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Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at diffferent reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely Included In one exposure are filmed beginning In the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illust'ate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre flimfo A des taux de reduction diffArents. Lorsque Ie document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seui cllchA, r the facts and opinions stattnl in any of itf nil)licatiun». Th/is Paper will he read on the evening of Thursday, May nth. ELECTRIC LIGHTING. By II. Y. TrlORNBERRY. The object of this paper will be to t2;ive a brief r^sumd of Electric Lighting, of its discovery and development until the present time. Very littli^ was known of Electricity in 1700; yei Irom that year dates the discovery by Galvani of the electro-chemical action of two metals in the presence of moistme. It was not until six years later that Volta devised the Voltaic Pile, the first source of a constant current of electricity. It may be remarked as a queer coincidence that illuminating gas was discovered, and the possibility of making gas from coal demonstrated at a date almost coincident with the discovery oi' the galvanic current. It was not, however, until 1810, a Gas ('dinpany was formed for genera} lighting in London. It was in that year 8ir Humphrey Davy discov- ered the Voltaic Are. So rapid, however, was the introduction of gas as an illuminaut that 20 years had made it general, while the Electric Light had as yet only been born. It must not, however, be supposed the want of progress in Electric Lighting was due to inactivity on the part of those from whom the world was to have the discoveries that were to make it a success. Amtinu the inventions of eminent men that led the way to electric lighting may be mentioned thdse oi' Aiogo, who discovered the magne- tizing effect of the galvanic current, and gave us the beautiful experi- ment termed the Arogo Disk. Fiirada, in 1831, began his masterly researches, and gave the world his discovery of magnito-induetion. In Farada's discovery, Electric Lighting takes its rise, and from his time date the inventions that have made it a possibility. Following Farada, Pixl and Saxton produced the magneto-electric machine. The Pixi machine is composed of a strong horseshoe permanent mag- net, before the ends of which two spools of covered wire wound on Ll his discovery of magiiito-induction. In Farada s discovery. Electric r.iiiTiHTKC ImLoi.; i»ii ri;;i' nnil t'l-iini liiu tiiiu> ilntr. tni> ii>\ It was not until twenty years after Farada's discovery the first suc- cessful machine was produced, capable of sustaining the electric arc light. Pacionotti is recorded as the first designer of a continuous current machine. Pacionotti conceived the nu'thod of revolving a continuous ring of iron before the poles of a strong magnet. The ring he divided into sections, with projecting teeth and wound on each section a coil of wire. On revolving the ring the polarity of each successive section or portion of the ring is changed, as it pas.ses before the poles of the magnet, and currents are induced in each coil as it comes into the position of greatest magnetism. Inst^iad of the alternating current of the Pixi machine we obtain in the Pacionotti dynamo a continuous current by means of a commutator or ring, divided into as many segments as there are sections in the revolving ring, each segment being connected to the corresponding spool of wire. The current is commut^id and carried away by means of strips of copper resting on the commutator. The action of this machine and of all continuous current dytlattiOS may be likened to the familiar chain pump. The chain pump you will remember is operated by the revolution of an endless chain running over a wheel, and passing through a tube just large enough to admit the disk formed links, placed at intervals in the chain's length. On revolving the cliain, the disk links act as linkets bringing to the top of the tube a given amount of water on each revolution. The energy absorbed is proportional to the speed at which the chain travels and to the amount of water raised. In tlie Pacionotti dynamo each spool of wire acts as does the disk links on the chain, throwing into the electric circuit a given amount of electricity at every revolution. The analoo-y is not quite true, but will serve as an illustration of the primary action occurring in the dynamo. The difference lies in the fact that the potential of the water raised remains constant, but the poten- tial of the electric current produced increases as I have before stated directly as the speed. In place of the permanent magnet used by Pixi, P acionotti used the current generated by his machine to charge its own field magnets, the method now universally used in all continuous current machines. Pa- cionotti was followed soon after by Gramme who reinvented his ring, and by Siemens. The action of the Gramme ring is in nil respects the same as that of the Pacionotti ring. The Gramme ring differs only from the Pacio- notti ring in the absence of teeth or projections on its periphery. The winding of the armature is greatly facilitated by the absence of the projections. The Gratnme construction, because of its many advantages, has been adopted by several designers of dynamos. The Siemens arm- ature, termed the drum armature, is used very largely by dynamo build- ers, because of the ease with which it can be wound. The Gramme and {Siemens type of armature are more largely used than are any other designs. The Brush armature follows the design of Pacionotti. One fourth of projections, The Granmie construction, because of its many advantages. from 1 to 150 candles, and recently of GOO to 800 candles. Lamps o such high candle power have not heretofore been made. The economy of such a lamp remains to be established. We have to-day another method oleleetric lightinj!;, termed the alter- nating system. The method em})K>yed is to produce by an improved machine an alternating current of very high pressure, and to reduce or convert it to a low pressure suitable for house-lighting The conver- sion is for two purposes : on the score of economy, because by running the machine at a high pressure, a much smaller wire is necessary, and the current can be carried great distance at a comparatively sm:dl cost for wires, a large item in installing an Electric Light plant ; safety, be- cause a low pressure current is comparatively harmless. In explanation of electric pressure, allow me to repeat a very apt illustration of the action of a dynamo m ichine forcing a current into a wire or aeries of wires. It is this ; the action is analogous to that of a force pump keeping up a pressure upon a line of hose pipe. Every point where leakage of the electric current occurs, and may liken to pin holes in the hose. Water leaking at innumerable pin holes reduces the pressure in the pipe, until perhaps the farthest end of the line of pipe receives no pressure :it all. The higher the pump pressure at the source the greater the leakage at a given pin hole So in handling the electric current we must provide against such leakages by making our conductors as perfect as possible, and to see that in no place does the wire come into contact with the limbs of a tree, or what not, that may convey a portion of the current pressure to the ground. We must, as engineers do, allow for a given loss of pressure due to the friction of the current traversing the conduc. tor, and to reduce this loss of pressure or heat. We aiake our con- ductor as large as economy in outlay will permit. The converter used in the alternating system is a well constructed induction coil. The construction in a simple form is as follows: a buudle of iron wires are wound on one end, with a f'pool of very fine wire, called the primary. On the reverse end with a spool of compara tively coarse wire tinned the secondary. To the primary wires are connected the wires from the Dynamo machine, and to the secondary, the wires leading to the lamps to be lighted. The action in the coil is as follows : on every reversal of the charging- current, 200 and upward times per second, a reverse current is induced in the secondary wire by reason of the discharge and reversal of mag- netism in the bundle of iron wires. The reversals of the current are so nearly continuous, no perceptible variation is discernable in the lamps. The alternating current method of generating power has been applied to the electric arc light and to electric motors, making it a complete system, leaving nothing else to be lesirod. A prediction was made at the last convention of Electric Light men, that the alternating system will eventually displace all otht!r systems, by reason of the safety with which the current can be handled by the consumer. This is admitted of by reason of the conversion from a high to a low pressure entrance The alternating eurn^it method of generating power has been applied to the electric are Ivj^ht and to electric motors, making it a complete at.'irion. It' a ^ivatrr distance is found (<• lu' nciVHsary for locating the station, tho altiTnatinj^ sybUni would most likely be selected. Tlu'M" con.sidi'rations apj)ly to incandescent linhtin^ alone. The limit of 10(MI li'ct ilocs not apidy to what is termed the niultiple series system. In this sy.steni the pressure is eonstant. Imu four or tive times as hi;d) as in tin; direct sy.stem. The disiidvantiiges are that when one lamj) ol'ii series of tire is want(!d, the current for tire is «joiisumed, creating someiliing of a loss in power over the direct .'system. If the .'system .M'leeted is to he an are liiiht system, tho loss of power is not so serious a consideration. The iirc liirht system and the alter- natin_' system are somewliat upon the same footing in that respect, in that both systems arc run ;it liigli pressure. Everything remaining equal the higher tlie i>ressure tiie smidltu- the wire recjuired to do a given currtMit. The current into tlu; pressure is a measure of th«! capa- city for work. One of the practical ditfieulties to be met is that of insulation; that is, to prevent a loss of current by leakage caused by moisture or contact of the wires with tlu limbs of trees, or otiher obstruction, capable of ab- sorbing moisture. When it is iuipossible to clear sh.ide trees, a specially covered waterproof wire is used. Carelessness or neiiliircnce in this respect has caused the burning of many tine shade trees in some instances of buildings. In the early days of Kleetric Lighting cheapness in construction was the ruling feature. Electrical companies arc to-day awakening to the fact that cheapness does not pay. Cheap construction means heavy maintenance, charges and a conse(juent reduction of profit. Cheap insulation means heavy leakaj,e of the current and consequent loss of power, with danger, to life; and property, and isalmost altogether, an absent feature of an Electric Light sy.-.tem as constructed to-day The tendency is toward the more expensive methods in every branch of the work, enlisting more public contidence in the utility of Electric Lighting in general. The cost of niaintainance is naturally of prime importance, and to the end that this item shall be as low as po>sible the most improved system of furnaces for the consumption of cheap fuel should be put in place Leakages of every kind should be reduced to a minimum, economy in tlie lamp it>elt' is of the greatest importance. Economy in this direction means economy at the cod {»ile. The decision as to the manufacture of lamp that shall be u>ed will depend on the life and economy of the particular latnp, ami on its capacity to maintain its candle power. .Some incandescent lamps, retain more of tlie secluded gases than other makes, :uid consequently blacken m much less time. The system to h3 adopted for any particular kind of lighting wid depend upon the conditions under which it i> to be operated. If the lighting is to be in a thickly settled portion of the city and near the station, the direct svstem would undou' dly I'cct linhtiu": the three wir ; syst.^m has bi-en adopted very largvjy^ and results in a great ecoiiomy in copper f'oi- eonduetlon, increasing the construction ■itaiii more oi ne seclndcil station. If a greater distance in found to In- ncccsf^ary for locating the station, tlio ulttrnatiii^ syuuni would m(».^t likely bo aelected. Tlio.-e considerations apply to imandcKcrnt lij;htinrrssur(' is constant. l»ut four or five times as hijjli as in tin; direct sy.stcm. Tii(! disjidvantagcs arc that wlicnonc lamjt oi'n scjiesoftirc is wanted, the current for fire is eoiisuincd, creating sonittliing of a loss in power over the direct system. If the sy.'stem .selected is to lie an arc light system, iho I0H.S of power is not so serious a coiisidcration. The arc light system and the alter- natiuL.' system are soniewliat upon the same footing in that respect, in that both systems are run ;it higli pressure, i^lverything remaining equal the higher the pressure the smalUir the wire re(|uired to do a given curnujt. The current into th(( pressure is a measure of tlu; capa- city for work. One (»f the practical difficulties to be met is that of insulation; that is, to prevent a loss of current by leakage caused by moisture or contact of the wires with tlit limbs of trees, or other obstruction, capable of ab- sorbing moisture. When it is impo.ssible to clear shade trees, a speci;dly covered water proof wire is used. Carele.ssmss or negligence in this respect has caused the burning of many fine shade trees in some instanccB of buildings. In the early days of Electric Lighting cheapntss in construction was the ruling feature. Electrical companies arc to-day awakening to the fact that cheapness does not pay. Clienp construction means heavy maintenance, charges and a consequent reduction of profit. Cheap insulation means heavy leakage of the current and consequent loss of power, with danger, to liU; and (>roperty, and isalmost altogether. an absent feature of an Eieetiic Light sy,,tem as constructed to-day The tendency is toward the more expensive methods in everv branch of the work, enlisting more public confidence in the utility of Electric Lighting in general. The cost of niaintainance is naturally of prime importance, and to the end that this item shall be as low as possible tlu; most improved system of furnaces for the consumption of cheap fuel should be put in place Leakages of every kind should be reduced to a minimum, economy in the lamp it>eir is of the greatest importance. Economy in this direction means economy at the coal pile. The decision as to the manufacture of lamp that shall be u>ed will depend on the life and economy of the particular lamp, ami on its capacity to maintain its candle power. Some incandescent lamjts^ retain more of the secluded gases than otlier makes, mid consequently blacken m much less time. The system to bj adopted for any particular kind of Htihtinir wid< dept upon the Conditions under which it is to be op^'ratel. If the lightin*'' is to be in a thickly settled portion of the city ami near the station, the direct .system would undoubtedly be selected. In direct lighting the three wir.; syst.3m has bfcn adopted very laig'ly, and results in a great economy in eoppi \ny eoni liict ion, increasing the construction am more oi lie seelndc'l liis discovery of uiujiiiito-iiKlintiun. In Furud.is diMtovciy, Klectric Lightin*^ lakes its rise, and fVoni bis tiuio dati' the inventious that liave niad»; it a possihilitj. Following Farada. P:xi and 8axt(tn jtroduced th»! magneto-electric macliine. The Pixi machine is composed of a tstrong horseshoe jieruianeiit uiag- nct, before the ends of which two spools of cnvered wire wound on \J shaped iron coves are made to revolve. In forminti:, the U shaped ma<^uet, ont; end (»f each hpuol cover is counected with an iron bar, the other end remaininn free, and they tiius form what is termed an electro njagnet. At e.ich half revolution or on every passage of the free ends of the sjiools, before i he cutis of the horseshoe magnet currents are in- duced in the spools, by reason of the magnetism imparted to the iron coves by the largo permanent magiu t, the currents alternating in direc- tion at every passage, the strength of the current depending on the speed of the spools. The exj)lanation of the action I have referred to is as follows : between the free ends of any permantiit magnet are continuously maintained lines of force so termed, made visible by the familiar experiment of placing iron filini^H on a glass plate over the poles of the magnet, and gently shaking the tilings into position, when they assume the form of the passing lines of force or ma;^uetlsm. When a single closed wire coill is passed from the weakest to the stiungest [»art of a field of magnetic force, a current is generated in the wire. If we multiply the convolu- tions of the single coil 50 or 100 times, we can by one rotation of the drum on which the wire has been wound cut the lines of force 50 or 100 times, and remembc-riiig the strength of the current is proportiona to the speed and length of the wire (the strength of the magnet remain, ing the same), we thereby increase the pressure of the current as many times as there are turns of wire on the drum. The lines of magnetism may be represented, though imperfectly, by the lines or rays of heat being radiated from a heated body. If we imagine a copper drum to be rotated in front of the heated body, and on the opposite side of the eo]»per drum j»lace a mass of nietal kept at a low temperature, the copper drum on beiug rotatt;d takes up a portion of the heat given oil' by the heated mass, and imparts that heat to the cold mass. The simile is this: a given amount of energy as heat is converted by the drum on each half-revolution, lii the dynamo-ma- chine a given amount of energy in the form of magnetism is converted on each half-revolution. The amount of energy converted depending upon the difference in potential energy represented in either case. The simile is almost exact, for, in either ease, the conditions remaiti- ing the same, the energy converted is proportional to the speed and to the work done. Some ten years later than Pixi's invention, a compound Pixi machine was constructed, and gave Farada great pleasure. He saw in it the growing infant he had before given the world. I projections. Tin' GrainnK! construotioii, bi.'cii uso of its uiany adviintaj^es, has been adopted by several designees oi" dyiiiinios. The Siemens arm- ature, termed the drum armature, is used very largely by dynamo build- ers, because of (he easi; wiili whieh it can be wound. The Gramme and [Siemens type of armature are more larj^iily used than are any other designs. The Brush armatun; follows the dcsijj;n of Pacionotti. One fourth of this armature is constantly out of connection and does no work. Electric Lii^litinii, to-day, is a business of such magnitude, M». M - a y wBl be astonished at the rapidity of it^s growth. The principal cause of the sudden growth of a system practically in its infimcy in 1878 may be ascribed to two causes: tli(^ Paris Exhibition and tlu; .lablochkoflF Electric Candle exhibited then;. Machines we had, a practical electric lanjp we had not. The Jablochkt)ff candle, so astonishingly simple, seemed destined to fill tlu^ vacancy, and caused a great revival of inter- est in Electric Lighting. The Jablochkoff candle, however, was not to fill the void. It remained for others to devise a lamp more suited for general use than was the .lablochkofl" candle. The Jablochkoff candle is suited to the alternating current only, and never came into extended use because of its unsteady light. On our side of the water new life was given to Electric Lighting by the invention of Brush, of Cleveland. His invention made it possible to sustain many lamps on one wire, a thing electricians said then could not be achieved. In Arc lamps, before the time of Brush, a rock and pinion with a clockwork movement was the most reliable method in use for maintain- ing the carbon rods at a given distance from one another. In such a system, it was impossible to keep more than one lamp burning on one circuit from one machine. Brush devised a very simple method termed a shunt, which forms a part of every lamp, making each lamp independent of each other lamp. Good lamps are now so perfect in action, it is impossible to see the move- ment of the carbon rods as it occurs. Following Brush came many inventors, notably Weston, Maxima, Thomson and Houston, with all of whom you are doubtless familiar. In incandescent lighting experimental attempts date to Page and Star in 1842. Saw3^er and Man, in 1878, were undoubtedly the ori- ginal inventors of the first successful incandescent lamp. The researches of Edison gave great stimulus to that branch of Electric Lio-htino- The incandescent lamp is composed of a carbonized filament of Bam- boo, chemically treated paper, or other suitable substance induced to the requisite thinness. The filament when ready for use is mounted in a suitable glass globe, in which a vacuum to tlie one-millionth atmosphere is then produced, and the globe hermetically sealed by a glass blower. 'The lamp is then mounted as you see them in use. The incandescent form of lamp has been made of various candle power, L^ 1 J^ Tlie alttTiiatiiii; inirrciit luctlKKl ut utiu'r;itiii^ power has bi-eii applieil to the eUctric arc li^lit aiul to chctric iiiotors, imikiiiu; it a ('(iinplete systeui. leaving Hotliiiiii else to bn ch'sJrod. A jinidictioii was inailti at tho hist convention of Kleetrie Ijight mon, that tlie aiternatin^ system will eventually displace all othir systems, by reason of the safety with which the current can be handled by the consumer. This is ;irk ; howevt r the alternating system has of late come into prominence because of its flexibility. 8nia!l liLilit-^ it shorter intervals give a more satisfactory distribution of light than does any system of large lumps, unless the large lights are multiplied so as to cover the territory suffi- ciently to prevent shadows. Uf late the electrical accumulator lias come into prominence as a method of storing electrical energy. While this system has bociuue a valuable adjunct to systems already iu place, I refer to isolated plants alon; — it has not as yet proven economical enough to recommend its If fur economical lighting. It is safe to say, however, the further develnpmeut of this system of storage of power will uiidoubtc'lly be a valuable assistance to the electrical engineer. Some figure.- a> to the number of electric lights of various kinds in use iu the United States may be interesting. The last estimate places the incaiiaescent lamps at 1,750,000, an increase of 29 per cent, in the last year, and the are lamps at l7r),000, an increase of 29 per cent, also in the last ^'ear. This number oi' lamps are contained m 1000 central station and 3000 plants of various kinds, representing approximately $125,000,000 invested iu a business that has been developed since 1878. In concluding, allow me to express a sentiment I know you will echo, that is that evolution is a natural law, and applies no less to electrical inventions than iu other l)L"anelies of science. Every iuveutor has had his device ov >uethod improved by some one following him. Evolution is the guidiiig iiietor. The newly invened machiue is never the perfected one. it was ever so and ever shall continue to be. The present outlook for the future dcvelopinent of Electric Lighting and kindred Electrical appliances is very bright. Astonishing strides have been made in the ten years since the Electric J^ighi and Telephone have been given to the world, and who can say what developments in electrical research as great and ; ter await us iu the future.