh Downs, chalk like the North 
 Downs, end at the Channel at Beachy Head. Elsewhere, 
 including the western Lancashire coast, the country is a 
 diversified plain. 
 
 In both England and Wales the highest land is near 
 the west. The main loatershed of England traverses the 
 Pennines and the central plain, togetlier with the 
 Cotswold Hills ; the river valleys, except the Severn, in 
 consequence open out eastward and lie between the up 
 land ridges. 
 
 14. Capes.— The seaward termination of the ranges cive rise 
 Sou h Foreland; on the south, JJumieuness, Beach,, Head and 
 
 JLS^^S^f;JSJS!^SSSorthe^^r 
 
 caused as the Wash is caused, by river sediment! iS 
 Channel has heavy tides, as also the Solway Fu-th; the iTJi 
 S.a and St George's Channel lie between Jh.gland and Ireland 
 m the south are Southampton Water, a fine inlet a id harbor' 
 and, north of the Isle of vfight, Spith'ead and the |oS ' 
 
 r,/^^:,/ u^f ^•"'^'1? ^""^^ ^^^ "° islands; on the south is the 
 isle of n,!,hi, on the west are the Srilly Islamh, dangerous 
 rocks- Anglesey, a level, fertile island ; i,v/e o/ J/a«. a lovv moun! 
 tain ridge, abounding in minerals. The Channel Isla,ids Jersey 
 Guernsey and Aiderney being the chief, are low islands neTi; 
 the French coast, with a seafaring population. 
 
 17. Rivers.— In consequence of the physical struc- 
 ture of the country, the chief rivers of England, with one 
 exception, lie in the east. Though small, the extent of 
 their navigable water is relatively very great : m.3reover, 
 they ail have broad and deep estuaries affording excel- 
 lent harbors for the lai^gest vessels ; and as the course of 
 most of them is tlu-ough the great mining and manufac- 
 turing regions with the great centres of population, each 
 has a great trading city near its mouth. 
 
 In the east, the Tyne, Wear, and Tee., the Ouse and the Trent 
 orming the great estuary called the l[nn,her), and i , he w " 
 mh.i!,?"f ^^"^'^ Its affluent the ir<v„vHl..w through the g v, 
 mining and manufacturing regions, along -.vith wFde expan.cs 
 
 157 
 
 tuM^ .f^fu *''''*n°5""*''y- ^^^ Ty"° sen^s out more coal 
 twice over than all France produces, and the Mersey, opening 
 toward America, over half the goods manufactured in the King- 
 dom The rivers entering the Wash, as also the Dee in the 
 west, are useless for foreign trade owing to the silting up of the 
 estuaries. The Thames and the Severn flow throulh agricul 
 ura regions; the former, 250 miles long, is the longest "n 
 Lngland Its valley the richest, and its i^tuary the finest 
 open out towards that part of Europe where acce^ss to the h:-' 
 tenor is easiest and where are the most energetic industrial 
 nations; hence the Thames has become relativelj the most im- 
 portant riverin the world. The Serern flows in a narrmv 
 valley bounded by bills, the channel being often gorjehke 
 The other rivers of England are comparatively unimportant 
 
 18. Cities.— South of the dividing ridge ^section 13), 
 the cities and towns, excepting the sea-ports, are quiet 
 agricultural towns, of very moderate size, few having 
 any but local manufactures ; hence this part of the 
 country, excepting in tlie neighborhood of London, is less 
 populous than that of the northern side of the dividing 
 ridge, where the great industrial cities lie. 
 
 LoNDOv, situated on both sides of the Thames, and 
 possessing every geographical advantage in addition to 
 being the political capital of the Empire, has grown vast 
 beyond all cmiception. In 1881 its population was 
 nearly 4,800,000, and it increases over 80,000 annually. 
 It is by far the largest, the richest and the greatest com- 
 mercial city in the world. Vessels, warehouses and dock- 
 yards line both sides of the river from the city to the sea. 
 
 ar?H!« L''°r' iom,H, Newcastle &r^d Sunderland in the north-east 
 are the centres of the coal, iron, and ship-building industries • 
 Hull exports to the Continent the manufactures of the Humbe; 
 
 boi h are Bughton, the famous watering place; Portsmouth 
 vZTahl?^ f'!/'«««'/^ stations for the fleet; So^:thampZnXe 
 point of departure for steamers to the Mediterranean and else- 
 where; on the west are Bristol near the Severn the great Dort 
 
 This it t "> '^"^•.Y'^^' ^?^'.^ *'-^^^' ^"-i ^'■-'•^-^ on tlfe MerC 
 onlv iv T J, -V''''"^"n,'''y ^^^'^^^ inhabitants in 1881,exceede^d 
 
 «H,^Lv? " ^'r^ Glasgow, IS second to London in commer- 
 
 1 a Sc „''"'ti "„almost monopolizes the trade with America. 
 
 activ'e° town'^^f t a'S^ ^'^ "°'^^'^- ""^^^'^ '' ^ '"^^ ^- 
 North of the dividing ridge, throughout the whole of the 
 moorland region of the southern Pennines and its neighborhood 
 ue found most of the coal and iron of England, and here are 
 
 men^r T!?tr^'°*r'"^,?^*'"f ^''°^^ ^°^^'h has been pheno- 
 
 nrini"f-iE^vv fh'^"'* '" il/a«./,,.Y,.,-,the great cotton manufac- 
 
 1 siv ^i/T ^ ^wT'T ^""^ l^'^cities carrying on the same 
 
 aubtiy ,_ M.u-rlestield is the seat of manufactures in silk To 
 
 n'nuStmes ° 7^'^"h ^ *'?' T"^^ ^""'^'^^ *" the woolllu 
 lanutactuies; Zcj',?*- the chief , then Bradford, Halifax Hudder^- 
 J eld and many others, white She/tirld has the great^srcu Lrv 
 factories in the world; near the bo.uh of the plnni.!es are thl 
 cities engaged argely in the production of iron and ron mam. 
 
 the greatest. Near by to the west are Worcester famous for 
 porcelain and gloves. Kiddemiimter for c-r 4f= -nd ^^./ =, i 
 oU.er .uties of the -• Potteries ■' for earthem va ^V'^o^S .a^io 
 rsi tv n'^?' ^-enowned for laces. Crford and CaXideZunt 
 of H, 7. 1 -1 •^" ^\'^'^'' ^'"■'''•^' '^'"^ •'''«""'^''« ^re the seaports 
 fuctm-in"''trn.""" '"*"'''• """'^ '''^'•'"'■>' ^ "'« ^'^^' --- 
 
 If 
 

 m 
 
 Litili 1 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 ENQUSH MILES 
 
 S 10 80 SO 
 Sattltifielda n 
 
 A^ <"" 
 
 Bloody Forelandj 
 irwtedore 
 
 CuiadvPubliahmg Oo^ Xoronta 
 
PHYSICAL FE..TURES. 
 
 159 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 20 StrUCture.-Scotland, essentially mountainous, 
 
 falls 'into two natural sub-divisions, the Highlands e^- 
 
 tending from the north to a line between the Fxrth of 
 
 Clyde and Aberdeen, and the Lowlands between the 
 
 former and England, including also the whole of the low 
 
 eastern coast. The Highlands consist of numerous short 
 
 ridges, often only vast stretches of barren moorland. 
 
 whL sink into low hills in the broken plain skirting the 
 
 eastern coast. The highest general elevation is near the 
 
 western side, where is also the highest peak in the 
 
 United Kingdom, Ben Nevis, 4,406 feet high. " Grar. 
 
 pian Hills " is a term vaguely applied to the south central 
 
 Highlands. 
 
 The southern Lowlands are rugged in the south-west ; 
 elsewhere the hills often form tablelands, sometimes, as 
 in Broad La., with an absolutely level top The cl.ef , 
 r^u-es are the Lo^nther, Lanumrmuir, -.uv Cheviot Thlls. 
 Between the Lowland hills and the Highlands lies an 
 ur-ilating fertile plain, containing vast deposits of coa 
 and iron that have made it one of the great centres of 
 the world's industry. 
 
 "4ASsofknc,i><, and Shetland are the chief. 
 
 22. Peninsulas and Oapes in conBe,™^^^ 
 
 of the shore, are v^'JXS'of rdand > the most remarl^able. Few 
 'f^S:::S^SS^ riiln We highway of conuneree. 
 
 23. The Coast waters >^^^^^^^^ *if/.:Jir 
 
 and where * '«, [""^^Jf/^'/d erK low flat laud ; in the so.th-west 
 parativelv shallow and "^^ereu v j^^. ^.,^^^ ^^^^ , ^^^^.^ 
 
 it is much the same, as ^ '">,,* '^*'^f'Xi/, valleys. The Litlk Mine 
 elsewhere they are "f aU'Sw SeHebrides from the mainland 
 
 •'7 Cities— The towns, except Invermss, are all 
 gathered in he Lowlands ; the smaller have nearly all 
 the manufactures of the larger. Edinburgh (236,000) is 
 tlie political and intellectual head cf the country. It is 
 one of the finest cities in Europe. 
 
 rin,„ (r.74 000) bv far the largest of the cities, has all the 
 
 has large manufactures of thread. 
 
 ■ nrean-tillea moimiaiii vu-nojo. ■'■••-— ■'< V" 
 
 ^...^ - .. ' ™^ 'ij'TiHiiio' the Hebrides from the mamland, 
 
 ^^!SZ^ SlllS'fSus roughness. Ues between 
 
 the Orkneys and the mamland. 
 
 •>4 Rivers -I'l^e rivers are of a mountain or plateau 
 character; the' Clyde, in the west, flowing tlu-ough the 
 creat coal and iron region, has been deepened ar ibcially 
 up to Glasgow. The Forth, Tweed and Tay are the other 
 chief streams. 
 
 .,-£SdS?=?^ 
 
 K=si1:^i^;;st;ide;^:;::ti«of tue^^w. 
 
 26 IndustrieS.-The industries are similar to those 
 in similar districts of England and Wales, but the great 
 extent of mountain land makes pasturage specially im- 
 portant. Two-thirds of the people are in the towns and 
 villages. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 28. Structure.— Ireland consists of a central plain, 
 comprising nearly half of the island, enclosed by an 
 irregular ring of mountainous country, broken near the 
 middle of the east and west. The most rugged regions 
 are the north-west, the peninsula between Sligo and 
 Gnlway Bays, and the extreme south-west; the last 
 contains the Macgillicuddy Reeks, 3,400 feet high, the 
 l„lliest in Ireland. In the north-east the volcanic hills 
 give rise to bold shores and the famous Giant's Causeway. 
 ° The northern half of the central plain contains very 
 many extensive tracts of bog, separated by stretches of 
 "ood agricultural land. 
 
 29 Minerals. -Though mmerals, especially iron, exist to some 
 extent ^t coal iT ound in but limited quantity, and is the on y one 
 mii^^: ^Peat, which is found almost everywhere, is the great source 
 of fuel. 
 
 SO Coast Line. -As in Scotland, and for similar reasons, the 
 n,,rth\and U^^vesTern outline are very irregular rugged and wave 
 worn but with many fine harbors ; the south, with fine harbors also 
 Ts much m^e regular than the west, while the east, compara ively 
 low and Tegular, has no natural harbor except in the north-east. 
 
 31. Rivers. The rivers, except the Shannon, are 
 
 small and unfit for navigation. The Shannon, the 
 longest river in the British Islands, is navigable for 
 neariy its whole course ; its lower basin is a fine agricul- 
 tural and pasture region with a very mild climate. 
 
 19 T^nkes— The lakes or " loughs " are numerous ; many are 
 • 1 ttr.f Hiftea as.Wv /.'ov?candW«s<;otl>'-'rs are inland, such 
 as i^m" /thflaVge;^^ and the'lovely Lakes ofKiUarnei, at 
 
 the base of the Macgillicuddy Reeks ; still others are united m strings 
 along rivers, such as the Erne loughs and those of thebhannon. 
 
 QQ nr^aai^ "Wntprs— Tlie inlets are naturally many : on the 
 west aiSwo|i.J^.ffsa of the ocean like those of eastern Scotland 
 vHh />o»^a^ mjo and Oahmn Says at their head ; farther soutl n 
 nkenm/.untaii/ valleys are Di note, Kcnma^'^ ''^.'^ ^.TrJs S 
 Of the southern harbors that of Cork is the hnest. M. Ocorgc s ^"on 
 ncl IhTlriTsZ, and the North Ckanru^l (thirteen miles w:de) 
 divide Ireland from Great Britain. 
 
 34. Industries.— Ireland is almost wholly agricul- 
 tural, but only one-ninth of the productive land i? 
 
 liflH 
 
 m 
 
160 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 a 
 
 M .. 
 
 i 
 
 occupied by grain crops, two-tliirds is " permanent pas- 
 ture." Linen in Ulster, and fine woollen fabrics in the 
 large cities are the characteristic manufactures. 
 
 35. Divisions.— Ireland has four " Provinces," — divisions 
 coming down from ancient timcH,— Ulster, Leimter, Gonnaught, and 
 Munstcr. 
 
 36. Cities. — As Ireland is agricultural, there are no 
 large inland towns. Duhlin (250,000), tlie capital and 
 largest city, is situated at the eastern end of the plain, 
 facing England the natural market of Ireland; hence 
 most of the trade centres here. 
 
 Belfast (175,000) is the second city in size and the first in manufac- 
 turmg mdustry ; hnen, cotton, and woollen goods are largely made 
 Lotidondcrry is much smaller, but has the characteristic manufactures 
 Idmvrick on the Siiannon is the centre of the great cattle and produce 
 trade m the west with England. Cork, next to Belfast in size, and a 
 station for the fleet, has the greater part of the trade with America. 
 Watcrfords sole trade, cattle and produce, is with Bristol. The 
 other chief coast towns are MovUlc in the north ; Oalway in the 
 west; 9«cmstoirn in the south ; Wexford and A7n(7storow in th(! east' 
 Of the interior towns the chief are EnniskiUcn, and Arrmqh in the 
 north, Kilkenny (18,000), the largest inland town, in the south 
 
 ilii 
 
 in 
 
 THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 1. Physical Features.— Tlie surface of the Nether- 
 lands is at sea-level near the middle of tlic country, and, 
 in places, twenty feet below it at the sea-wall. This sea- 
 wall consists of an almost continuous line of sand-dunes 
 often over a mile in breadth, the sand having been 
 washed up by the sea itself and then blown into ridges 
 by the winds. Where the dunes are broken, and alor.g 
 the lower course of the rivers, dikes have been erected 
 to supply tlieir place. 
 
 The Zuider Zee, a shallow body of water of but little use in 
 navigation, was fonned by the bursting of the dunes during a 
 storm, and the long line of islands boi-dering the North Sea coast 
 are the remnants of a foi-mer sea-wall. The area of the Netherlands 
 IS 12,648 square miles. 
 
 2. Rivers, Canals.— Owing to the universal flat- 
 ness, the Rhine and the Maas (Meuse) interlace to a 
 remarkable degree and form a delta, in which the waters 
 of the Scheldt are also united. Canals, mainly for draining 
 the sunken country, are sometimes so large as to be 
 hardly distinguishable from rivers. 
 
 3. The Climate, owing to the lowness of tlie coun- 
 try and the almost continuous oceanic winds, is damp and 
 unpleasant. 
 
 4. Industries. — Agriculture, including stock-raising, 
 t-airy-farming, niarket-gaidening, and the growing of 
 flower-bulbs employs by much the larger part of the 
 
 population. Fishing employs most of the coast popu- 
 lation. Mayiufactures include vessels and their require- 
 ments, cotton, linen, and woollen goods, leather and 
 liquors. 
 
 Trade, Shipping.— The Netherlands have extensive tropical 
 jmssessions, with which a large trade in coffee, spices, etc., is car- 
 ried on. The number of vessels owned is relatively large. 
 
 T "''•tT^^ Inhabitants, numbering 4,114,000 in 1881, are of the 
 Ijow Dutch stock, close kinsmen to the Knglish. The physical char- 
 acter of the country and the constant labor in-olved, together with 
 the necessity of being continually on guard against i)()u cilul and un- 
 scrupulous neighbors, have made the Dutch industrious, thrifty, slow, 
 phlegmatic, cautious, persevering, brave and liberty-loving. 
 
 . 6. Education is well provided for ; tliere are several universi- 
 ties, that of Leyden being long celebrated. The (iovernment is like 
 tliat of Great Britain. 
 
 ''• c9i^i?^'~J" ^^} *l'f'"*' '^^®''? "'^'i' *""'"^' ^''^'i '^ population 
 over 80,000 f^h The Hague, the capital (123,500), contains the 
 tine.st modern buildings, and is most modern in character ; the others 
 
 I'qoSVUJ .^'''7 ^l^'\'i ^*'"' °^ *'"' "''' »i"-"d'i»val look. Amsterdam 
 (di8,000), built wholly on deep-driven piles, has connection by canal 
 with the North Sea, and like Jtottirdam (158,000) is intersected every- 
 where by canals. Tiiese two cities carry on nearly all the ocean 
 trade. 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 1. Physical Features.— Southern Belgium, which 
 borders tlie plateau, is a rough country, almost given up 
 to forest, pasturage and mining ; thence the land slopes 
 north-west, finally sinking below sea level. 
 
 The area is 11,373 square miles. 
 
 2. Minerals.— The fine coal fields of the west and 
 south are in tlie neighborhood of extensive deposits of 
 iron ore ; botii minerals are lai-gely mined. 
 
 3. Rivers.— The chief rivers, the Meuse and the Scheldt, both 
 navigable for river-craft, originate in France. 
 
 4. Climate.— The coast has the damp, heavy climate of Hoi- 
 land, and the south-east the bright sky of an elevated inland country. 
 
 5. Industries. — Agriculture is not so general as in 
 Holland ; much food has to be imported. Manufacturing, 
 in character and cause like that of England, is very ex- 
 tensive. 
 
 6. Trade.— The foreign trade is large, but the ocean-traffic is 
 carried on almost wholly in British Vl^ssels. 
 
 7. Education is becoming generally diffused. Many high 
 schools, and excellent universities and schools of art exist. The 
 Oovcrnment is similar to that of Great Britain. 
 
 8. The Inhabitants are of two races, tlie Flemings 
 in the north and west are Low German, the Walloons in 
 the south are Celtic, but French is the language of the 
 educated class c\ cry where. The Belgians are much more 
 lively and sociable than the Dutch. The population 
 in 1884 was nearly 6,000,000 the densest in Europe. 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 161 
 
 9. Oltles.— The manufactureH prive rwe to many larffe cities ; 
 four, Brimcls, Antwerp, Ghent, and Lict/e, have over 100,000 inlmi)i- 
 tanta each. Brussels, tiie capital (403,400), is by far the largest 
 aud most modern of the cities. Its distinguishing mdustries are the 
 printing of books and the nianufa<iture of lace. Antwerp, \o\\f^ " the 
 queen of the Netherlands," is still the jjreat commercial city of 
 Belgium ; through it nearly all the foreign oceanic trade passes, 
 Ghent, like Antwerp, was one of the great industrial cities of the 
 Middle Ages. Liene, Charleroi, and Naiitur are the centres of the 
 coal and iron industries. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 1. Physical Fej,tures.— From the water-parting in 
 the line of the Cevennes and the Vosges, the whole 
 country to the left slopes gradually north-west to tlie 
 sea, but falling into three well-defined river-basins ; to 
 the right it sinks into the basin of the Rhone only to 
 rise almost at once into a rough, hilly country that soon 
 ends in the Alps. 
 
 Apart from t'^e rugged interior and border mountain 
 districts, France belongs to the European plain ; rugged 
 in Brittany, it sinks in the south-west into a perfectly 
 flat region — the Landes, consisting of plains of ever- 
 shifting sand, swamps, and heath, with few inhabitants 
 
 and no towns. 
 
 2. Mountains.— The Cevennes, h mountain-mass containing 
 many extinct volcanoes, start near the Pyrenees, attain their greatest 
 height and massiveness in south central France, and die out to the 
 west of the Jura. The VosrfCi, in the north-east, are merely a short 
 range of low, rounded hills. The Jura range, in the east, is rather 
 a plateau of limestone, deeply fissured and worn into fantastic 
 1 hapes, with transverse gorges, often huge enough for railroad routes, 
 aud even for towns. 
 
 The area of France is about 204,000 square miles. 
 
 3. Minerals. — Tlie principal minerals are iron, which 
 though wide-spread, is mined chiefly in the Cevennes and 
 on the Belgian frontier, where nearly all the coal is 
 found ; marble and lead are largely procured in all the 
 mountain regions ; and salt in inexhaustible quantities 
 
 among the Vosges Hills. 
 
 4 Coast —France is very compact, the peninsula of Brittany 
 alone breaking the general regularity. The coast waters proper are 
 merely the river estuaries. Havre and St. Malo have the only good 
 natural harbors ; elsewhere there are merely roadsteads, artihcially 
 protected. The "Landes" are bordered by sand-dunes like those 
 along the North Sea coast. 
 
 5 The Islands are unimportant, except Corsica, .a mountainous 
 island 100 miles long and 50 broad, with semi-tropical climate and 
 productions. 
 
 6. Rivers.— The ri^srs are numerous, and, as they flow 
 through a plain for the most part, are navigable for long 
 distances ; only in the estuaries can tliey admit large 
 vessels. In the west, the Loire and the Garonne receive 
 the melted snows of the Cevennes, svnd .are apt to over- 
 flow their banks in the spring; the former, however, 
 becomes almost dry in sunmier. Tlie Rhone is a rapid 
 
 I'iver, but the Seine and the Somme, of the north, are 
 
 more sluggish. 
 
 7. Climate. — France lias one of the finest climates in 
 Europe ; in thenortli it resembles that of southern Eng- 
 land ; in the south it is semi-tropical, but there are 
 piercing cold winds in winter, and, under the Pyrenees, 
 deep snow as well ; in tlie west it is moist and mild, 
 snow seldom falling; in the interior it is often very 
 wai-m in summer, but only moderately cold in winter. 
 
 8. Productions. — Besides the ordinary fruits and 
 grains, including maize, the vine is found everywhere, 
 except in the north, while the mulberry, olive, fig, almond, 
 etc., grow in the south. 
 
 9. Industries. — Agriculture, though leas scientific 
 
 than in Great Britain, supports over half the inhabitants ; 
 
 little grain or flour is imported. Silk culture belongs to 
 
 the lower basin of the Rhone. Mining and Fishing are 
 
 both carried on extensively ; in Manufactures France 
 
 comes next to Great Britain; in silks, hosiery, gloves, lace, 
 
 perfumery, fine porcelain and glassware, France excels. 
 
 all other countries as it does also in wines and spirits. 
 
 Oommeroe is extensive, consisting mainly in the export of 
 the articles manufactured, dairy i)roduce and leather, and in the im- 
 port of raw material, coal, coffee, tea, cattle, etc. The ahippimj, 
 tliough important, is far inferior to that of Great Britain. 
 
 10. Government, etc. — France is a republic, with a presi- 
 dent, a legislative assembly elected by universal suffrage, and a 
 Senate chosen by various electoral bodies. Education is provided for 
 by the government ; France has some of the liest universities in 
 Europe, and Frenchmen liave long held a foremost rank in all 
 bnmches of learning, science and art. In RtUijion there is full 
 freedom of worship. The Inhabitants, over 37,r)00,000 in 1881, are 
 mainly Roman Catholics. Frenchmen have the reimtatioii of being 
 gay, pleasure-loving, fond of military glory, but industrious and 
 frugal. France is a leading military power. The navy ranks next 
 to that of Great Britain. 
 
 11. Cities.— As a manufacturing country, France has many large 
 towns, nine have over 100,000 inhabitants each— Paris, Lyons, 
 Marseilles, Bordeaux, Lille, Toulouse, St. Etienne, Nantes and 
 Rouen. Paris (ixjpulation, 2,240,000 in 1881), in size ne.\t to Lon- 
 don, the finest and gayest city in the world, is situated at the meeting 
 jKiint of the highways of France. Of its numerous manufactures, 
 very few on a large scale, the typical ones are small articles and fancy 
 goods of all kinds. Lyons is the great centre of the silk manu- 
 facture ; Marseilles, on a fine harbor, has all the trade with the East, 
 and extensive manufactures, chemicals and soap being the chief. 
 Bordeaux is the centre of the trade in wine, spirits and dried fruits. 
 Lille, in the coal district, is the seat of the linen manufacture. 
 Toulouse is the chief city for trade with Spain ; fireanns, gunpowder, 
 implements of steel and iron are largely manufactured. St. Etienne, 
 in the southern coal and iron region, has characteristic manu- 
 factures. Nantes produces iron, lead and copper, and manufactures 
 agricultural implements, oilj soap, etc. Buueii is the centre of tlie 
 ciittoii manufacture— this industry being almost confined to tiie 
 North. 
 
 Chcrhmirg, L'Orient, La Rochellc and Tmilon are strongly fortifieti 
 naval stations ; Calais, Boulogne, Nice, Mentone and Monaco are 
 watering-places ; Si. Malu is thu cliief fishmg Tx>r*" ; Brest hag a 
 large transatlantic traffic; Bcsancon has nearly all the trade in watches 
 and clocks ; these are made in every town and village throughout thf 
 Jura region. 
 
 ;< I 
 
 111 
 
 U 
 
162 
 
 PHYSICAL PEATUUES. 
 
 I 
 
 
 I': 
 
 SPAIN^ ANL> PORTUGAL. 
 
 1. Physical Features— Spain and Portugal— <Ae 
 Peninmla—iorm a plateau from 2,000 to 4,500 feet in 
 elevation, rising rapidly from the sea on the north and 
 south, and more gradually elsewhere. The north-eastern 
 face of the plateau, the main watershed, is a range of 
 mountains to tiie west of the Ebro. From it two ranges, 
 tlie bare granite Guadarrama and the Toledo, run soutii' 
 west to the Atlantic; tlie Moreria range forms the 
 southern face of the plateau, and the Cantabrian and 
 Auaturiaa ranges, a continuation of the Pyrenees, skirt 
 its northern edge. South of the Sierra Morenl, and 
 separated from it by the valley of the Guadalciuiver, is 
 the Sierra Nevada, the loftiest and most massive of the 
 ranges, reaching the region of perpetual snow. 
 
 There is no low-lying plain except along the lower 
 course of the Guadahjuiver ; but several plains of con- 
 siderable extent are found on the plateau. 
 
 ove?30 m" °^ ^^"'^ '^ '^®*'"'^ ^^'^^ "'^"^'■^ °"'^^ ' °^ Portugal, 
 
 «n„?K ^^?®^^^? "'^ abundant. Coal is found in the north and 
 south-west; icac/ and mercury are somewhat extensively mined in 
 Cmdad Real ; tro;i ,8 universal, but mined almost exclusively in 
 the north ; salt even forms ranges of hills. wiusivtiy m 
 
 ?• The Coast Line.— The few irregularities are the termin- 
 ations (If the numntain ranges east and west. The shore is high 
 excepting narrow stretches between the ends of the ranges ; the 
 harbors are few, for most of the i iver mouths are silted up. The 
 chief Capes are Urtcgal, Finistcrre, St. Vincent in the west ; Trafalnar, 
 Tarifa (the extrem-i south), Europa (near Gibraltar) in the south." 
 
 4. Rivers.— The chief rivets, Minho, Douro, TaguK, Guadiana, 
 £^ro and Ouadalquiver are, except the las,t, plateau rivers; either 
 thev flow through gorges, or are so rapid in tiieir current as to be 
 useless for commerce, some even partly dry up in sunuiier ; only the 
 iagus is navigable, even in its estuary. The Guadalquiver, fed by 
 the streams from the snowy Nevada, though having a strong cunent 
 can be navigated by steamers for some distance above Seville. The 
 little streams of the eastern and southern slopes are largely utilized 
 for irrigation, some are even completely absorbed. 
 
 5. Climate. — The different exposures and elevations, 
 with the numerous mountain ranges, produce very varied 
 climates ; the northern slope is like southern England ; 
 the eastern and southei'n slopes, shielded from cold 
 winds but exposed in places to scorching winds from 
 Africa, are tropical with very irregular rains, which 
 sometimes come in torrents, sometimes are intermitted 
 for months. The west is mild, ecjuable, and very moist, 
 
 two hundred inches of rain annually falling in places 
 
 &n excess obtained at the expense of the interior 
 plateau where only the mountains have sufficient rain, 
 and where wide barren plains exist that need only water 
 to make them fertile ; the mid-basin of the Ebro also is 
 barren. The plateau has a cf)ntinental temperature ; at 
 
 Madrid the raage is from 7" in winter to 107° in sum- 
 mer. The valley of the Guadalquiver, Hheltennl nortii 
 anil south, has an. exceedingly lino climate. 
 
 >. The Vegetation is chai acteristic of the climates ; 
 
 wheat, niaizf^, grajies and the 
 ■ rk-oak are found every- 
 vliere ; rye and apples in the 
 north; almonds, oranges, 
 lemons, figs, bananas and 
 -^ pomci^ranates, west, south and 
 east; rice, cotton and sugar- 
 cane in the south-oast. 
 
 7. Industries. — Ayricul- 
 ture generally, with vine-grow- 
 ing and cork gathering, is the 
 chief industry ; modern me- 
 thods of cultivation are un- 
 known, and both countries 
 import breadstuff's. There is 
 BioE AND R,c8 Birds. g^me mining, but in the hands 
 
 of foreigners who export the ore, and some fishing in 
 Portugal. Manufacturing is limited, and confined almost 
 to the Spanish provinces of italonia and Valencia. The 
 chief exports are ores, fruits, dried and otherwise, wine 
 and cork ; the imports, textile fabrics, articles of metal, 
 dried fish and cotton. 
 
 8. The Government in both countries is like that of Great 
 untain. Lilucntwn is very backward ; a measure of religious free- 
 dom e.xists legally ; the people are almost wholly Roman Catholic. 
 
 ?: The Inhabitants differ in race and in character ; in the 
 north, including tlie Bas<,ues of tlie Pyrenees, tliey are industrious 
 and trustworthy ; in Catalonia and Valencia, they are gay, ener.'etic 
 quick-tempered and even treacherous ; these are the merchants and 
 manufacturers of Spain ; in the south, where there is much Moorish 
 blood, they are witt.v, courteous, fond of display, ener etio by fits 
 but constitutionally lazy ; on the plateau, they are grave, dignified' 
 and formal ; bigoted, prejudiced, pn.i, 1, boastful, ashamed to work' 
 but not to beg. These last have been tl,e rulers of Spain for centuries 
 Ihe Portuguese are said to be lil<e the Spaniards of the i.lateau 
 
 portugii: ibrurMoo.oio.'"' ^^"'" '''' ^ ^"^"''^''''" °^ '"'^'^^ = 
 
 10. Cities.-In Sp.ain five cities in 1877 had over 100,000 inhabi- 
 tants each ; nine others, over 5<»,000. M.vnini) (population 400 000) 
 the capital, is in the midst of a wide, treeles poorly cultivated nliiii 
 exposed to pieicing winds and rapid, vioh: changes of temperature 
 in summer. A(m7onrt(populationa,jO,000) is thechief manufacturin-' 
 and commercial city ; it is g,iy, active and social, with many excellent 
 no'^^'mm"'''^ institutions. Valencia (po,nilation 150,000) and Malam 
 (12.>,000) are the chief fruit and oil markets. Seville has cotton and 
 
 nc vned for their Moorish antuiuities, the latter containing the 
 All lanibra, a Moorish palace fam(,us for its architectural beauty, 
 n ml 7> w.'/""" •' f r "'«";^"'"™ .«h«7y .wine. St. Sebastian, Savtavdar 
 and ( viedo, in the north, ■•ire in the lion and coal region. Fcrrol, in 
 the north, and Oartat/cua m the south, .nre naval stations, 
 
 Portugal has but two large towns. Lisbon (250,000), the capital 
 has a fane situation on the lofty banks of the Tagus, but it is not 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 163 
 
 a hamUomn city ; itd srhools, collepfn and public biiildingR are 
 i.timiH-oiiH and KiH)(i. Its exports ciiiiHii*t "f imtivo priKJuctionH, 
 including Bait. 0/«;/f'> (1CH!,000), at tho mouth of tho Douro, is the 
 greiit ceui'-u of thti vvino trade of i'ortugal. 
 
 11. Islands. — In tlie Mediterrnnoan, Spain owns tho Behario 
 lBland»( Majorca, Minor' i, etc.), resembling tho neighboring mainland 
 instructuro, < limate, eti. ; in tho Athintic, tho Canaries, containing 
 the extinct voloano Tenenffe, 1:>,182 feet high. Portugal ownn tho 
 Azores audAfadi iras. All these Atlantic islands nro volcanic and 
 lofty, tropical in climate and productions, ]M)puloua, and all hr Uh 
 resorts. Bimitles Cuba and Puerto Kico, Spain also owns stn al 
 groups of islands in tho E.ist Indies. Portugal has largo possussi. na 
 lu Africa, and some in Asia. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 1. Physical Features.— Tu the south lies the 
 
 Alpine ina.ss; skirting the north is the Jura Plateau; 
 between is a brokca plateau that elsewhere would bo called 
 mountainous ; only in the south-west and north-west is 
 there a real, elevated plain. Between the Bernese and 
 the southern Alps lies a deep depression across the 
 ■whole country, forming tho upper valley of tho Rhone 
 or the west, and of tho liliiuo on the east. From the 
 pass of S^ Gotthard, 0,700 feet high, tii most elevated 
 part of this depression, radiate in all directions many 
 other \ alleys, eacM with its mountain torrent. 
 
 The V, ried and striking liiaracter of the higher sum- 
 mits, towering into the region of perpetual snow, the 
 intervening lower peaks, tlio valleys, glaciei' , torrents 
 and dark forests, give to the Alps a grandeur and beauty 
 not found elsewhere. 
 
 The Alps have very manv peak over 10,000 feet high. The 
 Pennincs contain tho loftiest : Mont Ji/ano and Monte Rom are ovii- 
 15,000 fi'et; six others, the Matterhorn being the best known, are 
 over 14,000 feet ; other faumus peaks are the Juntifrau maiden) and 
 the il/6/i(!/i (monk). There are massive granite riiljies, b i the greater 
 number of peaks are metamorphic, an 1 thiir names indicate their 
 appear nice— "Silv. led-needle," " White liorn, " "White-to<;th," 
 etc. (See i ij^e 10, sec. 7, and Fig. 13.) 
 
 Many p,i>se» exist— low de))ression3 bet v, "on mountains ap- 
 proached by 1". g, gradual vises— some of whicii are over 10,000 feet 
 ni'h. Grmt iSl. licrrmnL Simplon, *;<. Onttluirii and S'/iliiijin are the 
 niur*t famous pas.ses. iHaoitra are very numerous covering <.vi>r 
 1,700 H'l^uare miles, while the polished jiinl scored sides of tho valleys, 
 and their boulder and rubbislif 'U>d beds, show that more existed 
 in past ages. Tho Bernese Ui md- the upland region below tlie 
 lofty peaks— is especially famoi ior 'sgliiciers. TUu Mrr </r G/acc 
 (.seaof ice), near Mt. Blanc, and the jirn 't, (Fig. 2;() are t'e best 
 known glaciers. The area of Switzerland i.s 15,992 squai e- miles. 
 
 2. Rivers and Lakes. —Tho rivers, except the Anr, aro 
 mountain torrents fed by the glaciers, low iu winter, full in summer. 
 'I'lie lakes are very numerous and beautiful, (Jvncva, NeufcluUcl, 
 Conatanoe and Lucerne aro tho chief. 
 
 3. The Climate.— In the Itnlian slope it resembles 
 that of southern France ; in tiio sheltered valleys anfl 
 Leneatli tiie Juras the summer is long and warm, but 
 with severe cold in winter : in the \a\n the climate ' 
 
 not unlike that of Canada. Tho region of perpetual 
 Hiiow is from H.OOO to 10,000 feet above sea-level, 
 tiiough flowering plants have been found at an elevation 
 of 12,000 feet. 
 
 4. Vegetation. — On the lower Italian slope are tlie 
 fruits of soutliern Franco; in the sheltered pin ees, even 
 at somo distance up tho moun^iiiiH, the vine flourishes; 
 the ordinary grains grow nearly . the upwai. limit of 
 trees. Deciduous trees — the oak, beech, etc. — extend to 
 thehoiglitof over 5,000 feet aboM tlie sea; the conif 
 eroiis trves — pino, etc.— as high up as 6,000 feet, Jifter 
 which, n to tlie snow line, comes a region of shrul>^ and 
 grasses — the Alp pastures of the Swiss. 
 
 T). Industries. — Agriculture, but of necessity dairy- 
 farming, is the chief industry. Manufaclu.-ing, owing 
 to tlio fine water-power, stands next to agriculture; 
 \tnu '■es, cotton and silk goods, including embroidery, are 
 very extensively ade. There is but little mining. The 
 exports aro manufactures and produce ; the imports are 
 food, li(j' ors, and raw material. 
 
 fi. Roads.— Many fine carriage roads over tho Alps exist; 
 r; lads an' numerous for so rough a country: one crosses to 
 through a tunnel nine miles long, pierced through the solid 
 r. . ,. 'if Mt. St. Gotthard. 
 
 7. The Inhabitants u- of four races : Germanic, the greater 
 part, all n'irth of the Beriiesu Alps; French in the west and south- 
 west ; Italian in the south centre ; Komaunsch, kindred to thd 
 Italian, in thesoutheast. Full freedom of religion exists. About 
 threetifths of tho people are Protestants. Education is compulsory, 
 and widely diffused. Tlio ti>tal populati(m is over 2,900,000. The 
 Government is a federal republic of twenty-two cantons 
 
 8. Cities . —In 1880 only five towns had a population of over 
 2.5,000 each : Berne (44,000) is tho political capital ; Geneva (60,000), 
 " the white citj', " on Lake Geneva, is the centre of the watch and 
 jewelry trade ; Basle ({Y2,(m) and Zurieh 76,000) are the chief seato 
 of the silk manufacture. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 1. Physical Features.— Italy, wheth. • the pen- 
 insula or the plain of tlie Po, owes its exis' o to the 
 Apennines. The peninsuii is scarcely moie than the 
 entral mountain-mass with the luni. falling away on each 
 side from it, broade ,t (1:J0 miles) where the nioiintainsare 
 bioadest — for tho Apennii ani not a ridge but a long 
 ' i ended mass of mountaiii and the plain of the Po 
 is but sediment washed from Alps and Apennines and 
 filling up wliat was once the head of the Adriatic, a 
 sea that would not exist if the mountains were absent. 
 The process is still going on, for sediment is still brought 
 down, and the iiat ea.-tern shore of the plain is steadily 
 
 i 
 
164 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 li 1 1! 
 
 adviinciiig oastward . In the peninsula parts of Campania 
 un<} Tuscany alone can bo callocl a low plain. 
 
 The area of Italy is 1 1 1,410 N(|uiiro iiiilcH, 
 
 2. Minerals aro lacking ; I'ut milphur, in ttu' volcanic diHtrict«, 
 and film slutuaii/ iwirlile, at Caniira in nortlicni Tuscany, aro cxtcn- 
 Bivuly mined. Nd cual exists. 
 
 .**. The Coast in rc(?iilar, pxct<i>t whi'rn bniken by the inmin- 
 tain spurs at (lartfano and near Naples, and liy tlio n'TO^il jwuinHula 
 of Aimlia ; only lu^ar tiicHO is tlicro any real l)ay orgulf. Tiio Ktraits 
 of jHcaaiua, B(jna/aeio and 0<ninto uni tiio dividinff v/aters. 
 
 •I. Islands. — Sicil/t, Siinlin, . and Cornira an' tho physical cnuii- 
 terparts (if Italy; t\w Lijxiri and other small iuluuds uru volcanic 
 auu uiti mainly banui. 
 
 C. Rivers.— Tho Pij [>' the one riv(i. Slu(?pish in current and 
 laden with sediment, th(* i^ linff up of its Ix'd necessitates embank- 
 ments in many places, and gives rise to <lisastrous floods. The delta 
 l>egins '2j miles from tlio sea. The chief ufHuents uro the Adda and 
 il/in;iV), witli the ./li/i;/' at tho delta. The Tihcr and .<4mo are navi- 
 gable f'lr a short distance, but their renown comes from the cities on 
 their banks, 
 
 f). The Olimato, owing to the influence of the seas, 
 is e(juiil)lo approiching warm ; rain is abundant. The 
 Po valley, being away from tho sea, has warmer sum- 
 mers and cokh^r winter.* ; snow lasts in tho mountains, 
 even as far south as Naples, from November till April. 
 
 7. The Productions fuo those of southern Spain ; 
 but beans, maize, chestnuts, and even acorn.s, form thn 
 chief, or sole, food of tho peasantry in many places. 
 
 8. Industries. — In agriculture, the mulberry, olives, 
 
 grapes, oranges and 
 lemons aro the char- 
 acteristic products ; 
 in maiiuj'actures, 
 silks far e.vceed all 
 others; wine, olive 
 oil, articles of coral, 
 and paper are also 
 highly important ; 
 textile goods are 
 largely made in the 
 Po valley, Lombardy 
 especially. The trade. 
 is extensive and 
 increasing; coal, cot- 
 ton and iron are the 
 
 Fiu. 7S.— Bka.ncu ok.MulrkrktTkbk, Silk- ciuei imports; Silk 
 WoKM, Cocoon and Mot,.. -^ ^],g ^^,^^^^ g^p^j,,^. 
 
 9. The Inhabitants. — The new national existence is fast 
 destroying the old reputation of Italians for cunning, treachery and 
 cruelty, features of character that existed along with high mental 
 ability and appreciation of the fine arts -painting, sculpture and 
 music. Tho gn?at evil of Italy is the wilful idleness .seen in every 
 t---wn and villago. Tlss; Gnvi-rvmint is like that of Great Britnii'. 
 Education is low, but is improving. Religious freedom exists. In 
 1881 the population, nearly all Roman Catiiolie, numbered 28,500,000. 
 
 10. The OitieS are all interesting from their association with 
 an ancient civilization and |M.wer. Nini \v\-n oyer ItKt.OOO iiiliabi. 
 tants -Napleh, Miljin, Koniti, Turin, Palermo, (ienoa, Florence, 
 Vinice ami Hologna. Ko.mk ('.Tit.^TO), tho capital, is interesting 
 above all other cities of Kui'oik) f(ir its wcu'kttof art, its ruins and its 
 former greatness; its iriipiirtani'ii otherwise consists in its great 
 influence as the ecclesiastical capita of 200,000,000 of luople, rather 
 than in its being the political capital of nioilern Italy. Its cum- 
 merce is uninilKirtant. JVa/ildi (Kill, 200), the largest of the cities, 
 lias coiiiideralile foreign trade, and some niaiiufaetiires in cotton and 
 silk. A/iliin (2".Ki,U)0) is the gr at manufaetiiriiig I'ity of Italy, as 
 (lumd is tho gloat coiiimeii'ial port followed by Viiiic , the city of 
 the layonii inlands, and Ijnihuiii. /''/(/(■(kcc next to Koine >s the most 
 rinowiied for works of art. y'(i//r(/iii. in kSicily, is th fiir't market 
 of tlie South. y'« nil is tho mo.-t modern of the cities, wifli manu- 
 fiictures in iron. Aiieima and /ti'iinlisi, on the east, areseaiHirts, tho 
 latter being the |X)int of communication with the East. 
 
 DEN^IAIIK. 
 
 1. Physical Features. -Continental Denmark, or 
 Jutland, is a spur of the Kuropc'in plain, ending in a 
 clil!', tho »S7,,//() ; ^)^)0 feet is the greatest eh'vat'oii The 
 greater part of tho west is a flat, barren plain, consisting 
 either of shifting sand or of moorland bordered at the 
 coast by sand-dunes. Tiu'se are pierced in many places 
 by "^ords," narrow arms of the sea tluit stretch far in- 
 land, or run for long distances behind the dunes. 
 
 The area is 11, 124 sc[uaie miks. 
 
 2. The Islands are of the same chaiaeter as .Tutland, except 
 Jiiirn/id'ni, south of .Sweden, which is rocky ; it furnishes the onlv 
 minerals of Denmark fine marble, porcelain-clay and a little poor 
 coal. The islands are very numerous, but the chief aro Zealand, 
 Fuiien and Laalami. These islands give rise to many channels, 
 while the Cattiijat and Skaiji r Jiack are almost seas in character. 
 
 X The Climate is less pleasant than in (Jre.at Britain, and sud- 
 den but not extreme changes are common. The ve^'etation has no 
 sjn'cial features. The absence of coal, rapid streams, and native 
 metals prevents manufactures ; agriculture in its various forms is 
 almost the only imrsuit. The exports are agricultural, and tho im- 
 ports chiefly manufactures, coal, and iron. 
 
 4. The Population, over 2,000,000 in 1S82, are nearly all 
 Scandinavians ; they are mainly Protestants of the Ijutheran Church 
 but religious etiuality jirevails tncrywhere. Education is wide- 
 spread. The people are intelligent, of a more lively disposition 
 than the (lermans, and take a keen interest in politics. The 
 (jovcrnment resembles that of Great Britain. 
 
 t>. The only large City is CorKNn.\riKN (273,323), tho capital, on 
 the island of Zealand. It ha.s excellent public educational insti- 
 tutions, and has long hell a high place in literature. It lias some 
 manufactures ; its porcelain is among tho best in Europe. 
 
 C. Possessions. — In the West Indies, Denmark owns St. John, 
 St. T/ioiHd.i and St. Croix; Onriilaiid, in N, America; in the 
 North Atlantic the Faroe /,i/a)i(/.<- -high rocky islands, yielding birds' 
 eggs, and sheep. /t'r/((H<< is a large volcanic plateau island, deeply 
 iiiileiitcd by fiords friiiwd by low-lying land where alone soil is 
 found. The cold is now here very intense ; in the south the mean 
 teinperature in winter is 31", in Bummer 50" ; in the north, 24'' and 
 42-" resiiectively. The summer is everywhere short, <mly hardy vege- 
 tables can bo grown ; cattle, horses and sheep are numerous. Caring for 
 these, gathering birds' eggs and down, and fishing, form the emiiloy- 
 ments. The people, 72,.500 in number, are settled all around thecoast, 
 or up the fiords and rivers. Sulphur and lignite exist in ccmsiderable 
 quantity. Yoht.-inifi pliennuunia abound ; of thet;e th« faiii.-»UK 
 volcano fffda and the Great (/ei/.frr are the most marked. Rcikjavik, 
 in the south-west, is the largest village. 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 135 
 
 GERMANY.* 
 L Physical Features. —Tlie coast district i.s low, 
 
 with a ragged outliiio, frinycd by siind-duiips, but not 
 below sea level. Furtlicr inland, and crossing tho wholo 
 country, is a broad, lev«!l tract of coarse, loo.se sand 
 iilniost barren and but thinly inhabited, though Berlin 
 lies in the midst of it ; in the east it abounds in small 
 lakes, in tho west in extensive heaths that often contain 
 largo bogs. 
 
 Everywhere hilly, but with vnlleys and level tracts 
 
 often of great fertility, the j)lateau region (in general 
 
 south of tho parallel of .52'') has few, if any, craggy or 
 
 steep mountain peaks except in the J>avarian Alps in tho 
 
 jouth. The mountains are often cultivated far up their 
 
 ;Ides. Many little })laieau3 are supported by tho main 
 
 ranges and the numerous littlo cross-ranges. Bavaria 
 
 And iitiithern Wiirttemberg are the least hilly districts. 
 
 Tho area of Gennivny is 212,028 square niil<!s. 
 
 2. Minerals. — f^(>(ir? is found chiefly in Rht'nish Prussia, in 
 Saxony, and Hilc.Hia ; Jmii is everywlicro in tii(>i)latfau, Imt is most 
 almndant near till) ilhiiio coal-fiulds and in the Jlurx Mountiiins— a 
 wholly inetallifei-ms ridgo ; Lead conies from the s.anie districts; 
 Silirr is found with the lead and also in ore in the llarz. which 
 likewise furnish most of the (hp/ier ; Zinc comes from tho Rhineland 
 and Sdesri, ; Suit aliounda as a mineral and as brine, the latter chiefly 
 in the Bavarian Alps. 
 
 X The Ooast 'Waters are very shallow and dangerous ; tlio 
 " Haff; " aloiitr the Baltic have a narrow (uiening to the sea near one 
 end of the enclosing bur or " nahrung." The Oulf of Danzig is only 
 aliaif with 'ta bar in part washed c.way. 
 
 4. The iiiv irs in the plateau, except th(' Nccknr, M(iina,w\ a 
 few oliM s, II i( unfit for navigation even for small boats. (See 
 "Euroi)e,' •■<: xl.) 
 
 5. Climate. — The climate varies little, the difference 
 in heiglit towards the south compensating for the moi^. 
 southern latitude. The plateau climate is as clear as the 
 clitnato of Ontario, but milder and more equable. 
 
 6. Industries. — Agriculture in its various forms is 
 the great industry. All tho ordinary crops are raised, 
 but rye is almost the only tiling grown on the sandy 
 region ; the vine flourshes on the sunny banks of the 
 Rhine, Neckar, and Moselle, and here the best wines are 
 made. Forestry is a science in Germany ; mining is 
 extensively carried on in all the plateau. In manufac- 
 turing, especially of textile fabrics, machinery and 
 implements of iron, Germany ranks high. Sugar (from 
 beet-root) and spirituous and malt liquors are extensively 
 made. 
 
 * For the names, etc., of the various States of Germany, Austri.a, 
 and Russia, see Appendix 111. 
 
 The trade is large, but is only about half that of tho 
 
 United Kingdom : live stock, chemicals, leather, and 
 
 general manufactures are exported, and raw niateri.d, 
 
 (ish and tropical i)rodin"o are imported. Foreign trade 
 
 by sea is carried oi» through Hamburg and Liibeck 
 
 The Inhabitants,— over 45,000,000 in 1881— .ire all (lermanii 
 except the I'oics in Silesia, an<l the French and VVnlloonii in KlsasH 
 liotheriiiKen (French, Alsace-Lorraine). Thodermans are brave, 
 idoddinx, almost phlegmalic, fond of tradition, speculative, and 
 liatriotio. Kduenliim is compulsory everywliere ; hcIiodIs and collegeH 
 are of u very high order, and the universities are numiToug and 
 renowned : those of HeidelberK, Halle, Leipsig, Bonn, Berlin and 
 (Jettingeri being most famous. Religious eipiality prevails ; Ravaria, 
 Baden, KIsassLotheringen and Silesia are mainly Catholic, tho other 
 states Protestant. 
 
 Government.— Germany is a federal union of twenty-six 
 states, includintj the three free towns, -Hamburg, Bremen and 
 lilllieck. The King of Prussia is tho heail of the empire and bears 
 the title of A"<((,«r (Kniperor) ; the Jliinilmfath (Federal Council) is 
 chosen by the governments of the various states ; and the lieii-hstaij 
 (the Imperial Assembly) by tiio whole jieople. The army is the 
 most jiowerful in Kurope ; tlie navy is neither large noretticient. 
 
 7. Cities. — Few, if any, of tho cities of Gen. any have 
 originated in modern times ; those, such as Berlin, whose 
 political inqiortance has increascul, or whoso physical sur- 
 roundings suit them for tho active, far-reaching, modern 
 life — coal-fields, iron mines, water power, central position 
 for internal traflic, or harbors for foreign traffic, etc. — 
 have increased in size;, and changed in character, while 
 the others, depi'iv(;d of their former importance, have 
 remained stationary or even retrograded, as Brunswick, 
 while still preserving th«!ir appcuiranco in times gone by 
 
 There were in Prussia in 1S81 eleven cities of over 100,000 inliabi 
 tants each, and fourteen others of more than 50,000 each. Bkumn 
 (poimlation 1,310,100), the caoital of the empire, and a centre of in- 
 telh'ctual life, occupies a central j)osition physically, though the 
 country around it is poor. It is in many res|)ect8 a handsome city, 
 for the most part modern in appearance. Its industries are numer- 
 ous, but the chief manufactures are in metal, of which machinery of 
 Jl kinds is tho princiiial. Of the sea-isirts Mrnui is the great market 
 for timber and hides ; 7)«»-/V/ and i/«'/(ct are the grain markets; 
 Bremen has all the tobacco trade, and Hurnhnrr/ (410,(i00) almost all 
 the American trade, llrcslau is in tho coal andiron region of Silesia, 
 08 are Ktbcrfeld, (hlor/nc and Ks.ien of tho Rhinelar.d ; all have 
 grown rapidly of late years, and all have extensive manufactures. 
 Kimi(isbar(j, Mwidchiirij, Hanover, J)iisseldor/, Stettin, Altnva, Aachen, 
 Frankfurt-on-the-Main, are the other largest towns. In Saxony 
 Leipziii excels all other German cities in the publishing of books. In 
 Bavaria, MUnich and Nilremberij ; in WUrttemberg, Stuttmrd ; in 
 Bader., Mannheim; in Elsass, Strasburti ; in Lotlieringe'n, Metz; 
 in Hesse, Mainz (Mayence) are the chief remaining cities. 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 
 
 1- Physical Features —Austria-Hungary is the 
 most mountainous country of Europe next to Switzerland. 
 The whole of the south-west is within the region of the 
 main continental axis and possesses to the full all the char- 
 acteristics of the Swiss Alps ; the west is in the hilly 
 
 *. 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 167 
 
 
 'o *- 
 
 
 
 
 plateau ; tlio noitli-east and soutli-east consist of the 
 secondary axis with near-lying portions of the plateau. 
 South of the parallel of 48", as far as the Danube and 
 Save, and between the meridians of 17° and 22°, the 
 whole country, with a few breaks in the west, is a plain 
 having an elevation above the sea ranging from 1 50 feet 
 in tlie south-east to 500 in the vest. Numerous little 
 plains are found along the course of all the rivers outside 
 of these bounds. The area of Austria is 115,903 square 
 miles; of Hungary, 125,039. 
 
 2. Minerals.— Austria is very rich in minerals, which include 
 gold, nilver, mercury, coal, precious stones, as well as iron, copper, 
 lead, ti/i, zinc, salt and others : Coal in all the northern plateau, but 
 mainly in Bohemia ; Iron nearly everywhere, but chiefly in Styria, 
 Carinthia, and the northern plateau ; Lead in Carinthia, but largely 
 also in Bohemia and Hungary ; Mercury at Idria in Carniola, next 
 in importance to Almaden m Ciudad Real in Spain ; Tin in Bohemia ; 
 kino near Cracow ; Salt in vast quantities in Galicia ; Copper, 
 Oold, Silver and Precious Stones in Hungary. 
 
 Rivers. — The gi eat central depression naturally brings toward 
 it all the water from the surrounding highlands, Bohemia alone 
 excepted. In this country the highest ground is in the south and 
 the waters pass .uto the Elhc (or Maldan) which has cut a deei) 
 gorge for itself through the Giant Mountains. The Danube, though 
 not in Austriii. at its source or its mouth, is the great river of the 
 country ; below Vienna it is a mile or more in breadth, often slug- 
 gish and forming long, wide marshes. The sudden change of course 
 near Buda-Pesth, and again further south, is very remarkable. In 
 its lower valley it is joined by tYm Save and Draveirmn the south, 
 and tlio r/ffiss from the north— all three large, navigable rivers, and 
 all tl)ree with wide marshes at i)laces on their course. The Oder, 
 Vistula, and the Dniester have their head-waters in Austria. 
 
 3. Coast Line. — Austria has an extensive coast line on the 
 Adriatic ; but it is jireciiiitous and useless exce])t on each side of the 
 peninsula of Istria. Tlie numerous islands are all of a mountain 
 character. 
 
 4. The Climate is varied ; the coasts of the Adriatic 
 and the soutlieni side of the Tyrolese Alps have the 
 genial climate of Italy ; the interior plateau and all 
 within the southern slope of the secondary axis possess a 
 more extreme climate, warm in summer and cold in \v\n- 
 ter, snow being frequent and heavy ; while Galieia and, 
 to a less extent, JSoliemia have tlio climate of Ontario. 
 
 5. Productions. — ^"'''y little of the country is 
 barren, except tiio mount.iiu peaks and some tracts in 
 southern Hungary. All tlie ordinary grains, food-plants 
 and fruits, Ua.x and heuq), are grown everywhere ; maize 
 and the vine, except in the north-east ; olives, fig.s, 
 oranges, etc., along the Adriatic and in soutliern Tyrol. 
 Forests cover a great d('al of the country l)ut ai'e most 
 extensive in the east. 
 
 6. Industries. — Agricultare in all its forms, includ- 
 ing stock-raising on the wide pastures both upland and 
 plain, is the chief. Jfinin;/ is extensively engaged in, 
 and the production of the various leading minerals is 
 very great. Mauu/acluriiii/ of native products and 
 
 of cotton is largely carried on in the west and north- 
 west where the coal is found. The chief goods are 
 cotton, woollen, silk, and linen fabrics ; articles of the 
 various metals ; glass and porcelain in Bohemia ; wine 
 in Hungary ; beer in the west ; gold, silver, jewelry, fine 
 cutlery in Bohemia and Vienna; leather and sugar in 
 Bohemia and Moravia. 
 
 The trade is almost all overland ; the leading exports 
 are grain, woven fabrics, animals, fuel, sugar, and glass- 
 ware. The imports are chiefly cotton, machinery, leather 
 goods, and some food. 
 
 7. The Inhabitants are of various rfices ; Germans in the west, 
 with large numbers in Bohemia, Moravia and western Hungary; 
 Slavs in the east and south and in Bohemia. The Slavs of tne 
 east and south are rude, with none but domestic manufactures. 
 Magyars, a Turkish tribe, form the majority of the Hungarians ; 
 Italians occupy southern Tyrol ; Jews are numerous in the north- 
 east. Education is very backward except among the Germans. 
 Tlie great majority of the peopje are Roman Catholics, the Pro- 
 testants forming a strong minority in Hungary ; religious freedom 
 prevails everywhere. The poiiulatio-.i in 1885 was nearly 39,000,000. 
 
 8. The Government resembles that of Germany. The two 
 countries have a common sovereign, army, navy, and foreign rela- 
 tions, and a legislative body dealing with all common matters ; but 
 each lias its own legislature for local concerns. Austria-Hungary is 
 a strong milit.ary power ; the navy is small but effective. 
 
 0. Cities.— In 1880 Austria contained five cities with over 100,000 
 inhabitants each, and nineteen others of over 30,000 each. Vien. a 
 (1,104,000 in 1880), the capital, is in its newer part one of the 
 handsomest cities in Europe ; its museums, galleries, schools and 
 colleges are excellent; its manufactures of silk, cutlery, musical 
 instruments, and articles of gold and silver, and liquors are very 
 extensive. Bnda-Pesth (301,000), two cities on opposite sides of the 
 Danube, the capital of Hungary, ranks next to Vienna in size and 
 importance ; in appearance it has an eastern tinge. Prapiie is 
 the busy manufacturing city of Bohemia, Trieste on the Gulf of 
 Trieste, does nearly half of the empire's trade by sea ; it is the 
 chief naval station. (Iratz, the cliief city of Styria, Briinn of 
 Moravia, and InnnhrUnk of Tyrol, have large manufactures. 
 
 TURKEY, DANUEIAN STATES, GREECE. 
 
 1. Physical Features. — Excepting in the north-east 
 tills region belongs to the plateau. Highest in a line 
 with the Balkan mountains, it falls off northward to the 
 low Danube and Save valleys, and southward to the 
 ^gean Sea. As elsewhere in the plateau, there are 
 many parallel and cross ranges, and undulating valleys. 
 In the rugged west the so-called Dinaric Aljis are pro- 
 longed southward through the Pindus range into Greece. 
 In tlie extreme east the Balkans divide into several low 
 ranges, one extending to Constantinople. To the south 
 the plateau breaks up, first into peninsulas, and then 
 the multitudinous islands of the iEgean. Within the 
 plateau only Thessalay in north-eastern Greece can be 
 called a plain ; Roumania and all northern Bulgaria 
 belong to the great European plain. 
 
168 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 Hi 
 
 f 
 
 2. The Mineral resources are almost unknown ; the ordinary 
 metals are said to exist quite abundantly ; coal occurs in Bosnia, 
 fciervia, and Bulgaria, salt in Rouinania ; in Greece some silver, lead 
 and marble are mined, 
 
 3. The Coast in the south, where the plateau breaks up and 
 the mountam ranges protrude into the sea, is very irregular. The 
 numerous peninsulas, of which the hand-like Morea is the most charac- 
 teristic, enclose equally numerous bodies of water. The short western 
 slope of the plateau ends, generally, in a bold coast often with tow- 
 ering precipices ; the south-east and east are low, but not flat, while 
 the north-east, formed of Danube sediment, is flat and marshy. 
 
 4. The Islands, excepting the few of volcanic formation, havo 
 ^11 the physical characteristics, climate,-—" eternal summer, "—pro- 
 ductions, etc., of the mainland. The Ionian group,— Corfu! Zante, 
 Cephalonia,— on the west, the Cyclades of the Archijielago and 
 northern Sporadea, belong to Greece; the rest, of which Crete 
 (Candia), Rhodes, Khio, (Scio), Mitylene and Ijemno are the largest, 
 belong to Turkey. 
 
 5. The Rivers of the plateau and of Greece are commercially 
 unimportant, excepting the Maritza. The Danube throws down so 
 much sediment that its delta, a huge mass of marsh and lagoon, has 
 advanced over ten miles within the Christian era, and artificial 
 means are required to make the mouths safe for navigation. 
 
 6. Climate. — North 
 of the Balkans and in 
 t he higher western pla- 
 teau the climate tends 
 to extremes ; snow is 
 heavy and the January 
 temperature at the 
 mouth of the Danube, 
 32** is that of Iceland 
 in the same month ; but 
 tlie summers are hot. 
 South of the Balkans 
 and along the whole of 
 the western coast the 
 climate is Mediter- 
 ranean, inclining to dry ^^ 
 in the east but moist in 
 the west. 
 
 7. Productions. — 
 
 The grains- and fruits 
 
 are like those of Spain in similar situations, whUe vast 
 
 forests of oak and beech occur everywhere. 
 
 8. Industries.— This region is one of great natural 
 capabilities, but all industries languish. Agriculture, 
 although rude, is the o.ie general pursuit. From the 
 Danube basin are exported large quantities of barley 
 and wheat, animals, and aninial products; xVom the 
 other districts, tigs, raisins, silk, olive-oil, etc., witl- 
 currants from Greece. There i.s some Fhhing for coral 
 and sponges ; some Manufiu-furiyifj .uid Mlniny are rione 
 in Greece, with some silk weaving in Turkey. The 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 imports everywhere are metal, articles of metal, and 
 cotton goods. Shipping is an active and growing 
 industry among the Greeks. 
 
 9. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are very varied 
 in race, and almost everywhere of vcy mingled blood. 
 Bosnia, Servia, and Montenegro are mainly Slavonic ; 
 the Roumanians are descendants of old Italian colonists; 
 tiie Bulgarians in Bulgaria, Roumania and Roumelia are 
 Mongoloid, as are also the Turks ; the Albanians, on''' 
 semi-civilized, are of unascertained relationship, but, like 
 the Montenegrins and other mountaineers, are daring 
 and liberty-loving ; in Greece the stock is mainly ancient 
 Greek, but Albanians are numerous; there are many 
 Greeks in Turkey also. Education, though not neglected, 
 is in a very backward state, except in Greece. 
 
 10. Political Divi- 
 sions. — Out of the frag- 
 ments of the once powerful, 
 but now dissolving, Turkish 
 empire, many new states 
 have already been formed. 
 
 Bosnia belongs, except in 
 name, to Austria. Montk- 
 NEGKO is independent with 
 a patriarchal prince. The 
 estimated area is 3,550 square 
 miles and tiio population 
 250,000 ; the capital is Cet- 
 tinge (2,000). Servia, also 
 independent, has a constitu- 
 tional king. The area is 
 about 19,000 square miles, 
 the population about 2,000,- 
 000 ; the capital is Belgrade, 
 a city historically famous. 
 Roumania (Moldavia and 
 Wallachia) also has a con- 
 stitutional king. The area 
 is about 45,500 square miles, 
 the population over .5,000,- 
 000. Thecapital is Bucharest; 
 other towns are Jassy and 
 Oalatz. Jews are very numer- 
 ous, and with other foreigners 
 carry on all the commerce. 
 Bulgaria is tributary to Tur- 
 key, but has its own prince 
 .•„ 91 ./In •, ., . ^'"^ legislature. The area 
 
 ISJ4, 400 square miles, the iK)pulation 2,000,000. The capital is 
 .V)fta; otli(-r chief towns are Rustchnck, Hhumla, and Varna. 
 J<.A.sTERN KoriiKMA, between the Balkans and the parallel of 42", 
 IS m part se f-goyeming ; it has a Christian governor. PhUippopoli 
 I.S the caiiital. This country, with southern Bulgaria, is the country 
 of roses, where the famous perfume, " attar of roses," is made. 
 
 Turkey, (area 64,000 square miles, population about (5,000,000), 
 18 still a rcHpectable military power, and its po-ssessions in Asia are 
 very extensive The Turks are unprogressive ; tiiey make good 
 si.|(liers,_ and the peasantry are industrious and hospitable; but 
 vitality in politics iind in industry does not exi.it. The government 
 is a clespoti.siii ; Mahometanism, of wliich the Hultan is the head, is 
 the state religion. The capital is Constant! nofile (700,000), <me of the 
 tamous iMiropean cities, advantageously situated upon the Bosporus, 
 with a good transfer trade but no liianufiwtures, except Boiiio silk. 
 Adrianopk, Oa/lijmli, Salonika and Janina are the other chief cities. 
 GUEKCK ,.aroa, 25,000 h(|Uare miles, population al,..ut 2,000,000), 
 "epeats the continent on a smaller scale— a mass of peninsulas, every- 
 
RUSSIA, NORWAY AND SWEDEN. 
 
 169 
 
 trhwre open vo arms of the sea. Its inhabitants are intellectual, 
 raquisitive. eager for learning, cunning, money-loving;, temperate, 
 prdud, and exceedingly democratic. Manufacturing is increasing 
 rapidly. The government is like that of Great Britain. Athens 
 (85,000), tlie capital and only important place, rises, like Rome, 
 amid the monuments of a by-goue glory. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 1. Physical Features. — Excepting the rugged 
 regions of tlie border mountains, Russia is one undulat- 
 ing plai)\, reacliing its highest elevation in the Valdai 
 HUls, and sinking below sea-level in the "tundra" of 
 the north, a vast marshy flat thawing only a few inches 
 in summer. In the south-east are the "steppes" — 
 elevated plains in places barren, but mostly with periodic 
 herbaceous vegetation. So slight is the elevation of the 
 watershed, that canals with scarcely a lock connect the 
 head-waters of the Baltic rivers with those of other seas. 
 
 The area is 2,095,500 square miles, 
 
 2. The Mineral wealth of Russia is very ^reat ; the mining 
 region is in the central Urals— gold, platinum, silver, copper, zinc, 
 fine ornamental stone such as malachite, and precious stones, are all 
 found, along with abundance of iron ; the latter is also largely pro- 
 duced in Finland ; as yet Coal is mined chiefly on the Don, and salt 
 in the south west. Petroleum in inexhaustible quantities is procured 
 at Baku on the Caspian Sea. 
 
 3. Rivers.— The position of the water-parting, and the character 
 of the country, give rise to large, sluggish and winding rivers. On 
 the Arctic slope only the Iforth Dwina is important ; on that of the 
 Baltic are the South Dioina and the Ifcva (between Lake Ladoga 
 and the Gulf of Finland); in the south west the Pruth, the boundary. 
 (See Europe, section 11.) 
 
 4. Lakes in the north-west of Russia, espcially in Finland, are 
 very numerous, Ladoga and Onega being the largest. 
 
 5. Climate. — Russia, a vast plain beyond the tropics, 
 necessarily has an extreme climate, — not unlike that of 
 inland Canada, though milder around the Baltic and the 
 Black Seas than in corresponding latitudes in Ajierica. 
 Rain is lacking in the south-east. 
 
 6. Productions. — Forests are found in all parts of 
 the country ; the whole of the north-east is one forest of 
 pine, spruce and birch. The ordinary grains grow south 
 of parallel 60° ; to the north of that parallel, except in 
 Finland, only a little barley is met with ; " reindeer-moss " 
 is the characteristic product of the tundra region. In 
 the south semi-tropical fruits, etc., are common. In 
 the central part are vast tracts of deep, black earth of 
 inexliaustible fertility ; this is the chief grain region. 
 
 7. The Industries are mainly agricultural ; all 
 'cinda of grain, but rye especially, and other food plants 
 are extensively raised ; hemp and flax are widely 
 cv.-.ti»'ated also. Domestic animals, especially iiorses, 
 
 are extremely abundant. Mining is an important 
 industry. Manufacturing is rapidly increasing; apart 
 from textile goods, the characteristic manufactures are 
 ornamental articles in gold, silver, and precious stones, 
 and articles of fur. The exports consist almost altogether 
 of grain, flour (going chiefly to Great Britain), animals, 
 and timber ; the imports, of textile goods, metals, coal 
 and tropical produce. Shipping, through lack of sea- 
 board, is limited ; in the Caspian and White se^-s. Fish- 
 ing is an important industry. 
 
 8. The Inhabitants, numbering over 87,000,000, are of differ- 
 ent races, the Russians fcnming the great majority ; Jews are 
 numerous iu the south-v, ■-st. (See "Europe" section 18). In religion 
 the Russians belong to tli^ Greek Church, of which the Czar is the 
 head ; the Poles are largely Roman Catholics ; the Baltic provinces 
 are Protestant ; the Lai)ps are semi-heathen, the nomad ones wholly 
 BO Education is backward, but schools are numerous. The gov- 
 ernment is a despotism, the will of the Czar being law. The army is 
 the largest in Europe, but tiie navy is much inferior to that of 
 Britain or France. The Russians are docile, obedient to authority, 
 industrious, sociable, not too tidy, ignorant and superstitious. The 
 Finns are the most energetic and the best educated. 
 
 Finland has a government of its own, of which the Ci^r is the 
 head but not the absolute master. 
 
 9. Cities. - Russia has many cities ; ten of over 100,000 inhabi- 
 tants each, twenty more of over 50,000, and sixty others of over 
 20,000. St. Petehsbuug (930,000), the capital, is built on hnv islands, 
 most of the houses resting on piles. It is a very beautiful but un- 
 healthy city ; its industries are valuable, but its importance is chiefly 
 political. Moscow (753,000), almost an eastern city in appearance, 
 has important manufactures ; Warsaio has a large trade m gram and 
 cattle ; the grain cities are Riga and Odessa ; the mining, metal and 
 gem-working cities are Kazan, Perm and Ekaterinburg (east of the 
 Urals) ; Kronstadt in the north, and Nicolaeff, Kherson, and Tagin- 
 rng in the south are stations of the fleet ; Archangel exports timber ; 
 Astrakhan is the great Caspian port ; Baku, on the dese-rt sh'u'ey of 
 the Caspian, is the centre of the petroleum industry- 
 
 SCANDINAVIA (NORWAY AND SWEDEN). 
 
 1. Physical Features. — Scandinavia, as a penin- 
 sula, repeats Italy,- -it is the creation of a mountain 
 mass. This mass, of greatest breadth and height tov^ard 
 the south, has been ground down by the action of ice i iito 
 a plateau, its slopes scored into deep narrow valleys by 
 glaciers. Near and parallel to the western coast runs a 
 rounded chain of mountains, called Kiiilen (the keel) to 
 the north of Drondiieim where it forms the boundary 
 between Norway and Sweden, and Bovre Fjeld to the 
 south, its highest elevation being 8,400 feet. East of 
 this range the slope is gradual toward the Baltic and 
 collected waters, where it ends in a low sandy shore, 
 except in the extreme south ; the western slope, which 
 is highest and narrowest, ends often in abrupt shoulders 
 or sheer precipices of giddy height. Only here and there 
 iu Norway is there a patch of low coast, — which is always 
 
viaKQioo iia 
 
 
 I; 
 
 ll 
 
 HI I 
 
 
 s 3X vxs a 3 X I N n x-' "sai <5> viaNi ishm.-^vni 
 
ASIA —PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 171 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 rugged ; but the wliole plateau is cut by deep narrow 
 clefts wliich within the plateau form lakes or valleys, 
 and on the coast " fiords " or firths, some, as the fiords of 
 Sogne and Hardranger, penetrating a hundred miles in- 
 land with sides that tower in perpendicular clifis from 
 the water's edge. 
 
 The area of Sweden is 171,000 square miles ; of Norway, 123,000. 
 
 2. Minerals are comparatively lacking in Norway, but Sweden 
 furnishes in abundance the best Iron in the world, which is used 
 largely for steel making ; its Copper is almost equally abundant and 
 is as extensively mined. 
 
 3. The Coast of Norway in its entire length is lined with 
 islands between which and tiie shore lie navigable channels fully 
 protected from the waves of the ocean ; inside the fiords thus pro- 
 tected harbors are numberless and safe. The Lofoden, a group of 
 large islands in the north-west, are alii.ost as high, rugged and rocky 
 as the mainland, while Olawl and OotMand of the Baltic are like the 
 coast of Sweden, low and fertile. 
 
 4. The Rivera are all mountain streams, unnavigable except 
 where at the coast they fall into fiords ; tlie Lakes, as numerous 
 as the rivers, are the long narrow, deep mountain lakes, except 
 Wener, Wetter and MMar of southern Sweden. 
 
 5. Climate. — The warm oceanic waters and winds 
 give a mild, equable, but moist climate to the west ; the 
 extreme north has a higher temperature (32°) in 
 winter than has the shore of tiie Skager Rack ; Sweden 
 on the other hand from its position has an extreme 
 climate, hot in summer, cold in winter. 
 
 The snow line is never higher than d,000 feet ; fields 
 of perpetual snow sending off glaciers on both slopes, 
 exist ii many places ; the largest are near Sogne and 
 Hardranger fiords; only in one place, in the north-west, 
 does a glacier reach the sea. 
 
 6. Productions.— Forests of fir, beech and birch 
 abound ; wheat and apples grow well only in the soutii, 
 but oats, barley and potatoes grow even in the extreme 
 north ; for here tiie length of continuous sun-licht is 
 seven weeks, and the crops are sown and gathered with- 
 in that time. 
 
 7. Industries. — Luniberimj and Fishing in Norway, 
 Mining, Lumbering and Agriculture in Sweden, are the 
 great industries ; Manufacturing, except of lumber and 
 pig-iron, is but little pursued. In Shipping, Norway 
 relatively exceeds all other nai ; -ns. I'he exports of the 
 products of tiie forest and of the fisheries are very exten- 
 sive, and Swedish iron finds a ready market in England. 
 Herring and codfish swarm on the coast, especially 
 around the Lofoden Islands; shell fish abound, and 
 sharks and whales of several kinds, all valuable for their 
 oil, are captured in large numbers. 
 
 H. The Inhabitants, -in Sweden, 4.Gr)0,000 (1884), in Nor- 
 way, 1,800,000 (liirr)), -are mostly of the German stock, aisd speak 
 mutually mtellijjible dialects. Besides the Scandinavians theio are 
 a good many \f inns and Lapps, both Mongoloid races ; the latter 
 part'y nomadic and only pa: cly christianized, live in the north and 
 Bubsic^ on their reindeer, fishing and hunting ; the Finns mingle 
 with tlie Ucrnianic races, and all are industrious, frank, hospitable, 
 and brave, and make some of the best sailors in the world. Educa- 
 tion \» widespread, schools are numerous and good ; tiie university 
 of Upsala has a wide reputation. Nearly the whole of the popu- 
 lation belong to the Lutherjin Protestant church. The Oovernment 
 of each country resembles that of Great Britain, the bond of union 
 being a common sovereign. The two countries have each their own 
 army and navy. 
 
 9. Cities.— As a consequence of the character of the industries 
 the population is not gathered into cities. In Norway, Chkistiana 
 (70,000), the cajiital, Bergen and Trotulhem, are the chief towns ; 
 Hanimerfcst, the most northern place of residence, is a village of 
 wooden houses. In Sweden, only twi> towns have over 60,000 iiihabi- 
 tants,— Stockholm (205,000), the capital, and Ootebory ; MalinU, 
 KarUkrona and Upsala are important places. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 _ Apart from the territory under British control, Asia is compara- 
 tively little known to Eurojwans. The vast extent of the continent, 
 the natural obstacles to travel, and above all the hostility of the 
 people to the Christian Europeans, have had the effect of limiting 
 our knowledge in a great measure to the reports, often contradictory, 
 of venturesome travellers. 
 
 1. Extent.— The extreme points cf the continent are, on the 
 north, North-East CapK, lat. 78° north ; on the east Eant Cape, longi- 
 tude 170" west ; on the south Cape Romania, lat. 1..5" nortli ; on the 
 west Cape Baba, long. 26° east. Asia is a triangle in form with the 
 base extending bet«-fien the two last-mentioned cai)es, and its apex at 
 Bchring Strait ; it contains over 17,000,000 square miles, an area 
 Luger by two millions of square miles than the two Americas 
 together. 
 
 2. Physical Features.— The Axial Plateau (see 
 page 8, sec. 4) varies greatly in breadth and elevation. 
 Narrow in the west, and with a height never exceeding 
 7,000 feet, on reaching the Persian Gulf it rapidly 
 expands into the " plateau of Iran " (Persia and Afghan- 
 istan); but on the borders of India, at the Solinian moun- 
 tains, it suddenly contracts again, but rises into the 
 lofty rugged steppe of Pamir — tiie crossing place of the 
 Himalaya and Thian Shan mountains. From this point 
 a rapid and continuous expansion takes place till the 
 ocean is reached, —but with very marked features. Sup- 
 ported bj tlie Himalaya mountains on the south and the 
 almost equally massive Kuen-Lun on the north, the 
 whole of the south-west portion of this region is tiie vast 
 platcon of Tibet rising from 10,000 to 20,000 feet above 
 the sea ; while in the north-west and north is the desert 
 of GUM, a sandy and rocky waste, which in its lowest part 
 is only 2,000 feet above sea-level, and is but the barren 
 bed of a dried-up sen. East of thc«u two rcgiuus the 
 country slowly falls off to the ocean. 
 
172 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 
 3. The Mountains of the plateau are numerous ana run, as a 
 rule, parallel to the trend of tiie plateau, but very many cross ranges 
 exist, and as a consequence very many mountain enclosed districts. 
 The Caucasus, a broad, massive, well-wooded, and rugged range, 
 enclosing many great glaciers, rise boldly from the Black Sea coast 
 but fall away to low hills near the desert shore of the Caspian, Mt. 
 Elburz, 18,526 feet liigh, being the culminating point. The Taurus 
 range iii Asia Minor, never exceeding 10,000 feet in height, is con- 
 tinued into north-east Armenia where Ararat, a volcanic peak 
 17,112 feet high, extends far intt the region of peri)etual snow. 
 The Elburz range, routh of the Caspian, and equalling the Caucasus 
 in height, has abundant rain on the north side, and is there well 
 wooded and deeply scored by mountain torrents ; the south side is 
 dry, treeless and almost unbroken. The Holiman mountains are low 
 but rugged ; the famous Kyber Pass from India to Afghanistan is in 
 the northern part of the range. The HimAlayas form the southern 
 face of the Tibetan plateau ; seen from the plateau they are of 
 moderate or even small elevation, but from the plains of India they 
 appear as they are, the most massive and gigantic mountains in the 
 world. Very many peaks are over 20,000 feet high, while Mt, 
 Everest, 29,002, is the highest in the world. Starting in swampy 
 ground from the plains of India a hundred miles from their crest, 
 the Himalayas, or " snowy mountains," support more than one outer 
 range on thrjir sides, are scored by huge ravines, abound in glaciers 
 in the uppei' regions, and are cnissed only by passes 18,000 or more 
 feet high. Except in the dry west, they are well wooded ; perpetual 
 snow begins on the south side at an elev,ation of lf.,000 or 18,000 feet. 
 and on the north at 20,000. Tlie northern face of the Tibetan plateau 
 18 formed by the Kucn Lun, a range only less massive and gigantic 
 than the Himalaya. The Thian Shan, another massive range, extends 
 north-easterly, succeeded by the Altai and its continuation the 
 Yablonoi range. 
 
 4. Plains.— All northern Asia is a plain of which 
 the plain of Europe is only a part. Broken by numerous 
 ranges of low hills in the east, it is level in the west, with 
 here and there broad steppes ; but tlie whole of the 
 northern part is the barren tundra of European Russia. 
 Northern India, tiie southern valley of the Euphrates, 
 north-eastern China and central Mantchuria are also 
 plains. 
 
 5. Deserts. — Beginning with eastern Asia Minor, and 
 scarcely interrupted by the mountains of Armenia and 
 the mountain-masses in the region of Pamir, deserts 
 stretch along the plateau nearly to the Sea of Japan ; 
 even Tibet consists largely of arid plains ; while out- 
 side the plateau are the Arabian, Syrian, and Indian 
 (north-west central India) deserts, and the deserts of 
 Central Asia. The southerly winds can bring but few 
 rain-bearing clouds to the western part, while the Hima- 
 layas by their great height prevent almost all Jiioisture 
 from passing over their summits to the regions beyond. 
 
 6. The Mineral wealth of Asia is almost unexplored ; the use- 
 ful metals are known to be wide-spread; ffcms are found in India, 
 Indo-China, and Turkestan ; coal exists in both Indias and Chirn, in 
 the latter in vast quantities though mined but little; petroleum is 
 abundant in tiie Euphrates valley, in Turkestan and Indo-China. 
 
 7. Outlines. — The irregularities of outline in Asia havb a bold- 
 ness and sweep not seen elsewhere : -the projections are masses of 
 land— ^.ija Minor, Arabia, the two Indiax, and the less decided ones 
 of China; only here and there is found the typical peninsula,— 
 Malacca, Cnrca, Katiltchatka. The north coast, alnuwt wholly un- 
 known, is doubtless of the usual indented alluvial type. Of the 
 
 Capes the chief are Romania near Singapore, NorthEast, EagL 
 Lopatka, Comorin, and £aba. 
 
 8. Islands, other than the East India Islands, line the whole 
 eastern coast and are numerous in all the surrounding waters. 
 Except the smaller ones to the south, which are coralline, they are 
 all continental in character, and have been regarded as a partly sub 
 merged mountain chain. The chief islands are the Kurile group, the 
 Japan group and Sar/halicn, the Loo-Choo group Formosa, Hainan, 
 the barren semi-volcanic Andaman, and Nicohar groups, the coral- 
 line Lakkadiv and Maldiv groups, with Ceylon. In the north are 
 Wrajigle Land and New Siberia. 
 
 9. The Coast Waters of the emt—Bekrinj, Okhotsk; Japan, 
 Yellow, and China Seas— are due mainly to the islands that cut them 
 off from the ocean ; the Bay of Beni/al and the Arabian Sea are 
 parts of the Indian Oce-jn ; the shallow and narrow Bed Sea and 
 Persian Onlf, the fomser now a highway of commerce, are wholly 
 land-locked and filled with coralline islands. Minor gulfs are 
 Tonquin, Siam, Mandalav, Oman, and Aden. The chief Straits are 
 Malacca, PaU-— made almost impassable by a coral reef across it, — 
 Ormuz, and Bab-el-mandeb. 
 
 10. Rivers. — Asia, gigantic in everything, is such 
 also in its rivers, which are among the largest in the 
 world. The Obi, Ycnitiei, and Lena of Siberia are all 
 navigable to the foot of the mountains ; the lower course 
 of thvBe rivers does not thaw so soon as the upper; 
 hence gre^t inundations with vast areas covered with 
 sand, gravtl and boulders, and hence too the vast depth 
 of the frozen ground in the north ; the Amur and Yang- 
 td-kiang are large navigable streams, wliile the great 
 Hoang-Ho passing through an alluvial plain in its lower 
 course, has the cliaracteristics of such rivers — islands, 
 sand bars, a shifting bed. The Cambodia, Iratvadi, 
 Menam. and othei's of Indo-China lie between the moun- 
 tain spurs sent down from the plateau. The great Ganges, 
 Bhramaputra, and Indus, each nearly 2,000 miles long, 
 receive their upper waters from southern Tibet and the 
 glaciers of the northern slope of tlie Himalayas, cross 
 the Himalayas through fearful gorges —that of the 
 Indus being, it is said, 14,000 feet deep,— pass, in their 
 lower courses, through alluvial plains which they over- 
 flow in the flood season, and by branching out into 
 innumerable and intricate, but usually navigable, chan- 
 nels form great deltas, — that of the Ganges being 240 
 miles long. 
 
 In the west the only great rivers are the Euphrates, 
 1,300 miles long, and its affluent the Tigris,— monnt-Mn 
 rivei'S in the upper part of their coui'se, but alluvial 
 plain rivers with their usual phenomena in the lower 
 part. 
 
 Throughout the whole of the plateau, including Asia 
 Minor, northern and centi-al Tibet, and the Gobi desert 
 region, together with Arabia and Centi-al Asia, nearly 
 all the streams fall into lakes with no outlets (and 
 
 
PHYSICAL lEATURES— CLIMATE— VEGETATION— INHABITANTS. 
 
 173 
 
 I 
 
 consequently salt), or are absorbed by the desert. Of 
 these rivers the largest are the Tcurim falling into Lob 
 Nor lake in the Gobi desert, and the Syr-Daria 
 (Jaxartes) and the Amu-Daria (Oxus) falling into the 
 Aral Sea. 
 
 11. The Lakes of Asia dc not appear to be numerous, and 
 they are mainly salt. Baikal in the Altai mountains is the only large 
 fresh-water lake ; it is 400 miles long and 50 broad, has valuable fish- 
 eries, and is an important commercial route with China. Tlie chief 
 salt lakes are tiie Caapian Sea and the Aral Sea. The former, about 
 740 miles long and from 210 to 430 broad, has its surface 84 feet below 
 sea-level ; the northern part, owing to the sediment from the rivers, 
 is shallow, but elsewhere the depth varies from 300 to 500 fathoms. 
 The water in the north, especially when the rivers are full in spring, 
 is drinkable; elsewhere it is less saline in the oijen sea than ocean 
 water, but along the slielving shores and in shallow inlets it is 
 intensely salt ; salt lakes occur in the neighborhood of the sea, 
 from many of which, notably lake Elton to the north, vast quantities 
 of salt are obtained. Fish and seals aboimd in its waters. The 
 shores except in the mountain regions are in the main low and 
 deseit. Separted from the Caspian by a low plateau with bold 
 edges at each lake, is the Aral Sea, 205 miles long, 145 broad, 
 nowhere much over 200 feet deep, and said by recent explorers to be 
 250 feet below the surface of the Caspian. Its waters are only brack- 
 ish and abound in fish. To the east is a desert, to the north a 
 shelving steppe, to the south an alluvial plain. Russian steamers 
 ascend far up the Amu-Daria from this lake ; but heavy north-east 
 winds are prevalent and make the navigation here as well as in the 
 Caspian very dangerous. The minor, but still large, salt lakes are 
 Balkash, Van in Armenia, Urumia in Turkestan, and the Dead Sea. 
 The last, 4(5 miles long and 9 wide, lies 1,308 feet below sea-level ; 
 its waters are too suit to support animal life, but they are clear and 
 blue. The shores east and west are very steep but deeply scorecl 
 with ravines ; mineral and aspiialt wells abound around the edsres, 
 and pestilential marshes are numerous. The whole surroundhig 
 region, even the Jordan valley, is a desert. (See page 17, sec. 31.) 
 
 12. Climate.— North of the plateau, the full expo- 
 sure to the north without the modifying influence of a 
 great body of warm water at the south, makes the 
 cHmate more extreme than in the plain of North 
 America. Northern Siberia is the coldest spot in the 
 world ; in the pouth-western deserts the extremes of - 30° 
 in winter, and 110° in the shade in summer are common. 
 As great extremes are found on the Tibetan plateau, while 
 the low dry elevations have as great heat as south-west 
 Siberia but not as great cold. The cold north-east 
 Siberian winds, somewhat moditied, sweep over even 
 Arabia and the Red Sea in winter ; on the southern slope 
 of the plateau the climate is warm, unvisited by great cold. 
 South of the Himfdayas, the climate is tropical but 
 moditied on the plateaus ; the Pacitic coast has a warm, 
 equable climate in the south, but severe towards the north. 
 Moisture is fairly distributed away from the deserts. 
 (See page 29, see. 16 ; page 32, sec. 29.) 
 
 13. Vegetation. — Forest growth in the dry regions 
 is sparse, but luxuriant elsewhere ; notliing can exceed 
 the luxuriance of vegetation in north-eastern India and 
 Xndo-China ; man and plant are in constant strife. The 
 
 palm is the one tree of the sandy wastes. (See page 36, 
 sec. 2.) 
 
 14. Animals. — Through lack of moisture and vege- 
 tation animal life in Asia is far less abundant than in South 
 America ; but where vegetable life is abundant, there 
 also animal life is abundant. (See page 38, sections 6 
 and 7.) 
 
 15. Inhabitants.— Apart from the conquering English and 
 Russians only two tyi^s of mankind exist in Asia, the Mongoloid 
 and Melanochroi ; the former, in many varieties, all north of the 
 plateau in the west, and of the Himalaya mountains in the east, 
 including all east of the Brahmaputra ; the second, elsewhere. (See 
 page 40, section 12. ) 
 
 Except in the densely peopled Indias and China Proper, and per- 
 haps Mantchooria, nomad tribt's are fountl more or less everywhere, 
 wandering from place to place with their flocks and herds and 
 household goods, and yielding f)nly a qui'Jitied obedience to the 
 rulers of the country, where there is any general government. In 
 Siberia and Turkestan under Russian intluence some of these tribes 
 are beginning to take up a settled abode. 
 
 16. In Government there are two native types ; the ahsoluteh/ 
 denpiitio in Turkey, Persia, Indo-Ciiina, and China ; and among the 
 nomads the ixitriarchal, the authority of the hereditary chief being 
 limited by custom alone. Civilization, where not due to Europeans, 
 seems to have almost everywiiere retrograded ; the nomads, are as 
 they ever were— barbarians. Of the industries, except in China and 
 India, none have reference to foreign coimiierce. In relit/ion, all 
 of south-west Siberia and all Asia west of the Soliman mountains 
 IS Mahometan; India is Brahmin, with many Mahometans; Indo- 
 Chin.aand the Chinese empire generally, are Buddhist ; Siberia has 
 a kind of ancestor worship, with many other varieties. 
 
 POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. TURKEY. — The north and east of Turkey, — Asia 
 Minor, Armenia, Kurdestan,— belong to the plateau 
 region ; the rest consists of three districts. The western 
 part, or Palestine, is a narrow low plateau shelving to 
 the ?Ti:editerranoan and to the Syrian desert, and ending 
 southward in a desert. It is traversed by the generally 
 low Lebanon range, which in the north is well wooded, 
 but sinks in the centre to low barren rugged hills that 
 linally end in the Sinai group in north-western Arabia. 
 The Jordan river a.nd Dead Sea occupy scarcely more 
 tiian a broad ravine in this plateau, desert in its 
 .soutliern part but with abundant vegetation elsewhere. 
 To the plateau succeeds eastwardly the plain of Syria, 
 with its numerous streams and its fertility in the north, 
 but in the south a desert. Eastward of the desert is the 
 narrow Euphrates valley, — a plain of great fertility but 
 needing irrigation, through lack of which it is now 
 largely desert in character, once the seat of mighty, 
 conquering nations. 
 
 >■ SI 
 
174 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 2. Moisture is nowhere abundant except perhaps in the low, 
 narrow, rich plains skirtiiic' the base of the plateau of Asia Minor. 
 Where irrigation is possible or is practiced, tlie cro|)a are most 
 excellent—wheat, dhnrra, olives, figs, pomegranates, grapes, gourds 
 of many kinds, with dates in the low, drier districts away from the 
 const. The cultivation of theso with the care of sheep, occuines 
 most of the settleil i)opulation. What little trade there is consists in 
 the export of dried fruits, oil and woo'.. Tlie whole country 
 lauguisiies under the capricious rule, or lack of rule, of the Turks. 
 
 . 3. The Population is very mixed ; Greeks are the merchants 
 m Asia Mmor ; Jews, Turks, Arabs inhabit raiestine ; the last are 
 found everywhere and are mainly nettled except the nomad and 
 barbarous Bedoiuns ; the Anuenians are settled and christianized : 
 the Kurds are unsettled and almost barbarous. 
 
 4. The Chief Cities are, S-TO.vrm (200,000), 7)<77/i«,iCHs (200,000), 
 Baridad (180,000), Aleppo (120,000) ; ^(rHsa/rw— unimportant except 
 from Its hallowed associations ; Bcirout and Jiamirah. Of these 
 Smyrna, Bassorah and Beirout, the only iM>rts, have considerable 
 foreign trade ; the others have internal traffic, and Damascus and 
 Bagdad a good deal of manufacturing in embroidery, gold and 
 Silver work, and implements of line steel. 
 
 1 . ARABIA continues the Palestine plateau broad- 
 ened. As far as is knov,/ the central part is occupied 
 by a range of mountains <.;; mociitain plateaus and deep 
 valleys; here a nioderalfi moisture gives rise to manysprings 
 and streams, which are used for irrigation, and in con- 
 sequence there is an abundant vegetation and a nume- 
 rous population. East, west, south, and north of this 
 iies a desert, broad and saady in the south, narrower 
 and stony elsewhere,— the whole comprising al^out a 
 third of the country. Low mountain ranges skirt the 
 coiists, and are barren and forbidding on their seaward 
 side; on their inward side in the southern half of the 
 peninsula, but more especially in the south-west, or 
 Yemen, there is abundance of water, and in consequence, 
 fertility and productiveness. In the north-west, or 
 Hedjas, the only moisture comes from wells, themselves 
 often brackish, — a hopeless, stony region ; in the south, 
 or Iladramaut, oases exist beyond the fringing moun- 
 tains, some of large size. The east coast is less barren 
 than tlie others though sandy tracts are numerous. 
 
 The heat of tlie south-west is often intense ; in the 
 north west snow covers the tops of the Sinai I'ange in 
 winter. 
 
 2. Agriculture is very rude. The plants cultivated are the 
 date iKthii m the central half, coffee in Yemen— the products of which 
 alone are exixnted ; some wheat and barley ; millet, garden plants 
 especially of the gourd kind, beans, with rice in the east. Tlie 
 domestic animals are tlie famous Arabian horse, the more useful 
 ™?*'''.' *''^ •"^■'' '^'"^ sheep, both in great numbers, with some cattle. 
 Of wild animals tigers are found, hyenas, wolves, jackals, deer, and 
 monkevs, with insects and some poisonous serisents, locusts being 
 very abundant. Birds are very numerous, for Arabia is a winter 
 himie of northern birds of passage ; while ostriches abound in the 
 southern deserts. I'mrl fishiwi is imt)ortant in the Persian Gulf. 
 In Oman in the southeast, gold and silver articles often of great 
 beauty, embroidery in gold and silver, fine cloths, and implements 
 of steel are quite extensively made ; elsewhere, e.\cept in Yemen 
 the manufactures are domestic- and as a rule coarse. ' 
 
 3. Of the Inhabitants (estimated at 9,000,000) the Bedmtins are 
 
 with thfu'T"'""' '' .V!**">'^^'ll f^mong all classes, but strictly «o 
 Ll^IlL 1 '°"r'' ^"'^1 *''« "thers, the K,.ran forms the civil code 
 as well as the religious ; the nilers decide by its teachings or by their 
 
 sun^StS^^Kr!; r ^h&iS^^-^iKK ™:;i i;^ 
 
 sanctity ; ^/oA« experts coffee ; Muskat is the chief commercial dty- 
 Ade,i IS a British stronghold in the south-west. ^ 
 
 1. PERSIA.— The country west and south of a line 
 drawn from the western Caspian coast to the Indus river 
 in India, parallel to the axial curve, is a region of 
 mountain chains separated by valleys or by plains. The 
 plains are sandy deserts ; the valleys, and the mountain- 
 valleys as well, are fertile and cultivated, watered mainly 
 through irrigation, the mountain streams being all 
 utilized for this purpose. The higher ground of the 
 north-east is largely a sandy, barren desert, but including 
 short ranges and some oases ; only in these places is 
 cultivation possible in this region. 
 
 *!, ^* "^^^ Rainfall is small everywhere, but increases towards 
 the north-west, the m.iuntains there being higher; consequently 
 there are no forests ; ,n the south the greatest fall of rain is in t\l 
 higher nountains inland, for the coast has only low ranges and hence 
 gets little moisture The slo,>e from the Elburz to the Caspian is very 
 moist and unheaithy, while dense forests of trees, similar to those o^ 
 south-western Ontario, coverall but its drier eastern part. There 
 are some rivers in the west, one, the Kuriu,, being n.avigahle, and 
 having a low rich plain in its h.wer curse; in the south there are 
 mere bm„ks. Mnnxoons (rain bearers) from the sea blow violently 
 along the mountain ranges ni summer, followed by as violent winds 
 from the north west in winter. 
 
 3. The Pl'oductions are all those of southern Si>ain-fmit8 
 and flowers (especially roses) being in givat abundance. The domestic 
 animals are those of Arabia, and the wild animals as well, together 
 with the hon and tiger. The Persians show great skill in vmnu- 
 fartiires of all kinds the shawls and carpets being esi)ecia]ly fine. 
 Ihe exports are chieHy opuim, wheat, silk, furs and dried fruits. 
 
 4. The Inhabitants, about 8,000,000, are of many races' 
 numerous nomac^(,f various kinds, Turks, Armenians, Kurds,' 
 Arabs, -Afghans, Biluchis, etc., besides the Persians i)roper. Nearly 
 all are Mahometans, but there are some Guebers (fire-woi-shippers) 
 and some Christians. The ;,orn;,mn,t is wholly despotic. Schools 
 exist in the towns and villages but are inferior. Slavery exists here 
 as also in Afghanistan. 
 
 5. The Cities are of the same character and structure as those 
 of ,A>''il";.VJ^'^^vith some finer public buildings. The chief are 
 7 rheran {2.00,000), the capital, Tahr/:, I.ipahan, -the chioi centres of 
 trade, -Ac»-»mH, and Shirdz ; Binskire is the chief port. 
 
 BILUOHISTAN is in most respects like southern Persia. 
 Ihe tribes are inde[jendent or give a doubtful submission to some 
 powerful Khan, the chief being the Khan of Kelat. The Biluchis 
 are a fierce, daring race given to plunder, patient of hunger and 
 thirst, and like the Afghans are revengeful. Qnettn is a British 
 station and fortress on the northern border of the country. 
 
 1. AFGHANISTAN possesses all the physical char- 
 acteristics of Persia ; the south is the lowest and hottest 
 and the most completely desert part; tho north-east, 
 
INDIA— PHYSICAL FEATURES— CLIMATE. 
 
 17a 
 
 over 5,000 feet above the sea, shows great variations in 
 temperature, the thermometer in some places ranging 
 from - L^" in winter to 120° in the shade in summer. 
 The country around Herat is fertile, well watered and 
 * pos.sesse9 a fine climate, with some snow occasionally in 
 winter. Winds are heavy and in tlie deserts in summer 
 give rise to dust storms ; rain occurs chiefly in winter and 
 spring, for the monsoons are unfelt except as they pass 
 from India up the valley of the Kabul river. This valley 
 is the highroad to India, the 
 Kyber pass lying in it. 
 
 2. The Productions and 
 animals are like those of Persia. 
 Minerals are said to be abundant, 
 but only iron, some antimony and 
 lead are mined. The extent of trade 
 is unknown. Some horses, carpets, 
 and woollen stuffs are exported to 
 India. 
 
 3. The Afghans are a fine 
 athletic, handsome race, but are said 
 to possess few attractive character- 
 istics beyond bravery and independ- 
 ence of spirit. They are notoriously 
 treacherous, revengeful, cruel, and 
 turbulent. They are ruled over by 
 a military chief to whom no very 
 marked obedience is paid except by 
 force. There are very many tribes, 
 each having its own chief, but he is 
 powerless to act except by the 
 consent of the tribe. Nomads are 
 numerous, but dwellers in villages 
 form the majority. All are Mahome- 
 tans. Population about 4,000,000. 
 
 4. The Chief Towns are 
 Kabul, Herat, Kandahar, Ohazni, 
 and Jalalabad; all have important 
 fortification!. 
 
 INDIA. 
 1. Physical Features. 
 
 — Southwai'd from the Viiul- 
 hya Hills, which lie near the 
 tropic of Cancer, the peninsula, 
 termed the Deccanand Mysore, 
 is a plateau supported on the 
 west by the Western Ghats 
 and sloping off to the lower Eastern Ghats, the east face of 
 the plateau ; near the south the latter range curves west- 
 ward to meet the former, a low mountain mass called 
 the Nilgiri Hills being thus formed. Hills and low 
 ranges of mountains exist on the plateau, giving rise to 
 several important streams, the Narbadi and Tapti on the 
 west, the Mahanadi, GodavaT-i, Kavari, aid iCrislma on 
 ohe east. The coasts are fringed by narrow rugged 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 ^3Ruw^^9|^^Efl^| 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^K^gH^^^^^^^^^^B^^^^^Bp 
 
 Kio. 80.— Bamboo Ghove. 
 
 plains, the Malabar, or western, coast being narrower 
 than tlie Coroiiiandel, or eastern, coast — the Carnatic. 
 North of the plateau is the great alluvial plain of India, 
 nowhere over 1,000 feet above sesrlevel, and wnoUy 
 devoid of stones, in its western part is a desert extend- 
 ing almost to the Indus ; its northern border at the foot 
 of the sub-Himalayas is fringed by a wide dry belt of 
 gravel and shingle washed from the mountains by tor 
 rents ; outside of this is a belt of swamp, with a luxuriant 
 
 growth of reeds, grass and 
 jungle, the home of fevers as 
 well as of the tiger and other 
 beasts ; the eastern part is 
 almost wholly formed of the 
 sedimentary deposits of the 
 Brahmaputra, Ganges and 
 Mahanadi. The lower delta of 
 the Ganges is a vast jungle in- 
 fested by tigers and crocodiles. 
 
 2. The Coast is unbroken 
 except on the west, at the 
 Gulf of Oambay and Outch 
 and the Run of Cutch — a low 
 tract covered with water only 
 during the monsoons. There 
 are some harbors on the west, 
 but in the east there are only 
 open roadsteads, while coral 
 reefs and heavy surf line the 
 shore. 
 
 3, The OUmate is dry; 
 only on the Western Ghats 
 and in the north-east, includ- 
 ing the central and eastern 
 Himalayas, is the rain abund- 
 ant (see page 32, sec. 29) ; 
 everywhere else irrigation is 
 resorted to, and tanks and 
 
 dams are made to store up the water of t.io rainy 
 season. Apart from the desert the least rain falls in 
 the west ; there the floods of the Indus are almost the 
 sole dependence for moisture, and many bare hills and 
 peaks appear even in the Himalayas. A failure of rain 
 for two years produces a famine. (See page 29, sec. 16.) 
 India on the whole is the hottest country in the worla 
 The heat is greatest in the coast regions and the plain 
 
no" Zongilui/tJ-asI ^K" /ram Grttn-wichit" 
 
 w\ 
 
 
 MAP OF 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 C Cor^rin ,(^' ,, ^jjoPutlain Vuuiic; 
 
 i-if ^ ( I'i J I(Oiic'' ■■ ft 
 
 ^ COLOMBOSirffS^Brfaf*^(ajf( 
 
 COLOMBO 
 
 Kaltura 
 Galle 
 
 Mami^totte 
 
 ^riuc'jiiiakc 
 o AuooTiiiJtiuiioor 
 
 :aluu 
 
 -i .V 
 
 l|||-: 
 
 U. N, & CO., BljrrAt.3. 
 
 Vi^ Lo7tstiiidc ii^'^t 70 ' Jrotn Ofcfmvtth bO ' 
 
 ' 'i \Ka\fixittLn 
 
 ^oQuraa , - 
 
 \ \r' S 
 
 v^-...,.^ Georgetown U/ ^. 
 
 liU^^p^S^^^^ PULU I'KNANr^V. WELLeSLEV 
 
 \ l'%.\ '■ 
 
 CONTINUATION OF 
 
 BUITISU BUKMAH 
 
 and the 
 
 STRAITS SETTLCMENTS. 
 
 Same Scale as muin map 
 
 Oti" L^JKHiiitdc jiaii 100'^ Jrum Ct ccnuUh 104"' 
 
VE( ' STATION— INDUSTRIES— GOVERNMENT. 
 
 177 
 
 
 especially in ♦^lie west nu ast 
 west, nioiat oppressive heat, 
 east. Thehill^ 
 summer monsd 
 storms oc( ' 
 
 the east ai 
 monsoons, 
 being the i 
 
 -intense ry heat in the 
 a \.ipoi bith," in the 
 < ,'reatly ic n: fed to in Huiiuiier. The 
 lit) usually violent ; torritic thunder- 
 west coast and fearful cyclones on 
 ianj(e from the \\ inter to the summer 
 is the hottest part of i ue year, 100" 
 
 I t mperature ill he P" 'jaVj. ^ ^vinter 
 
 the br 'zes are gentle and the temp 'y> ,htful ; 
 
 then tJi^ Punjab often has frost. 
 
 '.4. VegetHtion. — of forest trciis v.irieties of aciui.i are abun- 
 dant in tlie dry rejfions : in the "•''era mlliiH of every kind, with th« 
 cocoa-init i>alni near thi Hea-< ! tiie banyan, india-rubber and 
 
 (ithor trees of tlic <i^ fai> ily ; tl ik, ligiit, firm and not Hubject to 
 decay — the most vahia Ir- of ii voodH for Hiiip-liuilding ; baml)oo 
 and cane in inmiense jungles ; tin- fraj<rant sandal-wood in the south, 
 and tine pines anil cedars in th(^ Hinifdayas. Wheat is cultivated 
 largely in the Punjab and alou),' the upper (Janges ; rice, maize, 
 \>eaa, beans, gourds and millet, oranges, pineapples, plantains, 
 cotton, hemp, jute, indigo, poppies, etc., are all extensively raised. 
 
 6. In Industries, Aiiriculturc. is the chief, but Maniifacturinii, 
 always iniiH>rtaiit, is growing fast. Sugar, iii' >>, silk, opium ; 
 l)eautiful gold and silver work ; silk, woollen itton fabric.^ ..f 
 unequalled fineness and beauty are some of the i jial i)roduct8 of 
 native Indian handicraft. The exports are opium, cotton, seeds, 
 wheat, rice, indigo, jute, coffee, tea, sugar, etc. ; the im])orts are 
 chiefly cotton goods and metals. The trade is nearly all with Great 
 Britain and China. 
 
 0. Minerals are plentiful, consisting of coal, inexliaustible 
 though somewhat inferior in kind, iron, lead, coi)per, silver, anti- 
 mony,— in the Himalayas, -salt and nitre in the Tuiijab and north, 
 and some precious stones, but no valuable diamonds. 
 
 7. The Inhabitants, n-.nnbering 254,O(X),00O in 1881, are of 
 two chief races, the Aryan (iiage 4(i, sec. 12, last paragraph), and the 
 non-Aryan of southern India, called collectively the Dravidians ; 
 some of the languages of the latter are highly cultivated, the 
 Telugu and Tamil especially. In rcliiiion 188,0C0,00O were Hindus, 
 .50,000,000 Mahometans, nearly 2,000,000 Christian.s, some Parsis 
 (fire-worshiiipers), witli many others. Eilucation is backward, but 
 schools are widespread, supported by government. The people of 
 India, excepting the wild hill-tribi s, have a high degree of civiliza- 
 tion, and their literature is one of tlie richest in the world ; they are 
 an intellectual race. Industrious, honest, attached to their native 
 village, they bear a character for treacliery, deceit and cunning 
 which, some declare, is not merited. 
 
 8. In Government India is a dependency of Great Britain 
 .and is ruled over by a viceroy and council resjionsible to the h(mie 
 gi>vernmeut ; it has" its own army, navy, revenue, mint, etc., etc. 
 (ireat Britain really derives no revenue from India. There are many 
 )K)]itical divisions, Bengal, Madr.as, and 15ombay being the chief. 
 Of the area, ],.S83,.'>00 square miles. (Jreat lSrita;n directly governs 
 about two-thirds ; the rest is more or less under the same control; 
 there are no really independent states. The chief nsitive states are 
 Pmijab, Rajputiina, Hyderabad (Nizam's Dominions), Alysore, 
 Baroda, Neph,l, Bhotan, Kaslunere ; the last three are among the 
 Himalayas. 
 
 9. Cities.— In 1881, twenty one cities had over 100,000 people 
 each, and forty others over .50,000 each. Calcltta, the capital 
 (872,000), Bombay (773,000), Madras, HinUrahad, Lucknow, Benares 
 —the sacred city of the H Indus, —i>c/fe!, Patnaand Atjra are the chief 
 cities. 
 
 10. The French own Pondichcrrii. nhittagong. Make and a few 
 other places ; the Portuguese, Qua and a few small towns on the 
 west. 
 
 11. Oeylon is a separate government— a crown colony. Physi- 
 cally like India, it has an abundance of moisture, and raises coffee, 
 
 tea, spice, ci hona, cocoa, etc. The iieople, chiefly BuddliiMta 
 inn 1, ni, iier about 2,800,000. Colmnbo, Kandy and Tritioomali 
 
 are tht jhief placet). 
 
 INDO-CHINA 
 
 1. Physical Features. - Tndo-Chi' t. is the southern 
 
 slope to the sna of the ^ isat in. ior lu. High and 
 
 rugf,'«Hl in the north, and tniveisod li lountain ranges, 
 onci of which is prolonged almos to the equator, it consists 
 in the east and south of alluvial plains formed by the over- 
 flow of the great rivers, each with its wid(!-spread delta, 
 that desccuid from the plateau between the mountain 
 ranges; the west is bolder, for here the mountains border 
 the sea. 
 
 With moisture in superabundance and with continuous 
 heat, vegetation except in th(* hill country is lu.xuriant 
 beyond conception : the mountains in the south are impass- 
 able from the density of the jungle. Valuable timbers, 
 teak especially, and palms, including the cocoanut and 
 •SI ;ar palms abound everywhere; while cotton, indigo, 
 tea, tropical fruits of many kinds and in great abundance, 
 rice, wheat, millet and maize are the cultivated plants. 
 (See page 3G, sec. 2 (1, 2); page 38, sec. 7.) 
 
 2. The Mineral wealth seems to be very great, but onlv tin 
 .and iron are mined to any extent ; gold and silver and coal are 
 found, and several kinds of precious stones ; iietroleum has long been 
 in use in Burmah. 
 
 3. Agriculture is the chief employment, but there is consider- 
 .able tiiihimj and coarse VMniifacUiriwj for home purjxjses ; silk goods, 
 gold'and silver work and lacquered ware an; often very beautiful. 
 The exports are mainly rice, cotton, timber, ind tea (north-west). 
 The governments are desiwtic ; education is low ; religion is wholly 
 Buddnist. 
 
 4. Political Divisions.— In the west Birmau now belongs 
 wholly to Great Britain, and is governed by officials from India ; 
 area about 278,000 square miles ; iioimlation, (i,000,000. The chief 
 cities are Bamjoon, Maiidala.'/ and Bhamu. SiAM is a strong, prosper- 
 ous and enlightened kingd<im ; the area is about 250,000 smiare 
 miles; the population, 6,000,000. Its chief city is /VajiyAoi. Cam - 
 jiODlA is a kingdom south of Siani, under control of Slam and France. 
 CocillN-CniNA, orANAM, in its southern part is owned by France 
 .tnd its northern part, Tong-king, is under the control of the same 
 country. The Malay Pemnhila consists of a number of partly 
 independent native states, controlled somewhat by Great Britain and 
 Siam, and of some British possessions known as the SthAITS Setti.k- 
 jiKNTS— Mahicca, Singapore, Penang, Wellesley. Singawre on an 
 island of the same name is an important trading city. In climate, 
 productions, peopk , et , the peninsula belongs to the islands rather 
 than to the continent. 
 
 CHINESE EMPIRE. 
 
 1. Extent, etc.— This vast empire, so varied in its physical 
 characteristics (see Asia, sections 2-5), is the third in size ir. the 
 world ; its area is given at over 4,000,000 square miko, and its popu- 
 lation at over 404,000,000 ; but only China itself is tolerably well 
 known to Euroyeans. The deiiendencies of China are Mantchooria, 
 
 I 
 
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 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
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 Photographic 
 
 Sciences 
 Cor[.x)ration 
 
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 33 WEST MAIN STRleET 
 
 WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 
 
 (716) 87i-4503 
 
 ^1.^ 
 

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 I 
 
178 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Mongolia, East Turkestan, and Tibet. Corea owns the uupremacy 
 of China by sending tribute every year to ?ekin. 
 
 2. Minerals seem abundant everywhere in the hill countries • 
 but only preciOus stones, pcld. copper, and mercury are mined to 
 any important extent. China Proper has the greatest coa]-fi-„-lds in 
 the world, but Tibet is destitute. 
 
 3. Productions. — Wherever there is sufficient 
 moisturb the soil yields abundantly ; the lofty dry plains 
 of the Tibetan plateau produce only grass and shrubs, 
 but its numerous valleys, especially the deeper oms 
 where water is available, yield the grains and fruits of 
 temperate climates; the sides of the mountains that 
 surround the Gobi desert are likewise productive, whiie 
 irrigation at the base often absorbs large streams. 
 Turkestan with its fine 
 
 climate is said to be 
 wonderfully productive 
 not only of wheat, maize, 
 peaches, and grape^-, but 
 of figs, oranges, cotton, 
 rice and even sugar- 
 cane. China contains 
 everything within itself ; 
 its great size, estimated 
 at 1,300 000 square miles, 
 extending over twenty 
 degrees of latitude vnth 
 a very varied elevation, 
 gives it every climate 
 • except the hottest, and 
 every production of 
 Europe, while in its tea 
 plant it supplies a neces- 
 sary of life that Europe 
 or America does not 
 
 afford. Its great products are iea, which is universal, 
 rice, the staple food, silk, cotton, sugar and, of late, opium'; 
 bamboo is of unlimited use -houses, furniture, utensils', 
 clothing, paper, rope, all being made of it. 
 
 4. Industries— The Chinese excel in fine mamifactures-si\ks, 
 gauzes, porcelain, minute carving, filigree work, embroidery, bronze 
 aiKl lacquered ware etc., while m western Tibet and Tu-kestan are 
 n^ade tl<e hne sliawls from the silky hair of tlie Ka.hmere "oat^ 
 these countries, e.s,,eciallv Tibet, furnish the wo(,l for tlie numt-rous 
 and (jften hne woollen fabrics of China and Tibet ; but agriculture is 
 the chief pursuit everywhere. 
 
 thJ'!!t ^""^l^ '7'''" 'V"^^ ^^"^f '^ insignificant in comparison with 
 the internal trade-a trade conducted wholly by caravans, for there 
 are no railroads as yot. Tea is the one gr..at exp<,rt, but raw silk 
 and sugar are important : cotton and woollen goo.ls, opium and 
 
 iwo-tSofth^a!- "^^^ ^"*^'" '^"^ '^^^ '"'-- ^- - -- 
 
 IS sparse, ine Chinese, the typical peop e, are peaceful indnat- 
 nous, practical, stoical, and sober ; theiV^fviKzatioKhiA and of 
 very ancient date, but not progressive ; J^S'^riswid™ J 
 
 ^^STpLl^i^afleTX^mf'^"" '^"^* " ^"^=^"^^^"' *^« ^^ 
 
 1 nm (^ *i!fhfK-?^®f • '''T °i '^^'''^ *'^ beautiful, four have over 
 IjOOO^ mhabitants each; fourteen over 500,000; twenty over 
 
 rTeTknd kker^fe t **1? .P«"Pl« «-« Pn boats' or rafts^^on the 
 rivers ana lakes. Ihe English are permitted to trade at nnlv 
 
 m^Z^^lV^T^ (1.600 000), ^«^rA,oSo)r HanA 
 Uuu,uuu)— about 700 miles up the Yang-tee-Kinir Furu-hm I (tvtn oofw 
 Shanghai mo 000), are the largest of these K^^^v^ SS 
 Fateand'^ytt. iif^'t'" '^'^^ ^'^^ sacred Buddffilty 
 trade^fthe w5r^^L. iJ"'''"''*''"'^*''® '"^« «'*'«» ^i'h overiand 
 trade to the west. Hong-Koiuj, near Canton, is an island belonrin? 
 to the Er. ish ; Its trade is very great, Chinese being the chieSer^ 
 oil tht clL't! """""''' "*'"' """^ military station of G.4t BriLTn 
 
 JAPAN 
 
 1. Physical Fea- 
 tures. — Japan with an 
 area of 148,456 square 
 miles, and a population 
 of over 38,000,000, is an 
 empire of islands— Yezo, 
 Hondo (Nippon), the 
 
 Fio. 81.— Tra Plantation, 
 
 largest, Shikoku and 
 Kiushiu being the chief. 
 The surface as a whole is 
 hilly, but there are very 
 many plains of consider- 
 able size. Short moun- 
 tain ranges, and isolated 
 peaks are numerous, 
 many being volcanoes ; 
 the highest peak, (Fusi- 
 yama), a volcano, is over 
 12,000 feet high. Eartli- 
 quakes are very fiequent. 
 Streams are numerous aiul are largely employed in 
 irrigating the rice fields. Tlie coast is very varied in 
 character, but the innumerable islands and reefs render 
 navigation in its neighborhood dangerous. 
 
 2. The Oliinate varies from the low temiierature, winter and 
 sumnierj of the Kurile Islands, to the tropical heat of the south, 
 bouther y winds prevail, and typhoons often occur. Along with the 
 onlmary north;-rn i)ioductions are rice,-the 8tai)le food! tea and 
 silk ; the camphor and wax trees, and the bamboo-as useful here as 
 in l.,hina, llie d.niiestic animals, except sheep, are numerous ; wild 
 animals are few, the monkey being most common. Fish abound and 
 lorm the cluef annual food. 
 
 «„3/rfw^'j^'^**"?*"®?''''^"™'"""*' i" tl^e chief ; fishing occupies 
 over l.bOO.OOO people ; luimtig, especially of copper, iron ..mi coal, is 
 quite extensive, along with some gold and silver. Manul.icturing, of 
 the same character as in China, is qui':e extensive. Japan eximrts 
 tea, silk, silk-wmms and eggs, rice, coal and copper -. and imports 
 ootbm and woollen goods, sugar, etc. • i- , i 
 
 A; 
 
PHYSICAL FEATURES— MINERALS-PRODUOTIONS. 
 
 179 
 
 4. The Inhabitants are clever, industrious, more warlike 
 than the Chinese, eager tc learn, and are good soldiers and sailors 
 Of late old prejudices have been abandoned and the arts und sciences 
 of western Europe are being rapidly introduced, while students go 
 abroad, chiefly to England, France and the United States, to study 
 in those countries. Schools of 1.11 kinds are established everywhere 
 The government is absolute, but paternal. Buddhism as vet is the 
 chief religion, but Christianity has many followers. Japan has a 
 strong navy. 
 
 FiQ. 82.--JAPANBSB Town. 
 
 5. Five Cities in lSfi4 had over 100,000 inhfibitants each. 
 Tokio (903,000), the capital, is the largest. Osaka (354,000) is the great 
 commercial city. Yokohama has most foreign trade ; the last two 
 with Hakodati, Nagasaki and the smaller Kobe and Nvgata, are the 
 only ports open to foreigners. 
 
 SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA. 
 
 1. Physical Features.— This vast region, which 
 with Transcaucasia, the north-eastern part of Armenia, 
 forms the Asiatic dominions of Russia, has an erea of 
 nearly 6,500,000 square miles, but a population of less 
 than 16,000,000. All north of the parallel of 50° falls off 
 to the Arctic Ocean, but to the south of that parallel the 
 slope from north, east and south is to the great central 
 depression in which lie the inland waters of Central 
 Asia, as well p.s the southern border waters of Europe. 
 Here only two rivers cross the deserts, the others are 
 lost in the sands and form marshes where they disappear. 
 
 2. Minerals seem abundant in the mountains of the 
 south-east and of Central Asia, copper arid iron in the 
 former, and the same, with gold, silver, precious stones 
 and others in the latter. 
 
 3. The Climate down to the border of the desert 
 regions (lat. 48°) scarcely differs from that of North 
 A; 'erica in the same latitudes; but in the desert 
 ••figion the extremes of heat and cold are far more 
 fjevere, except in the south, than those in a similar 
 "ote'tude in the Mississippi basin, and the rivers are all 
 ?«wen over from three to four months in winter. 
 
 4. Productions. — Only arctic vegetation is found 
 north of the parallel o^ 60° in East Siberia j but in the 
 west barley and oats grow somewhat farther north, and 
 a fine agricultural region exists in all other parts of the 
 plain. In Central Asia wherever there is water, there 
 is a luxuriant yield of all the grains, fruits and garden 
 vegetables, and the cotton, rice, and silk, of southern 
 Eu'ope. Khiva and Merv are the chief fertile districts 
 in the desert, and in them as well as in the neighborhood 
 of the mountains, irrigation is extensively resorted to. 
 
 5. Of the' i.ative Inhabitants, all Mongoloid, those of the 
 north u,nd east, who are closely allied to the Finns m Europe, are 
 half nomadic hunters and fishers, mainly henthen ; of the rest, 
 mostly of the Tartar family and all strict Mahometans, the greater 
 part are nomads, rearing horses, sheep and camels ; some of these in 
 Central Asia are settled in towns cr villages, and either are agri- 
 culturists or they manufacture silks, shawls, carpets, gold and silver 
 work and coarse articles of wool, cotton, and camel's hair. Russia 
 uses Siberia as a place of transportation for criminals, largely politi- 
 cal offenders ; these and their descendants occupy the cities of Siberia ; 
 the worst class work in the mines ; others are hunters or farmers. 
 Gram and furs are the main exports of Siberin, but the transport 
 trade to and from Europe and China is quite important. 
 
 6. Of the Cities Tobolsk and Tomsk are the chief in Siberia ; 
 Khtva, Merv, Kokand, and Taskend in Central Asia. These last 
 cities are of the Pui'sian and Arabian type. 
 
 • ^''r'^m"^ ** * '"■''^^ ^""^ important trading and manufact...ing 
 city of Turkestan, the chief city of a country of the same name, 
 under the influence of Russia but independent as yet. It is the seat 
 of Mahometan learning in Central Asia ; many of its schools are 
 good. 
 
 AFEICA. 
 
 Africtv, EG long a mystery to the outer world, bids fair anon 
 to become well known. The discoveries and explorations of 
 the last few years have attracted the attention of the manufac- 
 turing nations of Europe, and steps are being energetically 
 taken to open up the country for European trade and civiliza- 
 tion. Numerous annexations of territory by Great Britain, 
 France and Germany have been made in the vicinity of high- 
 ways to the interior. Great Britain has placed steamers on 
 the Niger and its affluent, the Benue as also on the lower Zam- 
 besi and the Shir6, the outlet of Lake Nyassa, and is building 
 a wagon road from the latter lake to Lake Tanganyika to meet 
 a similar road from the recent German annr itions near Zan- 
 zibar; whileFranceproposes tobuiL arail d f rom Senegt m- 
 bia to the headwaters of the Niger. The CJongo Free State 
 will carry trade, and with it civilization and Christianity, to 
 the very heart of the continent. 
 
 • 1. Extent. — Africa lies approximately between the parallels 
 of ST north and 35° south latitude, and the meridians 61° east 
 and 17.5° west longitude ; the extremities are the capes Blanco 
 in the north, Agulhas in the south, Guardaffui in the east, and 
 Verde in the west. The estimated area is over 11,000,000 
 square miles, and the population over 190,000,000. The latter 
 is scarcely more than a guess. 
 
 2. Physical Features.— The southern part of the 
 continent — south of the parallel of 10° north — is a pla- 
 teau. The main axis (see page 8, section 4), runs at 
 some distance back from the eastern coast, being highest 
 and most massive in Abyssinia, hnt havin^ its loftiest 
 
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 PHYSICAL I'EATUltES. 
 
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 Fio. 83.— Scenes in Atoica. 
 
 peak, Kilimanjaro, 18,715 feet, near the equator. The 
 rugged Drakenherg range in the soutli-oast joins the 
 ^iiiuwvald range, the southern edge of tlie plateau. 
 Tlie ranges of the western or secondary a.xis, are not so 
 high or so massive as tliose of the main axis ; they include 
 tiie Cameroon mountains east of the Gulf of Guinea, and 
 the lower ranges that extend to Sahara. The northern 
 slope of the plateau is almost uidcnown, e.xcept where 
 the Nile breaks through it in a series of rapids and falls. 
 
 Between the axes the country is a great, shallow, 
 undulating basin, with here and tliere low mountain 
 ranges, .and with a general incline to the west, except 
 in the south central part : it contains one desert, the 
 Kalahari, in the south. 
 
 Except in the south there is almost everywhere an 
 undulating plain of considerabhs breadth fringing the 
 coast ; from this the plateau rises in a series of terrace- 
 like hills or low ranges, whii:h support between them 
 subsidiary, but still often quite extensive, plateaus. 
 Falls and rapids mark the passage of streams from one 
 to another of these terraces. 
 
 3. The Desert extends from the platouu over the whole 
 north of the continent excepting the Athia region and the 
 thread-like groove of the Kilo valley. As far as is known, the 
 Sahara is a series of low, stony plateaus, with intervening 
 and often great expanses of loose sand. One of these latter, 
 called the JOrg, fully 200 miles broad, etretehea from southern 
 Tunis to near the Senegal river in the sonth-west ; another, 
 south of Earoa, extends from the Oulf of Bidra eastward into 
 
 Egypt, and is said to he from 100 to l")0 feet helon liie ^ca 
 level. The desert piutoau is known to risj in places into iiioiin- 
 taii. . .igos over o.OOO feet high, notahly to tlie soutii of Tripoli, 
 wherj such exist across the wiioie desert, forining Fezzan, tha 
 T; ai country, and, fartiier west, the district tf An- (.Asben). 
 These elevations are visited l)y periodical rains, more or less 
 copious according to the height, and in conseijuence vegetation 
 — palms, fruit-trees, wheat, cotton, — exists along witii both 
 domestic and wild animals. These are the habitable parts 
 of the desert, the Ou-^cn. Sometin.es deep depressions in tlie 
 rocky plateau occur, and here wells are met with, which also 
 give rise to oases ; but these often have a very scanty vegetation 
 and brackish water, and often, too, arc unhealthy and unin- 
 viting. 
 
 The trade wind blows stea<lily from the east during the greater 
 part of tliu year, but in the hot season the intense heat gives 
 rise to terrible sand-storms. 
 
 4. Minerals. ~f'0<'' from the earliest times has been a pro- 
 duct of Africa, and mo<lerii discovery shows it to be wide-spread ; 
 ^aJf is eqtially wide-sjiread, and copper abounds in .Soutii and 
 Central Africa ; diamonds are found in the south. Very little 
 is known regarding iron or coal. 
 
 fi. The Coast is nowhere flat. The outline is almost monot- 
 onous in its regularity ; only =n the north and in the west is 
 there even an open inlet of" conse(^ueuce, that in the former 
 being the Gulf of Cabes and the Gult of Kidra, in the latter the 
 (Jult of tiuinea, with tlie Bight of Benin and tlie Bight of 
 Biafra. Harbors are few, for the rivers silt up tiieir months : 
 the Congo lias the only good harbor on the coast. Only in the 
 eimt is there a marked projection of the land. Besides the 
 extreme points of the continent, the only important headlands 
 are (Jape of Good Hope, wheie the coast bends eastward, Spartel 
 at the .Strait of Gibraltar, and /ion in Tunis. 
 
 fi. Islands are not numerous. In the Atlantic are the lofty 
 Ca]je Verde group, owned by Portugal, with a <lry climate and no 
 trees, but with cattle and tropical productions abundant ; flat- 
 topped ,Sy. Heltiia and A.^ceiiKioii, rising sheer from the water, an- 
 merely places of eall for vcHsels iii w-'.nt of Hupplies. In th'- 
 Indian Ocean are the lofty volcanic MauritiuH and li^unwv. 
 
182 
 
 AFRICA, 
 
 J' 
 
 (Bourbon) the first belonging to Britain, the second to France ; 
 both are very populous, and produce large quantities of sugar ; 
 and both are in the path of the cyclones. The Comoro group 
 and the Seychelles belonging to Britain), artr also lofty and 
 fertile ; like all the islands in these seas they are sarrounded 
 by coral reefs. Zanzibar, a large fertile island with an indus- 
 trious and civilized population, is the centre of an impor- 
 tant trade with the interior of the continent. Its sultan owns 
 considerable territory on the mr inland. The chief town. Zan- 
 zibar, has over 30,000 inhabitants. Madagascar is one of the 
 great islands of the world. Separated from the continent by 
 Mozambique Channel, it rises from alow, hot, unhealthy plain, 
 into an undulating plateau, fertile and well cultivated. The 
 people, a Polynesian race, are excellent agriculturists and work- 
 ers in metal, have considerable civilization, and profess the 
 Christian religion. The exports, chiefly rice and cattle, are 
 important. Tananarivo inland, and Tamatav6 on the coast, 
 are large towns. France claims a protectorate over the island. 
 Socotra,^ belonging to Great Britain, is a large, lofty, generally 
 fertiio island, with a mixed population ; it is important only as 
 a sanitarium for the garrison at Aden. 
 
 7. Rivers. — Africa has but four great rivers reaching the 
 sea. The Niyer, over 2,500 miles long, has its headwaters only 
 200 miles from Freetown on the Atlantic. It sweeps in a 
 great bend north-east to the desert, and then curves to the 
 south-east, forming at its mouth a delta longer than that of the 
 Nile. It is navigable for most of its course, but a considerable 
 part remains to be explored. The Coiioo, 2,900 miles long, 
 under the name of Lualaba, leaves the great Tanganyika Lake 
 and forms, like the Niger, a great bend, crossing the equator 
 twice in its course to the Atlantic. In the high land of its 
 upper waters, and in passing off the plateau, there are many 
 cataracts, the last being Yallala Falls, 110 miles from its 
 mouth ; but the main part of its course is unobstructed. Its 
 volume of water is very great, hence it ia supposed to have 
 many and large, but unknown, tributaries. The i^ambesi, over 
 1,600 miles long, starts on the inner side of the western moun- 
 tains, and has no interruptions till it arrives at the eastern axis ; 
 there the great Victoria Falls and a long succession of rapids 
 destroy its value for commerce, till the plain on the coast is 
 reached. It forma a large delta at its mouth. The Nile is 
 nearly 4,000 milea long. From where it leaves Lu ^e Victoria 
 Nyanza on the equator, 4,000 feet above sea-level, to some dis- 
 tance be'.ow Albert Nyanza, it is a plateau river, one of its falls 
 being the magnificent Murcliison Falls, 120 feet high. For 050 
 miles above Khartoum, it falls only 300 feet, a sluggish river, 
 often choked with drift, its shores swampy, and with a great 
 weedy lagoon where its first large tributary, the Ghazal, joins 
 it from the west. At Khartoum, the river, now called White 
 Nile, is joined by the cle&r Blue Nile, and farther down by the 
 Atbara (BlackNile), its last tributary, both from Abyssinia ; 
 the latter, dry in its lower course in the dry season, brings down 
 the famous Nile mud. From the Atbara to the sea, over 1,700 
 miles, the Nile runs in a narrow valley never more than ten 
 miles wide, bounded almost everywhere by Rteep desert hills of 
 granite or limestone. Near Cairo it branches into two main 
 channels, and forms the famous delta, which is about 150 miles 
 wide at its base. A series of si \ rapids or cataracts, about 250 
 miles apart, begins at about latitude 17° north, the last being 
 779 miles from the sea. 
 
 Of the other rivers, the Senegal and the Gambia are each 
 navigable for about 400 miles from the coast. The Ogawai 
 and Coanza^ are large but unexplored rivers. The Orange, 
 though receiving many tributaries in its upper course, nearly 
 dries up in its lower course i-j the dry regions; it is not navi- 
 gable at any time. The Limpnpn, Eovuma, Rufigi, Dana and 
 Juba are all unknown in their upper courses. 
 
 8. Lakes. — Africa rivals North America in great fresh-water 
 lakes. Chad, a shiilow lake in the Soudan, 1,100 feet above 
 sea-level, flows off to the desert. With the Nile basin are con- 
 
 nected Bemhea in Abyssinia, Albert Nyanza, 97 milea long and 
 22 broad, and the great Victoria Nyanza, 230 milea long and 220 
 broad; with the Congo are connected the Tanganyika, 2 600 
 feet above the sea, 600 miles long and from 10 to 50 broad ; also 
 Jl/oero and Beiigiveolo. Nyasm, 360 miles long, 88 in general 
 breadth, and 1,500 feet above the sea, flows off by the Shir6 
 river into the Zambesi. Ngami ia shallow and ia apt to be 
 brackish in the dry season; its waters flow off into the neigh- 
 boring districts, forming salt lakes. Many other, and even 
 large, lakes are known to exist, but they are unexplored. 
 
 9. Climate. — Africa is almost wholly tropical. The 
 greatest heat is in the desert regions, particularly near tlie 
 Red Sea, but even here the rapid radiation at night pro- 
 duces an imciomfortable degree of cold. The moisture and 
 vegetation eilsewliere moderate the temperatui'e, though 
 in places the steamy atmospliere is less euduraMe than 
 the dry but healtliy heat of tlie desert. The coast 
 districts of the tropics are very unhealthy to Europeans. 
 Snow falls nowhere excepii a little in the Atlas moun- 
 tains, in Abyssinia, and the mountains of South Africa; 
 Kilimanjaro and Kenia near it, reach perpetual snow. 
 
 Central Africa for tlie most part is in the rainy zone, 
 the equatorial regions luuing two rainy seasons, for the 
 rains follow tlie sun in its change of place. No oart of 
 the desert is absolutely rainless ; wherever then is ele- 
 vated land rain is periodical ; elsewhere fierce storms 
 occasionally come, when the sandy and rocky valleys, or 
 " wadys," become furious torrents for the time being ; 
 even Egypt gets a shower. Periodical winds blow on 
 the coasts according to the pai-t of the contin mt being 
 directly heated by the sun, 
 
 10. Vegetation.— A belt of dense forest seems to 
 extend across the continent for ten degrees each side of 
 the equator, succeeded nortli and south by a more open 
 and grassy country ; tlie deserts follow, tlve Kalaliari with 
 a periodic herbaceous vegetation, the Sahara with some 
 occasional coarse, spiny shrubs, the food of tlie camel ; 
 wliile north and south alike end in an open, productive 
 country. (See " Organic Life," sections 1 and 2.) The 
 great tree of the Sahara is the date palm, found every- 
 where away from the sea where water can be reached ; 
 its fruit is the stafl' of life to the desert dwellers, while 
 the gigantic baobab, or monkey bread-tree, with innumer- 
 able varieties of palm, except the date, are the typical 
 trees of the moist regions. 
 
 11. Animals.— The immense grassy,open country everywhere 
 supports innumerable herds of buffalo and of the various kinds 
 of antelope, which are followed and preyed upon by lion, liycena, 
 jackal and Bushman alike ; the striped horse-like quagga and 
 zebra are almost equally numerous to the south ; while ele- 
 phant, rhinoceros and giraffe prefer the groves, the chimpan- 
 zee, gorilla and baboon the dense woods, and the hippopota- 
 mus the rivers, (See page 38, sections 6 and 7.) 
 
INHABITANTS— RELIGION— COMMERCE. 
 
 183 
 
 
 Birds of brilliant plumage abound in the same regions, but 
 the ostrich is found only in the deserts and open country. Of 
 ■ reptiles, serpents are less numerous than in other tropical 
 coantriea where the raiji is more abundant, but crocodiles 
 infest most of the rivers. Fish seem plentiful in all 
 waters inland and oceanic. Insects are scourges ; the locust 
 and scorpion are everywhere, the tsets^ fly, so fatal to cattle, 
 is in the central parts, as is also the destructive white ant. 
 
 The (lomestio animals are sheep and cattle everywhere, and 
 tiie camel and goat in the north ; the horse is not native, and is 
 not found south of the Soudan. 
 
 12. InhabitantB.— North of the Soudan the people 
 are of the dark-white type, and go by the name of Ber- 
 bers ; tlie Moors of the north are an intermixture of 
 these -with the Arabs and other conquerors, while the 
 Berberines of the east ;ir(-. partly of negro blood. The 
 Berbers are a well-proportioned race, having high intel- 
 lectual qualities. Those of the desert are warlike 
 nomads, and e.'^act tribute from the caravfins ; those 
 of the north are industrious agriculturists, the greater 
 part living among the mountains. Negroids occupy the 
 rest of the continent. The Zulu and other Kaffirs of 
 the south, the Soudanese generally, and the people of 
 Uganda and other nations near the great lakes have 
 fine athletic forms, and are capable of high mental de- 
 velopment ; they have ail advanced beyond the mere 
 barbarous tribal government ; none are nomads, and 
 all show considerable skill in metal working and cloth 
 making. The Bushmen inhabit the south-west, and ex- 
 tend north even beyond the equator; they are a d'-iiinutive 
 race, and form the most degraded of the negro family ; 
 those of the south are hunters only, others farther north 
 possess cattle. 
 
 13. In Religion, the Moors, Arabs, Berbers, many 
 of the Soudanese east and north, and also many in the 
 region of the great lakes, are Mahometans ; elsewliere 
 certain charms called " fetish " are alone believed in. 
 
 11. Commerce, except in Algeria, Egypt and South 
 .'Vf rica, consists in exchanging at the coasts, for Europ- 
 ean manufactures, gold, ivory, palm-oil, ground-nuts, 
 ostrich feathers, gums, hides and beeswax; but the slave- 
 trade has been entirely suppressed through the vigorous 
 action of Great Britain. Caravans, however, carry 
 slaves, along with gold, salt, ivory and feathers across 
 the desert to the Barbary States and Egypt. 
 
 BARBARY STATES. 
 
 1, Physical Features. — Of these states — Morocco, 
 Algeria, Tunis and Tripoli — the two western consist, in 
 their central part, of a low plateau terminating in Tunis, 
 
 and traversed by thd forest-clad Atlas Mountains, which 
 
 rise from 4,000 to 13,000 feet in height, and by several 
 
 subordinate ranges that send off spurs on each side ; an 
 
 undulating country falls away from these to the sea and 
 
 the desert. The coast is in general bold, with few good 
 
 natural harbors. The streams, somewhi.,! numerous, are 
 
 everywhere utilized for irrigation before entering the 
 
 sea or being absorbed in the desert. 
 
 The climate and productions north of the mountains are like 
 those of southern Spam ; to the south both are tropical, but of the 
 fruits the date is the most important. Tripoli and Barca resemble 
 Houthern Algeria ; but alon^ with dates, figs and oranges, wheit is 
 grown as in northern Algeria. The exports are the natural produc- 
 tions, along with wool, hides and iron from Algeria, and merchandize 
 from the Soudan. 
 
 2. The Inhabitants consist mainly of Berbers and Moors; 
 the former, most numerous in the mountains, are mainly agricul- 
 turist? ; the latter, most numerous in the plains, are largely nomads. 
 Jews, who are the traders, are numerous also. 
 
 3. Morocco is but little known to Europeans ; its government 
 is a pure despotism. The chief cities are Morocco, Fez, Mequinez 
 in the interior, and Tetuan and Tangier on the coast. The area is 
 said to be 219,000 square miles and the population from 2,500,000 to 
 8,00< ,000. Spain owns some ports on the coast. 
 
 ■*. Alg'erla belongs to France and is making rapid progress in 
 civilizaticm ; schools have been established and public works under- 
 taken. The chief cities are Algiers, Oran, Comtantine, and B6ne, 
 The area is about 123,000 square miles, and the population 3,300,000. 
 
 5. Tunis is the most fertile of the Barbary States. It is gov- 
 erned by its own Bey, but is under the protectorate of France. The 
 area is reckoned at 42,000 square miles and the population at over 
 2,000,000. The capital, Tunis, the largest city on the north coast 
 of Africa next to Alexandria, nas extensive caravan trade with the 
 Soudan. 
 
 6. Tripoli belongs to Turkey, as does also Barca to the east ; 
 in the former Tripoli is a city of considerable commercial importance. 
 Both countries are desert except upon their northern border where 
 the proximity of the sea gives the moisture upon which their fertility 
 depends. The coast of Tripoli is lower than that of Barca and in 
 many places is flat, shelving off into shoals beneath the bordering 
 waters. These countries and Tunis were in ancient times the seat 
 of a large, industrious, and highly civilized population, possessing 
 many towns, such as Cyrene, of large size, and one, Carthage, the 
 head of a powerful empire. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Everywhere in Egypt are seen the evidences of a past 
 power and civilization — the earliest and in many respects 
 the greatest in the ancient world. Sphinx and pyramids 
 are of less importance than the remains of magnificent 
 temples and large cities which abound in the delta and 
 valley, and which, buried in part or in whole beneath 
 Nile mud or desert sand, form tlie mounds whereon the 
 wretched huts of the modern fellalieen are built. 
 
 1. Extent, etc. — Prior to 1884 the sovereign of 
 Egypt claimed authority almost to the Equator ; but at 
 present the southern boundary is at Wady Haifa, about 
 900 miles up the Nile ; the area, including the peninsula 
 
184 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 of Sinai, is given at n(<arly 400,000 square miles, with a 
 population of about 7,000,000. But Egypt ig practically 
 the Nile valley, which is reached by the inundations of 
 the river ; elsewhere it h the sandy or stony desert, with 
 its oases formed by springs or by low mountains. 
 
 2. The Nile begins to rise in June, and reaches its height in 
 September. Tlie water is led in trenches over the entire vulley 
 and the rich sediment dep*jMted yields in abundance whcaf, 
 barley, maize, cotton, millet, beans and rice. Of these cotton is the 
 chief export, followed by beans, wheat and maize. To those parts 
 of the valley that the inundation does not reacli, water is elevated 
 by various, often exceedingly i)rimitive, appliances. 
 
 3. Egypt's Trade in 1884 amounted to nearly £8,000,000 
 imports, and ±.'12,610,000 exports, two thirdd of the whole being 
 frith Great Britain. The Suez Canal, from Port Said on the Mediter- 
 ranean to Suez on the Gulf of Suez, liiis become the great highway 
 of commerce to the Eant ; 3,284 vessels, with a tonnage of nearly 
 8,320,000, passed through it in 1884 ; of these 2,474, with a tonnage 
 of over 0,312,000, belonged to Great Britain. 
 
 4. The Population is exceedingly mixed, but the " fellahs " 
 or peasants fonn over three-fourths of the whole. Ara,bs (nomads), 
 Turks,_ Greeks, Jews and all nationalities aro found. The govern- 
 ment is a despotism, the Prince, or Khedive, being a tributary of 
 Turkey ; Great Britain, however, exercises a kind of protectorate 
 over Egypt. 
 
 5. The Chief Oitiss are Cairo (308,000), the capital, with 
 inhabitants from all over the world ; Alexamlria (209,000), the chief 
 sea-port; Damietta, Rosetta— both at the moui is of the Nile; and 
 Marmmruh. 
 
 Nubia anu eastern Soudan (Kordofan and Darfur), lately 
 ruled by Egypt, are mainly in the outskirts of the region of tropical 
 rains, and consequently have a periodical herbaceous vegetation, with 
 few trees except the palm and gum-jjroducing acacias. Northern 
 Nubia, however, is in the desert region, while the part near the 
 Abyssmian uiountains has abundant rain and a luxuriant forest 
 growth. The towns are mainly collections of thatched huts, with 
 mud walls in the dry districts ; Donffola on the Nile, Suakin and 
 .fl/a.9so?w(fe (owned by Italy) on the coast, and Khartoum, a inodern- 
 built town of ' ver 20,000 inhabitants, are in Nubia ; El Obeid is the 
 chief place in Kordofan. 
 
 Abyssinia, with an estimated area of 200,000 square miles 
 and a population of over 3,000,000, is a rugged country of high table 
 lands and wild inountain-masses,some of whose peaks rise more than 
 13,000 feet in air, and into, it is said, the region of perpetual enow. 
 The country rises abruptly from the plains on the east, sinking 
 more gradually to the west. But everywhere the approiich to the 
 interior is difficult, the passes being very few, and often walled by 
 perpendicular cliffs. 
 
 The rains of the monsoon period, from June to October, give rise 
 to eastern feeders of the Nile, and produce a luxuriant vegetation 
 every /here, wholly tropical in the lower districts, but in the nigher 
 and r oler, as completely Eurojiean ; forest growth is dense every- 
 where except in the north. The peoi)le, who closely resemble the 
 dark-white type, have some rude manufactures ; they are, however, 
 mostly agriculturists. A defjiaded form of Christianity jtrevails, 
 along with many savage customs. The ruler has the title of king. 
 The towns are Gorular and Adowa. To the south of Abyssinia lie 
 the Galla country and Somali, both almost unknown, but spices are 
 largely obtained from them. Part of the Somali coast is claimed by 
 Great Britain. 
 
 The Soudan, the country south of the Sahara, is better known 
 than much to the south of it. The tribes are numerous and power- 
 ful, some of them are warlike and even ferocious, slave hunting 
 being the bane of the region. The Houssas, the most powerful 
 tribe, with whom Great Britain has fonned friendly relations, are 
 semi-civilized, having manufactures of leather, cloth, and metal ; 
 their towns Sokoto and Kano, the latter walled with gates faced 
 with iron, are large and have a flourishing trade. Yauri, a town of 
 a tribe to the west, has a wall of baked mud twenty miles in circuit ; 
 
 
 here the Niger is two miles broad. Timbuctoo, once a oentn of 
 Mahometan learning and of a great trade, is now decayed. 
 
 South Central Africa away from the vicinity of ths 
 coasts is also but little known ; the western part almost wholly bo 
 except along the routes of a few explorers— Livingstone, Cameron 
 and Stanley. Here the country seems fertile but not very thickly 
 peoiJed. Of the tribes some aro very friendly to strangers, anil 
 extremely honest ; others are hostile ; and still others, degraded and 
 even cannibals. The region of the great lakes has oeen long 
 frequented by Arab traders from the coast, and has also been 
 often traversed by Europeans, access to the interior here beinff 
 easier. Many tribes have a considerable degree of civilization, and 
 carry on an im^>rtant traffic among themselves, and with the Arabs. 
 Ujiji, on Ijake Tanganyika, is a large market town. The thoroughly 
 despotic kingdom of Uganda, rorth and west of lake Victoria 
 Nyanza, is populous and powerful. 
 
 Congo Free State. — In consequence of late discoveries 
 Great Britain, France, tiermany, and other nations entered into 
 an agreement constituting the basin of the Congo a free state which 
 shouH be neutral and free to all nations, — an area estimated at 
 oyer l.OCO.OOO square miles, with a population of 27,000,100. The 
 king of Belgium has been created sovereign or guardian of the state 
 and already settlements have be^'n begun, one, called Lcopoldrille, 
 being at Stanley Pool, an expansion of the Congo 346 miles from iti 
 mouth. A Euroi)ean governor and subordinate officers with a small 
 force of soldiers, have been apix)inted to manage the affairs of the stateu 
 
 6. The Coasts east and west aro wholly in the hands of foreign 
 nations except Liberia and part of the SoniaU country ; but besides 
 officials and traders few white people live there. In the Sene- 
 gambia region, English, French and Portuguese have trading 
 posts. In Sierra Leone, Freetown was founded by Great Britain in 
 connection with the suppression of the slave-trade. Liberia was 
 colonized by slaves from the United States, but has not made much 
 progress ; Monrovia is its chief town. All Guinea to the Congo is in 
 the hands of English, French and Germans. Cape Coast Casde^ 
 the Cameroons. and Gaboon being the chief posts of each respec- 
 tively:— here the names Grain Coast, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, 
 Slave Coast indicate the chief article of trade in these parts. Next 
 follow Portuguese possessions -Loanda, Angola, ete., to Cape Frio, 
 from which to the Orange River, except the English Walfisch Bay, 
 Germany owns, calling it Liiderlitzland (the Damaraland and norUi 
 Namaqualand). On *he east Sofala and Mozambique belong to 
 Portugal, the chief town being Quiliman(5. Zauguebar is divided 
 between Germany and the sultan of Zanzibar, 
 
 SOUTH AFRICA. 
 
 1. Physical Features. — The whole of this region 
 is within the rugged tei raced slope of the great interior 
 plateau, rising to a general height of 4,000 feet but with 
 elevations over 10,000 feet. To the south of the main 
 range lies the elevated plateau desert, the Karroo which, 
 like the Kalahari, is covered with a rich herbage in the 
 wet season, and is then the resort of countless henis 
 of wild animals. As a rule, the shores are bold and 
 without natural harbors, and the rivers are torrents. 
 
 The climate is nowhere cold, not even on the high 
 plateaus ; but there is a lack of moisture, — only on the 
 lower terraces and, to some extent, the inner side of tlu- 
 Transvaal and Oi-ange Free State, is thei-e sufficient 
 rainfall. Elsewhere the streams are dammed and the 
 water carefully preserved for irrigation. Thunderstorms 
 are very frequent, but other rains are quite irregular. 
 
AUSTRALIA— PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 180 
 
 Forests ot excellent timber are found in the moist 
 regions and the gorges or " kloofs " of the mountains, 
 but elsewhere only groves or clumps of bushes, often of a 
 spiny nature, are met with. Lofty plains covered with 
 grass are abundant. There are hardly any native fruits, 
 but all the European grains and fruits, including the 
 vine, have been introduced, and flourish exceedingly 
 well ; maize, however, is the chief grain grown. Natal 
 and Zululand grow sugar-cane and the mulberiy also in 
 the narrov/ coast district. 
 
 2. Industries, etc.— The outward parts of thin region that 
 are arable, are mainly devoted to agriculture, but tlie grazing of 
 
 sheep and cattle forms 
 the great industry 
 elsewhere ; Angorra 
 goats are also largely 
 raised, and the new 
 industry of ostrich 
 farming, now that 
 wild ostriches have 
 disa'ppeared', has 
 assumed large propor- 
 tions. 
 
 The minerals — coal, 
 iron, copper, and some 
 gold and silver — are 
 but little worked as 
 yet, but diamonds are 
 eagerly sought f or bi )th 
 in Griqualand (in the 
 north) and the Orange 
 Free State. The ex- 
 port trade consists 
 mainly of wool, hides, ostrich feathers, with silk and sugar from 
 Natal and wine and copper from Cape Colony ; diamonds to the value 
 of over £2,800,000 were also exported in 1884. 
 
 3. Cape Colony, the largest of the British colonies here, has 
 an area of over 250,000 square miles with a population of 1,250,000, 
 three-quarters of whom are natives, the rest being British and descen- 
 dants of British, Dutch, German and French colonists. The exports 
 in 1884 were valued at nearly £7,000,000. In government, religion, 
 and education Cape Colony is like Canada. The chief towns are 
 Cape Toivn (50,000), the capital, near the famous " Table Mountain," 
 Port Elizabeth, Kimberley, Graham's Town, and King William's 
 Tov/n (British Kaffraria). 
 
 4. Natal, the remaining British colony, has an estimated area 
 of 21,150 square miles and a population of about 425,000, all but one- 
 sixth being natives. Cattle, goats, and sheep) form the wealth of 
 colonists and natives alike. Durban, the capital, and Petermaritz- 
 burg are the chief towns. The government, etc., are like those of 
 Cape Colony. 
 
 Besides the two colonies Great Britain owns, either directly or 
 indirectly, Basutoland (10,290 sq. miles), Bechuanaland (180,000 gq. 
 miles), Pondoland (Kaflfraria) and Zululand. 
 
 6. The Orange Free State, in government, is a republic of 
 Boers — descendants of the original Dutch colonists who preserve 
 many of the primitive customs of their ancestors. It is almost 
 wholly a level grazing country, but the diamond-fields lie partly 
 within its territory ; coal also exists. Blomenfontein is the capital. 
 The area is about 70,000 square miles and the white population over 
 60,000. Education is low. 
 
 6. The Transvaal, or South African Eepublic, is in all re- 
 swicts like the latter. The area is about 115,000 Bquare miles and 
 the Dutch population (.ver 40,000, it is said. The chief town is 
 Pretoria. Great Britain has a qualified protectorate over these two 
 republics, the blacks being specially under her care. 
 
 Fia. F4.— Ostriches. 
 
 OCEANIA. 
 
 The term " Oceania " is frequently given to the inter-tropical 
 islands of the Pacific and the eastern Indian Ocean, including 
 Australia. The best scientifio sub-division of this vast area is 
 that founded on the distribution of the types of Man, (see pa^e 
 40, sec. 12, par. 1-3), which is accompanied in the two western 
 groups by a decided difference in the lower animal life. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA ; AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Under "Australasia" some include Australia, Tasniania, 
 Melanesia, in whole or in part, New Zealand and Norfolk 
 and adjacent islands ; others, only the two first — aa is done 
 here ; the Australioid being the prevailing or only type of man. 
 
 1. Extent. — Australia, a part of the British Empire, is a 
 continent of itself; its area is estimated at about 3,000,000 
 square miles ; from east to west it measures 2,500 miles, and 
 from north to south 1,950. It lies approximate! v between the 
 parallels of 11° and 39° S. and the meridians of 113° and 154° E. 
 Only the eastern half of the island has been to any extent ex- 
 plored and only the coast regions are settled. 
 
 2. Physical Features — The main axis (see page 
 8, sec 4), an irregular succession of mountains, known 
 by different names and at a distance of 50 to 150 miles 
 from the coast, is of a varied but low elevation, nowhere 
 exceeding 7,300 feet above sea-level, the height reached 
 by a peak of the Australian Alps in New South "Wales. 
 The secondary axis, in general about 250 miles inland, 
 is never over 3,500 feet high ; in the interior only low 
 scattered ridges and hills exist; the Flinders range, 3,000 
 feet high, in South Australia, is the most important of 
 these. The interior, so far as is known, is a low, level 
 plain rather than a plateau, sinking, in the region of 
 Lake Eyre in South Australia, to only 70 feet above 
 sea-level ; north of the parallel of 30° and west of the 
 meridian of 140° many wide tracts of desert land are 
 known to exist, while much of the unexplored region 
 is thought to be of the same character. 
 
 3. The Coast as a rule is high, and in places bold and rocky, 
 the south varying from 300 to 600 feet in elevation. The out- 
 line, except in the north, ia very regular; the only great indenta- 
 tions are the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Great Australian 
 Bight; the two gulfs, Spencer and St. Vincent, with Port Philip 
 on the south, and Shark Bay in the west, are important locally. 
 Along the whole north-east coast, at a distance of 20 to 50 miles 
 from the shore, lies an immense, sunken coral barrier-reef, in 
 places over a mile wide. 
 
 4. The Rivers in the east, though abundant, are almost all 
 mountain rivers, small and unnavigable ; in the other parts of 
 the coast many are found which, though short, are navigable 
 for some distance, such as the Roper and Victoria in the north. 
 But the chief rivers all flow inward from the main axis, — the 
 Murray, 2,000 miles long, and its principal affluents the DdWid^, 
 Lachlan, partly dry in the dry season, and Murrumbidgee — a deep, 
 rapid river. The Murray empties into a shallow lagoon, called 
 Alexandrina Lake, before reaching the sea ; here it is navigaole 
 for light-draught boats only ; elsewhere it is deeper and ? av- 
 igable. A number of streams of considerable size are losf^ in 
 swamps and salt lagoons in the interior ; scarcely more than ealt 
 lagoons are the lakes Eyre aud Toififeiis. 
 

 ■ 'i 
 
T\ 
 
 3^ 
 
 -is 
 
 — ,8 
 
 ^S 
 
 CLIMATE— VEGETATION— INHABITANTS. 
 
 187 
 
 5. The Climate, ns physical conditions would indi- 
 cate, shows but littlo ditt'erenco in tenipf nituro leyond 
 tho natural variation caused })y difference of latitude. 
 The lowest winter temperature observed has been 27° J 
 the highest summer teinperature, elsewhere than in the 
 interior, 111°, the point reached when the liot, dust- 
 laden wind from the int(Miorwas blowing; the proximity of 
 the sea tempers tho heat on the coast. Tho dry interior 
 has tho extreme desert climate. Nowhere, so far as is 
 known, is moisture sutHcient except in the east and 
 south-east, that is, where there are mountains. The 
 north is within the region of tropical rains, but although 
 in summer the great 
 
 heat of the interior 
 produces a vast area 
 of low pressure, only 
 a strip of coast 200 or 
 300 miles broad feels 
 the consequent inflow 
 of moist air. The rains 
 el.sewhere are winter 
 rains. The lowness of 
 the western elevations 
 naturally produces a 
 drier climate in the 
 west than is found in 
 the east ; irrigation, 
 therefore, is needed. 
 Snow falls only on the 
 higher mountains, sel- 
 dom, if ever, on the 
 low land. 
 
 6. Vegetation.— 
 The foiest growth of 
 Australia, nearly all 
 
 evergreen, has markoHl peculiarities ; the tree fern, the 
 gigantic eucalyptus or gum-tree — the tallest known, — 
 trees with grass-like leaves or whose leaves turn thoir 
 edges to the sun, trees with no leaves but that shed 
 their bark instead, or whose fruit is wood instead of 
 pulp, are found only here. 
 
 The forest regions are jliiefly in Queensland and New 
 South Wales ; many of the trees yield fine cabinet or 
 other woods ; west of the eastern mountains the vegeta- 
 ■iion is mainly herbaceous ; in the dry districts low 
 slinibbei'Vi termed "scrub," often consisting of thorny 
 acacia, sometimes cover extensive tracts of land. 
 
 Fig. 85.— AusTRAiiiAN Sheep WaIjK, 
 
 There are no native edible fruits or grains, but all the 
 European varieties thrive well and are extensively culti- 
 vated ; cotton, sugar-cane, and indigo are largely raised 
 in Queensland and noithcrn Now South Wales. 
 
 7. The Animals are as peculiar as the vegetation, 
 and the fossil renmins show that there has been an un- 
 broken continuity of the same species of animal life from 
 remote geological ages such as is seen on no other conti- 
 nent. With few exceptions, the dingo or native dog 
 being the chief, all are low in tho scale of animal life, 
 one of the peculiarities being the great number of 
 marsupials, or pouched animals, — the kangaroo, kanga- 
 roo-rat, wombat, ban- 
 dicoot, opossum, flying 
 s([uirrel, native bear ; 
 there are no animals 
 of the horse or the 
 monkey kind, or that 
 chew the cud. 
 
 The ornithorhynchuB 
 is wholly peculiar. Birds 
 are numerous and beauti- 
 ful, but there are no song- 
 sters ; parrots and cocka- 
 toos abound, and only 
 here is the lyre-tail found ; 
 the emu and cassovvary 
 are of tho ostrich family. 
 Eeptilcs also are abun- 
 dant, many serpents be- 
 inf< poisonous ; the croco- 
 dile prows to tho length 
 of thirty feet in Queens- 
 land. Food fish are 
 plentiful and Rood ; the 
 hammer -headed shark, 
 especially formidable in 
 Port Jackson harbor, be- 
 longs to these seas alone, 
 though its fossil remains 
 are found in other coun- 
 tries. 
 
 8. The Native Inhabitants (see page 40, sec. 12) are estimated 
 at about 75,000, but are fast disappearing. A low, but not the 
 lowest, type of man, they are nomads with but little govern- 
 ment, have no cattle, never cultivate the ground, live on roots, 
 insects, fish or animals taken in hunting, build no houses 
 except temporary booths, an'' have no household goods 
 except weapons ; those of the coast or of the rivers have rough 
 canoes and nets for Ashing. They have but a faint idea of 
 worship. 
 
 9. Progress and Industries. — The progress of 
 Australia has been wonderful ; tho first colony, a most 
 unpromising one in every respect, a penal colony, was 
 established in New South Wjiles in 1788. Now with a 
 population of nearly 3,000,000, along with all the energy 
 of the mother-land, are found the education, the refine- 
 
l«iJ 
 
 MAl^AY ARCHIPELAGO. 
 
 inent, tlie arts and scionceg, tho Bclf-rplianco and th« 
 spirit of the mother-land, coupled with the most ardent 
 loyalty and a thoroughly British sentiment 
 
 Tho great industry of all the colonies is Pasturage, especially 
 of sheep j but Mining ia hardly less important, for Australia is 
 the greatest gold-field in the world ; Victoria alone between 1851 
 and 1884 produced gold valued at £212,000,000 ; tin, copper, cot!, 
 and iron a'-j all extensively wrought. Of almost as great im- 
 portance la Agriculture — wheat, barley, oats, maize, with sugar- 
 cane, cotton, indigo in the north-east, and fruits of all kinds, 
 grow luxuriantly. Manufactures are important also, but largely 
 connected with the natural industries. Shipping is extensive, 
 but Fishing is Uuueveloped, The export Trade is wholly con- 
 nected with the natural industries ^ wool, preserved meats, 
 hides, tallow, metals, wheal and barley are the leading articles. 
 
 The following table gives the names of the colonies with certain 
 dtatistioi of 1888 — a'Mok owned, wheat raised, etc., etc. 
 
 N«w8. Wales... 
 
 Siueeiislaud 
 oiith Australia 
 
 Victoria 
 
 West Australia 
 Tasmania 
 
 :no,700 
 0«8,4<J7 
 90.'t,4ir) 
 
 H7,HH4 
 975,9i» 
 
 26 37.'> 
 
 021,208 
 ;)00,913 
 :tl2,7Hl 
 001,271) 
 :i2,058 
 11)0,511 
 
 SHEKP. 
 
 ;i4,418,0OO 
 11,507,000 
 0,077,000 
 10,7:iO,«)0 
 
 ],;ii5,ooo 
 
 1,81)1,000 
 
 CATTLK 
 
 1,040.000 
 4,246,000 
 
 1)19,000 
 
 1,2<J7,0()0 
 
 64,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 4,340,000 bUB. 
 
 40,000 " 
 
 14,040,000 " 
 
 15,,57O,000 " 
 
 370,000 " 
 
 730,000 " 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 .619,800,000 
 
 5,200,000 
 
 4,800,000 
 
 16,.'>00,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 1,700,000 
 
 The colonies all have responsible governmonts except West 
 Australia, which is a crown colony still. 
 
 10. The Cities are, in Nfw South Wales, Sydney (260,000), 
 the capital, on the harbor of Port Jackson — a fine, English- 
 looking city with many beautiful suburbs, especially Pa»'a- 
 matta; Newcastle, the chief coal centre; liathurst, in a gold 
 region; Maitland, "the granary of New South Wales;" in 
 QoEENfliiAKD, Brisbane (36,500), the capital, and "'{an/ borough 
 (11,000); in South Australia, Adelaide (38,500 in 1881), the 
 capital ; Port Adelaide, the chief port, and Port Darwin in the 
 north, the terminus of tho overland telegraph ; in Victoria, 
 Melbourne (325,000), the capital, founded in 1835, a city of phe- 
 nomenal growth, the largest and finest in Australia ; Ballarat, 
 in a famous mining district ; Sandhurst and Oeelong ; in West 
 Australia, Perth, the capital, and Freemantle. 
 
 11. Tasmania. — Tasmania, separated from the sister colony 
 of Victoria by Bass Strait, 120 miles wide, has an area of 
 26,375 square miles, — about the size of New Brunswick ; it is 
 undulating if not mountainous, some of its peaks being over 
 5,000 feet high. Minerals are abundant,— gold, tin, lead, iron, 
 coal and others — but only gold and tin are mined to any im- 
 portant extent. 
 
 The climate, insular in character, is exceedingly temperate, 
 and is highly favorable for all the European fruits and grains, 
 including grapes ; and all are raised in large quantities. Forests 
 of most valuable trees cover a large part of the island and fur- 
 nish important articles of export. 
 
 The chief industry, though agriculture and mining are 
 important, is grazing, and the leading export i.s wool ; gold 
 and tin almosi equal the wool in '-alue ; forest products, green 
 and preserved f luits, and hops, with grain, hides and live stock 
 are also extensively exported. 
 
 The population, numbering 130,541, in social and political 
 organization is decidedly British in character ; all the natives 
 have disappeared. The chief towns are Hobart Town (80,000), 
 the capital, and Launceston (17,000). 
 
 MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. 
 I. Physical Features, etc.— This division, start- 
 
 ing with Sumatra, extends east to a line drawn betwoeu 
 Suinhawa and Fioris and continued between Celebes and 
 Moluccas to the east of the Philippines. Throughout it 
 the Malay family of I'he Mongoloid type of man prwlon- 
 inates. Physically those islands, as far east as the Bali 
 and Macassar Straits, are the counterparts of Grejvi 
 Britain and Ireland, — they are the elevated portions of 
 a sub-marine plateau nowhere more than 100 fathoms 
 below the surface of tho wa;er, and forming a part of 
 the continent of Asia. The close similarity, often ab- 
 solute identity, between the vegetation and animals of 
 the islands and those of Asia, shows that the separation 
 from the continent lias been geologically recent. The 
 island of New Guinea rises from a similar plateau bat 
 is connected with Australia, and its types of vegetable 
 and animal life are wholly Australian. Between these two 
 plateaus is a deep sea, the islands of which show more 
 or less, a mixture of the animal life of tho two great areas 
 — the eastern being more Australian, the western more 
 Asiatic, but the great Asiatic mammals and the 
 Australian marsupials are absent in both ; these islands, 
 however, have types of life (see 9 and 10 below) peculiar 
 to themselves — a fact pointing to long isolation. All the 
 islands of the archipelago, except the small coral ones, 
 are mountainous, but ■with level or undulating plains 
 also. A string of volcanoes, which often break out with 
 fearful violence, runs along the whole southern and 
 eastern border, and in consequence earth(juakes are 
 frequent ; the inner islands are free from both volcanoes 
 and earthquakes, so far as is known. Politically the 
 Dutch own, or lay claim to, all these islands except the 
 Philippines and part of Borneo. 
 
 2. The Climate is the same in all ; everywhere with abund- 
 ance of moisture is tropical heat, the unvarying, though not exces- 
 sive, character oi which is so trying to Europeans. 
 
 3. Forests, as a consequence of heat and moistui % are ma;;- 
 nificent and dense everywhere, the great height and size of the 
 trees and the number of lianas being very remarkable ; all are 
 similar ti those of the neighboring- continent. Native fruits are 
 numerous and excellent ; oranges, bananas, plantains, cocoa-nuts; 
 ix.pper, ganger, nutmegs, cloves, coffee ; sugar-cane, betel-nut, 
 tobacco are grown abundantly everywhere, while rice is the staple 
 food in all parts except in the east, where sago takes its place. 
 Sugar, coffee, spices, sago and the metals are the exports to foreign 
 countries. 
 
 4. The Animals (see page 38, SCO. 7) include all the large 
 types of the Indias, together with serpents and birds, but in the east 
 alone are found the gorgeous birds of Paradise and Australia* 
 cockatoos. Bird and insect life are here in their utmost brilliancy 
 iind v.ariety. 
 
PRINCIPAL I0LAND8. 
 
 18& 
 
 0. The Eooboraio Minerals am nW found i intu and tin nro 
 everywhiTo miinfil, rmil and co/vr in Hdrnt'o, antivi- v and tulphur 
 in HuvtTul iiilandM, wliila iron i» coinparativuly untou •',(• '. 
 
 6. The People.— The typical Malay differs but little 
 from the typical Mongoloid ; ho is apathetic, dilatory 
 and undemonstrative, averse to quarreling, reserved, 
 sensitive regarding personal liberty, kind, especially to 
 women and children, but capable of the utmost cruelty 
 and ferocity. Tliey are good sailors ; some of the tribes 
 were, and are still, pirates ; they are keen traders, and 
 though deficient in intellect have considerable civilization 
 and an important literature. In religion most of them 
 are Mahometans. There are many varieties of the 
 Malays and many mixed tribes, and as many languages. 
 In the east there are Papuans of several kinds also. 
 Chinese i.nd Arabs are largely settled throughout the 
 islands. 
 
 7. Sumatra m 1,025 miles long and 240 broad ; the ffreater 
 y>a,Tt. not fully explored, is still forest. The Dutch have a protect- 
 on over part, and directly govern the rest. The iwople, between 
 2,000,000 and 3.000,000, have much skill in making gold and silver 
 filigree work, silk and cotton gcxKls, and earthenware. Pepi)er is 
 the great export from Sumatra. The chief of the Dutch settlements 
 are Bencookn and Pedang. 
 
 8. Java, the finest and most important tropical island in the 
 world, has a length of over COO miles, with a maximum breadth of 
 170 miles, and the remarkably dense ix)pulation of fully 21,000,000. 
 The Dutch government claims nearly all the land, and the i)eople 
 are agricultural lalxirers.who in addition to their rice, fruits, etc., are 
 compelled to cultivate so much cotTeo and sugar-cane, and to sell to 
 
 fovernment alone at a fixed low rate. There are many large towns in 
 ava, chief of which are Batavia, the seat of govemmewt, Samarang, 
 and Sourahaya. 
 
 9. Borneo is twice the size of all the British Islands, but the 
 extent of the iH)pulation, though great, is unknown ; only here and 
 in Sumatra is the orang-utan found. The Dyaks, tlio chief native 
 tribe, are much higher in intellect and character than the other 
 Malays. The Dutch claim large territory south and west ; the 
 English own Sar/iwak and have authority over the north-east, where 
 a company is working mines wid raising sugar-cane. 
 
 10. The Celebes, a strangely-shaped island 70,000 gqtare 
 miles in area, across the strait of Macassar from Borneo, is but little 
 known except where the Dutch have stations. Its sc-- diy is des- 
 cribed as magnificent ; rce and coffee are the chief commercial pro- 
 ducts ; the babirUsa, or pig-deer, and the sapi-utan, or wild cow, are 
 the wholly peculiar wild animals. Macassar is a large, neat trading 
 town in the south-west. 
 
 11. ^e Philippines, which with the Sulu archipelago to the 
 south belong to Spain, comprise over 1,400 islands, in area about 
 114,000 8qua)-e miles, with an estimated population of nearly 6,000,000. 
 The islands are {greatly exposed to the destructive typhoons of these 
 seas. The peculiarly Philippine commercial products are the famous 
 tobacco and I-..inilla hemp; the trade in these is very important. 
 AfaniUais a large town on the northern island. T'i<e negritos are a 
 diminutive race of blacks resembling the Bushmen of Africa, but 
 with some Papuan characteristics. 
 
 MELANESIA. 
 
 1. Extent, etc. — This group, wholly south of the 
 equator, extends from the Malay Archipelago south-east 
 to Fiji and the tropic of Capricorn ; Australia, th 
 
 rillnrb 
 
 improperly, is sometimes included in it. In these islands 
 the Negroid typo of man is the only one found, but its 
 modifications are numerous and iniportant, the Papuan 
 modification being the moat distinctive (see page 40, sec. 
 I?). The Papuan ditlers markedly from the Malay; 
 ho is of medium height, black, bearded and hairy-bodied, 
 shock-headed, with largo, prominent and hooked nose ; 
 excitable, impetuous, noisy ; joyous and laughter-loving 
 and, as a rule, honest. The Papuans have much mechan- 
 ical and ornamental skill, and though intellectually 
 superior to the Malays have but little approach to 
 civilization; many are known to be cannibals and are 
 very fierce. 
 
 These islands differ little in phyRioal charaot«rigticB, climate or 
 productions from the Malay group, except that Timor and others 
 near it, have the dry Australian climate to some extent, and New 
 
 Guinea has 
 some Austra- 
 lian trees-tho 
 eucalyptus 
 and others. 
 But the ani- 
 mals are diff- 
 erent, all are 
 of the Austra- 
 lian type; 
 very few of 
 the higher 
 types exist, 
 and these are 
 the lowest of 
 the kinds — 
 mars u pial 
 animals ; 
 mammals are 
 very few ; but 
 birds are 
 numerous and 
 gaudy in color 
 — bi r d 8 o f 
 Paradise, thg 
 ly ro-t a i 1, 
 cockatoos, 
 etc. 
 
 The islands 
 west of New 
 G u i n o a,— 
 Floris,Timor, 
 Oeram, Gilolo 
 (in the Mo- 
 iucca group), 
 
 Timor Laut, the Aru group and others, do not differ materially 
 from New Guinea ; bread-fruit, however, does not grow in them. 
 
 2. New Guinea, the largest island in the world, is 1,490 miles 
 long, 430 broad, with an estimated area of 306,000 square .niles. 
 The interior is unknown, but from the coast it appears mountainous ; 
 the shores are often steep, but often also low and swami)y. Cocoa- 
 nut palms abound and the bread-fruit here becomes a chief food as 
 in all the Pacific islands. The tree-kangaroo is an animal peculiar to 
 the island. The Dutch claim the west coast, but Great Britain has 
 established a right to the south at least, and Germany claims the 
 east. 
 
 3. To the east lie the large islands of New Britain, New Ireland, 
 —both lately taken possession of by Germany,— and the Solomon 
 group ; all are volcanic and high, with the usual productions. But 
 with the last group end the marsupial animals ; animal Ufe, except 
 water-fowl and insects, is rare to the east of the Soioiuuii Islands. 
 
 Fio. 86.- Papua.n. 
 
190 
 
 NEW ZEALAND. 
 
 i*?y^t. a*"'**^*'' approximately, on the meridian of 180° and the 
 ^nnA^P •' ^'"'S's's of two large and about 200 small islands, in 
 area 7,740 square miles, all oceanic in character. The moist tropical 
 climate, with the rich volcanic soil, givej rise to a profuse vegetation, 
 including fine forest trees, cocoa-nut and sago palms, bread-fruit, 
 bananas, plantams, pine-app!es, sugar-cane, maize, arrow-root, and 
 tin; vani— the chief food ; these, except the bread-fruit and yam, 
 supply the exports, sugar and molasses being the chief. The Fijians, 
 about 112,000 in number, are a superior type of the Papuan race ; 
 they possess much skill in house-building, and their implemei'ts 
 Khow excellent adaptation to their purpose. They are now all 
 ■Christians j all the children attend the mission schools, which with 
 few exceptions receive no state aid. Fiji is a crown colony of Great 
 tsritain. The Europeans number about 4,000. 
 
 5. The Tonga or Friendly Islands, east of Fiji, consist in 
 part ot lofty volcanic islands, and m part of elevated coralline lime- 
 stone, some of the hills being 600 feet high. The people are regarded 
 as the highest of the Pacific island races: many of the arts of the 
 Jt ijians have been learned from the Torgans ; and now that the 
 longans have become Christians, many of them are employed as 
 missionaries to the other islands. 
 
 T 1 ^" i^^® Samoa or Navigator Islands, and the Society 
 Islands (owned by France), the lovely Tahit: being the largest of the 
 group, do not differ materially from Fiji. 
 
 j. In the oceanic Marquesas and New Hebrides groups, 
 and in New Caledonia climate and productions f.re like those of 
 Jbiji, but the people are much lower and ruder than the Fijians. 
 Wew Caledonia is of volcanic formation, 240 miles long and 25 broad. 
 It has many minerals, nickel being largely mined. As it is a penal 
 ot J<iance it makes no progress. Erromanga and Aneiteum of the 
 JNew Hebrides have been christianized by Nova Scotia missionaries ; 
 in the other islands the people are savages. 
 
 MICRONESIA. 
 
 This group consists c* the islands north of Melanesia between the 
 equator and tiie tropic of Cancer. They are mainlv coral atolls 
 except the volcanic Ladrone Islands in the north ; tfiese and the 
 Caroline Islands, both of which belong to Sjiaiii, are the chief grout)8 
 The people are lighter in color than the Melaneaian-- and more of 
 the Malay type of feature. They are i)eaceable, kind to strangers 
 when well used, intelligent, expert in the use of boats, and excellent 
 nshers. Animals are few in number. 
 
 POLYNESIA. 
 1. Extent, etc. — This division includes all the other 
 Pacific inter-tropical islands together with New Zealand. 
 The Polynesians, a rather tall race, resemble the 3Ialays 
 in features, but the Melanesians in many mental 
 characteristics. Intellectually they are higher than the 
 Melanesians, and of a gentler nature, and have been 
 comparatively easily led to embiace Christianity. The 
 groups in the southern lialf of this area are mainly 
 volcanic ; elsewhere they are coralline ; some of the latter 
 are elevated, others are low, or atolls. In climate and 
 productions they resemble Melanesia. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND. 
 
 nvJ'f ?S?;®^°i^^ Features. -The colony of New Zealand, situated 
 about 1,200 mile.s east of Australia, has an area of nearly 100 000 
 square miles. It consists of two main islands, North Island and 
 South Island, separated by Cook Strait, along with tiie small 
 ■ Stewart Island south of F-veaux Strait. Thn g%atest breadth is 
 
 The islands are essentially mountainous, but wide un- 
 dulating plains occupy the wer.t of North Island and the 
 east of South Island ; in the latter island Mount Brown 
 reaches the height of 12,349 feet, far above the snow 
 line. Volcanoes and volcanic phenomena occur, especially 
 in North Island near the Ba/ of Plenty, where by .the 
 eruption of Tarawera in 1886 — a supposed extinct 
 volcano,— great destruction of life was caused, and a 
 marked alteration in the country adjacent p^duced. 
 In the same region are very many hot mineral springs 
 and small geysers ; and here a government sanitarium, 
 Rotorua, is situated. Here also is the hot lake Taupo, 
 and its outlet Waitako ^hot) River, the largest stream in 
 New Zealand. 
 
 f 1, ^' J"^® '^°^'^J '^ ^^'y irregular, with many excellent harbors ; 
 Island indentations are Bay of Plenty and ffaivkc Bay in North 
 
 4. The Climate is naturally equable, resembling the moist 
 Mediterranean climate of Europe in the North Island, and the 
 climate of sout)-srn England elsewhere. 
 
 5. The /egetation resembles that of eastern 
 Australia, and forests of fine, but hard, wood abound 
 everywhere; native grasses and flax are of excellent 
 quality. There are no native fruit trees, but European 
 fruits and grains are widely cultivated. 
 
 6. Animal life is very meagre, all higher types are 
 absent ; the Kiwi, or Apteryx (wingless), is a bird of the 
 ostrich family. Pew edible native fishes exist ; but 
 European varieties as well as domestic animals have 
 been introduced. 
 
 '■• .The Industries are the same as in Austral ia-grazintr 
 esi.ecially of sheep, agriculture, and mining of gold and coal, for New 
 Zealand is an important gold-lield. Manufactures are considerable 
 consistmg of woollens, leather and leather goods, agricultural imp e- 
 ments machinery ana dairy products. The exports are w<o, 're- 
 served meats, animal products generally, wheat, timber and ff old 
 gum and dairy produce,— valued at over £7,000,000 in 1884. 
 
 8. The Population in 1885 was 572,000 colonists, and 55,900 
 Mao.-is, or natives. The latter are dark Polynesians, ntellectual 
 athletic, and show a marked capability of adopting European cvH 1 
 zation The land in the colony that was n-,t bouglit by government 
 or settlers belongs to them. In education, enterprisel.^d progres 
 Jxew Zealand is equal to the best of the Australian colonies. ' ^ '^^'' 
 
 «. The Chief Towns are Wcllinnton (22,000) the canital 
 Auckland (40,000), i)«„crf,> (15,000), and Christ (fhTch (33 '^w7' 
 
 The Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands are mountainous 
 
 and volcanic, containing the great volcano Mauna Loa. The ehmate 
 IS very salubrious, and almig with the usual l-roductions wheat and 
 other gram., .are raiseu The people are christianized, cv^Ved ana 
 educated, and have a constitutional government. There are manv 
 foreigners m tlie island, chiefly Cliinese, Pmtugues ' FiXl^n X 
 Americans -the last being especially influential. E/„;f^^ 
 dmvmg town the port of call for steamers g„:-,g ., ,„s" he Pacific 
 The area IS C,67V. square miles; the native popular. i,,vbo^t 45^" 
 '^l^rffi' ^'""""'•""S- ^''«^'^ "<=*'• coffee,' w'ool. and' wha"e oi\'Te 
 
 . Norfolk Island is an oceanic island of about 14 square m-les 
 in size, with. bold almast unapproachable shores. Th'^^^'f-ir aro 
 
 P^fciaSkS"'''^'^--*^'^^'''''''^'''^ "^ i^nglish-fake^saJd' 
 
3ut wide un- 
 and and the 
 ount Brown 
 •e the snow 
 ir, especially 
 lere by .the 
 ised extinct 
 ised, and a 
 t pi educed, 
 eral springs 
 sanitarium, 
 lake Taupo, 
 st stream in 
 
 llent harbors ; 
 Batj in North 
 
 ing the moist 
 and, and the 
 
 of eastern 
 ood abound 
 3t" excellent 
 t European 
 
 r types are 
 . bird of the 
 exist ; but 
 limals have 
 
 alia— grazing, 
 coal, for New 
 considerable, 
 iultural iniple- 
 aie wool, ])re- 
 ber and gold, 
 1884. 
 
 ts, and 55,!)00 
 i, intellectual, 
 iropean oivili- 
 y government 
 and j)rogresK 
 jnies. 
 
 ) the capital, 
 
 •■ (33, '^00). 
 
 mountainous 
 
 The climate 
 
 ns, wheat and 
 
 civilized and 
 
 3re are many 
 
 English and 
 
 ulu is a large, 
 
 s the Pacific. 
 
 about 45,000, 
 
 whale oil are 
 
 square m'les 
 
 lie »>en|!le arc. 
 
 fathers and 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Appendix I. 
 
 The following tables are compiled from the report of the Dominion 
 go\ernment for the year 1883, and show the amount and value of the 
 chief exports for that year, the provinces whence these came, and the 
 dest'nation. They are necessarily incomplete, for accurate accounts 
 are not kept. (See under each Province. ) It will be seen that some 
 of the articles mentioned might be classed as manufactures. 
 
 (N.B.— The statements regarding 1885 were added after the others 
 had been put into type). 
 
 (a) Aghiccltukal Products.— Total Value, 829,515,033. 
 
 Kind. 
 
 Fruit (green) ■ ■! 
 
 Barley 4 
 
 Oats ■} 
 
 Pease -j 
 
 Rye { 
 
 Wheat I 
 
 Flour (wheat), -j 
 
 Oatmeal ■! 
 
 Hay 
 
 Malt 
 
 Potatoes \ 
 
 Value. 
 
 $499,185 
 (153,018 bbis ) 
 
 $6,293,233 ) 
 
 (8,817,216 bu 
 $400,821 j 
 
 (1,024,053 bu.)' 
 
 $2,161,708 J 
 
 (2,.S39,2S7 bu.)^ 
 
 $712,900 J 
 
 (1,047,809 bu.)( 
 
 $5,881,488 j 
 
 (5,867,458 bu.) ( 
 
 $2,516,955 ( 
 
 (489,046 bbls.)1 
 
 $276,574 J 
 
 (66,0f>l bbls.) \ 
 
 $902,105 
 
 $1,136,700 
 
 $1,048,954 f 
 (2,424,979 bu.) 1 
 
 Province producing. Chief Destinatio:! 
 
 Quo.* 62,953 bbla. 
 Ont.. 47,639 " 
 N. S.. 45,592 " 
 
 Ont.. 8,587,665 bush. 
 
 Que.. n0,095 " 
 P. E. I. 3'.S,812 " 
 Ont.. 235,022 " 
 Que.. 1,709,020 " 
 Ont.. 628,345 " 
 Ont.. 891,960 " 
 Que.. 155,849 " 
 Ont.. 2,911,970 " 
 Que.. 2,892,012 " 
 Que. 237,663 bbls. 
 Ont.. 233,011 " 
 Que.. 55,472 " ; 
 Ont.. 10,472 " 
 Que.. 7S,93C tons.' 
 Ont . 1,329,9.')8 bush. 
 N. S., 98I,.i53 " 
 P. E. I. 835,904 " 
 N. B. 355,124 " 
 
 G. B.. 119.811 bbls. 
 U.S.. 33,711 " 
 
 U. S.. 8, 741, 626 bush. 
 
 U.S.. 607,953 " 
 G. B.,Newf. 
 
 G. B..l,£d5,100 " 
 U. S. . 368,697 " 
 
 U. S. . 912,486 " 
 
 O.B.. 4,877,276 " 
 U.S.. 878,471 " 
 G. B . 359,724 bbls. 
 Newf. 118,420 " 
 
 G. B.. 63,001 '• 
 
 U. S.. 89,005 " 
 U. S. 
 
 U. S..'A181,631 " 
 Rest to West Indies. 
 
 * Que.=Quebec. Ont.=Ontftrio. N. S. ^ Novn Scotia. P. E. I. = Prince 
 Edward Island. G. B. = Great Britain. U S. = United States. Newf. =New- 
 foundland. Man. = Manitoba. B. (J. = British Columbia. 
 
 NoTK.— In 1885 the value of the agricultural exports was $19,120,366 ; only 
 in the export of apples, barley and oats was there a considerable increase over 
 1883. 
 
 (6) Animals and their Produce.— Total Value, $21,165,418. 
 
 Kind. 
 
 Horses -j 
 
 Horned cattle, -j 
 
 Swine 
 
 Sheep -j 
 
 Butter I 
 
 Cheese -j 
 
 Eggs I 
 
 Baoon -j 
 
 Beef I 
 
 191 
 
 Value. 
 
 $1,633,291 ( 
 (13,019 hi!a<l.) ( 
 
 $3,898,028 ( 
 (66,390 head.) "( 
 12,281 
 
 $1,388,056 ( 
 (308,474 head.)] 
 
 $1,705,817 
 (8,100,(47 lbs, 
 
 $6,451,870 J 
 (58,0J ,387 lbs.) i 
 
 $2,250,580 J 
 
 (13,451,410 dz.)\ 
 
 $4:t0,973 ( 
 
 C3, 730,724 lbs.)) 
 
 $40,722 j 
 (025,728 lbs.) 1 
 
 A 
 
 Province producing. 
 
 Ont.. 5,7,35 head. ) 
 Que.. 6,843 " 1 
 Que. . 39,432 " 
 Ont . 21,140 " 
 Ont.. 3,544 " 
 Ont.. 169,012 " 
 Que.. 120,9;!9 " 
 Que.. 6,048,912 lbs. ) 
 Ont.. 1,537,.W0 " J- 
 N. S.. 477,372 " ) 
 Que. . 46,6.55,038 " ) 
 Out.. 12,365,079 " ) 
 
 Ont.. 8,939,250 dz. 
 
 Ont.. 2,910,474 Iba. ) 
 825,0.')0 
 
 Destination. 
 
 Que, 
 
 N. S. 
 
 P.. O,. 15:. . 
 
 P.E.I. 105,468 " ) 
 
 285,728 " ■) 
 
 0. S., 
 
 G. B.. 
 
 U. S.. 
 
 u. n.. 
 u. s.. 
 
 G. B.. 
 
 O. B.. 
 U.S.. 
 
 G.B.. 
 
 U.S.. 
 
 u. s.. 
 
 Newf. 
 
 12,635 
 
 37,894 
 
 23,280 
 
 3,634 
 
 228,!i41 
 
 72,038 
 
 6,230,173 lbs. 
 086,387 " 
 
 67,672,959 " 
 
 13,413,744 dz. 
 
 3,722,693 lbs. 
 
 209.657 •' 
 39U,/'U8 •' 
 
 Animals and their Produce.— fConimwerf.^ 
 
 Kind. 
 
 Hams , . 
 Mutton 
 
 Pork , 
 
 Preserved 
 meats . . , 
 
 Venison ., 
 
 Wool. 
 Furs. 
 
 Value. 
 
 $62,285 f 
 (517,636 lbs.) t 
 
 322,826 j 
 (397,280 lbs.) \ 
 
 $69,969 
 (806,843 lbs.) 
 
 $180,080 
 
 (1,770,774 lbs. 
 
 $648 
 
 (11,525 lbs.) 
 
 $280,5.10 
 
 (1,375,572 lbs.) ■) 
 $1,087,523 I 
 
 Province producing. 
 
 NoTK.— In 1885 the value of the 
 $28,603,094 ; the export of cattle ' 
 excess of that of 1883. 
 
 Ont.. 
 
 Que.. 
 
 N B.. 
 
 P. E. I. 
 
 Ont.. 
 
 P.E.I. 
 
 Que.. 
 
 Ont.. 
 
 N. 8. 
 
 N.S. 
 
 P. E. I. 
 
 N. S. 
 
 Ont.. 
 
 Ont.. 
 
 B. C, 
 
 Man.. , , 
 
 Others proport'n'ly. 
 
 446,801 lbs. 
 
 68,364 " 
 
 287,790 " ) 
 
 81,041 " \ 
 
 23,023 " j 
 
 233,276 " 
 
 230,444 " 
 
 192,331 " 
 
 150,030 " 
 
 861,012 " 
 
 , 521,366 " 
 
 8,620 " 
 
 2,P05 " 
 
 1,220,009 " 
 Que 
 $378,426 
 
 Destination. 
 
 G. B.. 
 
 Newf. 
 
 U.S.. 
 Newf. 
 
 Newf. 
 G. B.. 
 
 G.B.. 
 
 U.S.. 
 
 U. S.. 
 
 G. B.. 
 
 U. S.. 
 
 507,421 lbs. 
 7,449 " 
 
 344,319 " 
 46,707 " 
 
 659,876 
 230,892 
 
 1,620,829 
 10,726 
 
 1,207,582 
 
 $819,768 
 $213,898 
 
 exports of animals and their products was 
 """), cheese, bacon and pork was largely in 
 
 (c) The total value of the fish taken in the Dominion, 
 during 1883, is estimated, in the reports to Government, 
 at $17,215,675. The following table gives the value, etc., 
 of the principal fish exported. (See under each Province.) 
 
 Fisheries.— Total Value, $8,8.56,026. 
 
 Kind. 
 
 Cod, fresh 
 
 " salted....] 
 
 Smoked haddlcs -j 
 
 Mackerel, fresh. 
 
 " pickled -j 
 
 Herring, fresh. . -J 
 
 " pickled ( 
 
 " smoked 
 Lobster, fresh . 
 
 canned 
 
 Value. 
 
 Salmon, fresh., j 
 " canned •! 
 
 " pickled 
 
 ifiscellaiictmn: 
 Fri'sli.... ,, ,, 
 Pickled 
 
 $14 846 
 
 $3,763,689 
 (749,126 cwt.) 
 
 $2,000 J 
 
 (28,078 lbs.) i 
 
 $18,372 ( 
 
 (488,095 lbs.) ( 
 
 .$520,336 J 
 
 (67,449 bbls.) \ 
 
 $26.8.57 J 
 
 (1,409,050 lbs.) ( 
 
 $505,730 ( 
 (123,883 bbls.) | 
 
 $169,385 J 
 
 (8,462.529 lbs.)t 
 
 $31, ,364 ) 
 
 (5,107 bbls.) ) 
 
 $1,478,895 
 (15,100,980 lbs.) 
 
 Province exporting. 
 
 N. S.* 488,526 lbs. 
 
 N. S. 610,402 cwt. 
 
 Que. 110,883 " 
 
 N. B. 98,143 " 
 
 P.E.I. 10,325 " 
 
 N. B. 
 
 N.S. 
 IN. 8. 
 
 N. a 
 
 N.S. 
 P. E. I. 
 N. B. 
 
 N.S. 
 N. S. 
 N. B. 
 Que . 
 N. B. 
 N. S. 
 N. S. 
 N. B. 
 N. S. 
 
 $180,563 
 (1,202,809 lbs 
 
 4 
 
 $1,156,223 J 
 (10,977.233 lbs.) I 
 
 $83,746 ( 
 (6,143 bbls.) t 
 
 21 ,280 lbs. 
 0,798 " 
 442,008 " 
 32,363 " 
 62,920 bbls. 
 10,915 " 
 1,190,000 lbs. 
 219,000 '■ 
 89,630 bbls. 
 23,279 " 
 7,964 " 
 7,901,140 lbs. 
 479,625 " 
 5,004 bbls. 
 43 " 
 8,249,211 lbs. 
 P. E. 1.4 25.3,530 " 
 N. B. 2,201,731 " 
 Que. 402,602 " 
 N. B. 1,201,810 " 
 N. S., Que., Ont., 
 
 B. C. 
 B.C. 10,956,412 Iha, 
 N B., N. S., Que., 
 
 P. E. I. 
 B. C. 3,317bbls. 
 
 N. S. 2,,'-.37 " 
 
 Destination. 
 
 «o.in919 J O'lt- 173,230 lbs. 1 
 
 — ( j^|,„, 49,:;ii " f 
 
 $33,144 lont. 5,898bl)l9. 
 
 U.S. 
 W. I. 
 U. S. 
 Br.. 
 BG. 
 It... 
 
 U.S. 
 U.S. 
 
 u.s 
 
 W. I. 
 
 U.S. 
 
 IT. S. 
 W.I. 
 B. G. 
 U.S. 
 W.I. 
 
 u. s. 
 
 G.B. 
 
 U. S. 
 
 377,064 owt. 
 
 199,214 " 
 51,813 " 
 41,983 " 
 42,233 " 
 
 476,655 lbs. 
 45,286 bbla. 
 
 80,915 " 
 38,000 " 
 
 3 121,043 lbs. 
 O. B. 
 
 10,413,078 lbs. 
 4,418,244 " 
 
 U. S. 1,262,589 
 
 G.B. 
 
 U.S 
 
 10,739,308 " 
 4,9.57 bbls. 
 
 IT, S, VU0,5S7 lbs. 
 U. S. 6,440 bbls. 
 
192 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 FiBnBRi¥».—{ Continued. J 
 
 Kino. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Fish oil, cod... 
 " seal. . , 
 " other. 
 
 Furs ai,d skins ) 
 
 of L 
 
 marine animals. ) 
 
 Province exporting. 
 
 »1 22,731 
 (228,/62 gals.) 
 
 81,622 
 (3,003 gals.) 
 $32,812 
 (83,031 gals.) 
 
 (146,042 
 
 { 
 
 N. S. 
 
 n. 
 
 Que. 
 B. C. 
 N. B. 
 
 204, 130 gals. 
 19,460 " 
 2,321 " 
 082 " 
 62, 9t " 
 11,764 " 
 
 Destination. 
 
 The Mine Exfortb.~( Continued. J 
 
 U.S. 
 
 0. a 
 
 O.B. 
 U. 8. 
 U.S. 
 G.B. 
 
 194,009 gals. 
 
 33,7;5 •• 
 
 2,809 " 
 
 194 " 
 
 54,106 •' 
 
 26,425 " 
 
 B.C. 
 
 N. o. 
 
 •12,3,804 
 *20,407 
 
 * Abbreviations. —W I 
 It.=Italy. 
 
 'U. S 
 G. B. 
 
 «74,530 
 
 *70,612 
 
 KlXD. 
 
 Plumbago ore 
 
 rhosphates (apatite), i 
 Salt ' 
 
 Stono (marble) i 
 
 Other 
 
 Val 
 
 ue. Province producing Destination. 
 
 «59; (150 tons. )L\.B. 
 
 «302,716 
 (14,478 tons.)" 
 817,511 
 
 $73,368 
 (26, 578 tons, 
 
 $60,683 
 
 '.( 
 
 Que. 
 Ont. 
 Ont. 
 Ont. 
 N.R. 
 N. 8. 
 Que. 
 
 
 U. S. t..ns. 
 
 14,268 tons. 
 
 0. H, 12,208 ■• 
 
 220 " 
 
 Germ, 1,1W5 " 
 
 all. 
 
 16,756 " \ 
 5,322 " C 
 4,500 " 1 
 
 U. S. 197,185 bu.s. 
 
 U.S. 26,412 tons. 
 
 54,123 " 
 
 U.S. 
 
 = West Indies. Br. = 
 
 Brazil. B. G. = British Guiana. 
 
 cerSi;;"i;i,?ds"orflJh'Tuch'a8'':il!n'^,'''T'?'" »',»"« «'"=^"'-« fishing of 
 Salmon are rapidly d™in' nni T 'a*"'*^' ""*'*• ,°y^^'^- ""<> lobsters. 
 The herring fisLryirthreS^"'^'°^l'f",l" m»"3„ districts are des.ro.ved. 
 of the young are taken anTSi\'to -^'1^, ? 'Jr-^l*," «* ^?*" ^'^* Quantities 
 trrou.ids, and dcstiuctive nSds nf ^.S ' "''"'" ^"^l'"" °" "'espawning 
 sequences, methods of capture, are pursued regardless of con- 
 
 Note,— Ir, 1SS5 the valu 
 
 .'^t?:'!--'" ^885 **■« ^a'ue o' the nsh caught i 
 
 the Fisheries exports" imounted ^"$7 976*313 
 was greater than that of 18s3, yet exMPt in t 
 salmon, the market value was less. 
 
 _WExPORTs OF Forest Products. -Total Value, $26,648,441. 
 
 •1 the Dominion was $17,723,000 ; 
 
 Though the quantity exported' 
 
 the case of canned lobsters and 
 
 over 18.. ^.i., c.U.r^U^'^:^ ^^^^^l^^^'^^O ; t.. '"crea.. 
 
 (/) The following table shows the chief manufactured exports :- 
 Manufactures.— Value, HH4,424. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Agricultural implements . 
 Carriages 
 
 KlXD. 
 
 Value. Province producing. 
 
 Tan bark. 
 
 Firewood. 
 
 Logs, 
 
 Lumber, sawn . , 
 
 Shingles. 
 
 Sleepers, ties. , . 
 
 St,aves (bolts) .., . 
 Timber, squared. 
 
 $321,£'31 1 
 
 (lOnt, 
 $388,910,' |n.S. 
 
 $262,552 1 
 
 $17,797,408 
 
 $283,530 
 
 $554,328 
 
 $211,484 
 $4,717,356 
 
 43,027 ci.rds, 
 16,175 " 
 102,493 " 
 32,827 " 
 20,102 " 
 23,000 M. ft. 
 14,000 " 
 $6,402,756 
 $5,554,102 
 $3,951,683 
 $1,375,523 
 $383,864 
 $20,. 563 
 69.353 M. 
 24,364 " 
 1,185,530 
 519,341 
 351,113 
 
 Des.ination. 
 
 U. S. 63,575 cords. 
 
 
 Ej^tractof hemlock bark. -' 
 
 816,766 
 $21,714 
 
 $305,418 
 
 Province 
 producing. 
 
 Grindstones 
 
 Iron and hardware. 
 Leather 
 
 S.164,836 
 
 peals, G. B. 
 I Boards, U. S. 
 .Much to W. I., 
 I Australia Africa, 
 etc. 
 
 U. 8. 76,615 M. 
 
 V. S. 2.&;4,930. 
 
 |U. s. 
 G. B. 
 
 Boots and shoes 
 
 Leather goods 
 Fermented liquors. . , 
 Spirits 
 
 Machinery 
 
 Musical instruments. 
 
 Sewing machines 
 
 Ships sold abroad. 
 
 Starch 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Wood, furniture, doors, etc. 
 Woollens 
 
 almost all. i Other fabrics • 
 
 I ■••■\ 
 
 $22^?3^,^3oi'\rfatrori„"^:tt'^?rwi?g^:iL ^^'-^^^-o^^^ '- ^^^^^ 
 
 (e) The Mine Exports.- Value, $3,116,830. 
 
 Jliscellaneous articles. 
 
 "( (40,323 bbls.) I 
 
 $51,726 i 
 
 $373,513 
 
 $271,140 
 
 $96,815 f 
 
 (90,872 prs.)') 
 
 $126,500 
 
 $7,657 
 
 $15,000 
 
 $74,366 I 
 
 $49,000 
 
 $70 000 f 
 (9,147.) 
 
 $506,538 
 (23,896 tons 
 (No,, 44 
 825,360 ( 
 (824,049 lbs,) 1 
 $74,037 
 $540,875 
 
 831,296 
 
 Destination, 
 
 (". 
 
 V. S., G. B. 
 U. S., VV. I. 
 
 U. S. 28,096 bbls. 
 G, B, 10,3o4 ■• 
 
 )38 / 
 ns.) 
 4) / 
 
 I 
 $502,195 i 
 
 Ont. . . , $15,863 
 Ont. chiefly. 
 N. B. 27,886 bbls. 
 "ue.. 8,107 " 
 ', S. 4,380 " 
 N,B.,, $36,643 
 N,S.., $13,924 
 Que. chiefly. 
 Que.., $218,534 
 Que. 60,254 prs. 
 N. S. 30,474 " 
 Que. chiefly. 
 N. S. " 
 Ont., Que. 
 Ont . . . $66,836 ) 
 Que . . . $16,893 ]" 
 Ont. chiefly. 
 Ont 8,163 pieces. lG.B.5,35rpieees. 
 
 U- Itl " l^ri^a.*'--^^- 
 
 (11,360 tons.) 
 
 G, B, 436,940 lbs. 
 U, S. 383,673 •• 
 U,S,,G.B,,Newf. 
 U. S, , O. B, 
 
 Newf, chiefly. 
 
 U. S. $479,381 
 G. B., Newf. 
 
 S. $49,469 
 
 U. S. chiefly. 
 G. B. ohiefly. 
 Newf. 62,910 p 
 G. B. 21,454 • 
 G. B. chiefly. 
 W. I. chiefly. 
 O. B., W, I, 
 U.S., G.B. 
 and Chill. 
 G. IJ. chiefiv. 
 
 $528,895 
 
 W.8. 17 (7,292t.) \ 
 N.B. H(10,161t.)} 
 P.E.L9(3,257t.)i 
 P.E.L 756,9531b8. 
 Que. 66,800 " 
 Que , , . $50,852 
 Ont. & Que. chiefly. 
 Que . . . $22,399 ) 
 N. S... $7,877 ( 
 Ont.... $402,180 
 $126,175 
 $372,423 ) 
 $105,536 ■ 
 $36,756 ) 
 
 Que. 
 (■ Ont.. 
 
 i Que 
 ( jN. B, 
 
 U. S. chiefly. 
 
 Kino. 
 
 Cial. 
 
 Gold(quartz, dust, etc ) 
 
 •"■ypsum 
 
 •Viicimony ore.. .. 
 
 Copper " 
 
 Iron 
 
 Lead 
 
 Manganese 
 
 Silver 
 
 \ 
 
 Value. 
 
 81.087,411 
 (430,0iltons.) 
 
 $911,383 J 
 
 $152,000 
 
 $11,842 
 
 $150,479 j 
 
 (4,402 tons.) \ 
 
 Si:!8,775 ( 
 
 (14,944 tons.)! 
 
 832 ; (2 tons. I 
 
 $29,470 J 
 
 (1,191 tons.) •{ 
 
 $14,200 
 
 nOO tons.) 
 
 ^f^'^r'T,!" "* « "■'' '■"'"" "fhe manufactures exported w 
 Sf?'"fi '^ '"f ^« .'V"^ P'^«« '," i.™" ■'"d manufactu^rL o- ^ 
 
 in agricultural 
 musical instruinci 
 
 . as S3,79*,329 ; the 
 I iron, and ships ; while 
 
 ( N 
 
 J Q' 
 
 llOi 
 
 N, S, 
 B.C. 
 N. B. 
 
 n. c. 
 
 N. S. 
 N. S. 
 N. B 
 
 Que. 
 
 Ont. 
 B. C. 
 N. B. 
 N. b. 
 N. S. 
 ue. 
 Ont, 
 
 216,805 tons, 
 193,485 " 
 17,670 " 
 $631,648 
 8278,735 
 $138,081 
 
 42,745 tons, 
 1,890 " 
 
 U.S. 302,803 tons. 
 Newf. 68,8 17 " 
 W. I. 21,398 " 
 
 ,'u. s. 
 iu. s. 
 
 U. 8, 
 
 U, S, 44,6,35 tons 
 
 implements, leather and le..thcr good furnuie '^'A ' 
 cnts, the increase was important. . '""'"urt, etc., 
 
 (a) The following table shows the countries with whirh Po^oj • 
 raged ut trade, the shipping employed, etc!, etc ,7n iSsS?-'^'' '" 
 
 engagei 
 
 Contexts. 
 
 Vjilue of 
 Exports. 
 
 G. B. 
 
 S. 
 
 Y'- 
 
 1,066 
 
 128 
 
 78 
 
 22 
 
 U.S. 
 G.B, 
 U. H. 
 G.B. 
 
 U. 8. 
 
 309 
 
 769 
 
 42,') 
 
 78 
 
 22 
 
 Great Bntain 
 
 United States 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 British West Indies.. 
 Spanish West Indie^^ 
 French West Indies. 
 Danish West Indies, 
 British Guiana 
 
 Value of Goods 
 
 Entered for 
 
 Consumption, 
 
 $47,14.^217 
 
 37,6l'0,3!I9 
 
 -',187,!!;i8 
 
 1,780,0(16 
 
 932,;i22 
 
 316,458 
 
 72,772 
 
 428,163 
 
 i.">2,052,405 
 
 ,'>6,032,a33 
 
 705,035 
 
 2,477,575 
 
 1,8,'J0,897 
 
 25,040 
 
 8,027 
 
 296,661 
 
 Tiinage 
 of Shipping 
 Employed. 
 
Destination, 
 
 S. tuns. 
 
 <. 12,2(W ■• 
 m. 1,1)1)5 " 
 i. 197,185 bus. 
 
 J. 26,412 tons. 
 
 the increase 
 
 exports : — 
 
 estination. 
 
 i.. G. R 
 i., VV. I. 
 
 . 28.096 bbls. 
 ': 10,3o4 ■• 
 
 . $49,469 
 
 . chiefl5'. 
 . oiiiefly. 
 f. 52,910 pi. 
 . 21,464 • 
 . eliiefly. 
 . chiefly. 
 .. W. I. 
 , G. B. 
 Chill, 
 chiefi.v. 
 5,.'i51 pieces. 
 , Wex., Dr. 
 a.. 
 
 18 
 iO tons.) 
 
 436,940 lbs. 
 383,673 •• 
 G.B.,Newf. 
 G. li. 
 
 chiefly. 
 
 8479,381 
 Newf. 
 
 ihiefly. 
 
 *,229 ; the 
 ips; while 
 etc., and 
 
 anada is 
 
 linage 
 hippinir 
 
 ployed. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 193 
 
 COUNTRIKS. 
 
 China , 
 
 Japan 
 
 Mexico , I ' 
 
 Central America .'.', 
 
 South America 
 
 St. Pierre ,,, 
 
 Trance. .,.., 
 
 Germany [[[ 
 
 Spain W, 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Italy ;::;; 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Holland ;■.'.■ 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Norway 
 
 Russia. \ 
 
 Other countries [ 
 
 Coin and bullion 
 
 Est. amount short returned, 
 
 Totals 
 
 Value of 
 Exports. 
 
 05,360 
 
 10,028 
 34,2()9 
 
 1,021,807 
 190,084 
 617,71)0 
 133,697 
 164,925 
 179,843 
 218,113 
 195,705 
 27.69) 
 
 66,650 
 
 1,000 
 
 587,835 
 
 «:il,UO0 
 
 3,416,724 
 
 Value of Goods 
 
 Entered for 
 Consumption. 
 
 98,085,804 
 
 841,333 
 
 803,921 
 
 15,072 
 
 10,609 
 
 1,151,511 
 
 8.165 
 
 2,316,480 
 
 1,809,154 
 
 584,972 
 
 63,349 
 
 104,441 
 
 415,407 
 
 297,201 
 
 '41,724 
 
 10,304 
 
 1,147,843 
 
 123,137,019 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 of Sliijipinuf 
 
 Employed. 
 
 Canadian 
 and British, 
 
 4,887,237 
 
 Foreign, 
 3,085,640. 
 
 7,972,777 
 
 uoQ .1^' ° ^^^^^J?^J°^ ^^^ Dominion, the exports were $57 668 - 
 K88; the imiwrta, |71,985,306. In 1868 the total forei^ trade of 
 the Dominion was $131,027,532 ; in 1883 it was $230,339,826. 
 
 Note. — In 1885 the value of the experts amounted tn ma via uri . ^i ™«„j. 
 .■ntered for consmnption, $102,71O,019^the L^Seign tral'lios^fyg.sl? 
 
 (h) The duties collected in 1883 were— 
 
 Import duties $23,162,563 
 
 Excise duties — 
 
 Tobacco aiid manufactures of tobacco . . $1,886 3C1 
 
 JJistillod liquors 3 934 704 
 
 Malt and malt liquora '41l'l72 
 
 '*'•,«-., om?' ?f P^ase, 14,006,192 bushels; of Indian corn 7in 
 ear), 10,741,391 bushels; of buckwheat, 1,530 676 bushek • nf h««;= 
 496,564 btishels ; of potatoes, 21,091,144 bushels ;of"turtps 41 137 1 
 [,ms ' ''^ luangols, 11,123,048 bushels ; hay, 3,253,155 
 
 In addition to this the census of 1881 returns as having been raised 
 of apples, 11,400,000 bashels ; grapes, 3,700 000 uounds • oH.Mr fr,,if 
 645,000 bushels; a.td 4.!70,000^poLnds ^HaKS weS^^^^^ 
 
 fio/-'^ The following table gives the kind, amount, and value of the 
 fish caught in the wateis of Ontario in 1883 : — 
 
 1,862 brls. Whitefish sig G'>0 no 
 
 3,074,520 lbs. Whitefish ......; 245 901 ]io 
 
 3,940 brls. Trout mUnn nn 
 
 3,911,159 lbs. Trout ' ..■ 3?.^ 9.)" t^J 
 
 rVf'ti^ n'''^- Herring and Sciscos JlViorO 00 
 
 fii.'dn2 l!'- ^I'^kinonge 37,285 20 
 
 b8U,408 lbs. Bass 41 364 48 
 
 1,368,273 lbs. Pickerel " " g<y'mi\ 9S 
 
 475,200 lbs. Pike 2?760 00 
 
 539,3.TOIbs. Sturgeon .■.■.■.':.',■;■ 29;466 50 
 
 1j,230 brls. Coarse Fish and Mixed Fish 6b,'920 00 
 Fish, used for local con- 
 sumption ,3.5,796 00 
 
 $l,027,a'?2 88 
 Note.— In 1885 the value of the fish taken was $1,3-12,692, 
 
 (k) Summary of the exports and imports of Ontario in 1883 :— 
 (It must be borne in mind that the Atlantic trade passes throuch Ouebeo 
 ports, so that Ontario goods shipped in these ports are^eJitedt^ Quebec ) 
 
 Industkt Exports, etc. 
 Agriculture— 
 
 if/'*'"' etc $13,528,027 
 
 Stock, etc 6,569,242 
 
 ^^«l:.°yf«t. 7,825691 
 
 The 1 sheries 207,592 
 
 ^heMme gu 0O6 
 
 Manufactures 1,099,726 
 
 Miscellaneous 382 958 
 
 Estimated understatement 2 965.'777 
 
 Total Exports $32^^ 
 
 Imports into Ontario $44,666,445 
 
 Total Foreign Trade $77,550; 464 
 
 Note.— In 1875 the total value of the exports was $28,434 731 • of 
 mlmm: ^^'^^^•^^- I" 1««4> the total trade amounted to over 
 
 [1) " In 1883 about 155,000 cwt. was mined, valued at $362,000 
 but none seems to have been exported. Formerly r. considerable 
 trade existed with the United States, but it has been ™ined by ca^e 
 
 cZ^TltorelnX^tS '°- """^'" ^^^°'°^"'^' '"^'^^ °^ 
 fe^fpb^-L^dTooS'^ut^^^^^^^ 
 
 o J^}v^i°°^-^^?^ i^ t^*' census, Quebec in 1881 raised of wheat over 
 2,000,000 bushels; barley, 1,750,000 bushels; oats, 20,000,000 bushels^ 
 pease and beans^,170,000 bushels; buckwheat 2,000,000 bushes • 
 potatoes, 15,000,000 bushels; corn, 888,000 bushels; turnips, 1 572 476 
 bushels; hay, l,61o, 000 tons; and tobacco, 2, 367,(K)0 pounds. 
 
 Of farm stock of all kinds Quebec possessed from one-half to 
 one-third less than did Ontario. In working-cattle Quebec farsur- 
 889S3^hee?'' 2,750,000 pounds were produced by 
 
 Of squared timber there were cut in 1881 over 6,500,000 cubic feet 
 
 'l\^Z^dc^l7j'T'Tf ^\^'° feet of tamarac and birch, and nelrfy 
 10,000,000 cubic feet of other woods, besides firewood, masts, spars, 
 etc., and multitudes of logs. Only in tamarac and birch, however 
 did Quebec exceed Ontario ; in other woods the quantity was less 
 than half tliat produced by Ontario. 
 
 The value of the fish caught during 1883 was about $2,140 000 ■ 
 the varieties include those of Ontario and of Nova Scotia. In 1881 
 the number of men employed in the fisheries was 14,744. The chief 
 fish caught were codfish and herring. Large quantities of lobsters 
 were also canned. 
 
 The value of th-* manufactures of the same vear wts— Ann- 
 $9,000,000; sugar, $7,000,000; boots and shceTae$nV^': 
 <^\'^A ^^if^'^' ^"'^I'' etc., over $1,000,000; and locomotiV^s 
 ipl,oU0,0(J0. Maple sugar was made to the extent of 15,500,000 lbs. 
 
 . (n) The following tiible gives the amount of exports in the leading 
 industries in the year 1883 :— ° 
 
 Agricultunal products. $14,458,533 
 
 Animals and their produce v "i'^-,' nil 
 
 inducts of the Forest n 529 948 
 
 r< !! i';?'"'>'ies ■.■.'■.•.;: ' ji'Sm^ 
 
 ,, , . *^'"e 525,4.50 
 
 Manufactures ... 1,633,725 
 
 Miscellaneous articles mi 729 
 
 f fT^ T-f'^rj^a*".'^"''^'^* ^"i'^.V^ere, in 1883, valued at $33,000,000; 
 tn .hft ..nitfi.i .-t.ites, about 36,520,000; the imixutsfiom ilie formpr 
 about $24 000,000, from the latter, nekrly $15,000,(W0 Bnt as'th^ 
 trade of Ontario with Great Britain, both export and import, is 
 
17 
 
 I. 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 » 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 r 
 
 17 
 
 
196 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I 
 
 C? mTt oTth« Z^l ^^'\^ S"'"^ *'"/*«- '* i" «^ident that a 
 TK? f 'i 1 * J r^<l'"V"'"''°"«'^ '""«* be credited to Ontario 
 
 iSouStrver'aSrtf ^ ^««^ -''' --*-» -^ "^ cSa 
 R99'nm\™T^i'"^r*" ?'"" '=""«"''• ^"^^ Brunswick raised, in 1881 bout 
 
 of Cwheat nl:: r*' ''-.r "rV'^^^'*'^' I'^^o-^^ o/ oats aocSo 
 
 1 non mn f * • ''^ eauallmg Quebec-7,000,000 of pocktoe.s, and 
 1,000,000 of turnips ; of ],ay, 415,000 tons were raised. 
 
 turJdL*N^l hJ."*' "^- n^^''- •"«'"J"'S? domestic articles, manufac 
 Kr"omTcJ![sumpiSn'""°'^ '''' "^'^ '^'""<^ $18,500,000-al.nost 
 
 3 372"ve^I«*1^7R r'^'T'^ *''^ P^'?' "f ^''"' Brunswick from the sea 
 f 1,1 ? L^''- "^^^^^^ were built, measuring 20,000 tons. In 1885 
 
 iZlZeTlS. """''"' ''""' ' ^''^ --b-'built w^ 47: with 
 
 tonIai^oV2l)^0<^''.''*'nr]!{!'^ 'Lu'"' f"""''""^" ^1*^ ^««««'«' ^'tJ> "^ total 
 324 tons each ' '^ '^"'■'' sea-going vessels, averaging 
 
 (p) The following table, taken from the government reports, shows 
 the amount of the export trade for 1883 : o"i. icpons, snows 
 
 The Mine «i i ? n ^ 
 
 TheForest .■;::;;::;: sSwt 
 
 Agriculture 4'>4(i'9-)(i 
 
 Th?i^iBheries :•::;::•::;:::::; Ii5i4i4 
 
 Animals,etc 8405 648 
 
 Manufactures $528 050 
 
 Miscellaneous $42,546 
 
 Total exports $7,520,107; total imports $7,265,238. 
 The imports are nearly equal from Great Britain and the United 
 htates, from each about three and a quarter million dollars. 
 
 imMrZ"iiw2il *\Y^'"« fl the ex,x,rts was $6,489,293 ; of the 
 o" 1H84 ^'^^^'^^- ^" •'*'=*> ^^'^^'^ was a slight falling off from those 
 
 {q) The number of vessels that left tlie port in 1883 was 1,700. the 
 tonnage being 615, 3o9; of these 66 were British, averaging the large 
 tonnage of 932 each, 371 foreign, tonnage averaging a^ut 640 each! 
 1, J&6 Canadaan, averagmg nearly 180 tons each. 
 
 ti, ^"''^•^l"J^u*h'^ number of vessels leaving the port was greater 
 tftau in 1883, but tho tonnage was somewhat less. 
 
 ino^o"i«^HF.*' "^il"? '"™*''^ 177. vessels, having a total tonnage of 
 lOA-slO ; ot these 105 were sea-going, with an average tonnage of (iO!). 
 
 • k^ J u" "•''"^"^ °^ ^^^1 returns al ,. .ut 27,000 men as being engaged 
 m the fisheries, nearly double the number of all the other provinces 
 together. Deep sea fishery, on the banks of Newfoundland anH 
 elsewhere, is carried on extensively by all the Atlantic counties" 
 espwiially Lunenburg and Digby. 432 (Canadian vessels, manned by 
 5,213 men, left the ports of Nova Scotia for the deep-soa fisheries 
 during 1883. 
 
 ,.u ?hf .X*'H^ "^ .^'* t?'''?" '" ^^"^'^ ^°°tia in 1883 was $7,689,374.75. 
 that of the Dominion being nearly $17,000,000. 
 
 Salmon, pickled 532 brls. 
 
 " fresh, in ice 423,308 lbs. 
 
 " smoked 19,920 lbs. 
 
 " preserved 20,312 cans. 
 
 Mackerel 88,608 brls. 
 
 " preserved 114,500 cans. 
 
 Herring 20:i,070 brls. 
 
 " . smoked 84,800 boxes. 
 
 Alewives 18,346 brls. 
 
 Cod 721,979 cwt. 
 
 Cod Tongues and Sounds. 1,389 brls. 
 
 Pollock 94,049 cwt. 
 
 Hake hounds .59,290 lbs. 
 
 Hake and Haddock 246,969 cwt. 
 
 Halibut 959,650 lbs. 
 
 onad 3,442 brls. 
 
 Bass, Trout, and Smelt . . 488,5*5 Ihs. 
 
 $9,576 00 
 
 84,661 60 
 
 3,984 00 
 
 5,262 40 
 
 886,080 00 
 
 17,175 00 
 
 820,280 00 
 
 21,200 00 
 
 73,384 00 
 
 3,068,410 75 
 
 9,723 00 
 
 329,171 50 
 
 59,290 00 
 
 864,391 50 
 
 57,579 00 
 
 27.536 00 
 
 '«),310 ^0 
 
 Squid 4,360 biis. 
 
 ^els 2,308 brls. 
 
 Oysters 1,343 brls. 
 
 Lobsters 4,870,339 cans. 
 
 *'i«li Oil 521,859 gals. 
 
 " Koes 8 brls. 
 
 " Guano 1,598 toms. 
 
 " used as Bait 13,127 brls. 
 
 used as Manure 23,693 brls. 
 
 Home consumption 
 
 Haddies, Sardines, etc 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 117,464 00 
 
 20,772 00 
 
 4,029 00 
 
 730,550 85 
 
 339,208 35 
 
 32 00 
 
 23,970 00 
 
 43,127 00 
 
 11,846 50 
 
 48,777 00 
 
 18,955 00 
 
 63,028 00 
 
 Total. 
 
 $7,689,374 75 
 
 NoTK.— In 1885 the value of the fish taken was $8,283,923, that of 
 the Dominion having been $17,723,000. 
 
 In 1881, according to tlie census, Nova Scotia raised about 52!), 000 
 bushels oi wheat ; 229,000 of barley: 1,873,000 of oats; 47,t,00 of 
 rye ; 340,000 of buckwheat ; 13,.500 of Indian corn ; 7,400,000 of 
 potatoes; 1,000 000 of turnips j 326,000 of other roots; and 600,000 
 tons of hay. The gram raised is not enough for home use. 
 
 («) The following table gives tho cxiwrts of Nova Sotia to foreiini 
 countries in 1885. ° 
 
 Piod'K'ts of the Fisheries $4 743 873 
 
 " Forest l'275'033 
 
 " Mine .:. 'i59190 
 
 Animals and their Produce 836*216 
 
 Agricultural Products '.,,', 009* .'•)32 
 
 Manufactures (two-thirds from N.S.) 658'821 
 
 Miscellaneous 11*857 
 
 Total $8,889,525 
 
 In 1885 there entered the ports of Nova Scotia from the sea 5,029 
 vessels having a tonnage of 1,316,523 ; the number of vessels built in 
 the same year was 133, having a tonnage of 28,167. In the whole 
 Dominion 287 vessels were built, the tonnage of which was .7,486. 
 
 ^^} ^^}^n ^r!"^ Scotia's exports to Great Britain were valued at 
 nearly $2,276 000 ; to the United States, $3,209,000; to the A\'. nt 
 Indies (British mainly), $2,479,000 ; to Newfoundland, .$607,400 ; and 
 to St. Pierre, $114^00. The exports at the port of Halifax amounted 
 to nearly $0,000,000, and the imports to over $6,000,000 ; at Lunen- 
 burg and Yarmouth about $650,000 each. 
 
 (m) There were raised, in 1881, of potatoes, over 6,000,000 liushels • 
 of oats, over 3,500,000 bushel:.; of turnips, 1,200,000 bushels; of 
 wheat, 54<, 000 bushels; of barley, 119,.500 bushels; of hay, 144,000 
 tons. 
 
 In 1883 there were taken 35,315 cwt. of cod, etc. ; 28,170 barrels 
 of mackerel, beside 352,000 pounds in cans ; 45,500 barrels of herring 
 three-fourths of which, however, were used as bait for other fish • 
 3,845,000 cans of lobsters (about 17,000,000 single fish), one-fourtli 
 less than the preceding year ; and 35,000 barrels of oysters, a fish 
 rapidly becoming exterminated through excessive fishing witli no 
 attempt at propagation in exhausted localities, and tlirongh vn«t 
 quantities being destroyed by farmers in dredging up the " mussel- 
 mud." 
 
 This mud is used as a fertilizer, and consists of the decayed shells 
 etc., of shellfish that have been massed together in great beds. It is 
 raised by dredges or other appliances working through iiolcs in the 
 ice during winter. 
 
 (v) In 1883 the value of the exports was— of the fisheries, about 
 $500,000; of farm products, $620,000; of forest products, $30,000; 
 of manufactures, $185,000. The total value of the exiiorts was 
 $1,318,549 ; of the imports, $717,429, three-quarters of wliicli were 
 from Great Britain. 
 
 Note.— In 1885 the amount and value ( f the fish taken did not 
 materially differ from those of 1883, except that there was an in- 
 crease of about 500,000 lbs. of lobsters. In the exports there was 
 a large decrease, except in the farm products, which exceeded in 
 value those of 1883 by over $300,000. The imports were about 
 $60,000 in excess of those iu 1883. 
 
 \ \ 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 197 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 Area and I'opulation of Thk States and Territoriks 
 IN THE United States in 1880. 
 
 Statb. 
 
 Are.i ill Populii- 
 aq. iniru^i ti»n. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Callfurnia 
 
 Coliinulo 
 
 Connecticut . . . . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Qeoncia 
 
 Illinoia 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentuclty 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts.. . 
 
 Micliigan 
 
 Minnesola 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebras)<a 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 New Jersey . . . 
 New Yorli 
 
 51,540 
 
 63,045 
 
 155,980 
 
 103,646 
 
 4,846 
 
 l,9ti0 
 
 64,240 
 
 58,980 
 
 60,000 
 
 35,910 
 
 65,475 
 
 81,700 
 
 40,000 
 
 45,420 
 
 29,890 
 
 9 800 
 
 8,040 
 
 57,430 
 
 79,205 
 
 46,340 
 
 68 735 
 
 70,185 
 
 109,740 
 
 9,005 
 
 7,455 
 
 47,620 
 
 1,262,505 
 
 802,525 
 
 864,694 
 
 194,327 
 
 622,700 
 
 146,608 
 
 2H9,493 
 
 1,542,180 
 
 3,077,871 
 
 1,978,301 
 
 1,624,615 
 
 996,096 
 
 1,648,690 
 
 939,946 
 
 648,936 
 
 934,943 
 
 1,783,085; 
 
 1,030,937 
 
 780,773 
 
 1,131,597 
 
 2,108,380, 
 
 452,402' 
 
 62,206 
 
 346,991 
 
 1.131,116 
 
 5,082,871 
 
 Statb, 
 
 Area in Fopiila- 
 s(|. niilos tiiin. 
 
 North Carolina. . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon . . 
 
 Pennsylvania . . . 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina. . 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 VirRinia 
 
 West Virginia .. 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Tbrritouies : 
 
 Alaska 
 
 Arizc a 
 
 Dakot.i 
 
 DistrictofColuinliia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Indian Territory 
 
 Montana 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Utah 
 
 WashiiiKton ... 
 Wyoming ... 
 
 48. ',80 
 40,700 
 94,560 
 44,985 
 
 1,085 
 
 30,170 
 
 41 750 
 
 262 290 
 
 9 135 
 40,125 
 24,645 
 64,450 
 
 531,400 
 
 112,020 
 
 147,700 
 
 00 
 
 84.290 
 
 69,830 
 
 145,310 
 
 122,460 
 
 82,190 
 
 66,880 
 
 97,575 
 
 1,.S99,750 
 3,198,062 
 
 174,7ii8 
 4,282,801 
 
 276,5:)1 
 
 995,577 
 1,542,359 
 l,591,74l> 
 
 3;i2,2H0 
 1,612,565 
 
 618,4.i7 
 1,315,497 
 
 33,426 
 
 40,440 
 
 135,177 
 
 177,624 
 
 82,610 
 
 79,024 
 
 89,159 
 
 119,505 
 
 143,963 
 
 76,118 
 
 20,789 
 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 BRITISH COLONIES, &c, 
 
 The widespread dmniiiions of Great Britain are of different kinds : 
 Coloniee, formerly wawte regioiiH, or regions thinly inhabited by 
 inferior races, to which euiigrants go to seek new homes and to found 
 new countries with language, laws, customs and spirit of tiie mother- 
 land. Military Strongholds, such as (iibraltar, Heligoland, 
 Malta, Aden, which contain vast rpiantities (if war material for 
 efpiii>ping army or navy, .and which command important highroads 
 of commerce and protect British trade. Trading Posts, such as 
 the Gold Coast, Niger Regions, Singapore, f'.\ues favorably situiited 
 f<ir interco\irse with nations of low civiliz'-.cion. Dependencies. 
 such as India and Burmah, and to a lesser degree the Transvaal 
 Kepublic, and even P'gypt ; countries that by fortune of war or other 
 means have come under British rule, either directly as India, or 
 indirectly, as Egypt, 
 
 The following table ^ves the area and population of the various 
 possessions of the British Empire. 
 
 Namb. 
 
 EUROPE : 
 
 Gibraltar . 
 
 Hi'liK'olaiid 
 
 Malta and Qoz». , 
 
 ASIA: 
 
 Aden 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Cyprus 
 
 Honi; Kong 
 
 India 
 
 Kurea Murea Is- 
 lands 
 
 Laliuan 
 
 Nor^h ! jrneo . . . 
 
 Area ill Popiila- 
 sq. miles tion, 1881. 
 
 n 
 
 tiO 
 
 25,304 
 
 3,584 
 
 29 
 
 874,22(1 
 
 20 
 
 :)0i 
 
 SO.OO" 
 
 18 381 
 
 2,(101 
 
 149,782 
 
 34,711 
 
 2,759,738 
 
 18(1,173 
 
 100,402 
 
 198,755,993 
 
 0,298 
 iinaacert'cd 
 
 Name. 
 
 Area in | Popula- 
 sq. miles tioii, 1881. 
 
 Pcrim 
 
 Straits Se't'er.rts 
 Kceliiiif Islands.,. 
 Upper Burniiili. . . 
 Port Hamilton. . . 
 
 AFRICA : 
 
 Ascension Island. 
 
 Basutoland 
 
 Bcchuanuland 
 
 Cape Colony 
 
 Gambia 
 
 Gold Coast 
 
 Uigoa 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Nata' 
 
 7 
 
 1,445 
 
 9 
 
 190,500 
 
 6 
 
 35 
 
 10,290 
 
 185,000 
 
 241,000 
 
 69 
 
 15,000 
 
 73 
 
 70S 
 
 21,150 
 
 1.50 
 
 423,38* 
 
 4i'(l 
 
 1,675,0(1(1 
 
 128, 
 
 165 
 176 
 
 1,121, 
 14 
 
 400, 
 
 75, 
 
 360, 
 
 424, 
 
 048 
 150 
 000 
 70 
 00 
 4:15 
 
 Nakb. 
 
 Area in 
 sq. miles 
 
 Popula-) 
 tion, 1881. 
 
 Nijfor Uoirions . . , 
 
 iSt Helena 
 
 Hociitr.i Island. , , 
 
 Sierra Leone 
 
 Wu,fiBehIlay .... 
 
 AMERICA: 
 
 nahnmas 
 
 lierniiulus 
 
 i'uiiada 
 
 47 
 
 1 ,00(1 
 
 8,000 
 
 450 
 
 6,4.50 
 
 VO 
 
 3,470 267 
 
 0,^00 
 
 109,000 
 
 7,562 
 
 4,362 
 
 022 
 
 42,000 
 
 1,754 
 
 794 
 
 
 5,059, 
 41,000 
 60,546 
 
 43,521 
 
 14,888 
 
 4,824,810 
 
 1,553 
 
 252,186 
 
 Kilkland Islands. 
 
 liiinduras 
 
 Jaiimioi, Turks 
 
 (sinnd, &c 
 
 Leeward Islands . 
 Nowfimndland... 
 Triiiidiul . ... 
 Windward Isla'ds 
 
 27,452 
 
 686,636 
 119,646 
 185,000 
 153 128', 
 811,413 
 
 N..MB. 
 
 OCEANIA: 
 
 Kiji and Hotumah 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 & Norfolk IslM. 
 
 New Guinea 
 
 Now Ziiaiand 
 
 (jucoiis and 
 
 nouth Australia.. 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 Viciiiria. 
 
 West Australia . . 
 
 Estimated totals. 
 
 Feudatory States 
 of India, etc 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE: 
 
 Colonies, etc 
 
 Great liritain and 
 Iicland 
 
 Area In Populo- 
 sq. miles tion, 1881. 
 
 i^,048 
 
 325,000 
 
 80,360 
 
 100,000 
 
 668,224 
 
 903,435 
 
 26,216 
 
 87,884 
 
 1,057.260 
 
 8.600.000 
 uu«,780 
 
 9,000,000 
 120,832 
 
 128,414 
 
 921,300 
 135,000 
 621,900 
 309,013 
 313,822 
 180 640 
 961,278 
 88,000 
 
 216,000,000 
 66,101,762 
 
 270,000,000 
 36,241,482 
 
 Area anu i*opulation of the Chief States of 
 Germany in 1880. 
 
 Statb. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 WUrtomberg 
 
 Saxony 
 
 ''aden . . .. ... 
 
 Kisass-LothrinKon . 
 .Mecklenburg - Sch- 
 
 worin... 
 
 Ilcsse , 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 li unswick 
 
 Sa.'ie-Weimar 
 
 Mecklenburg - Stre 
 
 litz 
 
 Saxe-MeiniuKen.. . . 
 
 Area in 
 sq. miles 
 
 137,060 
 29,202 
 7,67 
 6,777 
 6,851 
 6,680 
 
 4,834 
 2,806 
 2,417 
 1,526 
 1,421 
 
 997 
 033 
 
 Popula- I 
 tion. 
 
 27,279,111 
 5,284,778 
 1,971,118 
 2,972,805 
 1,570,254 
 l,56o,670 
 
 677,065 
 936,340 
 337.478 
 349,367 
 309,577 
 
 100,269' 
 207,076 
 
 Statb. 
 
 Area in 
 Kq. miles 
 
 Anhalt 
 
 Saxe-Coliurif 
 
 Saxo-Altenburg . ., 
 
 Waldcck 
 
 Liippe 
 
 8chw<irz - Rudol- 
 
 stadt 
 
 Schwarz-Sonder- 
 
 shausen 
 
 Reusz-Schleiz 
 
 Schaumburg- Lippc 
 
 Reusz-<ireiz 
 
 Hamliuig 
 
 LUbeck 
 
 lirumen 
 
 8(l» 
 816 
 509 
 466 
 445 
 
 340 
 
 318 
 297 
 212 
 148 
 148 
 127 
 98 
 
 Popula- 
 tion. 
 
 232,592 
 194,716 
 155,036 
 56,622 
 120,24e 
 
 80,296 
 
 71,107 
 101,33 1 
 
 35,374 
 
 50,782 
 463,869 
 
 63,571 
 156,723 
 
 Area and Population of the Chief States of 
 au.stria-hungaiiv in 1880, 
 
 State. 
 
 An a ill 
 s(). miles 
 
 Popui..- 
 tioii. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 
 Austria (lower) . , , 
 
 7,6.54 
 
 2,330,621 
 
 Austria (upper).. , 
 
 4,031 
 
 756,620 
 
 iidliemia 
 
 20,060 
 
 5,560,819 
 
 liiikowiiia 
 
 4,035 
 
 571,671 
 
 Lariiithia 
 
 4,005 
 
 348,73(1 
 
 (Jariiiola 
 
 8,856 
 
 481,243 
 
 Coast Land 
 
 .3,081 
 
 617,934 
 
 Dalmatia 
 
 4,940 
 
 47ii,l(il 
 
 Galieia 
 
 30,307 
 
 ,5,9.58,9(17 
 
 Moravia 
 
 8,583 
 2,767 
 
 2,153,407 
 163,570 
 
 Salzburg 
 
 Silesia 
 
 1,987 
 
 565,475 
 
 Statk. 
 
 <t/.ria 
 
 ■ yiol and Vorarl 
 lierg 
 
 HUNGARY. 
 
 Hungary Proper. , , 
 Croatia and Slavo 
 
 Ilia 
 
 Transylvania 
 
 I'own of Fiumo 
 
 Bosnia and Ilerze 
 
 giivina 
 
 Niivi Bazar 
 
 Area in 
 sq. miles 
 
 8,070 
 11,324 
 
 Popula- 
 tion. 
 
 1,213,597 
 912,549 
 
 87,043 11 .j44,574 
 
 16,773 1,892,409 
 
 21,215| 2,084,048 
 
 8 1 20,981 
 
 20,725 1,1.58.463 
 3,.522i 108,000 
 
 Districts (not Political Divisions) of Rus.sia. 
 
 (rreat Jtuxxia, the whole of the central part north of t'.o parallel of 50°; 
 Little. RuKnia, muth wi-^tof the preceilintf ; Smi'li Hiixxia, between the latter 
 and the Itluek Sc i ; Il7ii'<! Itaxxia, wiwtof Little l{ii,ssiit ; ('niirlnnil, snuth and 
 west of tliL' Giiif i>f Ilija ; hioniiia, east of the Gulf of Kii4a ; linth(iiiia, between 
 Livim'a and the Gulf of Finland ; Finland, north of the Gulf of Finland ; Lap- 
 Inml, west of tlie Wliito Sea ; TraimcaucasUi, -'acroas the Caucasus, ' nortb- 
 eastern part of Armenia in Asia. 
 
f 
 
.*e.- 
 
 Hi^ 
 
 f^n.