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smsssssamm

HINTS AND SUGGESTIONS

SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE

AND

HYGIENE

WITH

PLANS AND ILLUSTRATIONS,

tREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OE THE HONOURABLE
THE MINISTER OE EDUCATION.

* By J. GEORGE HODGINS, m.a., ll.d.,

Dbputv Ministbr.

1-OkONTO ;
PRINTED FOR THE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT.

1886.

^'*

'"^--Vzi-i^^c-^-^-:^^^^^^

CONTENTS.

ity-six,

R.c.™s 0. XHK Ebucxxo. DBP.KXMBKX, i„ regard to School Acconunodation'";
CHAPTEit I. -Character and Scope of this Book

1. General Preliminary Remarks ,«

2. Special Reasons for this Publication iq

3. Things as they now exist amongst us i,

Chapier II. -Selection of the School Site

1. Reasons for Care in the Selection of a School Site [t

-. Practical Application of the Suggestions made . . m

Chapxek III. -School Grounds and Outbuildings ,'

Chapxeb IV. -The School Well, or Water Supply. .,

1. Character of Soils and Under Strata. ... tl

2. Impure Substances held in Solution by Water oo

S. Reasons why each School should have its own Water Supply 23
4. Tests for detecting Organic Impurities in Water 23

0. Characteristics of Pure Water o?

Chapxek V._The Constniction of Latrines, or Privies. ....'.' ."' 26

1. Prelnmnary Considerations in the Construction of Latrines 25
-. Retails m the Construction of the Latrine. 26
■1 Plans of Latrines, or School Privies. . "2"

4. Construction of Urinals for Boys 3^

o. School Lavatories and their Construction 30

b. Cesspool for Lavatory Water and Privy Overflow .■..,■ 32

7. The Dry Earth Closet Vi

«. Disinfectants and Their L^ses ^

Chapxbr VI. -The Wood-Shed . ,

Cua™ VII. -The School Play-Sheds and Grounds.'. .^

Chaptkh Vtll.-Shade Trees, Shrubs and Flowers l,

1. Trees to be Selected VI

2. Care in Planting

3. School Museum of Native Woods t?

Chapter IX.-^Fence and School Entmnces ^

t. Separate Entrances for Boys and Giris . . 45

2. The Vestibules and Cloak Rooms, or Wai-drobes " 4«

Chapxek X. -Pl^n of the School Grounds ^

Chaptbr XI. -The Construction of School Houses ... 1

1. Requirements of a Model School Room 51

2. Details of School Building Construction . . 52

Contents.

CIhaii'KK XII. Heiitiug and Ventilation 'i;'o

1. The (Teneml Principles of Ventilation (iO

2. Number of Cubic Feet of Air per Child (;4

'.i. Systems of Heatinjj and Ventilating School Houses 1(7

4. Heating Air fi-oni Outside by a Htove in tlie Scliool Kooni 71
5^ Fire Escape Drill and^Jioady Exit 74

CiiArTKK XHl. -^Hygienic Value of the Sciiool Hecess 7(;

Chapter XIV.— Windows and Lighting 7<(

1. The Sliape and Size of. tlie Window Siwh H'A

2. How to deal witli Windows witliout Pulleys 84

CuAl'iKR XV.- Sciiool Seats and Desks y.-,

1. Practical Suggestions in carrying out tho Regulations, . . ,S(i

Chaptkr XVI. ^ Importance of School Room Decoration. . ' 88

Chapter XVII. Plans for Rural and Village School Houses <»;j

Chapter XVIH. - Plans for ScIumjI Houses in Cities and Towns km;

Chaiter XIX. -Particulars of Builders' Specifications L2o

Chapter XX. -Hints on Contracts witli Builders l^C.

Inprx ■ 12!)

ra,,,:

.... (10

. (10

. (14

. ti7

llMH

1 71.

. 74

7<;

8(i

!»3

io(;

126

12(i

129

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PiO. Cage.

1. Section of L'liyer and Lower, or Umlergroiiiiil Strata 18

2. Suction of Rock StiiiUi anil Underground Water Shed 19

;>. Percolation from tlie Privy Pit towards the Well 21

4. Section of Privy Seat 27

.">. Front Elevation of Privy . . . . : 27

(i. End Elevation of Privy 27

7. Section of Plan of Privy 28

8. Section through I'ri vy ^'ault 28

\). Latrine for Girls 29

10. Oondiined Unnal and Latrine for Boys 31

11. Secti(jn of Cesspcjol 33

12. Section (jf a Dry Eartli Closet 34

l',i. Section (jf a Dry Ash Sy.steni 36

14. Sample of Fence Paling and Gate 44

15. Block Plan of School Grounds— No. 1 48

1(5. >' '' *' —No. 2 49

17. Sawed Sheeting for Foundation Course 54

18. Cornice of Projecting Bricks, and Section— No. 1 .... 56

JO. •• '> " " — N(.. 2 55

20. Window Openings, Section and Details 5G '

2L " " " " 60 •

22. " " " " 50

2i'». Section of Brick Cornice and Roof i 57

24. Plate Mouldings, Dog Tooth and Other Ornaments, with Section 57

25. '• •• .. •' ■• '• " 57

20. •' - " •• " •• 57

27. " " " " •• " 67

28. System of Brick Bondhig 58

29. A Notched Sill 58

30. A Notched Beam 58

31. Panelled Wainscoting and Section 69

32. Chalk Tray Moulding— No. 1 59

33. " " —No. 2 59

34. Double Windows, with Opening , 61

;{5. " '' " '...■■ 61

30. Air Inlets through Window Sashes 62

37. Section of School Room showing Heating Ajjpift-atus, etc 68

.S8. Plan of Stove Heating by Hot Air. . 72

39. Section of School House, showhig Air Currents and Ventilation 73

40. Window Openings, showing Outside Cornice 84

41. Window Ventilation 84

List of Illustrations.

42.

43.
44.

46.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
66.
5(j.
57.
58.
55).
60.
(il.
(>2.
fi3.
«4.
66.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.

Paije

Designs for a Rural or Village School House 93

Ground Plan of Rurol nr Village Schunl House 94

Design for a Rural School or Village Primary One 95

Ground Plan of Rooms for a Village Gi-mled School 96

Design for a Rural or Village School House 97

Ground Plan adapted to the Foregt)ing Design 98

Batten for Outside Vortical Matched Boards 99

Design for a Rural or Village School House 99

Ground Plan for a Rural or Village Graded School 100

Section of the School House (Figs. 51 and 52) 101

Design for a Gi-aded, Rural or Village School House 102

Ground Plan for a Graded, Rural or Village School 103

Ground Plan of a Two-Story School House 103

Upper Floor of a Two-Story School House 104

Design of a Rural School House, Litchfield, (Connecticut 106

Cxround Plan of the Foregoing Design 105

Design for a City or Town School House *109

Ground Plan adapted to the Foregoing Design 110

Ground Plan of a Two-Stoiy School House HI

Tapper Floor of a Two-Stoiy School House 112

Design f<n- a Two-Stoiy Scliool House 1 13

Ground Plan ivdaptod to the Foregoing Design 114

Second Floor adapted to Designs (»0 and (i4 115

Ground Plan of the Park Street Scliool, Portlatid, Oregon 116

Plan of the Upper Floor of the Park Street School, Portland, Oregon . 117

Design f()r the Whittier School House, Denver, Colorado 118

Ground Plan of the VVliittier School House. Denver, Colonuio 119

Ground Plan of the Gilpin School, Denver, Colorailo . 120

Design for the Welch Training School, New Haven, Connecticut 121

Ground Plan of " " " " " 122

Plan of the First Floor of Couch School House, Portland, Oregon 123

Plan of the Second Floor " " " " " 124

HINTS AND SUGGESTIONS

SCHOOL HOUSE ARCHITECTURE.

'I'be following are the general f)fticial Regulations in regard to Sch(X)l
Accommodation in Ontario: —

(1) By secLion 40 of the Public Schools' Act, 1885, Trustees of rural schools are
required to provide adequate accommodation for at least two-thirds of the actual
residents between the iiges of live and twenty-one years.. In the case of cities, towns
nud incorporated villages, there is no limitation.

School Site.

(2) Every school site should be on a well travelled road, as far removed as possible
from a swamp or marsh, and so elevated ivs to tulmit of easy drainage.

(3) The school grounds should be properly levelled and drained, planted with shade
trees and enclosed by a substanti.vl fence.

(4) There should be a- well or other means for procuring water, so placed and
guarded as to be perfectly secure against pollution from surface drainage or filth of any
kind.

(5) The area of the school site should not be less than half an acre in extent, and if
the school population of the section exceeds seventy-five the area should be one acre.

((i) The water-closets for the sexes should be several feet apart, and under diiferent
roofs. "Their entrances should V)e screened from observation.

. (7) Proper care should be taken to secure cleanliness and to prevent unpleiisant and
inihealthy odours.

(8) Suitable walks should be made from the school house to the water-closets, so
that the closets may be reached with comfort in all kinds (if weather.

School Hwise.

(9) The school house should be placed at least thirty feet from the public highway.

(10) Where tho school population of the section exceeds <mo iiundred, the school
house should contain two rooms ; where it exceeds one hundred and fifty, three rooms
— an additional room being retpiired for each additional fifty puj)ils.

School House AccojimodationI

(11) In each room the area should be at least twelve square feet on che floor, and
there sliould be at least two hundred^and fifty cubic feet of air space, for each pupil.

(12) There should be separate entrances with covered porches and suitable cloak-
rooms for boys and girls.

(13) The heating apparatus should be so placed as to keep a unifoi-m temperature
tliroughout the room, of at loast sixty-seven decrees during the wlu>]e day.

(14) The windows (both sashes) should be adjusted by weights and pulleys, and
providetl with blinds.

(1.*^) Care should be taken t<j arrange U>r such ventilation as will secure a comjdete
change of atmospliere three times every hour.

Sclioul Furniture.

(16) The seats and desks should be so arranged that tlie pupils may sit facing the
teacher. Not more than two pupils should be .allowed to sit at one desk, but single-
seatetl desks are prefer* jd.

(17) Tlie height of the seats should be so graduated that pupils of difleient si;«e8 may
be seated with their feet resting firndy upon the flooi*. The backs should slope back-
waixls two or three inches from the perpendicidar.

(18) The seats and desks shoidd be fastened to the floor in rows, with aisles of
sultiible widtli between tlic rows ; ])iissages, at least three feet wide sliould be loft
between the outside rows and the side and th" -oar walls of the room, and a spate from
three to Ave feet wide between the teacher's platform and the front desks.

(19) Each desk should be so placed that its front edge may project slightly over the
edge of the seat behind it. The desk should bo provided with a shelf for pupils' books,
and the seat should slope a little towards the back.

(20) A sutHcient nuinbtM- i.f seats and desks should bo j>rovided for the acconnnoda-
tion of aH the pupils ordinarily in attendance at the school. There should be at least
two ordinal'^ chiuv's in addition to the teacher's chair.

(21) The desks should be of three different si/;es. The following dimensions are
recommended : — ^

1 i ,

AV.K OF PUPILS.

Five to Eisf'it years ....

Eiffht to Ten yoiirrt

Ten to Thii-ti'on years . . .
Thirteen to Uixteoii years

Chaths oh Seats.

H<'ight.

Slope

Front.

Rear.

Back.

12 in.
l.S "
14 "
If) "

114 m.
12 "

i;u "

15| "

2 in.

2 "
24 "

3 "

Dk.hKs.

Chap. I.

Chauacter and Scope of this Book.

Blackboard, (riohis and MapH.

(22) There should be cine blackboard at least fovir foef wide, extending acroKs the
whole room in rear of the teacher's desk, with its lower edge n(jt more than two and a
half feet I'bove the floor or platform, and, when jjossible, there sliould be an additional
blackboard on esioh side of the room. At the lower edge^Jf each blackboard there
should be a shelf oi' trough live inches wide for holding crayons and brushes.

The following directions for makiiig a blackl)oard may bo found useful : —

(a) If the walls are brick, the plaster should be laid upon the brick and not upon the
laths as elsewhere ; if fi-ame, the part to be used for a blackboard should be lined with
boardrt, and the laths for holding the plaster nailed firmly on the boards.

(b) The pl.'ifter for the blackboard should be composed largely of plaster of Paris.
(<•) Before and aftgr iiaving received the first coat of colour it sn.^.ld be thoroughly

polished with fine sand i)aper.

((/) The colouring matter should be laid on with a wide, flat varnish brush.

(f.) The li(|uid colouring should be made as follows: — Dissolve gum shellac in alcohol,
four ounces to the cjuart ; the alcohol should be 95 per cent, strong ; the dissolving
process will recpiire at least twelve hours. Fine emery flour with enough crome green
or lamjiblivck to give colour should then be ailded until the mixture has the consistency
of thin paint. It may then be ajiplied in long, even strokes, up and down, the liiiuid
being kept constantly stirred.

(28) Every school shoidd have at least (a) one globe 'not less than nine inches in
diameter, jiroperly mounted ; (/)) a map of Cana^la : (c) a maj) of Ontario ; {<!) majis of
the World Q,nd the difi"erent Continents ; {<:) one or more ^ets of Tablet lessons of Part
I. of the First Remlor ; (/) a standani Dictioliary and Gazetteer ; (j,) a numeral frame ;
and a suitable supply of crayons and blackboard brushes.

CHAPTER I.

CF.VRACTER AND SCOPE OF THIS BOOK.

in.

2.S

((

1. This work proposes to deal witli tlio subjects nainerl in the table
of contents — more with the view to funiish trustees and otliei-s con-
nected with our s?chools with the latest and most practical information in
regard to school acccnnmodation and school house construction, than with
the design of theorizing on the subject. In a work of tins kind, which,
from the nature of the siibject, is largely technical, well ascertained facts
and trustworthy experience are alone of value.

This chapter is introductory, and tonclies on the following itmtter.s : —

(t) General Preliminary Remarks.

(2) S])ecial Reuaons for this Publicati<>n.

(:^) Things as they now exist amongst us.

Special Rkasons for this Publication.

Chak I.

I. General Preliminary Remarks.

2. Tlie Regulations (juoterl above contain certain important principles
of school liouse construction and arrangement, for the convenience and
health, alike of pupil and teacher, which it is the design of the following
pages to illustrate and explain. Thej^ will, it is hoped, greatly facilitate
the work of Trustees in providing neat, connnodious and healthy school
houses.

:i. It is of the utmost importance that the greatest hannony should
pr(!vail amongst those who prescribe, those who oversee, and those wlio
carry out these important and necessary Regulations of the Department —
designed as they are, for the benefit, health and well-being ()f pupils
antl teachers. Most of the former are of tender years and attend scliool
at a critical period of their lives, when wisdom and prudence should dic-
tate that the rich and precious heritage of abounding life — tender and
<lelicate as it nevertheless is — should be carefully conserved, instead of
being so often injured or wasted (often ignorantly and thoughtlessly) in
badlv cfmstructt'd and ill-ventilated school houses.

f i

2. Special Reasons for this Pithlication.

4. It is with the view to a better understanding of what is abso-
lutely necessary to be done, and what extensive and unvarying experience
tells us must be dinie, in the matter of school buihlingand acconnnodation,
that the following pages have been prepared.

'). It is to be hoped that they will be carefully read by Trustees who
propose building, or improving the sanitary arrangement ol their scliool
house and premises. They will be found to contain no matters of nunv,
speculation oi" theory. They deal with matters of fact ; and they contain
no suggestions hut those wliich are the result of the practical experience
of expei-ts, and those most eom[)etent ho judge and to advise on sucli
questions.

(). It is a matter of congratulation that the subject of .school archi-
tecture and of the interior construction and arrangement of school houses,
has, of late years, i-eceived great attention at the hands of educators
genei'ally. Skilled architects an<l medical experts in varioii eountri,!8
have l»een consulted and asked to offtM- their counsels and practical sug-
gesticms (»n this most important matter. The results of these counsels and
suggestions have been prepared in such a shape that they form a body
of mo.st valuable material on the subject. It is proposed, in this book,
to use this material for the Vjenetit of the schools of this Province.

7. Our own Provincial Board of Health, too, has devoted a large share
-of attention to this subject. It has, by means of circulai's addressed to
teachers and trustees throughout Ontario, obtained a vai-ied amount of
information in regard to -the, present condition of the .school houses. This
the Board has embodied in its i-ejiort foi* 188.'}. In addition to this
informaticm, special papers on School Hygiene and kindnid subjects have

Chai'. 1.

Things as They now Exist amongst Us.

also bft'ii prepared for the report by members oi' the Board. To these
they have added the results ot" their own professional experience, fortified,
as it so largely is, b}' similar experience on iha part of noted scientists
and eminent physicians and observers elsewhere.

.S. It will be seen, therefore, that if Trustees err in the future in regard
to this part of their work, they will do so withoit any excuse. They
will do so, too, in opposition to tlie wisest counsels and moat imperative
warnings of nien who speak of facts carefully observed and noted. These
uicn tell us that the foul aii" which, day by day and year by year, children
of jdl ages and constitixtions are compelled to breathe in some of our school
houses is poisonous and deatlly — the " ill effects of which neither the open
window nor the school recess"* is able to counteract in an}- pei-ceptible
degree. Statistics, too, corroborated V)y sad experiences, tell us that most
valuable lives of teachers are yearly literally sacrificed to the parsimony
or ill-advised ecotiomy of many of those who have to do with the choice
of school sites nnd the erecti<m of school houses. -f-'

:l TniNtJs AS They now Exist amongst Us.

9. A word as to the state c)f things which now exists amongst us, and
against the continuance of which an earnest Init kindly word of warning
is uttered in this work. Mr. l^avid Fotheringham, the Public School In-
spectf)r for North York, in his lecture on " School-room H^'giene," pub-
lished in 1<S(S1. .says: —

" ^)n^^ (»f the moat fre(jvient and most iiiexcusahlu mistnkus of the school-room is tf)
allow forty, tiftj', or even eighty or ninety pairs of lungs to use up the vitalizing oxygen
and load the atnioajtliere with the poisonous exhalatit>n8 of the body for half an hour,
or an hour, without any intelligent ettbrt to preserve the purity, or remove the
impurities. t>f the air.

"Too often, even now, after ten yeai-s of earnest effort to secure pure air and clear
minds in schools, do I enter rooms almost hermetically sealed — with tifty or sixty
prociotis lives languishing in what soon might become another 'Black Hole' — without
an-angenienta of any kind for the regular and mpid escajje of the f(btid and used-up
air, or the atlmission of the pure and bracing.

"Talk of ununming I Talk of home study 1 I dare assert that for om- child that
is injured by these, o/ic hnmlred are enfeeble<l for life by the insane indifference of the

• See Index for the paragraph on the nubject of tin- " schtMil recenn."

tMr. J. DeiirnegK, P. S. I. of Ka»t Middlesex, in a jhukt on the "Hanitj-ry (.'ojidition of
H\iral Schools " way», "Dr. Workman [of Toixjuto] Iuih made a caretnl f!<tiniutc, from the Tables
of tlu! RegiHtrar-lIenerHl, and an'ivcK at the conclusion that the avenvfje life of the teacher is
38 lO-l'J, and further, frmi the same tul)lew, BhowH that the proiHirtinnof deaths from oousuniption
among teacherK it< gieater than anions seaniHtreH^eH, and In in fact lower than in only one other
occupation. If, then, life in the Nch(K)l-room w so prejudicial to the health of the adult teaclier,
what must it lu- to that rif the tender, tnuleveloped child?"

Things as Thkv now Exist amongst Us.

Chap. I.

general public, of school authorities, and even of some teachers, to the state of the
school-roouj. "*

10. The Provincial Board of Health has tahulated the result of its
enquiries in re<rarcl to tlie hyi'^ienic condition of the .school houses in this
Province, and has sunnnari :e(l that result in a few earnest words. I
shall make one or two extracts from this summary. • The Board says :

"It appears that only eight per cent, of the Ontario schools have frf)ni 500 cubic
feet to 1,000 for each pu])il. . . . After a full consideration, I'.is Board ex-
pressed the conviction by a restjlution unanimously adopted that 500 cubic feet should
be the minimum ; and that this small sjKace should be permitted only where there are
such sufficient means of ventilation and heating as will change the air six times per
hour. ...

"Only eiglit jier cent, of the schools are within the luiiiiintim standard of alk-tted
air-space I . . . Less than 300 cubic feet is most commonly reported as the allotted
air-spivce for each pupil ; about forty per cent, report an air-sp;ice of less than 200 cubic
feet. There are some cases in which scholars are confined in an air-space of less than
100 feet, while the least space given to each pupil is 40 cubic feet I"

11. Thus we see that nearly sixty per cent, of our schools do not
allow the children even a near approach to one-half of the air-space which
com})etent medical authority declares to be the very minimum to be
allowed. The result of this and other defects in school acconnnodatitm is
pointed out in strong language by the Board. Speaking of the prevalence
of typhoid fever and diphtheria, it says : —

"It is evident that these two diseases cause a higher rate o mortality in rural dis-
tricts as C(jmpared with the total number t>f deaths from all causes, than in cities. The
carelessness regarding water supply, drainage, location and management of outbuildings,
etc., in virral [school] sections, no doubt operates ius a cause in producing this undesir-
able aiul anomalous condition of aifaii's. Remove the cause as it is found to exist in our
schools anil siirroundings. We shall then make an important step in the right direction.

*Dr. J. R. Nichols, Editor of the Boston Journal of Ch<mi$try, in his " Hcience at Home,"
deals witli thin iiiattcr in a trfnchant manner. He says :— " It is the chemical chanije which
renultH in air which reiidevK it initit for fui-thcr use. It is reaHonahle to siippoxe— in fact we
know— tiiat rt'-breatiifd air ii* little k'HH than jwison to the bloofl. . . . A vigorous concti-
tutioii may tight hravoly and JMM-Mistently against tlie iTiflucncc of jwison (such as this), but the
crash comes at last. No one can subsist for many yeai-s upon re-l)reathed air. ...

'"We do not know precisely how re-lireathed air produces its deleterious influence. ... It
is certain, however, tiiat its effects are fatal to healtii. . . . It is . . . probable that imj)u re, or
re-hreatlied, air is the greatest agent of evil in indiu'ing, and rendering fatal, |ndnioiiary afFectiona.
The crowded, badly ventilated school-room is often the place where, early in life, re-breathed air
commences its deadly work. Not one school-room in a hundred in this countrj* is a lit place in
which to ofmfine children six or eight hours a day. The little ones are herded together in a
proniiscuods crowd : those of tender years and those more advanced, the feeble and the stnnig,
the sickly and the well, are all .subjected to the same hours of study, the same school discipline,
and all breathe the same deleterious air. The hardy ami the strong may be able to resist the
influence <«f the (xiison ; the weak and tender ones grow pale and haggard, and struggling on
through their school-days, live perhajis to the age of iml;)erty, and then drop into a consumptive's
grave! Wilt imn-ntu iwrer awiiken to the nnjnnitp of this ivil .■"'

Chap. II.

Selection of the School Site.

-s-*-

Phthisis (coiisuHiption) stands tirst among the ten diseases causing the greatest number
of deaths in Ontario. It annually destroys more than twice as ni^vny lives as diphtheria
— (a disease dreaded by evei-y one)*

" Improved methods oi heating and ven*:ilation in o»xr scho<jl rooms are demanded
most ui-gently to assist in lessening the liu^o number of deaths annually aacribed to thi^
prevojitable diaeaEe.t

12. Here are two incontrovertible facts stated — tiio truth of which
ought to come home to the heart of every parent in Ontario. The had air
of oui- school houses and bad water are annually either taking away the
pi'ecious lives of our children, or undermining their constitutions. That is
one clear and incontrovertible fact. The other fact is, that this state of
things is " preventahle." This the medical experts tell us is so ; and they
tell us that it is in our power, humanly speaking, to prevent this waste
of the young life of our country.

CHAPTER II.

SELECTION OF THE SCHOOL SITE.

"i?. Emrij school site should he on a well-travelled road, as far removed as^possible
from a. swamj^ or marsh, and so elevated as to admit of easy drainage." — Regulations,
1885.

" 5. The area of the school site shoidd not be less tlum half an acre in extent, and. if
the school population of the section e.cceeds seventy-Jivv, the area should be an acre," — Ibid.

13. The law points nut the legal mode by which the freehold of school
.sites may be secured by trustees. I shall, therefore, say nothing here on
that subject.

" A School House on every Hill-top."

14. This is the educational motto of the State of Iowa Such a motto
is invaluable as a guiding principle in the selection of a school site.
Every school site should be, if possible, on an elevated piece of ground, a
knoll, or a gentle slopi^ The reason is obvious. The drainage, i,oo
should be fronn the schi'i house, and especially from the well.

Reasons for care in the Selection of a School Site.

15. The great importance of selecting a school site wisely and well is
such that I shall dwell a littK' on iho subject in a practical way, and shall
qxiote the several authorities who enlarge upon and emphasize tlie absolute
necessity of the greatest care being exercised in the choice of a situation
for the site of a school house.

•Dr. H. P. YeomanH in his reijort on School Hygione, to the Provincial Board of Heaitli (1883)
says "that the great prevalence of phthisis islnrgely due to neglect of Hchool Hygiene."

t Other authorities will beciuoted in the cliapter especially devoted to this .subject. See note*
on preceding page.

Reasons for Care in Selection of Sitk.

Chap. II.

' (1) Mr. Dearness, Public School Inspector for West Middlesex, in his
paper published in the Report of the Provincial Board of Health for
1883, .says :

" In rural sections, wliere land is comparatively cheap, the choice need not be con-
fined to one particular spot." He also adds that, properly speaknig, it ought to consist
"of two or three acres, with ample r(H)m for wood-shed, play-shed, outhouses, rows of
trees, flower plots and a teacher's residence. "

He then practically remarky as to the most desirable aspect for a
school house : —

" If it costs a few dollars more to purchtise a site affording a southern aspect for the
school house, than one that makes the school open to the north, it should be done, as
the latter are as a rule colder and more comfortless, with a larger consumption of
fuel, and consequently a greater exjtense tlverefor, and in such tliere are more tiouble
and more necessity to keep the outside porches and stormdoors in good repair. They
lack the genial and health-giving influence of an open doorway filled with sunlight
on the bright spring days ; the front yard reuiains damp and muddy much longer,
and the flower-beds, where such are made, are not so attractive. It is generally pre-
ferable to build the school house near the back of the site. [This] . . . affoitla the
teacher opportunity for supervision of the cliildren din'ing play-time ; the windows
are less liable to V>o broken, than if the school house were in the middle or the front
of the yard, and the boys' and girls' private yaids can be more effectually separated.'"

(2) In an injportant oifieial document on " School Arcliitecture," recently
prepared by Mr. T. M. Clark, an architect of Boston, under th(! din^ction
of Hon. John Eaton, United States Commissioner of Education at Washing-
Um, 1 find the following weighty- reasons given why great care should be
exercised in the choice of a school site : —

" Whatever condition of dryness of soil, sunny exposure, or remoteness from ma'aria
or nuisances of any kind are desirable for a dwelling house ous);ht to be still more
earnestly sought in the case of school buildings, where the most isitivo and helpless
members of the community spend the fl[reater part of their waking liours under circum-
stiince.s which render Hiem peculiarly powerless to repel noxious influences if such exist.
It is well known that persons engaged '•. active physiciil employment enjoj' immunity .
in the midst of effluvia which would seriously affect them in a quiescent state, and
children in school are especially open to the attacks of noxious miasms, chills, contagious*
and impure air, not only from their state of physicial inaction but from the concenti'ation
of their attention upon study to the neglect of their bodily sensations. As the long
continuance and daily repetition of the exposure exhaust their natural powers of resist-
ance, it is inexcusable cruelty to them to neglect the simple precautions by which at
least ctimparative salubrity may be so easily attained."

(3) In regard to the <lrainage of the lot, he says that special care should
be taken that —

"No permanent moisture should be found on the surface of the lot, nor is it safe
to permit the existence of depres-^tions in which the water collects in heavy rains. . . .
Such spots are the worat possible breeders of malaria. They should bo drained by
ditches cut through them in the diy season as deep as possible, and filled with loose
stones, or even brushwood, and the hollow should then be graded up considerably above

Chap. II.

Selw'tion of the School Site.

the surrounding land. If thore is much WMt«§r or the soil is vtry conipa«!t, til's drain
should be carried, by means of pipes, if convenient, to some outfuU at a lower level.
(Jradiiig iilone, without drainage, is useless ; the water collects just as before, only con-
cealed by the looso new material. With propir drainage, the newly added earth, kept
dry beneath, will gradually settle down to about tiiiee-fourtlis of its original bulk, and
with the help of the sod which will grow over the surface, the wet place will be per-
manently cuiel."

(4) Mr. J. Hess, an educationist, makes the following practical sug-
gt'stion on this subject in the Michigan School Report for 1882. He says : —

" Scho(d Boards should always select a .»chool site of moderately high elevation, and
if possible with sand or gravel suVjsoil. Beft)re the building is erected, the ground
under the building should be cleared of all rubbish and vegetjition, and the surface
should be slightly raised above the lot on the outside of the building and given a
gradual slope away from the building on all side-*. In this manner a great amount of
dampness and the fernient-ttion of vegetable matter under the building, with the accom-
panying uuvvholesouie air which would find its way through the rooms above, would be
obviated, and outside surface drainage would be turned away in all directions from the
building."

(.5) Tlie State Superintoudent of Wisconsin, in his report for 1881,
gives a suunuar}' of reasons as to ivluit a school site should not he, and
as to where it should vot he, viz. : —

1. -In to the fvpoHiirc uf the childiva to ii(ilnr, dunifer, and deinor(tlizin<j infliiencex.

(1) The site should not be in the vicinity of any mill or factory, blacksmith or wagt»n
shop, any railroad or raih'oad depot, nor any store, h(.)tel, or saloon.

(2) The dangers attending the location of a school-house near the banks of a river,
lake, or mill pond, are well known.

2. .4,s to hridth reijuirane'itn.

(1) The site should be remote from any low or marshy ground, stagnant water, cess-
pools, and openings of sewers.

(2) It should not be near any cheese factory, burying ground, butcher shop, or meat
market.

(3) It should be condemned if its soil is naturaUy damp and cannot be thorough'y
and permanently drained ; and if it allows, from the nature of the surface, pools of
water to collect upon or near it, or any part of it to be overflowed by the heavy rains.

(4) The grounds are usually objectionable when their depressions must be artifici-
ally tilled to provide a place for the house and level spots fur the children's yard. A
site whose soil is composed in whole or in part of sawdust should never be chosen.

(5) A gravel or sandy bed beneath the surface soil is preferred to heavy clay < r com-
pact muck, as it facilitates the draining of the rain water and the circulation of the
ground air.

(6) Under no circiunstances should moisture be permitted to gather under the
school-house, thus producing a damp subsoil. Tliis moisture not only causes the sills
and the floor connected with them to decay rapidly, but it permeates the building and
is very injurious tt> the h-^alth of the school. No contrivances f ir the ventilati<m of

!' ■

It) ^

APPUCATIUN of FOUEUOING SL'OOESTIONS.

CUAP. 11.

the cellar and Bchool rooms can offset this defect. When required, deep drains should
be dug on the outside of the foundations of the house, and the watQr inclined to collect
under the house should he effectually conducted away by them. •

(7) The school-house should never be built in a dense wood, where the rays of the
sun cannot enter the windows ; nor tall, some time during the day, upon nearly everj-
portion of the site. The gnmnds around the house should be so free from trees with
thick brunches that the air can readily circulate over the play -yards and through the
windows of the house, when opened.

(8) It is very desirable that the svu-face of the ground should incline toward the
south or the east ; and never sharply toward the nqpth if it can possibly be avoided.

(9) The .situation, while dry and well elevated, should be sheltered, if possible, from
the westerly winds, by higlier grounds, or by trees growing in a forest or planted on or
near the site.

(6) Mr. J. Johonnot, a New York school architect, thus sums up the
fatal effects of carelessness in the choice of a school site. He says : —

•' It should be at a distance from iill sources of malaria. Tlu; foul breath of decay-
ing vegetiition, or of stagnant water, becomes a fruitful source of disease and death.
Unseen and unnoticed it insidiously does its work, and spreads the atnu>sphere of the
cluirnel-houHe as far as its influence extends. The di.sea.ses seeming to be ejiidemic
which sometimes break out in schools may often be tmced to some neighbouring swamp
or marsh, or heap of rotting vjjgetables. Some manufactures also generate 'dissigreeable
gases, which, if breathed for any considerable time, are deletericms in the extreme.
The school house should be ])laced at a distance from all of these sources of disease.

Practical Application of the Foregoing Suggestions.

10. I would now say a few words on the valuable practical sugg(!stions
and advice contained in the foregoing extracts : —

(1) They should be carefully read and most candidly considered by
Trustees and others ha\'ing to do with the choice of school sites. They
are w'ords of wisdom and experience; and, as such, connnend theinsel\''S
to our bettei' judgment and good sense. Neglect of these practical coun-
sels and warnings may endanger the precious lives of hundreds of children
— the future hope of the eountiy.

(2) These extracts aj'e the result of careful — often painful — experience
and observation. It may, however, be said by those who have oidy a
superficial knowledge of these matters, and that too founded cm local and
cui"sor\' observation, that thev are too decided in tlieir tone and too sti-onof in
their statements. To all such I would repeat what the writer of the last
exti'act has said — the truth of which will be borne out by the experience

\^ of any observant physician : —

" The diseases seemivr/ to be epidemic, vjldch sometimes break out in
ftchooLs, may often be traeed to some neighbouring sivainp, or marsh, or
heap of rotting vegetable's. . . . The font breath of decaying vegeta-
tion, or of stagnant luater, becomes a fruitful source of disease and death.
Unseen and unnoticed it inaidioivsly does its vjoi'k and spreads the
utmos'phere of the chaynel-honse as faV as its influence extends."

€hai's.III.,IV.

School Grounds, Outbuildinos.

17. it in gratifyin}^' to know, as T have alread}'^ sliown in th^riixtract
from the Report of the Provincial Board of Health, that —

A-ix OF THESE Evils are " Preventable."

CHAPTER III.

SCHOOL GROUNDS AND OUTBUILDINGS.

18. Although not nece.s.sarily next in order, yet naturally it is so, that
the subject of the grounds and outbuildings should receive attention after
the school site has been chosen. As a general rule they do not ; but the
erection of the school house is the first thing proceeded with after the
school site has been secured. Before building, however, the following
matters slujuld be considered and provided for, not necessarily in the
order here indicated, but as may be most convenient to the trustees, viz. : —

1. The School Well, or Water supply.

2. The Privies, or Latrines.

3. The W(K)d Shed.

4. The Play Shed (for wet weather).

5. Shade Trees and Shrubs.

6. Fences and School Entrances.

7. Plan of the School Grounds.

19. The recently instituted " Arbor Bay " in Ontario gives a new
significance to this fifth ite:;i. and eiupbasizes" the importance and value of
shade trees and riowers in a properly a!'iu!,fed or equipped school site.
•<See Chapter ' 'II. on this subjt»<'t.)

III

M'il

CnAVTEli IV.

THE SCHOOL WELb, OR WATER SUPPLY.

" 4. Tliere .ilinuld he u kvU, )>i otlwi] n>*'(ntifu7- proc^mng tvater, so placed au'i . i • /■ '/
lis ill hr ptrfedlij secxvc (iflnhtsf iH'llniinn from surface droinarje or filth nfanyhmL"
-Bi'ipihitioiiti, ISSfj.

20. Next to the subject ol the proper ventilation of school houses, none
has of late years received so umch anxious consideration as that of the
water supply of schools for (h'inking purposes. So liable, too, is the un-
skilled or unpractised obser\er to be )uisled by appearances in this matter
that the Board of Health for the State of New Hampshire, in a circular
issued <iuring the current ybar(^S8'5), calls special attention to the subject,
and utters a note of warning whicli should not he disregarded. The
Board thus speaks of the startling fact, that —

III

- ■ ^

r^'

HouooL Well and Water Supply.

Chap. IV>

" Polluted ivell utiter Ih often del'w'ums to the taste, and lookn piiir and
HparHln;/. Itn pollat'>on, ia 7iot recof/nizcd cxccftt by tesfx and ana.li/s'iH ;*"
h'livc the dauf/eroas poisons, like the nitrates, aUmnuno'nl ammonlc, etc.,
mat/ h' dra/nk without auxplcion."

21. A writer in the same Report .says : —

"Cuiitiiitiinated water may produce directly well-marked diseases ; in uther cases it
uiay only lower the vital tone . The impurities of the water are acting as a

slow secret fioison, to the fountains of strength and vigour."''

22. So iiiufli depends on having pure water for use in a scliool tluit
it is ahnost criminal to make no provision on tlie school grounds for a sup-
ply of such water. Yet the matter is often neglected, and chililren are
fre({U(!ntly forced to re.sort to neighbouring wells, to sui'face water, swamps
or other doubtful .sources of suppl}'.

23. In selecting a school site the certainty of being able to obtain
good water by means of a well on the premises is a matter of prime
necessity. It has been suggested that one of the conditions of purcluuse
should be that a suitable well could be sunk on the .site. A bond could
be given to that effect.

24. Mr. T. M. Clark, in his work on School Architecture, i.ssued by the
United States Connnissioner of Educatioi\, gives good advice on this
subject and pi-actically illustrates it by the tigia-es 1 and 2. He says :

(1) " By ciu-eful observation of tlie ground, it is not ditticult to loiate with tolerable
certainty the points where wells can be sunk with the best prospect of finding water
It should be borne in mind that the Bubterranean water from which wells are supplied

Fk;. 1.

moves through th^ ground in rivulets and larger streams which run along the depres-
sions in the lower strata in the same way that the visible V)rooks and rivers do upon the
Hurface, each stream draining an underground wnh^rshed of a certain extent. If a well

• For t«8t8 to detect organic iinpuritieB in drinkhijf water, see paragraph under that heading
on page 23. See alsp tlie exphmation given on j)»ge lift (n<»te t) nf the H.cientific terinw here used.

•Chap. IV.

School Wkli> and Water Supply.

19'^

is sunk anywhere on the line of one of these suhterranean hr<K)k8, water will he
found ; and the tirat thing to be done, in selecting a 8i)ot to dig, is to determine
the location of such streams as may exist below the surface of the given lot. In
4illuvial soils, wlieio '' hardpun " or some similar stratum of e.arth fonns the impervious
layer above which the ground water collects, the various depressions and valleys in the
** hardpan" are generally indicated by corresponding though slight deprea8i4)ns in the
natural surface immediately above theiu, and the course of these idmost imporcuptiblu
surface hollows having lieing once traced, a well sunk on the centre lino is pretty sure
t4> reach the middle of the underground channel, and thus intercept whatever water
may How through if.

(2) " A basin, Fig. 1, on the surface would indicate a similar hollow below, fonuing
« subterninean pool, but as one of these may not exist in a gr)od position relatively to
the j)ropoMed building, it is generally quite as well to trace the course of the smaller
underground brooks until one is found which flows ccmveniently near, an<l tap it in the
mosl suitable i)lace. In rocky districts the course of the ground waters are more
<litticult to follow. The subterranean channel, or Thdlwaj, is there often not below the
middle line of the corresponding depression in the surface soil, but at (jne side of it or
the other, according to the inclination of the strata or the cleavage lines of the rocks in
the locality.

• p

/ ii

Kio. 2,

llfl

(3) " Thus, in Fig 2, which shows a section of such a «loi>ression, the main channel
of the water flowing over the ledge iH to be found, not under C, which would be the
lowest ])art of the natural surface, but »nider X, some distance toward one side.
However, an ni)i)roximate estiniiite of the probable position may generally be made
by judging where a line, P Q, drawn at the edge of the valley at the angle with the
horizon corresponding with the general inclination of the strata, would intersect another
line, D Q, dniwn fi'om the other boundary of the valley and following the general incli-
nation of the surface of the ledge, which is shown by the i)ortion which croi)s out, and
can also, to srmie extent, bo detected from the j)rofile of the soil above it

" After the positions of the subterranean collecting pools or channels are determined
with reasonable probability, care should be taken to trace the soui-ces from which they
gather their watei-s. In rocky districts especially, impure water flows unchanged over
the surface of the buried ledges or through their seams for long distances, and it should
be positively ascertained that no barnyard, graveyard, stable, sink, drain, vault, cess-

School Well and Water Supply.

(HAP. IV.

pool or other nuisance contributes luiything, even during the heaviest rains, to the^
school house well. If there is any suspicion of contamination, the well must he dug in
another place. . . .

"When all is ready, the well is to be steined up with rough stone or brick ; the
"pper two or three feet should be built with hard l>rick in cement, and a brick dome
in cement should bo built over the top, leaving a fifteen inch manhole covered by a flat
stone, set in cement. A well sy built will be reasonably free from drowned toiuls,
worms, grii88hopi)ein and other animals, and if the suction pipe to the [mmp be made
with the immeined end of block tin, as it should be, the danger of jjoisoning fhe children
in tlieir drinking water will be reduced within comparatively small limits.

(4) "In alluvial, sandy or gmvelly localities, the tube or driven wells have some

<lecided advantages. They are cheap and clean, the strainer at the point and tlie tight

ii-on tube effectually preventing contamination from surfiice water or doiul animals. In

cjise of need, several tubes can be driven and coupled together, multiplying the capacity

. very greatly, but a Ij-inch tube will generally supply .all the wants of a small school."*

25. Thi.s iiit'ormatioii an«l the (lireetions which accoinpanj' it are
admirable, and .should, a.s far as possible, be carefully followed. The
writer adds tne following useful suggestions : —

' ' Tile water supply once secured, the next step should be to determine the position
of the building upon the ground, which cannot, or should not, be defiititely d(me before
the successful sinking of the well. In general, a spot should be chosen from which the
ground slopes naturally in every directicm, if such can be found sufficiently near the level
of the well to make sure that the lift from tlie water surfiice to tliepuuipin the building
will not be too great. A site of this description will afford a dry basement.

" Side hills areless desimble, as excavations in such situations are apt to be occupied
in wet weather by temporary springs due to tiie flow of water from the higher land
above. If, however, a sloping site is unavoidable, the springs and water courses should
be carefully noted after and daring some lioavy rain before the excavation is commenced,
and avoided as far as possible. Level ground may be good or Imd acc( )rding to circum-
stances, but if wliolly or partly suiToundcd by higher portions it is sure to be wet.

"Any moisture which may s^iow itself under the projxjsed building must be cut off
permanently by diains. Water flowing down a slope towanl the site may best be inter-
cepted by a semi-circular trench inclosing the upper part of the building, a few feet
distant fr.mi it. The trencli sliouhl extend some inches below the level of the lowest
part of the excavations for the building, and agi'icultunU tile laid, or loose, stones or the
common eel-griiss, brushwood, etc., if nothing better can be found. . . . The
tlrains must be continued to some outfall." ... -

2G. The protection of the well is the next matter to be consider'ed.
The New Hampshire Board of Health in a circular issued this year, says: —

* llon.C A, Downs, disoushing the subject in this year's report of the New Hampshire
Board df Health, says :—" Wells to afford the best water whoiild be as deep as possible. They
shonld be tight from top to bottom, only allowing the water to come in at the bottom. The
advantage of this form of well is that the soil is made to filtrate the water to the greatest e.\tent,
or, in the popular phrase, 'surface water' is excludnd. The cement tubing in use in some well*
if the joints be made water-tiglit, is very good."

CUA?. IV.

The School Well and Water Supply.

" Tlie only way to protect ii well that lia£ not olremly become contaminated ib
by the most bcnipulous attention to its suiroundings. So long oh the (jKI privy system
itt in uue, and the sink discharges upon t5ie ground, stables, hog pens and refuse heaps
are in existence, so long will wells become dangerously contaminated, unless situated at
a great disttmce from any of the objects named. Twenty-tive, fifty or even a hundred
feet of intei-vening soil is no guarantee of safety to the well, as the percolating fluids
will often go to a much greater distance through certjiin kindtf of earth."

'17. Dr. P. H. fji yce, Secretary to the Provincial Board of Health, adds
the following sugoestions : —

" Wells should be lined with water-lime, and have the surface around them high
and inclined from the well so tha't theie will be no intiltiiition of wurface water. A
ventilating pipe short altovo tiie surface and deej) below the top of well as lui inlet, ami
another, short below and high into air for an outlet ventilator. Top of well must be
tightly laid, to prevtiit leaking through it."

I!i

;!!

Fir.. 3.— PEKCor-ATioN krom thk Pkivy Pit towakos the Wki.i..

28. To show how drainage from the privy from higher levels of a
school site, and from other place.s, towards the well, see the accompanying
illustration, (Fig 3). Cai-e should be taken, as suggested in the preceding
paragraph, to prevent thi.s.

Substances Held, in Solution by Water. Chap. IV.

Impure Substances Hklo jn Solution by Water.

29. A.S t.) the power of water to liold injui'itms substances in solution,
1 (jdote tlui t'oil<'Wing striking passage on the .subject from a lecture
by Dr. B'yce, published in the Report for IHHli, of the Provincial Board
oi Health, of which lie is the Secretary : —

" The solvent jwwer of water enables it to hold much mineral water in solution,
while, as we know, much Mrganic matter may be either dissolved or suspended m it as
well. . . . Waters fi-oui limestone take up m)t only lime but often contahi the
products of the decay of organic material which have, in the shape of fossils of plants
and animals, been enclosed in it. . . . Similarly, wells which receive their waters
from soaking througli a surface soil or a sub-soil rich in organic matter, whether animal,
from excreta and refuse ... or vegetable fi"om the decaying roots of plants in the
soil — often contain abnormally large (juantitios of organic nuiterial. . . . Such is
the condition . . present in veiy many of the watere of our Canadian towns,

where no thought is even taken of tlie few simple facts which must convince all that
sewage ... is continually i)ercolating towards the wells. . . . ExperimenU
carried (in by the Natitmal Board of Health, of the United States, have sliown fliat
water percolating through J 20 feet of pure sand in a tube does not lose all its suspended
particles and bacteria.* But one important fact is, that different forms of organic
materials sui)plj' food for ditfenrnt forms of bjicteria, while tlie unfortimato fiict remains
that it is tlie bacteria similar to tliose found in the blood of patients atfectcd with some
c(mtagious disease wliich develop in' watera contaminated with sewage."

.'}(). In tlie report for tlie current year of the New Hani[).shire Board
of Health, Hon. C. A. Do'vns discusses this (juestion and gives ilie foUow-
inof valuable information : —

" The pojiular belief is tluit water is purified by passing thnjugh the soil
while the soil has power to purify foul water to a lai-ge extent, yet after a time it lose*
that power. At first it detains the imj)urities mechanically, but these impurities
increase as the filthy water continues to enter tlie soil, till it becomes saturated witli
them and will no longer retain them. Moreover, this filth, so deposited, bof^ins fo
decompose, and water passing through these saturated stiuta, instead of being purified,
ac(|uire8 an additicmal foulness beyond that with which it entered the soil, so that tlie
agent relied upon for protection becomes tlio source of danger .+

■'Another source of water contamination has genemlly escaj)ed notice and considor-
atiim. The foul water from many sources jmured ujion the soil deposits its filth ; this
decomposes and sets free noxious gases, which traverse the jMires of the soil in every
direction. Those gases mingle with the jmre water of the soil and become u 8<mrce of
contamination.

• Bacterium {pi bacteria) very nmiute organigins which appear in organic infuaious after expo-
mure to the air.

t These remarkH equally apply to the use of filters. In regard to the use r>f filters for water,
Dr. Oldright, in the Re|H)rt <if the Oiitario Board of Health for 188J?, HRyn ; —"One thing the
tHachur HJiouItl li>i>k aft«ir for hiumelf a-id the pupils -that in, the condition of the filter. Filters
are often used for iiujnths, and even years, without a change of their gelid contentH except by
the addition of a large annxint of urguiiio matter retained in the fi ter, whieli lieconies a source
of danger."

Chap. IV. Each School to have its own Wateii Supply.

llor-

lt» of

" Who has not heard this ? — ' This well when I first dug it, fiinubhed water as soft
as rain water ; but of late years it has become hard, and is no longer fit to wash with.*
. . . The growing hardness of the water is, in fact, a danger signal, declaring grow-
ing contamination. The haitlnoss which prevents the use of the water for washing,
should much more warn against it use for drinking."

Reasons why each School should have its own Water Supply.

31. In a paper ou the " Sanitary condition of Rural Schools," by Mr.
John Deamess Piiblic School Inspector, he thus summarizes the reasons
why each school should be furnished with its own supply of pure, whole-
some water : —

" In rural schools, even more than in urban, a plentiful supply of wholesome water
is necessary, because the children at the former do not go home for their dinner, but at
noon- hour eat a di-y luncheon, generally swallowed hurriedly, as they are in haste to
proceed with their play. I stiygeiieraUy, because a few teachers refjuirt the children at
the beginning of the noon recess toge*^^ their diimers from their baskets, return to their
seats, spread a napkin or piece of pai>er, and, in an orderly manner partake of their rej>ast
before they go out to play. Sitting in a dry, hot room produces thirst ; this many of
the children increase by bolting a luncheon at intervals in the midillo of exciting play,
and that, during the wannest hour of the day in summer ; cf>nse(]uently they drink a
coiiipp.ratively huge (juaiitity of water. They are not often over fiuitidious as t^) tlie
quality of the licjuid with which they wash down their luncheons or quench their thirst.
If the pump is not in working order, or the pail bo empty, they eiit snow or rim to the
nearest spring. I have heard oi their dipping water out of the roa^lside ditch. A good 'well
in the school yard is invaluable. . . . Your thirst would be great if you could
drink the water after seeing three or four children standing with dirty feet at the pump
spout washing their swe.aty hands and faces and all the washings au<libly trickling down
into the well ! Under no circumstances should be omitted the duty of piunping the
well empty, if possible, two or three times a year, or at least just after the si)ring thaw,
and again .at the end of the summer vacation."

Tests for Detectino Organic Impurit.es in Water.

32. There arc srime simple tests whicli any intelligent teacher can use,
and by which impurities in drinkin£( water can bo easily detected. Mr.
Dearness gives the ''I'st of the following. I add the others. Any of
them can be readily used by a teacher so as to satisfy himself on the
subject : —

(1) Permanganate Test. — "Perhaps the best test tor such organic impurities, in
inexpert hands, is to put (mo or two drops, or enough to give a pink ct)lour, of a solution
of pennanganato of potash in an ounce vial of the suspected water. The solution shcjuld
be of the strength of leight grains of penuiuiganato to an ounce of pure water — distilled
water, or filtered rain water caught in the open, or the water-works water will do nearly
as well, if moie convenient than the other. If the water bo unfit for drinking the
colour will bo discharged, or bleached, in about twelve hours, and usually (he impurity
may bo seen precipitated at the bottom of the vial. The test is more satisfeictory if a
similar bottle of pure water be ti'eated the same as the suspected sample and plaoed
iihrng side it for comparison."
2

•i '\

C'HARACTEKISTIOS OF PURE WaTER.

Chap. IV.

(2) Forchammers' Ted.—T>i: Wallor, of the School of Mines, Cohinibia College,
New York, in his report to New York State Board of Health, 1882, says :^'* The pro-
cess j)roposed by Forchamlner, of Copenhagen, appears to have been the first in which
this reagent (permanganate) was used. As ordinarily performed a measured i|uantity
of varerwan acidified with sulphuric acid, and then the permanganate solution was added
little by little, as fast as it was discolourized, the process being continued for one, two
or three hours — always for the same length of time in eveiy c ^e, the solution being
kept on a laboratory table, loosely covered. Then the amount of ])ermanganate destroyed,
or, in ot'^^r words, the amount of oxygen taken from the permanganate was taken as a
measure of the organic substances present."

(3) Tidy's Test. — The same writer speaks-of a modification of Forchammer's process,
having been proposed with success by Dr. Tidy, of the Londoiv Chemical Society. He
says :— " It consists in working with measured quantities of water, acidified with the
£ame amount of sulphuric acid, with the iuidition of an excess of permanganate, while a
flask containing the same amount of distilled water is treated in the same way for com-
parison. AL tile end of one, three or four hours the amount of permanganate remaining
undestroyed is determined."

Characteristics of Pure Water.

33. Dr. P. H. Bryce has furnished me with tlie following rules, indi-
cating the [lurity of water. He says : —

" (1) Water must be clear, and entirely free fx'om sediment or suspended matter.

" (2) It should be colourless or blueish if looked at through a depth of two or three
feet ; green watei-s are not generally hurtful ; yellowish <jr brownish are to be looked
upon with suspicion, unless the colour is known to depend upon peXt or iron.

" (3) Water should be sparkling and bright, showing it is well charged with air and
carbonic acid.

" (4) It should have the pleasant sparkling taste of good water, but no brackish or
any other unplciisant or peculiar taste.

" (B) There shoidd be no sniell other than the peculiar, indescribable (ozonic I) smell
which fresh spring wat r yields.

" (6) It ought to be soft to the touch and dissolve soap easily (tliat is, not have too
much carbonate of lime in it).*

" (7) It nuist have no history of having caused diarrhoea, typhoid, diphtheria, or of
having conveyed scarlatina, etc.

" (8) It must bo drawn, if from wells, at a depth where, from distance from the sur-
face, and from manure or other source of organic pollution, the water lias not been con-
taminated."

'M. Hon. C. A. Downs, in Report for 1885 of the New Hampshire Board
of Health, treating of the .same subject, says: —

" The substances usually found ui water are tlio following : — Limo, sodium, nuignesia,
chlorine, ammonia, iron and sulphur. . . . There is also likely to be oi-ganic matter,
derived from vegetable or animal sources. . . .

•Though it would not lie Bftfe to say that any water liaving these characteriHtica is absulutely
good, yet no water without tliem can be coiisiderjd free from objections, — P. H. B.

Chap. V.

CONSTRUCnON OF SCHOOL LaTRINES,

" A liquid may look perfectly clear to the eye, not the smallest particle to be seen,
and yet it may contain in solution a large amount of foreign matter. Upon the intro-
du^ioit of a suitable reagent, the clear liquid becomes turbid, and a precipitate falls
down or collects at the bottom of the vessel, in quantities sufficient to be weighed or
measured. The clearness of water is no sure proof of its purity. . . .*

' ' The following rules are safe : — *

" (1) If water showing ' free ' ammonia also shows 15 pails per'million of ' albumi-
noid ' ammonia, the water should be avoided for drinking purposes, t ^

" (2) Water which contains nior» than one part by weight of free chlorine in every
hundred thousand parts, especially if accompanied by ' free ' ammonia, is to be con-
demned as drinking-water.

I " (3) Water which contains in solution more than two parts by weight, of any metal
— fexcept lime, m.agnesia, potash and soda — in a hundred thousand parts of the liquid,
is liurtful when used for drinking.

' ' (4) Water which shows more than a trace of organic matter is unsafe. "

CHAPTER V.

THE CONSTRlJCTiON OF LATRINES, OR PRIVIES.

"6. The water clmeUfor the nexes should be several feet apart and under different roofs.
Their entrances shouki be screened from observation." — Regulations, 1885,

" 7. Proper care should be taken to secure cleanliness OAid to prevent unpleas'wt and un-
healthy/ odours." — Ibid.

" 8. Suitable umlks should be made from the school house to the tvater closets so that the
^:losets may be reached with comfort in all kinds of weather," — Ibid,

Preliminary Considerations in the Construction op Latrines.

35. In the construction of school latrines, or privies, four things are
•essential and should be done, or provided for, viz. : —

* The 8i»ue writer says : — " It is impoaaible to oonviuce some people that well water is con-
taminated. T meet with such men almost every week or two. Pi^'haps they will bring samplos
of the wat'T to be tested. ... I say it is not good water. He says 'it is clear, bright and
sparkling ind 'you cannot find better water in the earth than that is.' What can you do with
such a man ! You cannot convince him. Testing the wat^«r right before his face ami eyes, letting
him see the condition himself usually brings cimviction to his mind, . , , The comnmnity
should be instructed in these matters."

fin the Second Annual Rejxirt of the New York State Board of Health, it is said (on the
Authority of Tronuisdorf) "that ammonia is the piiiduct of the putrefaction of nitrogenous organic
mattrr, and the nitrates are the last product of their deoomjuisition." Wanklyn states that boiled
with an alkaline solution of potassium permanganate gives oil " allmminoid annnouia." When it
is boiled with some alkaline solution (such as sodium carbonate) and then with au alkaline solu-
tion of potassium permanganate, it gives off " free ammonia." (Se« page 18.)

Construction of the Latiiine.

Chap. V.

I I

I •;

(1) They should be private — that is, screened froin observation, or
" masked," as it is called.

(2) They should be quite separated from each other, that is, should be
set as far apart on the grounds as possible, and should be reached by
separate covered- passages or walks. (See paragraph No. 66 ; also block
plan of grounds, Fig. 1 5, in Chapter X.)

(3) They should oe well lighted and ventilated — no dark corners,
should bo allowed to exist in them.

(4) They should be constantly sxipervised and kept clean and neat.
The health and morals of the pupils imperatively demand this.

36. The reasons given above for the four essential principles in the
construction of school latrines are so well stated in the publication on
school architecture, authorized by the United States Commissioner of
Education, that I quote them as follows : —

"In the first place, the conveniences for the two sexes should be absolutely separated
out of sight and out of mind each from the other. They should be well ventilated,
. . . They should not be in any place v.'hore one must pass by a window or aci'oss a

door to reach them. They should be, however, secluded Yet the closets

should not be far removed from the observation of the teacher, or even from super-
vision by the public opinion of the scholars. ... A light imd neatly finished
closet, witli proper provision of urinals and water tight floors, will be an object of pride
even among boys, and they will readily co-operate with a teacher in keeping it clean
and discountenancing the filthy habits of the rougher cliias. But, to reynove temptation,
iill should be light, open, and in a sense public, each latrine to its own sex. There
should be conveniences enough for all the children, dark comers should bo avoided,
inside as well as outside the building, and such angles as cannot be dispensed w^ith
should be overlooked by windows from some freipiented place. Even clumps of shrub-
bery should be so arranged lus not to form retreats for careless or dirty boys. This care
in arrangement, so that no part of the building or grounds can escape observation, is of
groat viUuo in assisting discipline, breaking up biul habits among the scholars, and
encouraging manliness and modesty.'' (See block jilan of grounds, Fig. .15, Chap. X.,
paj^ 4i>.)

Details of the Construction of the Latuine.

37. The same writer, in discussing the important question as to the
kind of latrine, or privy, to be constructed, says : —

" Having arranged the position of the retiring places with due regard to convenience,
unf>btru8ivene88, cleanliness, and i»rivac^. the kind of apparatus to be employed is next
to be decided. ludopendont'of o. t, the ([uestion w) ether water chjsets, earth closets,
or common jirivies should.be used do]»ends upon the [<-< stand the] amount of care which
04U1 be given to them. A good water closet is undoubtedly the best appliance wliich wo
have, but it involves an'expense in dniinage fmd water sujiply, . . . and the risk of
being rendered useless by freezing. . . . Those which are called "lnjppere" can bo
aiTJinged with the trap below ground, out of reach of frost, but . . . [the others
re(iuiro] a largo and constantsupply of water. . . . In ordinary civses, the best resource
issouie form of oartli closet, whicli, when properly cared for, is inodorous and is equally
available in all weathers. The fonn of closet employed should be specially designed so-

f\\

€hap. V.

Plans of School Latrines.

ice,

bts,

lich

1)0

Irno

Illy

ao-

that tho scattering of tlie earth over the matter in the vault may bo done by an inde-
pendent niechantHiii from tho outside. In this way the ])ullu»g of a levor or tiiniing a
-crank oiu'o a day will accomplish all the requisite disinfecting, and the weekly visit of
an intelligent laborer, who should make the rounds of tho school houses t<:) fill up the
reservoira of dry earth and remove the contents of tho vaults, will be all that is neces-
sary to maintain the sanitary condition of the buildings."

38. Latrines are of various construction. Tlie out door wooden vault
privies are the most common. Of late years the " dry-earth " and "ash-
■closet" systems have been largely used. (See section 59.) The tub, or
pail system is also in use. The basin, or trap system, (pan -closets,) is- only
for use in l)uil(lings or where the pipes, etc., can be protected from the frost.

39. The dry-earth, or ash, system is by far the most satisfactory, if only
it can be kept carefully looked after.' (See section 03.)

Plans of Latrines, or School Privies.

40. The only two kinds of privies which are likely to be available for
rural schools are the ordinary wooden — or out-door privy vault — and the
•dry earth or ash privy. And first, as to the cpnstruction of the ordinary
out-door privy with vault :

41. This privy is usually of the simplest kind, as shown in figures 5'
6, 7, and 8. The addition of the protruding l)oard over the
seat, as shown in figure 4, is an improvement over the ordi-
nary seat, as it prevents boys from standing on the seats.
Another modification of a back slanting inwards, as shown
in figure 13, chapter t, is also an improvement. One or other
■of these improvements should be adopted in the construc-
tion of any .school latrine, or privy.

Fig. 4 - Section
OF Pkivt Skat.

42. As a general rule school pi-ivies are too confined in their area and are
not properly ventilated, as they should be (or as shown in figure 7). The

Fio. 5. — Fkont Klkvation.

END ELEVATION

FiQ. 6.

vault should be at least five feet deep and the interior of the privy con-
structed so as to admit of the seats being separated from each other (os

^mmmmmmmmmmmmn

Plans of School Latrines.

Chap. V.

shown in figures 9 and 10, and especiaily as shown in figure 9). The
following plans, authorized by the New Brunswick Board of Education,
are very good as general models. With the necessary modifications
suggested m this chapter they might be adopted with advantage.

Fig. 7.— Section.

Fig. 8.— Section Through Vault.

43. The work on school architecture (authorized by the United States
Commissioner of Education), referring to the construction of the vault,
states that : —

" The vault should be small, built of brick in cement, with brick bottom sloping
toward the roar, and tight door for cleaning out, as described above. In addition the
vault should be provided with a ventilating pipe, carried up well above the roof. This
is best of galvanized iron, but may be of wood if perfectly tight. The doors opening
nto the vault should be made tight with listing or weather moidding, and all crevices
cemented up. If this is thoroughly done, there will be .a pretty constant current of air
downward through the seats, thence up througli the shaft into the atmosphere, and no
odour will be perceived even directly over the .seat. The top of the ventilating shaft
shoidd be protected by a cap, if higher roofs about it are likelj to cause down dniughts.
Unless the vault is tight, no ventilation will prevent stench from the saturated soil

around it.

44. The arrangements of the seats in the latrines (for gir-ls) in the
Wisconsin schools are all that could be desired, as the plan on the-
following page will show.*

45. This plan is so admirably adapted to secure i.solation and privacy
that it should be invariably followed. It provides, by means of .separate
compartments, for what are mo.st desirable, viz.: isolation and privacy.

* The combined privy and urinal for boys, on the New Brunswick »,!«!- (Fig. 10), will be found
on page 31.

Chap. V.

Plans of School Latrines.

A small window (not provided for in the engraving, Fig. 9) should, how-
ever, be inserted about four feet from the floor and opposite to the opening
to each compartment.

J.Q.

^.-.

I'ltt. !>. — Latki.ve for Gikls.

46. The Wisconsin State Superintendent of Education accompanies this
plan with the following remarks : —

"The foundation, of stone or brick [for the vault of the i)rivj'], should be laid
[in cement]. The sides and bottom of the vault should be built of brick laid in com-
mon cement, imd the inside plastered with mortar composed of the same material. The
ground back of the bricks should be compact .and solid, so that the j)re8sure in the vault
will not displiice any of thoni. The door attached to the vault in the rear of each house
should be strongly made, and fiistened down by a lock. From this vault a wooden flue,
without any cracks, should extentl above the roof of the hcmse, for the purjwise of ventila-
tion. As will be seen, an opening, four inches in width, can be constructed in the ridge
of the roof, . . . to remove the foul air in tiie room beneath. [See Fig. 7, on jiage 28.]
Over this opening a hood should be Imilt, to prevent rain or snow from falling inside.
As the wind jui-ssos under this hood, it will aid materially in withdrawing through this
opening the impurities from the building. The sides of the room should be covered
tightly with matched fencing, and then painted. . . . The partitions for each seat
should be six feet in height ; and when small children attend the school, [some] of
the seats should always be made so low that they can occupy it and have their feet
resting at the same time on the floor.

"... A window for the admission of light, and, if jjossible, so situated that
sunshine will enter the room some portion of each day, should be included. For the
boys' outhouse, urinals should bo constructed in the room . . [See Fig 1() on page

31]. In both outhouses, conveniences should be supplied [in the form shown in Fig 5)
above] for the isolation and comparative seclusion of the children, particularly the
delicate and nervous ones. "

Urinals for Boys.

Chap. V.

47. Tlie Committee of tRe Ontario Public School Teachers' Associati(m
(In.spectors' Section), to which the subject of school house construction
was recently referred by the Minister of Educatioq, n^ported as follows on
this matter : —

"Owing t<i the difficulty of getting [privies] cleaned, a deep pit, well ventilated, is
|»ref erred. See Mr. Inspector Fotheringham'a plan."

48. Mr. Fothcringham's "plan" is thus given, as follows: —

" From tlio almost univei-sal neglect to clean the boxes and shallow cess-pools of
privies, f am inclined to recommend the adoption of stone recei)tacles of five or six feet
depth, with sloping seats at about 35° to 4U° angle, with open space at the top of the
seat leading into the open air through the roof or under the eaves. The decomposition
at this depth is so gradual aa t(j bo much less offensive than from shallow recejjtacles.

" Privies are almost always too small, and seldom have urinals for boys. Both
defects are the chief causes of violations of propriety in their use."

49. Dr. J. J. Wadsworth, Public School Inspector, County of Norfolk,
in his remarks on this subject, says : —

' ' Boys' privies should have board inclined over seats so aa to prevent standing on them.
[See Fig. 4, page 27.] If large there should bo separate stalls in each privy. [See Fig.
9, page 29.] All privies should be masked by tight board fences."

50. Mr. F. Burrows, Public School Inspector, Counties of Leiinox and
Addington, says : —

"These necessaiy buildings [privies] should be strongly made, and pixjvided with
ventilating chinuieys. Any paint used on them 8lK)uld bo mixed with coarse sand to
prevent scribbling. To prevent the wetting of the seats urinals should be provided.
The urinals might be placed within a board screen built around the i)rivies."

51. Mr. J. McBrien, Public School Inspector, County of Ontario, says —
speaking of the projecting part of the pit, or vault — (see the New Bruns-
wick plan. Fig. 8, page 28) : —

" There should be an (outside entrance to it, dug down, like an outside door to some
cellars, with a track laid in it. A vessel constructed on wheels could be drawn up this
once a week," etc.

52. In regard to this suggestion, the work on Rural School Architecture
authorized by the United States Commissioner of E<lucation says (speak-
ing of the dry earth closets) : —

" The vault may, with advantage, consist of light plank boxes on wheels, so as to
be easily i'olled out for emptying," etc.

Construction of Urinal for Boys.

53. All experienced writers (m pi'ivy construction are agreed as to the
nece-ssity of urinals being provided for l)oys. A plan for them has been
authorized by the New Brunswick Board of Education which might be

I !

€hai'. V.

Combined Urinal and Latrink.

adopted witli advantage. It is as follows, and combines, as will be seen
in t"ig. 10, a well arranged latrine for boys, which, if consti'ucted on the
plan shown in Fig. 9, page 29, would be greatly improved* : —

ip-

URINALS

oi o

V-^T.LATtJfi'

Fia. 10.— CoMBiNKD Urinal and Latrink kor Both.

54. In regard to the best construction of these urinals the Repoiii on
Education for 1 884, of the State of Massachusetts, contains the following
■directions on the subject given by Dr. F. Lincoln, of Boston : —

" The neatest form of urinal is a continuous upright surfacff" of oiled slate, with a
platform of slate (not too narrow). The platfonn ought to be sunk to the level of the
rest of the floor to facilitate the escape of water from the hose or bucket — which should
be used daily in any ciise. If there is no sprinkling tube to wet the slate constantly,
the surfjvces should be washed as often aa may bo necessary. The floor of thp apart-
ment should be of stone slabs ; not of brick or ordinsiry cement."

00. The authorized work on School Architecture of the United States
Commissioner of Education says : —

" Urinals become exceedingly off^ensive unless well looked after. Wherever possible,
they should have floor and partitions of slate or marble, for easy waahing, and should
in any case be in a well aired place. A piece of common bar soap is often placed in
urinals to lessen the odour from them, and is of considerable value.

56. In an article in the Report of the Provincial Board of Health for
1883 it is stated that—

" Urinals become ofl'onsive through want of proper provision for preventing the
incrustation of them with deposits fix)m the urine, and of proper means of frequently
cleansing or removing surf.oces which collect the droppings. A tray of ashes or saw-
dust in front of, and beneath, the urinal will meet this latter requirement, the contents
of the tray being frequently changed. For the first mentioned cause of ofiensiveness,
it seems necessary to have a flow of water washing the urinal, whilst in use. Disin-
fectant contrivances should also be used."t

* The approved plan of a jirivy for girla (Fig. 9) will be found on page 29.
adopted for boys' privies for the reasons given above.

t For information in regard to disinfectants and their uae^, seu pag» SB-

It should also l>e

School Lavatories — Cesspool.

Chaf. V.

School Lavatories and their Construction.

57. Althoufjfli lavatories have not hitherto, as a general rule, })een
con.sidered essential in ordinary rural schools, yet they are veiy desirable
on many accounts, especially where numbers congregate and out door
plays abound. They are easy of construction, care being taken to have
the escape pipe carefully fitted to the basin and to the drainage pipe. As
to how this drainage shoiild be disposed of, the United States book on
School Architecture, already quoted, says : —

" The sink or wash basin in a school will give no trouble if dni'ned into a separate
'dry well,' consisting of a pit some 2 or 3 banels in capacity, filled with loose stones
and sodded over ; or, still better, a lino of 50 to 100 feet of soil tile, laid end to end,
about a foot below the surface of the ground, and the joints well covered before filling
up the trench."

Cesspool for Lavatory Water and Privy Overflow.

. 58. h\ cities and towns, provision should be made for drainage or over-
flow from the school privy into the street sewer. In rural sections it
may be necessary to take this ovei'ftow into a cesspool. In that case it ma}''
be convenient to let the water from the school lavatorv flow into the same
cesspool. But in such case a tra[) would be necessaiy on the pipe leading
from the lavatory into the cesspool, so as to prevent the inflow of poisonous

gas.

The United States work on School Architecture points out that :-

" The beat cesspool is a tight tank of brickwork in cement, with brick or concrete
bottom and a stone top set in cement. The stone cover may, with advantage, have a
common iron pump fixed in it; by means of which the contents of the tank may b.'
pumped out whenever required with the least trouble.

" In addition, the cesspool cover should be drilled with a number of holes for
admission of air. If tlie tank is far from the building, it is best to put a tra]) in the
drain pipe, near the house wall. In this case, there will be a constant small elHuvium
from the cesspool, but, unless it is too lai^e, not enough to reach the building. If
space is restricted, the drain f)ipe should be without a traj) and the soil pipes cari'ied
well up above the roof. Then the natural warmtli of soil pipes and cesspool will cau.se
an upward flow in the now unobstructed line of j)ipe, the air being drawn in through
the holes in the stone cover instead of issuing therefrom, and will be discharged harm-
lessly into the upper air.

"An overflow is usually necessary to any tight cessptiol wliich is in danger of being
neglected. This m.'iy be carried to a small dry well or other outlet, where its offensive-
ness will do as little harm as possible.

•The United States book on Schw)! Architecture lias a strong word of advice and warning'
on this matter. It says:— "On no account must tlie waste ini)e empty into the jirivy vault.
By such carelesKiiesB will not only foul gases lie ixjiired into the vestibules, wardrobes, and school,
room, but the admixture of water renders the contents of the vaidt doubly offensive and dan-
gerous." See part of chapter — on vestibides and wardrobes— on page 46.

C»JAP. V.

Dry Earth Closet.

"In many places these dry wells or leaching cesspools will for economy's sake be
employed to do the whole work, regardless of the gx^dual poisoning of the ZC^
inseparable from their use. Even in this case, it is well to remen.ber that a sn'all
brick tank for hrst receiving the drain.-H;e and .Ulowing it to settle and dissolve is of
much value m preventing the clogging of the soil around the le.vching pit.

Fig. 11.

" The overflow pipe should l.e built into the wall about half its diameter below the-
inlet pipe, and a quarter bend should be previously cemented in, so that when set thi!
will dip below the surface of the li^^uid .n the cesspool. (Fig. 11.) By this Zns tt
scum and paper which always floats on the top will be .evented from ent r ng and
choking the overflow pipe." ' 'icimg ana

The Dky Earth Closet.

, 5a By common consent, the dry eartli closet system for school latrines
IS preferred as the cleanest healthiest and most satisfactory The Unitecl
States work on School Architecture says of it :—

ancl' dSf '^T'f' "'"''' :^" ^" '^" '"'•'°"*^ "' "'"^^ ^"'-"^ *^« »-«t available appli-

X'tit : "^n IT ' ":" .•™^'''^ ^^'^y - ^^^ fittings by which at intervals a s^ all

uan ty of ifted dry earth is thrown on the matter in the vault. A very small quan-

llr "'^'' '^™'?; 'f " " "'"^'^'^*'' disinfectant, and earth closets are nearly a.
^ee from offence as the best water closets-much more so than inferior ones-with th"

advantages of simplicity, cheapness, and availability in cold weather.

" What is needed is a capacious reservoir for the dried earth, a measurer to receive
from the reservoir a certain small quantity, and a means of throwing out TL earth
containe< in the measurer at will in a uniform sheet over the vault, afte^ which ope^

X^rZ^ '"'" '^'^^ ''''''' '^^ ^"^^ *'« "^^'^"-' '" *>^ --^>' f- the next

Dry Earth Closet.

Chap. V.

CO. Tho following is suggested in that work as the plan of the earth
closet : —

Wire

Section of Earth Closet
Showing valve in action.

V/^<^

TH CUrPLY.

>,>i|.

Fio. 12.— Section of an Earth Closet,
61. In this figure (12) —

" The reservoir, or hopper, is filled by a shovel from the outside througli the opening
on the right hand side. A lid of plain boards is hinged to t he back of the htjpper.
. . . By pushing in a lever, pulling a cord, tho inverted lid is thrown forward, aa
shown in tho foregoing figure, and the slide raised shutting off tho descent of the earth
from the hopper above into the meaauror, but throwing the portion already contained
in it over the vault in a uniform sheet. On the relaxing of the impulse, the weight
draws the slide back and supplies the measurer with a fresh dose. By regulating the

Chap. V.

Dry Earth and Ash Closets.

36^

front edge of tl»o nieasurur the sheet of earth may be directed as required. There is a
sheet of wire netting fixe<l in tlie hopper, which aervos to sift the earth and prevent it
from packing so firmly in the bottom ua to impede the movement of the measurer.
The jar communicated to the apparatus shakes down the earth, a matter of some
importance. Very possibly there may be batter modes of accomplishing the same
residt ; the writer merely suggests this aa illustrating the end to bo attained and the
simplicity of means desimble.

" The vault may, with advantjige, uonsist of tight plank VK>xeB on wheels, so as to
be easily rolled out for emptying. If this is impracticable, a shallow pit lined with
8-inch bri(!k-work in cement, and with bottom of bricks on edge, also laid in cement,
is necessaiy, and for facility of cleaning, the bottom may slope outward. The vault
should be accessible from the outside, but closed by strong and tight doors with lock
and key.

'* The earth used in these closets should be loam or clay, not sand. It should be
dried in the sun or by a fire, sifted, and siored in a dry place. The screen for sifting
should have about three meahes to the inch ; and cotd ashes, similarly sifted, may be
(ulded to the mixture in (piantity e(|ual to the earth without hiirm. Wood ashes or
Umo hould n'>t be useci.

ihe earth taken out of the vaults may be dried and used over stgain indetinitely.
It retains no tnu;«: nf the organic matter which it has helped to decompose. The
(juantity ro((uiretl l)e easily calculated. , Abt)ut H pints, or 2i pounds, of average

earth per closet w . : oi-ally be enough for each discharge, supposing these to take place

four or five times daiiy ; and the capacity of the reservoir divided by this will give the
length of the interval between successive fillings. If several relays of earth are dried
and stored in barrels, there need be no interruption to the working of the apjjaratus."

62. Tlio paper of the Provincial Boai\l of Health on this subject says: - -

" The earths best adapted for tlie purpose are moiUds and loams. Pure sand is said
to poHsess little or no deodorizing power, while pure clay is difti^alt to bring into the
properly powdery condition, and has a tendency to absorb too much water.

" It is not necessary that the earth should be absolutely dry ; the drying that it
receives from exposure to the atmosphere being suthcient. For use it must be free
from lumps ;vnd in a powdery condition. This is beat effected by screening it.

"After being used it may bo placed in a barrel, where it will undergf> a slight
heating and fermentation, after which it may be thrown out on the floor of the shed
and exposed to the air in order to dry, and may then be used again. It is said that
this process may be repeated tin or a dozen times with the same eai-tii before it becomes
offensive. Thi*, however, is not recommended, especially in a country like ours, unless
for the manurial value oi the product ; but it shows the value of dry earth as an
absorbent and deodorizer. Anthi-acite coal aahes have been found to answer in this
respect fully as well as loam.

" Some excellent automatic earth ch^ets, not very extravagant in price, are,
however, made in this Province. The addresses of various manufacturers of them may
be obtained on application to the Secretary of this Board."

63. Should the dry ash system be adopted the privy can \^e constructed
as shown in figure 13,* which, on the whole, seems preferable in its plan

• Taken from the second report of the New York State Board of Health, 1884, page 156.

Dry Ash Closet — Disinfectants.

Chap. V.

and arrangement to that of figure 12. However, botli are given as both
have been m successful use. In figure 13 the reservoir and hopper for
ashes and disinfectants are behind the seat — the back of which inclines
inwards. L is a lever, which, when pushed or pulled back to h', opens a

It I

I !

Fig. 13.— Skction ok Dnv Ash System.

•|!

f (

valve and discharges ashes, through an opening in the floor into a barrel
underneath. The valve may be made to work aiitomatically by a special
arrangement when constructing the seat.

, Disinfectants and their Uses.*

64. The report of the New Hampshire State Board of Health for 1885
says, by way of caution : —

" According to a high authority ' a disinfectant is an agent capable of destroying
the infective power of infectious material.' Infectious material is 8i>mothing that has
power to conununicate disease to persons. N<jw anything which will destroy that
power ia a {'.isinfectant. According to recent moat rigid and exact tests chlorine,
l)romine, and iodine are really disinfectants. But ' they are nc/t suitable as disinfect-
ants for populai;" use, ' . . . Chloride of lime, permanganate of i)otash and corrosive
flublinmtes are recommended as exctillent disinfectants ; but they are not innocent

* The friUdwing (lelinitioiin and remarks may l)f found useful : —

(1) 7>i>>n/Vrfa»i!«. — SubHtaiices "vhich destroy sniflls and their poisoim liy acting clicniicully j
i*ubHtaiice« (as alxjvo) which dentroy infectionw or infectiouH mutter.

(2) DiHiiifcction in thw dcntruc^tioii of jioinons of infectinuB or contaffions diwauPM.

(3) iJeodorizers. — PubNtancen wliich dcMtroy NnR'll«. They are iint iioceHsarily diHinfectanta,
and do not neceHKarily have an odour.

(4) Dmnfection cannot componsate for want of cle»nlinen8 nor want of vontihition.

€hap. VI.

The Wopd-Shed.

•drugs to have about in jugs and boxes, knowing the propensity of persons to misplace,
mislabel and swallow poisons." . . .

65. In speaking of disinfectants and how to use them, it is well to
remember that such common disinfectants, as chloride of lime and sulphui*,
Are often used in a way to render them perfectly useless. Chloride of
lime, prepared and used as given below, is one of the best disinfectants
known, since it destroys disease germs very quickly : —

(1) Chloride of Lime. — For a free iuid genei'al use in privy vaults, sewers, etc., the
following is one of the cheapest and most efiective disinfectants and germicides avail-
able for general use''-' : —

Chloride of lime (bleaching powder) one pound ; water, four gallons.

Mix well — cost, much less than a dollar a barrel. A quj'.it or more a day may be used in
an oflfensive vault. When chloride of lime is spronxi on trays or dishes in a room, it
cleanses and deodorizes. It may be sprinkled over floors or passages, and after a day or
two, be wiished ofl".

(2) Eock Sulphur (brimstone). — For fumigation it should be used in a tightlj"^ closed
school room. It should be placed on tui iron pan, supported on bricks, placed in wash
tubs containing a little water and set on fire by moans of hot coals or a 8i)oonful of
alcohol. For a room ten feet square two pounds of sulphur would be reijuired, and so
on in proportion. The room should remain closed for twenty-four houre.

(3) Snlphatti of Iron (copjieraa) dissolved in water, in the proportion of one and a
half gallons, for night s(jil in privies, sewera, etc.

(4) Solution, of Chloride of Zl')u; when diluted with water and poured into drains,
sewers and privies, destroys offensive odours.

(5) Carbolic Acid, diluted with about thirty parts of watei and sprinkled where
re(iuired, arrests the process of decay.

Note. — The foregoing list of disinfectants with directions as to their
use is taken from the recent Reports of Boards of Health — Ontario, New
York, New Hampshire, etc., already quoted in this book.

i iJ'

'I'

CHAPTER VI.

THE WOOD-SHED.

66. The wood-shed might be jilaced for convenience of access at the
"back of the school house.f The better place, from a sanitary point of viev/,

* "In the laboratory exporimenta now being made at the JoliiiH Hopkins University. ; , ,
this solution has been found to bo rapid in its action, rnadily destroying g(M'niK which posspss the
greatest tenacity of life, — niirillun unhtilh and B. nuthrorin as well as their spores." N. H. State
Board Rfiport, 188.-).

t If this ])lan be adopted the shed should bo so constmcted that the rear passage for pup's
tth^iuld not be through it but alongside of it, as shown iii plan of a school house inserted near
the close of this book.

School Play Sheds and Grounds.

Chap. VII.

is at the rear of the school lot, with a privy at each end of it (see plan on
page 37, figure 15). The advantage of this plan would be that the
privies could be under the same roof as tho wood shed and tlius save
expense in construction. They should be kept apart, and a double rovered
way should be constructed to the shed which, with a thick and well boarded
partition, would ettectually separate the passages to the privies from
each other — which is most desirable. The boys' passage could be used
for conveying wood to the school house. Care should, however, bo taken
to isolate the girls' privy from the end of the wood shed by a thick parti-
tion or a space of about twelve inches so that no conmnniication can
possibly take place with it from that end of the wood shed. This, although
a comparatively economical plan, is not so good a one as to isolate the
privies entirely, as shown in figure 15, page 49. The size of the wood
shed must be determined by circumstances.

CHAPTER VII.

THE SCHOOL PLAY SHEDS AND GROUNDR

;!l

!r 1

67. No school should be without a comfortable play shed for wot
weather, and for young children in the heat of the summer daj'. The play-
shed might be placed at the sides of the separate plp.y grounds for boys and
girls. They would thus be placed apart from each other and the boys and
girls would then be free to enjoy their play hoiu's without interruption
or annoyance from each other, or from any unruly pupils of the school.
The girls' play ground might have one or two shade ti-ees in it, and a few
bench seats around the shade trees. (See figure 15 in Chapter X.)

68. Some school au+liorities recommend that' play grounds should
not have any shade trees in them for reasons given. The United States
woi'k on School Architecture summarizes these reasons as follows : —

" However the play ground may be situated, it ia bo.st left clear, without interrup-
tion by trees or shrubs. These are only in the way of the chik'ren's sports,' and thoy
Hoon'get mangled and broken by tiioughtlessness or accident ; their shade is of no ub©
in such a place, and they are liable to be used is screens to conceal doubtfid actions
f-'om the eye of the tea<?her, whose vigilance -t is well that the pupils should never be
sure of escaping."

60. In regard to the necessity for play grounds within tlu* school site,
the State Superintendent of Wisconsin in his last report, makes these
suggestions : —

Chap. VIII.

Shade Trees and Shrubs.

1. " Two spaces should be assigned to the play yards — one for the J)oys and one for
the girls. When a scliool maintains a primary [or Kindergarten] department, a portion
of the grounds should l)e set apart for its smal'. children.

2. ' ' The idea which should govern in the civse [of play grounds] is to secure space not
for more amusement, but for proper jjhysical exercises by both sexes. No (children in
any scliool should be compelleu to go into the highway [apart from the danger from
passing vehicles and cattle] or on private grounds for their plays or recreation. . . .

3. " The play grounds should never bo paved with stone or brick, nor covered with
plank or coarse gravel. The grass sliould be allowed to grow upon them as thickly as
possible with their use by tlie children. Sometimes it is an advantage to spread a layer
of tine sand upon them when the soil hfwt been hardened in the frequent plays,"

4. "It is very essential that all portions t»f the play yards should be seen horn the
windows of the main school-rooms. . . ."

70. This s'lj^gostion as to tlie surface of the play ground is endorsed in
thf work sanctioned by the United States Commissioner on School Archi-
tecture. It says : —

" The ground should be grassed over with the closest and thickest turf possible.
. . . Whenever tlie natural sod is good, it is best to leave it intiict, as a thick sod is
of slow gi'owtli. If new grading is necessary . . . all the loam accessible should be
spread upon the surface . . . and the whcjle should be thickly sown with red-t^p graas,
with a little admixture of white clover."

NoTK. — (For a reference to " school recess, see paragraph No. 131.
See, especially, paragraph 140, section (4), in regard to the increased desire
for playgrounds as an indication of public libei'ality in respect to schools.)

CHAPTER VIII.

SHADE TREES AND SHRUBS.

"3. Tlie achyol (jmniiih Hlwuld be proptirli/ levelled and drained, planU'd with i^hade

tii'e.i . . . ." — Regulatioiin, /,S\V,'>.

"302. The Jird Friday in Mmj should be xet aixirt by the triiateen of ercrtj rural
iie.huiil and incorporated vilkuje for the pitrpone vf planting nhade trees, making flower beds
anil othe.rwiM improinng and beaut ifyinij the school yronnds." — Ibid*

* Spwikitifr oil the mibject of Arbor Pay in the United States, Hon. John ICaton remarks :-- •
" In several Stati'H of (lif Aincvican Unimi, however, there is ;i growiiij^ fliH|MwitioM iiiiiong; school
otticers to avail themselve." of tliis effective means of culture and to foster a spirit in the com -
iiiunity which will facilitate the operation of laws jwissed for the enc<inra>,'einent of tree i)lantinfi:
and the protwtion of trees; in Connecticut, especially, the late ener(?etic Secretary of the State
Doard of I'Mncation, Hon. H. (r. Northroii. inaugurated a movement which is improvinK the
hurroundinurs of koIhhiIs in the rural disfriets almost beyond reco^fiiition, and in West Virginia the
ciinni.rnilal>l<' efforts of the Depiirtnient of Public Instruction, under the direction of Hon. B. L-
Butcher, have resulted in similar improvements. The work of Dr. .Fohn B. I'oaslee. City Suiter,
intendent of Ciu.innati, in tlie same direction, has also been especially successful."
A

"Arbor Day — Treks and Shrubs.

Chai'. VIII.

71. Now that Arbor Day in spring is one of the school institutions
of the Province, it is desirable that the school grounds, and the outside
strip in front of the school house and on the street, or road side, should be
judiciously planted. Care shoidd be taken to select the most suitable
trees and shrubs for that purpt)se, considering the natixre of the soil and
the size of the school lot, etc. Flowers, too, should be provided for the
beds in front of the buildings, and, if practicable, at the sides of the
walks leading to the school entrances.

72. Mr. R. W. Phipps, who is an authority on Forestry ix\ Ontario, has
furnished the Minister of Education with the following list lUid explana-
tory information (which I have modified and condense on this subject : —

" 1. The treos which experience proves to be best adapteil u) our Canadiau climate
are divided into several classes. First, the deciduous trees, which s\xe easily grown —
that is t<j say, they have fibrous i-oots, rendering them etwy to transplant. The young
saplings, a» they stand in the undergrowth of the forest, will be foiuid with sufticient .
roots, if care be taken, to transplant well. The term deciduous is applied to all trees
not evergreen.

"Mai'LE.s. — Native Hard Maple (sicer saccharinuni) ; Scarlet or Soft Maple (aciM-
rubruni) ; Silver Loaf Maple (iicer dasycarpum) ; Norway Maple (acer platanoides) ;
Ash Leaved Maple (acer negundo) ; [iweroides negundo of Dr. F. B. '^ough, see pani-
gra})h No. 73.]

"Elms. — American or White Elm (uliinis Americana); Cork Harked or Winged
Elm (ulnius intiata) ; Scotch or W^ych Elm (uluuis moutana). (See pariigraph No. 73.)
" LiNOENS.— European Linden (tilea Europiea) ; Basswood (tilea Americana).
"Ash. — Native, white (fraxinus Americana) ; European Ash (fraxinus Europiea).
"Chestnuts. — Horse Chestnut (lesculus hipprxsastaneum) ; Sweet Chestnut (cah-
tanea Americana).

" Mountain Ash.— Sorbus. .

"2. The following native trees are also well adapted for transplanting, but they

• cannot be handled like the former, owing to their having but few roots. There are two

ways of treating them — one. to plant the nuts where the tree is to gi-uw, the other to

trans[)lant them several times when young. This gives them a mass of roots of far

more certain growth for planting ui their ultimate position.

" Hakdwood Trees, such as Hickory (carya) ; Oaks ((piercus) ; Beech (fagus) ; Wal-
nut (juglans).

" 3. The time for i)lanting .all of the above is in spring, from the time the frost leaves
the ground, till May 15th. The season, however, can Ijo prolonged to the 15th June,
by observing to cut back the t^ps of the trees. In the fall the time of planting may be
from the 20th of October till the ground is frozen too hard for digging. When planting
them care should be taken to strip the leaves off, iis the sap remaining in the trees soon
evaporates through the loaves, causing them to shrivel up and so destroy their chance
of growth.

"4. The next class peculiarly suited for tmnsplanting is the eVei-green. Those of
the spruce and cedar variety are grown more easily than pines or juiiii)ei-s, as they have
a greater (piantity of g(x)d roots. This class comprises the White or Native Spruce
(abios alba), Norway Spruce (abies exoelsa), Balsam Spruce or Fir Proper (tsuga bal-
samifeni), Hendock (abies Cantwlensis), White Cedar (thuja occidentalis). The spruce

^nn

g^-!

Chap. VIII.

PLAN'riN(i THE SCHOOL GROUNDS.

and cedar family will gr<)\V in damper situations than will the pines, but all succeed
better in fairlj"^ drained soil.

"5. The next variety of evergreen ia the pine. Unless transplanted several times
when young, these do not throw (JUt many roots, and those thrown out are fine, long
und ea.sily disbarked, unless great cai-e be taken in removing them from the s<iil. The
most suitable varieties are :- -

" Pines.— White Pine (pinus sti-obus) ; Weymouth Pine (pinus cembra) ; Norway
Pine (pinus rubra) ; Austrian Pine (pinus Austriacea) ; Scotch Pine (puius sylvestris).

"The planting. setusfm for all the above evergreens is from May 15th to June 15th,
or just as tlie buds are commencing to burst.

"G. The last which need be noted is the larch.

''Larche.s. — European Larch (larix Europiea) ; Native Larch, Tamarac (liuix Au)-
ericana).

"This tree may be termed a deciduous evergreen, and succeeds best when planted
latw in the fall, or the fiitit thing in spring. It connnences to grow with the firet warm
rays of the sun, but is uncertain unless great care is taken to keep it damp. This
advice is meant in case of large trees, such aa those five to seven feet high. Small
trees are growi. more eiisilv-

"7. With respect to soil, all trees thrive best in well-drained soil, varying from a
sandy loam to a clay soil, not of too stifl' a nature. A clay loam suits them all.

"8. If uiestnut trees be planted in spring, the heails or leaves slumld not be cut
off, as this tree makes all its growth in the fu-Mt few growing days and is then stationary
fi>r the season. The braiiche.s may, if necessary, be thinned.

"0. When trees are finally planted, care should be taken to nuilch around them
with old manure, lea\ us, spent hops, straw, if it can be kept in jjlace — stones laid on it
do this — or other substance not injurious to growth, but never, for example, with pine
sawdust or tanbark. Some cultivators prefer keeping the ground stirred to nudcRing.

"10. When tmnsplanting evergreens, the roots should never bo exposed to air or
light — esi)ecially sun heat — more than can be heljted. The root is resinous ; if the
resin hardens, the process of growth in future will be rendered impossible."

i!
■ *!

.f
live
lice
|>al-
luoe

73. Dr. F. B. liovigh, Chief of the Forestry Division of the United
^tates DepartiiK'ut of .Vgriculture, in a letter (on the planting of ti'ees in
school grounds) to Hon. John Eaton, C\)niinisHioner t)f Education, written
in lH8',i, adds :—

1. " Of all the native trees of the Northern States, the American elm (ulmus Ameri-
cana) is perha])8 least liable to accident from a bruise upon the bark ; and there are
few, if any, that sIkjuM be more generally preferred. It carries its shade high al«)Ve
the level of our windows ; it is seldom broken or thrown down by the winds ; it lives
to a great ago and grows to a large size, and it presents a majestic and graceful outline
as agreeable to the view as its spreiuling canopy is refreshing in its shade. The red or
slipjtery elm might be liable to be peeled by unruly boys, fiu' its inner bark, and should
for this reason b6 planted only upon i)rivato grounds.

2. " The maples are justly priztnl as shade trees, and the sugar maple (acor sacchari
num) nuiy, perhaps, be placed first on the list, as affording a dense phade and a graceful
oval outline. . . . All of the maples are ci nspicuous in t!\e declining year from the
bright colouring of their autunmal foliage. Tho box elder, or ash-leaved maple (negundo

■

Planting the School Grounds.

Chap. VIII.

aceroides), a nearly allied species, is a favourite shade tree in the Western States, and
grows well in the middle latitudes of the Atlantic States."

74. The shrubs suggested in the United States book on School Archi-
tecture are the Missouri currant, Barberry, Weigelia, Cornel, Laurel,
Lilac, Roses (white, yellow, and red), Viburnum or Guelder rose, California
privet, Forsythia, Spirjea, Tartarean honeysuckle, Dogwood, Deutzia. To
these I add the following, which will grow freely in any part of Ontario,
viz. : — Syringa, Yellow flowering currant, Hj'draiigea, Snowberry, Ash-
berry, etc. Of climbing shrubs I may mention the Virginia Creeper,
Clematis, Bignonia radicj-as Birthwort, Roses, etc.

75. The Wisconsin State Superintendent of Schools adds : —

" 1. Damp spots may be improved by covering iheni with clustei's of the beautiful
pyrus japonica, and j)orches may bo ornamented by climliing vines, sucli as ivy (Kngliah,
German, or the small leaved varieties), woodbine or wiitaria, i-oaes and honuyauckloH
[Vii-ginia creoi)er, trumpet flower, clematis, etc.]: and if any one will take the trouble
to sow the seeds in s])ring, the re<l and white cypress vines, tlie fragrant jessamine,
monihig glories, and the purple and white Japanese clematis, may be added.

" 2. It is best to plant sevei-al vai-ieties of slirubs together in clumps. The dark ever-
greens or the holly and laurel then set ofl' the brighter kinds, and the mutual protection
whicli they att'ord each other against the winds helps the growth of all."

70. Dr. F. B. Hough, Chief of the Forestry division of the United
States Department of Agriculture, in his letter, quoted above, makes the
following useful suggestions : —

" 1 . To secure success trees should be selected from nursery plantations or froni those
that have sprung up in open places, such as tjie seedling ti'ees along fences, so that
that there may be an (tbinuHance of the mnall Jihrona rootii. Without this precaution
they will be very liable to fail. It should be further bonie in mind, that if the roots
are much exjiosed to the sun or to a cold or drying wind their vitality may be soon lost.
Oreat care should be taken, if they are brought from an adjoining place and planted
immediately, to retain !is much soil among them as ijossiblo, and to j)refer- a damp and
cloudy day. By placing the roots of the trees as soon as they ai-e drawn from the
gn>und upon a coarse strong sheet of canvas, and binding this around them, tliis object
may be best secured. Straw or moss, a little dami)ened, will .serve this piu'pose voi"y
well, and sometimes tlie trees may be set in a box or barrel with some of the better soil
in which they grew, for their removal. Sometimes tfees can be removed in winter with
great advantage by digging a trench around them in the fall and allowing the earth to
freeze, so tliat a disk, including the tree and its roots, may be removed entire. . . .
The ends of broken roots should be cut ofl' smooth before the tree is planted.

" 2. The holes for the trees should be always made before the trees are brought on the
groiuid. They should be somewhat larger and deeper than those needed in common
phmting <m private laiid", because it is desirable to give the trees the best possible
opportiuiity at the start. The surface soil being generally the best, should be thrown
up on one .side, and the poorer soil from below on tlie other. In Klling in, the better
soil slumld bo returned first, so as to be nearer the roots. In liard clayey soils great
advantage is gained by digging the holes in the fall, so that the earth may be exposed

I
i t

a^JswwR

SEE-

Chap. VIII.

Planting the School Grounds.

ke
In
le

III

to the weather through the winter. The lioles might be loosely covered with boards
when necessary. If the soil be somewhat sterile, a waggon-load of rich loatu, compost,
or wooil's earth, placed below and around the r<.>ota, would be the cheapest means for
insuring success. In applying manures care should be taken that they be placed below
and near, but not in contact with the roots. In setting the tree it should be placed a
trifle deeper than it stood before, the roots shoixld bo spread out so that none are
doubled, and fine rich soil shijuld be carefully sifted in among them so as to lill every
space. Sometimes the roots are dipped in a tub containing a thin mud of rich soil
before they are set. In any event, unless the soil is evidently damj> tjnough, the trees
should be well watered as soon Jis they are planted, and this j)rocess in dry seasons
shoidd be repeated from time tti time through the first and second yeare."

77. The Wisconsin State Superintendent further adds : —

" 1. The constant care for these shrubs and trees and their unrivalled beauty help to
educate the ciiildren ; their sh.ade is very grateful in the summer ; they C(jo1 the atmos-
phere in the hot days by condensing moisture upon their leaves at night, and by evapo-
rating Viist amounts of it through their leaves in the day time ; they absorb or destroy
the poisonous giisesjind the noxious exhalations often found about the school buildings ;
and they produce a constant motion in tlio atmosphere, tending toward slight and
healthfiJ breezes.

'•2. No shrub or tree should be planted . . . near the school building, where it
will interfere with the light admitted through the windows."

78. The United States work on School Architecture, referring to this
latter point, says : —

" The good efl'ect of trees is reversed by allowing them to stand too near a building.
While they may actually be used to dry up a nuirshy spot, by the great quantity of
water wliich they take up through their roots and disperse by mean^ of tlieir leaves
into the air, these same roots, near a cellar wall, will keep it damp iis would the
vicinity of a gi-eat wet siKinge ; and the shade of their branches, if allowed to fall on
the ijchool house, not only deprives it of so much wholesouu) sunshine, V)ut tlie moving
shadows on the windows ur curtains cause a flickering of the light which is distressing
and injuxious to the eyes."

79. As to the flower beds suggested, the variety of annuals is so
nuniRi'ous that it is not necessary here to name any. A writer, already
quoted, says : —

" A judicious selection of seols, supplemented by slips from private gardens and
young shoots transplanted from the woods, will cost almost nothing, while the civilizing
•influence of their beauty upon the children's minds, together with the pride and interest
which their gardening operations will awaken, should not be undervalued."

80. Speaking of the vahieand usefulness of collections of native woods
made hy pupils of a school, ])r. F. B. Hough, liefore (pirttiMl, makes the
following practical suggestions as to how and why such collections shoidd
he made : —

"There is no school house in the country, whether in city or village or rural district,
wliich might not have at slight expense an interesting collection of the native woods of

Fence and School ENTRANciisi.

Chap. IX.

I ^^

the vicinity. These speciiiions shciild be prepared by having one or more iacoB planed
and polished or varnished to show the grain of the wood when worketl tt>be8t advantage,
and another face simply planed and left in its natural colour. There should be some
jjortion of the bark, and it would be still better if there were shown in connection with
the wood drieti specimens of the leaves and blossoms, the fruit, and the resinous or
other product*. Such collections made up by the scholars, and correctly labelled, under
the care of the teachers, would become object lessons of first importance as an a|;ency
for instruction. They would afford the most profitable kind of employment for the
leisure hours, and might awaken a love of close observation and a thirst for further
knowledge that would ripen into the best of fruits."

CHAPTER IX.

FENCE AND SCHOOL ENTRANCES.

" 3. The scliool grounds slundd be .
tions, 1885.

enclosed by a substantial fence." — Regula-

81. Every school lot should be substantially fenced in. Local taste
will determine the kind of fence, — whether paling, board or picket, etc. •
A rustic fence, if well put together, is very neat and inexpensive.
It may be of red cedar or other durable poles, with the bark on, consisting
of posts with top and bottom rails well secui-ed together and the intervals
filled with pieces of random lengths nailed in any direction, the only
care needed being to keep the network so fornu-d uniforndy open, not
thick in one part and thin in another.

Fio. 14.— Samplk of Fence Pauno and Gate.

82. If a paling or picket fence be preferred, the following suggestions
by the Wisconsin State School Superintendent are useful and valuable : —

" The lower portion of its posts, before buried in the ground, should be dipped in
hot coal tar, which aids in preserving the wood a much longer time. Four well-planed

^■iCS^

Chap. IX. Separate Entrances for Boys and Giri.s.

boardh of pine, — the bofctoiu one eight or ten inches wide, and the rest each six inches,
slioukl be nailed, at the proper spaces from each other, on the posts set in the groimd ;
and tlien a pine board. — fonr or five inches wide, fastened fiat to the top of the post,
cut even with, f)r slightly inclined toward, the highest board on the side. The fence
should be painted in an agreeable juid histing color.* The gates should be strongly built,
and so huii<,' that they will shut thenisolvos [and open either way]. An entrance way
I I for the school, in the style here illustrated [or a turn-stile], will

I I be found very ci)n\enient. It effectually excludes cattle from

the enclosure; while it permits children and even adults to pass through with no
difficulty. The ojiening in the fence next to the street should be four feet wide, and
the i>a88age inside two foot."

Separatk Entrances to the School For Boys and Girls.

"12. Th4ire nhouldhc. separate tntrmieea with covered porches and suitable cloak rooms
for itoys loid girls." — Begidations, 1885.

83. There .should be two separate entrances to every school house — one
for Ijoys and the other for girls.-f- This provision is now almost universal ;
and all the new and approved school houses have two entrances. Experi-
ence and the titness of things, as well as the discipline and mo rale of the
.school, require these entrances to be separate. The United States book on
School Architecture says : —

"1. The entrances, which must be sejiarate for the two sexes, should be so planned
that both boys and girls may be under the eye of the teacher in entering and leaving
the room. They may be in tiie wall behind him, a very common position, but are
better either in the .side or opjiosite end walls, so that without tuniing his head, his
glance may follow them througli the vestibidea until they are out of the building. This
])lan will prevent the silly tricks which children carry on in the vestibules sheltered
from the teacher's observation, to tlie amusement of their fellows but to the detriment
of discipline. Tiie best arrangement will be to put one entrance dtior in the side wall,
near tlie teacher's end of the room, and the other in the opposite end wall,

"'2. The side door may be approjmated to the Itoys, who will thus be nearer the
teacher and more under his control in entering and departing, and the end door, which
will be beiiind the pu])il8, to the girls.

" 3. The ninin being lighted alike on both sides, the pupils may sit facing either the
east 111" west, but there are many advantages in arranging them to face the west. By
this disposition the girls' entrance is brought on the sunniest and most sheltered ])art of
tiie building, as it shf)uld be, and in interior planning, the stove or furnace, which must
be al the north, west corner of the room, i nmos in front of the {)Upils, where it finds the
largest s])ace and where its heat is diffused with the greatest comfort to all.

"4. Aspect must al.so l)e c<»nsidered in regard to the entrances, which, in a wonl,
should always face the south. A south entrance gives a breathing place for the children
in rainy or blustering weathfcr as they api)r(>fich or leave the building, and protection to
the interior from tlie March iiorth-westeiii ir easterly rain storms, which will blow in

* With t!oarso sand mixed with last coat of paint.

tSee Otticial Regulation on this Kvibject, preceding paragraph No. 81, page 44. See also
lilock plan, Fig. 15, on page 48.

Vestibules and Wardrobes.

Chap. IX.

at an outside door exposed to them with such force as to make themselves felt through
the whole school room whenever the door is opened ; it gives dry and clean approaches
to the building after snow storms, in place of impassable drifts ; and last, but not least,
shelter for those too punctual scholars who are sure U) arrive before the building is open
in the morning.

"5. So important has experience shown the southerly att[)ect for entmncos t<> be that
to this necessity is perliaps due the fashion of east and west lighting for tlie school
room pi-oper. ...

" 0. There may be situations where a south exposure is imjjracticable for one or both
entrances. In such a case, much may be done by contriving porches, which, althougli
entered from the east or west, or even from the north, can Jiave wide windows toward
the south, and angles or screens which may shelter the early arrivals from the cold
winds."

84. The 8tate School Superintendent of Wisconsin also gives n good
reason for separate entrances to the school. He says : —

" It tends to prevent crowding and disorder of the pupils before reaching, or on
leaving, the school rooms, and removes the temptation f(jr boys and gii-ls to I'emain in
the entries engaged in ccmversation."

The Vestibules and Cloak Rooms, or Warduohes.

8.5. The author of the United States Book on School Airhitecturo,
speaking of vestibules and wardrobes, says : —

" 1. A good rule for vestibules is that the outside doors siiall be j)laced iit an angle
with those opening from the vestibules into the school room. This will cut off. the
direct impulse of the wind and exclude draughts with ten times the effectiveness of out-
side and vestibule doors in parallel wiills. They should be light and sufliciently spaciouM
to give the crowd .which i)our8 out of the school room dooi-s at recess a little l)reathing
space before they jire jjushed into the open air.*

"2. Attached to each vestibule should be a . . . wardrobe. These may oi)en directly

from the school room but the smell of wet clotlies in rainy weather .... is

penetrating and disiigreeable, and a better dis](osition is to open the wardrobes fron» the
vestibules, these .being at the same time so arranged that the teacher can observe every-
thing that goes on in either of them.f

* In conntructing the vntratices to a school house it nhould be remi'Uibered that the Caniidiaii
law requires that the doors t<houkl be made to open outwards.

Caie hIioiUiI also be taken to make the staircase.^ and |>as^age8 of the school house of more tlmii
one story as wide as possible, so as to facilitate the ogress of the pupils in case of tire or iiaiiie.
Pupils shouM also be drilled to leave the school house in the shortest possible time so a.-, to pre-
vent crashing in case of alarm. (See paragraph number 129, on fire drill, page 74.)

+ Dr. D. T. Lincoln, in the Report for 1882, of the New York State Board of Health, says on
I this point: — " It is not projjer to hang overelotheH in the rooms where sebDlars sit. A closed ward-
robe in the school room condenses the efHuvia and coiiceutnites the effect of j lacking a

quantity of most reeking [garments]. The chance of diffusing infection is increased by such con-
tact. [The wardrobe] should Vjc large enough [so that the] clothes should hang without overlap-
ping each other. It should have gooH light and free circulation "f air, and l)e well warmed.

Chap. X.

Plan of School Grounds.

"3. BesideH the wardrobes, each vestibule should be furnished with waslibowls and
roller towels * All that is needful is a coninion cistern pump in each vesti-
bule [to the raiifwater tank], witli a lejwl <>r enamelled iron suction pipe tfjthe well, and
an earthenware or tiiuied copper basin, or sink if prefeired, with a waste i)ipe to a dry
well outside. This will cost [such] a trifle [that] at (> {)ercent interest, .... the cost
of keeping a school of 50 pupils clean [would not exceed 10] cents each a year. . . .

" 4. The pumps may be hiwl with a pin hole iu the valve, so that the water cannot
stand long enough in them to freeze, and traps in the waste i)ii)e may be dispensed with
as unnecessary, so that there will be no other part of the apparatus to be injured by
frost."

8(). Leading up to the entrances, flowerbeds niiglit (as provided by the
regulations nilating to Arbor Day) be placed with advantage, thus adding
beauty, as well as sources of pleasure and instruction to the teachings of
the school. (Sec block plan. Fig. 15, in next chapter.)

CHAPTER X.

PLAN OF THE SCHOOL GROUNDS.

" 5. The urea of a iichuol site ahmdd iwt he less than half an acre in extent, and if t
school population of the seoton exceeds seventy-jive, the area slwuldhe one acre." — Reijnla-
tlons, IS 85.

" 9. The school house should be placed at least thirty feci from the piihlic hiijhway." —
Ibid.

87. It is only in a general way that suggestions in regai'd to the
arrangements an<l plans of the school grounds can be of practical value.
The .school authorities in each locality must determine such (juestions for
themselves. - . '

88. As a rule the entrances to the school, or at least the front of the
building, should face the south, or the (;ast — never the north, unless it be
a matter of neeessity.-f- The well, outbuildings, shade trees, flower beds,
etc., should be placed, as nearly as pos.sible, in the positions indicated
in block plan, fig. 15, and in the cliapters devoted to these special subjects.
In placing the school house, so as to admit the light ordy from the north
or east, it will be necessary to consider the whole matter well befoi'e
erecting the house. With a view to give pi-actical eft'ect to what T have
hitherto said on this subject, 1 insei't the following block plan on the next
page, by way of suggi'stion and illustration.

* See parajn"ftph No. 57 on Lavatories, l)age 32.

tSee, also, in thi.s connection tlie chinit^r (XIV.) on Lighting and Windows.

Plan of School Grounds.

Chap. X.

89. The following plan may be modified according to circumstances, but
the main features of it shoiikl be retained, especially in regard to th^
privies, play grounds and play sheds.

h 1

BOAD
Fig. 15.— Block Plan of Scmool Grounds,

Chap. X.

Plan of School Gkounds.

-.>, { New Brunswick Board of Education have suggested a plan of

school grounds which I give in the following diagram (%^ 16) as an alL-
native to my own. It liffers from the foreioing^ but not in very imporf-

Privy . ] ^ta-^r.f':^^^^^J I

% "^ I —

Boii'a Play Ground,

m^.

Privy

Wood r.oom

^ a^ S' I

OO OO ,-00

o o o o// o o

OO cyo OO

crrp fc] trr3

Op /',0 O o o

t= — y/t^:iJ2 c~Zi

Ip'/o" X 25' 0'

Gitl'a Play Ore jnd.

Fio. 10.— Block Plan of .School Gkounds.

ant particulars. It, however, lacks the convenience of play .sheds for the
children, as well as a separate entrance for girls from the road and from
their play grounds in the rear. Trees, flowers and shrubs should be
added if the plan be adopted.

" Construction of School Houses.

Chap. XL

CHAPTER XL

THE CONSTRUCTION OF SCHOOL HOUSES.

91. As a preliminary to the consideration of the important siabject of
school house construction, I desire to refer to the pi'ocoedings on this sub-
ject which took place at the International Educational Congress held in
Brussels in August, 1880. At that Congress, this subject, in its hygienic
aspect, received the greatest attention.

. 92. Dr. W. T. Harris, a distinguished educationist, now of Concord,
Mas.sachu.setts. was deputed by the American National Educational
Association to attend fcli is Congi-ess and report the results. In his report
of the Congress to the Association in 1881, he .says : —

"Fifteen specialists of different countries (Belgium, France, Great Britain,
Hungary, Holland, Russia and Switzerland), sent in reports on six <jue8tio!i8 proposed,
and these are very complete, and bearing tlie traces of very thorough study. Seven
reports and six supplementary ones wei'o sent in by scientific men of different nation-
plities. . . . The assembly devoted much time to the principal hygienic conditions
to be observed in the construction of school buildings.

93. Dr. Harris then gives the result of these deliberations in the
following conden.sed form, which I have .still further abbreviated, viz. :

" 1. The lighting of day class-rooms (the subject of three reports) wa.s considered
at length, aiul the following resolution adopted ; ' Class-rooms should bo lighted during
the day by whidows, on (me side vid<j, and to the left of the pupils. They slujuld be so
arranged that all the seats would be fully and equally lighted, the question of ventilation
being considered apart from that of lighting.'

"2. The (iuertti<in of the proper cubic contonts of air was settled by the following
resolution : * The length of a class-room, the maximuui number should be 9 OO metres,
the width (5.00 metres to 8 metres' — (or thirty-one by twenty-one to *wenty-8ix feet.)

"3. The section . . , was unanimous in deciding in favoi of single desks,
such as are in use in many schools on the continent.

"4. . . . The section adopted a resoluticm in favor of extending medical in-
spection to the scbotds. . . . The section also resolved : —

" 5. That the Belgian Government should take *^ho initiative in establishing through-
out the kingdom — after the exami)le set by Brussv, s- hygienic statistics in schools, that
will show the influence of schools on the health of children."

HJ'. li! addition to these valuaVile .suggestions, I (pioto otlnnvs from an
experience<l American authority -Hon. John D. Philbriek, LL.D. At the
reijuest of Hon. John Waton, United States Commi.ssioner of Education,
he prepared lui elaborate report on the " school .systems in the c ties
of the United States," which was published by the Bureau >f Edu-

U
If

CftAP. XI. Requirements of a Mojel Schi ol Room.

cation this yeai* (1885), as one of the " circulars of information."* At the
couchision of his report, Dr. PhilbricK sums up his criticisms on the exist-
ing school buildings (which he describes) in a series of suggestions which
are so valuable and recent that I quote them at length. He says,
speaking .of the

111-

;it

II)

" Requirements of a Model School Room.

(1) " SiMpe. — It should be olilong, the width being to the length about as three to
four, with the teacher's platform at one end.

(2) "(Sj«e — For a priniaiy . . . school with a register of 54 pupils and atten-
dance of about ,50, the foom should be 33 feet long by 25 wide and 13 feet high, which
gives practically upwards of 200 cubic feet and 1G| sciuare feet of floor space to each pupil.

(3) '■'• Liijldlnrj — From windows on the laft of. the pupils as they sit, the tops being
stjuai-e and not more than six inches from the ceiling, the bottom being at leiist three
and a half feet from the floor, equflly spaced, not grouped with transonic sashes luing
at the Ciise, above the sliding sashes. A window or two, in addition, at the back is
aflmissiblo. The size of the wiifdows on the side, taken collectively, should be equal at
It'iust to one-sixtli ot tlio floor space. The highest authorities in school hygiene require
300 or 350 square inches of ghiss for each pupil. +

(4) *' Doors. — On the side opposite the windows, two doors with transome
windows above, hung at the bjvse, and between these tiiuisome wiiulows, and on the
same line, two more windows of the same kind and hung in the same manner.

(f)) " Walls. — The Avails should be slightly tinted, but not the ceiling.

(G) ' Blackboard. ~ A blackboard may be between the doors, but a sliding blackboai-d,
back of the teacher's platform, or a portable one on the platform, in accordance with
the German idea, would perhaps bo better than the profusion of wall blackboard now
in vogue among us.

(7) ''»5i('rt//ii«. — The main rule to be observed in the placing of the seats is to cany
tliem as far as possible from the oi)])osite side ; the aim being to make the arrangement
such that the distance of the outer row of desks from the windows shall not exceed
once and a half the height of the top of the window from the floor.

*In referring to D?. Philbrick's qualification fortius work, lion. John Eaton says :— "JohnD.
I'liilbrick, LL.P., became Hui>eriiit('inlent of the Boston sclicol in Jaiiuary, 185", havinif previ-
ously been a teufhcr in those scliools, Principal of tlie Connecticut Normal Sch(H)l, ami .SujH'rin-
tfiident of public instruction for that State. It is aoknowledj^ed the world over, that to him is
largoly mui siH-oially due the cxcpllonco of the Boston soIiooIh, A tlioroujfh man ftf affairs,
acciirate and Intiad in his snliolarH)ii|>, ... lie not only watched and guided the BoBton
»(^'houl>( that grew under liin hands for twenty years, but, by tnivels and stii<lir< in different piirw
•if this country) and dm iuff two visits to Europe, . he had the ran-st o|iportunitie.^ for

extensive personal observation elBewhere in school matters, and for philosophieul deihictions
ihei-efroni. . . . He had official dutiiis in eoiiiiM'tion with the exhiliition at X'iemia, and tlie
special oiyanization, care and iraiiafrenieiit of tiie Aiiii'ii(;an Kxliiliition of ICdnciition at Paris in
1878,"

t In iinothfT part of his rejioi-t, iiuotutl in Chapter XV'Il., Dr. Philbriek lays stress on thy
Kveat desirability of so placing the school house that its angles shall lie in the same direction as
are the four cardinal points of the compass. (See Chapter XV'II.)

Details of School Building Construction. Chap. XL

(8) " Wanlrohex, or Clothes Booms. — There are three kinds of [wiudrobes, viz.] : (1)
t )ne rt)oni [set apart] for the whole school or several cliiHses ; (2) a room attached to
otMjh school room ; (3) arrangements within each schtjol room, either wardrobes, or racks,
or pegs on the wall. The second kind is most prevalent iuid is tlumght by some to be
indispensable ; it has important advantages, but its use by both sexes, promiscuously,
is decidedly objectionable. . . [The third kind is very undesirable, for the reasons

given in note + to paragraph, number 85 page 46.]

95. No one can over-estimate the great practical value of the.se expres-
sions oi' opinion on the subject under considA?iation, from authorities
so distinguished as the Brussels Congress of Educationists, and the Ameri-
can school report of Dr. Philbrick. They embody the latest and most
carefully considered judgments of some of the leading educators and
professional experts in Europe and America, on school house construc-
tion. As such, they deserve candid and careful consideration on the part
T>f those who are by law entrusted with the duty of providing school
house accommodation for the youth of our couutrv.

96. It may be ui*ged that in " the good old u.rys," and in the early
times in this country, no one ever tliought of presci'ibing j'ules on subjects
of this kind, or even of making any suggestions on such matters. True.
But the consequence wps, that we then unwittingly sacrificed many youthlul
lives, and wo\ild persistently' have continued to do so, had not medical
experience and remonstrance, by calling attention to the subject, arrested
the evil. At all events, we have now the fullest and most satisfactory
information on the subject, gathei-ed from all quartej-s, ana that too of
uiujuestionable authority. We would then be acting a most cruel and unjust
part to the children of thi3 country were \v'e not cheei-fully to avail our-
.selves of the wise counsels and extensive experience of those who are
not (mly coujpetent to advi.se us in these matters, but who give us such
facts and data on the .subject, as should convince any reasoiiable man that
what is suggested is the right and wise thing to do, so as to conserve the
precious lives of the children committed to our care and instruction.

Details of School Building Construction.*

97. It is not necessary to go much into detail in regard to the building
of a School House, but there, are certain important matters in connection
with it which merit careful attention. They rehite (1) tf) the foundation ;
(2) the walls ; (3) the floors ; (4) internal fittings, such as wainscoting,
blackljoards, etc. The matter of ventilation, windcnvs, seating and other
details will be referred to in a subsetpient chapter.

1. 'riw, fuuiidatlon. Whtjther the building be a frame, brick, or
stone one, great care should be taken to make the foun<lation secure, and

• For obviouH reawins I have not gone into the inituitite of building in thin chapter. What I
have Haid on thu matter referffnl to in the text is designed to aid ri il tn.HteeH liy hint and »\ig-
geMtion in framing their contraetM or agreemcntH with builderx, and i >''tinring NiwcificatinnM,

Chap. XI. Deta.ls of School Building Construction.

• T

t I

espeeially to see that it is thoroughly drained. Even if pests alone be
u.sed to support a frame structure, the same care as to drainage is neces-
sary, so as to prevent dampness and its consequent evils.

98. In this connection, and in regard to the preliminary mechanical
details, I give tiie following valuable suggestions, based upon the ex-
perience and judgment of the skilled architect who has prepared the
United States work on School Architecture. He thus points out what
should be done so as to secure a good foundation, and also how the woi-k
itself should be performed :

(a) " The site having been carefully selected and drained as before described, the
ceUar may )}e excavated to a uniform depth of about 3 feet below the original surface
of the ground. The 8f)d, if good, should be stripped off and utilized at once in improving
the remoter portions of the lot. The loam should be piled separately, to be put sub-
sequently on top of the grading. The gravel or earth will be disposed of as the nature
\ of the ground may rocjuire, but on a rejisonably level spot jill the excavated material
will generally be used in raising the ground to a gentle slope around the V)uilding ; not
a steep bank, but a grade of one in ten or so. The trenches for the foundation walls
should be dug 2 feet below the cellar bottom and 18 inches of dry stone tilled in and
rammed .down b3fore starting the walls ; the excavation should be made 8 inches larger
than the wall, at: before described, and the wall carried up with smooth outside face to
the heiglit set for the untlor side of the first floor. This will vary according to
circumstances. If the building is to be warmed by a furnace, the height of the base-
ment should be about 8 feet. Not only is anything less than this insuflicient to give
head room under the hot-air pipes, but the heating is nmch more certain where the
basement is high enough to allow a good pitch to the hot-air pipes. If there is no fur-
nace, Oi feet clear will give sufticient head room. . . . The thickness of the foundii-
tion depends upon the nuiterial and ui>on the thickness of the wall above. Where item
be procured, rubble stone, of granite, sliite, greenstone, trap, or any of the harder
rocks, makes a perfectly satisfactory foundation for a building of tlio kind proposed,
being compai'atively imj)ervious, and therefore little liable to soak up ground moisture,
to give it out again from tlie inner surface ; while, for the same reason, the ground
does not freeze to the outside in winter, gi'iulually tearing to pieces a wall built of
them, iis it does a brick or soft stone foundation in cold climates. If the wall above is
of rubble it will bo usually l(i inches thick, and the fovnulation must be from 20 to 24
inclies thick, acconling to the character of the stone, rounded lunvluSts demanding
greater thickness than the fiat pieces of slate. A hollow brick wall above will be from
12 to 1(> Indies thick, and a 20 incli rubble or KJ- inch brick foundation will .sultice. A
frame building, if tluMo is a cellar undtjr it, should have a nibble wall 18 to 20 inches
thick, according to the character of the stone, or a 12-inch brick widl will do if it is
])rotected against the pressure of earth from outside and from the disintegrating
action of frost, in clayey and clinging soils by a good thick envelope of clean gravel. A
solid 8-inch brick wall above will need a similar foundation. If no collar is reipiired,
tile trench wall for the foundation should still be 18 inclies thick, if of stone, or 12
inches, if of brick. Nothing loss. than these will long withstand the winter fro.-ts. . .

(/)) [.\s] " frame buildings [which have no cellars for hot-air furnaces] are very gene-
rally built oii piei's or posts. . . . With strong sills and good piers tins is a durable
and economical construction. [In this case the sills should be raised] well above the

Details of School Building Construction. Chap. XI.

ground. If earth is graded up against the sills they will inevitably rot in [time. The
space, therefore, between the sills and the ground might] be filled in with sawed sh-^ating,
[such as shown in this illustration (fig. 17). Any other pattern can be chosen].

I I

Fig. 17.— Sawku Shkkting fob Foundation Course.

((•) "The pier.s of a frfyne building without cellarage should be very substiuitial,
18 inches scjuare, if of rubble stono, or 12 by 12, if of brick. Tho 8 by 12 or 8 by 8 brick
piers conuuDuly used begin to bend in a few years. W.vjden posts may witli advantage
and economy in many cases be made of spruce lund)or [soaked in tar or other timber
preservative]

(«/) " Whatever kind of basement is adopted, ample openings for ventilation should
be provided. It is true that a well aired cellar, unless there is a furnace in it, makes it
necessary to plaster the cellar ceiling or to lay the upper floors double, to j)reveut them
from being intolerably cold in winter ; but this is only part of the price which must be
paid for a wholesome and enduring stnicture.

2. The Wolh Above tho basement will be of brick, stone, or wood, according to
circumstances.

"Solid brick walls of the required height may be 12 or even 8 inches thick,
and must be furred with wooden strips 1 by 2 inches, nailed to the inside, and these
strips lathed and plastered, the air spaces thus formed between the plastering and tho
inner surface of llu? wall being necessary to keep external dampness from penetrating
into the room. Stone walls must be at least 1(5 inches thick, and the roughness of
their inner svirface rendering it impossible to nail furring 8tri])s to them, independent
studding must be set up inside, precisely as in the case of a frame building, and this
lathed and plastered."

99. As these furreil walls are dangerous, wlieii fire occurs, in con-
veying sparks and tlanie from the basement to the roof, tho writer very
propei'ly says that —

(o) "The only eft'ectual remedy for these evils lies in the use of hollow walls, of
brick throughout or witii stone facing, as may be preferred, and such walls are l)y far
the best to inclose school rooms.

(6) " Such a wall, of the height proposed, should be Ifi inches thick, the air space being
4 inches, the outer wall 8, and lining wall 4 inches, and tied by c.ontinuoiis " witiis"
at intervals of about two feet. Each " width " is to be built witii headeis bonded alter-
nately into the outer and inner walls. The comers should bo built solid. (See Fig. 28.)

Chap. XI. Details of School Building Construction.

(«:) "The oiiDor wall should be of the hardest bricks, the aemi-vitrification of the
surface being very necessary to prevent the conduction of water from the out«ide into
the lining wall.

(d) "The inside of the air space should be made reasonably smooth, leaving holes
at the bottom to facilitate cleaning t)ut. and at the completiini of the wall all mortar
and shavings, remnants, .... and other vestiges of tl.o woi'kmeu's presence, should
bo cleared out and the holes built up. At the cornice the air apace will be covered
over and a level bed of mortar spread for bedding the plate. A small opening should
be left at the bottom of each ai'* s[)ace opening into tlie basement, and another at the
top opening into the external air. By these a constant ciUTcnt of air will be main-
tained through the hollow. This is essential to the dryness of the wall.

(<;) " It is best to build J or | inch iron bolts into tlie solid work at the corners to
secure the plate. These-should be 2 feet long and have a washer 2 by 4 .nches or so
at the bottom, and must be so set that 4 or 4i inches of the upper end will project
above the toj) of the wall.

(/) "A screw thread is cut on it and corresponding liolos are bored in the plate, so
that when this is laid on, the ends of the bolts will appear above the upper surface, and
washer and nuts are then applied and screwed down. By this means the roof is firmly
hohl to the walls.

{ij) "A simple cornice may be formed by pi'ojecting Ijricks,"' — as in the following
illustrations : (Figs. 18 and 10. )

IT ! !

i i

I ;'■' !"!■, .

1"..

- ^'''■ir-:.'f} "

■1

.!';-: •:

;" ':l;'!"i;!'i'i '

v;:i:ji::;:!Bfe|! "

'■■?:!! in;;; ,;■

Ficj. 1«.— Cornice of PROtiKcrriNii Bkioks anh Section, No. 1.

-m

Fjo. .!>.— Cornice of Projkotinq Biuckh am") Suction, No. 2.

1 :!

'I'

I '■

■^

I'll

' W,"\

t :

Details of School Building Cokstruction. Chap. XI.

{h) " In Buch buildings, .... a considerable expense is saved and a picturesque
eifeot obtained outside, as well as great advaiitages for lighting and ventilation inside,

Fig. 20. Fig. 22.

Figs. 20, 21, 22. Window Opbninos,— SKcmoNs and Dktaii-.«.

by carrying [as shown in the illustrations, Figs. 20-22] the win<low openings up tft
the under side of the wall plate, without arch or lintel."'

(t) A. cornice of brick may bo made, if desired (ass' shown in the following illustra-
tion. Fig. 23, and in Figs. 18 and 19), stopi)int; at the window openings. The wall
may be finished without any projection, and tho edge of the plate may bo moulded
or cut either on the solid, or by jdanting on " mill 'mouldings ;" or the square edge of
the timber may be cut into a "dog-tooth" or otiier ornaments,',(aH shown in Pijures
24-27).

•The Repfulatiotis (No. 14) require that tho "windows (Ix)th RasheH) Hhouldj.bti adjuRted
by weights and pulleys and provided with blinds."

CuAP. XI. Details of School Building Cokstkuction.

(i) The ordtniiry bond for an 8-inch wall, which consists of a continuous row of
headers eveij s.xth or seventh course (as shown in Fig. 28), will give the wall the
appeai-ance of being barred with faint horizontal lines, 10 oi- 15 inches apart

KiG. 23.— Section of Bbick CkjRNicK.

t::

lOflB. 24-27.— Platk MouLiiiNos, Doo-Tooth

AND OTHKB ORNAMENTS, WITH SECTIONS.

1 i

, !

1 1

Details OF School Building Construction. Chap XI.

Fio. 28.— Systkm of Buick Bon'dinos.
100. The fallowing .suggestions! have, for convenience, condensed:

3. Floors* Tlie floor beams should be laid sixteen inches apart from centre to
centre. It is a Jiiistako often made to notch the sill for the beams and cut these with
a projecting tenon two inches deep, or so, at the upper edge, so that when this is laid
in the notch the top of the beams is flush with that of the sill. By this bad arrange-
ment, not only do the beams hang down below the sill, so as to interfere with the
foundation wall, to its and their detriment, but (as shown in figure 29), the tentm
is very liable to split oft', thus dangerously
weakening the floor.

A much better way is nt)t to mortice
the sill at all, but to notch the beams to within
four inches of the top, lay them in place and
spike them through the side (as shown iu
figure 30). In this case tlie tenon will not
split off, and the mortising of the sill— a great
source of rot — is avoided.

Fio. 2!).— a Notched Sill.

101. Wainamting sliould bo pannelled (as
shown in Fig. 31), or may he in any otlier pattern.

((f) The objection to sheeting is that th<' joints in it
shrink unequally, even when half of thom are not mere
imitations, and the work soon begins to. look nvgged and
cheap almost as soon as finished, especially in the hot
school room, while the seams aftord harbour f(u- insects.
Wainscoting will look well and give a finish to the room.

Fig. .so. -*A Notched Beam.

• Dr. Covernton, in an article on " Medical Insiiection of Schools," published in the Report
for 188.1 of the 'i'rovincial Board of Health, says that "On the Continent, great exceptit)n in
properly taken to pine floors, as they are quickly worn, the knots projecting, the wood around
splintering, and becoming collectors of mud and dust . In a season of colds and influenza, the
children cough and spit, the expectorations dry, and the infected duwt spreads catarrh or it may
be the germs of phthisis in the Bohool-i-oom . Flooring should, therefore, always be [of hard
w.Kxll."

Chap. XI. Detatis of School Building Construction.

Under the windows the wainscot should be the whole height from floor to window
sill — four feet. For eery cheap work, the panels may be § inch boards nailed to the
wall, and the framing, or "stiles" lUso of j} inch pieces neatly fitted and nailed at top.

Fio. 31.— Pankllkd Wain8(!OTing anp Skctiox.

(h) Wainscoting should bo finished with a bevel or quarter roinid, which
side Walls may form a continuation of the stonlcap moulding of the windows,
the blackboards it is common to finish with a moulding either shaped out of tl
into a trough on the top, or supporting a separate one,
which maybe simply a strip of half-inch board, inclined
towards .the blackboard (as in fig. '33). This is to catch
chalk dust and hold crdyons and rubbers.

(c) Hallways and vestibules may with advantiiga
also be wainscoted in the same simple manner, three
or f<Jia' feet high. Door and window architraves
-; [should be] very simple.

on tht'

Under

le solid

102. Blackhoards. The Regulation.s(No.22)
direct that —

* b'lo. 33. Chalk
" There should be one blackboard at least four feet Tray Moulp-

widc, extending across the whole room in rear of the ''
teacher's desk, witli its lower edge not more than two and a half feet
above the floor or platform, and, when possible, there shoidd be an
additional blackboard on each side of the room. At the lower edge of
each blackboard there should be a shelf or trough rive inches wide for
holding crayons and brushes. " *

Fig. 33.— Chalk
Tbav Moui.n-
INO, No. 1.

* The following directions for making' a blackboard [appended to the regulation] may \»'
found useful : —

(a) If the walk mx brick the plaster should be laid upun the brick and not upon the laths
as elsewhere ; if frame, the part tt) be used for a blackboard should be lined with Invirds, and thf
laths for holding the plaster nailed firmly on the boards.

(h) The plaster for the bliickboard shoidd be coniiKJsed largely of plaster of Paris.

(d) The coloring matter should be laid on with a wide, flat varnish ))ru.sh .

{c) The liquid coloring should be made as follows : — Dissolve gum shellac in .alcohol, four
ounces to the ((uart ; the alcohol should be 95 per cent, strong ; the dissolving proouss will require
at least twelve hours. Fine emery flour with enough chr«)me green or lampblack to give color.

frni

Heating and Ventilation — Genehal Principles Chap. XII.

103. These blackboards should properly be slabs of smooth slate,
secured with iron bolts fastened to the brickwork. Or the biackboaid space
may be plastered with the ordinary coating of " liquid slating " which will
make a much better blackboard than the usual lathing covered with soft
lime plaster and lampblack or other expedient.* The blackboard should
be finished with a small moulding at the top and also with a moulding,
in the shape of a tray, as shown in the accompanying figures, 30 and 31.
These trays should have a siliall grating of iron, or of wire at each end
through which the chalk dust may be brushed.

104. BruHhes for the blackboai'd can generally be obtained from those
who supply school requisites. Any teacher, however, can readily make
them by fastening a piece of sheepskin to a block of wood shaped like a
shoe-brush. The sheepskin, with the woolly side out, can be tacked to the
back of the brush. It can be used with or without a handle, jus the
tcachf r may prefer.

CHAPTEK Xll.

i
.

i i
i ■

lii 1 1 ill

-HEATING AND VENTILATION.

The General Principles of Ventilation.

10-3. Ventilation is a large and difficult subject. Much has been
wrioten upon it. and many theories held in regard to' it. 'I'he principle
is, after all, simple enough, and yet the great difficulty has been to apply
this simple principle in an effective and practical way.

lOG. The principle and aim of ventilation are thus explained in the
United States work on School ArchitectiU'e : —

" Briefly, the aim of venHlation should be to maintain a stesuly supply of fresh air
and witlulmwal of foul at all parts of the room, removing the products of respiration
and organic particles as fast as thrown off, and leaving no corner stjignant or unHwe()t
by the purifying current."

107. This writer goes on to point out the difference between natural
and artificial ventilation^ He says, and says truly : —

"1. Nothing can take the phice of aeration by means of open windows. Artificial
ventilation, though required for changing the air when the windows are necesBarily
closed, is insufficient, even under the best of circumstances, unless the roomisirom
time to time thoroughly refreshed and purified by the sweep of the free winds through
all its windows widely opened. Such an atmospheric washing should be secured three

should then be abided until the mixturfi has the consistoncy of thin paint. It may then be
applied, in long, even «trokoH, up and down, the liquid being kept constantly stirred.

• As to the iMHition of the blackboardti ; see paraKraph number 94 (6) and number 145 (7).

Chai'. XII. Hkatino anj) Ventilation — Window Opkningh.

()1

or four times daily in all weatliqrs ; at recess, particularly, it should be iiisisted on,
banishing teachers and pupils from the room meanwhile, if necessary. They will more
than make up in the brightness of the remainuig hours for the time they may thus
loBO. Jnniiediatily after school, morning and afternoon, the process should be repeated
for a longer time, and just before school, also, if the room can be wanned again (juickly
enough.* }so fixed transom lights or immovable arched heads should be permitted to
exist over the windows, .... [See i)aragraph number 94, (3) jiage 51].

" 2. The sa.she8 common in the more pi-etentious buildings should be rehung with
rawhide cord or copper chain if necessary, and jmlleys with friction rollers balanced so
OS to move with a touch, while in now buildings the size and weight of the sashes
should be carefully kept down, no sash being oyer 3 feet wide or IJ inches thick. Eyes
must be fixed to the upper sjishes and a pole and hook furnished to handle them with,
or, still better, cords fastened to each sasih hanging within e.'isy reach and pulleys to
raise or lower them at will, and the window frames must be perfectly made, with
cherry beads, ami looked after from time to time to see that all is in working order.

" '.i. Ueaides tlie general airings, in which all the windows are thrown wide o[)en, it is
possible and very desirable during thr. e-fourths of the year to keep some of them
partly open. If they extend to tlie ceiling, the upper pai-t at least o^ the south win-
dows, in rooms properly supplied with other fresh air inlets, may be pretty widely
opened in the coldest weather without causing a noticeable draught. Such openings,
if on the leeward side, often interfere with the action of extiaction sliafts by drawing
to themselves the current of escaping air ; but this, with care, might be minimized. +

<^ \

IV'; If.' v~-»':V^'?^ ■iT"'^ — "r'T^' ]i'[u

7--

^» ^

AIR INLETS

A A

^ADDITIONAL OPENING.

Fios. 34 AND 35. — Doui)i,K Windows, with oi'kninu at Toi> of onk and UonoM of thk other.

• For remark.^ on the ooiistruction of windows for ventilation, and "atrort8))luTic washing "
by these means, wee ))aragraphs number 00 (h), page 50, and paragrapli number 141. In regard to
the aygienic value of the '-' sohool recess " see paragraph number 111.

+ Mr. J. DearneBS, in his paper published in the Provincial Board of Health Report, also
makes a suggestion on the subject. He ways : —

"Windows should always be opened on the leeward side of the liouse, nnles.s they nre pro-
vided with appliances that will give the draught sharp upward flection. Tlie latter oljject is
accomplished liy i)lacing a s'.rip the length of the window frame, the width of the opening, and
the tliicknnss of the frame inider the lower sash (see Fig. 34). The raising of the under sash
accomplished in this way makes an entrance for the air between the Bashes. It is less trouble to
fix astvip uf board under the top of the frame at a sharp ang'e with the top bar of the upper sash

(!»•

Hkatinq and Ventilation — Window Openings. Chap. XII

"4. Tliore are timeH, liDwevor, when tho windows cannot be open«d witli safety. But
niuans must betaken for ensuring the withdrawal of the respired air from tho room in
some other way.

108. Dr. r>. F. Lincoln, in hi.s report to the New York State Board
of Health (r>S2) on School" Hygiene, speak ino- of window " air inlets," *
says of them : —

" 1. No apparatus tli.tt can be named will do so much gfK>d, at a very small cost, aa
the window-board — [that is] a j)lain piece of bt>ard, as long aa the window is wide, and
from four to eight inches in width. The lower sjvsh is raised, the wood is inscrtod and
the Hiwh is sliut down ujion it. Tlie air enters [us shown in Fig. JUiJ in a tliin stratum,
passing upwards between tho upper and lower sashes in a nearly peri)ondicular direction,
without causing percei)tiVjlo draught. Fig. 3(> (to the right) represents a double window

(

FlO. 36.— AlK-INLKTS THROUGH WlNUOW .S.VHHKS.

provided with a board, the air entering at A. This gives great protection from tho cold,
and also enables the air to enter tho room slightly warmed by contact with tho lower
pane. All four siishes of double windows sliould be movable.

"2. At B [in tho other window] there is a difl'erent arrangement for mild autumn or
spring weather. The board is made wider, and is placed an inch or two from tho sash,
in such a way aa to direct a current upwards. [The arrows indicate the direction of the
currents entering the room thiough each kind of window when tho boarils are arranged
iw directed. See tho Window illustrations in paragraphs numbers 99 (/i) and 150.]

109. The writ(n' then explains how often s^'^steins of ventilation fail,
from want of judgment, or knowledge in the application of its principle
which alone can make such systems successful, viz.: "The ascensive power
of artificial heat." He says : —

(gee 'AA' in Fig. 35), and then lower tho sash. If the window is on the windward side the
sash may safely be lowi^n-d an inch or two, or if on the leeward side pulled down to make an-
ojiening of eight or twelve iiichos.'

Chap. XII. School House Heatincj and Ventilation.

"1. Nothing JH luorc common and more absurd tlijui to see rough ventilation Huot.,
4 by 8 inches, built in walls without any provision for heating them, under the suppo-
sition that they will 'draw;' or to see tiny pipes, from the foulest i)lace8, introduced
into chimneys which ore cold half the time, in the expectation that the 'forced
draught' which is imagined to exist there will suck up and carry off deleterious vapor
as ffwt as a sipmre yard of filth can generate it. All tsilk of ' forced ventilation ' by
means of a shaft without fai\s, [heat] or steam jets is misleading. The action of everj' such
shaft or cliimney, warmed or not, is precisely analogous to the movement <if two boys
balanced on a see-saw. If their weight is eijual, neither moves ; if one is slightly
heavier, he descends and the other ascends, but his motion would not be fairly described
by 8a_\ ing that he was ' forced into the air. ' So with ventilating shafts; the column
of air in them is balanced against a cidumn of the same siice and height outside ol them.
If the outer air is cold and that in the shaft warm, either from artificial heat or by
communicating with a wann room, the latter column will be slightly lighter, because,
being expanded, a given volume contains less weight. This difference of weight, if
there is not too much friction in the chimney or elsewhere to be overcome, will incline
the biUance, and the air in the chimney will rise, cold air descending to take its place.
The actual difference of weight between the column of air in a chimney 12 inches
scjuaro ai.l 30 feet high at a temperature of 100° Fahr. and an equivalent volume at
32° Fahr. would be 6 ounces ; and this, deducting the friction of both the ascending
and descending currents, will be the measure of the ascensive force of the air in the
shaft. •

" 2. Without artificial heat the ascensive power is much less — infinitesimal often ;
and in summer the current in a chimney is at least half the time revei-sed. the evaporation
of the hygrcmietric damjiness of the masonry cooling the air within it below the tem-
perature of tlie surrounding atmosphere.

'• 3. This force, feeble though it be, is all we have to dej)end upon, and it need
hardly be said that all obstructions <o its action must be avoided. The couunon cause
of defective action is insufficient fresh air supply.

* Dr. D. F. Lincoln, in his report on School Hygiene, published in the RejMjrt of the New
York State Board of Health for 1882, sayH on this subject : —

" L Few people are aware how small a quantity of air is actually drawn out of apartments by
ordinary flues for ventilation. By 'ordinary,' I mean [an opening of the size of one or two
bricks] (4x8 inches). . . . Witli a closie grating . . or register to obstruct a current

at the bottom, or Hharp angle at the foot, the inside roughened by protruding mortar and with
only a [remote chance] of getting warmed with a smoke stack . . . Probably, in such a

case, the rate at which the current moves, is something like a f(Mit jier second. The flue is draw-
ing out a (piarter or a half of a cubic foot of air per second -enough, perhaps, for o/u; pfTsoo'.i
reipiirements . A large school room may often be sefu jn'ovided with half a dozen or more of just
such [sized] ventilating flues— enough for six or eight children.

" 2. School authoritie."* should a.«icevtain the real working capacity of the flues in their sch(Kil
lioUBCH, for the degree of deficiency can never be known in any other way. The aneometer will
give a pretty faithftd statement of the current actually passing through the flues. Analysis foi-
carbonic acid in the air of the school room will give an excellent test. . ' .

" 3. A ventilating flue must draw, or it is worthless . This quality, which forms its sole merit,
is aided by several other iwjints, viz.: —

"(a) It should Ik; as straight as possible from beginning to end. Curves and angles are very
great obstructions .

" (6) It should not, as a rule, be horizontal, or descending in anj- part ....

"(c) It should be continuous from the beginning to where it discharges out of doors. . .'•

! 1

NuMBKU Ob" Cubic Fkkt of Air per '^'hild. Chap. X.Ii.

11 '^''

*' 4. Ill ohIlm-, then, that there may be a How of air thri)Ugli tha room, not nnlj must
the withdrawing sliaft be large, straight and smooth, that the irevitable friction of the
air npon its walls may not materially obstruct the ont<vard fl-w, but the inlet openings
must bo jUso ample and unobstructed, any hindrance to the mward How being e<[Ually
a check to the outward curri'iit. To use a homely illustrati* n, the room to be /enli-
lated may bo imagined to be traversed by the lower end of a huge atmospheric roller
towol. It makes no difference whether we pull one side down or the other aide up to
secure a movement ; but if the towel is obstiucted in any part of its course the whole
is brought to a stand still. Recolleciing also that to pull down a conunon ndler towel
actually takes more power than tiie whole force ordinarily available for moving the
entire atmosphere of a large rooui, the total iiscensive power of the usual ventilating
shaft seldom exceeding one or two ounces, the imperative necessity for avoiding fric-
tion will be evident."

110. By way ot" [uaefcical application of the t'oreooing, the writer
paints out a )'eniedy, which will be coiisiilered under the next heading.

NuMBKii OF Cuiucj Feet of Aik pku C'hild.*

/ /. " Iv v.acli. room the. area should he. «( least twelve square feet oii, the floor, and there
shoidd be at least two hundred and. fifty cubic feet of (dr upace for each pupil.— Hequ-
lations, Ifi.So."

m. The application, in a practical shape, of the foregoing .stateinent.s
and illustration necessitates the consideration of the number of cubic feet
of air which must be allowed per child in each school room. This involves
the a'xxes of school rooms and the number of childrcdi wliichcan be rightly
accommodated in each of tin <• room.s. This question also involves the
h('iglit and Hoor area of the scliool room. While the area remains fclie
same, cubic feet availal)le may be increased by adding to the height of
the room.

1 12. In order to minimize as much jus jio.ssiblethe co.st of school house
construction, the Minister of Kducation has reduced tiie nundter of cul)ic
feet of air for eacrh child to In- lowesi, [j)int consistent with safety to the
health of pupils in the scliooL (See Res^ulation No. II above.)

1 \'i. On this injportant question [ give an extract from the report of
a ('onnnittee on School Hygiene, pu!ilishe(l by the Pr«)vincial Board of
H(!alth ill their report for IHHH, as follows : —

" 1. We are, no doubt, safe in aHirming that in order to maintain the air of our school
rooms at a proper standard of purity and render it fit for respiration, 1000 cubic foot of
air si)ace should bo allowed to each pupil. This ustimute is based on the following
data : -

"(tt) Ail' contains '4 (CO) uaiboiiic acid per 1000 volumob.

' See H]X5cinI reference to thin matter in paragraphH, tiiimberH, 10, 93, 114, 115 and 116.

Chap. XII. Numbkh of Cajkiv. Fket of Am per Child.

"(.'>) Ami if we adopt ,^55 cubic foet as our air space, then each individual exhales
6 carbonic acid every hour per 100 volumes of air.

"(c) When three renewals of fresh air are effected every hour, each individual will,
by respiration, add (^ of G) or 2 of carbonic acid to the ' 4 commonly contain^ in the
air.

^'{(l) Consetjuently, the ratio of impurity will be repress d by "6 carbonic acid to
1000 volumes of air with three renewals each'houi. and tii n will be no percei)tible
draught.

"2. But two questions here present themselves : —

"(«) What amoiuit f)f carbonic acid shall be (»». 'ejjf^d as the standard of permissible
impurity ?

"(/>) How many renewals of fresh air can be effected each liour without injurious
draughts V

"(c) With regard to the first question, Ur. (Jeorge Wilson records the result of
numerous experiments which he had a share in conductinar, and states the following
genenil conclusiuns, wliich corroborate the experience of Parkes : —

"(</) That when tlie carbonic acid does not exceed '8 in lOCO volumes of air, no
tangible injurious effects upon the health can be detected, but when itreaches 1 in 1000
volumes of air the c\unulative effects of breathing impure air manifest themselves."

"(e) Admitting this principle, the air space allotted to eacli individual pui)il might
be reduced to 500 cubic feet, with an elKcient system of ventilation. The rea.son for this
is clear. !5ecause, if with tliree renewals of fresh air every hour 2 carbonic acid is
added iusthe ru.spired im]>\uity for one individual in 1000 cubic feet of air sjmce, then
•4 of carbonic acid per 10(i0 will be added for the same individual in 500 cubic feet of
air space ujider the same conditions.

"(/) With r(!f?ard to the .second (piestion, if six renewals of fresh air can be effected
each liour without injurious draughts, 500 cubic feet of air space may be siitticient for
each pupil, since this will keep the standard at per 1000 volumes.

"(^) This can be accomj)lished by having inlets and outlets favorably placed, and
judiciously managed, in a proi)erly constructed room, according to some authorities.
But skilful management in veiitiiatin;^ and warming' is necessary in order to avoid
injurious results.

"(ft) Consocpiently, there is a possibility of confining i)Upils in iwi air space of 500
cubic foet, under certain conditions, without serious injuiy resulting from breathing
impure air.

"3. Let us further ask ouraelves, May we adoi)t a lower standard than 500 cubic*
feet of air space for each pui)il t

"4. In connection with this question, the system puraued in some schools in tlie
United St:ites of frecptontly opening doorw and windows during ichool hours, in order
to admit a free supply of outside air, is worth (•on.si<lering.'''

• See extract in regard to lliiH uiattttr in paraKraph numlier 107.

'■}

Number of Cubic Feet of Air per Child. Chap. XII.

" 5. The scliool authorities direct that a brief intermission shall be given to the pupils
at the end of each liour. During this intermission, marching, gymnastics and other
suitable exercises are pi-actised by the scholars under the superintendence of the teachers.
This i)lan has many advantages to reconunend it. The physical exorcises tend to pro-
mote the health of the pupils, and also greatly conduce to their comfort.

" (>. The frequent cvercises in pure air, with open windows, assist the pupils in
throwing off the injurious effects of imperfect ventilation and confinement in seats.*

"7. Under sucli a system as this, energetically ciiri'ied out, may it not be claimed that
the perfect health of pupils can be maintained with a less air space than 500 cubic feet ?"

1 14. The United States Book on School Architecture gives a practical
application to its remarks on this subject, as follows : —

" The amount of fresh air which is allowed to hospital patients is about 2,500 cubic
feet each j)er 'lour. Criminals in French prisons have to content themselves with 1,500
cubic feet per i. uir. Assuming that we care two-thirds as much for the health of our
children iis we do for that of our thiovos and murderers, we will make them an allowance
of 1,000 cul)ic feet each i)er hour. Forty-eight children will then need an hourly
supj)ly<)f 48,i'00 cubic feet. Definite provision must therefore be made for withdrawing
this (|uantity of foul air. No matter how many inlets there may be, the fresh air will
only enter us fast as the foul e8ca])es, and this can only escape through ducts intended
for that p^rpf)se, porous walls and crevices serving in cool weather oidy for inward flow.
What, tlien, n ust be the size of the shaft to exhaust 48,000 culiic feet per hour? In
shafts two feet or more in diameter, the velocity of the current varies with the height
and with the difference in temperature between the atmosphere inside and that fmtsido.
In one 20 feet high, vertical and smooth inside, with a difterence iu tenij)erature of 20
degrees, the velctcity will be about 2j feet per second, or 9,000 feet per hour ; that is,
it will carry off 0,000 cubic feet of air per iiour for every S(]uare foot of its sectional
area. ' To convey 48,000 cubic feet, it must have a sectional area of 5i square feet "

llo. Speakinjf on this subject, Hon. John D. Philbi-ick, LL.D. (referred
to in note <»n page ol), in a It tter to Hon. Henry Barnard, LL.D., of
Hartford, (,'onn., a veteran edueationist, and the first United States Com-
missioner of Education, s.ays : —

*' The highest pedagogical authority has decided tliat a sch(K)l room . . . should
ntit exceed 27 feet in length or 20 in width -the story being 14 feet in the clear — this
is for 40 pupils of the higliest class. i The King William's Gymnasium in Berlin — one
of the grandest school buildings in the world — in the building of which the highest
authorities in architecture and pedagogy co-*)perated, provides for pujjils of tlie highest
class (18 to 20 year.^ of age) 10' square feet of floor per i)upil. The rooms in our
[Public Latin and English High School, Boston], furnish 20 stjuare feet to a pupil,
very neaa-ly double that of the Prussian edifice . "J

*In ruifard to this cpiestion of the " recess" and the advantaxet of rp«> parographx,
iiuinhcrs 1,31 to 140, incliiHivt\

+ S«H also |)iiraKruph nuinbpr il4 (2), i)agn Rl,

+ Ur. PhilUriok when In* refers to th« (ryiiinaHitiiii iu Bcillii um " mie of the ^raiuiest scliool
iMiildinKH ill the world," B|H>.akH with autliority, hh his Ite|H)rt on tlie t<clitH)l architectural display
at tin- Vii'iiiia Kxpositioii of 187.S will tcHtify. It must 1h' all that he lias desiTibwl it to Im, as thf

Chap. XII. Systems of Hkating and Ventilation.

116. The Conunittee, which has recently awarded prizes for the best
plans for a public school house in New York City, has given its opinion
that " in each class room not less than fifteen square feet of floor area
should be allotted to each pupil."*

Systems of Heating and Ventilating School Houses.

"i5. Care nhould be taken to arraiuje for mich ventilatioH us v^'dl secure a eoinplete
chaiuje of atmosphere three times every hour." — Regulatiutis, 1885.

117. The ordinary system of heating rural schools is by means of a stove.
In most cases this system is unaccompanied by any plan of systematic
ventilation, or of securing pure air ironx outside of the building. The
door and windows (the latter often tightly shut) are often depended upon
for such fresh air as they may casually admit to the school room. Efforts
have been made by our Public School inspectbrs to remedy this great
evil, and to introduce a system of heating by hot air, a system the verj'
principle of which is to displace the vitiated aii- already in the room.
An example of an Inspector's success in this direction is furnished by
Mr. David Fotheiingham, Inspector of North York, in the shape of
a plan of heating l»y hot air, which has been recently adopted, on his
recommendation, by the trustees of a public school near Newmarket. Mr.
Fotheringham has furnished a copy of this plan, which is inserted here-
with (Fig. 34). He says :

very building in Boxton, about which his letter was written, is ''tlie grandest school building" iij
America. Its cost wa-i upwards of three-tiuiirtcrs of a million of dollars, viz., S>7i)O,80O. Dr.
l'liill)rick, in hi.s ri'iiort to the Unitcit States Bureau on " City Schools in the I 'ni ted States,"
publiwhed tliis year (188,'j), refers to the City of London School " a.s a masterpiece of English scIkm)!
architecture.]' ' It is a cla.ssical school for 080 boys between tli<- ages of 7 and li), erected by the
London City Corporation since the completion of the Boston edifice. The cost of the building,
together with site, amounted to aniillioii of dollars. No pains werespared to make this a model
school house iu all respects. Its magniticeut site fronts the Victoria Kmbauknn ;it. The inter-
esting details of this building are ^iven in Dr. Philbr i.'k's ri!iM)rt (Circular f riiformation,
No. 10, IHSti), pagBs 1()8-171. Dr. Philbrick explains the reason Mt thn superiority of th.-
Gymnasium. He Bays : — " The highest authorities in architecture and ^ledagogy C'i-operated "•
ju its construction. That this co-operati<yi was Jiot an i.sola.id cast: is evident from
the tollowing extract of his report on the school architectunil display at Vienna in 1873:
"Vienna knows how to build, and has luiilt scIhhiI edifices which are moie durable, more safe,
more convenient, more costly, ami more beautiful than any Boston has yet built or is likely to build
in the near future. The reason of this is, that in Vienna, when a school house is pionnod, it is
done by the cumltiiird nt'.iciicr and itund"m of tin' iiWKt accomiili.iliid nrchileHsnnilthe most iici'iy,,' >>li.i/tcd
palajingists. No mere whim of a school-nuvster, and no uii re whim of an inexperienced i.'ul
uneducated architect, is allowed to control the design.'' i-lpeaking also of the " Al ajlemischts
fiymnasiinn," in Vienna, Dr. Philbrick says:- " ft was built oy the {lovernment . . . the
de.sign being the product of the best architectural . . . and |jeilagogical talent, working
together . ... The lighting is perfect."

* Mr. \V. R. Briggs, ,\rchitect to the Bridgei)ort High Scliool, Connecticut, in describing that
building, says : " In the corner r(M)nis of BridgeiM)rt Sch(M>l hoime, all()wing."iO pupils per room, each
pupil will have 20.50 square feet of floorspace, and 2(Mi cubic feet of air. In the middle riMHus each
|>upil will have 21 sipiare feet of Hoor »\nuf and '2,1'.\ cubic feet of air. In the High School [large
riKim, seldom used], allowing 200 pupils, each pupil will have 17 square feet of H|)ace and [being
lofty] 447 cubic feet of air" i)er p\ipil.

i 1

Systems of Heating and Ventilation. Chap. XII.

" From the accompftiiying tlitignini (Fig. 37) you will underatand my i>lan for ven-
tilation, *\Vhile I should avail myself of the ordinary means, through raising and
lowering windows, and by ventilators in the ceiling and gable ends, I should have a
shaft in connection witii the chimney, composed either of a section of the chimney
divided off by sheet iron (which would heat the air in the shaft), or by a pipe inside
the chimney, either for the smoke or f jr ventilation,

" You will notice that I suggest cold air escapes at the floor into the basement, or
nto tubes opening outside the building ; higher up I suggest large ventilating registers
to be_ under contw)! of teaclier. "

t-l.

H
H

C, .

T-S

■T^viT-- rtrrm— 1..-.T rn'..\MUMHir

H
H

Fig. 37.— SmrriON of Soiiooi, Room, Shkwino Heatinc* and VKNTii.ATtNo ;Vppakatch.

A. A.— Hot Air Furnaces.
C.C.— Hot Air Rfigistern.
E.E.— Chiinuies.
G.G. — Cold Air KscapeH.

B.B.— Cold Air Duct.
n.D -Smoke Pi|H'H.
F.F.— Ventilation Shafts.
H . H . — Ventilation l{e(?istor».

I.I. — Principal rafters— Kivin^ nir Hpace of Ifl feet at nidcB, and 20 feet in the centre

of the room.,
J . — Glass door . K . —Teacher's Platform .

XII.

r ven-
^ .and
lave a
iinnej'
inside

nfc, or
'istors

Chaf. Xll.

Systkms of Hkating and Ventilation.

v=^

118. Several of the otlier Public School Inspectors of Ontario have
given their views on the subject of the heating and ventilation of schools,
which are embodied in a report by a committee of themselves, of which
Mr. John Dcarness, of Kast Middlesex, was chairman, I insert the
following : —

(1) Mr. F. Burrows, of Lennox and Addington, says :

"In ordinary country schools a good sized pipe with openings, enclosing the stove
pipe and passing into the chimney will be found efficient for ridding the room of noxious
air. The stove should be enclosed in a sheet-iron jacket, the chamber formed having
communication with the pure air outside."

(2) Mr. E. B. Harrison, of East Kent, says :

"For the escape of foul air, ventilate into a flue built in the chimney as an air duct ;
iJso see Hodgins' "School Architecture," page 45, etc. For the supply of fresh air,
air ducts and registers in the walls. The air to be obtained from as high a point as
possible." "

(3) Ml-. Summerby, of Prescott and Russell, says :

"Fresh air admitted (from outside, not from cellar) through floor and heated as it
passes the stove. Flue for exit of foul and cold air at end of room remote from st^fve. "

(4) Mr. C. Donovan, Inspector of R. C. Separate Schools, suggests a :—

" Ventilating flue, side by side with draught flue of chimney, c<mnecting by tube under
floor with an opening, or register, at opposite end of the room ; fresh air admitted from
ouUide by tube under floor. Operation : fire burning draws cold air from outside ;
same in draught flue heat« air in adjoining ventilation fluoT causing it to rise and draw air
from further part of room by tube under floor (first mentioned), thus creating a circu-
latiim."

(5) Mr. J. Dearness, of East Middlesex, in an elaborate paper on the
" Sanitary Condition of Rural Schools," published in the Report for 1883
of the Provincial Board of Health, says : —

"Ventilation, by heating air drawn by flues from the outside in a chamber con-
structed round the stove, is an excellent method, but tiie chamber should be fitted to
the stove in such a way as to expose part of the metal so that wet or cold feet can be
dried or warmed at it. A register may be placed in the floor under wliere the stove
will stand. The register draft may bo fed by two zinc or galvanized iron pij»es leading
air from the outside, or by a matched covering of the joists V)etween which the register
is placed, hi either case the flues, whether zinc or wooden, should be so clo«o as not
tc» allow the air ' from the cellar' to bo drawn into the house.* Such a chamber as this
needs a strong current of fresh warm air all the time that there is a fire in the stove.

" Speaking of ventilating flues, it may be safe to state as a rule, they are practically
Moless in rural schools unless they are wanned by the smoke flues passing through

: I:

I ',

' See remarks on air from the cellar in the extract quoted in paraKra])h 121, page 71.

I i

i ,

\'. > '

Systems of Heating and Ventilation. Chap. XII.

them, (jr are heated in some other way. It is really surprising to find how many jjoople
think cold air and pure air are identical. I have sevenil times, on complaining of tlie
ventilation of the room, heard the connnand given to a pupil to 'close the damper.'

" One seldom sees an evaporating pan on the stove, or any other means adopted to
maintain the proper hygrometric condition of the air in the school i-ooni. It is not
generally known that external air at ireezing point brought into a room heated to 05°
or 70^ requires at leaat four-tiinen .kh much moistuie lui it contained outside. "

lit). Dr. P. H. Bryce, Secretary to the Provincial Board of Health,
has, at my request, sent to nie the following suggestions as to the mode
of determining the impurities in the air of a school room. He .says :

(1) "The test of Dr. A. Smitli is the ordinary one of measuring impurities by the
milkiness caused in lime water through having the air of a room diuwn into it, when
cii'bonate of lime is formed by the carhtmic rtcid, the air uniting with the lime.
(Co O + Co, .-^^ CaCo;,).

(2) " Tliisis demo by having airdrawn through the lime water by means of an a8])erator.
The amount of Ca O (lime) in grauis must be known, and the volume of iiir drawn
through also calculated.

(3) "A rough way, but a very pi-actical one, is to have a rubber ball containing a given
number of cubic feet of air (calculated by the amount of water the ball will hold) com-
pressed cto as to drive the air througli the lime water. This may be repeated any
number oi times. Turbidity of the lime water after a certain amount of air is driven
through it will indicate contaniination. The amount of lime-water and air necessary is
readily calculated. This method may be practised by any school teacher. Supposing
pure air produced no turbidity, the degree of contamination would be experimentally
proved" by the number of times the air of the ball is dri\ en through the water. This
can be easily determined by compai'ison with Angus Smith's tables found in ' Fox's
Examination of Air and Water." '"

(4) "Professor Leeds . . . says . . . ' Tlie air in winter is veiy dry, the moisture is
squeezed out ius ^he water is squeezed out of a sponge. But as you heat it you enlarge
its volume again, and it sucks up the moisture just as this sponge does, and if you do
not supply this moisture in other ways it will suck the natural moisture from ycmr skin
and from your lungs, creating tlvx cry, parched, feverish condition, so noticeable in
our furnace and other stove-hoated moms. Few pei-sons realize the amount of water
necessary to l)e evaporated to j roduce the natural condition of moisture, c<irre8i)onding
with the increased tempcrnture given tlie air in many of our rooms in winter. Air
taken in at ten degrees and heated up to seventy, the ordinary tenq)erature of our
rooms, reijuires about nine times the moisture contained in the original external atmos-
phere, and if heated to a hundred dci^rees, as most of our hot air furnsu^es heat the air,
it wtmld re(iuire about twenty-three times the amount in the external atmosphere.'"

120. Dr. Oldright, in a r".(>er on School Hygiene in the Report of
the Provhicial Boanl of Health for 1 88.'}, discusses the question of "inlets"
and " outlets " for air in school rooms. He says : —

I. ''Size of ItileU and Outlets. — . . . There are 3,600 seconds in an h(mr, and we
want 3,000 feet of air in that time, i. e., five-sixths of a foot per second for each indi-

Chap. XII.

Heating Air Direct from Outside.

vidual ; this, with a current of live feet per second, will require our ' hole,' or inlet, to
be one-sixth of a square foot, or twenty-four siiuaro inches per individual ; and the
satno to let the air out. If heatetl it will have to flow more nvpidly, and it may more
safely be allowed to do bo. . . .

2. " The relative pointion of the Inlets and OuUett. — Their relative positions will vary
much, according to varying circumstances ; among which may be mentioned the shape
and size of the room, the seiiaun of the year, the mode of heating. . . . There isru
certain general principles, which, if strictly remembered and carried out, will help us
much in the consideration of details in each special case. There are four of these gene-
tbJ principles that must never be lost sight of :

(a) " The air brought in must be distributed throughout the whole of the breathing
space.

(fc) " It must be of a suitable temperature, when it comes in contact with the
inmates, and of a suitable degree of humidity.

(d) " Hot air is lighter than cold.

3. "It is of great importance to bear in mind these four principles ; it will be found
that evei-y defect in ventilation is due to a violation of some one of them. "

121. In a note to paragraph 124, I liave pointed out the necessity for
bringing in fresh air from outside at points three or four feet above the
ground level. (See Fig. 38.) In no case should tlie air for a heating fur-
nace, or for a stove jacket, be taken from the cellar. The " reason why,"
is thus graphically given by Dr. Lincoln. He says : —

" It cannot be too often repeated that the puiity of cellar air lies at the foundation
of the purity of house air. The danger of severe and sudden illness lurks in cellars, as
often as in sewers. The commijn practice in regard to cellars is to bury the drain under
its floor, ... in short, there are few uses of a menial sort to which it is not put.
The cellar is often without a proper floor, (jften is very dark and close for want of win-
dows. . . . To these sources of pollution (for darkness is one source) add the fact
that in cold weather a ])owei-ful outside pressure exists, forcing air into the cellar and
thence into the upper parts of tlie house."

Heating air from Outside by a Stove in thk School Room.

air.

of
ets"

d we
indi-

122. Although a furnace, or heater, in the btusement (as illustrated by
Mr. Fotheringham, Fig 37 on page 08) is considered the best means of heat-
ing school I'ooms, yet the plan mentioned ((m page 72) by othei* inspectors
of heating them by stoves in the school room, is the most common
plan. Without certain arrangements and precautions, this is a very faulty
and unhealthy system. As a general rule, no provision is made for venti-
lation by the constant production of warmed air and the exit of vitiated
air. The stove is often placed at one end of the room, and the pipe is
carried over the heads of pupils — to their serious detriment. The only
6

m I

Heating Air Direct from Outside.

Chap. XII.

way to obvittte these defoeis ^^if a stove must bo used) is to place it near
the north-east angle of the school room, and bring fresh cold air in from
the north side of the school house, in the manner illustrated in the accom-
panying simple diagram (Fig 38) which (with new features added) has been
adapted by me from one in an American school report : —

I
CO

X
CO
o

-J

SCHOOL ROOM

\;^;^

VITIAT6D AIR

Kio. 38. Pi,AN OK .Stove HEAxma a Schuoi. Horsi-: iiv Hot Aik.

123. It will be iiotictxl, that in Fig. 39 (next page) one of the escapes
for vitiated air is under the teacher's platform ; others are under the desks,
etc. In no case should the fresh air be admitted from the. ground liivel
outside ; but it should be invariably taken from about three or four feet
above the level, through an nir duct, a,s shown in the diagram above
(Fig. 38), AJfith wire gauze eoveiing or a register.*

124. The following illustration shows wliat would he the practical
working of such a system in tlic seliool i-ooni :

* In a report on hcIiooI hygiene by Dr. D. F, Lincoln, apimixcd hy tin- N. Y. State Board of
Health, hi' sayH : ^" There is much carelessness about the source of air which is drawn [from outsid<',
aiul sent into the school room. Tin; ground may, it is true, be a pure and unoffensive bit of turf,
but that is an unusual condition of the school yartl. Bad air, malarial air, is known to settle upon
the groimd in many cases. . Sundry unpleasant elements in the surroundings of school

houses are at the ground level. As a rule, openings for drawing the outer air into the house had
better be at jjoints above the children's heads, and cover<id with wire netting.'"

Chap. XII. Air Currents in Heatino and Ventilation.

Fi<!. 39. - SKtmoN OF School House, showing Air Ciukknth and Ventil.\tion.

12.'). The C'ottie]' system of ventilation, recently adopted in the school
houses of Portland, Oregon, has worked well. It is based upon the use
of the attic as a warm air, or expansion chamber, out of which there is
an ejector through the roof into the open air. From a detailed account,
furnished to me by Mi\ T. H. Crawford, City Supei'intcndent of the Port-
land City Schools, I ha\'e condensed th<' following summary on the sub-
ject :—

The tin flues for vitiated air used (four in each room) are ten inches by four in
size. They reach from the roonjs to the attic, and extend a few feet above the attic
Hoor. To ensure a strong draft, hot-water coils (or hot air through flues will answer),
are placed in tlie attic, some feet above the floor. To enforce a more lapid ventila-
tion, a giis burner is placed in each tin vitiated air flue, five feet from the floor, with a
glass door opposite to it in the flue. The attic, or expansion chamber, is made air-
tight, and all doors leading to it closed. Hot air pipes are j)laeed under the windows,
etc., on two sides, or on one side and end, of the room. The wani- air rises and
receives the cold air froui one-inc'li openings at the top of the windows and by tran-
soms over doors. These openings are so snuiU and numerous that no sensible draught
can occur.

FiuE-EscArK Drill and Ready Exit.

Chap. XII.

126.. A Medical Commission was appointed in Germany not vesylong
since, to report on certain questions relating to school house construction.
In the report which the Commission prepared, it was laid down that
2,120 cubic feet per hour for each pupil was the minimum quantity of
fresh air which should be supplied to each pupil. The Commission stated
that —

(1) "In the best arranged ventilating sliafts, uf nietul, fitted with gas-flnmes,
stoves, or other artificial ueans for promoting the draught, the upward cun-ent of
vitiated air will occasionally reach a velocity of a thousand foet per minuto, in cold
weather, although the avera^je, in ordinary cases, is lurely more than live hundred feet
and generally much less ; so that to ventilate a nxtm containing sixty pupils
thoroughly, it should have an outlet shaft of four scjuare feet or more, in sectional area,
to be even capable of such ventilation ap is essential.

(2) In regard to lighting, the Commission rejected the theory of unilateral illu"
nation, — following in this respect the French authorities. In the langiisige of the rt-
port, "it is practicjilly im[)ossible, even with lofty and nanvw rooms, to obtain sufiicienc
light by this method. In cases where openings can only be made in one wall, the
report requires that the width between the windows shall not exceed three-fourths of
that of the windows themselves, and that the width of the i-oom shall not be more than
five feet greater than the height of the windows, which would restrict it in such cases
to about eighteen feet as a maximum. Light from the rear is admissible, but is not
recommended, and windows facing the pupils are j)rohibited. Walls of neighboring
buildings painted white and reflecting the sunshine into the schoolroom are very
injurious, and the owners should be pei-suaded or obliged to j taint tliem of a dark
color. The inside face of the walls of the school room itself is to be painted blue or
bluish white, and the ceiling pure white. Artificial light should be used without hesita-
tion on dark or short days. It is more dangerous to wf)rk by insufficient dayliglit than
by gaslight."

127. In concluding this important portion of the siibject, it may be
well to emphasize the .statement in the recent report (for 1885) of the
Board of Public Instruction for the City of Albany, N.Y., that : —

" No system of ventilation is automatic. And unless teachera will themselves attend
to the regulation of the temperature of their rooms, and act ui)on the directions ordi-
narily given, not even the most perfect system of heating and ventilation will keep the
room free from foul air, and the inmates from discomfort . "

FiiiE-EscAPE Drill and Ready Exit.

SOS. " J)i. every school-houne conKiHtinij of more than mie storif , the pupils should be
regnlarly trained in the fire drill, in <yrder to preveiU accidents from the alarm of fire.'
— Regulatio^is, 1885.

128. Dr. John D. Philluick, in his recent report, says truly : —

1. " The disaatei-s which have been caused by fire panics in large schools have
suggested. . . (1) Fire proof furnace and boiler rooms ; (2) fire escapes ; (3) safe

Chap. XII.

Fire- Escape Drill and Ready Exit.

i.i
ii-

tho

/.(■

Htaircases ; (4) and the outward opening [as is the law in Canada] of the main doom of
entrance. . . . The Kre drill ... is not only an eflFectivo safeguard against
the danger of panics, but also a good gyninastic exorcise. He quotes the report on the
subject, niiide on the Rochester (N. Y.) schools, by the Springfield (Mjissachusotts)
8cho(d Superintendent, as follows : — ' At a given signal (which is heard thrrmghout the
building) the pupils in every school ro<Jin rise instantly to their feet, form in line, a«
they have been previously instructed, . and pass rapidly, in double linos, d(»wn

the stairways and out into the yard, — those on the first floor going out Hrst, and tliose on
the second and third following in order. Uj)on reaching the yard they form into line
iigain, facing the building, reaily for onlors. . This exercise ... is now

used in many phices as a pleasant and safe kind of recreation.'

2. " In the schools of Vienna . . . this manceuvre ... is executed in
three different ways. ... In case of a fire in the neighbourhood (signal No. 1) the
pu|)ils place their books in" their satchels, put on their outer garments, and leave the
clasp room in groups nf four. If the danger in imminent (signal Nii. 2) the books are
left, the outer garments rapitUy put on, and the class room is left as before. . .
In case of extreme peril (signal No. 3) the books iind clothing are loft, and the exit is
made immediately in groups,"

12!). Mr. A. Seott, Cruikslmnk, Head Master of the Hess School, Ham-
ilton, thus describes the system of fire drill adopted in that school: —

"The alarm is oitlier the continuous ringini; of a boll, or the natund cry of ' Fire I
Fire ! ! ' Immediately boys are d-itailed to open doors and take tlieir several stations.
.•\t the same time teachers are ordering the prompt dismissal of their chisses. On the
word. ' (hie,' all stand ; ' Two.' they form in line, two deep ; * Thri'e,' they move out
with the teacher, girls tirat, as the boys generally close up better in the rear. Instruc-
tions are given to pupils that they are in no case to paas the teacher, whose brisk walk-
ing keeps the smallei- pupils running as fast as is consistent with safety. Arrangements
are also miule f()r esicli chuss to keep its own side f)f the stairway, and move on indepen-
dently of otlier chisses jireceding or following. This prevents danger of crossing each
other's course, or otiierwise interfei'ing in tlie general haste to roiich the door. Our
tliree stories -(iOO f)apils — have been cleared in less than two minutes."

130. In the note to paratrrapli Ho I have pointed out the necessity for
(Constructing doors and other entrances to open outwards, as recjuired by
law, and to make tlieni, and the stairs and pas-sayes as wide as possible.
The pupils should also be drilled to make rapid exit from the school
house, so as to pi'event a panic in case of fire, etc. Dr. Oldright, in the
I'eport for IJS8:} of the Provincial Board of Health, says : —

"Good broad stair«, doors opening widely outwanls, and efficient tire escapes, are
some of the requirements neetled. In tlii& connection, 1 would desire to allude in terms
of conunendation to the fw-tion of some of our school authorities in exercising the
pupils in fire drill, and would express the hope that this action may beconie" more
genei-ai, as also the systematic sanitarj' ins])ection of schools, etc."

»i|-' f

I .»|

Ml]

Hygienic Value of the School Rkcess. Chap. XIII.

CHAPTER XIII,

HYGIENIC VALUE OF THE SCHOOL RECESS.

4^. '' There shall be a recenti of not lesn- than ten minutea each forenoon awl uff4imooti,
<n{d at leant one hour shall be allowed for recreation (hiring the middle of the fchool day—-
MegnlatuniH, 18S5."

V.il. The great object aimed at, or rather the two-fold object aimed at
in prescribing the usual " school recess," is (1) to afford the pupils a few
moments of relaxation from the studies of the school room for " atmos-
pheric washing," and (2) to give the teacher an opportunity to open win-
dows and tl,ofJi"S, and thus secure to the school room a free ventilation
and pure air.

132. It is not necessary to discuss here the importance and necessity
for a recess for these purposes. They are self-evident. It is desirable,
however, to ascertain the best method of dealing with the question of tin;
" general " or " open " recess, so far, at least, as it I'elates to the well-being
of the pupils. The other object of the recess, {i.e., ventilation of the
school room), is easily effected us soon as the pupils leave the school room.

133. Unless there is some covered shed or large spare room to which
pupils can go, it is a (juestion, whether it is wise to allow the boys and
gii'ls to rush from the warnv school room into the open air, t.'specially on
a wet, cold, or snowy day. On' this point, the Superintendent of the
Albany schools, in his report for 1884, makes the following remarlcs. He
says : ,

" You all know how often pupils . rush into the sohof)l-yar(l at recess

time, bareheaded and ill-clad, in defiance of the mandate of teachers, and expose
themselves to rain, sleet or snow, or to the extremes of cold and heat, and
return to the school;room chilled through, or with clothing saturated with moisture'
and thus incur the risk of contracting severe, and ])erhaps fatal, illness. It will not do
to say that teachers should take precautions against these dangers. The time-table
calls for a " recess," the pupils are eiiger to play, the teachers are glad to be free, and
the weather will not be scanned very closely — it is hard to draw the lino -errors of
judgment are frequent, and the exposure follows."

134. The Superintendent then goes on to point out other drawbacks
to the " open " recess system. One is " the danger arising from the sudden
return of children, glowing with exercise, to a school nwm whose temper-
ature has been purposely reduced for sanitary reasons." Another is the
injury often arising to tlie younger children from the rough play of vigo-
rous boys and girls. A third is the opportunities which the open recess
affords for the exercise of pettj' tvrannv " so dear to too many boys and
girls."

■^

Chap. XIII.

Hygienk; Value of the School Recess.

135. It may be said that the.se latter evils may be controlled, if not
prevented, by the presence of a teachei'. 'J'l'ue, but unfortunately the

f)upil8 are, in too many cases, left to take care of tliemselves. J)r. I). F.-
iincoln, in the report of the New York State Boai'd of Hcsalth, speaking
on this point, .says : —

" Some fcetichor hiut to watch the pupils while in the school yard ; and this ninst be,
especially for Itulies, one of tlic most difficult and diHtastoful \n\rtn of the teacher's
duty." The Supoiiiitondent of Albany, says : — *' To add this task to the complete aiul
varied duties entailed by coui-ses of study and school regulations, would be to sacrifice
valuable time now devoted to more important interests."

136. In many American cities and towns a new system, in place of
recess, ha.s been adopted — that is, of allowing short intervals for mental
rest — * of having cali.sthenic, or like exercises, in a large spare room, or
in- the shed or yard, while the rooms are being ventilated ; and hustly, by
giving two full hours at the noon intermission.f. Amongsc the reasons
urged for this change, are the following, by Di*. D. F. Ijincoln, of the New
York State Board of Health. H(> says : —

'* Tro<)])8 on tlie march iuu accuotonied to halt at the end of 0!u;h hour. A school
should idso have its halting times (and once an hour is not too often), when the air may
be renewed by a (juick and brief opening of the windows, while the pu])il8 go through
some light gymnastics."

137. V>r. Yeomans, in a paper cm school hygiene, in the report for 1883
()£ the Provincial Hoard of Health, speaking of the school recess, virtually
endorses the principU; of the new AuKaican system in the extract quoted
from his paper in paragraph numl)er 140.*

188. The School Superintendent of Albaijy thus sums up an elaborate
argument in favor of the new system of school recess. By it, he says —

"Valuable working time is gained ; discipline is eased : petty tyranny [in the play
yard] is abitlished ; sweeter voices and plesisanter manners result ; the moral influences
of tlie abode are bettered, or rather the opi)ortunities for evil influences are lai-gely
reduced ; fainiiy convenience is better served ; habits of study are strengthened ; desi-
rable pupils attracted ; the per cent, of attendance raised ; and. as a consequence of all
these results, children are made wiser, happier and better."

•S|)eakiiig<)f such an interval of "mental rest," Mr. T. H. Crawford, SuiK>rinteiident of the
Portland School.«, Oregon, says : — " Any skilfiil teaclicrcan have a five minute Hocial in the sch(K)l-
room, during which the fidlest freedom can be permitted to the jnipils. It is the weak teacher
who dares not relax the iron ruh? of 'attention, eyen front ! ' "

tMr. Crawford, Superintendent of the Portland Schools, Oregon, in referring to the satisfac-
tory working of the new system, says— siH'aking of the lengthened noon intermission — "The time
gained in the morning by the present plan, added to tlm noon intermission, enables most of the
pupils to reach home more easily, oat their dinners quietly, and return to school without racing ;
teachers have also an opportunity for some relaxation at noon," instead of being "comijelled to
remain in the buildings to supervise tho pupils," etc.

I The arguments advanced in favor of this new system are answered by Drs. Philhrick,
Harris and Hancock, in iiaragraj)!) number 140, and page 78.

If^

I w

>\\

III

f I

Hygienic Value of the School Recess. Chap. XII 1.

139. In the report of the Committee of the American Council of Edu-
cation, ou " Hygiene in education," laid before the Council in 1884, the ques-
tion of school " recess, or no recess " is discussed. The medical testimony
adduced is, in a .sanitary point of view, in favor of the ordinary school
recess every hour, " until," as one of them adds, " our school buildings are
perfect in the matter of providing pure air." The opinion of the com-
mittee is mainly in favor of the old system. They say: —

1. "Occasional exposure to inclement weather is far less to bo dreaded in the puro.air,
than is the constant exposure in poorly ventilated school rooms.

2. "If doors and winuf)W8 be tlii-own open during in-door exercises, exposui'e is greater
than when children go out of doors properly protected by tlieir wrappings, which they
do not think of putting on in doors. . . . In addition, they lose the vivifying eifect
of abundant sunlight and pure air. Even with doora and windows open, the air of the
school room is not changed while the [pupils'] little laboratories of carbonic acid remain
in ijuickened activity within the room."

140. Dr. John D. PhilV>riek, in his report published in 1884, lays down
the following rules for ' School recess."

1. " In infant scIkioIs, recess is necessary after the lapse of (me hour, and a change of
position and physical oxerci.se shor.ld \w allowed aa often >vi once in tliirty minutos.
For pupils twelve yeara of age and upwards, there may be allowed a session of two
hours without recess, but such a session should bo bi-oken in tlie middle by aomt*
physicjil movement or rest.

2. "The regulatii as of the City of Cincinmiti respecting sciiool hours and recesses,
is perhaps iis judicious as can be devised for tlie same latitude, ajid it lias borne the
test of [ten years'] experience.*

3. "In some [schocdsj the teachera are forbidden to dej)rive cliildren of recess as a
l)unishment, and it would bo well if this rule wore universal. ... '

4. "The univeraal conviction of the utility and necessity of recess has prompted
soho<d authorities to provide as Large lots as jxiasible on whicli to erect scIiool houses.
Immense sacrifices have been made for this object in all tlie more advanced educating
countries. The extent and character of the play groun<l have, in fact, come to be a
tolerably reliable indication of the liberality of a conwnunity in res{)ect t<> its schools.

5. "The recess tjuestion has been set in its true light by Dr. William T. Harris,
in an able ind sound piece "f pedagogy, written in 1884 the substance ■>f which is
summarized as follows : — (1) 'Tiie recess has been established by the pnwJtical wisdom
of the past school management, and it seems to mt it certain physiological requirements

* The n';.:iilatii)ii uiad« November, 1874, dii-octs (1) that "the hours of tuition and study shall
bfi .-in f(-llnw« : Fmm .Soptemlwr 1 to .Inly 1, 'J a.m. to 12 m., and fr^ni 1.30 to 4 )i.m., with fifteen
minutes' recewn each iiii>rnititf and afternoon. [Tlie yomiper clnH.^i'^l, g:ni<lr« 11 and V hIiuU Imi din-
niiHscd each afternoon at,'? p.m. ("2) For the iiett«r guaidini^ of tiie liealth of the [lupils of graden
D, E and F, (lowedt primary gradex) . . . tliere shall be allowed to the pupils of tliesf' grades,
At thu close of each recitation, the Hpace of five niimitcD for calisthenic exercises in the rwini
during wliitli time the room (diall Ih^ ventilated. . . . I'assetl in N'overrdier, 1853."

'V'^

Chap. XIV.

Windows and Lighttng.

of the young and growing individuals for whom it is appointed, in a better manner tlian
liny otlier device yet proposed (;an do. (2) The moral argument used against recess
applies against association in coming to, school and in returning from it, aa well as
remaining at tlio noon intermission. . . . Eeceas is the only interval when the
pupil is out of school, and yet completely under the control of the teacher. The teacher
liaa no other oppt>i't\niity so good as the recess wherein to teach the pujiils to treat one
another politely, by repressing the rudeness, i)er8onal violence, profanity and [other
evils] that will break out, and must be eradicated. . .

6. " The reactionary movement against reces.s is probably owing, in the main, to the
. substitution of women for men as teachers and principals, even of large mixec

schools. . . . The [necessai-y] oversight ... of school boys at recess, is a
duty . . . wlil<ih women . . . usually jMU'fi'ui with reluctance. . . . The
true remedy, ... is the employment of a auiticient number of judicious male
teachers to manage the recess of boys in a proper manner.

7. "Dr. Hancock, School Superintendent of Dayton, Ohio, in speaking of this
subject in his report, remarked as follows : — ' The best ventilated school building ever
constructed is not so well provided with j)uro air ;i8 :ill out doors ; and no throwing up
of windows, no free gynniastics in doors, can compensate for spontaneous and oxhila-
ratuig exercises in the unrestricted atmosphere of the pLay ground.'

8. "In the latest rcpoct (1883) of Mr. Geovja Howland, School Superintendent of
t/'hicago, an exj)eriment in tlie mode of conducting recess is montiimed, as follows : —
' In many of the schools a change has been made with excellent results ; the pupils of
the tirst floor (or division, etc.] piissing out and V' Hu'uing to their phices, < id then those
of the second and third in succession. By this lut'thod time is saved to the individual
classes, the Siiuillor cliildi'on are less liable U> be injured by tlu; larger ones, the Hchool
play ground is nuu ii less crowded, and botli teiiclier and pujiil relieved from nnich
annoyance.'"

CIUPTEK XIV.
WINDOWS AND LIGHTIN(}.*

14. " The i(iiiulon\i {hoth hokIick) utionlil In' Hilju.tfi'il hy }vei<ihf.i antl pMlh'Hx miil /ivo-
ri<lcU vnth hiinih. -He(iiihtti('ii.i, itS'iS'.T. "

141. The question of tlu' ailinissiou of lij^^lit to a .seliool room is nn
iiuportant one, and s1k<u'i»1 he carefully consitlered in the [)lanniiis,^ of a
school liou.se. The eoiisensu.s of opinion of e.xperi(«nee«l phy.sicianH and

• The 0|)inionH, on this subject, of the BniswlH ConKrcssof Education in IriHO, of tlip llnite<l
Htatch (JonuniHwion at WanhinKtoii in 18S'2, and of Dr. J. I), Pbilbrck in Im official rtiporl on Oit\
Schoob to the United Stati'H Hi'.renii of Kdticiition in lH8f), air cxceodin.'h \ ahmble an'l inipoi
tant. Set' i)aiaK'"*P'"^ innnt'efN !t3, 94 »nd 14l>.

Ill

i.i

^ ■
11

Windows and Lighting.

Chap. XIV.

competent observers is that light should be admitted so as to fall on the
left hand side of pupils ; that it should be admitted from one side of the
room only — and that tlie south side. These rules cannot always be fol-
lowed, .so that other sugcrestions have to be iiiide. They are to the effe<;t
that if light is admitted from both sides of a school, these sides should
not be the east and west, but the north and south. The reasons
will Itc found in the following extracts. Mr. J. Dearness, in his paper
pili»lished in the Report for 1 888 of the Ontario Board of Health, quoting
authorities on this subject, says : —

'' A few years iigo it wa.s not iinconiuioii to placu wiiidows at the end of the room in
front of tiio children. But the increase (jf hygienic knowledge . . . has almost
removed this evil. In Germany, by law, light must be admitted either from the ceiling
or from one side only, and the seats and desks must he placed so that when the pupils
are resuling or writing the light will be supplied from their left. The height of the
windf)w-8L!l3 from the floor should always be as grtait as possible. The neiuer tho ap-
proach to lighting from the rofjf the better. Robson, the best English authority on
the subject, says tlie sills sliould never be less than live feet fi;om the Hoor, and may be
even more, with advantage both for lighting and ventilation. Dr. Linell, of Norwich,
Conn., who has studied the subject very carefully, says that windows should always be
on the siile of tho room, and tL-^.".' si ould be thirty sijuare inches of window space t.-
every stiuare foot <A floor sjmu ".■. He ha« recently examined the eyes of 700 school
children varying from seven to oightoan years, and found that only 61 per cont. - f
th' m had normal vision. In that number there were 87 cases of myopia [short sight-
edness] ; the ratio of myopia increasing with the ages of the scholars. Much respon-
sibility rests on tlie tejuiher in this ujatter. Diseases of visitm from causes peculiar to
the 8chii.)iji-oom most frequently arise from imi)roper postures of the body, and wrong
habits (if holding the book. The toaclier must be l)lamed if the children, during the
writing exorcises, crouch over thf desk until their noHes are within two or three inches
of the slate or paper. "

142. Hon. A, J. liickotr bite SiipcrinttMulent of Schools in Cleveland,
Ohio, in a ])aper on "A plan for a School Hou.se," said: —

** It will be seen that tlie principal and, generallj', all the light necessary for emdi
school • >.Tii is admitted on tile side of the room which is to the left of the pupils. . . .
This is looked upon as *he special advantage of the phui.

14.']. Ml'. W. ii. MrigfH, School Arclutect in Connecticut, in a paper
[)ubli.sht'd in the ru])ort for 1882, of tlu? State Board of Fxlucation.sjiys : —

•' All eminent writers on School Hygiene have called attention and dwelt with much
stress upon the importance of abundant light being projjerly tlistributed in our school
rooms. That tlus light should come from the left side and be intnxluced at nearly
right angles to the flour line is 'Ui untablishe<l rule among those versed in school mat
ters. In the Bridgeport School House the window-stools have all been kept 4* 0",
from the Hoor, and tlie window openings are carried up to within one foot of the coil

Chap. XIV.

Windows amd Lighting.

ings. The size of the windows, taken collectively, equals, in the comer rooms, one-
sixth of the floor space, allowing 50 pupils per room, and provides 434 square inches of
glass per pupil." (See paragraj)li, luunber 94 (3), page 51.)

144. In a paper on " Coujitry School Houses," by Mr. J. Hess, pub-
lished in the report for 1882, of the State School Superintendent of
Michigan, he says : —

1. " In Dr. Buk's Treatise on Hygiene, »vo arc assured that short-sightedness, dim-
ness and darkness of sight are increasini' generally in Oomiany, Rustsia, America and
England [among children attending school] and we are assured at the same time that
the defective eyesight is much greater where school rooms are poorly planned i ogardiiig
their window arrangements.

li. "Too much (or not onougli) light, cross lights, or light falling at a low angle [(". «.,
afternoon western light] into the school roon», . . . are all injurioiis to the scho-
lars and teachei's, and should, tlierefore, in planning a school house bo j>roperly con-
sidered. ... A few simple rules may be taken na a guide, and in case of too
much light, it must be toned down by the use of blinds, shutters, or window shades."

145. I liave condensed and t-'mplified these rules, as follows: —

1. Light from al)ove a person's eyes is the most natural, and accepted
by all as the best ; the most unnatural light is from below.

2. F r writing, drawing, or working, light from the left hand side is
almost indispensable, while light from 'the right hand side is not desirable
except foi" reading or oral exercises.

JJ. 1 add here a caution suggested by Dr. John D. Philbrick, in his
recent report on Schools in the Cities of the United States. He siiys :

" When the unilateral principle |of lighting] was iivst applied in Boston, some twelve
yeafs ago, . . the fatal ttrror occurred ... of making the rooms too wide

(i.e., .'{ti feet), whereas the width should nut luive exceeded 25 or '2() feet."

4. Light from tlie back and left hand together is not injurious, but
at timrs th(^ pu[)irs back bglit, whicli the tenchor faces, may be incon-
venient to him. F'rom the back ami right hand side together, and from
the front, light should never be toIerat(Ml in a school room.

5. The size of windows collectively should nteasure not less than one-
sixth of the floor surface of a school room.

0. Reflected light from above should be p'-omoted by making a clear,
whitc! ceiling. Reflecti(m fi-om the walls in front and at the right hand
aide should be avoided, by giving the walls :\ neutral tint.

• 7. Blackboards should never be placed between the windows »ts they

tt:

Windows ant> Lighting.

Chap. XIV.

would receive a ve.y unfavourable liglit and would strain the eyes of the
pupils too much.

14(). The writer of the United States book on School Architecture
says : —

1. " It is agreed by all authorities that the most comfortable and wholesome light
for the eyes is that coming from one side of the ix)om, without interfering crosslights
from windows in tlie oj^tosite side or from front or rear, and it is furthermore desirable
that the light should come from a group of windows, or a single one, n\ther than from
a succession of them separated by wide piers, which caat annoying shatlows.

2. " For writing or drawing the light should come from the left, not exivctly at the
side, but a little in front ; then neitiier tlie head, the right hand, nor the pen will cast
a shadow jm the paper. For reiuling, the light may come from either side, indiffer-
ently, but should be a little back. In an-anging schools containing four or more class
n)(>m.s on ii floor, only two modes of lighting are ])racticable : one, by windows in two
juljiicent sides ; the yther, by windows in one .side only.

3. "Of tiiese two alternatives, the latter should always be oliosen. The confusion
of crosslights at right angles tf> each other and Hie sliaduw of the hoiwl thrown forward
are injurious to the eyes. . . . The openings in the one illuminated side should bo
numerous nf] large, or the more distant ])ortions of the rooui will be too dark, and the
seats shoidd l)o .so arranged tluit tlie light in each room will fall upon the left side of
the puj)ils.

. 4. •' Under this arnuigement, with lofty rooms and large openings, the comfort of
the eyes is at its highest ))oint, and it is therefoi-e compulsory in all German schools of
every grade."

147. 1)1 upplyi'ig these principles of window construction to nxral
school hou.ses of the ordinary kind, diffictilty might bo experienced,
(^specially as it is .so d(*sirabl(! to olitain « free circulation of air in the
.scliool nxnn during recess. The writer just quoted makes the; following
suggestions to meet the difficulty : —

1. " Next to the north aspect, the steadiest light, fw well as tiie greatest amount of
sunshine, is derived from one duo 8(juth, and while a south windi>w receives the sun
nearly all day tiie year round, the angle at which it eiiteis is >>» great that the annoy-
ance from it in hot weather is infinitely less tha^i from the horizontal rays which streant
through an east or Ave^t window [the latter at a low angl«]. For this reason, a simth
e:ipo8ure is both cooler in summer and warmer in winter than an eastern or western
one, and while it secures the largest possible iiggregate of sunsiiino, a south window
needs less shailing with blinds or curtains than any other, excejit one facing north.

2. " On the whole, therefore, although hour' authoriticis hold a (litfeient o])inion, the
writer believis that the main rfjom or i-(K)m8 in small school buildings will be best
placed wifclj the longer axis directed due east luid west, and lighti>d by wii.iiows in the
north and south sides only."

Chap. XIV. The Shape and Size of the Window Sash.

148. After further pointing out the objections to light in a school
room from the east, and particularly from the west, the writer simis up
thus : —

IS nil

1. "With north and south lighting, all these difficulties vanish. The conditicn of the
room in relation to the furnaces will in winter be always the same, the north side being
constantly cold and the south side warm, so that a single stove or furnace i)laced neai-
the north wall will at all times difTuso its heat uniformly through the room. Tn sum-
mer the north windows will never need shading and those on the south only to a small
Extent. In winter the range would be much greater, though the annoyance would at
that seiison be far less. In any case, the sliading of a small fraction of the; window
surface will cut otF all the rays which can possibly strike upon any desk, while a west
window can bo effectually shaded only by closing every crevice through which a hori-
zontal beam can pierce. ...

2. "Nor is the sunning <>f the room by stjuth windows less effectual, but more so.
than by east and west. The most obvious influence of sunshine upon the atmosphere
of a room is to set it in motion.

3. " Both chemical and mechaniciil effects are produced with greater eneigy by the
noonday beams than by the heating, though lifeless, rays of a horizontal sun, and thy
eircidation between tlie north and south sides of a room lighted from both ({uarters is
the luore active and constant by reason of the great dissimilarity in their condition,
one being always shaded and cold and the other always warm."

The Shapk and Sizi: of the Window Sash.*

ii'

149. The following suggestions in regard to the window .sash by this
writer are valuable. He says : —

1. " The height of tlie room will be generally about 12 feet, and if the windows are
carried to within G inches of the ceiling the total height of the frame will be 7i to 8^
feet. So high a sasli ought not to bo over .'J feet wide, and both parts should be well
countorbalanctd, by weight, so as to encourage their frequent opening. A heavy or
badly hu ig sash will mroly be opened, from tho simple physical inability of teacher
and children to maniige it. A ling should be screwed iuto the top of the upper sash,
and a [><>le and liook provided to operate it. Tho glass .Hh()uld be in rather small light.s
[8xl0j for cheapness of repaii-s and English 'double thick' on all exposed sides. .

2. "The cheapest device of all for blinds is the ordinary shiule, which shoidd be
made of stout holland, never of pai)or or painted cotton, and strongly and accurately
hung. This has tho objection of shutting out air in sunnuer as well <is sun, and a
mixlification uiay be used, consisting ni a short [i..,ival)le] curtiiin, only half tlie height
of the windf)w and moving up and down by means of tho ordinary brass pulleys and
endlecn cords, to which it is secureil along the edges by rings and hooks.

3. "It is imjMirtant that the sills of the windows should bo as much fis four feet
above the Hoor. If less than this, they cause a glare in the eyes of the pupils sitting
near them.

* See the Window illuBtratiuns on pages 06, 57, 01 and 82.

^mF

III

.■ !

k^K

I !

Windows Without Pulleys.

CaAP. XIV.

4. " To compensate for tho height of the sills above the floor, the window heads
should be carried jui close to the ceiling oa tho construction will admit [as shewn in
Fig. 40.]*

:?-

i"!ll!!liil|ii

Fig. 40.- Window Opening, Showing Gutsidk Cobnick.
Four inchfis is all the distance which need generally be given in frame structures, and
even in brick buildings the sa.sh can be carried nearly iis high, ius will be seen further on.
The illumination of the ceiling so obttiined is of the greatest value, the light reflected
from it being peculiarly soft and grateful to the eyes, while the proi)er ventilation of
the room is greatly assisted by making the windows as high as jiossible.

How TO Deal with Windows without PuLLEYS.f

150. Dr. Oldrigl.t, in his papcsr on "Healthy Homes," published in
the report for 188:] of the Provincial Boai'dof Health, makes
the following siiggestions for d<>aling with windows with-
out pulleys, by —

1. " Having a piece of board nailed on to the top sash of the win-
dow, slanting upwards, to direct the current in that direction.

2. " R.'iising rlio lower sash and filling in the space left under it by
a jiieco of board, as shown in the accomj>anying diii^iam. The air gots
in through the space" left between the lower part of the up' -^r sasl',
and tho ujjper part of the lower one.

3. " A board phiced just inside the lower window frame will act
in the same way when the latter is slightly raised.

4. '* Phicing wire scraens in spaces of entrance ^if air. Some-
times they are tacked to the window frames and folded uj) when the
windows are closed.

5. " By louvred open'ngs.

6. "By double panes, with an oj)en slit at tho bottom of the out-
side one and at the toj) of the inside one, thus giving an uj)wanl Fig. 4l.--WiNrx)w
current." Vkntilation,

(No. 1).

•See also the practical illustnvtionM on this oubjeot (Figs. 20, 21, 22 ami 23), <in pa^oK 5«
and 57.

t HhistratioiiH of how to deal with kucH windows will be found on pajjes 61 and 62.

Chap. XV.

School Seats and Desks.

161. Dr. Oldright also suggests the following means of "inviting,
directing, breaking up and distributing currents of air entering a room."

7. "By various perforated and louvred bricks, such as tlie Sheritighani valve, and
■lonning's air brick.

8. " By a box running from side to side acrosH the ceiling of the room, and pei-for-
ated with numerous snuvU oj)ening8. Sometimes a (liai)hrHgm is ])laced to divi<lo it
midway, thus making both inlet and outlet,

}). '' By perforated cornices running around the x'ooui .

10. " By Tobin's tubes, which are Hues, biinging fresh air from out dooi-s and rising
!ip from the floor, discharging it upwards at a slight distiince overhear! . "

I! 1

(VHAPTER XV.

SCHOOL SEATS AND DESKS.

152. The Departmental Regulations on the subject of siuiting the
pupils are specific. I give them here entire, as follows : —

(a) The seats and desks should be so arranged that the ])Upil8 may sit facing the
teacher. Not more than two pupils should bo allowed to sit at one desk, but single-
seated desks are jiroferred.

(b) The height of the seats should bo so graduated that pupils of ilifFeient sizes may
bo seate;! with their feet resting Hnnly upon the floor. Tiio backs siiould slope back-

wart

d.. two or three inches from the perpendicular.

(c) The seats and desks should bo fastened to the door in rows, with aisles of suit-
able width between the rows; passages, at lesist throe foot wide, should be loft be-
tween tlie outside rows and the side and the rear walls of the room, and a space from
three to five fei>t wide, botwt'en the leaclier's platform and the front desks.

((<) Each desk should be s<» [)laoed that its front edge may project slightlj- over the
edge of the seat behind it. The desk should be provided with a shelf for pupil's books,
and the seat should slope a little towards the back.

(e) A surticient number of seats and desks shoidd be i)rovided for the accommoda-
tion of all the pupils ordinarily in attendance at the school. There should bo at least
two ordina»'y chairs irTTuldition to the teacher's chair.

jl ..K

IL JF

SUGGKSTIONS IN CARRYING OUT REGULATIONS. ChAP. XV.

(J) The desks should be of three different sizes,
recommended.

The following dimensions are

iii

A(}E OF PUPILS.

Five to Kight years

Eight to Ten yfars ,

Ten to Thirteen years . . . ,
Thirteen to Sixteen years

CuAiiui on Seats.

Height.

Front.

12 in.

13 "

14 "
16 "

Rear.

Hi in.
12S "
13 A '•
16| "

Slope

of
Back.

2 in.

2 "

24 "

3 "

Deskh.

Length.

Width.

12 in.

12 '•

13 "
13 "

Double.

Single.

'Mi in.
36 "
36 "
40 "

18 in,
18 "
20 "
2'2 "

Height

Pupil.

22 in.

23 "

24 "
26 "

Practical Suggestions in Carrying out the Rkgulations.

153. The.se regulations are so full and explicit that little is needed
but to Add to their force and value by quoting the opinions of experi-
enced educators and other competent authority on the subject.

154. The writer of the United States work on School Architecture,
already quoted, says : —

1. "The proper way to plan a school building is to determine the nmnber and
size of desks and the width of aisles and platform rirst of all, then to construct the
walls to inclose just the space desired and no more ; not. as sometimes occurs, to fix
upon some liai)hazard dimensions for the room, and wiien it is ready cram the desks in
somehow, the result being that the room presents in one place large useless spaces and
in another aisles so narrow that the children can only sfjueeze through them sideways.

2. ''Taking things as they are, not as they perhaps ought to be, the majority of
ungraded sdiools are likely to use double desks, and the plan will be first laid out for
such, leaving till later the ari'angement to suit the single desk seat.ig.

3. " The dimensions of double desks vary according to the maker, and the utmost
economy of floor space will be secured by determining ujjon the kind to bo used before
commencing the construction of the building.

4. "The folding seat desks, which are desirable, especially for young children
(because tiiey allow the pupils to stand upright in their jjlaces, turn tiio seats '""xck,
and in that position take part in various calisthenic or other exercises), occupy a little
more room from front to rear than the old kind, but are made somewl at shorter, the
average length being 40 inches for tlie double stat, and tlie floor spac from back to
back 30 inches.

5. "The aisles between the rows of double desks should be two feet wide.

6. "The teacher's pl.itform, or a space for the desk if a platform is not used, will
bo five feet wide, and three feet, at least, must intervene between the front of the
platform and the front row of desks.

ill

r-'

Chap. XV.

School Seats and Desks.

7. ■■ Three and a half, or, better, four feet, shoiihl lie allovvofl between the rear
seats and tlie wall, and aisles next the side w.ills are necessary, three and a half feet
wide, if blackboards are to be placed there, or three feet wide if they are dispensed
with.

8. "There .should be not more than four rows of double desks. The advantage
«>f shortening the school room by increasing the width, is more than countorbaliinced
by the annoyance to the teaclier of constantly turning the head i)i trying to take in a
wide angle of vision.

9. "Three rows of desks wouhl give a room of better fiuin still for seeing, hear-
ing, and oeonomical construction ; but tlie width of such .-i room, amounting to 20 feet
onl}' inside the finished walls, would not be sufficient to allow the drawing out of large
classes in front or rear of the desks. With four rows, therefore, as a standard, tlio
desks, being 40 inches long, will recjuire J3 feet four inches ; three two-foot aisles be-
tween them will add six feet ; and the twn side aisles, ^ach three ann a half feet wide-
seven more ; making the total width of the room, inside the Hnislied walls, 2(5 feet f:)nr
inches.

10. " For the depth, the teaclier's platform will take five feet ; the front aisle, three
more ; eight desks, at two and a half feet each, will add 20 feet ; and the rear aisle,
which muat be four feet if tliere is anj possibility of adding recitation rooms on that
end. brings the total to 32 feet and gives seating capacity for (>4 pupils of all ages.

11. " If it is decided to use single desks, which are rapidly superseding double ones,
in the. more intelligent connnunities, the dimensions of the room will, with advantage
and economy, be somewhat different.

12. " The usual width for aisles between single desks is 18 inches ; six rows of
desks, therefore, at two feet each, with five aisles, at one and a half feet, will take 19i
feeti ; two side aisles will, as before, add seven feet, making 264 feet. To accommodate
(iO pupils, there will be 10 desks in each row, at two and a half feet of floor space for
eacli, which, with eight foot in front and four iii rear, gives 37 feet for the doptli of
the room."

155. Dr. J. D. I'hilltrick, alroady quoted, lays down the following
rules in regard to a proper system of Sehool-Rooux seating. He .says : —

" In a square room [and in other rooms in i)roportion] tlie host arrangement of the
desks would be in the form of a parallelogram, the lowest side being parallel to the
teacliei's platform, 50 dosks, a fair numl)er for a primary sclu)ol room, arranged in such
a rooui in the best manner, the dosks being one foot, and a half in length, wliich is suf-
ficient, the centre aisle being two foet wide, and the two aisles sixteen inches each, a
/ width sufficient for all jjractical i)urpo8os, would occupy .i floor space of 22x15 feet, lu-
330 square feet. A room 28 feel, scjuaro and 13 foot higli, with 78-J foot of flooring,
would be sufficient for the acconunodation of the 5(i primary pui)ils seatcid as above
described, supposing the daily attendance to be 50, and Jillows a little over 200 cubic
feet of space jjer pupil."

156. Dr. Oldright has sent to nie a table of figures, showing, the
dimensions of .seats and desks suitalile for pupils of dinei"(>nt heiglits. He
.states in tlurwork on Schoo^ Hy</'tene, that —

III

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School Room Decohation.

Chap. XVI.

" The lioiglit of tho*j)ui)il is measured every six inunths in Fi'anco and some other
European countries, and they are adjusted to their seats in a satisfactory position. Dr.
(JuiUautiie states that the seats at the Ecole Prenii(Te wore altered in this way, witli
excellent results Rules have l)een laid down, giving nieasureiuents to guide teachers
in regidating seats for children."

157. This iufonnation and that which precedes it (from United States
fi(mi'ces) show the increased care which is being exercised by niodcni
(•(hieationists in vai'ious countries, in tlic important matter of seating
children at school. What a ditl'erent state of things from the backless
forms and nide benches of a few years ago ! The table prepared by
Dr. Oldright will br found in Chapter XX. of the Manual on School
Ifi/fjif'Hc.

CHAPTER XVI.

IMPORTANCE OF SCHOOL-ROOM DECORATION.

1 5<S. A book of this kind would scarcely be complete, did I fail to say a
few words on a subject, the importance of which has of late years forced
itself upon the attention uj" thoughtful educators and educationists alike.
.The lasting impression — pleasant or often the very reverse of pleasant —
which the school house itself and its surroundings have made npon the
minds of children, is well known. The fact that this is so is a matter of
nniversal experience. That early impressitm has proved itself to be a
potent factor, not only in colouring the imagination of the pupil in
after life, bnt in vivifying the pleasant or unpleasant memoi'ies and
associations, as the case may be, of early school days.

1 of). A wonderful change for the better has taken pl«ice in tlie character
of the schools and in the personvel of the scht)olmasters, since the time
when the latter were .so graphically and truthfullj^ sketched by Goldsmith
and Dickens. It is a mattei- of fact, however, that the traditions of tht,'
past still linger amongst school boys that school was not as desirable
and attractive a place as it might and .should have been.

160. Nevertheless, it is but just to the modern teacher to state that
efforts are being made, and successfully made, to render the interior of
the school attractive and plea.sant, and to make the a.ssociations of school
life itself pleasant. Arbor day, Authoi-'s day, noted Educators' day, etc.,
are designed to accomplish the latter, while as yet the effort to secure the
foi-mer is confined almost exclusively to the teacher, and that by means
of local school nmseums ; or by pictiu'cs, flowers and ornaments in the
school room.

(^HAP. XVI.

School Room Decoration.

1(11. In his report on City Schools in the United States, Dr. J. D.
l^liilhrick has devoted a chapter to this important subject. It is so full of
iiiforuiation and suggostion that I jjfive it entire as follows: —

1. " Closely allied in piirposo aiul utility with the idea of tlm school imiuuuiii is the
idea of the decoration of the school room. This idea is rapidly becoming geueml.
City school rooms totally destitute of olijects intcnilod for docoration are, ])erhap8,
exceptional. We find almost evei-ywhero that the ninst naked aii<l uniulonmd Iiave at
luiist a plant in f lie window, a |)icture hU tlie wall, or a dec(»rative drawing on the black
hoanl. The )iiofn»ion of plants in aome i)rimaiy school rooms gives tiiem the air of a
conservatory, in visiting the schools of Pittsburgh several years ago, 1 was greatly
charmed witli tlie tiiate everywhere displayed by the teachers in the decoration of their
school rooms with plants and tlowers.

2. " Nearly twenty years ago New York set an example in the decoration of school
liallswith numerous bu.nts and engravings. Subseijuently a committee Wius a])pi>inted by
the educational department of the Social Science Association, to consider and report on
the subject of the decoration of .school rooms, with a view of introducing an leethetic
element into the educationid system of the United States. The immediate result of this
ni'ivement was the decoration i>f the hall of the girLi' liigh nchool liouse in Bo8tt)n,
which was then building, with a selection of casts fnjm antique sculpture and statuary.
The expense of jmrchase, transportation, and placing of tlie ciwts wa'« met by the sub-
Hcrij>tions of a few mendxirs of the association, with the aid of some per ons not niend>er8,
on condition that the liall should be finished at the expense of the citj', with special
reference to the plan of decoration which had been decided upon. For a series of
slabs from thofrie/.o of tlie Parthenon an architrave was cynstructed resting on Doric
pilasters. Hetween these jiilasters tiie walls were painted of a color suitable as a back-
ground and brackets or jiedestals of proper form were provided for the busts and statues
Casts, if selected to exjiress the highest laws of form and the purest types t<f beauty,
could hardly fail to produce a favorable efioct upon the mental and moral training of
tlie yoinig, especially if associated with tlieir studies: that is, their daily efforts to
improve themselves. The collection was not made for a single school or for a single
city, but for every school and every town or villag:> where a similar attempt to extend
rlie culture and beautify the environments of our educational system is possible. Tin*
theory of ajsthetic culture in schools, upon which this plan of decoration was based, is
essentially the same as tlvit propounded and so ably advocated by M. Ravaisson, of
France, uinler whose direction a series of magniticent phototypes of antique aculj>ture
and statuary have been jirejiared for the decoration of scliools.

3. " If the 8chool#room is adorned with works of art, the pupils' ideas ai"e associated
with things ><{ beauty as well as utility, iluskin, in sjieaking of tlie decoration of
the school room with busts :iiid jiaintings, says : " How can we sutticiently
estimate the eti'ect on tlie noble mind of a yiaith, at the time when tlie world opens to
him, of having faithful and touching representations put before him of the acts and
presences of great men ; how many resolutions which might alter and exalt the whole
coui-se of his after life, when in some dreamy twilight he met through his own tears the
fixed eyes of those shadows of the great dead, unescapable and calm, piercing to his soul,
< >r fancied that their lips moved in dread reiiroof or soundless exhortation. '

4. " Falling upon this fine passage of Ruskiii, at once so poetic in conception and
so sound in doctrine, I wms naturally reminded of a striking examjde of the realization

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(7!6) 872-4503

School Room Dfx-oration.

Chap. XVI.

of the idea it recominenilB— -the most striking example, perhaps, which has come mider •
my observation — namclj, the decoration of a remarkable Jesuit school nf the highest
order which I visited somo years jigo in the city of Paris. Every wlxcre in tliis groat
establishniont, which is shut in from the outside world by high walls oven moi'e effec-
tually than Girard College, were decorative representations in yculpture, paintings,
engravings, and sun pictures of ivkmi and deeds, calcul.ated to inspire the pupils vith the
spirit of the institution and stimulate them to the utmost efforts for the attainment of
the objects which it proposes. It isj perhaps, scarcely necessary to say that this example
is rendered especially iTuportant by the face of tlio well known success ui the Jesuit
schools in determining tlie character of their pupils.

5. " It is remarkable that in the country whore such an example was found in a
private establishment, and in a countiy so eminent for its cultivation of art in all its
departments, almost nothing liad then been done through tlie agency of the couunon
schools to promote by the indirect means under considei-ation the moral and testhetic
culture of the masses of the people. Since that time, however, a very important
movement has been made on this line of improvement. At the suggestion of M.
Buisson, director of primary education, the Minister of Public Instruction appointed a
Commission on the decoration of schools and art for schools, ■■ consisting of thirty
eminent men. This couunission wius charged, in general, with the duty of studying the
means of introducing into the system of instruction in all its gradt s the iusthetic educa-
tion of the eye. The results of the labors of tie commissicm, which wore extende<i
over the period of a whole year, were sunnned up in a remarkable report to tlie
Minister by Charles Bigot. f

6. " This report begins by presenting in a felicitous and forcible uwuiner the argu-
ment in favor of combining in education tlio cultivation <>f tliesentiuient of tlie beautifid
with the sentiment of the true and the sentiment of the good, maintaining that nothing
great lum been done on the earth except by the effect of one of these thr-e sentiments,
each having its ai)ostles, its heroes, its martyrs. A grateful posterity j>lfices ecjually in
its Pantheon, and honors with a pious worahip, scholars, artists, saints, these glorious
examples of hutnanity.

7. " The cultivation of the sentiment of the beautiful by means of poeti-y and poetic
and artistic literature was never wanting in the schools of tlie higlior grade. Moi-e
recently provision had been made for extending culture in this direction by the general
introduction of instruction in music and drawing. Tlio especial task of tliis commissinn
was to devise w.-vys and means for improving, as far as practicable, wsthctic education
throiigii the eye, not by specific, iliroct iiiHtmction set forth in programmes, but by rlie
operation of the environments of the .sohoul and the artistic cliaractet of its apj)}i)uicos.
These onvinmmonts and appliances were considered by the commissiuii moinly under
fo'ur heads: (1) The .'esthetic chanicter of the school building, including its artist i<-
ornamentation, both exterior and interior ; (2) tlio furnislnng of objects of art for tlio
observation and study oi the pupils, such collection of objects belonging neither to tiie
appliances nor to the architectural decoration, constituting tlie school museum of art ;
(;J) the rewards of merit and prizes ; (4) illuatrativo appaiatiis, and paiticularly tlio

* (>)inmiw.''i<>n lU- la di5u«r,ation dex 6.wh>» ct dc riinajjcrif Hcolairc ; aiipointcd .June, 1880.
t Prescntwl April 11, 1881 ; printed iu the Manuel (ieiitVal de rin»tnicti<m I'rimairo, July
23, 1881.

Chap. XVI.

School Room Decoration.

ing
ly ill

HUH

(lopartnient of I ransparencies. Here it, was deemed that scientific accuracy alone was
not sufficient, but must be accompanied with elegance of form and harmony of colo.ur,
so far as the nature of the object would jjermit. This commission examined and re-
ported ujjon the propositions and objects submitted by publisher^ and artists, com-
prised under the four categories above enumerate(l.

8. " The essential outcome of tlie labon* of this large :ind very able commission,
besides the valuable contribution to pedagogy comprised in the observations and dis-
cussions of their report, was the institution by the Muiister of a permanent commission
for the promotion and perfecting of this department of public instruction.

9 " This interesting mrtvement of the educational administration of France has
attracted the attention of educatcirs on the otlier side of the Channel. Some time ago
a conuuittee wiis appointed in Manchester, England, ' to remedy the deficiency of
F -glish school arrangements in the means of awakening a sense of beauty and an
interest in Jirt.'

10. " The functions assigned to this connnittee, which are similar to those of the
standing French commission, <aro as follows :

(1) " ' To lU'Kotiatc with art piiV)lishers for the purchase of prints, photographs, etchings,
ohromolithograplis, etc., on advantageous tornis, and tffsupiily them at the lowest posbible price
to schools.

(2) " ' To reproduce from time to time V)y one or more of tlie jirocesses fumiliar to engravers
and printers, carefully selected examples likely to have a large circulation.

(3) " ' To print a descriptive catalogue and price list of the examples which the committee are
prepared to recommend to the notice of schools.

(1) " 'To pn sent to schools, in special cases and as the funds of the as-sociation shall allow,
small collections and books explanatory of them.

. (o) " ' To arrange various loan collections, to Iw placed at the disposal of schools on such terms
as may prove convenient.

(6) " ' To bring togethci a nu-nber of examples to be exhibited in a suitable place as a tent^itive
model of a standard collection, the collection to consist of (ii) pictures of the simplest :iatiiral
objects, birdti and their nests and eggs, trees, wild Howers, and scenes of rural life, such as town
children seldom see and country childn^)! often fail to cnjfi>y consciously until tlieir attention is
Kjweially called to them ; ('<) picturtrs of animals in friendly relation with human beings, especially
with children^ (o) pictures of the peasant and artisan life of our own and foreign countries,
incidents of heroic adventure, etc. ; (rf) pictures of architectural works of historic or artistic
interest ; (() landscape and sea |)ieces ; (/) liistorical portraits ; (if) scenes from history ; (/i) ivnd last,
but by Jio means least, such reproducl ions as are available of suitable subjects among the nimierous
works of the Itiiliaii, Dutcli, :iii(l Jiicdeni schools.'

11. " Mure rece\itly mm associaliuii ha« been organized in London, with Ruskin as
president, with a similar object in view, namely, ' to bring within the reach of boys and
girls in our boanl and other schools such a measure of art culture as is compatible with
their nge and studies.

12. " The committee on drawing of the Bftstoii School Hoard (Mr. C. C. Perkins,
chairman), in their report for 1883, called attention to those inovoiiienta in Mivncliester
and liondon, and suggested the desirableness of organizing for the same purpose an
'art, for schools, association' in that community. In this connection the conmiitteo
rcnnark :

I * ■

i -11

.92

ScHooi, Room Decoration.

Char XVI.

13. " ' We hold with the English coiinnittee that ' a love for the beautiful i.s, perhaps, only second
to religion as a i)rotection again-st the grosser forms of self-indulgence, and that it can beat be
kindled at an a; i-hen the mind is especially susceptible to the influence of habitual surroundiiigs;'
and on these gr. Is we look for the sympathy, although we cannot ask the ci-operation of the
Ixiard in our prop .'d effort to found an art for schools association in Boston ; and this, not only
because the decoration of school-house walls with good prints and i)hotographs will bring good
influences to bear upon the pupils, but also because these will materially aid teachers (jf history,
geography, and natural history as objects of reference. The decoration of the exhibition hall of
the girls' high school with casts and the jjrints h\mg up in certain grannuar and primary school
cla.Hs rooms shows that the masters and teachers are, in many cases, alive to the importance of the
subject, and ready to aid in any well organized effort to promote its further development.' "'

14. ' ' Tlie committee might liave appropriately referred, in thia connection, to more
recent and not unimiK-rtant contributions of works of art to the schools under their
charge, the most valuable of which decoi-ate the main vestibules of the new school
houses of the Latin and English high sr'iools. In the latter a beautiful group in
marble, the subject being, 'Flight from Pi.mpeii,' has been placed by one of the earliest
graduates of the schools (Mr. Henry P. Kidder). In the Latin school vestibule stands
a fine niarble statue by Mr. Richard S. Greenough, a Latin school boy, which was
procured by the graduates of the school to honor those who had honored her, and
especially to commemorate those who hivd fallen in defending their country. This
statue represents the alma mater of the school resting on a shield which bears the names
of the dead heroes, and extending a laurel crown to those who returned from the war."

162. Tlu' suViject of sciiool room di-covation and the beautifying of
.sclioi)] grounds has been extensivt^ly discussed in the educational journals,
chiefly in the United States. The following from the Nev England
Journal of Education puts the mattei- in ;i striking and practical light :

'• This is a generation quick to interest the young through pictures. The brightest
minds are busy with efforts tt. devise the most interesting pictiu'es for the young We
carry the idea into our instructions. Object lessons are ])i)p>ilar as .Tune picnics. The
lycoum has caught the fever. With the speaker comes the stereopticon. Tlie lecture
must he. a picture gallery. Some are introducing the blackboard into the jjulpit. The
chalk competes with the pen. Ideas must lie pictures, they tell us. Now look at thai
gaunt, bare, uninviting school house. What kind of a picture are we putting befttro
the young ? They will aiuely receive an impression of some kind, and of a lasting kind.
Because the natiu-es we are dealing witli are so susce[)tible, and through lite will go
stamped with what wc? imi)r(!ss tliom, therefore we should have sciiool liouses and school
furnishings as tasty and beautiful aa po88il)le. What about the neglected yard before
that old education ^box ? Plant a tree, or tn.'es, there. Put vines at the base of the
walls ; and may no penny scpieezing committee say the vines will rot the shingles when
the roof is reached. Slate the roof, sir I What a pretty spot the school yard becomes .'
Anu !U5 the scholara grmv up to make iii>mes for themselves, their fciained interest in
the jjicturesque will rejjcat itself in their tasty surroundings."

Chap. XVII.

Plans for Rural School Houses.

!):}

CHAPTER XVII.

PLANS FOR RURAL SCHOOL HOUSES.

1 (33. The style of tin; exterior of a school house must necessarily be
left to the choice of the school trustees. Its external appearance is
always a matter of taste. Of course the exterior must in a large degree
be made to harmonize with the requirements of the interior, and as to
whether the building shall consist of one or two stories. All that is
attempted in the following plans is to suggest variety, and to provide for
a choice of some of the latest and best of the school houses which have

Fio. 42.— DiwioN Fou A Rui{.\i., on Villauk, School House.

been erected in the United States, or are suggested. Some c)f these plans
have l)een prepared for the Department ; others are adapted by me
from other sources and appi'c^ved by the Minister of Education, so as to
make them more suitable for adoption in Ontario.

164. Before consulting these plans, with the view to a choice, the
trustees concerned would do well to refer to paragraphs numliers 93 and

Plans for Rural School Houses. Chap. XVII.

94 (pages 50-52), in which the requisites of a good rural school house are
pointed out by authorities of large experience.

165. The first design for a rural, or village, school house (Fig- 42) has
been modified and adapted by me from an Aiiierican source. It is of a
modem style of school house, and can be built of wood or brick, or both
couibi'ied. The desig-n shows a neat finish of the upper part of the bixild-
ing in sheeting, with pointed ends. This sheeting slxould be tongued and

BOVS'CNTRANCE

Fic. 43.- GnouNi) Plan of Rriuvi., or "^ iti.AGK, Sch.ool Houhr.

grooved, and might be battoniMl, if desired, as shown in paragraph, No.
171, P'^ge 99. The building is well set back in the* school grounds, tmd
has a lawn in front and phi}- grounds at the sides, as shown in block plan,
Fig. 15, page 48. The entrance for girls is shown in this design — that for
boys will be seen in the above ground plan, Fig. 43.

: !«

Chap. XVII.

^LANS FOR Rural School Houses.

1G6. The ground plati, Fig. 43, is intended to be suggestive, and may
be adopted, or not, at the plea.sure of the Trustees. By placing the
entrances for boys and girls at the side and the end of the building, the
great desideratum can be secured of ha\'ing the light coming in from only
one side of the school house, and that the left hand side, as strongly re-
commended in Chapter XT, paragraph number 93 (pages 50 and 51). This
plan has been modified and adapted fi-om one suggested by Mr. Julius
Hess, of Michigan. Lavatories for boys and girls hav^ been added, and
the seats have been differently arranged. A ventilator has been placed
in the chimney, as will be seen in the plan, so as to ensure rapid ventila-

FlG. 44.-])KSI(iN inii A UUHAI., OR VlLt,.\(iK, riUMAKV ScHOOl, H()U«K.

ti(n\ in the school room. The cold air duct from th(> outsider to the stove
(or furnace, as the case may be) is also sho\m in dotted lines.

167. Fig. 44 is also a neat design for a rural school house, or a village
primary one. It was prepared by Messrs. Terrell and Morris, of Columbus,
Ohio, and is kindly furn'shed by Hon. Le Roy Brown, the Ohio State
School Superintendent. The architects say — "The school house when
erected cost $2,01)0, It was built of brick and stone, with pressed brick
arches, slate ro)f and slate; blackboards. It is a one room building (as

,„

lf> <

Plans por Rural School Houses.

Chap. XVII.

shown in the vignette ground plan at the right hand upper corner of Qw
design). The light comes in from the left and rear. It will seat fifty
pupils. The iiues are used for ventilating stoves by taking fresh air from
the outside by a register in the floor directly under the stove. [See I'igs.
38, 39 and 53J. There are two flues in the chimneys, one for smoke and
the other for ventilation, Avith register at the floor line."

PLATFORM

AND
aiRL*' CNTn*NCC

CO i- r

I — I CHJ

c:z3 t:zi

C ^' I. c

r — I r — I

LZJ L_J

era CZJ

„_, rr -TL,CJ -__. ^..__,

I 1 ' 1 I -J 1 6TCVt 1

'" o o o o (>

GIRLS'

WARDROOC

ANO

LAVATORY

J±

( »T«Vt ,

irZJ CUD

o (- > •-■>

ttti Lrp

'., '■. o

TGACMCRS
ROOM

era c;::_j

PASSAGE

cia -lZzj

I — -x czj

II o c. ■ ■

i::za era

■oys'

CNTRANCC

Bovs' WAnnnoDC

AND
LAVATORV

TEACHERS'

ROOM

AND

LIBRARY.

PLATFORM

IOV&' WARORODC
AND
LAVATORV

BOYS'
tNTRANCr

Fig. 45.— Ground Plan op School Roomh foh a Village Grahko School.*

been modified by me in several important particulars, especially in the
entrances, and in providing a teacher's room and library, also wardrobes
and lavatories. The light also, as will be seen by the ^lian, comes only
from the left hand side of the pupils, as has already been suggested. The
passage from one room to th(^ other is placed just outside of the teachers'
room, as shown in the plan. The teachers' and girls' entrance is at one
side of the plan, and those for the boys of each division at the opposite
side. Each has separate wardrobes also.

169. Fig. 46 is a design which was prepared for the Department. It
is intended to illustrate a style of exterior for a rural or village school
house difienint from those previously given. It is intended to be a frame

* Dr. J. D. Philbrick, in his report, on city schools, speakft f avo^WaWy of this style of whool room
arrangement— that is, of having school rooran on each side of a central corridor. It combines
many xcoUencies which cannot Imj introduced in the single school room plan.

■ iHi>iiiW*»»»iniNiiiiMlni>iiM III /.

Chap. XVIf. Plans fob Rural School Houses.

BOYS'
CNTBANCC

Lmldnig, hut with ornamental bracings on tlie outside, so as to furnish
soine reliet to tlie monotony of the ordinary " clapboarding " of a frame
»>uilclnig. Ihe gi-ound plan adapted to this design is shown in Fig 47

Fiti. 4(}."DK.si(iN' wit A Rural on a Villaok School Hocsb.

170. This ground plan explains itself, as its principal features are
mdicated on the plan itself. It is the ordinary adaptation, with a few
improvements, of the " single room " system, which invariably provides
tor light coming from both sides of the sckool room. Separate entrances

Plans for Rural School Houses. (Jhap. XVII.

Bovs' PiAv Ground. u rj

Girls' Plav Grouno

ScA.E 4 reET TO o« Inch. GROUND PUAN.

Fig. 47.— Adapted to the DKeioN shown in Fw. 46.

rcHt AtR HFC.

Chap. XVII. Pl/ins fob Kuhal School Houses.

and exits for tho pupils — boys and ^irls — are provided. In the
modern school house these are considered indispensahh^ for reasons given
in the Appropriate chapter. The " entrances " can also be used as ward-
robes, and the cIpss rooin.foj- a teacher's room and library, if not otherwise
required. The wood room is at th(! rear of the house, as are the door-
ways leading to the playgrounds.

171. The design which has beep suggested for this style of school
house is also suitable for a btiilding enclosed with vertical matched boards,
nailed to sill and plate, and to horizontal " inter-ties." In such a case, the

FIG. 4.9. FIG. GO.

Battens foh Out,sii>k Vkkikai. Matched Boardh. *

joints would have to be covered with " battens," of any one of the pat-
terns shown in Figs. 48, 49 and »0. These battens, (as suggested by Mr. T.
M. Clark, the writer of the United States work on school architecture): —

" sliiiiild hfivt! the tops hovelled or rounded, or they will curl up and admit water ;
and it is well alst) to hollow out the l)ack with a plane to assist it in hugging close t«
the joint," as in f?g. 48. . ,

51. — UtSlGN KOH A lUIKAL OR VlU,.\GK SoHOOL HoUSE.

1 72. Fig. 51 is a design (prepared for the Department) of a frame house
for a village givided school. It is simple in its construction, and, by way
of relief to the plainness of the design, provides for an ornamental bracing
on the extei'ioi', as also shown in the design given in Fig. 46.

100

Plans for Rural School Houses.

Chap. XVII.

173. The ground plan for this school house design provides for two
sohool rooms of a graded school, as does the ground plan (Fig. 4')), but in it
the arrangement is (juite ditt'ereut. Either plan can be adapted to the de-
sign (Fig. nl). In the ground plan (Fig. 52), there are a boy.s' and a girls'
enti-y to each schopl room. It also shows the points from which the air

QROUND FLOOR PLAN.
Fl(!. 52.- FOK A RUKAI,, OH VlLLAiiK GUADKI) SiHOOL.

can be brought from the outsi^le of the building to the stove (oi* furnace, if
desired). The direction of the ventilating tl\ies is also indicated. Teaclu^rs'
rooms are provided (as marked on the plan), as is also a small class room
to the left, if a kindergarten is desirable. By adopting this plan, oi-
that of Fig. 45, provision can be made, in building, for the admissicm of
light from only one side, as formerly rcconniiended. In that case, tlie
teacher's platform should be so placed that the light would conie from the
left to the pupils when they are seated facing the teacher.

174. Fig. 53 gives a section through the centre of the design and plan,
Fiifs. 51 and 52. It is intended to show the interior construction of the

Chap. XVJI. Plans for Rural School Houses.

101

school house, and how the principles of heatino-, ventilation and lightin--
as e.Kpkined in Chapters XII and XIV. are canied out. The blackboard'
it wdl be .seen, extends across the large room, and along the far side of

Fig. 58..-. Section ob' tiik School Housk, Fujs. 51 and 52.

the small class room to the ett, m Fig. 52. The upper part of the wall
IS represented as ^sheeted diagonally. But this, and the extent of th,
blackboard, »xs well as other details, will be at the discretion of Truste'^

102

Plans for Rural School Houses,

Chap. XVII.

\av !

I" ;

175. Fig. 54 is a design for a graded school iu a village or town, pre-
pai'ed by Mr. Randell, of Chica,go (as indicated in the engraving). It con-
tains two rooms below, and might, by a slight modification, have a third
room in the second story (or in tlm roar) as shown in Fig. 59. Ground

P.Pandaul.
Architect

Mutm

L > >i

i'j

Fig. 64. Dksign of a Housk foh a (iuADKn, Huhai., ck Vii.i.auk, 8ch(>oi,.

plans fFigs. 45 and 55) can be adapted to s\iit this design. It conUl also
be modified (witliout altering the pc^sition ot the entrance dooi"s) so as to
form a two story school house, with ground and nj)per story, as shown
in tlie plans, Figs. 59 and GO.

170. Fig. 55 is another form of a plan for a rmal nv a \illage graded
.s.-hool, with but one entrance for girls into the two divisions of the school,
and one for boys. The peculiar form of the wa)"drobe enclosvn'e is a
feature of this plan, as is the position of the chimiieys and ventilators
(shown in the plan at (aC. V. V. V.V.) The position of the stoves is also
indicated at S.S. The teachers' p'atforms are placed .so that tlie light
come? to the pupils from the left, as has been before pointed (>ut.

Chap. XVII. Plans for Rural School Houses.

103

Fio. 55.-GROOND Plan of a House for a Gradei. Rural or Vili.auk Sc-

hool.

Fig. 56.-(^RovNi. Plan of a Two-Storv School House,

mmtmM

HHaaMtail

ll V

>«f

104

Plans for Rural School Hous^jis.

Chap. XVII.

177. Ground plan (Fig. 56) is adapted to design Fig. 54, should it be
taken as the basis of one for a two-story school house. The position
of the entrance door is the same in both. This plan and that shown
in Fig. 57 are those of the Longfellow School House erected in Denver,
(Colorado (Mr. R. L. Roeschlaud, architi'ct).

17H. The plan shown in Fi"-. 57 is the second or upper floor of tine
preceding plan (Fig. 56). It difters slightly from it, eis the school rcK)iu is
nearly square. Its size is 32 by 33 feet. The teacher's room is over one

Via. 57.- Ui'i'KK Floor ot a TwoSiorv Si^iiooi. HoitsK.

oi the main entrances. The.se plans can be adapteil to designs showi ir;
Figs. 58 and 62.

179. Fig, 58 shows a design for a rural school house, erected at Litch
Held, Connecticut. Its outside dimensions are 30 feet long by 20 feet
wide. It is of frame, with an ornamental gable. Cost, $800.

180. The ground plan (Fig. 51' of the Litchfield School House is
designed to seat about 25 or 30 pupils. The school room is nineteen and
a half (19^) feet s(juare, with separate entrance.s for boys and girls.

181. Thus, it will be set.Mi that in the foregoing illustrations, provision
ha« been made for giving practical effect to the important suggestions on
school house construction c(mtainod in* the preceding chapters. Further
examples and plans of school Ixmses might Ui given, l)ut those contained
in this chapter are of sufficient variety <to enable Trustees to exercise ai»
intelligent choice in regard to the school houses which they may desire
to erect — especially in respect to the interior.

Chap. XVIl. Plans for Rural School Houses.

105

ill,
II

.-.W.r.V

Fig. 58.— Plan ok Rural Gchool House, Litchfield, Connkcticut.

1 n

t o

Fia. 60.— UnoiNO Plan uv the Klual School House, Litchfiki.d.

liitataMiMk

riH

106

School Plans for Citiks and Towns. Chap. XVIII.

CHAPTER XVIII.

PLANS FOR SCHOOL HOUSES IN CITIES AND TQWNS.

General Requirements of School Houses in Cities and Towns.

182. There are a few general principles in the construction of school
houses for more than one teacher, which are of special importance, and
which should be carefully considered. I have sought to avail myself of
the latest experience on this subject.

In the report by Dr. J. D. Philbrick,* issued in 1885 by the Bureau
of Education at Washington, he comments on the defects which he had
observed in various city school houses in the United States. He also
makes several suggestions with a view to the improvement in the
construction of school houses of more than one story. I have made a con-
densed sunnnary of his remarks and suggestions, as follows :

1. Hehfht. — A school house should never exceed three stories in height
above the basement."f- The school rooms, as a rule, should not be placed
higher than th(i secoml story.

2. Size. — A building large enough to »u;commodate ( sight hundred
pupils should be regarded as the maximum foi- a school of any grade,
whether primary, intermediate, or high. In regard to the size of the
primary, school house, it would not be far from the mark to ,say the
smaller the number of pupils it accommodates the better for the pupils,
provided the nvimber brought tf)gether is large enough to admit of a
classification. . . . The mammoth school must, from the nature of
things, be a sec«md-rate .school.

3. Schonl Ftiru'dars: — The day of hacked .seats is gone. It is now
well known that nicely made and well pol'shed desks are easily preserved
free fn)m injury for many years, even in boys' .schools. "It is rare to find
in our schools the foot rest, which is regarded by eminent foreign
authorities as highly important.

4. Seatin;/. — [There are two kinds of seats — the single and th*; double.]
The tendency is to substitute the single for the double desk. . . If the
desks are not madf nnnece,s.sarily large, and if thoy are placed as near

* For personal reference to Dr. Thilbrick, hik; note (*) parapruph niniitxn i»l, paffe t>l.

t Dr. Philbrick's preference is for two, instead of three, story school buildingH. He Bays :
" A KeriouH, as well as general, fault in the plans of existing school houses is the arrangement
ri'<|uiring too much' climbing of stairs, esiM-ciiilly in the case of girls. Raltiniore, on tlie other
liand, can boast of alfording the best examplfw of the cip|)osite kind. Her high school houses Un-
girls are only two stoiies high, the BtudyTiall being placed in the up|)er, and the recitation rooms
in the low'ir. A visit to these buildings by lioston school otiicials, many years ago, induced them
to condemn the fuur story |)lan of grammar school buildings.

Chap. XVIII. School Plans for Cities and Towns.

107

together as convenience will permit, they will require no more space than
ought to be allowed, whatever be the mode of seating. . . The single desk
with the. separate chair must be regarded as the best mode of seating.
The height of the chair and desk should be accurately proportioned to
each other, and to the size of the pupils for wliom they are intended. . .
There should be at least three sizes of desks and chairs in each room of a
graded school. . . There should be at least six sizes to suit all the grades of
an elementery school comprising both the primary and [higher] grades.
The chair should be so placed that the front edge of the seat shall be in
the same verticalline with the edge of the desk lid.

5. The Ground Plan. — If the building i.s of considerable size, the

? round plan should not be in the form of a square, parallelogram, or cross,
t should be in L form, or it should be built on three or four sides of a
rectangle [with interior courts]. The school house planned after this
idea is so far a new departure as to constitute a new type . . — a court
type or court plan . . . This type will, I doubt not, xiltimately supersede
the type which originated the Quincj'^ school [in Boston, which has been
generally followed]. My reason for this opinion is that it has been
adopted in those countries where school architecture has been most
thoroughly studied, and where the best specimens of scliool buildings are
to be found.

one story in

6. Fire-Proof Roofing. — In buildings of more than
height this important safe guard ought not to be omitted.

7. Ventilation. — In the building of the "court" type, having transom
windows [as described in paragraph rumber 94 (3), page 51 ; and heated
by means of indirect radiation, successful ventilation is easily attained.

8. Orisnting. — Wherever practicable the ground plan of the school
should be oriented, that is the corners of the structure should point to the
cardinal points of the compass, thus bringing the sides which receive light
to face the south-east and north-west and north-east and south-west. This
position insures the admission of the sun's rays through every window at
some time of the day. In particular, great pains should be taken to
l)revent, if possible, the facing of unilaterally lighted rooms to the south.

9. Gymnasium. — Every city school house of any considerable size
should have its gymnasium. . . It need not be very large ; once and one-
half the size of the school room might, perhaps, be taken as the minimum
size.

10. Water Closets. — When detached, this building should be connected

a covered passage

[See 'ground plan,

with the school house by
Fig. 15, on page 48.]

11. Entries and Co-nndAn-s. — Tliese should be spacious relatively to
the stairs, especially at the. foot of the latter, and should be lighted
directly from out of doi>i's. The lights should be placed at opposite ends,
.so as to ensure a free, natural ventilation which is the best for entries.

108

School Plans for Cities and Towns. Chap. XVIII.

12. Stairs and Stairways. — Of these stairs and .stairways, Dr. D. F.
Lincoln, of Boston, says : —

" They shouM be isolated, if posuible, on at least throe titles, by solid brick walls,
and sho'ild be lighted from outside. Tlie width must be at least six feet in the uppw
story, ijnd eight in tlie lower ; and regard must be htul that the height of the steps is
not too great for children. Spiral stairs are inadmissible, for io such the steps are very
narrow near the wall ; and if a child falls the descent is veiy steep at this point.-
VVedge-k,haped stairt are inwlmissible also, for the same reason; and, in turning a corner,
tliey are dangerous. Wells are undesirable, thougli useful ft)r ventilating the entries.
The staircase should be sheathed. Balusters are unnecessary. The rail should l>e four
feet above the riser. Each stairway should liave one or two landings, ?t) as to affoi-d a
break in the ascent, and a slight resting space."

183. In addition to these important statements and recommendations
in regard to school house construction, T add to them other equally
valuable and practical suggestions from an American otticial source.

184. In 1882 a commission (consisting of Dr. John S. Billings, Surgeon
in the United States army; Hon. John Eaton, United States (Commissioner
of Education, and Mr. Edward Clark, architect of the United States
Capitol, was appointed by the American Government to report upon the
school buildings in the District of Columbia. At the conclusion of their
report on the existing school buildings in the District, they make the
following recommendations, viz : —

1. "That all sides of the [school] building shall be freely exjjosed to light and air ;
for which purjiose they shall not be less than sixty feet distant from any opposite
luiilding.

2. * That not more than three of the floors — better onhj tim — sliall be occupied for
class-rooms.

;{. "That in each class-room n> less than fifteen scjuare feet of floor area shall bo
allowed to each pupil.

4 "T^a,t in each class-i'oom the window space should not be less than one-fourtJ)
of the .loor space, and the distance of the desk most remote from the window should
not be more than one and one-half times the height of the top of the window from the
floor.

6. " That the height of the class-room should never exceed fourteen feet.

6. " That the pnjvisions for ventilation should be such as to provide for each person
in a class-room not less than thirty cubic feet of fresh air per minute, which amount
must be introduced and thoroughly distributed without creating unpleasant draughts,
nr causing any two parts of the room to differ in temperature more than 2" Fahrenheit,
or the maximum tempei-ature to exceed 70° Falirenheit. The velocity of the incoming
air should not exceed two feet per second at any point where it is liable to strike on the
person.

7. " That the heating of the fresh air should bo effected by indirect radiation.

Chap. XVIII. School Plans for Cities and Towns.

109

185. It may be questioned whether these various* suggestions have
l>eeii acted upon in any particular case, as theory and practice do not
always agree. Dr. J. D. Philbrick, in his report to Hon. John Eaton,
practically solves this question. Speaking of the Vienna Akadeniisches

Fig. 60.— Dkhion for a Ciiy or Town School Housp.

Gyoonasium, he says, that "it was built . . . »is a ' model school,' the
d«sign being the product of the best architectural talent and the best
pedagogical talent working together. . . . The lighting is perfect. . . .
No part of the structure is wider than the combined width of the school
r<x)m and corridor." Dr. Philbrick also speaks in the highest terms of

110

School Plans for Cities and XowNa Chap. XVIII.

the Welch Training School, of New Haven, Connecticut. (See paragraph
number 199, page 121.

186. School houses in towns and cities are often two or three stories
in height. Tlie judgment of the more experienced educators of the
present day is in favour of such school houses being only two stories in
height, for reasons given in paragi-aph number 182-1, page 106.

187. Fig. 60 is a handsome design of a school house in Ohio (prepared
by Messrs. Randall & Pat ton, Chicago). It is two stories in height, and

tr^

Ffl}. 61.— (trouno Plan AuArrBD to thk Fobkooino Dk8ion.

is tastily finished. There is an observatory tower at the top of the build-
ing, with railing and canopy. The porch is an open one, which gives a
light appearance to the structure.

188. Fig. 61 is the ground plan adapted to this design. There are two
rooms in front and one in the rear, with separate entrances for each. Such

» •

111 ' i

III.

aph

nes
the
s in

,red
Bind

[d-

s a

Chap. XVJII. School Plans for Cities and Towns,

111

a building might first be constructed with the two rooms below and two
above. Afterwards, the third room in the rear, and one over it might be
erected, as the school needed ftirther accommodation. In that case, the part
lirst built should extend far enough to include the outside wall of the stair-
way to the second floor above, and include the two side entrances A. A. The
platfonns in the front rcwms, B.B., are so placed that the light would

Fig. 62.— GnouNn Plan ok a Two-Story Sohooi. House.

como in at the left hand side of the pupils in each room. It is suggested
that at the outer or entrance dooi-s, the stairs should be in part outside
of the doors, and part inside. This is to save expense, as the steps out-
side should be of st-Mie or other durable material, while those inside may
be of wood. The large corridor in the plan, is indicated by the letter A;
the teachers' rooms by the letters (J.C.C. ; teachers' wardrobe by D., and
the platforms by E E E. The plan of the second story would, of course,
be similarly arranged, and is therefore not given here. See, however.
Figs. (;.5 and 66, which are plans somewhat similar in construction.

18f). Fig. 62 is the ground plan of a two-story building— the " Broad-
way School," erected in Denver, Colorado, and prepared by Mr. R. S.
Roeschlaub, architect, and, with other plans, kindh- furnished'by him. It,
with design (Fig. 60), might, if desired, be substituted for the plan (Fig. 61.)
The rooms might be small or large, at the discretion of the Trustees. The

112

School Plans for Cities and Towns.

Chap. XVII 1.

])lan is a very compact one, and tho rooms of which win be easily heated.
The following particnloi's are given by the architect. E E E E, scIumiI
rooms, each 33 feet by 28 feet ; F, central hall, 18 ft. 6 inches wide ;
Ci G G G, wardrobes — boys' and girls', for each I'oom ; H H H H, plat-
forms ; * I I, entrances, 8 feet wide. Tho registers for hot air are shown
in the comers of each school room ; and tho ventilating flues are seen in
the face of the chimneys.

190. Fig 63 is tlie plan of the second or upper floor of the school
house plan, Fig. 67. The stairs leading up to it in the Denver school,
are eight feet wide, with the rise and tread graded to suit the step of
children, -f* The particulars of tliis floor are us follows : —

Fig 63.— Uppku Floor ok a Two Story Schooi. Houhk.

K K school rooms, 28 feet by 33 feet each ; L, is a large school, or
assomblv room, 47 feet by 33 feet; M, class or small recitation room;
N, tefi trs' room ; O, the hall ; P P P P, wardrobes. Tho ventilating
flues, o o, are shown in the chimneys. These plans are almost identical
in arrangement with those shown in Figs. 56 and ^7, pages 103 and 104.

•Two of these platforms should be differently placed, as is shown in plans (Figs. 45 and 55).

t Too much stress cannot be laid u|)on this iin]K>rtance of giving every attention to the con-
Htruction of stairways, and also of the stairs themselves. The former should \w wide, and wells
should be avoided. The latter xhould lie graded to suit the shortened step of children. The
advice on this subject given in paragraphs 180-12, page 108, should, as far as possible, be care-
fully followed.

Chap. XVI II, School Plans fou Cities and Towns.

113

191. Fig. 64 is a design for a large school house somewhat in the style of
that given in Fig. 60. It was preparetl by the sanie architects. Its gencirul

KOR A Two Stohv School Hou«k.

interior arraiigements tu'e similar to tliose shown in Fig. 61. The modifi-
cations are slight, as will be seen on comparing the two designs. The plans
of the ground, as well as of the upper or second floor, is given. Both.

u >

114

School Plans for Cities and Towns.

Chap. XVIII.

will be found suitable for the interior arrangements of design (Fig. GOV
By reference to Fig. 66, the position of the stairs leading Tip to the second!
floor will be seen. It differs from that shown in Figs. 56 and 63, and can
be otherwise modified, at the pleasure of the school Trustees. " Indeed,
one principal object had in view, in the insertion of so nany "plans" of
fichool houses, was to afiord trustees the greatest variety of choice in the

■

l-'io. 66,— G BOUND Plan AnAPTKD to the Forbgoino Dbsion.

way of interioi- arrangement. And also to afford them facilities to
combine, or alter, these arrangements, as their circumstances might require.

192. The ground plan (Fig. 61) can be adapted to design. Fig. 64, with-
out modification, as they are identical in their general arrangements. The
chimneys and ventilating flues are, except in one case, situated in rear of
the teachers' platforms. See plans shown in Figs. 65 and ()6.

n^Si^EMaV*

III.

50).
Dnd
can
sed,
of
the

Chap. XVIII. School Plans for CmEs and Towns.

115

to
•e.

Ii-
le
of

193. It will be seen, on referring to plan, Fig. 66, that groat economv
ot space has been secured in the arrangement of the rooms, both al>ove and
VxjIow. B B B are the school nwms, and C^ C C C are designed f.n-
small cla«8 nxims, teacher's rooms, wardrobes, etc. The teacher's room or

Fkj. 66.— Pr.AN 2, Second Floor Adapted to De.signs 60 and 64.

library F in Fig. GO, is ingeniously constructed so as to be of easy aceos-s
trom the teachers' platfonns, D D. This room is well lighted by a larue
wmdow. E E are map and apparatus closets.

194 The ground plan (Fig. 67) can be adapted to the designs (Figs 60
and 64) by altering the position of the doors. It and the upper floor plan
(*ig. 68) are examples (with the othefts in thife book) of diflferent modes of
arranging the interior of school houses for cities and towns. It is in this
matter of interior arrangement that the greatest difficulty arises. As to
the exterior of a school house, that is a matter of taste and of expense ; but

IIG

School Plans for Cities and Towys.

Chap. XVI t(.

the constantly arising demands on School Boards, for increased and im-
proved school accommodation, rendera it necessary that the greatest care
should be exercised in the planning of the interior ( 'f the school buiid-
'ng. Economy, convenience, and health have to be consulted, and it is

HALL

■l-\r^

"te

cat

m
O

.J
o
o

«
•<

a
a

with a view to aid trustees in this difficult and responsible part of their
<luty, that I have selected, with the approval of the Minister, and inserted
in this book, so many plans of the Interiors of school houses and but few
'ixteriora. There are, however, sufficient of the latter to indicate the pro-

* Explanation of the plan. — A, gohool room ; B, wardrobe; C, teacher's closet ; D, book or
.•vp "loset; B, hoii<t; F, lavatory; (i, rt-ar porch ; H, hose closet; K, front porch,

'IM <

:vin.

d iin-
b care
mild-
it is

leir
ted
ew
re-

Chap. XVI II. School Plans for Cities and Towns.

117

vaihng architectural taste of late years iii the matter of school hou.es
cspecm lly m the United States. The plans of interiors whrhKave be .'
.selected are of very recent date, and have received the approvaN^t^W
most competent to judge in such matters, ^^ "^

r.«^ y J^''^' Pnncipal leaturo to be observed in these plans (Figs. (i7 an.l
08) ,s the number of menus of exit. There are four Uirge entrance < o r
givmg tacihties ot e,xsy exit from all of the school rooms. B t^^u X'
hST™H '7^r"'><>r« there ar. r.o fevver than four .separate .sta , way
besules the hoist so that m ca.se of «re (with the pupils well dr Ue,'
as ,s now required by the Departmental regulatious) t iV sXo. 1 . t ''
nught be emptied in a very short time. ^cuooi iiou.se

* Explanation of the Plan.

F iav.,„,., H.hccw, .,..,.l'::!;lr:;;ii:,;'.''*' "•"■"*-■" ■^'-•"^ ►■ -^

■^f

118

School Plans for Cities and Towns. Chap, Yvm.

196. Fig. 69 is a design of the Wliittier school in Denver, Colorado,
prepared by Mr. Koeschlaiib, architect in that city. It is 147 feet iv lengtli,
and 104 feet deep. From the plan of this interior of the school, au«l of
the Gilpin school in that city (Figs. 67 and 68), it will be seen that ample

space is given for entrance and exit, and for ventilation in each. Dr.
John D. Philbrick, in his report, says of these schools : —

'* The peculiar merit of the excellent school houses in Denver, i» the absence of the
... . coinnioii <lefect« of comdora. The Qilpin school house in that city, which J

Chap. XVIII. School Plans for Cities and Towns.

119*

■£

■r.

inspected in 1882, two stories high, with six rooms on a floor [Pig. 68], is an admirably
specimen of this claas. In the Whittier school house, since erected, some further
improvf-ments Jiave been introduced.^ School house buUding in this wonderful young
city has been conducted from the first by the board and superintendent (Mr. A. Gore),

Fifi. 70.— Groi^ni) Plan ok tiik Whittiku Scuooi,, Dknvkh, Colokado.

aided by tho flccomplished architect of thu board (Mr. U. ,S. R.K.sohlHul)), in cho most
judicious and successful manner, and witli the strictest regard to economy, sia is evident
from the exhaustive ivpcrt on tlie subject, published by the board in 1883."

n J'^*^„tT^^' arcliifcect ^nves the following particulars of the ground plan
of the Whittier school (Fig. 70), viz. :—

120

School Plans for Cities and Towns. Chap. XVIII.

E E, six school rooms, each 28 by 33 feet ; F F, corridor, 38 feet 4 in.
by 83 feet ; H H, six teachers' platforms [rigiitly arranged for light] :
■ I I I I, vestibules, 8 feet 7 inches wide ; P P, twelve wardrobes, each 4 ft.
6 inches by 18 feet

b'lQ. 71.— (tKouni) Pi,.vn ok the Gilpin School, Dknvkr, Colokako.

198. The grotmd plan of the Gilpin school, Denver, Colorado (Fig. 71),
can be easily adapted to the design of Fig. G6. It is, however, defective as

Chap. XVIIl. School Plans for Cities and Towns.

121

regards " entrances and exits," as compared with the Whittier school,
which, as Dr. J. D. Philbrick states, was erected subsequently to the
Gilpin school. The particular.:5 of the interior are given by the architect,
as follows :

Iz;

i-f

o
o
n

»4

P
I

P<4

B B, school rooms, 28 feet by 33 feet each ; E E, four scliool rooms,
each 27 feet by 38 feet ; F F, corridors, each 17 feet by 33 feet : H H,
teachers' platforms ; I I, Vestibules, 7 feet 6 inches wide ; P P, twelve
wardrobes, each 4 feet (> inches by 19 feet.

199. Fig. 72 is tlie design of one of the latest and best planned sdhool
houses in the United States. The exterior is plain almost to baldness,
and the entrances seeni to be small. But the excellence of the buildinij is

^^'S'fi^i

122

School Plans for Cities and Towns. Chap. XVIII.

in its interior arrangement. The Secretary of the Connecticut State
Board of Education, in his re[)ort of 1884, says :

"In planning the building it has been the aim of the [building] committee to
embody all the latest improvome;it8, and features tliat exj)eiience and experts have
shown to be of value in school ftrchitecture, and especial attention has been given to-
convenience of i)lan, lighting, heating, and ventilation, sanitary arrangements and
facility of exit. The school r(joni8 are so arranged that the greater part of the light
enters the room to the left of t'le pupils in every case, and the windows extending up
to within six inches of the ceiling [See Fig. 40, page 84], admit the light tt) the opposite

Fig. 73.— Ground Plan of the Welch Training School, New Haven, Conn.

side of the roont unobstructed. The building is . heated throughout by steam,

indirect radiation, and in combinaticm with the system of ventilation, it is [provided
that there shall be] an ample and constant flow of fresh warm air into every room in the
building, in all kinds of weather. The steam coils are placed at Mje bottom of the
heating flues and supplied with fresh air from outside the buildiii through brick air-
ducts, the outside openings to these ducts being some ten feet above the ground, so as
to avoid the possibility of introducing 'ground air' into the building. [See i»aragra])h
number 123, note j^age 72.] The fi-esii warm air enters the rooms at the height of about
seven feet above the ^oor, and finds an egress at the floor, after making a complete
circuit, so to speak, and leaves the building through a proper ventilating flue. [See

IL...

Chap. XVIII. School Plans for Cities and Towns.

123

Figs. 38 and 39.] By this arrangement the air in the rooms will be changed from five
to six times an hour during ordinary winter weather, [See paragraph number 109.]
It will be seen, then, that wo have here a building . . designed in accordance with
the best and most approved principles of school house architecture. . . . "

A— Class Room,
C— Teacher's Closet.

PLAN OF FIRST FLOOE.
Fig. 74.— Of the Couch School House, Portland, Oregon.

200. Dr. J. D. Philbi'ick, in referring to this school house say.s :

]24

School Plans fou Cities and Towns. Chap. XVIIl.

Hi:

" The school rooms of this building are peculiarly excellent. The length is 31 feet
and the width 25 feet. On the long side there are four windows, equally distributed,
these windows being at the left of tlio pupils as seated, and amply suHicient for light.
. , . It has two light and airy basement rooms. . - . . The system of heating
and ventilation is worthy of special attention.

201. Fiff. 74 is the plan of the first floor of the Couch School, erected
in Portland, Oregon, in 1883.* Thi.s an<l the ])lan of the second floor

A — Class Room.
C — Teacher's Closet

1> — I Lit Room.
S— Water Siuk.

PLAN OF SECOND FLOOR.
Fig. 75.— Of thk Couch School House, Portland, Ouegon.

(Fig. 75) can be easily adapted to designs. Figs. 60 and 64. The chief
feature of these plans is the large central or main hall. From it radiate
four stair ways leading to the secc^nd floor, so as to aflford abundant facili-
ties for emptying the school rapidly in case of flic tdarm of fire. In his
report for 1883, Mr. Craw^ford, referring to this and another'' school of the
same style and arrangement erected at the same time, says :

* Mr. J. Krunibein was the arc}\itect of this building, and the plans have been kindly furnished
by }At, T. H. Crawford, City Suiierintendent.

[1.

Chap. XIX, Particulars of Builders' Specifications.

126

set

Hi,

it.
"K

lor

" With scarcely any exception, every appointment and every phase of tho.arrange-
mentof each huiUling, in reference to light, heat, ventilation, and general conveniences
has proven eminently satiafactory. . . The possibility of the complete control over
the [pupils ofj entire school, as to their movement* in the halls and on the stairways
has been fully demonstrated."

202. The Supeiintendent, in another report, gives the following;
explanation in regard to these plans. He says :

" The extreme length of the main building is 127 feet 8 inches by 116 teet 8 inches.
Adding the two porches and stairways to the longitudinal length, the entire depth is
185 feet. Tlie dimensions of each school room are 34 feet by 28 feet clear, and

height (if ceiling If) foot clear. This gives over 15,000 cubic feet of air, or 300 cubic
feet to each of 50 pupils. In eight rooms there are six windows, each having lui area of
actual lighting surface of 3G.(t square feet in all. This gives one square foot of light to
every 4.3 square feet of floor space. In four rooms there are live windows, giving to
each room 183 R(|uare feet of window surface, or 1 to 5.2. The standard rate is 1 to 6.
All of tliese rooms, then, are above the standard in respect to light. . . Four
flights of stairs lead to the second floor. Those in the main entrance are 4 feet wide,
and tlie second portion 5 feet wide. The side flights are 4 feet (i inches wide. .\11 the
risers are 6§ inches high and the weads 11 inches wide. The doors to the main

entrance are 7 feet wide. Those [in the interior] are 3 feet 3 inches wide and 9 feet
high. All doors swing outwards. Transoms 3 feet 3 inches by 2 feet 6 inches are
placed over each interior door . . . and have adjustable rods for opening and
closing . The bath rooms are practically locked, and can be opened only from

the inside. Tesichers' platfonns are 12 feet by 6 feet G inches high."

CHAPTER XIX.

io
i-

lis
w

led

PARTICULARS OF BUILDERS' SPECIFICATIONS.

203. Before entering into a contract for the erection of a school house,
specifications for the building should be carefully made out. As tliese
specifications will naturally differ in each case, I can give only the general
headings, and a few suggestions as to what should be provided under these
headings, viz, :

1. Excavation. Specify the size and depth of the excavation for the
foundation and the drains, and what shall be done with the excavated
eai'th.

2. Stone ivork. Specify the parts to be built with stone — its kind (cut
or rubble); window and door sills, etc., and the quality of the mortar to be
used.

3. Brick work. Mention the kind of brick, white or red, hard and soft,
etc., to be used ; the parts to be of brick work ; drains and drain pipes.
Direct as to the heading course, the bond course, the bed joints, vertical

126

Trustees' Contracts with Builders.

Chap. XX

joints, outside joints, wall facing, and laying the joists and otlier timber
of floor, ceiling, roof, etc.

4. Lath and Plastering. Specify what parts shall be lathed and plas-
tered ; the kind of lath to be used ; furring of walls ; quality of plaster
and hair; number of coats, and kind of " finish," etc.

5. Carpenter and Joiner Work. Kind and size of timber to l)e used,
(as per "bill of particulars" to be made out), common, seasoned, planed
and rough, and in what parts each kind is to be used — floor, doors, roof,
joists, stairs, windows, and bridging, studding, braces; wainscotings,
mouldings, cornices ; shingles (sawn or split) if used, or slate. Specify
each separately.

6. Timvork and Flumhing. Tin or iron flashing for chimneys, deck,
roof, down pipes, eaves, lavatories; joints to bo locked and soldered and
made water tight.

7. Hardware. Mention the kind of quality re(|uired of the locks,
bolts, hinges, door knobs, sash locks, window weights, transom pivots and
catches,*lothes hooks, etc.

8. Painting and Glazing. Particularize the wood, metal or tin work to
be painted; the kind of paint ; quality of oil, and the number of coats
required ; and fire or metallic paint and varnish, and where to be used
graining, quality and size of glass; putty; etc.

General Suggestions. Reference should be made in the specifications to
the plans and elevation of the building. It should also be requii'ed that
all work be done and finished in a thorough and workmanlike manner,
and with good merchantable materials. A " carpenter's risk " insurance
should be provided for, as the building progresses towards completion.

CHAPTER XX.

fi!

HINTS ON CONTRACTS WITH BUILDERS.

204. Trustees cannot be too particular in entering into contracts for
the erection of a School House. They should see that t\ut plans, elevations,
and specifications, as well as the contract itself (in duplicate), are signed
by the contractors and their sureties. They should provide for the
authorization of extras ; by whom and on what conditions. Good and
sufficient security should be taken for the performance and completion of
the work by a specified time ; and a sum, ])y way of penalty, should be
named in the conti'act for delay in erecting and finishing, the building.

205. As to the law which must govern Trustees in the matter of con-
tracts, I quote the following from my comments and explanation of the
" Revised School Law of 1885," published by the Copp-Clark Company,
Toronto, last year. In chapter two, section 10, I state that —

" The Trustees alone have the riglit to decide upon the kind, size, and descripti(jn of
the School House, or Teacher's residence, which they shall erect. No ratepayer, public
meeting, or committee has any authority to interfere with or control, them in this

Chap. XX.

Trustees' Contracts with Builders.

127

matter. They have also full power to decide what fences, outbuildings, sheds, and
■other Bccoinniodations shall be provided. . To them also exclusively belongs the

right to have the school grounds planted with shade trees and properly laid out."

206. As several legal decision.s have been given in regard to the
contracts and agreements for the erection of school houses, I quote from
the work just named the following : —

(1) '^ Schwd HoiiM Contracts not valiflwithimt Trustee, Corporate Seal (Rev. Sch. Act,
88. 25, 104 and 238). — The Court of Common Pleas has decided that school trustees,
being a corporation under theschool Acts, arenot liable, as such, to pay for a school house
erected for and accepted by them, not having contracted under seal for the erection of
the same. The seal is required as authenticating the concurrence of the whole body
corporate. Macaulay, C. J., dwnnntiente. — Marshall v. School Trustees of No. 4, KiUe.\i.
4 C. P. 373,

NoTK.— Such a contract, not being binding on the corporation, would be binding on the iudi-
■ vidnal truHteen who nia'lo it with a third party, acting in good faith. Qurere, whether tlie tnistee-
coriK)ration would not, by 8ubse((uently taking poMsesaion of the school house, or by sume other
act, recognize the validity of the contract ?

2. " CoHtra'ct nmhr Seal, signed by a majority of the Corporation, hinduiy (Ibid). —
The same court has also decided the following case : — A contract was entered into by a
majority of the trustees, under their corporate seal, for building a school house ; after
the house was built the trustees refused to pay. In an action brought <m the contract,
a jury having given a verdict in favor of the trustees on a plea of no)i est factum, a new
trial was ordered, and the former verdict in favor of the trustees set aside. The court
held, that a contract entered into by a majority of the trustees under the School Act,
with the corporate seal attached, is sufficient ; and a plea that the contract was signed
by the subscribini,' trustees, without the consent or approbation of the others, was held
hajA. —Forbes V. School Trustees of No. 8, Plymptan. 8 C. P. 73, 74.

3. " Arrangements wider seal for bnilding school house, although indefinite, teas bind-
ing upon the parties. — The agreement sued on was headed, ' Specification of School
House in School Section No. 4, Tilbuiy East.' Then followed in detail the size of the
building, and the v.'ork and material to be employed, and it concluded : ' The whole to
be of good material, and to be finished in a good workmanlike manner, and to be
finished on the Ist of July, 1873. In consideration the p.arties of the first part agree
to pay the party of the second part tiie sum of $708, one-half on the loth May, and the
other half when the school house is completed. ' Then followed the signatures of the
three school trustees, with their corporate seal, and the signature of the plaintiff. It
bore no date, but was proved to have been executed by the parties about the Ist March,
1873. It referred to no plan, but the trustees furnished the plaintiff with a plan to
work by, and they paid to him $400 on account. Tboy refused to pay the balance, or
to accept the buikling, alleging that it was not properly constructed ; but the learned
Queen's Counsel, who tried the case without a jury, found for the plaintiflF for the
balance of the ^08. Held, that it was sufficiently clear from the instrument itself and
the acts of the parties that defendants were the parties covenanting with the i)laintiff,
and that the instrument was intended so to operate, and the verdict was upheld, —
Coghlan v. The School Trustees of S. S. No. J^, in the Toicnship of Tilbury East, in the
County of Kent, 35 Q. B. 675.

128

Trustees' CoNTRACT^ with Builders.

Chap. XX.

4 ^^ School hovse and site in uae not iutbti to be »oLd on ptdf/meiit atjaind Trtititee-
Corporafion. — The Court of Queen's Bench ha» given judgment as foHows : — In a ca«©
in which a Bchool site luwl been given to the tnut^es for the purposes of a school (with
the condition that it shou.'d revert to the giver n case it shouhl cease to be used ft)r
school purpt)8e8), and on which they had erected a jchool house, judgment was obtained
against the corjioration for the money duo on tni' building contract. The school house
and site were actually sold and deeded by the b'tieritl"; but the court held that the liouso
and land could not lawfully be sold— it being contrary to public policy that a school
house in daily use (any more than a court house or jail) should bo held hable upon a
writ of execution, as not the trustees, but the inhabitants of tht; locality, are the rexhiia
que truest {I.e., tht persons for whose benotit the trust is held). The plaintiff should
have resorted to his other remedies against the trustees for neglect of duty. — Scott v.
TntatcM of Union section No. 1 BuiyenH and 2 BalhurHt, 19 Q. B. 28.

5. " Propoiifd ScJuiol Hoiise. — Suhmissii>n to dectitm. — It a))poared from the affidavit
of the secretary-treasurer of a school section that at two regularly called meetings of
the duly (jualifiod electors of a school section, at which a chairman was api)ointed, pro-
posals to borrow money for the purchase of a site, and build ascliool house, were put by
way t)f motions, and carried, upon which a by-law was pnased authorizing the issue of
debentures to raise money for the above purjioses. Held by Armour, .7., that un-^
the School Act cited this was a sufficient submissir)!) to, and approval of, the proposal
by the duly qualified electors, and a rule to (piash the by-law was discharged. — In re
McCorviick aiui the Corporation of the Townnhip of Colchester South. C. L. S. I. 215.

6. *' Note. The Assessment Act exempts from tjixation ' every public scliool house
with the land attached thereto and the personal property belonging to it.' "

P ^

INDEX.

Page.
Accommodation, School, R^giilutions regarding 7

Acid, Carbolic— Me Carbolic'Acid.

Carlxinic acid — tee Carlx)iiic Acid.

Age of I'lipila, and size of SuatH and Deska 8, 8ft

Air i'rick, Jennings 85-

Clianilwr in Ventilation 73

Cubic feet of, per Child 8, 12, 50, (54, (17

Currents in a School Room ((2, 73, 85

Evils of bad 1], 12, 13, 70

For Childron, how much 8, 12. 50, (M, 71, 74

Heatinjr by hot 07^ 71, 72

Inlets i II Windows 02, 70, 71

See Inlets and Outlets. »

AkadeniischeH (iymnaKiuin, Vit'nna 67, 109'

Albany Schools, N. Y., School Authorities quoted 74, 7t>, 77

Albuminoid Animf)nia defined 25

American Council of Education quoted 78

Ammonia Albuminoid 25

Free 23-

Artifipial Ventilation and Natural 00, 03

Ash System for I'rivies 27, 35, 3(J

Trees for Shade '40

Bacillus and their sinires 37

Bacteria, what they are _ 22

BallusterH in Staircases uimecessary ^ 108

Baltimore High School for Girls 106

Barnard, Dr. Henry, Hartford, Connecticut 66-

Battens for Matched Boards, Patterns for 99

Beam, a notched 68

Berlin Schools, Germany '. 66

Billings, Dr. John S., Washington 108

Blackboards, Brushes for, how made VtO-

Directions for making 9, 59, (50

In Schools 51, 59, (50, 81

Regulations regarding 9

Blinds for Windows '. 8a

Block Plan of School Grounds 48, 49

Bond of School House Wall .57, 58

Eostim Schools, Massachusetts 60, 67

Movement for School Room Decoration 91

Brick, Air, Jennings 85

Bridgeport Schools, Connecticut 67, 80

Briggs, W. R., Architect, Connecticut 69, 80

Brown, Htm. Le Roy, Ohio 95

Brimstone as a Disinfectant 37

130

Index.

i*fi

hdill

I Page.

Brushes for Bliickboards, how made fiO

BrusBells Educational Congress 60, 52, 79

Bryce, Dr. P. H., quoted 21, 22, 24, 70

Builders, Oontracts with ... 12»j

Sijccificatior.8 125

Building, Details of School 52, 106

BuisHon, Director of French Primary Education . . . . : 5)0

Buk, Dr., quoted .* 81

Burrows, F., Napanee, quoted 30, 69

Butcher, Hon. B. L.. West Virginia 39

Carbolic Acid as a Disinfectant 37

Carbonic Acid, P^xhalation of 65

Cesspool for Lavatories 32

Plan of 33

Chalk, Trays for Blackboards / .59

Chamber, Air, in Ventilation 73

Chestnut Trees for Shade 4o

Chicago, School Recess in 79

Chloride of Zinc, Solution of 37

Lime 37

Cincinnati, School Recess in 78

Cities and Towns, Plans for School Houses in lOfi

Clark, T. M. — set United States Book, etc.

Edward, quoted 108

Clematis in School (Jrounds 42

Cloak rooms in School Houses 46

Se". Wardrobes

Closets, Dry Earth 27

Clothes 46, 52

Clothes Closets in Schools 52

See Wardrobes.

Congress, Educational, at Brussells " 50

Connecticut Nonnal School, Principal 51

Reports of School Board of, quoted 80

Secretary, quoted 122

Construction of School Houses 50, 52

Consumption (phthisis) in Schools 13

Death of Female Teachers, from * 11

Contracts with Builders 126

Copjjeras as a Disinfectant 37

Cornice of School Houses .55, 56, 57

Corridors in Schools 107

Cost of School Houses 67

Cottier System of Ventilation 73

Couch Sclio)l, Portland, Oregon 123, 124

Covernton, Dr. C. W., quoted 58

Crawford, T. H., quoted 77, 122, 124

Crookshank, A. S., on Fire, Escape, Drill 75

Cubic Feet of Air i)er Child 8, 12, 60, 64, 67

Currents of Air in a School Room 62, 73, 85

Dayton, Ohio, School Recess in ^ 79

Dearness, .Tohn, cpioted 11, 14, 23, 61, 09, 80

Decoration of School Rooms 88, 92

Denver, Colorado, Schools in 104, HI, 118, 120

!:;: I

Index.

131

Page.

fiO

iO, 52, 7!»
!2, 24, 70
.... 12«
.... 125
. 52, l(Hi

!M)

. . 30, 69
39

. ... 10«

. ... 108

4()

. 4(i, 52
52

. ... 122

. 50, 52

, ... 120

.... 37
5, 50, 57

... 107

.... 67

.... 73
123, 124

.... 58
122, 124

.... 75
), 04, 67
}, 73, 85

Page.
Def)d()rizers og

Desks and Seats in Schools, Position of 51

Regulations regarding g 85

Single, approved % 50

Diphtheria and Typhoid Fever in Schools 12

Diseases, School Room 12 80

Disinfectants 3g

Disinfection oc

Dog-Tooth Ornament g^

Donovan, C, quoted gj)

Doors of School Houses 51 75

Downs, Hon. C. A., New Hampshire, quoted 20 22 24

Drainage, from Privy Pit, to Well 21

of School Grounds I4

Drill, Fire, iu ScliooliJ , 74

Dry iVsh System 27, 35

Earth Sy.stem •. 27 33

Earth Clo.sets, Dry ». 27 34

Eaton, Hon. John, reference to 14, 39, 41, 50, 51, 108, 109

Educatior'il Congre«M, Brussells 50

AsBociation, United States ". ." 50

Elms as Shade Trees 40

English CommittiH; on School Room Decoration 91 <,)2

Entrances, Separate, to Scliool Houses -. 4,f), loO

to 0|)i>u Ontwardh" 4R

EscajM-, Fire Drill 74, 75

Evergreens as Shade Trees 41

Evils Preventable I7

of «ad Air 11, 12, 13

Exit from School Houses, rei^dy 74

]<'eniale Teachers, Death of, by Consumption 11

Fences and School Entrances 44

Filters, Defective 22

Fire, Danyrer of, from Furred Walls 54

Drill, in Schools . . ' 46, 74, 75

Rooting 107

Floor Space per Pujiil — sec Cubic Feet, etc.

and Window Space 108

Floors in School Rooms 58

Flowers in Sehoi.l (irounds 17, 42, 43, 47, 88

" Rooms 88

Flues, Ventilation 03

Forchannner's Test for Watt^r 24

Forestry in Ontario 40

the United States 42

Fotheringliam, David, quoted 11, 30, 07, 71

Foundation of School Houses .52, 53

Fox, on Air and Water 70

French Authoritie.'j on Lighting School Houses 74

Commissiim on School Room Decoratitms 90

System of Seating Pui)ils 80

Furnaces in Schools OS, TJ

Furniture, School, Regulations regarding 8, 10(>

Furred Walls, Dangerous 54

fiBS

mmm

pnnF

132

Index.

Page.

GateB to School Grounds 44. 45

German Commission on School Hygiene 74

Germany, Lighting School Houses in '. T 80, 82

•Girls, Privies, or Latrines for 28, 20

Crilpin School, Denver, Colorado 120

Glass, Window, i>er Pupil 81

Globes, liegulations in regard to Schools 9

Grounds, School, Plan of 47, 48, 40, 107

and Play Shed 38

Hamilton, Hefs St. School, in 76

Hancock, Dr. John, quoteil 78

Har.is, Dr. W. T., quoted 50, 78

Harrison, E. B., quoted 60

Health, Board of. National, United States * 22

New Hamijshire 17, 20, 22, 3ti, .S7

New York 25, 37. 4(5

Provincial (Ontario' 10, 12, 17, 31, 35, 37, 64, 77, 80, 84

of Children in Schools 50

Heating and Ventilation of School Houses 60, (57, 71

Height of Class Rooms 108

School Houses 10(!, 108

Hess Street School, Hamilton : . 75

Hojikins University, Johns— see University.

Hot Air, Heatmg by 67, (W, 60, 7l', 72

Hough, Dr. F. B., quoted 4i, 42, 43

Houses, School, Construction of 50

Position of 61

Regulations regarding . . , 7

Howland, George, quoted 78

Hygiene, Work on School 88

Hygienic Conilitions of School Houae Construction 60

Value of the School Recess 76

Inlets and Outlets of ,\ir in School Rooms 62, 70, 71

Inspection of Schools, Medical ,50

Intermission, School— «cc Recess.

Iowa's School Motto 13

Iron, Sulphate of, as a Disinfectant 37

Jonning's Air Brick 85

Johonnot, J ., quoted 10

Johns Hopkins University 37

Larches as Shade Trees 41

Latrine— «fe Privy.

La VB tories. Construction of 32

Leeds, Professc.r, quoted 70

Left side of Pupils, Light from the — see Lighting.

Ligliting School Houses 45, 60, 61, 70

Iiime, Ch'roide of, as a 4>isinfectant 37

Lincoln, Dr. D. F., qu.Hed .' 31, 46. 62, 6.1, 71, 72, 77, 108

Lindens as Shade Trees 40

Linell, Dr., quoted _ 80

Licpiid Slating for Blackboards ..." .60

London, City of, Kngland, School of. Described (i7

Page.

44, 45

. . . 74

80, 82

23,20

... 120

.... 81

49, 107
.... 38

t, 71, 72
1, 42, 43
. 50
. 51
. 7
. 78
. 88
. 50
. 7fi

70, 71
50

13
87

86
16
37

M, 7!)
. 37
108
40
. 80
fiO
•!7

Index. 133

Page.

MapleH aB Shade .Trees 40, 41

Maim, Hchodl, H(>guli.tionH, regarding 9

Medical Cdniiiii.s.siini, Geniian, on School Hygiene 74

In8i)t'cti(ni of Schools 50, 76

Michigan State School Superintendent, quoted 81

Myopia in Schools 80, 81

McBrien, James, quoted 30

New Brunswick Plan of School Grounds 49

Privy CoHHtruction 28, 30

England Journal -f Kducution, quoted 92

Hampshire Board of Health 17, 20, 22, 36

Haven School, Connecticut 110, 121

York City, Prize School Plans 67

School Room, Decoration in 89

State Board of Health * '. 2.5, 35, 4(), 62, 72

Nichols, Dr. J. R., quoted 12

Northrop, Hun. P. (i., (pioted .39

Oaks as Sliade Trees 40

Oldright, Dr., quoted 22, 70, 75, 84, 85, 87, 88

Ontario Board of Health -kcc Board of Health.

Opening Doors Outwards 51, 75

Oregon, Schools in Portland 73, 77, 116, 123

Organic Impurities in Water 23

Orienting School Hou.ses 107

Outlets of Air arc Inlets.

Panelling in School Rooms 59

Peaslee, Dr. J. B 3<)

Percolation from Privy, Pit, to Well 21

Penuanganate of Potash 30

Test 23, 24, 25

Philbrick, Hon. Dr. J*. D., quoted. . . 60, 51, ,52, 66, 67, 74, 78, 79, 81, 87, 89, 96, 106, 109, 118, 121

Phipps, R. W., quoted .\x)

Pines as SliaHe Trees -il

Pittsburgh, School RrK)m Decoration in 89

Plans for Privies 27

of School Houses in Cities and T;)wns 106

Rural Sections 93

Planting Shade Trees, Time for 40, 42

Plaster Casts in Schools 89

Play Grounds and Sheds 38, 39, 48, 49

Plastering — sec. S|)ecitications.

Porches to School Houses 45, 46

Portland, Oregon, Schools in 73, 77, 116, 123

Primary School Houses 51, 93

Privies, Ash Pail System for 27

Construction of 25, 26

Dry Earth System for. 27

How They should be managed 26

Plans for 27, 48, 49

Seat for 27

Privy Pit Drainage towards Well 21

Provincial Board of Health — ace Health.

Pulleys, Windows without 84

Pumps in School Grounds ' 47

IH'

134

Index.

' ■■ 1

Pate.

Randall and Patton, Architects, Chicago 102, 110

Reasons for the Publication of this Book 10

Recess, School, Hygienic Value of 66, 9t>

Reflected Light in School Rooms .' 74, 81, 84

Rickoff, Hon. A. J., quoted 80

Risers and Treads in Stairs 108

Robson, quoted 80

Rochester, New York, Schools, Fire, Drill in *. . . , 7f>

Roeschlaub, R. L., reference to 104, 111 Hi)

Roofing, Fire, for School Houses •. 107

Room, a Model School 51

Decoration, School r 88

Roses in School Groun< ' 42

Rural School House T s . . .- 03

Ruskin, John, on School Room Decoration '. , 80

Sanitary Ins^jection of Schools — see Medical.

Sashes, Window 5(), (il,,Hl, 83, 84

School House, Position of 51

Seating School R(H)m8 ' ". 8, 50, 51, 85, 87, 100

Seats, Pri vj'. Construction of 27

Regulations regarding '. 8, 85

Separate Entrances for Boys and CJirls 45, 46, 107

Shade Trees in School Groundn 3!)

Sheds, Plan of, and Play (Jrouu 83

Sheringhani Valve 85

Shrubs in School Grounds . . 42

Sill, a Notched : 58

Window 83, 84

Construction of 37

Site, School, Regulations regarding 7, 13

Selec^tion of a School 13, 14

Size of 47

Size and Shajie of School Room 51, 06, 67, 105

Slating Liquid, for Blackboards 60

for Urinals 31

Smith, Dr. A., Tost for Water Impurity 70

Southern Aspect for a School House 14

Siwcifications for Builders 125

Stairs, Broad, recommended 75, 108

Stoves in Schools 67, 69. 71, 72

Sulphate of Tron 37

Sulphur as a Disinfectant 37

S\immerby, W. .1., quoted 6'J

Teachers' Association of Ontario 30

Female, Death of, from Consumption 11

Tests for Impurities in Water 18, 23, 24

Air 70

Forchaninicr's, for Water 24

Pennanganate for Wat'^r 23

Tidy's, for Water 24

Tidy's Test for Wat<;r 24

ToV)in's Tubes 85

Transom Lights over Doors 61

Trap System for Privies 27

Treads and Risers in Stairways 108

Trees, Shade, in School Grounils 39, 40

Time for Planting Shade 40

Index.

136

Paie.
... 102, 110

(i6, yt>

. 74, 81. 84

1(»

104, in Hi)

107

8!)

01,. 81, 83, 84

1, 85, 87, 100

8, 85

. . 45, 40, 107

83, 84

... 7, 13
. . 13, 14

1, (i(), 07, 105

125

. . 75, 108
07, 09. 71, 72

18, 23, 24

108

39, 10
40

Page.

Tronnbdorf, quoted 26

Tubes — see Tobin.

Typhoid Fever and Diphtheria in Schools ' , 12

Unilateral Principle of Lighting 74, 81

United States, Book on School Architecture 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 38, 42, 43, 4.5, 40, 53,

60, 66, 82, 86, 99

Coinmigsion on School *Efouges, 1). C 79

National Board of Health 22

Uuiveraity of Johns Hopkins 37 ■

UrinalB for Boys ^ 28, 31

Valve, Sheringhaiu 83

Vaults, Privy, Construction of 27, 28, 30

Ventilation and Heating of School Houses 60, 67, 107, 108

by Means of Windows. . . ."" 56, 61, 84

Natural and Artificial 60

Vestibules in School Houses 40, 59

Vienna Schools 67, 75

Expositio.i 66

Village School Hovise Plans .' ... 93 to 106

Virginia Creeper in School Grounds 42

Wadsworth, Dr. J. J., quoted , 30

Wainscoting, Kind of _. 58

Wanklyn, quoted 26

Waller, Dr., quot«d 24

Walls, Bond for Outside 67, 58

Furred, Dangerous 54

of School Houses 51, 54

Wai-drobes in Scliool Houses 46, 52, 108

Washbowls in Schools 47

See Lavatories.
Water Closets — see Privies.

Constituents of 24, 25

Evil Effects of Polluted ." . 18, 22

Test for Pure 18, 34

Welch Training School, New Haven, Connecticut 110, 121

Well in School Grounds 17, lb

Percolation to, from Privy Pits 21

Wells in Staircases Undesirable 108

Whittier School, Denver, Colorado : 118

Wilson, Dr. George, quoted Of)

Window Blinds 8.1

Sash . . ._ 60, 06, 81, 83

Space, and Floor Space 108

Windows in School Rooms, Construction of 50, 61, 66, 61, 79, 82

Ventilation, by means of 66

Without Pulleys 84

Wisconsin State Suixjrintendent, quoted 16, 29, 38, 42, 43, 44, 46

Plan of Privies for Girls 28, 29

Woods, Collection of Native -.^ 4S

Wood-shed. Ccmstruction of 87

Workman, Dr., quoted 11

Yards, Play 89

Yeoman, Dr., H. P., quoted. 13, 77

2Unc, Solution of Chloride of .