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C SKLWYN, F.R.S., •t • * / I If A ' .' ,' y-. i.-i- / Vf^; 77aVi- LOMiOK AHI^ BTANFOJiD, 5% CIIAJIING CROSS, S.W. 1 ^ O ') I !.■) O O / ^=T7?53?^ J*«J"» ■..■■- •r^» STANFORD'S COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL BASED ON HELLWALD'S « DIE ERDE UND IHRE VOLKEK.' NORTH AMERICA EDITED AND ENLAEOED BY Professor F. V. HAYDEN, LATE CHIEr OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SUBVEV • AND Professor A. R. c. SELWYN, F.R.S., DIRECTOR OF THE GEOLOGICAL OURVEY OF CANADA JtfAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS \B LONDON EDWARD STANFORD, 55, CHARING CROSS, S.W. 1883 :"i £3^ 1 a c ]\' ■il w ar Pi G( coi Br gei kill eqi Sui he hav J PKEFACP^. The present volume of the Compendium of Geography and Travel will, it is hoped, l>e found a not unworthy companion to the volumes that have preceded it. In common with the series, it is primarily based upon Mv. Keano's translation of Von Hellwald's Die Erde nnd ihrc VoUccr; but the considerable alterations and additions which have been deemed desirable make it, to all intents and purposes, a new and original work. Tlie complete volume was originally undertaken by Professor Hayden, then Chief of the United States Geological Survey ; but on the receipt of his MS. it was considered, both by him and myself, better that the British American portion should be edited by some gentleman resident in the Canadian Dominion, and whose knowledge and predilection for the Dominion were quite equal to Professor Hayden's for the United States. Professor Selwyn, F.E.S., the head of the Geological Survey of Canada, kindly acceded to my request that he would undertake that portion of the volume ; and I have endeavoured to supply such maps and other illus- Yi PREFACE. trations as would form suitable companions to tlieir joint labours. I have not thought it requisite to reprint Mr. Keane's valuable Ethnological Appendix, wliich will be found in the volume on South America. E. S. April 6, 1883. CONTENTS. PAHK PART I. NORTH AMERICA. CHAPTER I. The Coasts. General view of the Continent-The Gulf Coast-The Eastern Coast-The Pacific Coast-The shores of the Arctic Ocean CHAPTER n. The Appalachian Mountain System. General features-General geographical structure-White Mountains -Green Mountains-The Adirondacks-The Alleghanies in Pennsylvania-The lilack Mountains of North Carolina-Vegeta- tion of the Appalachian ranges- Geology of the Appalachian region-Mineral resources of the Appalachian region-Tho Ad- palachian coal-fields— The petroleum districts . . . f CHAPTER III. The Mississippi Valley. Extent-General features-Lake Itasca-Course of the Mississippi- Secondary tributaries of the Mississippi-The Mississippi fiLn -Ihe Iraines-Geology of the Mississippi Valley --Mineral resources of the Mississippi Valley-Coal-fields of the Missis^^ Valley-Iron-Lead-The salt-mines of Louisiana-The Great LaKes and the St. Lawrence River-Lake Superior-Lake Huron -Lake Michigan-Niagara River and Falls-Geology of the region of the Great Lakes . SJ' "^ uio . 20 VUl CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. The Cordilleran Plateau. General geographical features — Cliniato of the Cordilleran Plateau- Natural vegetation of tlio Cordilleran Plateau PAOB 40 CHAPTER V. The Great Plains. 'J'lieir physical aspect— Tlic Llauo Estacado— The Plains in British America — Bad lands — Vegetation — The Fauna — The buffalo — Geology of the Great Plains . . . . .47 CHAPTER VI. The Rocky Mountains. General divisions of the Cordillera system — The northern section of the Rocky Mountains in the United States — The Yellowstone National Park — Geysers and hot springs — The White Mountain Si)rings — The Geyser Basin on the Firehole River — Old Faithful — The Beehive — Giantess — Castle — Grand Geyser — Turban Geyser — Giant Geyser — Grotto Geyser — Lower Geyser Basin — The Shoshone Geyser Basin — The Minute Man — Red Mountain Springs — Gibbon Geysers — The Grand Cahon and Falls of tho Yellowstone — The Missouri Valley — Tlie Grand Falls of the Missouri — Tho Wind River and Yellowstone Ranges — Snako River— The Snake River Plains — The Big Horn Mountains— The Continental Watershed from South to Bridger's Pass — Tho southern section of the Rocky Mountains — The Colorado or Front Range — The Sangre de Cristo Range — The Parks — North Park— Tlie Laramie Plains— Middle Park— South Park— The San Luis Valley— The Park Range— The Sawatch and Elk Ranges — The San Juan Range — The Continental Divide 57 CHAPTER VII. The Plateau Region op the Colorado River. General view — The Caflons of the Colorado and Green — Running a rapid — Fauna and Flora of the Plateau Region . . .92 CONTENTS. IX CHAPTER VIII. The Qrkat Basin. PAOK Its general appearance — The Wahsatch Range — The Basin Ranges — Great Salt Lake— Death Valley . . . .103 CHAPTER IX. The Pacific Ranges. lu general — Tlio Cascade Range — Results of the latest surveys — Mount Rainier — Glaciers — Mount Shasta — The Sierra Nevada — Tlie Yoseniito Valley — The Coast Ranges — The Sacramento and San Joacjuin Valley — The vegetation of the Sierra — The " Big Trees" — Agricultural resources of the Cordilleran Region . 110 CHAPTER X. Geology op the Cordilleran Plateau. General review — Rocky Mountains — The Plateau Region — The Basin Region — The Sierra Nevada, Coast, and Cascade Ranges — Mineral resources of the Cordilleras — Gold — Methods of gold mining — Silver — The Comstock lode and Virginia City — Utah, Idaho, and Colorado — Leadville, Colorado — Coal . .127 CHAPTER XI. Historical Survey. General discovery and first settlement — Rise of the English and French settlements — Spread of the English power — Democratic and religious character of the early English settlements — Politi- cal enfranchisement and adoption of Republican principles — Federal Union — Progress of events — Spread of the Union to the Pacific — The Civil War — Its causes and results — Reconstruction of the Union ....... 162 CHAPTER XII. Extent and Population. Boundaries and extent — Population — Distribution of the population — American cities — New York City — Philadelphia — Baltimore, the Monumental City — Washington — Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, Pittsburg, Cincinnati — St. Louis and Chicago— San Francisco . 179 X CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIII. The Population and its Various Elements. PAGE Statistics of the native and foreign elements — Native Americans — The German element — The Irish element — The Whites of the .Soutiiern States — The Negro — The Chinese in the States — Their f.'oo(l qualities — Degraded habits and vices of the Celestials — yocial state of the Californian Chinese — The Japanese in California. . . . . . . ,203 CHAPTER XIV. The Indians. Statistics of the settled and nomad tribes — Pueblos — Aloquis — The nomadic tribes — Characteristic traits of the Indian — Are the Indians dying out ? — The predatory tribes of the West — Indian Territory — Half-breeds — The unwritten history of America — The Mound-Builders — Ruins in the Sonth-Western Territories . 218 CHAPTER XV. Social Relations. Classes of society — Public instruction — The schools — Defects of tlio system — Colleges and universities — Sectarian spirit of the private scholastic foundations ...... 239 CHAPTER XVI. Religion. The Christian religion — Eccentric forms of religious development — The Shakers : their history and constitution — The Inspiratiouist, Perfectionist, etc. — The Jehovah People — Mormonism — Joseph Smith — "The Book of Mormon " — Nauvoo — Brigham Young, "The Lion of the Lord" — Deseret — Polygamy — Constitution of Jlormonism — Schism — Prospects ..... 246 CHAPTER XVII. Material Progress. Agriculture — Maize, oats, potatoes, etc. — Wine and tobacco — The plantations — Cotton and sugar — Cattle-breeding — Farm stock — Timber — Reckless destruction of the forest — Hunting and fishing — Manufactures — Mercantile interests — Decline of the American carrying trade — Inland trade — Railways and canals — National wealth and liabilities ...... 261 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER XVIII. Political Administration. PAOB The Federal Constitution — Congress — The Executive — The President — The Judiciary — Constitution of the States and Territories — Tho Cabinet — Revenue and expenditure — Laud and sea forces . 270 CHAPTER XIX. The TERpiTi)RY of Alaska. Phj'sical aspect of the country — Inhabitants — Indians — Eskimos — Agricultural prospects — Natural resources — Tho fur trade — Geology and mineral resourcos ..... 276 PART 11. THE DOMINION OF CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND. CHAPTER I. The Coasts. Boundaries and area — The Atlantic Coast — The shores of Hudson Bay —The Arctic Coast — Tlie Pacific Coast — Queen Charlotte Islands 289 CHAPTER II. The Mountains. General features — The Acadian Highlands — Tho Shickshock, Notre Dame, and Laurentide Mountains — Rocky Mountains — Tho Cascades, Coast, and Gold Ranges of British Columbia . . 328 CHAPTER III. The Rivers and LAKsa General features and extent — The River St. Lawrence — Tributaries of the St. LawTence — Lake Ontario — Lake Erie — Lake Huron and Georgian Bay — Lake Superior — Lake Nipigon . . . 344 xu CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. The Basin of Hudson Bay. PAOE General features — The Saskatchewan River — The north branch of the Saskatchewan — Tlie Nelson River — The lower part of Nelson River — Lake Winnipeg — Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis — The Winnipeg River — The character of the country about the Upper Winnipeg — The Red River — The Lake of the Woods — The Beaver or Churchill River ..... 377 CHAPTER V. The Basin of the Mackenzie River and its Tributaries. General view — The Peace River — The Du Liard River, or River of the Mountains — The Hay River . . . . 4'J6 CHAPTER VI. The Western Slopes of the Rocky Mountains and the Rivers and Lakes of British Columbia. General view — The Columbia River — The Fraser River — The Lakes . 437 CHAPTER Vn. Climate and Vegetation. General review — Climate of North -W^est Territories and British Coliunbia — The forest — Tlie grasses — Fruit-gi'owiug 453 CHAPTER VIIL Mines and Minerals. British Columbia — Ontario — Salt — Gypsum — Silver- ore — Quebec — New Brunswick — Nova Scotia -Copper — Iron 501 CHAPTER IX. Canals and Railways. Railways — Postal systems — Telegi-aphs . 510 CHAPTER X. Manufactures. Trade, Commerce, etc. — Fisheries . 527 CONTENTS. xm CHAPTER XI. The People. PAOE Numbers — Pliysique of the people — Military position and militia- Visitors — Artists — Attractions for sportsmen . . . 535 CHAPTER XH. Indians and Indian Treaties. General View — Indian missions — Games — The Metis or Mixed races . 557 CHAPTER XIII. Immigration and Settlement 576 CHAPTER XIV. Cities op the Dominion. Halifax (Nova Scotia) — Fredericton (Ntw Brunswick) — St. John (New Brunswick) — Charlottetown (Prince Edward Island) — Quebec (Quebec) — Montreal (Quebec) — Ottawa (Ontario) — King- ston (Ontario) — Toronto (Ontario) — Winnipeg (Manitoba) — Vic- toria (British Columbia) — New Westminster (British Columbia) 581 CHAPTER XV. Constitutional History, Religion, Education, y.tc. General outline — Discovery and early history — History of the Federal Union — " Dominion of Canada " Proclamation . . . 604 CHAPTER XVI. Education . 621 CHAPTER XVII. Newfoundland. Geology of Newfoundland — Agricultural capabilities — Railway across the island— The iisheries and the treaties— Exports . . 625 Index . 637 LIST OP MAPS. Physical North America National Park Geological United States Political Eastern United States ,, "Western „ Population Rainfall Temperature — Greatest Cold . M ,, Heat Dominion of Canada . lilanitoba : Thunder Bay to Winnipeg British Columbia and the Saskatchewan Territories Railway Map of the Dominion of Canada and the Northern Part of the United States Route Map, Europe to Manitoba and the North-West Canada : Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island . Newfoundland . . . . . To face page 1 59 160 169 170 180 261 286 287 289 416 437 512 522 580 625 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. Wasliington Mississiiipi Shore , The Rapids at Niagara On tlie Colorado Kiver Buflalo-imutiug Prairie Dog Tillage The IJocky Mountains Yellowstone National Tark Hot Springs, Yellowstone Valley Geyser in the Yellowstone National Park Beeliive Geyser Upper Falls, Yellowstone River Tlie Great Salt Lake, Utah The Cascade Mountains Mount Shasta Yosemite Valley, California Giant Trees The Aravaypa Canon in Arizona . View of the Sierra Nevada Chinese Gold-washer Hydraulic Gold-digging . New York City )> Broadway . St. Louis , San Francisco » The Chinese Quarter Emigrants attacked by Indians . Utah, with the Mormons' Tabernacle Frontispiece. Page 20 M 35 „ 41 To face page 52 , M 54 Page 5? „ 60 61 62 To face page 65 Page 73 „ 106 „ 110 M 114 „ 118 „ 123 » 129 ,, 133 » 144 M 146 To face page 183 Page 184 M 197 To face page 199 Page 214 „ 229 „ 253 XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Baptism of a (new) Mormon Convert Page 256 Otter-hunt in the Aleutian Islands „ 280 Yale, on the Fraser River (British Columbia) To face page 341 Junction of the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence „ „ 351 Falls of Niagara .... „ „ 353 Niagara ..... I.ige 355 A Winter Hut in the Saskatchewan Country To face page 384 Valley of the Thompson . Page 442 On the Yukon .... „ 452 Petrolia ...... „ 503 Labrador Marten . . . . . „ 551 Reindeer ..... To face -page 553 Indian Sledge .... Page 557 Indian Wigwam . . . . . „ 575 Halifax (Nova Scotia) . . . . To face page 581 Quebec ..... M „ 585 Montreal ..... ,, ,, 587 University College, Toronto „ „ 624 New Westminster (British Columbia) „ „ 602 Newfoundland Dog Page 636 i lli'i NORTH AMERICA. CHAPTER I. THE COASTS. 1. General View of the Continent. North America has, in common with very many of the hind features of the eartli, a roughly trianguhir shape, with the base near its northern line, and its acutest angle stretching towards the south. Its nortliern shores are covered by the perpetual ice and snow of the polar regions, while its southern extremity is dressed in the rich profusion of the tropics. Politically, it contains several divisions, the central and most populous of which is the United States. North of tliis, and occupying very nearly the same area, are the British Possessions ; while north-west of the latter is Alaska, recently sold by the liussians to the United States. South of the United States is the uneasy republic of Mexico, occupying the greatly diminished breadth of the continent ; Yucatan, occupying the peninsula of the same name ; Guatemala, Honduras, and other small princi- palities. In this work we shall confine ourselves to a descrip- tion of the two first-mentioned countries, ]\Iexico and the smaller states south of it having been already described in the work on Central and South America. B • »i n ^iii »^iw»» ^m am COMI'KNDU'M OF (JKOdHAI'llY AND TllAVKL. Tlie United Stiites, tluMi, wliile bounded on the west nnd enHt by the riicilie and Athintie Oceans resjx'ctively, is limited on th(^ north by the British Possessions, and on tli(! south by the (lulf of Mexico, and by tlie north ])oun(hiry of Mexico. This line follows uj) the Ilio (Irande del Norte to Kl I'iiso, M-henee it takes a •,'eiieral westward course to the I'acilio, followinj^ certain ])arallels of lati- tude or certain arl)itrary directions without rei^ard to the natural features of Hie country. The main ythysieal features of lliis ]»art of North America an; very sim])le. There are two jj;reat meridional systems of uplift; that of the Appalacliians, near the Atlantic coast, and the vastly ^n-eater one of the Cor- ililleras, which occupies an enormous breadth, in tiie west- ern part of the country. Between the two is a broad basin, that of the Mississippi Valley and the Cireat Lakes. 1'he area of the United States, including Alaska, is 3,580,242 square miles.^ 2. T/ic Gulf Coast. The Gulf of Mexico washes the southern shores of the United States, from loni-itude 8r to 97° west of (Ireenwich. The general trend of the coast-line is cast and west, turning sharply to the south at the east and west sides of the riulf. It is comparatively simple, being but slightly cut by bays and other indentations. It is a tropic coast tliroughout. Tt is low, and in very many places marshy. It has many long, narrow islands, lying parallel with the general coast-line, l)ehind which are lagoons — narrow bays parallel to the coast — opening, in some cases, into other bays, which extend some distance inland, making fine and well-iirotected, but shallow har- bours. Most of the rivers discharging into the Gulf have formed sand-l)ars across their mouths ; and several of 1 The area of the great hikes is not inchided in this statement. SKA-COAST LINKS. 8 the streams, notahly tlie Mississippi, have built up deltas about their points of discharge. 3. TJic East cm Coast. The eastern scalioard has, on the whole, a straight course, inclining a little to the north-east. Within the Uniteil States its general course is but .slightly broken by projections and indentations. The great peninsula of Florida, mainly the work of the coral polypes, projects southward, partially separating tlio Atlantic from the Gulf of Mexico. Thence north to the southern limit of Vir- ginia the coast greatly resenddes that of the Gulf in its low-lying shores, its lagoons, and lagoon-islands. In this section Albemarle and Pandico Sounds are the principal inlets, and Capes Fear and llatteras, the " stormy cape," almost the only ])rojections. As we proceed northward the coast becomes bolder nnd more l)roken. The harbours are deeper, and the bars at tlieir entrances diminish and then disappear. Here are the great bays of Delaware and C'hesapeake, and, farther north, Long Island Sound, separating Long Island from tlie State of Connecticut, the beautiful Narraganset Bay, and Massachusetts Bay, on whose shores the Puritan pilgrims found a resting-place. 4. The Pacific Coast. The west coast of North America is much less varied than the eastern coast. The whole western seaboard of the United States, from the insignificant little bay of San Diego on the south, northwards to Washington Territory, presents nothing save a few small inlets and islands to vary its uniformity. The Bay of San Francisco only, under the 38tli parallel, penetrates to any extent inland, and forms one of the finest harbours on the continent. -r*'.73:icr.r 't<3*'V-.-.w«w#ri. •'t^^^.tSi^V^^^JfT'^^f ^E^^v-TfTT' " 4 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. But north of the houndaiy line botrt'een tlie States and tlie British I'ossossions the features of the coast-liue become more interesting. At the bound? v itself lies the island of Vancouver, separated from the mainland by the Straits of Juan de Fuca, Georgia and Queen Charlotte's Sound. Thence northward there is a line of islands along the coast of British Columbia and Alaska, and, from the extremity of the peninsula of the latter, an almost con- tinuous line stretches across to the coast of Kamtchatka. At the southern boundary of British Columbia there begins a peculiar fiord-like formation, strikingly recalling the features of the Norwegian coast. Nor is it the coast of the mainland alone that is so indented ; also, though to a less extent, are the numerous islands lying off the coast, including Vancouver, Queen Charlotte, Prince of Wales, Sitka or New Archangel, and Kodiak, off the Alaskan Peninsula. In latitude 67° the American coast approaches very close to that of Asia, a space of only 32 miles separating them. This strait, first discovered in 1728 by a Cossack voyager, was, in 1808, carefully explored by Bering, after whom it has been named. It connects the Pacific Ocean with the Arctic, to whose coasts we next turn. 5. The Shores of the Arctic Ocean. These inhospitable regions are little known, as this frozen land is seldom visited by white men. This shore trends very nearly east and west, and lies approximately on the 70th parallel of north latitude. In its western part it is simple, but farther east it becomes rut deeply by bays, and off the shore are many and very large islands. Hudson's Bay, the great inland sea already mentioned, connects, through Fox's Channel, Hecla and Fury Strait and the Gulf of Boothia with the Arctic Ocean. Turn i, of the inferio] Its few de I'anges , to the ^ Sul which a wliich ] ]>Jateau tlie iiigj lias an rfi The system i which 'J'hey ha "plifts, 1 foldings, strata of ArrALACIIIAN MOUNTAIN SYSTEM. CHAPTER IT. THE APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN SYSTEM. 1. General Features, Tuts is the easternmost of the two great systems of uplift of the continent. In magnitude and in height it is far inferior to the Western or Cordillera system. Its general trend is parallel to the coast — that is, a few degrees east of north, and the numerous parallel ranges and ridges which are its component parts conform to the general trend of the system. Subordinate to the ranges is a general rise of the surface, which at the north is noticeable quite near the coast, but which retreats from it as we trace it southward. This plateau extends some distance west of the range, forming the highlands of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee, where it has an elevation of nearly 2000 feet above the sea. 1-1^1 2. General GcograpTiical Structure. The structure of the ranges which make up this system is as varied as are the formations composing them, which range from the Arcluean to the Carboniferous. They have been subjected to repeated subsidences and uplifts, resulting in a complicated system of flexures, foldings, and fractures, causing vertical displacements of strata of more than 10,000 feet. And they have subse- i'h 6 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. quently been so eroded into peaks, hedges, and valleys, that little of their original form is left. Throughout its extent this system is divided into two parts by a great valley, which follows the trend of the system. This has been named by Prof. Guyot the Great Appalachian Valley. In New York and Canada it is occupied by the Hudson River, Lake Champlain, and the valley of the St. Lawrence. In Pennsylvania it is known as the Cumberland Valley ; in Virginia, the Shenandoah Valley ; and in Tennessee, the valley of East Tennessee. Its width ranges from 15 to 50 or 60 miles. 3. White Mountains. That part of the Appalachian system included in New Hampshire is known as the White Mountains. These are in the form of a group, nearly isolated from the rest of the system. Its peaks range from 4000 to 6000 feet in height, while the highest. Mount Washington, reaches 6288 feet above the sea. These mountains are a very popular resort for pleasure-seekers during the summer season. 4. Green Mountains. The ranges of Vermont are known as tlie Green Mountains. They consist mainly of two nearly parallel ridges, only occasionally broken into peaks. They are not as high as the White Mountains by fuUy a thousand feet. They continue into Canada, where they are known as the Notre-Dame Mountains. 5. The Adirondachs. In northern New York is the group of the Adiron- dacks, at present one of the most popular of the mountain The sists, acco] tains, the Mountains Tennessee. the higlu Black Dor I'iiis is the APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN SYSTEM. 7 resorts in tlie east. The culminating peak of this group, ]\Iount Tahaurus or IMarcy, is HuTD feet above the sea. The highlands of the Hudson and the Catskills of south-eastern New York are also members of this system. G. The AUcghanies in Pennsylvania. In Pennsylvania the system is represented by a number of ridges of no great elevation. Though topogra- phically of little importance, their economic value is enor- mous, for, hidden in the recesses of these minor mountain ridges are the vast stores of anthracite and bituminous coal which have played so great a part in making this country what it is ; and great wells of petroleum, which needed only that a JMoses should smite the rock to burst forth ; and, with these, enormous deposits of iron ore. Farther southward the ridges increase in altitude. The Blue Eidge, which is the eastern of the ranges throughout Virginia and North Carolina, rises from about 3000 feet in the former state to more than 5000 feet in the latter. 7. Tlie Black Mountains of North Carolina. The culminating region of the southern section con- sists, according to Professor Guyot, of the Black Moun- tains, the Great Balsam Mountains, and the Great Smoky Mountains. These are in North Carolina and Eastern Tennessee. The summits range from 5000 to 6700 feet ; the highest are Mitchell's Peak, Clingman Peak, and Black Dome, the latter being 6707 feet above the sea. This is the highest summit in the Appalachian system. 8 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. 8. Vegetation of the Appalachian Ranges. The mountains of this system are almost everywhere lieavily timbered witli vahiable woods. Among them are the white and yeUow pines, the spruce, and fir, various species of maple, beech, ash, oak, and other trees. On the poorer lands and along the mountain ravines grow smaller species and bushes of various sorts, and in the swamps the hackmatack or black larch. The eastern or Atlantic slopes were heavily wooded throughout, but now, in many localities, the best of the timber has been cut for various uses. The necessity for fine timber for shipbuilding has caused the cutting of the best timber in Maine and most of the Southern States, and the demands of other manufac- turing interests have caused the partial or total destruction of tlie timber in many other large areas. Still, the region of the Appalachians and that eastward to the sea is essen- tially a timbered region. 9. Geology of the Appalachian Region. The Geological maps of North America show the xVppalachian region to be largely covered with Pakeozoic or the oldest stratified rocks which extend north-eastward from Alabama through the Southern and Middle States to Canada. East of the Palteozoic belt and parallel with it is an Arclia3an or Gneissic area, wliich attains its greatest width in Georgia and South Carolina. Between the Archaean strip tliu.:, outlined and the Atlantic coast is a Tertiary area which extends southward from a point in New Jersey near Sandy Hook to the northern part of Florida. This Tertiary belt is overlapped by alluvium, which has its greatest development in Florida, of which it forms almost the entire area. It is also of considerable extent in eastern North Carolina and the eastern shore of Mary- APPALACHIAN KEGION. land, .and forms the surface formation of Long Island. From beneath the Tertiary, the Cretaceous formation out- crops in New Jersey, in North and South Carolina, and the northern part of Alabama. In the Connecticut Valley, in South-eastern Pennsyl- vania, and in isolated areas in Virginia and North Caro- lina, remnants of the Triassic strata are seen resting on the Archaean. The geological history of the Appalachian region may be very briefly descrilied as follows : — In Arch»an time the Laurentian highlands of the United States and Canada rose above the ancient sea, and in Silurian time their southern slopes were washed by the Silurian ocean. This dry land stretched \vestward from Canada as a huge island of continental proportions. This was the " firstborn among the continents." Europe was then represented by islands. When the Silurian era began, the Appalachian region was outlined by Archa3an islands and reefs, which acted as barriers to the interior region where the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous rocks were to be subsequently deposited. West of these sheltering islands and reefs were warm and shallow seas, whose waters were filled with beautiful corals, and stone lilies, and myriads of molluscs and crustaceans, whose remains are now found in the mud-marked rocks which once formed the gently sloping bod of the Silurian ocean. Before the era ended the Green Mountain region made its appearance as dry land, with, however, a much less elevation than at present. At the close the limit of dry land, which had been gradually extending southward and south-eastward, crossed the State of New York near the central, east and west line of the State ; and at the close of the Devonian it had so expanded as to include the whole of the State, as well as the New England States. I ' k 10 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. With the ushering in of the next age there is a change. Dana speaks of the Sub-carboniferous as " a period of sub- merged continental regions," and of the Carboniferous as a period " of as extensive an emerycnce ; not continuous emergence, but prolonged and repeated emergences, witli little change of level, alternating with slight or partial subsidences." The Carboniferous history of the Appalacliian region is that of shallow seas changing gradually to fresh- water lakes, which were transformed in the course of centuries into marslies on which, under tropical atmospheric condi- tions, forests of gigantic ferns, horsetails, and conifers, flourished. There were no Alleghanies. This region was a portion of the great coal-making plain, and, with a part of Khode Island, was covered with Carboniferous forests, marshes, and jungles, among which wandered numerous reptiles of imcouth form and huge proportions. The atmosphere, loaded with moisture and carbonic acid was unfavourable to the presence of the quick -breathing animals, but the waters teemed with life. By the end of the period the Appalachian portion of the continent appears to have been almost completed. Its mountains were small in number ; the Adirondacks, a few ridges in New Jersey, the Blue Eidge of Virginia, and perhaps the Black Mountains of North Carolina, make up the list ; and the rivers gathered on these limited Arclucan lands were small and insignificant. Toward the close of Pahieozoic time occurred the flexures and folds that resulted in the formation of the Alleghanies. Tlie marshes were drained and the coal- bearing strata folded and elevated with numerous disloca- tions. As with the more ancient mountains, they re- mained parallel with the Atlantic coast. In the next following age it is probable that the con- tinental area extended nmcli farther to the eastward than is APPALACHIAN REGION. 11 ■ft I indicated by tlie present Atlantic coast, and has since been subnier}j;ed by the subsidence of the land. The ocean now rolls over what was once a portion of tlie Triassic continent, over wliich roamed the higher types of reptiles and inferior types of niannnals, which were proplietic of those to follow in the succeeding ages. During tlie Cretaceous period the Atlantic coast-line extended from New Jersey, near New York city, south- ward to Georgia, at a distance of aljout 60 miles from the present coast-line ; and in Georgia it turned abruptly to the westward, to merge into the shore of the interconti- nental sea. The coast-line thus sket-jlied appears to have changed but little until the end of the Miocene Tertiary, when it assumed very nearly its present shape, changed later only by the addition of Florida, and the narrow strip of alluvium reaching northward to the coast of Massachusetts. IS 10. Mineral Resources of the Appalacliian Ecgion. Important as is the Appalachian system in its geo- graphical features, and interesting as is its geological history, it is by its economic resources that it is best known to the world. Its coal and iron deposits are practically inexhaustible. The mineral wealth of the Middle States is extensive and varied. In Pennsylvania, gold, silver, copper, and sulphur in a native state, have been discovered, but none in suffi- cient quantity for profitable mining. Zinc and nickel ores are mined, and the iron ores, of which nearly every known variety has been found in the State, have probably furnished one-half of the pig-iron manufactured in the United States. The zo"ies in which these ores are found extend southward to aibama and 12 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. northward into New York. Coal, however, is the most vahiable economic product of the State, over 30,000,000 of tons being annually mined. Petroleum comes next in importance, but both this and coal will be considered at length in another place. In IMaryland, chromic-iron and other iron ores are found in the central portions of the State, while in the north-west tliere are extensive deposits of bituminous coal. Tlie State of New York is also rich in iron ores, vast beds of magnetic iron occurring in the Adirondack Mountains and other localities in the northern counties of the State. Near Peekskill, layers 100 feet in thick- ness are found. The most extensive coarse salt-works of the United States are at Onandaga, New York, while the mineral springs of Saratoga have long been celebrated. Serpentine, soapstone, marls, and a host of minerals of minor importance, are found. The graphite of New York is the purest found in the country. The argillaceous marls, pure marls, and shell marls of New Jersey, are used to the amount of more than 200,000 tons per annum in the State, and render its agricultural lands of higher average value than any other State in the Union. Her zinc-mines furnish seven-tenths of the zinc oxide, and one-fifth of all the metallic zinc produced in the United States. The Franklinite and red oxide found in Sussex County produce zinc free from arsenic. Iron is abundant, and lead, nickel, and graphite occur; wdiile por- celain and potter's clays are dug to the extent of nearly 30,000 tons annually. Sand equal to any known for glass-making purposes is abundant, and largely used in the southern parts of the State. The marls and bog-iron ores of New Jersey extend southward into the State of Delaware. The iron and coal zones of the Middle States follow the Appalachian Moun- tains into the Southern States. Besides coal and iron, ^^irgil zinc ( ginia Jurgelj Tl deposil nessee. from 8 beds e> is bitur smeltiu: coveriuf not as } As. and iroi Carolina liefo the richt County, the busl the niin United S Silver, of tlie have be crystallin Carolina. Ill So are found phosphate United S farther soi rich in cleposits Georgia, ai fii I ■\ APrALACHIAN REGION. 13 A' ¥ ?' Virginia and West Virginia contain gold, silver, lead, and zinc ores, antl rock-salt. The sulphur-springs of Vir- ginia are liuld in high r('[)ute, and her salt-springs add largely to her mineral 'svealth. The eastern part of Kentucky has rich and abundant deposits of coal and iron, which extend into Eastern Ten- nessee. The eastern coal area of Kentucky comprises from 8000 to 10,000 square miles, in which about ten beds exist aggregating about 30 feet. Much of this coal is bituminous ; but a large part is especially adapted to smelting and iron-making, and iron ores are abundant, covering about 20,000 square miles of the State, although not as yet extensively used. As is the case with the States already mentioned, coal and iron furm the principal mineral resources of North Carolina. Before the discovery of the California gold regions, the richest gold-mine iu the United States was in Kowan County, North Carolina, and in 18-40 it yielded $500 to the bushel of earth, or $3,000,000 in all up to the time the mine was flooded. There is still a branch of the United States mint located at Charlotte, North Carulina. Silver, lead, zinc, and copper all occur ; and diamonds of the first water, of from half a carat to two carats, have been foimd. The chief source of granular or crystalline corundum, or emery, is also in North Carolina. In South Carolina the finest quality of porcelain clays are found sometimes in beds of 6 feet thickness, and the phosphate marls are not only extensively used in the United States, but also largely exported. Proceeding farther south we find the States of Georgia and Alabama rich in minerals of economic importance. Immense deposits of iron are found iu the north-western part of Georgia, and in Alabama the Red Mountain extends for u COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVFX. more tlian 100 miles ficross tlie State, having in its wliole course a stratum of solid red iron ore from two to eight feet in thickness. Brown hematite is also abundant, and the iron manufactured is of excellent quality. The coal- fields of Alabama reach into Georgia. Gold was dis- covered in Georgia in 1831, and a branch of the United States mint was established at Dahlonega in 1837, and during the succeeding twenty-four years over $0,000,000 were coined there, mostly of Georgia gold. The mint was discontinued in 1861. In Alabama, gold M'as discovered in Randolph County in 183G, and up to June 1872 $213,700 had been coined at the United States mints, most of it previous to 1859. In both States copper, lead, and silver are found, and various kinds of mineral springs. When we turn to the New England States we find that the minerals of economic value are of far less import- ance than those of tlie other parts of the Appalachian region, although the list of minerals of scientific interest is very extensive. Gold has been discovered at a number of localities in Massachusetts, and is being successfully mined at Newburyport, while Chester has furnished con- siderable quantities of emery of good quality. In New Hampshire graphite is mined for the manu- facture of crucibles, and Vermont furnishes black, white, and variegated marbles. The Thomaston quarries of ]\Iaine have furnished large supplies of lime for various parts of the United States. Eliode Island also is noted for its coal-fields. Maine, Vermont, jMassaclmsetts, and Connecticut produce iron, but in small quantity compared with Pennsylvania. 11. The Appalacliian Coal-Fields. The coal-fields of the United States cover an area of more t SfjUfire distrild P.'ii Soil Alk In enstc Cai'hoiiij; of ^'irgill In J{ niotnmorj partly co being jcn 111 J'eniis, as \\Q, go eastei'u p iH'xt semi, sylvajiia a» 18,954,078 >i 53,333,409 j> 00,883,488 M shows tlio profluction for the dccatlus beginning with 1820. 1820 . 1S30 . 1N4() . 1851 . 1800 . 1870 . Antln-acito is also found in a fmv localities in Virginia, but lli<^ basins are small. The Triassic area of Virginia lias already been alluded to. Tliere are two similar areas in North Carolina, but the coals are not very promising. In all these localities the coal is bituminous. The Alleghany coal-field is the largest in the Appa- lachian region, containing over 58,000 square miles. It is club-shaped when outlined on the map, and comprises portions of Pennsylvania, Oliio, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, 'J'ennessee, Alabama, and Georgia. It may be considered as an elevated plateau, which reaches an elevation of 2000 feet above the sea in Tennessee, and has its greatest depression along the Ohio Ilivcr below Pittsburgh, Pa. The coal is partly bituminous and partly semi- bituminous. In Pennsylvania there are eight basins, two of which have been identifieil in Maryland and two in West Virginia. The area in Tennessee is divided into two basins, and in Alabama tliere are four. The trend of tliese basins is the same as that of the Appalachian Mountains. The production of the Alleghany coal-field in 1871 was 17,257,025 tons, of which nearly two-thirds was from Pennsylvania. The more southern coal-areas have as yet been only partially w^orked. c >'4 18 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGR^VTIIY AND TRAVEL. 12. Tlie Petroleum Distriets. The Appalacliian petroleum districts include portions of reiiiisylvauia, Oliio, and West Virginia. The deposits of Pennsylvania on Oil Creek are the most extensive, furnishing more than three-fourths of all the petroleum of commerce. The occurrence of oil in these regions has long been known, and evidences have been found which indicate that M'ells were dug by the ancient people, of whom traces have been discovered in the copper regions of Lake Superior, and who built the mounds of the Mississippi Valley. The North American Indians also collected the oil, and sold it under the name of seneca oil. In boring for salt- wells in Ohio in 1819, it was also discovered, but considered an evil, as it interfered with the manufac- ture of salt. Oil Creek, in Pennsylvania, was early named in conse- quence of the occurrence of oil along its banks, which floated on the surface of the water. The inhabitants of the region were in the habit of collecting it from the surface of pools and ditches by allovring blankets and woollen cloths to become saturated with it, and then squeezing out the oil. V company was formed to collect oil in this way, but it could not compete with those that manufactured oil from bitui-.inous coals and shales. In 1858, Colonel E. L. Drake, who had made his residence at Titusville, on Oil Creek, began to suik a well for oil, much to the amusement of his friends and neighbours, who considered the [)roject absurd. The work progressed slowly, and when in August 1859 m1 was struck at a depth of 71 feet, there was intense e-scitement At hrs 400, and soon 1000 gallons were pumped duily, and this continued without interruption for ^\•eek:3 PETKOLEUM DISTBICTS. 19 Ins a :he 59 luse Iped Xo mining enterprise had ever offered such opportuni- ties for sudden wealth. Every spot where oil had ever been found, or was likely to be found, attained a new vahie, and the farmers of Oil Creek Valley soon became millionaires. Every one who could leave home rushed to the oil regions, which became the centres of incredible activity. The villages presented curious aspects with the tall derricks for boring wells scattered among their gar- dens and house lots. The entire valley was tilled with a forest of derricks. Towns sprang into- existence with the rapidity of mushrooms, not in years, but in weeks and days. In 1865, Tithole City, four months aiter its founda- tion, had a population of 5000, nearly all men. It had forty taverns and eating-houses, an opera house, several banks, a newspaper, a theatre, and several churches. Though the place was so young, unlike the California mining towns, good order was kept, although there had not been time to appoint magistrates. As the novelty wore oft', a permanent industry was established, and an extensive branch of trade developed, which in some respects surpasses in importance that resulting from the discovery of gold in California in 1849. The production of oil in the Pennsylvania districts steadily increased from 3200 barrels in 1859 to 10,910,300 barrels in 1874, the total production for tlio whole period being 7G, 320,730 barrels, witli a total value at the wells of $245,904,880. The amount of oil exported in 1872 was 27,812 barrels, wliicli in 1875 had increased to 5,200,000 barrels. The price per barrel decreased from $13 in 1859 to $1-21 in 1875. Tlie export of petroleum now is a large business interest at Philadelphia and Baltimore. '1' '- MISSISSIPPI SIIOIIE. CHAPTER III. THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 1. Extent — General Features. East of the Cordillera mountain system lies a great depression, occupying the whole length of the continent, from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, and stretch- ing eastward to the Appalachian lange. Properly con- sidered, it really forms but one valley, though of pro- digious extent. Formerly it was in part the bed of a great inland sea, and even in the Jurassic period the eastern and western sections of the continent were divided by a branch of the sea from the Gulf of Mexico north- wards to tlie Arctic Ocean. The southern part of this gigantic valley is now occupied by the Mississippi, the " Father of Waters," which, flowing southerly into the Gulf, receives many large and long aflluents from the east and west. For long distances on either side the country consists of plainS; gently sloping to the bed of the main stream. Of this great river, Foster, in his Mississippi Valley, says, "The Mississippi Eiver, when we consider its great lengtli, the number and character of its tribu- taries, often exceeding the first-class rivers of Europe, the area of country which it drains, the vast lystem of inter- MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 21 nal navigation which it affords, and the populous towns which have been founded on its banks, may be regarded as one of the most striking topograpliical features of the eartli. . . . This great river -system penetrates to the very heart of a continent, and, with its numerous tributaries, affords an inland navigation of unsurpassed magnificence." :lll| 2. Lahe Itasca — Course of the AUssissippi. In the northern part of the State of Minnesota, in a region of lakes and forests, lies Lake Itasca, under a low sandstone ridge, overgrown with jiine-trees. From it flows a little streamlet, taking a southerly course, which farther on becomes the mighty Mississipj)i. At first it winds through the lacustrine State of Minnesota, travers- ing several of the countless lakelets which dot its surface, and forming a series of rapids, of which the Falls of St. Anthony marKs the limit of its upper course. Along its middle course, where it serves as the boundary line between several States, it receives many great branches, — from the west the Missouri, Arkansas, and Red Elvers, — from the east the Ohio. Its course throughout is very winding. In the upper part it is bordered by high steep bluffs, tlie margins of the fiat prairie level, which stretches back to a limitless distance on either side. Between the bhdl's the great river meanders from side to side of a broad bottom-land of inexhaustible fertility. Farther south the blufi's disappear, the banks become low and liable to overflow by the floods of the river. In former times great areas of the Southern States were covered with water by these inundations. Xuw, a system of levees, extending for enormous distances along the river, curb its destructive propensities, and have reclaimed vast areas of cotton and rice lands. / 09 COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRArHY AND TRAVEL. The river has as tawny a mane as the Eoman Tiher. From the arid plains of the west its great, swift hranclies come, loaded with detritus, and below the mouth of the Missouri the great river is a dense yellow torrent. The southern part of Louisiana is the work of this river. The soil on which New Orleans is built was carved from the rocks of the high ])lains 3000 miles away. The waters of the river reach tlie Gulf of jMcxico through a number of passages, known as passes, of which five now afford exit to the water, while several others, which have been open, are now closed up by the deposit of detritus, and have become lakes or bayous. At the mouths of the passes, wdiere the current is checked by contact with the still waters of the Gulf, the silt is deposited, and bars are the result. These bars are of course serious impediments to navigation, and much labour and money have been expended in attempts to remove them. This has at last been accomplished by an American engineer, Mr. J. B. Edes. By means of a system of jetties, by which the rapidity of the current was increased, the stream scoured its own bar away, and scattered the material far and wide over the bed of the Gulf By this means the South Pass, wliich previously had a depth of but four feet on its bar, now — 1879 — lias a depth of thirty feet, and the largest vessels are daily passing in and out. The following table, taken from Humphrey's and Abbot's Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi Bivcr, gives much valuable data concerning this great stream and its affluents: — TJ Ohio l.'iver . Itjipi- Jlississ (above iiioutl Missouri) , Jlissouri Arkfiiisas Ked J.'ivor Louisiiiiiii Yazoo liivi'i- St. Francis Ri Mississippi (]j,.] month of jj sonri) . The draiiiage-i Of the Arkansas r Cordillera s tary, rising Mexico, fl draining tli The Yazoo a of the midd] Of the ■^ro of first branch of tl of which is Platte also, navigable on miles, and dr Kansas or K I MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 23 THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. Drninngo Area. Sq. Miles. LenRtli. Navif,'nlile ]-fii),'tli. Miles. Elevation in Feet. nisdiartte per Second Cub. Feet. Miles. Of Head. of Mouth. ' Oliio liiver . . . 214,000 975 975 1,650 275 158,000 Upjier ilississippi 1 (above mouth of Jlisscmri) . . . 109,000 1330 658 1,600 381 lO.^OOO Jlissouri . . . 518,000 2000 2644 7,000 381 120,000 Arkansas . . . 18y,0o0 1500 522 10,000 162 63,000 Ki'il Itivor of Louisiana . . 97,000 1200 595 2,450 54 57,000 Yazoo liiviT . . l3,sr,o 500 240 210 103 43,000 St. Francis River 10,500 380 80 1,150 2U0 31,000 Mississippi (billow month of Mis- souri) .... 1,244,000 12S6 1286 381 675,000 i The drainage-area and discharge given under the latter are those of the whole system. Of the branches mentioned above, the Missouri and Arkansas rise in the Eocky Mountains, a part of the Cordillera system ; the Red Eiver is also a western tribu- tary, risincf in the Llano Estacado of Texas and New Mexico. The Ohio River is the princijial eastern tributary, draining the whole western slope of the Appalachians. The Yazoo and St. Francis are confined to the low prairies of the middle of the valley. 3. Secondary Trihutaries of the 3Iississ7p2^i. Of the secondary tributaries of the Mississipi, many are of first-rate importance. Thus the Yellowstone, a branch of the Missouri, has a length of 535 miles, 400 of which is na\agable by steamers of light draught. The Platte also, though a shallow stream, and consequently navigable only for small boats, has a length of about 800 miles, and drains an enormous extent of country. The Kansas or Kaw Eiver is another very large branch. 24 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. The Arkansas has two large branches — the Canadian and the White Rivers. The former rises in the eastern foothills of the liocky Mountains, about GO 00 feet above the sea, and has a course of about 1000 miles in length. The latter, which discharges in part into the Arkansas, in part into the Mississippi directly, drains the northern part of Arkansas and the southern part of Missouri. The Upper Mississippi has very many large tribu- taries from both sides. Among them may be mentioned the Minnesota, Wisconsin, Eock, Cedar, Des Moines, and Illinois Iwivers, the last two of which have lengths of about 400 miles each. Most of these are navigable for greater or less distances. The Ohio is the result of the junction of a number of large navigable streams. The Alleghany and Mononga- hela unite at its head. Lower down it receives the waters of the Tennessee, the Cumberland, the Wabash, Kentucky, and the Great Kanawha. Fart becomes region b( fertile so waving masses oi country. Illinois, ; and Keni Eastern ^ off to the arid plains South of the Te; coast regio; a region o surface, an 4. The Mississipioi Basin. The region drained by this river differs extremely in its different parts, in surface, climate, elevation, and natural products. That portion of it lying west of the 100th meridian belongs properly under the head of the Cordilleras, and will be reserved for the cliapter relating to that region. The middle and eastern portions of this drainage system present somewhat more uniforndty. Most of the upper course of the Mississippi proper is through a country densely timbered with coniferai, more or less marshy, and dotted with innumerable small lakes. This includes nearly all of Minnesota, the northern part of Wisconsin, and the eastern portion of Dakota. Tlie re| time was witli here present Mh souri, Arka ^vashed the then occupi and Devonit the southwa period, a lai vast level p Appalachian foi'est, excep MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 25 5. Tlie Prairies. Farther southward the timber thins out, the surface becomes very level, and the lakes disappear. The prairie region begins. Its characteristics are a level surface, very- fertile soil, well watered, and naturally covered with high waving grasses, interspersed with scattered belts and masses of timber. This is the agricultural region of the country. The prairies cover the States of Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, Western Tennessee, and Kentucky, Southern INIichigan and Wisconsin, and Eastern Nebraska, Kansas, and Indian Territory, shading off to the westward in the three last States into the liiuh arid plains. South of the prairie section is the semi-tropical region of the Texas coast, Louisiana and Mississippi, with the coast region of Alabama, and the swampy state of Florida ; a region characterised by a hot unhealthy climate, level surface, and dense tropical vegetation. 6. Geology of the Mtssissiiipi VaVcy. The region of the IMississippi Valley in Arch.Tan time was covered with a great inter-continental ocean, with here and there isolated areas of land west of the present Mississippi, in what are now the States of Mis- souri, Arkansas, and Texas. The waters of this ocean washed the southern shores of the young continent that then occupied only British America. During Silurian and Devonian time this continent gradually expanded to the southward, until, near the close of the Carboniferous period, a large portion of the Mississij)pi Valley was a vast level plain, which was continuous with that in the Appalachian region. The whole country was " one vast forest, except where fresh waters lay too deep for forests It ■ . 26 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. to grow; and the lakes probably had islands of shrubbery and forest vegetation floating over the waters, as is now true of some of the tropical lakes of India." " Being thus level, tliere could have been no great Mississippi or Ohio ; the continent would have had no sufficient drain- age, and tlie wide plains would necessarily liave been marshy and spotted with shallow lakes," — (Dana). On the east of this basin were the Green Mountains, and on the west the embryo Eocky Mountains. " Tlie interior sea, which in Silurian and Devonian periods had spread from the Gulf of Mexico over the whole interior conti- nental basin, and northward on the west side of the ArchaMu nucleus to the Arctic Ocean, after many varia- tions eastward and westward in its extent through the whole Palaeozoic, was at last mostly Imiited to the region west of the Mississippi." — (Dana). In Mesozoic time the continent reached westward to Kansas ; the Gulf of Mexico extended as a bay northward to the mouth of the Ohio, and westward it extended over much of the region of the plains and the Eocky Moun- tains, probably as far north-westward as the Arctic Sea. After the Cretaceous this Mediterranean Sea disappeared, but it was not until after the Miocene Tertiary that the Gulf of Mexico retreated to near its present limits. During the Tertiary the Ohio and Mississippi barely united before emptying into the Gulf. It was not until the Quaternary that the Mississippi Eiver system was completed. Such is the brief sketch of the geological history of the region of the Mississippi Valley. 7. Mineral Ecsources of the Mississiijpi Valley. The mineral resources of the Mississippi Valley are extensive, and comprise iron, coal, lead, and copper, as the principal minerals of economic value. TI nary ( stands licr pr lead ai Gold ai Mfniies not WOl' same Si wJiicJi is In r of ]\Iissc Union, iron is fc carried o coi)per-m: the pi'inci the mines all the ot; Lead Hot s Arkansas miles S.M springs ra The watei find carboi are said to Coal is minerals of principal hi 8. A large wliich are a MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 27 The State of Louisiana contains the most extraordi- nary deposits of salt ever discovered, while ^Michigan stands in the first rank of mining States on account of her production of copper anil iron ores. Copper and lead are found in all the Xorthern States of the Valley, (""lold and silver exist in moderately paying quantities in ^linnesota, hut the region is yet so wild that mines are not worked on account of their inaccessibility. In the same State also are found quarries of Indian pipestone, which is used for a variety of i)urposes. In richness and variety of mineral products the State of ]\Iissouri is not surpassed by any other State in the Union. Silver is found in connection with galena, and iron is found in every county. Copper mining M-as once carried on, but since the opening of the Lake Superior copper-mines it has been rendered unprofitable. Iron is the principal product of the State, and after it comes lead, the mines of the State producing a larger quantity than all the other portions of the United States together. Lead is also found in Illinois, Iowa, and other States. Hot springs are found at many localities, but those of Arkansas are the most celebrated. They are about 60 miles S.W. from Little Eock, and comprise about 60 springs ranging in temperature from 93° to 148° F. The waters contain a large amount of carbonic acid, and carbonates of the alkalies and alkaline earths, and are said to be very efficacious in many chronic diseases. Coal is the most widely distributed of the economic minerals of the Mississippi Valley, and is found in three principal basins or fields. 4 8. Coal-Flclds of the Mksissiiipi Valley. A large part of the prairies is underlaid by coal-beds which are all of bituminous varieties, no anthracite being 28 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. found west of the Appalachian range. There are three areas, viz. the Michigan Basin, the Illinois Basin, and the Missouri Basin. The Alleghany Basin of the Appa- lachian region also extends somewhat into the Mississippi Valley region, especially in Ohio, Eastern Kentucky, and Tennessee, and in Alabama. The coal-fields are distributed about as follows : — Michigan Basin . • 6,700 square miles Illinois Basin • . 47,188 „ Missouri Basin • . 84,343 „ „ The Michigan Basin occupies the lower peninsula of Michigan, its coal-measures occupying nearly 7000 square miles, 123 feet in thickness, with a maximum of 11 feet of coal. It is thickest in the centre of the basin, and thins out to the thickness of paper at the edge. In the highest portions of the peninsula it is mostly at such a depth as to require constant pumping to keep the mines free from water. The coal is bituminous and of fair quality, though not the best. The Illinois Basin includes portions of Indiana and Kentucky, aliout 4000 square miles being in the latter, and over 6000 in the former. It is sometimes called the central coal-field. In Illinois there are ten beds aggregat- ing 38 feet in thickness, and in Western Kentucky nine beds, 29 feet thick in all. The coal is non-coking or free-burning bituminous coal, known generally as " block coal," because it comes out in square pieces, owing to the multitude of joints and seams in the beds. The proximity of these coal-areas to the vast manufacturing establish- ments of Chicago and St. Louis, and to the steamers on the Mississippi, enhance their value. The coal is also valuable for the smelting of iron. The coal production of Illinois is about 2,000,000 tons per annum. The total production of the basin in 1872 was nearly 4,000,000 tons. T as it tent h tliinne iield ii] field ey part of Territo] Go( j!*J"ebrasJ area. thicknes niiles, ai ftiid oth Wock an of water souri Bas Iron covering ] ill almost forms, in H firgillaceoi 111 Tennesj Tlie ir ill the fiftj production and coal fc for heartJis ill Tenness( In Mk county—- bo iiiiionite MlSSISSim VALLEY. 29 Tho Missouri Basin, or tlio Groat Western coal-field as it is sometimes called, is the largest in territorial ex- tent in the United States, althou!:jli the beds of coal are tliinner and not so numerous as those of tlie Alleghany lield in the Appalachian region. The coal-measiires of this field extend over a large portion of Iowa, the north-western part of Missouri, and parts of Nebraska, Kansas, Indian Territory, Arkansas, and even extend into Texas. Good workable coal has not been discovered in Nebraska, and little is known of the Indian Territory area. The coal-measures of Iowa are about 200 feet in tliickness. The area in Missouri is about 23,000 square miles, and the coal is of various qualities, some coking, and others being non-coking. The grade is between block and cannel, and the coal contains a large proportion of water and sulphur. The total production of the Mis- souri Basin in 1872 was only 250,000 tons. i ' 9. Iron. Iron is found in workable quantity, in many places covering large areas in the Mississippi Valley. It occurs in almost fabulous quantity, and in almost innumerable forms, in Missouri ; and in connection with coal deposits, as argillaceous hematite and carbonate, it underlies gi^eat areas in Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. The iron ores of Tennessee have until lately kept her in the fifth place among the States of the Union in the production of iron. The facilities for the supply of wood and coal for smelting, limestone for fluxes, and sandstone for hearths, are such that iron can be made more clieaply in Tennessee than anywhere else in the world. In Missouri iron is found in some form in every county — bog ores in the south-eastern part of the State, limonite or brown hematite in the southern counties. H^ : 30 COMI'ENDIUM OF GEOdlJAl'IIY AND TRAVEL. goetliito in Aduir County, rud lunnatito in tlie conl-nica- sures with sjiutliic ores, red find yellow oclires in niiuiy counties, and tlie s])eculnr ores in vast quantities in Iron Mountain, Pilot Knob, and .Shepherd Mountain. Of the latter. Iron IMountain and I'ilot Knob are the most cele- brated. The former is an eruptive elevation of manuuil- lary shape, covering 500 acres, and having a height of 228 feet. It forms the western extremity of a ridge of reddish feldspathic porphyry, and consists chiefly of an iron ore, which contains 55 or GO per cent of iron that is free from sulphur. The amount of ore seems to bo immense, the main body having a thickness of 50 feet, and continuing indefinitely in depth. 371,474 tons of ore were shipped from Iron Mountain in 1872. Pilot Knob differs considerably from Iron Mountain. It is nmch higher, and its ores are more siliceous in character. It rises 650 feet above its base, and is mainly composed of a dark siliceous rock, which forms at least two-thirds of the hill in the lower part. Above tliis the iron is found in heavy beds alternating with siliceous bands. Some of the beds are very thick, and made up of very pure micaceous and specular iron ore. There are other similar localities in the neighbourhood. sivcly soil of iiiidcrji acattcn ol'tvn I Tile ])!■, G64,5;j it M-as ^ Jn-eguliii TIio than tlia more coi tiojis. 3 of tlie Si tJie Missf ^vorked m thnn ,5' no 1,000,00( J'liiiGs in t ductivo. of ore hay ^eeu reaeli 10. Zcad. The only lead-producing districts of the United States are both located in the Mississippi Valley, and are those of the Upper Mississippi, and those of Missouri. The first of these comprises the region in the south- western part of Wisconsin, and the contiguous portions of Iowa and Illinois, by far the larger part lying within the limits of the first-mentioned State. The lead is found in gash-veins in the galena limestone which belongs to the Lower Silurian system. This limestone has been exten- TI iG sa as far Lack i iiiarket. discovered rises liiO coast of tlie witli forest. 0"t dirt or mass of rod. SW110 50 f, soJidit}- of t] i Mississirri vallky. 31 sivdy eroded, and forms Lroad valleys nnd plains, the soil of which, derived from the wearing down of the undcrlyini,' rock, contains many nins.scs of oalena. These! scattered masses are not only valnahlo in tlu'mselves, Imt often lead to important deposits in the rock heneath. The ])rodnetion of galena in this district in 1825 was G64,r)IjO Ihs. The increase was rapid nntil 1854, when it was 54,404,850 lbs., since which it has gruduidly but irregularly declined. The lead of Missouri is found in an older formation than that of the Wisconsin district, and the fissures are more continuous, giving more certainty to mining opera- tions. There are two lields — one in the south-eastern part of the State and the other in the south-west. Among the IMissouri lead-mines the " Mine La Motte " was first worked more than 150 years ago, and is valued at more than $500,000, although it has at times yielded more than 1,000,000 lbs. of lead per annum. Yalle's and Perry's mines in St. Francois County have been scarcely less j)ro- ductive. In these mines a system of inosculating veins of ore have been found, the limits of which have not yet been reached. * 11. The Salt-Mincs of Lonisiana. The salt-springs of Louisiana were somewhat noted as far back as 1812, but they were at some distance from market. In 18G1 an extraordinary deposit of salt was discovered on Petit Ansc Island on the coast. The island rises IflO feet out of the sea marsh that lies alon<:j the coast of the State, and contains about 5000 acres covered with forest. The salt is a pure chloride of sodium, with- out dirt or foreign matter, and exists as an amorphous mass of rock-salt with its crest 20 feet under ground, and some 50 feet below the summit of the island. The solidity of the salt is complete, and as there are no seams 1^ i , i 32 COMrEXDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL. or cleavage, tunnelling is difficult, and blasting mars the purity of the salt. During the civil war this island fur- nished the Confederacy with a large supply of salt. A shaft was suiik 50 feet into the deposit, and tunnels were run east and west from this for about 100 yards without reaching its margins. About 2000 tons were mined and carried to the surface. The facilities for reaching markets are good, but little has been accomplished in mining it up to the present time. In sinking the shaft of the mine, remains of pottery and implements of various kinds were found, with human bones, and the bones of the mammoth, mastodon, elk, and deer. It is probable that the animals resorted to this place on account of the salt, and that the men frequented the place for game. The waters of the Quaternary sea overtook them suddenly, and left them very near where they perished, and now the island is separated from the mainland only by a marsh, and is reached by a dike and plank-road three miles in length. 12. The Great Lahcs and the St. Lawrence River. East of the northern portion of the Mississippi Valley, and occupying a part of the same general depression, are the great lakes of Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario. They are connected with one another, and drain to the Atlantic by the River St. Lawrence. The following table gives their dimensions, height above sea level, etc. : — Aivii, Sq. Miles. Lcii-lli. Miles. Elevation. Feet. Me.in Depth. Feet. Lake Superior „ ]\Iicliigau .... „ Huron „ Krie „ Ontario 31,400 2r),600 2:5,800 10,000 7,300 355 340 280 250 190 609-40 589-15 589-15 573-08 250-00 1000 990 1000 120 606 TJie bluff, am coniferai. rapid cor of tJie M States an cominiinic ^vard tlie boundary. The s ^vealth. ] I'otli nortl TJie coppe source of : is found tc The southej -"^farquette, ^vbicJi is D quantities. Tile n\ Huron. On '*^ii"It St. \ ^luwn an inc This is t mainly low, ^vestern coasi into tlie bwi it extends, w. t'iiuada. GREAT LAKES. 33 13. Lahe Superior. The shores of this lake are eveiywJiere rocky and bhiff, and the country about is very densely timbered with coniferiu. From near its upper end a chain of lakes, with rapid connecting streams, extends westward to the Lake of tlie "Woods. The boundary line between the United States and British America follows this chain of water communication as far as tliis lake, and thence west- ward tlie 49th parallel of north latitude serves as the boundary. The shores of Lake Superior are rich in mineral wealth. Native copper, in great abundance, is found on both northern and southern shores, and on Isle lioyale. The copper-mines in Northern Michigan are the chief source of that metal in the L^nited States. Silver also is found to some extent in connection witli the copper. The southern shore of the lake, in the neighbourhood of Marquette, is underlaid by vast beds of pure hematite, whicli is now being quarried and smelted in enormous quantities. The river St. ^larie connects Lake Suj)erior with Huron. On tliis river are the picturesque rapids, or the Sault St. ]\Iarie, where the river rushes tumultuously down an inclined plane among rocks and islands. \M' III 14. Lalcc Huron. This is the next link in the cliain. Its shores are mainly low, and everywliere heavily timbered. Its western coast is broken only by Saginaw ]3ay, opening into the lower peninsula of ]\Iichigan ; but on the east it extends, with many bays, fiir into the Dominion of Canada. 1:.^ !::! 34 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. 15. Lake Michigan. Lake ^Michigan, though not a part of Huron, is con- nected M'ith it at its northern extremity. It cuts the State of Michigan into its two peninsulas, and separates the lower one from Wisconsin. Like the others, its shores are well timbered. Lake Huron is drained hy the St. Clair River, south- ward to the little lake of St. Clair, thence by the Detroit River into Lake Erie. The Niagara River connects the latter with Lake Ontario. IG. Niagara River and Falls. The great natural wonder of this region is the Falls of Xiagara, discovered by Vhvo, Hennepin in tlie year 1678. The Niagara River, forming the boundary line between Canada and the States, flows almost north for a distance of 36 miles of which 22 are above and 14 are below the Falls. Above the Falls the river encircles a large island, known as Grand Island, its course thus far being quiet. Presently, however, it liegins to feel the influence of the coming leap, and sweeps along more impetuously, and so(jn breaks into furious rapids. Reaching the head of Goat Island, it sei)arates into two branches ; that on the American side rushing straight forward to the brink in a mass a thousand feet broad, and shooting over into the oulf below. That on the Canadian side of Goat Island sweeps around, and plunges over a cliff in the form of a horseshoe (hence the name of this fall), the two parts of the river mingling at the foot of the fall. The height of the American Fall is 1 8 feet. That of the Horseshoe Fall is slightly less, owing to the smaller height of the crest. Its leap is 173 feet. The subjoined description of this stupendous water- f'dl is Scene r I/, " A. ''"w wit '•"ivo ail I'rogress 'J^' rocks it is pro J '"ilietuoii; nito tlie ^'i\'er bene noise Jo,: f'lnnder, ^^'itw's fall •'•'q' basin, i'oinul into "1 immense %"J-es, Avhit '"^"^i sparkli, '■^"^i a])parei. ]'^'J"('ni at every moment about to be swept away ; the Horseshoe Fall, inmiedintely below Table Eock ; Fort >^rhlosser Fall, beyond Goat Island ; and the frightful gulf beneatli, boiling M-itli perpetual rage and shooting mnvards immense volumes of sparkling foam, smoking with ap|)iirent intensity of heat ; — are a few of the great iilijects whicli are forced upon his attention. H W. ':] , ■ Is : f I! ii 1 i I; I! 36 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAPHY AND TRAVEL. "Another jilace from which the Falls assume, ii" possiljle, a more striking and awful appearance, is at the bottom of the cataract. The precipice leading to this spot is descended by means of a ladder, commonly called the ' Indian Ladder,' — a piece of mechanism con- sisting sim})ly of a cedar tree, the boughs of which are lopped oft' at sufficieiit distance from the trunk to make them answer all the purposes of irregular steps. After descending this ladder, the perpendicular height of which is upwards of GO feet, you proceed along the edge of the river, which is covered with broken rocks, wrecks of boats, and other rubbish, until you arrive at the bottom of the Horseshoe Fall. From this place visitors fre- quently proceed on foot several hundred yards, within a prodigious sheet of caverned water, which is formed by the overshooting of the cataract. But they must be men of the firmest nerve who venture on such a daring enterprise, for the most nndaunted resolution is in danger of being shaken on looking upward at the impending rock, which continually seems to bend and groan beneath the rolling flood, to which it serves as a fearful support. From the projecting edge of this rock the mass of waters is impelled forward, and leaves a large and smooth ex- panse, whicli reaches from the sheet of falling water to the very base of the gradually -undermined mountain. If the atmosphere be dense it is still more diingerous to engage in the bold attempt of exploring the stii'nle founda- tions of the river, for people at such times not infre- quently lose the power of respiration in jiroceeding far beneath the rocky ceiling. Notwithstanding this and various other dangers to which all are equally exposed who venture to approach the Fall in boats, the fisherman frequently continues there for hours together, apparently jvithout any apprehension of danger. " The whole breadth of the precipice or falls, including the isl, IkkIv iiiid on thi'v ar Hated < to thi- i'ort Sc] seiits a Little Ff of 140 3 all tJn-ee gallons. " The eveiiij]rr r mles. J) P-vcelJent 1 threction. Jieard at ( into a pro of at lea.' ^'onfine tlic sufficient i'lterruptior ^^iagai'i "'I ^vaterfal the stream. ^'^"G, Wllicll he lowered ''^' tiiis bac: to Jiave bee] ^^ amount U <^ver a Jimesi ^^^> p-eat eroi "^ j'ts course ^'een washed NIAGAKA FALLS. 37 ill IIU. to [da- Ifre- t'ar laud )sed iuau ktly the islands whicli intervene, is 1335 yards. The ji^reatest hody of water falls on the Canadian side of the river, and on acconnt of the form assnnied by the waters before they are dashed from the top of the rocks, it is desig- nated tlie Horseshoe Fall. It extends from the shore to the intermediate island, a distance of GOO yards. Fort Schlosser Fall, which is on the American side, pre- sents a sheet of water 350 vards in hreadlh, and the Little Fall extends across a ledge of rocks for n})wards of 140 yards. The quantity of water which ponrs over all three in every minnte is estimated at 109,344,000 gallons. . . . " The noise of the fall is said to he heard, on a calm evening, as far as Burlington Heights, a distance of 50 miles. J)Ut when this is true the wind, which is an excellent transmitter of sound, nmst blow exactly in that direction. The waters make a report which might be heard at a juuch greater distance, if, instead of falling into a profound gulf, surrounded on every side by hills of at least 350 feet in perpendicidar height, which confine the sound, they fell upon a horizontal plain of sutticient altitude to allow the sound to pass without interruption into the circumjacent country." Niagara forms no exception to the general rule that all waterfalls tend to work backM-ards to the source of the stream. It is continually retreating towards Lake Erie, which it must one day reach, when that lake will be lowered to the same level as Ontario. The ])rogress of this liackward tendency, which, however, would seem to have been exaggerated, has been calculated by Lyell to amount to about one foot every year. The fall rushes over a limestone bed, and would probably have produced no great erosion but for the fact that for the last 78 feet of its course, a more yielding argillite or clay slate has been washed from beneath the overlying limestone by tli ) 11! ;f 38 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. mechanical force of the vast volume of water here preci- pitated. 17. Gcoloijy of the Bcgion of the Great Zalts. The Great Lakes lie along or near the line of contact between the ohlest stratified rocks and tlie granitic rocks; tliey are near the limit between the oscillating jiart of the continent and tlie stable Archtcan area, and to this fact owe their formation (Dana). In the early Quater- nary age the entire region was one immense lake whicli spread far to the soutliward, and probably had its outlet through tlie Mississi])pi Eiver. Later, an elevation occurred, which made a vast change, and the immense interior lake became the five great lakes which discharged their waters through the St. Lawrence. "When the Niagara shall have carried its gorge back to tlie mouth of Lake Erie, great changes will again ensue. As Prof Newberry says — " Every day sees something taken from the rocky barrier of Niagara ; and, geologically speaking, at no remote time our great lakes will have shared the fate of those that once existed at the far West. Already they have been reduced to less than half their former area, and the water level has been depressed 300 feet or more. This process is pretty sure to go on until they are completely emptied. " The cities that now stand upon their banks will, ere that time, have grown colossal in size, then gray with age, tlien have fallen into decadence, and their sites be long forgotten, but in the sediments that are now accunnilating in tliese lake basins will lie many a wreck and skeleton, tree trunk, and floated leaf. Near the city sites and old river mouths these sediments will be full of relics that will illustrate and explain the mingled comedy and tragedy of human life. These relics the geologist of the Ill GREAT LAKES. 39 future will doubtless gather and study and moralise over, as we do the records of the Ternary ages." The Lake Superior region has been long known as a cop]>er region, the Jesuits, who travelled extensively through the region, having filled their accounts witli exaggerated and extravagant stories of its abundance. Numerous excavations have been found, some 50 feet deep, in which stone hammers, fragments of charcoal and copper tools, have been found, sliowing that some ancient people carried on mining operations. Some of the trees growing over the excavations show that they are at least several hundred years old. The present Indians have nc traditions as to co])p.er mining, nor do they have am' conception as to who did the work. The first actual mining operations were in 1V71, but it was not until 1 845-40 that the shores of the lake were whitened with the tents of miners and geologists In 1847 the country was almost deserted, but in 1850 copper mining became firmly estal dished, and has con- tinued to develop. The northern shores are high and composed of Laurentian and Huroniiin rocks whicli contain silver. On the southern side the shores are lower and more sandy, and tlie rocks are mainly Silurian sand- stones associated with igneous rocks that were ejected tlirough fissures. The copper occurs in irregular veins in both the igneous rock and the sandstone near their junction. The copper is mostly native, and occurs in great masses or sheets, and in strings made up of imperfect crystals, with which silver is associated in imbedded grains. The pure copper frequently occurs in such immense masses that it is almost impossible to mine it. I 's: 40 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPIIV AND TRAVEL. CHAPTER IV. THE CORDILLERAN PLATEAU. 1. General Geoyrapliical Features. The western part of the Xortli American continent is one great plateau, ei steel by the numerous ranges wliich collectively make up the Cordilleras of Xorth America. Occupying nearly the whole Ijreadth of Mexico, from ocean to ocean, it enters the United States witli a great breadth, extending, with its long eastward slope, from near the 100th meridian westward nearly to the Colorado Eiver. Its flat crest is at the continental M'ater-parting, where it is 4000 to 4500 feet above the sea. As we f'lllow its limits northward, we find its eastern Ijoundary, though indefinite and shadhig by imperceptible degrees into the prairies of the Mississi[)pi A'^alley, generally to run nearly north on the 100th meridian. The Avestern l)oundary swee])S gi'a(hiidly to the west- ward to the Sierra JN'evada, and follows tliis great range and the Cascade Mountains of Oregon, Washington Terri- tory, and British Columbia. As its breadth increases, its elevation increases also. The continental water-]iartiug, following its summit, increases in elevation through Xew ]\Iexico and Colorado, reacliing its maximum in the latter State, where, over a great area, tlie mean elevation of this plateau is from 8000 to 9000 feet. Tiience northward its elevation decreases gradually, and at the northern boundary of the States its mean elevation is not above 4U00 feet. tlie ])liit in a h. i\o\yn tc ^'iiUey, J ]nr from tJ joins it neai tJie Cohjriu_ . W;ihsatch vi stands upon line. West of t T'liige, extend tJie Sierra Xe ^OHh'a, is a c COIiDILLERAN PL.VTKAU. 41 Eastward from the crest, the plateau slopes gently in a luii,u' even iiicliiu- down to the Mississippi ValU'V, {orniin,i,f what i;^ known as the phiins. On tlie westward the general features are more complex. The great Colo- rado liiver of the west heads near the crest line of this general plateau, and, pursuing a course fjenerally soniewliat west of soutli, enters the Gulf of California at the southern boundary of the States, This great river, with its long triljutaries from either side, indicates a great general depression in the surface, with a corresponding rise on the west. This rise, which may he considered as a spur from the main crest, joins it near the head of the Colorado Iiiver. The Wahsatch range of Utah stands upon this summit hue. West of the Wahsatch range, extending thence to the Sierra Xevada of Cali- fornia, is a great area of i'l'.M o a < o '/■• c I I 42 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. country known as tlie Great liasin, tlie waters of wliicli have no coniniunication with either ocean, and consequently no outlet save evaporation. This area has an irregularly elliptic form, extendinj,' northward nearly to the Columbia liiver in Northern Oregon, and southward into South- western California. Of the details of this curious rcjijion more will he said farther on. Near the middle of tliis Basin there is a well-marked rise of the general level, on a meridional Ihie, while east and west of it there is a depression, the eastern being at the base of the AValisatch range, and the western at the eastern foot of the Sierra Nevada. In the northern section, the i)lateau westward from the crest appears to have a more unif(jrm slo])e downward. In JJritish America the eastern line of the plateau trends rai)idly off to the west, narrowing the plateau, and at the same time it decreases in elevation. The ranges which crown this plateau are many and complex, ranging widely in height, in orographic forms, and in mode of formation. One great generalisation, how- ever, includes nearly all of them. Their trends, with very few exceptions, whether of main or secondary chains, are nearly north and south, ranging but a few degrees on either side. The only known exceptions to this general law are the Uintah range of Wyoming and Utah, and the Sweet- water range of Wyoming, which trend very nearly east and west. We find the main streams of this region conforming to the general slojjes, regardless of such minor obstacles as mountain ranges, which may have arisen to dispute their path. The branches of the jMissouri, Arkansas, and lied Elvers flow generally east, down the long inclined plane of the Great Plains. While the Colorado occupies the bed of a depression, and flows nearly south, its branches flow nearly at right angles to it and to the ranges, witJiotil wcll-nii western course s of I'ange inex])lici their w; easier pn explaiuet riglit by tenacious longer tli find as t I'lateau, t through tJ f^t'jioi'al CO their ineaii inena the f^'i'ij'her vc stream bcL violent cat To o])ta I'egion, it n for tJie moi ranges wliic Startin< States, and . shall find t] ariJ, and tli westward, wl its attendant 11 COUDILLEUAN I'LATEAU. 43 i'nn,t,'es, mnny of which arc encountcvwl and cut througli ■without dcvintiiin' from their direct courses. Another -svell-niinked example is tlie ]Iund)ohlt liiver, in the western jtortion of tlie Great Uasin, whicli jau'sues a course somewliat south of west, cuttiufif across a mnnher of ranf,'es which stand across its ])atli. This a])iiarently inexplicable conduct of the lar^^er streams, in cutting their way across seemin so great <'>^pressing tJ ^Vesterji CoL '"■live the resc 'ities liave h f''«J'i. Every those ancient I'tei'odactyls, GllEAT PLAINS. 49 o The Flains in British America. North of the boundary between tlie States and ISritish America, the width of tlie phxins diminishes ia}adly, and in a few degrees the low lacustrine region extends very nearly to the base of the mountains. Their ])liysieal aspect, though modified by the increasing lati- tude, remains much the same as the portion which we liave been considering. 4. Bad Lands. " l)ad lands " are found in many localities over this western country, and some sections of the i)lains present us with very fine exam]»les of this peculiar feature. On AMiite liiver, a A\estern branch of the Missouri, in lati- tude 44°, there is a large area, and another covers a great extent of country on the l.owev Yellowstone and the Little ]\Iissouri. The rock formation here is a soi't, friable, argillaceous shale, which disintegrates readily on exposure to the elements. The surface is covered with a dee]) bed of soft powdery clay, tlu^ product of disintegra- tion, from which rise cliffs, turrets, towers, indeed all sorts of architectural forms, sculptured by the chisel of nature from the soft yieldiuLr material. Indeed, the resemblance to some half-buried city of mediaeval times is so great tluit some localities have received names expressing this likeness. Fur years " Goldin City," in Western Colorado, has had a place on the nui]ts. To make the resemblance still more striking, these old I'uined '•ities have had their iidiabitants, who are buried with tlieni. Everywhere we find their remains the bones of tliose ancient tertiary inhabitants, the gigantic saurians, Itterodactyls, etc. m^ i r 1 i 50 COMPENDIUiM OF GEOGEAPin' AND TIIAVEL. 5. Vegetation. The natural productions of the plains are primarily buffalo grass, and in the southern portion grama grass. Tliese cover the surface everywhere, except in tlie most barren localities. Besides these, various species of artemisia, or " sage brush," the commonest being A. tri- dentata, the prickly pear {Opiintia), and other species of eactiis, and the Yucca or Spanish bayonet, are found in some abundance in the more arid localities. Except in narrow belts along the streams, arborescent vegetation is almost entirely wanting in the whole region. It is one vast pasture, which, in time gone by, lias giycu sustenance to countless millions of buffaloes and other wild game, and which will, in the future, supply the beef markets of the world. The quality of the pasturage varies greatly, however, in different parts. Near the mountains, it is everywhere excellent, owing to the fact that the country is well watered by the numerous small streams. In the eastern part uf Montana, and north-western part of Dakota, tlie grazing is poor. The surface is mainly covered with sage and cacti. Then there are several large areas of " Bad Lands," as was noted above. Again, large areas which are well grassed are rendered useless by the scarcity of water ; this is notably the case with the Llano Estacado of Texas and New Mexico, alsu ou the Jornado del ]\Iuerto, in New Mexico, east of tlu' Eio Grande, where there is practically no water Mhatevei. ►Still, there is an area of pasture land on the plains which IS practically inexhaustible, and whicli is yet scarcely touched, although the cattle which r-uige there are already numbered by hundreds of thousaixds. ' I wevev- Avhere well astern a, tlie 1 sage Bad udere*! he case CO, als^ of tlu' liatevei. ■e plains is yet oe tliere GKEAT PLAINS. G. The Fauna — The Buffalo, Buffalo. J 51 When we mention the plains, the buffalo is immedi- ately suggested. The buffalo, or more properly the American bison [Bmn Amcricanus), formerly ranged over the larger part of tlie Continent, being restricted on the eastward only liy the Alleghanies, and on the north by the increasing cold of the higher latitudes. Xow, its range is practically restricted to the plains, and the roads and railroads inter- secting the latter are fast limiting its home to small and unfreqnented localities in the far north and south. They are, as is well known, gregarious animals, and formerly ranged over the plains in herds of almost fabul- ous unmber. Mr. J. A. Allen, the well-known American naturalist, in his History of the Amcvican Bison, says: — " At times, herds have been met with of immense size, lunubering thousands, and even millions, of individuals. The accounts given by many veracious travellers respect- ing their size sound almost like exaggerations. Herds were formerly met with extending for many miles in eveiy direction, so that the expression, ' so numerous as to blacken the plains as far as the eye can reacli,' has become a hackneyed description of their abundance. Some writers speak of travelling for days together with- out ever being out of sight of buffaloes, while it is stated that emigrant trains were formerly sometimes detained for hours by the passage of dense herds across their routes. In the early history of the Kansas Pacific Rail- way it repeatedly haj^pened that trains were stopped l:)y tlie same cause." Xow all this is changed. Since the railrc^ads pene- trated the buffalo country, they have been slaughtered wholesale for their hides only. The destruction has l)een enormous, and, unless soon checked, the species will be- m i-M III t! 52 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGItAPHY AND TRAVEL. -1 come extinct iu a few years. Where formerly these himiense herds ol)Structe(l the way, now only u few scattered mdividnals are seen. A carefnl estimate from existintf data gives us the number of tliese animals killed between 1870 and 1875, — about two and a lialf millions annually. Tlie metliods of Inintin^u; this huge bovine are thus described by Mr. Allen: — "The two modes of hunting the bulfalo chiefly practised at present are the pursuit on horseback and the ' still hunt.' The first-named is the one usually chosen where sport and excitement are the things mainly desired, the still hunt being practised when a supply of meat or of hides is the object. The latter method affords but little excitement, and entails, AvitJi proper precautions, little or no risk of life or Vunh on the part of the hunter. I'arti(.'s hunting for pleasure prefer the chase on liorseback, shooting from the saddle with heavy revolvers at close range, when at full gallop. Success depends almost wholly (])rovidcd the hunter is a good rider) upon the speed and bottom of his horse, and is really about as noble s]M)rt as attacking a herd of domestic cattle would be. The chase on horseback' of a drove of Texas cattle would be iar more dangerous, and attended probably with as much excitement, except that in the case of the buffalo the hunter has the conscious- ness of ]>ursuing a nominally wild animal, and hence legitimate game. That the chase on horseliack aflbrds the wildest excitement is an undeniable fact. The swift pursuit of the flying mass of buffaloes, the mingling with the terrified herd, the singling out of the victim, the rapid shots at the huge moving bulk of bail' and ilesh, at so close range that the game is almost within I'each of the hand, the tottering fall or headlong tumble of the doomed am'mal, the risk of pursuit l)y a wounded bull maddened with pain, the general din and confusion, with the double .^'hi' IM-'^I : I ■•1 •im I 'ilvada, Ca, '""^ the ext 101 It nr So ^^I'ograpjJ I ni TIIK 1UH.KV MUL'NTAIN.I. CHATTEE VI. TIIK KOC'KV -AIOUXTAIX.S. 1. General Divisions of the Cordillera S>jsicvh, For purposes of description this great region may Ix- divided into the following parts, which diller from oiii^ another suliiciently to make it a natural subdivision. Isf. The Rocky Mountains, whicli embrace the moun- tain region of Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, and New ]\Iexico, with so nmch of the eastern range as exists ill the British Possessions. 2(1. The plateau regions drained by the Colorado Eiver and its tributaries. ^d. The Creat Basin, with its complex system of ranges. 4:fh. The Pacific Coast Panges, including the Sierra Nevada, Cascade, and Coast Ranges of the Pacific States, and the extension of the Cascade Pange through British (.'olumbia and Alaska. \ i M' 2. The Xorthcrii Seetion of the Roeky Mountains in the United States. ( h'ographically, the Pocky ]\Iountains are divided ir H l\ 58 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AXl) TRAVEL. Lj.i '!'■;! into two parts by a break in the system in Soutliern Wyominp;, where, from the southern end of the Wind Eiver Eange to the northern end of the Park Eanges, tlie system is represented only by elevated plateaus. Tlie characteristic of the system is that of parallel chains, trending somewhat west of north. In Northern Montana the Missouri Eange faces the plains from the boundary southward to the 4Gth ])arall('l, and carries the conti- nental water-parting. East of it the monotony of the ]'lains is broken only by a few groups of hills, which, from their isolated position in a flat country, have been, in some cases, honoured beyond their deserts by being called mountains. Among them are the " Little Eocky,"' the " Bear's Paw," etc. West of the Missouri Eange rises Clark's Pork of the Columbia, which pursues a devious course among the many mountain spurs which obstruct its passage, and is finally driven far to the nortli-west to escape from tlic mountain maze by wdiich it is surrounded. It finally finds a passage through the second great range of tlu! system, the Bitter Eoot or Coeur d'Alene, in the southern part of British Columbia. This range trends south-east- ward, parallel to the Missouri Eange, and at the end of the latter is connected with it by a low broad saddle, known as the Deer Lodge Pass. Sonth of this point the continental water-parting is carried by the Bitter Eoot Eange to its end in latitude 44°. The depression between these two rangci is filled with short ranges trendiiij! parallel to them, and contains several fine large valleys, valuable for agriculture and cattle-raisin [>•. The Missouri and Bitter Eoot Eanges reach altitudes in the peaks of upwards of 9000 feet, and pnjbably tlie average height of the ranges is in the neighbourhood nf 8000 feet. They are crossed at a numlier of passes at elevations ranging from 5o00 to 6500 feet. ^ .52. J 1 1 ™_' i/. '; r' I ' < t THE YELLOWSTONE ^VATIO^^AL PARK - L- ^ English Slatute Miles, 10 tol Inch . SuuiArdi l>«,ir/j».ii' F.„Fall. Spr— Springs li .. Ot^arrs. ffeufhts abwe the, Sea in hna'^h Feet. LoiiJoil: Rdwaitl StAnford, 55. Charillg Cross. |M ^^"mmmm i no ■IV ^ /^ mro>t fl.u4a + , I.M ^-<^ ,^' m^ IFt ^ . i^i ^M '' v?^' ■*■ ( y '\t' 1 ^■^^ ''"\^ rTt 1 ^ ^■''■t * fo t ' J -t: ■1. 1 dan +, ♦ ^^i i ■if .W 4 ^-^-^ ^^"^'/i ^b . + §*>*^^^ %j* + i-^-i^*^ t - 4 /^. i f''' : *T + ■^ . t tiUJ« i fi?:-^-^: > ■ 3;;.. : + %' ^ ', X.^ii, J + ' . ■••; -i ^•'1 t.-.t^^"^ uo'J rdJs (•*/.<*' /jT.i/;' I ; Ml 1 ,K^, M^ s i^^^ ,. »— .'-»««'3 _ 110 kfl Jtaral I souri Riverf iiieetii Fork VelloM lake, a Jowstoii Wyomii Maker i fii time been re_f moimtai to-day \ evidencei ^vJiicIi an of the ^ World — e i'lsignificf Until Ji^inters a susi^ected. G-'^plorino- t''is count] Strmfuri-^ Gt"'<' YF.LLO W.STONE NATIONAL PAEK'. 59 West of the Bitter Ixoot are several detached ranges, soiiui of considerable extent, as the Salmon liiver Moini- tains, which consist of a succession of two or three ranges ]i;irallel to the Bitter Eoot. In latitude 45° 50', longitude 111° 34', the Mis- souri liiver divides into three large streams, known respectively as the Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin Rivers. These branches head far to the southward, meeting there the head-waters of the Snake, or Lewis' fork of the Columbia. In the same locality heads the Yellowstone, a large branch of the Missouri, in a great lake, at an elevation of 7738 feet above sea-level. 3. The Yellowstone National Park. The country about the heads of the Madison, Yel- lowstone, and Snake Eivers, in the north-western part of Wyoming, seems to have been set aside by the Great Maker for the exhibition of the action of volcanic forces. In time past, but geologically very recent, this region has been repeatedly covered by floods of lava ; great ranges of mountains have been built by catastrophic action ; and to-day we find these forces still actively at work, as evidenced by the innumerable hot springs and geysers which are found all over the surface. Before the geysers of the Yellowstone ISTational Park, all others of the world — even the celebrated ones of Iceland — sink into insignificance. Until a very recent period this country was a terra hcognita, save from the vague tales of Indians and white hunters and trappers, and these wonders were scarcely suspected. Deterred by the difficulties of approach, many exploring parties have passed by this region. It was not until 1864 that any authentic account of any ])art of this country was obtained. In that year a prospecting ! V i M GO COMPENDIL'-M 0¥ ( iKOtilJAl'U V AND TKAVEL. ■' i i pavty, uihIci' the leadcrsliip of ('iij)tain "\V. W. De Lacy, penetrated the western edge of this region, and by accident came to what is now known as the Lower (leyser Basin, near the head-waters of the Madison ]iiver. Tlie acconnts of this discovery, however, attractetl little attention ; hut in 1870 a party was organised in Montana to test the trntli of these stories. This party, nnder the leadership of Creneral Was]d)urn, then the Surveyor-CJeneral of Mon- tana, discovered most of the wonders of the region, and YKl.LdWSTONK NATIOXAI. I'AliK. ])ublished them to the world in the pages of Scril)ner's MoniliJji Magazine. During the two following years, 1871 and 1872, the region was thoroughly exphn-ed b,v the ])arties of the U.S. (Geological Survey of the Terri- tories, and the results were officially published by tlic (tovernment; and in the winter of 1871-2 the region embracing these wonders was set off by Congress as a national park. This park contains about 3500 square nrles. It is mainly a high rolling country, covered by a dense growth f'f CO diver a }\'\^ the \ elevat an t'] \'\)v n gi'onn( nights. ^\inter. Hot ""'"llnhout '''e den.se ( ^^■alls and ; '•nid even at ;iiid river.s,- ^''^\'c built 1, H iMiipiiBpnnqgp mm. I "t cojiiferoiis tiinlicr Si ;' ''«!'. ™«S0.l, voIc,u>ic ; t ;■'" '""■'''•'■■ '"■'^"■l- ' -^ell.™,t„„„ ,,„. ,J..« ,7^;,,: '"•■•■"!;'■" "- -ate. ,„• "lev,-, ,„„ „f t,,„ p „!,„'',;",""'■"• Tl.e avbrn.^e ;'," ^'levati,,,, «.|„<.i, ,ivo it :„""' ''"^' •■''"'™ «ea-le<;i, .- ""Md, ,„„! frost is ji^, , '"" Knr «,ow ]i™ „„ „ '"«'"«• T]. „„,„(,, r" „tlr""' ^™" "■ -"'-".no >ni,te. ' '"™'«=.- "S'mlly „,sl,c.R ,„ ,i„. Hot sprino-.s iTM r i '-e tleuse timber on 'tJu n\ '"' ^"""^^'^''^'^''t- .\j,„„.. -f-^atthe\.:Li:^^^^^ '■'"^^ ^^-^'^ at t],o summits - •"" ^""""t^^"^ «loj.e« i^^^ve built mouutaizH as 1 An ^"''' ^^'^^'^'^^^'^ tbov ^ "' "' '^^^ ^^^"^« fountain 8pnm.s .;(r 1 fillll;; i 62 COMrj:NDIUM OF (IllOGlJArilV AND TKAVKL I I ii or liavo floored wliolo viilloys, as in tli(3 (Joyser liasins of tlio Fireholo or Madison liivor. Tlicy aro of all sizus, Iroiii a i'ew inches in dianii'Lur to areas oi' several acsres of hot Avater — of all teni])eratures, from tepid to Ijoilini;'. Associated with these springs, at a dozen or more locali- (lEYSKR IX THK VEr.r.OW.STONK NATIOXAI. TAUK. ties, are active geysers, throwing columns of boiling water, in extreme cases, 200 feet in height. Altogether thei'e are known to l)e fifty geysers within the Park. Let us glance at a few of the principal groups of s])riiigs and geysers. follow gl'Otip Park Tliose which On ap] in hei; ^ntJi b "ork 0] iind poi sides, •sei-ios 0. height : ^>t'auti<"ui ^^''ii'k, th{ ^Vature's with eve 'IS brilJia I'ools or '"■ 8 feet deptii. ^"Il-side r ^ portion J'ei'ature J] ''i'*Jad flat yards ill largest one •^0 ieet, an "'»e can Jo ^^le bottom. Tile rui YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL I'AllK. oa 5. The White Mountain Sprinrjs. Leaving tlie settlements at IJozeman, Montana, and following up the Yellowstone Eiver to the Park, — whi(!h, hy the way, is the usual route to "Wonderland," — the first group of springs which arrests attention on entering the Park is that of White Mountain or the Mananoth Springs. These springs are highly charged with calcareous matter, which they deposit, on cooling, in marvellous quantity. On approaching them the visitor beholds a hill, 200 feet in height, of dazzling whiteness, with its sidiis stri])ed with hands of vivid red and yellow. This hill is the work of the si)rings, which burst forth upon its summit and pour their waters down from basin to basin upon its sides. The steep sides of the hill are ornamented with a series of semicircular basins, with margins varying in height from a few inches to 6 or 8 feet, and so beautifully scalloped and adorned with a kind of bead- work, that the beholder stands amazed at this marvel oi Xature's handiwork. Add to this a snow-white ground, with every variet}' of shade of scarlet, green, and yelhjw. as brilliant as the brightest of our aniline dyes. The pools or basins are of all sizes, from a few inches to 6 or 8 feet in diameter, and from 2 inches to 2 feet in depth. As the water ilows from the spring over the hill-side from one basin to another, it loses continually a portion of its heat, and the bather can find any tem- l)erature he desires. At the top of the hill there is a l)road flat terrace, covered with these basins, 150 to 200 yards in diameter. Here are the active springs. The largest one is near the edge of the sunnnit. It is 25 by 40 feet, and the water is so perfectly transparent that one can look down into the blue ultramarine depth to the bottom. The ruins of extinct springs tell us that we see now J V^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET {MT-3) // {./ W.r / < W/^^.^ "^Z. 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■i 5 '""^= '^- lllitt JfJ) M 2.0 IIIW U III 1.6 ^ V. <^ ^. ^r c^/ <% ■ > f!8 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 iV ■^ o ■% v ^ A ^^^^' V v^^ w. 64 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY .VXD TRAVEL. only the lingering remains of an enormous past activity. Everywhere in the neighbourhood, for miles in all direc- tions, are the calcareous deposits of extinct springs, some yet naked of vegetation, but most of them covered with soil and trees. Many cones of this formation, self-built mausoleums of hot springs, are to be seen. The most prominent of these is known as the " Liberty Cap," a cone 50 feet in height, and about 20 feet in diameter at the base. 6. Tlie Upper Geyser Basin on the Firchole Ricer. Near the head of the Madison River, whicli here is known as the Firehole, are two small valleys, one con- taining a dozen, the other about twenty square miles, in which is the greatest collection of hot springs and geysera in the region. Of these the upper contains the greatest number and the most active geysers. Imagine a valley shut in by high bluft' walls, its bottom floored throughout with a hard white glistening crust of silica, the deposit from the almost innumerable hot springs and geysers which dot its surface. Through the middle of the valley flows a small river, whose water is rendered tepid by tlie contributions of the geysers. In this valley there are no less than eighteen true geysers, most of which throw water to a consideralile heiglit. Some of them are irregular in their periods, others doubly periodic, having two or more eruptions at short intervals, and then taking a long rest. The follow- ing descriptions give the chief facts in regard to the [>rincipal of these geysers. The heights given are the maximum heights measured. These descriptions are taken mainly from the writings of Dr. A. C. Peale, in the Report of tlie Geological Survey of the Territories for 1872. r^^immt ty. BC- me ith lilt ost ' a (it 13 on- , in jers best [ley out osit 3ers lley the :ruc ible ods, s at o\v- the the iiigs rvcy i. V. IJKKinVK GKVSEH. 7o /die fti(ie (').'). !!' i YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. 65 Old Faithful. — The mouth of tliis geyser slopes inward, and measures on the outside 8 feet by 4. Its crater is a mound of geyserite, which rises 12 feet above the surrounding level. The eruptions of this geyser commence with a few abortive attempts, followed by a rapid succession of jets, which soon reach a maxi- mum, and then gradually decrease, followed by a short discharge of steam. The average length of an eruption is about five minutes, and the period of inactivity one hour and three minutes. The maximum measured height of the column of water is 130 feet. This is one of the finest and most regular of all the geysers of the region. The Beehive. — This geyser is recognisable at once by its cone, which has the form of an old-fasiiioned bee- hive, three feet in height and about seven in diameter at the base. It is coated with beautifully-beaded formations, ■which have an almost j)early lustre. The eruptions are very fine, and are peculiar to this geyser. The water and steam issue from the orifice in a steady stream instead of successive impulses. The greatest measured height of the column of water is 178 feet, while the steam has been forced 193 feet into the air. During the eruptions the pent-up steam shakes the earth around with mighty throbs. The period of this geyser is irregular, as is also the duration of its eruptions. Giantess. — This geyser has a 'au-o basin, 23 J by 32^ feet across. It is rather a great pool, which, were it not for its rarely-occurring eruptions, would be mistaken for a quiet hot-spring pool, of which there are many in the basin. When in eruption it throws a great mass of water to a small height, surging and sj)lashing in all directions. The greatest height of the water, which was 66 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. measured, was 39 feet, while the steam was forced up 69 feet. This geyser seems to he douhly periodic, having a succession of three eruptions at intervals of ahout an hour, and then a rest for a long period, whose duration has not been ascertained. Castle. — This has the largest and most noticeable craters in the basin. The immediate crater is on a plat- form, 75 by 100 feet, which is 3 feet above the surrounding level. Above this platform it rises about 12 feet. It is 120 feet in circumference at the base, and 20 feet across at the top. The orifice of the geyser tube is circular and 3 feet in diameter, and its throat is lined with large globular masses, of an orange colour and beautifully beaded, as is so universally seen throughout the Geyser Basins. An eruption commences with jets of water, at the rate of about twenty per minute. These last for about fifteen minutes, and are succeeded by steam mingled with spray, which escapes with a sort of pulsating movement. This soon changes to a steady escape, when it seems as thougli the water were exhausted, and steam was being forced out as rapidly as possiljle. Tliis again changes, and steam escapes in cloud-like masses with a roaring sound, like the escape-steam from some vast escape-pipe. Then this gradually dies away, and the eruption is ended, having lasted about an hour and twenty minutes. The maximum measured height of the water column is 93 feet, of steam 115. The character of the period of this geyser has not been ascertained. Grand Geyser. — This geyser has no raised cone, only a basin sunk below the general level, like that of a quiet spring. It is 52 feet in diameter. In itd centre is the geyser tube, which measures 4 feet by 2. The greatest YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. 67 measured height of an eruption was 173 feet. Its periods seem to be irregular. The eruption consists of three distinct periods of action, after each of which the water sinks completely out of sight, and water overflows from the Turban Geyser, which is in immediate proximity, into the basin of the Grand. The mass of water carried up is enormous ; while through this main mass a smaller column shoots at intervals to a much greater height. Turban Geyser. — This neighbour of the Grand, though one of the minor geysers, is distinguished by its uniquely beautiful crater. Its sides and bottom are covered with yellow globular masses, which resemble nothing more than huge pumpkins. Its maximum height of eruption is 25 feet. Giant Geyser. — This geyser, which in 1871 was one of the most active in the basin, has since, so far as known, ceased active operations. Its crater is one of the most noticeable in the basin. It is a high ragged cone, 10 feet in height. *oo'- Grotto Geyser. — The crater of this geyser is a large irregular mass of geyserite, 53 feet in length and 26 in width. It has two openings, through which water is discharged diagonally upwards, the columns from the two openings crossing one another. Its maximum height of eruption is about 40 feet. There are several other beautiful geysers in this basin, but they are not so distinguished from the above as to merit a detailed description. Among them may be men- tioned the Itiverside, Sawmill, Fan, Soda, Trinity, and others. ■■T G8 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAFIIY AND TRAVEL. 7. Lower Geyser Basin on the Firehole Hivcr. Tliis basin, which is situated about 10 miles below the Upper Basin, covers a much larger area than the latter, occupying about 20 square miles. Though it con- tains several fine geysers, still it is distinguished rather by the size, number, and beauty of its quiet hot springs than by the activity of its geysers. Of the latter, the finest by far is that known as the Architectural. The following description is from the pen of Mr. W. H. Holmes in the lieport of the Geological Survey of the Territories for 1872, p. 144:— " In approaching the crater of this geyser, the observer is not at first impressed with its importance, as the outer rim of the basin, or rather table — in the centre of which the fissure is situated — is raised but two or three feet above the general level. . . . The surface, formed entirely of siliceous deposit, is diversified by an infinite number of forms and colours. The depressed parts in some places are so level and white and hard, that a name could be engraven as easily and as well as upon the bark of a beech tree. In others, there are most exquisitely-modelled basins and pockets, with ornamented rims, and filled with perfectly transparent water, through which thousands of pebbles of white geyserite could be seen lying on the vel- vety bottoms. Eising above the general level are innu- merable little masses and nodes of cauliflower-like and beaded silica, standing out of the shallow water like so many islands. Those near the crater swell into very large rounded masses. The whole surface is so solid that I walked, stepping from one elevation to another, up to the very brink of the fissure, where I looked down with no little apprehension into the seething caldron, where, 12 or 15 feet below, was a mass of dark green water in a state of constant agitation, threatening an eruption. The crater GEYSER BASINS. 69 is aLotit 1 feet in diameter, lined with an irregular coat- ing of beaded silica. The water soon began to rise, plung- ing from side to side in great surges, sending up masses of steam, and emitting angry rumbling sounds. ... An irregular mass of water was thrown into the air in the utmost confusion, spreading out at every angle, and whirl- ing in every direction, some jets rising vertically to the height of 60 or 80 feet, then separating into large glis- tening drops, and falling back into the whirling-- nuiss of water and steam; others shooting at an angle of 45", and falling upon the islands and pools 30 or 40 feet from the base. The eruptive force — for a moment — dies away, and the water sinks back into the tube. Then, with another tremendous effort, a second body of water is driven into the air, but with a motion so much more simple than before, that the whole mass assumes a more regular form, and is like a great ^untain with a thousand jets, describ- ing curves almost equal on all sides, and forming a sym- metrical whole, more varied and more grand than any similar work by man. The intermittent action continues for nearly an hour, but is so constantly changing that at no two moments during that time are the forms or move- ments the same." Of one of the hot springs in this basin Mr. Holmes writes : " On the upper side of the spring, next to the bank, the water — in overflowing — ran into large shallow pools, painting whatever it touched with the colours of the rainbow. Beds of rich creamy white and rich yel- lows were interlaid with patches of siennas and purples, and divided up and surrounded by the most fantastic patterns of delicate grays and rich browns. On the side next the creek the running water has made a network of streams. In those where the water is still hot, the colours are bright, varying from a creamy white to the brightest yellows ; but as the water becomes cooler farther down, the 70 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. . i colours grow darker and richer, the siennas greatly pre- dominating ; while the basins of tlie larger pools are stained with Still darker colours, frequently of a purple tint, and reflecting the picturesque groups of pines on their dark surfaces." 8. The ShosTione Geyser Basin. A third large collection of geysers and hot springs is found at the west end of Shoshone Lake. This basin, rarely visited by white men, contains ten geysers, besides large numbers of hot springs. Of the geysers, the finest is that known as the Union, so named because it combines in one nearly all the phenomena of the species. It is thus described by Professor Frank H. Bradley in the Report of the Geological Survey for 1872, p. 245 : — " It has three vents standing closely in a row, each of whicn has built up a small mound, beautifully beaded without and pointed within. . . . During eruptions the west vent spouts a little water, two or three feet high, for one or two minutes, and then yields a moderate flow of steam. Meanwhile the centre vent is throwing a very powerful jet from 70 to 90 feet into the air, which, after about five minutes, gradually gives place to steam, the mingled steam and water giving the highest jets. The east vent, spouting 10 to 50 feet, throws a solid body of water for about ten minutes, when the whole supply of water seems to become exhausted, and the rush of steam from all the vents becomes more violent, and continues some forty or fifty minutes longer, gradu- ally declining, however, though with many spasn'odic renewals." This geyser seems to be irregular in its periods. GEYSEU BASINS. 71 9. The Minute Man. This active little geyser has a double period, playing at intervals of two or three minutes for several hours, and then resting for about the same length of time. It throws a confused mass of water 30 or 40 feet into the air, the eruption lasting but a few seconds. 10. Red Mountain Spinngs. On the sliores of Heart Lake, and extending for two or three miles up a small tributary to this beautiful lake, is a collection of fine springs, having among them several geysers of importance. 11. Gibbon Geysers. In the neighbourhood of the Gibbon River, a large eastern branch of the Madison, there are a number ol" fine geysers. Part of them are grouped in a " basin " with a large collection of hot siliceous and sulphur springs, while others are scattered about on the steep mountain-sides, or hidden in the depths of the primeval forest, where their existence would never have been sus- pected, had they not betrayed themselves by the immense columns of steam which they periodically send up. 12. Yclloiostone Geysers. At the Crater Hills, on the Yellowstone, near the great lake in which this river heads, is a fine collection of boiling sulphur springs, and a few miles farther up the river is a group of geysers, where boiling mud is ejected. The principal one of these throws its muddy waters to a height of about 40 feet. Its eruptions take 72 co.Mri:.\iuuM of GE(x;i!AriiY and ti!Avi:l. place at iutorvals of about four and a quarter hours, the eruption lastinj,' aliout twelve minutes. On the west shore of Yellowstone Lake is a spring which originally burst forth from the bed of the lake, but has built for itself a cone, which now rears itself above the surface of the water. Standing upon the ihit cone of this sprin,!^, one can catch trout fnjui the lake, and, swing- in^' th(!m into the boiUn^f caldron, he can cook them upon the hook. I'rom this it is known as the " Fish Spring." 13. Tlie Grand Canon and Falls of the Ycllorcstouc. Hot springs and geysers are not the only objects of interest in this region, for Dame Nature, ever lavish of her treasures, has richly endowed this country. Its mountains, waterfalls, and canons, are well worthy of a momentary glance. The Yellowstone liiver, fiom the lake at its head to its i)oint of exit from the Park, pre- sents the traveller with an ever-changing panorama of scenes. Leaving the lake, for several miles the river is broad, flowing with a gentle current between high wooded banks. Soon, however, rapids intervene, the river-bed becomes narrow and broken up by huge rocks ; the river roars tumultuously along, down a steep broken incline, and shoots over a precipice 112 feet in height. This is the Upper Fall, liecovering itself after this ebullition, the great river moves quietly along its course for a half- mile, and then suddenly rolls over a sheer precipice 300 feet in height, into the depths of the Grand Canon, down whose sinuous course it roars and tears along, an emerald- green band, flecked with snowy foam, between the deeply coloured walls of the canon. Of the Lower Fall and the Grand Canon, Dr. A. C. Peale writes as follows in the above-quoted Report of the Geological Sarvey, p. 132: "^ Nature ^vliirlinjT 'f> 1 ^h 1' 1 b I YELLOWSTONE FALLS. 73 "Thfi river suddonly iiiirrows to awidtli of only 100 feet, juul rushes over a ledge of trncliyte, falling (.'iOO feet) to the hottoni of the canon. The water at the edge of '\n^ fall is very deep, and of a dee]) grei-n colour. . . . When \vea])])roa(;h tlu; brink and look over into the abyss, we I)egin to realise the littleness of man in the presence UrrER FALLS, YELLOWSTONE RIVER. of Xature's grand masterpieces. Dowii, down goes the whirling mass, battling and writhing as the water dashes iiLjainst the rocks with a noise like the discharge of artil- .lery. Here and there a resisting rock is met with, and the Avater rebounds, broken into myriads of drops, which throw back to us the sunlight resoh^ed into its primitive; colours. The bottom of the canon reached, the immense i . ;i 74 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. i!i Hi; mass of water seems to dissolve itself into spray, and then recovering, it flows down the gorge an emerald-green stream, dashed witli ]iatche3 of white, beating with furious waves the rocky walls that imprison it. Taken in con- nection with the varied tints of the canon itself — red, yellow, orange, white — the dark green i)ines fringing the top, and the bright green of the spray-nourished moss on the sides of the fall, we have a picture of almost un- equalled magnificence and grandeur. It is a scene of which one never tires, and in the description of which language fails." The Grand Canon is a gorge some 20 miles in length, cut in a volcanic plateau. It has a de])th of 1200 to 1500 feet, and a width at the top in few places exceeding a half-mile. The walls are precipices or inclim^d at a fef^rful angle. The river flows in the sharp notch at the bottom. Access to the bottom of the canon is to be found only at a very few places, and in those the climb is not unattended with danger. On the east side of the river a narrow crevice in the friable volcanic rock affords a way down to the foot of the fall, where, if the visitor desires a thorough shower-bath at Nature's hands, he can obtain it. Hot sulphur-springs are found in the greatest abun- dance at the foot and on the slopes of the canon-walls, adding the colours of their deposits to those of the bril- liant volcanic rocks. Half-way between the two falls a small stream, known as Cascade Creek, enters the river. Just before reaching the main stream, this creek makes a beautiful cascade, about 100 feet in height, over the basaltic pillars which border the river. Passing around the cafion of the Yellowstone by a circuitous trail, crossing a high pass, nearly at timber line, in the Washburn Mountains, the visitor reaches the YELLv, WSTONE KIVKU. i river again at the mouth of Tower Creek, a large western branch. This, like most of the tril)utaries to the Yellow- stone in this neighbourhood, flows at a much higher level tlian the river, and readies its level by a fall. The fall on this stream is, in itself and its surroundings, ])articu- larly fine. Tearing along in a rapid course, it is suddenly contracted between two tall colunnis of volcanic breccia, whence it lea'^s over a precipice in an unbroken fall of 132 feet, into a Jeep, dark, gloomy gorge, wliere the sun- light never penetrates. The walls of this gorge are set with columns of breccia in bas-relief, which project above the top in tall needle-like sj)ires. This is a land of streams and waterfalls. On each of the three forks of Gardiner's I\iver, on Gibbon's lliver, and the main Madison, and on Lewis' Fork of the Snake, are falls well worthy of the attention of the lover of nature in her wildest moods. It is, also, a land of lakes. From the summit of Mount Sheridan, the top- most peak of the Ited Mountains, one overlooks a country diversified by mountains, hills and dales, and rolling plateaus, all densely covered with the dark black- green of coniferoi. In this magnificent setting he sees on every hand the deep blue-green of crystal lakes and lakelets. North of him Yellowstone Lake stretches its broad expanse, its long arms extending far inland, and holding mountainous promontories in its gras]); Shoshone and Lewis Lakes to the north-west, reflecting the rays of the afternoon sun ; Heart Lake, a most beautiful gem, is at his feet ; and, scattered about amid the primeval forests, are innumerable little lakelets. Nor are these all the beauties or wonders of the Park. The mineralogist finds here unsurpassable treasures. Obsidian — black, red, and banded — is found in fabulous abundance ; nearly all the varieties of quartz are found in profusion, and silicified wood encumbers the ground. In 76 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL. I f many localities forests have been overflowed hy streams of liquid rock, or overwhelmed by showers of volcanic ashes ; and the forests thus covered have been gradually changed, particle by particle, into silicified wood, crystalline quartz, amethyst, and otlier like products. Nature, by erosion, has exlmmed these vegetable Herculaneums, and we find great trunks and branches of trees scattered over the surface, or standing in place, or projecting in bas-relief from the faces of cliff's, but all changed to stone, as though at the sight of a Medusa's snaky locks. At present tlie Park is not easily accessible to the average traveller. The usual route from tlie east is vid the Union Pacific and the Utah Northern Railroads, thence reacliing Bozeman, IMontraia, by a long tedious stage-ride of three days and nights. This point is the last settle- ment, with the exception of a few ranches, and the traveller must henceforward be self-dependent. He must buy or hire saddle animals to carry himself and party, and pack- animals to transport provisions, tents, mess-kit, and other impedimenta. He must carry his provisions and rely upon his rifle for a supply of meat. Travelling in the Park is not unattended by difficulties. Heavy, well- beaten trails lead to many localities of interest, but when one leaves them he is like a mariner upon an unknown sea. Not only is the country rugged and somewliat mountainous, but it is so densely timbered that one may travel for days without being able to correct his " dead reckoning " by the sight of a single landmark. If the sun disappear, the traveller becomes dependent upon his compass. IMoreover, very large areas of country are covered not only with a living growth of trees, but apparently all the timber that has lived and died there since the Flood has been heaped up, like huge jackstraws, to oppose his progress. Immense extents of country are so blocked with this fallen timber as to be totally impass- GIJEAT FALLS OF MISSOURL 77 able. Again, there are on tlie plateaus and in the valleys great areas of swamp, which are almost e(pially impassable. 14. The Missouri Valley. The three forks of the Missouri are separated by short ranges, reaching heiglits of 8000 to 9000 feet above sea- level. About the point wliere the Missouri divides is a large beautiful valley, extending far up its branches, and known as the Gallatin Valley. It is well settled by a farming population. Following the ]\Iissouri down from its forks, we find it meandering peacefully along in a broad bottom, its valley now wide, now shut in by high hills, while distant snowy mountains gleam in tlie sunlight. 15. The Great Falls of the Missouri. Near Fort Lenton the river apparently tires of the monotony of its course, and, after a few preliminary rapids, it enters the series of falls and cataracts which are known as the " Great Falls." Of these we find a very good descrijition in the Pacific Eailroad licports. " There are five principal cascades : the first, of 25 feet fall, abuts three miles below the mouth of Sun Eiver; the second nearly three miles below this, of 5 feet 11 inches ; and immediately below it the third. Here, between high banks, a ledge, nearly as straight as if formed by art, runs ol)liquely across the river, and over it the waters fall 42 feet in one continuous sheet ol 470 yards in width. Half a mile below this is the fourth, a small irregular cascade of about 12 feet descent. The stream then hurries on, lashed and churned by numerous rai)ids, about five miles farther, when it precipitates itself over a precipice 76 feet I 78 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. high. The banks are high and abrupt on both sides, with deep ravines extending into the prairie for one or two miles both above and below it. Below the falls there is a succession of rapids, which become less and less frequent, to the mouth of Highwood Creek." w i;i' M 1 6. The Wind River and Yellowstone Banges. Passing now southward again, we find on the east of the Upper Yellowstone a high ragged range, extending from the bend of the Yellowstone southward to South Pass in latitude 42°. Its northern portion is known as the Yellowstone, its southern the Wind Eiver Piange. The latter separates the head-waters of Green Eiver, a fork of the Colorado, from those of the Big Horn, It is one of the most rugged ranges on the continent, its crest being a line of spires, pinnacles, needles, and overhanging cliffs. Its peaks range from 13,000 to nearly 14,000 feet in height, and many of them are totally inaccessible except to creatures with wings. There is but one pass in the range, which can be crossed by animals, and only during the four summer months, as during the rest of the year it is choked with snow. In the year 1847, Captain J. C. Fremont, in command of an exploring expedition, succeeded, after three days of severe climbing, in scaling one of the highest peaks of this chain, a mountain 13,570 feet in height. This peak has since borne his name. Since that time the range has been practically untouched by the many exploring expe- ditions which have traversed the west, until the " Survey of the Territories," under Dr. Hayden, entered this field ia 1877. During that and the following year the range has been surveyed in detail by this organisation. It? fastnesses have been traversed ; its innermost secrets of SNAKE RIVER. 79 structure unfolJod. Among other new plienomena made known to the world, the existence of living glaciers in the Eocky IMountains of the United States was demonstrated. Several small glaciers, hoth in this range, and in the T(5ton Eange farther westward, were discovered. They are the ruins of glaciers on a magnificent scale which, in very late geologic times, this range sent down from its snow-capped peaks far out into the Green Eiver Basin. To-day we see their remains in the fo^-m of great lateral and terminal moraines, running far up the mountain slopes and skirting each canon, to a height of 3000 feet above the plain. The streams pursue devious and tumultuous courses through, over, and among the boulders of their terminal moraines, and all along the base of the mountains are beautiful crystal lakelets, whose beds were scooped out by the ceaseless grinding of the great ice-power. The lower slopes of the mountains are covered with "roches-moutonnhs" whose polished surfiices -hovrno signs of decay, and which are yet bare of soil, so recently have they been freed from their icy load. 17. Snake River. The Snake, or Lewis Fork of the Columbia, heads in the Yellowstone National Park, opposite the heads of the Madison and YelloM'stone Eivers. Its sources are in beautiful lakes, emliosomed in heavily wooded hills. Flowing southward it soon enters a mountainous country, from which it receives several large tributaries — Barlow's Fork, Buffalo Fork, Gros Ventre Creek, and Hoback Eiver. It washes the east base of the Teton Eange, which rears its rugged Gothic spires 7000 feet above its valley. Turning to the west, the river cuts across the mountains which seek to check its course, in a terrific gorge, well nigh impassable. On the west side of these mountains it 80 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. I ! i eiiturs upon a i^ro.at fickl of basalt, a great volcanic plain, covered with drifting sand and seamed with crevasses like those of a glacier. This is known as the Snake Iiiver I'lains. It crosses this plain by a southerly course, then gradually sweei)iiig around to the westward, it hugs the southern border of this basalt held as fur as longitude 117^ when it turns northward, then for a sliort distance westward again to ]t;< junction with Clark's Fork, making the mighty Columbia. In its course ar-ross and around the l)asalt plain it is rapid and tumultuous, boiling and seething along, its bed broken by boulders and ledges. In several places there are noteworthy falls. The upper of these is the American Fall, at a point a few miles below the mouth of the Port- neuf, where tlie " j\lad" River, as it was called in early days, leaps over a wall of basalt 30 feet in height. Some distance farther down is the Shoshone Fall, by far the greatest and finest on the river. This fall was visited in October 18G8 by Mr. Clarence King, and I quote his fine description of it: — " Tlie wall of the gorge opposite us, like the cliff at our feet, sank in perpendicular bluffs nearly to the level of the river. A horizon as level as the sea ; a circling wall, whose sharp edges were here and there battlemented in huge fortress-like masses ; a broad river, smooth and unrulHed, flowing quietly into the middle of the scene, and then plunging into a labyrinth of rocks, tumbling over a precipice 200 feet high, and flowing westward in a still deep current to disappear behind a black promontory. . . . Dead barrenness is the whole sentiment of tlie scene. . . . " In plan the fall recurves up-stream in a deep horse- shoe, resembling the outline of Niagara. The total breadth is about 700 feet, and the greatest height of a single fall about 190. . . . The whole mass of the SNAKE RIVER PLAINS. 81 fall is one ever-varying sheet of spray. In the early spring, when swollen by the rapidly melted snow3, the river pours over with something of the volume of Niagara. . . . There are no rocks at the base of the fall. The sheet of foam plunges almost vertically into a dark, beryl-green, lake-like expanse of the river. Im- mense volumes of foam roll up from the cataract-base, aiK^, ^vhirling about in the eddying winds, rise often 1000 feet into the air. . . . The incessant roar, reinforced bv a thousand echoes, fills the canon." 18. Tlie Snake River Plains. These great desert plains extend from the southern extremity of the Bitter Eoot and Salmon River Eanges southward to the Snake, and from Eastern Idaho nearly to its western boundary. Their surface is slightly undu- lating, broken only by crevices, and covered by drifting sand, or, in its absence, by bare rock and boulders. Artemisia is almost its sole vegetable product, and here this bush attains arborescent proportions, growing to a height of 12 to 15 feet, with trunks nearly a foot in diameter. It has little water upon its surface. The streams from the mountains soon disappear in crevices, to reappear and disappear perhaps again, meantime flowing beneath the basalt floor in subterranean channels. Near the middle of this desert are three mountains, standing alone and detached from one another, the " Three Buttes." Strange objects are these mountains, rising nearly 3000 feet above the plain. Of their struc- ture we know nothing, as they have never been studied by the geologist. From time immemorial they have served as landmarks to the traveller on these pathless wastes like lighthouses to the mariner. i ■'■) '! h 82 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. 19. The Big Horn Mountains. The Big Horn Eiver is the largest branch of the YeUowstone, flowing into it from the south-west. Its tributaries from the west drain tiie Yellowstone and Wind Eiver Eanges, while those from the east drain the Big Horn Mountains. The latter is a broad massive range, in whose eastern slopes head the Powder, Tongue, and other large branches of the Yellowstone. This region has long been the home of the most warlike tribe of Indians, the Sioux. From these rocky fastnesses they have long repelled the invading white man. It is only within a few years that the advancing wave of civilisation has here acquired sufficient power to sweep the red man away, and put the beautiful valleys and the rich mineral deposits of this region into the hands of the whites. We pass now southward across the broad beautiful valleys of Wind Eiver, a branch of the Big Horn, and the Sweetwater. These valleys have long been a border- land, the scene of many and bloody fights between the two contending races. The old overland road up the valley of the Sweetwater is lined with the graves of vic- tims of Indian atrocities, and the ruins of cabins here and there tell a similar tale. ; I i i 20. The Continental Water-parting from South to Bridger's Pass. South of the Wind Eiver Eange the continental "divide" follows a line of plateaus south-eastward to the Park Eange of Southern Wyoming and Colorado. These plateaus decrease in elevation on either hand, on the east grading down into the valley of the North Platte and the Laramie Plains, on the west to the Green Eiver Basin. The summit of this plateau is broad, and so flat that KOCKY MOUNTAINS. 88 for many '^iles one cannot tell whether he ia on the Pacific or Atlantic slope. The height of the water-parting in this section is about 8000 leet above sea-level. 21. The Southern Section of the Rochj Mountains. The soutliern section of the Eocky Mountains com- prised in Southern "Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, contains the greatest mass of elevation. Though not con- taining the highest peaks, being excelled in that respect by the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Eange, it contains the greatest number of high peaks. Here are ranges extend- ing for hundreds of miles, whose crests are surmounted by hnes of peaks exceeding 14,000 feet in height, and whose mean elevation exceeds 13,000 feet. Wliile the ranges trend a few degrees (20° to 25°) east of south, the edge of the plains, i.e. the foot of the moun- tains, trends nearly south. The result of this is an en echelon arrangement of the ranges, the front one disappear- ing in the plains, while that which was second in the line comes to the front. Proceeding westward from the western border of the plains, we cross a succession of two, three, or more well- defined ranges, beyond which are scattered groups of mountains apparently without system. There is a great contrast in this respect between the eastern and western sides of the system. On the east the plains are bordered by well-defined ranges, whose crests are sharply cut ; while on the west the mountain-making forces seem to have expended themselves in throwing up groups more or less isolated. 22. The Colorado or Front Eangc. From the North Platte Eiver, in Southern Wyoming, southward to the debouchure of the Arkansas from the <"«( 84 COMl'ENDIUM OF GKOGUAPUY AND TUAVEL. ii I ( ¥> i I- iiioiintains, one continuous range faces the plains. The northern part, in Wyoming, is known as the Laramie Iinngu. This is comparatively low, reaching a mean height not above 9000 feet. It is crossed at Evan's Pass (Sherman Station, Union Pacific llailroad) at an elevation of 8209 feet. Entering Colorado, it suddenly increases in height to 13,000 feet, while its peaks rise above 14,000 feet. Among them are Long's Peak, 14,271 feet; CJray's, 14,341; and Pike's Peak, the well-known landmark to the pioneers of '"59," 14,147 feet. With the latter the range ends, falling off into the plains in a few miles. In the winter of 1803, Major Pike, with an exploring party, made a valiant effort to reach the sum- mit of this mountain, but was finally obliged to turn his back upon it, sadly remarking that nothing but a bird could reach its snowy summit. But now ladies and children ride on horseback to the top, and the U.S. Signal Bureau has a station there, in which men live the year round. The higher portion of this range, which is nearly coincident with the part in Colorado, is known as the Colorado or Front Eange. It is a granite range, heavy and massive in its orographic forms, and with a broad belt of foothills on its eastern slope. It is cut through by the South Platte, which, heading in South Park, seeks this exit to the plains. About the canon of this stream the range is very much broken down by erosive agents, but southward it rises again in the mass of which Pike's Peak forms the centre, only to dis- appear immediately in the plains. 23. Tlie Sangre de Crista Bange. South of the Arkansas River the front rank is taken by the Sangre de Cristo Eange, while a short range, known ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 85 as the Wet or Greenhorn IMountains, occupies for a sliort distance the position of a skirmish line. For a long dis- tance tlie former is a beautifully-simple range, with a sharply defined crest and a single row of peaks. In lati- tude 37° 30' it broadens and culminates in a group of mountains, the Sierra Blanca, whose highest peak, Blanca, ovcrto])S everything in Colorado. Its height, from a com- bination of barometric and trigonometric methods, has been determined to be 14,464 feet. This is the highest ]jeak in the country, excepting Alaska and a few sunmiits in the southern part of the Sierra Nevada. Tliis peak, thougli diflicult and dangerous of access, has been ascended twice l>y parties of the U.S. Geological Survey in the pro- secution of their work. East of this group are the Spanish Peaks, two sharp volcanic summits rising high above the hills which sur- round them. Southward the range continues with a slowly de- creasing elevation, until, in the latitude of Santa Yi', New Mexico, it loses its continuity, being represented farther south only by short low ranges and isolated groups, which are scattered over the arid regions of Western Texas as far south as the Eio Grande. This range is not as high as the Colorado Eange by 500 to 1000 feet. It differs from it also in its smaller breadth of foothills on the eastern slope. Its core is of granite, while on the base, and extending some distance up its eastern slope, lie stratified beds of the more recent formations. In the main it is not a rugged range, but is rather distinguished by the beauty and regularity of its sharply-cut lines. 24. The Paris. West of these ranges lie the Parks of Colorado, large high mountain valleys, on the very crest of the CordiUeran i i '/ 86 COMPKNDIUM OP GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. I i ' plateau. They are four in number, and are known as the North, Middle, and South Parks, and the San Luis Valley. The first of these lies partly in Southern Wyoming, the Colorado boundary passing through it near the middle. It has an area of about 700 square miles, at a mean elevation of about 7500 feet. Its surface is quite flat, well grassed, and abounding in large game. On all sides rise high mountains, forming an almost continuous wall around the valley. It is drained by the North Platte Piver. Nor<-h of the North I'ark, and separated from it by high mountains, are the Plains of Laramie, lying west of the Laramie Eange. They are fertile and grass-covered, and afford pasturage to vast herds of cattle, and, in the spring and fall, to countless bands of antelope. South of North Park, separated from it by detached peaks of volcanic origin, is the depression known as Middle Park. It is a collection of narrow valleys, separated from one another by high ranges, spurs from the walls of the Park. In this depression heads the Grand Eiver, a fork of the Colorado. The next in this meridional series is the South Park. This is a table-land, very imiform in surface, with the exception of a few minor ridges, and in the southern part numerous volcanic buttes. Its shape is nearly elliptical, its longest axis being nearly north and south. It is about 50 miles long, by 25 in breadth. The area is about 1000 square miles. The prevailing slope is from north- west to south-east. The elevation in the northern part is 9500 to 10,000 feet, while in the south-eastern corner it falls to 8000 feet. Its limits are sharply defined by the surrounding mountains, which rise abruptly on all sides to the highest summits. It is drained by the South Platte and its branches. Its surface is covered with the highly nutritious bunch grass, which makes it an excellent pasture-land. PARKS AND VALLEYS. 87 ^ r •It Crossing the Arkansas River, where it flows in a pro- found canon in the hills which border South Park on the south, and rounding the north end of the Sangre de Cristo Range, we enter the great valley of San Luis, a vast plain which stretches southward for 140 miles, with an average width of 35 or 40 miles. Its area is more than 5000 square miles, and its elevation ranges from 8000 feet at its northern end to 7400 feet in northern New Mexico. It surface is as flat as a billiard- table. Variations of level are very slight, and are im- perceptible to the eye. The beds of the streams are but slightly depressed below the general level. iMost of the soil is sandy, and towards the eastern side tho sand is heaped up into dunes, many hundreds of feet in height, against the mountains. The Rio Grande del Norte heads in the San Juan Mountains on the west side of the valley. From the great snow-fields and the abundant showers of these mountains, the stream grows rapidly, and at its entrance into the valley it is one of the largest streams of the State. From the point of entrance into the valley, its course, which heretofore has been nearly east, gradually turns to south as the river slowly sweeps out into the middJe of the valley. It has several large tributaries in the valley, but most of the smaller streams merely reach the foot of the mountains, where they are immediately absorbed by the hot thirsty soil. As in the case of the plains, the area of arable land in this valley is measured solely by the amount of water available for irrigation. It is estimated that, by carefully husbanding the supply of this liquid, about one-half of the area may be rendered productive. Its natural products are sage, par excellence, inter- spersed with which is considerable bunch and grama grass, rendering it of some importance as a pasture land. :<.: 'I! iili H«' i l: 88 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AUD TRAVEL. i;;! r I a \l Ji :i 25. 77ic Pa?'7i; Range. This forms the western wall of the three northern- most of the Parks. In the northern part it is high, its peaks reaching a height of more than 12,000 feet. West of Middle Park it is depressed, harely reaching a height of 11,000 feet, and in this part the Grand Paver has cut a tremendous goi.;e, nearly 3000 feet deep, cleaving the range from base to summit. Parther south it rises again, and its peaks attain a first-class height. At the north- west corner of South Park stands ]\Iount Lincoln, named ill honour of the martyred President of the liepublic, 14,296 feet high; Quandary Peak, 14,269 feet; and many others of nearly equal magnitude. Xear the lower end of South Park the range ends abruptly in the Puffalo Peaks, the highest of which is 13,541 feet high. Beyond, the range is re])resented only by comparatively low hills. West of North and Middle Parks this range ends the system. Thence westward, a succession of plateaus, one below another, like a gigantic staircase, carries the level of the country down to the Green Kiver. 26. The Sawaich and Elk Ranges. In the latitude of South Park the I*ark Pange is by no means the end of the system. There follows, travel- ling westward, the valley of tlie Upper Arkansas, here trending with the ranges nearly south, across which rises in cold solemn majesty the Sawatch Pange, the " Sierra Madre " of the early Jesuit padres, a range which, for a hundred miles, is crested with a continuous line, of peaks more than 14,000 feet in height. Above its northern end towers the mountain of the Holy Cross, 14,176 feet ill altitude, on whose eastern face a cross of snow glitters iu the morning sunlight. This cross is formed by the snow on tl long we p Elberl Mouni MounI feet; ] iJamed TJi only 01 tile Jim We tlie Gu] taries U detachec TJiese n I'eaks ar tliose of ^^'Jiite, cci 01' luaroc forms of •ind piiuij i^astern i\\ tilde as "nich low plateaus From ^"'Ils runs Diass of niL Kio San j] KOCKY MOUNTAIN RANGES. 89 snow lying in two crevices at right angles to one another on the almost perpendicular face of the mountain. Its long arm is fully 1000 feet in length from top to bottom. Following the irregular crest of the range southward, we pass in succession Massive Mount, 14,298 feet; Elbert Peak, 14,351 feet; La Plata Mount, 14,311 feet; Mount Harvard, 14,375 feet; Mount Yale, 14,187 feet; Mount Princeton, 14,196 feet; Mount Shtivano, 14,239 feet ; Mount Ouray, 14,043 feet ; besides many more vm- named peaks nearly or quite d^ualling these in altitude. The passes in this range are correspondingly high, only one, and that near the southern end, being below the limit of timber, which is at 12,000 feet above sea. West of this range rise branches of the Grand River, the Gunnison and lioaring Fork ; and among the tribu- taries to these streams are several ranges, ridges, and detached groups, known collectively as the Elk ^Mountains. These mountains are of volcanic origin. Some of the peaks are of volcanic material, readily distinguished from those of sedimentary material by their light-gray, almost white, colour, while the others are a vivid red, brown, or maroon. In sharp contrast with the heavy massive forms of those ranges heretofore considered are the spires and pinnacles of these catastrophic mountains. In the eastern members the peaks reach nearly as great an alti- tude as in the Sawatch, but toward the west they are nnich lower, and with their disappearance the system of plateaus and mesas of the region of the Colorado begins. 27. The San Juan Eangc. From the south end of the Sawatch Eange a mass of hills runs south-westward, connecting with an enormous mass of mountains about the heads of the Rio Grande, the Rio San Juan, and many branches of the Gunnison. if \ ; 1 \i I ' i.. 90 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. i4 They can be defined only as a mass, with a long spur, of magnitude amply sufficient to entitle it to the name of range, running southward, and forming the western wall of the San Luis Valley. This mass radiates drainage in all directions. To the east flows the Eio Grande ; to the south the Animas, Florida, Pinos, and the main San Juan ; to the west and north the Dolores, San Miguel, Uncompahgre, and other large tributaries to the Grand River. Within these mountains there is no level country, practically. The largest valley, known as Baker's Park, is but four miles long by half a mile in width. It is unnecessary to go into details regarding the height of this range. Suffice it to say that it contains at least a dozen peaks exceeding 14,000 feet, and between one and two hundred above 13,000 feet. South of this group, in New Mexico, the level of the plateaus is broken by several ranges of greater or less magnitude. Among them may be mentioned the Zuni Mountains, whose peaks reach 12,000 feet; the Sierra Magdalena, Sierra Mateo, and the Sierra de las Mimbres. \' ff ii;l i. 28. The Continental Divide. The water-parting of the continent is borne throughout by this system of mountains, most of the way following the crests of ranges, but in some cases stepping down to the broad flat surfaces of plateaus. In the British Possessions we find it first following the crest of the western member of the system, and, as we trace it southward, it is seen to step eastward from range to range, until, on entering the territory of Mon- tana, it is found that the eastern range bears it. At the south end of this range a western offset is made to the Bitter Eoot Range, which it follows south-eastward to its ROCKY MOUNTAIN DIVIDE. 91 end. Then it follows the summit-line of a broken pla- teau-like country, in which are several excellent passes, to the head of the Wind Eiver Eange, whose jagged crest separates the Colorado from the Big Horn. This range, ending abruptly, leaves only a broad plateau to divide the waters. The Park Eange next takes up the " divide," carrying it to the head of North Park, where it makes a great loop to the eastward to enclose Middle Park in the area of Pacific drainage. Then it sweeps far to the westward, and follows the high summits of the Sawatch Eange to its end ; then, pursuing a winding course in the confused mass of the San Juan Mountains, it takes itself again to the plateaus, and follows an ill-defined southerly line to the borders of Mexico. Though it follows, as nearly as can be deter- mined, the summit-line of the great general elevation, it by no means follows that it occupies the crests of the liighest ranges in the neighbourhood. The reverse seems to be as frequently the case, that there are, on the right and left, ranges which in altitude may overtop that which separates the streams of the two oceans. tmj 92 COaiPENDlUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. CHAPTEE YIL THE PLATEAU REGION OF THE COLORADO RIVER. 1. General View. The country drained by tlie Colorado Eiver is a peculiar region. It is a country of plateaus and canons, the plateaus mainly arid and sterile, where the few streams flow in deep gorges far below the surface. The longest and most northern branch of the Colorado is Green Eiver, which heads in the Wind Elver Moun- tains, against the sources of the Big Horn and the Snake Elvers. This stream, in its long course towards tlu; south, receives the waters of the Uintah from the west, and the Yampa and White Elvers from the east. Near latitude 38° 15', and longitude 110°, it is joined by the Grand Eiver, a stream of nearly equal size, which heads in Middle Park, Colorado, drawing its first supplies of water from the snow-fields of Long's Peak. The stream below the junction of these two forks is known as the Colorado. Below their junction, the principal branches of tlie Colorado from the east are the San Juan, the Colorado Chiquito or Flax Eiver, William's Fork, and the Gila; on the west, the " Dirty Devil," Paria, and Virgin. This region is limited on the east, north, and north- west by liigh mountain ranges. Its surface is nearly flat, but by no means unbroken. There is little rolling or undulating country. Changes of level take place by Aery COLORADO PLATEAU. 93 gentle nniform slopes, or by abrupt precipitous steps. A large part of the surface consists of bare rocks, with no soil or vegetation. A part is covered with a thin sandy soil, which supports a growth of sage and cacti, or even a few pifion pines and cedars. The only vegetation is that eminently characteristic of an arid country. This aridity has modified orographic forms to an astonishing degree. Where, under different climatic con- ditions, there would be produced a region similar in most respects to the prairies of tlie Mississippi Valley, we find a country, flat indeed, or incHned at low angles, but one whose watercourses are far beneath the general level, deep down in canons, hundreds, thousands of feet beneath the surface. Great cliffs, thousands of feet in height, and extending like huge walls for hundreds of miles, change the level of the country at a single step. Isolated buttes and mesas, of great height, are scat- tered over the plateaus, indicating the former height of the plain of which they formed parts. " The landscape everywhere, away from the river, is of rock — cliffs of rock, tables of rock, plateaus of rock, terraces of rock, crags of rock, — ten thousand strangely carved forms. Eocks everywhere, and no vegetation ; no soil; no land. . . . When speaking of these rocks, we must not conceive of piles of boulders, or heaps of frag- ments, but a whole land of naked rock, with giant forms carved on it ; cathedral-shaped buttes, towering hundreds or thousands of feet ; cliffs that cannot be scaled, and canon walls that shrink the river into insignificance, with vast hollow domes and tall pinnacles, and shafts set on the verge overhead, and all highly coloured — buff, gray, red, brown, and chocolate ; never licliened, never moss- covered, but bare and often polished." The abjve description by Major J. W. Powell, who •\\ 94 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. has explored the canons of the Colorado, gives a graphic pen-picture of the lower and more arid plateaus of this 10! |l .;:' region. Nearly every watercourse, whether perennial or not, is a canon ; a narrow valley, with precipitous walls, often of enormous height. In many cases these caiions are so numerous that they cut the plateau into shreds — a mere skeleton of a country. Of such a section, Lieutenat Ives^ who explored the course of the Lower Colorado, writes: — " The extent and magnitude of the system of canons in that direction is astounding. The plateau is cut into shreds by these gigantic chasms, and resembles a vast ruin. Belts of country, miles in width, have been swept away, leaving only isolated mountains standing in the gap ; fissures so profound that the eye cannot penetrate tlieir depths are separated by walls whose thickness one can almost span ; and slender spires, that seem tottering on their base, shoot up a thousand feet from vaults below." But few of these canons contain water throughout the year. Most of them are dry at all times excepting for a few days in the early spring, or for a few minutes or hours at most after a heavy shower. It is a characteristic of western North America, as of all arid countries, that the streams, away from their sources in the mountains, lose water, rather than gain it, in traversing the lower country. The dry atmosphere and the thirsty soil absorb it, and, in very many cases, large streams entirely dis- appear in this way. This is the case to a great extent in the plateau country, and stiU more so in the Great Basin, where these are the only outlets to the drainage. A few words will suffice to sketch the manner in which the climate has acted in producing these strange and unique orographic effects. The great degree of aridity of the atmosphere, and the slight rainfall, coupled with its suddei in amc the su fast, as nearly rains, < diately sandy s little n great bi before t went, cc tlie rock as her ( other qu strange 1 city, has possessio] wliicli tl siispensia difference under dis but it is oi-ograpliic such that tation, t]i( gaps for tl but, in pr will tJie canon lane ^Vliile and there wliatever is that on and its mai ■Tr l^Ml COLORADO RIVER. 95 sudden explosive character, render plant-life very limited in amount. The soil, having little or no protection against the sudden floods, is washed away as fast, or nearly as fast, as it is formed ; or, in other words, transportation nearly or quite keeps pace with disintegration. The rains, coming as they always do in floods, run imme- diately off the bare rock, or over and through the thin sandy soil, sweeping it with them, and, collecting in the little runs with incredible rapidity, rush down them in great body and with great velocity, sweeping everything before them. The waters are turbid and thick with sedi- ment, coarse and sharp-edged from the rapid cutting of the rocks. It is this detritus which Dame Nature uses as her chisel in carving canons, cliffs, buttes, and the other quaint and curious forms which one meets in this strange land. A clear stream, whatever may be its velo- city, has little erosive power ; but put these tools in its possession, give it the quantity of coarse sand and gravel which the Colorado and its tributaries always hold in suspension, and its cutting power is enormous. Tlie difference in climatic conditions between the district under discussion and the plains is one of degree only, but it is sufficient to produce very marked differences in orographic forms. Wherever the climatic conditions are such that soil can be formed and be covered with vege- tation, there canons cannot be produced, other than as gaps for the passage of streams through mountain ranges ; but, in proportion as the climate becomes more arid, so will the country approach, in its physical features, a cafion land. \Vhile every stream in this region flows in a canon — and there are thousands of canons which contain no water whatever — the most remarkable succession of these clefts is tliat on the main stream of the region, the Colorado, and its main branch the Green. The lower caiions of the ill mi : ? Tl 96 COJIPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. J! I li i lifl ' l< :*! ii river were explored in 1857 by Lieutenant Ives as far as the head of the Black Carion. In 1869, Major J. W. Powell explored the main portion of the river in boats. He started from Green River City, in South-western "Wyoming, and safely threaded the devious path of the canons as far as the mouth of the Grand Wash, a distance of 1000 miles. Throughout this distance there are but few miles where the river is not deep in the bowels of the earth. 2. Tlie Canons of the Colorado and Green. The Green Eiver, on leaving the Wind Eiver Moun- tains, traverses southward a great plain or valley, known as the Green River Basin, at present an artemisia waste, but capable of being reclaimed, in large part, by irrigation. At the foot of this valley it meets the Uintah range, trending at right angles to its course. This range it traverses by a devious course, cutting gorges of enormous depth. On emerging from these canons, it enters another valley, 'juite similar to that above, but smaller, and known as the Uintah Basin. Traversing this, it gradually enters a canon in sedimentary rocks. These beds, and the sur- face of the country with them, incline at a very low angle to the north, so that the stream in its southern progress is constantly getting deeper below the surface, until, in a distance of 97 miles, the walls have risen to a height of 3300 feet above the river. At this point the walls break off abruptly, in a direction transverse to that of the river, leaving a small valley at the foot of the cliff. Lower down there follow two similar caiions, but less in height and length. These inclined plateaus, sloping to the north and breaking off abruptly on the south, extend east and west to the bases of the ranges which border this region, i.e. across the plateau country. Of I ( COLORADO CANON. 97 these Major Powell writes — " Conceive of three geo- graphic terraces, many hundred feet lii.^h, and many miles in width, forminrr a great stairway, from the loom- pin Wuncar I'unmip {the land of standing rocl's) below, to the Uintah Valley above. The lower step of this stair- way, the Orange Cliffs, is more than 1200 feet high, anil the step itself is two or three score miles in width. The second step, tlie Book Cliifs, is 2000 feet high, or more, and a score of miles in width. The third or upper step is more than 2000 feet high. Passing along this step for two or three score miles, we reach the valley of the Uintali ; but this valley is not 5000 or 6000 feet higher than the Toompin Wunear Tuweap, for the stairway is tipped backward." At the foot of tlie third canon, another, Stillwater Canon, immediately commences, and extends below the junction of the Grand and Green. The meeting of the waters takes place in the gloomy depths of this abyss, 1300 feet below the upper surface. A sliort distance above their junction, the surface of llie coutitry begins to rise with a long gentle slope towards the summit of a fold. Stillwater and Cataract Canons are cut in this fold. The walls grow gradually higher, but before tlie river reaches the axis of the fold it seems to become discouraged at the prospect of the difficulties ahead, and turning nearly at right angles, it runs, diagon- ally to the axis, and as gradually, out of the fold, at the mouth of the Dirty Devil Pdver. There is here a bit of open valley, and then another, Glen Canon, succeeds. Its greatest height is at its foot, at the mouth of the Paria, where it is 10 00 feet. Again the river runs into canons, as if afraid of the sunlight. There is here another inclined plateau, sloping toward the north, and in it the river burrows deeper and deeper, until, at the mouth of the Colorado Chiquito, it is H ^' f 98 COMl'KNDIUM OF GEOGUArilY AND TRAVEL. •J |! 'i ri I 3800 feet below the surface. Tliis is !Miiil)lo Canon. The river lias turned toward the west, and at the foot of this canon or — for this is continuous with the Grand ("anon — at the foot of this portion, the general course of the river is west. At this point it is crossed by the I'aria fold, in which the throw is to the west, thus sud- denly increasing tlie depth of the canon by adding to the elevation of the country. lAirther down the river is met another fault, which in some places becomes a fold, running across the river's course. It is an enormous one, with a throw of about 3000 feet, which, like the last, is to the west. This is the eastern Kaibab fault, and the plateau produced by it, the Kaibab (niountain-lying-down) plateau. The canon here attains its maximum depth, which is nearly 7000 feet. This is not in a single slope from the water ; a part of it is iu one or two benches, which stand back one, two, or three miles from the edge of the lower cliffs. The throw of the Paria fold has brought to the surface the underlying granite, and the lower cliffs of the Grand (Jauon are of this rock. In j\Iajor Powell's story of his trip through these canons, we find the following fine description of the Grand Canon; — "The walls now are more than a mile in height, a vertical distance dillicult to appreciate. . . . A thousand feet of this is up through granite crags, then steep slopes and perpendicular cliffs rise, one above an- other, to the summit. The gorge is black and narrow below, red and gray and flaring above, with crags and angular projections on the walls, which, cut in many places by side canons, seem to be a vast wilderness of rocks. Down in these grand gloomy depths we glide, ever listening, for the mad waters keep up their roar; ever watching, ever peering ahead, for the narrow canon is winding, and the river is closed in, so that we can see f.'J COLO U ADO CANON". 99 l)ut a few hundred yards, and wlmt there may be helow we know not ; hut we listen for falls, and watch for rocks, or stop now and then, in the hay of a recess, to admire the gigantic scenery. And ever as wo go there is some new pinnacle or tower, some crag or peak, some distant view of the upper plateau, some strange-shaped rock, or some deep narrow side canon. Then we come to another broken fall, which appears more ditlicult than the one we ran this morning. " Clouds are playing in the canon to-day. Sometimes they roll dovA'n in great masses, filling the gorge with gloom; sometimes they hang above, from wall to wall, and cover the canon with a roof of impending storm ; and we can peer long distances up and down this canon corridor, with its cloud-roof overhead, its walls of black granite, and its river bright with the sheen of broken waters. Then i* gust of wind sweeps down a side gulch, and, making a rift in the clouds, reveals the blue heavens, and a stream of sunlight pours in. Then the clouds drift away into distance, and hang around crags and peaks, and pinnacles and towers and walls, and cover them with a mantle that lifts from time to time and sets them all in sharp relief. Then baby clouds creep out of side canons, glide around points, and creep back again into more distant gorges. Then, clouds set in strata across the canon, with intervening vista-views to cliffs and rocks beyond. The clouds are children of the heavens, and when they play among the rocks they lift them to the region above. , . . " The varying depths of this canon, due to the varying altitudes of the plateaus through wliich it runs, can only be seen from above. As we wind about in the gloomy depths below, the difference between 4000 and GO 00 feet is not discerned, but the characteristics of the canon — the scenic features — change abruptly with the change 'f I I :!>l I M i >'■ I I i 100 COMPENDIUM OF GKoOUAniY AND TltAVn,. ill the altitudo of tlio walls as tliu falls aro jnissod. In ruiiiiiii;^' tlio cliaiitiel M'liich divides tlio twin ])lalc'aus, wu pass round the lirst great southern bend. In the very dejiths of the canon we have hlack granite, with a narnnv cleft through which a great river ])lunges. This granite ])ortion of the walls is carved with deep gulches, and embossed with pinnacles and towers. Above are broken, ragged, nonconforniable rocks, in many places sloping l)ack at a low angle. Clambering over these, we reach rocks lying in horizontal beds. Some are soft ; many very hard ; the softer strata are washed out ; the harder remain as shelves. Everywhere there are side gulches and canons, so that these gulches are set about ten thousand dark gloomy alcoves. One might imagine that this was intended for the library of the gods ; and it was. The shelves are not for books, but form the stony leaves of one great book. He who would read the language of the universe may dig out letters here and there, and with them spell the words, and read, in a slow and imperfect way, but still so as to understand a little, the story of creation." — Exploration of the Colorado River of the West: Washington, 1875, pp. 83, 85, 193-4. 3. Running a Rapid. The dangers of the navigation in rivers, like the Colorado, winding through a series of canons are natu- rally often of a very formidable character. The writer just quoted, who ran many risks in his exploration of these regions, had on one occasion to navigate a rapid in the Grand Canon at the imminent peril of his life. "About eleven o'clock," he writes, " we hear a great roar ahead, and approach it very cautiously. The sound grows louder and louder as we run, and at last we find ourselves above a long, broken fall, with ledges and pinnacles of COLORADO RIVKR. 101 rock obstruct inj? the river. There is a (h'scent of per- haps 75 or 80 feet in a tliird of a mile, and the rushing' waters hreak into great waves on the rocks, and hish themselves into a mad white foam. We can land jnst above, hnt there is no foothold on either side by which we can make a portage. It is nearly 1000 feet to the top of the granite, so it will be impossible to carry our boats around, though we can climb to the sumndt up a side gulch, and, passing along a mile or two, can descend to the river. This we find on examination, hut such a portage would he impracticable for us, and we must run the rapid or abandon the river. There is no hesitation. We step into our boats, push off, and away we go ; [irst on smooth hut swift water, then we strike a glassy wave and ride to its top, down again into the trough, U]) again on a higher wave, and down and up on waves higher and still higher, until we strike one just as it curls back, and a breaker roUs over our little boat. Still, on we speed; shooting past projecting rocks, till the little boat is caught in a whirlpool, and spun roi nd several times. At last we pull out again into tlie stream, and now the other boats have passed us. The open com- partment of the ' Emma Dean' is filled with water, and every breaker rolls over us. Hurled back from a rock — now on this side, now on that — we are carried into an eddy, in which we struggle for a few minutes, and are then out again, the breakers still rolling over us. Our boat is unmanageal)le, but she cannot sink, and we drift down another hundred yards through breakers — how, we scarcely know. We find the other boats have turned into an eddy at the foot of the fall, and are waiting to catch us as we come, for the men have seen that our boat is swamped. They push out as we come near, and pull us in against the wall. We bail our boat, and on we go again" {op. cit. pp. 82-3). ■; ) I i 102 COMPENDIUM OF GKOGKArilY AND TItAVKL. • mi 11 i! i ! 1 ifi , 1 |i' ii The walls of the Grand Cafiou and the level of the plateau descend by a succession of great steps, ])roduced by faults, until the level of the river is reached at tlie mouth of the OrandAVash; and thus ends tlie Grand Ganon. Below the Grand Wash, a dry stream bed whicli enters the Golorado from the north, the river turns soutli again and enters the Black Canon of Lieutenant Ives' rejiort — a cafion which would be a remarkable feature were it not brought into such close juxtaposition with that described above. Below it the river runs in narrow valleys and low canons to its moutlu 4. Fauna and Flora of the Plateau Region, This region is not all a desert. The high plateaus must be excepted from the general condemnation, but as these are in the immediate vicinity of the mountains, and are of very limited extent, they can scarcely be considered as belonging to tlie plateau region. On these tlie fauna and flora of the mountain region are found in abundance, dependent in large measure upon the elevation. As wo go down into the true canon country, the scene changes. Aspens give place to pinon pine and cedar; the grasses, fruits, and flowers, to sage, caeti, and bare rock ; the streams become confined in rocky canons, turn muddy and warm, and gradually disappear. The game changes, — deer and elk are re])laced by the coyote, while rattle- snakes and centi]iedes assert their projn-ietorship. Of the fauiui Afajor Bowell writes — "Among the buttes on the lower terraces, rattlesnakes crawl, lizards glide over the rocks, tarantulas stagger about, and red ants build their playhouse mountains. Sometimes rabbits are seen, and wolves prowl in their quest ; but the desert has no bird of sweet song and no beast of noble mien." I'KTWEE lies a <) •'III area broad vj , m terrific gorges through its centre. Of such are tlie Provo (formerly knowu as the Timpaiiogos), the Weber, Ogdeii, aud several hranches of the Bear, a tributary to the Great Salt Lake. 3. The Basin Ranges. The Basin is traversed by a large number of ranges of mountains, trending nearly parallel to a meridian, but varying slightly from that course to the north-east in the eastern part of the region, and to the north-west in the western part. These ranges are distributed over this area with tolerable regularity. They are mainly simple in structure ; some are short, others extend over several degrees of latitude, and are of heights ranging from 5000 to 10,000 feet above sea-level. Between them are valleys of considerable breadth, floored by the detritus from the mountains, which buries deeply their bases, leaving to the imagination alone to picture the full magnitude of these ranges, of which the summits only appear above the surface. These ranges are composed of sedimentary rocks, un- altered or metamorphosed ; granite and cognate rocks, and volcanic rocks. Most of these valleys are utter deserts. There is absolutely no water in them from one end of the year to the other. In the spring tiny rills may run down from the little snow in the mountains, but they sink imme- diately on reaching the plain, and for nearly all the year these even are dry. The only source of supply to the traveller over these arid wastes is from the springs which are found occasionally at the bases of the mountains. A few of the valleys are watered in part by small streams which flow through them, and, in such cases, the soil is found to be of marvellous fertility. T] Humb in tJie valley m \\ GREAT BASIN. 105 The HumLoldt Eiver, wliicli takes its rise in the Ilumboklt Eange and flows south-westward, to disappear in the Humboldt Sink, waters a narrow belt in each valley wliicL it crosses. The Sevier liiver, too, though a small stream, waters a long narrow belt along its sinuous course, and deposits its remaining waters in Sevier Lake. The following general description of the features of the Great Basin is found in the Report of the U.S. Geo- hxjiral Survey for 1870 : — " Let us for a moment take a bird's-eye view of the great inland basin of which Salt Lake Valley forms only a part. We shall find that M'hat is termed the Great Basin of the West comprises the vast area enclosed by the Wahsatch Mountains on the east and the Sierra Xevada ou the west ; the crest or water-divide of the Columbia on the north, and that of the Colorado on the south. We shall also observe that this great region has uo visible outlet ; that it is composed of a multitude of smaller basins or valleys, each of which has its little Likes, springs, and watercourses, their surplus water either evaporating or sinking beneath the surface. If we examine the elevations in this region, we observe a wondei'ful uniformity in the surface of the valleys, and find that none of them are much above the level of the waters of Great Salt Lake. ... I infer that a fresh- water lake once occupied all this immense basin ; that the smaller ranges of mountains were scattered over it as isolated islands, their summits projecting above the sur- face ; that the waters have gradually and slowly passed away by evaporation, and the terraces are left to reveal certain oscillations of level and the steps of progress towards the present order of things ; and that the briny waters have concentrated in those lake-basins which have no outlet." I« 'if- i 'i 106 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. ^ r ■ ill E- l-I E- ■H [d PS O g The Great Basin is a col- lection of smaller basins ; each, in cases where it has any drainage whatever, with its own stream or streams ; its sink, which, in cases where snfficient water is brought in, de- velops into lakes, marsliy swamps, and the like. Those lakes which have no outlet are salt ; those which communicate with others lower down are of course fresh. The lakes of the Basin are mainly disjDOsed in tliree groups, one on the east and west sides of the Basin respectively, under the shadow of the limiting ranges, and one in the northern part. 4. Gi-caf Salt Lahc. The principal member of the eastern group is tlie Great Salt Lake, which receives most of the drain- age from the "VVahsatcli Mountains. It is almost an inland, sea, having an area at present of 23 GO square miles. It is very sliallo' fathon fatlioir As were i I'egion. change fiiy; ai clianges it is e.\ present of the J 40 per decided this is d question. The^ human b the time Water co: present In 18G9 the solid Ii50 parts Magi Linie Soda Potas Snip Chloi Lc i GREAT BASIN. 107 shallow, having a mean depth of Lnt fonr or five fathoms, while in its deepest part it reaches but eight fathoms. As it has no outlet, its waters would rapidly rise were it not for the enormous evaporation in this dry region. The level of its waters is constantly subject to change with the character of the seasons, whether wet or dry ; and it is therefore a very sensitive indicator of changes in the climate, particularly as the country around it is extremely level, and but very slightly above the present surface of the lake. Since 1849-50 the surface of the lake has risen 11 feet, and its present area is 40 per cent greater than at that time, indicating a decided increase in moisture of the climate. AVhether this is due to the settlement of the country is an open question. The water of the lake is very strongly saline. The human body floats almost entirely on the surface. At the time of Captain Stansbury's survey in 1850, the water contained 2 2 '4 per cent of solid matter. At present the percentage of solid matter is much less. In 18G9 it was reduced to 14*8. An analysis of the solid matter by the survey of the 40th parallel {vide BcjJt. Sur. 4:0th Far,, vol. ii. p. 433) gave in loO parts Magnesia Lime . Soda . Potassa Sulphuric acid , Chlorine G-301 0-357 GG-978 2-901 8-215 83-946 168-698 Less oxygen of soda and magnesia . 18-758 149-940 I'll \|i i 1 ■ft I! , , ■; i:M '^ ■i i \n 1 i y. It TfT 108 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AND TEAVEL. if 'f or, in other words — Chloride of sodium Cliloride of magnesium Sulphate of soda Sulphate of potassa Sulphate of lime Excess of chlorine 7911 9-95 6-22 3-58 0-57 0-57 100-00 The elevation of the lake ahove sea-level is 4218 feet. Great Salt Lake is bat the ruin of a much grander lake, which, in ages past, covered a large part of the area of the Great Basin. The shore-line of this great lake, for which the name of Bonneville has been proposed, is yet distinctly marked high up on the slopes of the Wahsatch and other ranges in this part of the Basin, 970 feet above its present surface. At that time it had an outlet, draining northward into the Snake or Lewis Fork of the Columbia. During the process of desiccation of tlie country, caused by the rise of the Sierra Nevada, the lake receded, but its recession was checked for greater or less intervals, which are indicated by minor beach-lines, which form a succession of steps upon the mountain side. 6. Death Valley. There are within tlie Great Basin two valleys which are remarkable as lying below the level of the sea. One of these, in Eastern California, is known as Death Valley, from the number of persons who have miserably perished there from thirst. Parts of this valley are 150 feet below the sea-level. It is a desert valley, lying between two of the charac- teristic ranges of the Basin, known as the Amargoza and the Panamint Eanges, which rise 7000 feet above its GREAT BASIN. 109 level. There is no water in the whole extent of this valley, — nothing but bare rock and shifting sand, if we except a few cacti and a little stunted sage. In the summer, the sun's rays, pouring down on the bare rocks, make the heat intolerably intense, and increase the pangs of thirst to the unfortunate traveller. Few persons have succeeded in crossing this terrible place, though many have attempted it. The second locality is in South-western California, and is known as Soda Lake. The lowest parts of this valley range from 100 to 200 feet below the sea. A very low water-parting separates it from the Gulf of California and the Colorado Eiver ; and at times of hiiih water in this river it overflows the water-parting and forms a shallow lake here, which, however, disappears by evaporation during the hot summer months. i I i It 'W 'II I /, ll , ;jiH.) 11: t I THE CASCADE MOUNTAINS. CHAPTER IX. THE PACIFIC RANGES. 1. In General. From Alaska to the point of the peninsula of Southern California stretches almost continuously a great system of mountains, parallel to the Pacific coast. Parts of it are known respectively as the Cascade L'ange, the Sierra Nevada, the Coast lianges, etc. The range divides in Washington Territory, a minor branch extending south- ward along the coast through Oregon and California, while the principal range trends parallel to it and the coast, hut farther to the eastward. P)etween them is a succession of hroad valleys — those of the AVillamette in Oregon, and of the Sacramento and San Joaquin in Cali- fornia, being the prhicipal ones. 2. The Cascade lianjc. Tlie northern part of the eastern and principal range, from Mount Shasta in Northern California northwards through Oregon, Wasliington Territory, the Pritish Pos- sessions, and Alaska, is geologically quite distinct from the southern portion, and differs markedly i'rom it in its to]-)ogrnj as tJiu C of tlie I J 1 arrow «. Oregon, tliat of ; v(»leanic i'lir north AVashintounta.ins, consequently in the direction of the northern spurs of the Sierra Xevada, comprises a broad volcanic plain, here and there broken by considerable mountain chains. Above the main plain itself, at an elevation of 14,440 feet above the sea, towers Mount Shasta, the solitary cone of an enormous extinct volcano, lying almost exactly in the line of the axis of the Sierra Nevada. At its foot are grouped hundreds of little volcanic hills, which, how- ever, pass almost unnoticed beneath the shadow of the great peak. The volcanic plain is partly wooded and partly overgrown with grass and wild sage. But in what- ever direction we go, the one central point in the landscape is the great cone of Mount Shasta. Its solid snow-capped peak, its stupendous elevation, the pale gray or rosy tints of its lava fields, and the dark wooded belt encircling it far above the numerous satellites at its base, impart to this imposing mountain a grandeur scarcely equalled by any other elevation in tlie New World. Mount Shasta was scaled in the year 1870 by the American geologist Clarence King, accompanied by S. F. Emmons, Fred. A. Clark, A. B. Clark, and Sisson, a ranchman living at the base of the mountain. King describes the ascent as follows : — ^ ^ Quoted from the Atlantic Monthly of December 1871, i)p. 710-720. I j. rj 1 ' ^iii 1 : ' 1 : ' ■ ■ ■ j ^' ■f .! :!l rl ! 1 liH (^ fill I'l ij r 1 1 it il il|: II 11 II ■ 1 t 9 ^ 1 v i ]?f .1^ ' 114 COMI'KNDIUM OF (JKOCUAI'IIY AND TltAVKF,. " Septeinlier 11th found tlit! climbora of otir i)Jii'ty mounted on our nmles hoading for the crater-cone over rou<,'h rocks, and union^ the stunted firs and pines whicli mark the u[)per limit of forest growth. The morning was cool and clear, with a fresh north wind sweepini; around the voh;ano, and briugiiif^ in its descent the invigoratiu}^ cold of the snow region. When we had gone as far as our mules could carry us, threading their diflicult way among piles of lava, we dismounted and made up our packs of beds, instruments, food, and fuel ..'M '111 J ^^S" ■ ■■ •■ I . ' ' tt' '«^-''^(Mva>!*'^9^«w^app»c«<*P«WM -^B.■ ^ ^^> ^ -; y'^»^ ■*»■■" ^ MOUNT SHASTA. for a three days' tri]) . . . and with Sisson, who was to accompany us up the first ascent, struck out on foot. Already above vegetation, we looked out over all tiie valley south and west, oljserving its arabesque of forest, meadow, and chaparral, the files of pines wliicli strugi^kMl up almost to our feet, and just below us the volcauie slope, strewn with red and broMni wreck, and patches of shrunken snow-drift. " Our climb up tlie steep western crater-slope was slow and tiresome, quite without risk or excitement. The ff W(iy J) n])on 1 scone c bowl, n feet dv sliattert fields ol "W came to blade ol edge, u mis-stej) blocks w " Pai find from into a e surpa,' in the W( Yosemite cient in j far and w of the Yo known an( nimoticed ol'jects of The without a : 1st, the gr to 4000 wonderful its granite falls by V,- the valley, These dese them is th 2600 feet, ieap from t of cascades makes a se Jh-idal Veil beautiful, is swayed SIERRA NEVADA. 11& guislied from all other known valleys, are — first, the near approach to verticjility of its walls ; second, their ^<>iitally a "i'liere are ?>'oves knn 'Tid theyai ^i'titudu 80' ^^'. and be and 7000 vation. The Gala i-< tlie one '>ad best kjL on the westc f'le Sierra, h ^'ounty. It 'irea 3200 ft '"00 feet bro SIERRA VEGETATION. 123 Next in our ascent we reach the region of the firs, and the tamarack pine, at 7000 to 9000 feet above the sea, in the middle oi the State ; and above tliis belt we find yet another, char- acterised by the Pinus Jlcxilis, struggling with the winds and frosts for an existence on these muuntaiu heights. 11. The "Big Trees." The groves of the Bi-> Trees (Sequoia gifjcmten ai'e limited in geogri!- jdiical range, both hori- zontally and vertically. There are eiglit distim-, groves known to exist. and they are all betweei' latitude 36° 00' and 8 S 15', and between 5000 and 7000 feet in ele- vation. The Calaveras Grov.' i.^ the one most visited and best known. It is OR the western slo})e oi' the Sierra, in Calavenis I'uuuty. It occupies an urea 3200 feet long by 700 feet broad. There GIANT TREES. : I ilil i i I ii ¥i:i n ' hi H 1 ■' I 'f it H PI i lil I |i| ' lil 1 t i 124 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. are between ninety and one hundred trees of large size in the grove, besides many smaller ones. One of the largest and finest has been cut down by vandals ; its greatest rival has had the bark peeled from it so as to destroy it. Thirty-one of the trees in this grove have been measured. The highest is 15 feet in diameter at 6 feet from the ground, and 325 feet in height. Others, though not as high, exceed this in diameter ; the " Mother of the Forest " being, without the bark, 2 feet through. The smallest of the thirty-one trees measured is 10 feet in diameter and 231 feet in heights 12. AgrimUural Besources of the Cordilleran Bcgion. Throughout this vast region, extending over 20° of longitude, the rainfall is so slight, and the aridity and consequent evaporation so great, that agriculture cannot be carried on, except in a few isolated spots, without arti- ficial irrigation. It is almost as much a matter of course with the farmers of this sparsely settled region as the sowing of the seed. The soil of the plains, plateaus, and mountain valleys of this great region is almost everywhere extremely, fertile, and the one thing needed to transform a seeming Sahara into ai land of plenty is water. The supj)ly of water for irrigation, which the streams of this country afford, is by no means sufficient to render productive all the land which is otherwise suitable, but by careful management a large part of it may be brought under cultivation. In the Great Plains the amount of arable land is measured directly by the quantity of water brought to them by the streams, as there is undoubtedly far more land, suitably situated in other respects, than the streams can water. In the mountains, while in some of the larger valleys, and especially in the Great Basin, this holds good, yet in the smaller valleys some streams will nnquesl otlierwi too rigo has beer may be i" appea " Latter ^vater lia world. L>ame Nf over tlie ' tliough t] indication naturally tliat tliese try becaus duce usefi expect a t: Beside sheep-raisi or more \\ and corrali of logs set togetlier. tlie year ro mingled wi giiislied froi once a year " round-ups. Jnne these employed, a tions — are c stirring, live called, on th CORDILLERAS. 125 I ,1 unc[uestiona1)ly rim to waste. Anain, many large areas, otherwise well situated, are so high that the st-asons become too rigorous for agricultural pursuits to succeed. Numberless proofs of the fact that the soil of what has been called a desert is rich in the elements of fertility may be adduced. Salt Lake Valley was as unpromising in appearance as the "Great American Desert" before the " Latter Day Saints " attacked it, but the application of water has made it one of the most fertile regions in the Avorld. At St. George, in Southern Utah, the victory over Dame Nature hap been even more complete. So it is all over the West. The natural products of the country, even though they be artcmisia, grease-wood, and cactus, are no indication of the barrenness of the soil. Because a soil naturally produces these only, it by no means follows that these only can be produced. To condemn the coun- try because, under its natural conditions, it does not pro- duce useful grasses, timber, etc., is as unreasonable as to expect a tract of dry land to produce cranberries. Besides agriculture, a very large interest is cattle and sheep-raising. The cattle ranch consists generally of one or more houses built of logs, near which are log stables and corrals — yards enclosed by strong high fences, built of logs set firmly on end in the ground and placed close together. The cattle belonging to the ranch range wild, the year round, on the neighbouring plains in great herds, mingled with those of other ranches, and to be distin- guished from them only by the hrand of the owner. Only once a year does the owner see his cattle — at the annual "round-ups." In the latter part of May and early in June these take place. A large number of herders are employed, and all the cattle — for many miles in all direc- tions — are collected and run into a great corral. It is a stirring, lively scene, — the " cow boys," as the herders are called, on their half- wild Indian ponies driving in the great : y 1 I \\ ■'\ 12G COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. I i'^ %!'' : Lands of wild cattle, wluch are constantly breaking and running in all directions, pursued by the herders. Horses and men alike enter into the spirit of the scene. Once gathered together, the cattle of each ranch-man are placed by themselves,, and the calves born that s])ring, and whicli still run with their mothers, are marked with the brand of the owner. Such as are destined for im- mediate sale are taken out, and the rest are turned loose together on the range again. Through most of the year the life at a cattle ranch is easy, but at certain times there is call for high powers of courage and physical endurance. There are few invest- ments of money which pay more surely or more largely than tills, but it involves a solitary semi-barbarous life, with many privations. The Great Plains form one vast cattle range. From Texas to JVIontana we find them dotted over with the huts of the ranch-men, and covered with herds of cattle. They follow closely the retreating steps of the bufl'alo. So, in the great valleys of the mountain region, the Paries of Colorado, the Laramie Plains, the Gallatin and Bitter llout and other valleys of Montana, the great valley of Cali- fornia, and those of Oregon, — indeed, wlierever grass grows and hostile Indians are not too plentiful, — there we find herds of cattle. Some of the cattlemen are very wealthy, numbering their cattle by hundreds of thousands. The gcn( of tlie ]\1] given by Mountain Tliey divi Plains ; s the I'acifi Valley, an Washingt( The CJ to tlie east Tlie 15; slopes of t ^^'ard into TJie 8i ffifirgiii alo wlhcli wore of the intei' The Pa the monnta fornia Valle of the niouL The out 1 1 mil l! COKDILLERAN GEOLOGY. 127 CHAPTER X. GEOLOGY OF THE COUDILLERAN PLATEAU. 1. General licvievj. The ji^enoral elmracter of the geolojry of the region west of the jMississippi, extending to tlie racilio coast, has heen given by two great lines of elevation, viz, the liocky jVIonntain holt, and the Sierra Nevada anil Coast IJanges. They divide tlie conntry into three helts — first, the Great Plains; second, the Basin and PlatciHi Region; third, the I'acific Coast trongh, which includes the California Valley, and the Columbia Valley region in Oregou and Wa.shi ngt( m 'J'erri tory. The Creat Plains extend from the Mississippi Valley to the east base of the Rocky jMountains. The Basin Region stretches westward fi'oni the M'cstern slopes of the Rocky Mountains to the Sierra, and soutli- ward into ]\Iexico as a high table-land. The Sierra, with the Coast Ranges, form a raised margin along the Pacific Coast, and are cnt by gorges, which were the gateways throngh which a large portion of the interior region was drained. The Pacific Coast trongh is a narrow region between the mountains and the Pacific Ocean. North of the Cali- fornia Valley it is nearly obliterated by the encroachment of the mountains. 2. Rocky Mountains. The outlines of the western part of the North Ameri- ! i :w 1 M '/if f 128 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL, can continent have been approximately the same from the earliest Paliieozoic time, and the Eocky Mountains existed in embryo as islands of greater or less extent in tlie ral.x'ozoic seas. As tlie ages progressed it is |.vobab]e that the islands, some of which nuist have had continental proportions, grew smaller and smaller, initil some of them disappeared beneath the surface of the ocean; for the whole Rocky Mountain region was affected by a gradual and progressive subsidence which continued into Tertiary time, when the mountains were uplifted to assume almost the shape they have at present. Since their elevation, how- ever, they have been enormously eroded. They are divided into numerous sub-ranges, as the Colorado Eange, I'ark liange, ]\Iedicine Bow Mountains, Wind IJiver Range, Yellowstone Range, and IMissouri Range. These extend north-westward into British America. In these sub-ranges the nuclei are the Archccan rocks, from which the Paheo- zoic, Mesozoic, and even Tertiary strata dip away in all directions. These nuclei represent the original Archaean islands, which, as Newberry has remarked, have been " the hinges upon which the great plates of the continent have turned — lines of weakness where the changes of level experienced by the continent have been most sensibly felt." Colorado, wliich has the highest mass of the Rocky IMountains, has probably always been highest above the I'alteozoic and Mesozoic seas. Seen from the east, the Colorado Range presents a rugged front, and from its gorges come the streams which form the South Plntte and Arkansas Rivers, which have for ages been carrying the products of erosion from the mountains towards the Mis- sissippi River. 3. The Plateau Region. The Plateau Region may be described as the region reaching from the Rocky Mountains westward to the Walisat( tion of reserved IS frequc River is t*t; sontliern po: region, and m ^vitli the Rot ''en's Annval tliat tliis liigl iuudred niih CORDILLERAN GEOLOGY. 129 "Wahsatcli ^roimtaiiia, and sonthwanl to Mexico. A por- tion of the (Ircat Bnsin is also included, bnt that i^ rcservod for sciiiirato consideration, ilio IMatean l{e<'ion is fre(jucntly caHed tla; Colorado Tlateau, as the Colorado Itiver is the i)nncii)al stream draining it. It is tho TIIK AUAVAYPA Ca5?0N IN ARIZONA. southern portion of the great central tahle-land or basin region, and was ]irohalily contemporaneous in its elevation with the lioeky Monntains. Xe-svberry, in one of llay- den's Annval TicpnrU, thus describes it : — " It is apparent that this high plateau, "whicli stretches away for several hundred miles west of the Eocky Mountains, was once a K ! 11 1,1^ :l 130 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. h' utiful anil fertile district. The Colorado, di-aining then as now the western ranges of the Rocky ]\lountains, spread over the snrface of this plateau, enriching and vivifying all parts of it." The canons of tlie Colorado liave been well described by Professor Powell. The total length of the gorge or chasm is nearly 1000 miles, and it is from 3000 to 6000 feet in dej)th, cut tlirougli the entire series of sedimentary rocks, from the Tertiary to the granite, and even 600 or 800 feet into tlie latter. " Just in proportion as the Colorado deepened its cliannel, the region bordering it became more dry, until ultimately the drainage from the mountains passed through it, in what may be termed nndergronnd channels, and contri- buted almost nothing to the moisture of the surrounding country. The reason why the walls of this canon stand up in such awful precipices of thousands of feet is tliiit the perennial flow of the stream is derived in far distant mountains. Almost no rain falLs upon its banks ; and when any portion of the bordering clitf has jiassed bey(ind the reach of the stream, it stands almost unaffected by atmospheric influences." — (Xewberry). Scattered throughout the Colorado Plateau are several grou]is of mountains, which rise like islands above the general surface. They are evidently eruptive in their origin, and were comparatively rapid in their growth. They were, however, not volcanic, for the rocks which form them have not spread beyond the centres, M'here they have lifted dome-like masses of the sedimentary rocks, which frequently are but slightly broken. Such mountains are the Sierra la Sal, the San Fran- cisco Mountains, the Henry jMountains, the Sierra Abajo, Sierra el Late, and Sierra Carriso. 4, The Basin Region. The Great Basin of the West comprises the vast area tliat sti U'alisat( smaller sj 'rings, Tliis waters hi Ever ^ portior oscillatioj Scatt( isolated n puts deso] like island says, they south tren tleep syncl nary detrit The no times distu craters, mai came showi '^'id filled t] 'lumbers of sti'ata, whic i'» thicknesi still more ; wlncli form extent, pene liieir bottom clysms liad covered tlie t^Jc. waters, a 'Accumulated lava."— (Nev It is ob\ COKDILLEHAN GEOLOCiV. 131 tliat stretches eastward from the Sierra Nevada to the Wahsatch Mountains. It is composed of a multitude of smaller basins or valleys, each of wliich lias its lakes, spvin'is, and watercourses. This liigh table-land is a hydrographic basin, whose waters have no visible outlet to the ocean. Ever since Carboniferous time this region has formed a portion of the continent, although subject to many oscillations. Scattered over it is a series of remarkable short isolated mountain ranges, separated by valleys whose soil puts desolation in a stronger light. These mountains rise like islands above the desert plains. As Clarence King says, they lie traced across tlie desert with a north and south trend, and are ordinarily the tops of folds whose deep synclinal valleys are filled with Tertiary and Quater- nary detritus. The northern portion of this central ])lateau was at times disturbed by the most violent volcanic action from craters, many of which can still be seen. " From th<^se came showers of ashes, which must have covered the land and filled the waters of the lakes so as to destroy immense lumibers of the inhabitants of both. Th(!se ashes formed strata, which were, in some instances, ten or twenty feet in thickness. At other times the volcanic action was still more intense, and floods of lava were poured out, which formed continuous sheets hundreds of miles hi extent, penetrating far into the lake basins, and giving to llieir bottoms floors of solid basalt. When these cata- clysms had passed, quiet was again restored, forests again covered the land, herds dotted its pastures, fishes peopled the waters, and fine sediments, abounding in forms of life, accumulated in new sheets above the strata of cooled lava." — (Newberry). It is obvious that this Great Basin region was once to Wi J_i_-_L ' 132 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAniY AND TIJAVEL. It |i Ijll ill ill occupied by Vcist fresh--vvater lakes, wliich were separated by areas of dry land, on which a luxuriant vegetation flourished, and over which herds of great mammals roamed. The smaller ranges of mountains were scattered over these lakes as islands, their summits projecting above the surface. The Klamath Lakes, Salt Lake, and Pyramid Lake, are the remnants of these vast Ijodies. In the northern portion of the basin the th-ainage effected by the Columbia River was so complete that in many places the sediments which accumulated in the lakes have been cut to a depth of two thousand feet. In the central portion, liowever, the waters gradually and slowly passed away by eva])oration, and the briny waters have concentrated in the lake basins which have no outlet. Of tliese Great Salt Lake is a typical speci- men. As a salt lake it is of comparatively recent origin. Several times the valley must have been filled high up on the mountain-sides with Avater — water, too, with very little of the saline character that it now possesses. The complete drainage of the northern and soutliern portions of the plateau so reduced the water surface of the area, that the moisture in the atmosphere was so mnch diminished that the dry hot air licked up the water from the undrained lakes, and gradually reduced them to their present dimensions. Althougli many streams have for ages been pouring a vast volume of water into Salt Lake, the evaporation is so rapid that it is not in- creased in size, but has g^-adually diminished. Many of the lakes of the Great Basin are marked only by alkaline plains or " salt flats," while others exist only during a portion of the year, and in the dry season are glittering sheets of salt. Those that remain as lakes are only huge evax^orating pans for the drainage from the mountains. 5. .2 The , coast, anc of 14,89^ ''inits of 1 It is ("onst. It '^'I'etaceous, a i^'Jt'vation thai it is con ^ntli A\-liic"Ii a ^"niiii Snvvvy ■'liUes are tru\ wiiieli are th '-''ihYoniiii so 'i-'he Sierra '(I CORDILLEBAN GEOLOGY. 133 liliue huge 5. The Sierra Nevada, Coast, and Cascade Ranges. The Sierra Nevada is the loftiest range on tlie Pacific coast, and in Mount AYhitney, which reaches an elevation of 1 4,89 8 feet, has the highest mountain peak within tlie ^iuiits of the United States excepting Alaska. It is also tlie oldest of the ranges on tlie Pacific coast. It formed the barrier to the ocean in Jurassic, VIKW OF THB SIKHU.V NEVADA. Cretaceous, and Tertiary tiuu, aUhuugh with a much less elevation that it now has. It is composed mainly " of granitic roi'ks, associated with which are metamor})hic slates proved hy the Cali- fornia Survey to he of Triassic and Jurassic age. These sliites are traversed in many localities hy A'eins of quartz, ^\ilic■h are the repositories of the gold that has made California so famous among the mining districts of the M-orld." The Sierra Nevada extends from about latitude N. 41° i ! f'f I 1 5iil t a! 134 COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TK.VVKL. I I: ii in Northern California to about N. 30" in tlie sontliern part of the State. It is partly vulcanic in the nortliern portion, and its axis is continued northward in the Cas- cade I\ange, which is almost entirely volcanic. The Coast Kange is the most modern of tlie tln-ee, and is composed mainly of Cretaceous rocks, with Tertiary occupying the valleys between its numerous sub-ranges. " It forms a raised margin along the western edge of the continent, and has produced that ' iron-bound coast,' described by all tliose who have navigated that portion of the Pacific," which washes the shores of the United States. Between the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada lies the California Valley, and the same structure reappears in Oregon and in Washington Territory; wdiile, between, the structure is partially obliterated by the encroachment of the mountains. G. Mineral Resources of the Cordilleras. The region of the Cordilleras produces nearly all the metals known to commerce, and its mineral resources are as varied as those of any part of the world. Gold and silver are found in greater or less abundance in nearly every State and Territory in the mountain region and along the coast. California and Nevada stand at the head of the gold- producing States, the latter also rivalling Mexico in its silver yield. In addition to gold, California yields copper, mercury, tin, iron, salt, and petroleum. Mercury is foniul at a number of localities in the Coast Eange, especially at New Almaden and New Idria, two places named after the two most productive European localities. The production of these mines, from 1850 to 1868 inclusive, was nearly 500,000 flasks. In 1878 the pro- duct c about found gold 1 neglecl wliicli export. W] Soutlie] it -vvou] price oi with th of tran; Calilbrn wells, a where it from th naphtlia! made frc Bon Nevada that it importan of borax 1875 \\i item in tl also abur acid. Tl America and in tl dered int resources ,i?old and Utah other reoi MINERAL RESOUKCES. 135 duct of California was G 2,479 flasks. New Almaden is about 58 miles south of San Francisco. Copper was found near Los Angeles in 1840, but in the search for gold the copper resources of the I'acific coast were neglected, and remained undeveloped until 1860, since which time copper has been an im])ortant article of export. When the petroleum of Santa Barbara County in Soutliern California first attracted attention it was thought it would exceed in quantity that of Pennsylvania. The price of the Pennsylvania oil fell so low that, together with the high price of labour in California and ditHculty of transportation, it rendered the development of the California oil-fields unprofitable. There are no flowing wells, and the oil is collected from the surface of jjits where it collects as a scum. The petroleum is different from the Pennsylvania oil, being devoid of the ligliter naphthas, and containing no parafhn. The burning oil made from it has also a higher density. Borax is found in the waters of several lakes botli in Nevada and California, but it is only in the Coast Eange that it is found in a crystalline form. It is now an important manufacture in California, and the importation of borax has almost entirely ceased. The production in 1875 was 5,000,000 pounds. Salt forms an important item in the economical resources of Nevada, and sulphur is also abundant, being used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The discovery of the gold-fields of British North America drew thousands of adventurers from California, and in their search for new fields of wealth they wan- dered into Oregon, Idaho, and Montana, developing the resources of those territories, which are principally in gold and silver. Utah has not been as well developed as some of the other regions on account of the hostility of the Mormons I v. iij i!| 4 h Kl 136 CO.Ml'ENDIUM OF GEOGKArilY AND TKAVEL. to mininf]j enterprises. In Arizona and New Mexico the apathy of the inhabitants, who are hir<;ely of Si)anish and Alexican descent, and the hostility of the various Indian tribes, has ])revented the development of the mineral resources of a rich mining region. Tlie Sj^aniards, in their conquest of New Mexico, mined for gold, silver, and coi)per, but the valuable mines have all been abandoned. The want of transportation has also operated against the pursuit of profitable mining. Colorado is rich, not only in gold and silver, but in her coal-fields, which is also the case M'itli Wyoming and Utah. The coal is known as bituminous lignite, and is found widely distributed and in great quantity. No anthracite is found except in small deposits, wliere it has been metamorphosed by local volcanic aeticni. Geologically this coal belongs to the debatable ground tliat lies between the Cretaceous and the Tertiary formations. To the vast ireeless plateaus and valleys of the mountain region these coal deposits are of incalculable value. The yield of gold and silver for the year from July 1st, 1877, to July 1st, 1878, in the several States and Territories, is given by the Director of the United States ]\Iint as follows : — Gold. Silver. Total. California . $15,260,676 $2,373,389 $17,634,068 Nevada . 10,546,513 28,130,350 47,676,863 Montana 2,260,511 1,669,635 3,930,146 Idaho . 1,150,000 2,200,000 1,350,000 Utah . 382,000 5,208,000 5,600,000 Arizona . 500,000 3,000,000 3^500,000 New Mexico . 175,000 500,000 675,000 Oregon . 1,000,000 100,000 1,100,000 Washington . 300,000 25,000 325,000 Dakota . 3,000,000 none 3,000,000 Colorado 3,366,404 5,394,940 8,761,344 $46,951,107 $46,601,314 $93,552,421 MLNi:UAL UESOUItCliS. 137 The total product from all other portions of the United States for the same period was $400,000, the j^okl ju-iu- cipally from North Carolina and Georgia, and the silver from the Lake Superior region. The following Table gives the production of the pre- cious metals in the United States uj) to 1875 : — 1848 to 1858 indusiv 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 Total Prior to 1861 Californ $555,550,000 50,100,000 46,150,000 45,000,000 43,700,000 48,500,0(10 57,100,000 64,475,000 63,500,000 65,225,000 6(»,0()0,0()0 62,500,000 66,000,000 65,500,000 61,750,000 72,500,000 73,000,000 74,817,596 .$1,575,367,596 a stood at the head of the States, but since that time the bullion product of Nevada has exceeded it. i I i ill m 7. Gold. Gold is found widely distributed throughout tlie Cordilleran region. The placers, which contain it in its native state, disseminated in sand and gravel, are the richest and most profitable sources of the metal. Placers liave been found of greater or less extent in every State and Territory of the mountain region. The first dis- if' Ifl li u h in i 138 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. coveries in a gokl-miiiinj:!; rej^'ion are naturally in nearly all cases of this class. They yield the auriferous product easily, and are rapidly exhausted. Enormous amounts of j^okl have been taken from them. The placers of Cali- fornia yielded, in the four years from 185U to 1854, in- clusive, $201,000,0U0, and Alder Gulch in Montana has alone produced more than $30,000,000. Following the exhaustion of the placers comes the search for the sources of the gold in the surrounding mountains, where the per- manent wealth of the region lies. The range of the vein deposits is equally extensive with the placers. Gold occurs free in quartz veins ; in combination with various sulphurets such as pyrites, and associated with silver as in the ores of Nevada. In California the gold found in place is chiefly free ; in Colorado it is fuuTid in co[)])er and iron pyrites in ores that are difficult of treatment ; and in Nevada it occurs not only native, but associated with silver in sulphurets and tellurids. In California it was as placer deposits that the first discoveries of gold w^ere made. Its existence in the region was known long before the date commonly ascribed to its discovery. The Mexicans, at various times from 1775 to 1828, found small placer deposits near the Colorado Eiver, but carried on no profitalde mining. In 1838 the placers of San Franciscpiita were dis- covered, and worked thereafter steadily for twenty years. James D. Dana, who visited the coast in 1841 with Wilkes's exploring expedition, discovered gold in the Sacramento Valley and in Southern Oregon. The discovery of the rich fields, of the Sacramento Basin at the west base of the Sierra Nevada was acci- dental. While engaged in digging a race for a sawmill at Coloma on the American River in January 1848, James JMarshall found pieces of a yellow metal which he sup- posed •'I doul iJiill ai Tlie ru the Ca said — ' Angeles ^'evuda, Gold/ V l^nilt, ai I>icks an( spot wJic eight dolJ and the diem." % J American $30,000 five milJio In tJie the World extensive hody huni cliants, pro worst elem for gold. . iiuaiters of from the S, h'oni tlie I "lontlis bet of January '•trnved in ( Phiius, and during tlie si t^ie hardsliip ift' MINERAL 11ES0UKCK8. 139 posed was gold. When the fact was demonstrated beyond a doubt in the following March, the men at work on the mill abandoned everything else iu the search for gold. The rumour of the discovery spread, and on jMay 2'Jili the Californian news])aper published in San Francisco said — " TJie wliole country from San Francisco to Los Angeles, and from the seashore to the base of the Sieira Nevada, resounds with the sordid cry of Gold ! Gold ! Gold ! wliile the field is left half planted, the house half built, and everything neglected but the manufacture of picks and shovels, and the means of transportation to the spot where one man obtained one hundred and twenty- eight dollars' worth of the real stuff in one day's washing, and the average for all concerned is twenty dollars per diem." ]>y July the number of persons emi)loyed on the American liiver was 40 00, who were ol)taining from $30,000 to $40,000 a day, and by November four or five millions of dollars had been extracted. In the spring of 1849 a stampede from all parts of the world to the Golden State began. It was the most extensive emigration the world has ever seen. Every- body hurried to the New Eldorado. Mechanics, mer- chants, professional men, with a large admixture of the worst elements of mankind — all mingled in a mad rush for gold. Adventurers poured into California from all quarters of the globe : from Mexico, Chili, and Peru ; from the Sandwich Islands, China, and New Holland ; from the United States and Europe. During the six months between the 1st of July 1849 and the 1st of January 1850, it is estimated that 90,000 persons arrived in California from the east bv sea or across the plains, and that one-fifth of them perished by disease during the six mouths following their arrival, such were the hardships they had endured, and the privations to i i 1 . li i i 140 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPIIY AND THAVEL. 1/ lil i l\ ! .1 which they were suhjci^ted From the troops which were stationed iu the State, Imudreds — officers as well as privates — deserted and went to the mines. Mining was the universal occn])ation, and it was almost impossible; to get or keej) servants. The western slope of tlie Sierra Nevada was covered with explorers, and every ravine or gulch where there was a cliance of finding the precious metal was prospected. IMining towns sprang into exist- ence with incredible activity, and presented scenes of busy life. The currency in common use was gold dust. When payments were to be made, if scales were at hand, amounts were M'eighed out ; if not, tlicy were guessed at, or measured in a spoon. All W(ire ricli — a gold- dust aristocracy. Tlie conmiunity was a peculiar one. Gathered IVom all classes of society and from all civilised nations with extraordinary rapidity, it would have been strange had it not been so. At iirst law and order 'were unknown, lu'erybody was too busy in getting ricli to provide protection to his riches other than he could afibrd himself witli revolver and knife. The bad elements revelled in this state of society, and for a long time lie who was quickest with liis six-shooter, and surest in his aim, ruled the camp, and ordered things according to his own will. This primitive but barbarous simplicity could not long continue. The civil authorities were too weak, or were indisposed to cope with the " roughs ; " and at last the law-abiding citizens were obliged for mutual pro- tection to combine and take the law into their own hands. Contiicts, more or less Lloody, ensued hetween the " A igi- lantes " and the " roughs." Scores of the latter were killed ; some shot ; others, after a form of trial, hung ; while the rest, dismayed by the fate of their conu'ades, fled from the country to participate in like scenes else- where ; so, Anally, the community was purged of its most violent elements. Th Iiandcd autliori constiti made n: at the 1 best tlir Tlii, has bee every m In 665,00C since. ' then beo' taken ph Men day be for they M'erc new field be believe miles froi Ibrmed, ;i searchin'" any possil In li I'eru in sc In 18 to Fraser ; of the yea] the silver followed I also the Pi rado, whiU 18G2-64. The Sc MINKRAL RESOURCES. 141 The " Vigilantes," fiiidiiiLf their mission ended, liandi'd their p(j\vei' over to the hiwfully-constituted civil iiuthorities, and disbandiMh j\Iany blamed these selt'- constitiited dispensers of justice, and luidouhtedly they made mistakes — undoubtedly innocent men sulfered ; but at the time, and under the circumstances, they did the best that could be done. This picture of the early miniuff days in California has Leen repeated, on a greater or less scale, in nearly every mining locality in the West. In 1851 the yield of gold in California was $65,000,000, which is greater than it has ever been since. The placer diggings Avere soon exhausted, and then began the " rushes," or sudden migrations, that have taken place periodically ever since. Men wIkj had never earned more than a dollar a day before they went to California M-ere dissatisfied when they were making twenty, and M-ere jtrepared to go to any new field of excitement. jS'cj story was too extravagant to be believed. Tracts in the inidst of sage-covered deserts, miles from mineral-bearing veins, were located, companies formed, and consideralde sums of money expended in searching for mines in places where they could not by any possibility exist. In 1853-54 there was a rush to Australia and Peru in search of placers that were never found. In 1858 eighteen thousand men went Irom California to Fraser Iliver, in British Columbia ; but before the end of the year five-sixths of them had returned, and in 18(30 the silver excitement spread tbruugh California, and was followed by the rush to Nevada. In 1859 and 18 GO also the Pike's Peak excitement drew thousands to Colo- rado, while Montana and Idaho were the new fields in 1862-64. The San Juan region of Colorado attracted a large i| m '. 142 COMI'KNDITM OF GKOGHAI'llY AND TRAVEL. share of attention in 1873-74, to be followed in 1875-70 l>y the Ulaok Hills excitement. The latest rush has been that to LeaJville, Colorado, which lie;i;an in 1877. Gold was discovered in Colorado in 1858, and in 1859 California (Julcli, the richest ever worked in Colo- rado, was discovered, and in 18G0 it swarmed with placer miners. Tn the first four years after the discovery of gold in Colorado, $30,000,000 were shipped mostly from placers. Tiie total product to 1878, inclusive, has been estimated at $80,000,000. The discovery of pre- cious metals in Idaho and Montana was made in 1802, and in 18 04 Alder Gulch in Montana was throni>od with miners, and yieldin;^ almost fabulous amounts f)f gold. Tlie gulch has been worked over and over again, and is still profitable. It has been only within a few years that quartz mining has begun to supersede the placer mining in this portion of the country. The Black Hills lie partly in AV^yoming Territory and partly in Dakota, two thirds of the area lying within the latter. It has long been known that they contahied rich deposits of gold, but it was not until 1874 that the richness and extent were practically tested by expeditions sent out by tlie United States Government. The Indians claimed the region, and would not sell it. "When defi- nite information in regard to the resources reached the east, a grand rush began. At first the Government tried to keep the miners out, but their efforts were unsuc- cessful. A western newspaper correspondent gives the following account of Deedwood, the principal town, in 1877:— " Here was a mountain crowded city of five or six thousand iidiabitants, extending several miles up two narrow defiles, intruding upon other similar cities, and making as much fuss and bluster as eastern towns of a centiir\ every solidly, fares in file cliii •^tructur rcminde iaisiiicss 'louses V tliree bui 1 louses, V ago the swearing die in Uu fn\(i i\mm The veter '"•f amus(>i; lie wiel(lc'( ^viien it ^ .i^idch, ])oii made good So gre in regard predicted f t-ii'ly tla}-s tioiis Were i't;gulations and dispute The to fi'om 1847 ^vhich $98 yield of Cal it was $65 in 1861, decreased st MiNKUAL i{i:suuuci;s. 143 coiitnvy's fjrmvtli. Tliei'c weiv. hv^ cabins and frames in every eonccnvablc! altitude, tents on tlie liill-sidi;, and S()lidly-1)nilt business hloeks alonff the narrow tliorouuli- liires in the ^fulelicfs, and tlio Iiills were fairly rin,uin«;' M'ith the elanj^' of the haninier and saw on the dozens of new structures j;"oin;^' u]). The ilin of dozens of stani])-niills reminded one of the old districts of Colorado, and the laisiness done by over two Inmdred sho])S and mercantile houses was sim])ly marvellous. Three daily newspapers, three bankinjj; houses, and some thirty liotels and eatin*>;- liouses, were here crowded with business, where two years a^o the amiable Sioux was readinj^' bis title clear and swearing he would have $80,000,000 for the country or (lie in the last ditch. Two or three variety theatres, and one furnishing the legithnate drama, were crowded nightly. The veteran actor, Jack Langrislie, was running the ])lace of amusement last referred to. When business grew dull, he wielded a graceful editorial quill on the Pioneer, and when it grew duller in winter, he went down into the uulch, boiled water to thaw out the frozen ground, and made good ' pay ' from his claim." So great was the frenzy that seemed to seize people in regard to the Dlack Hills, that all sorts of evils were predicted for the region, but, unlike the condition in the early days in California, good order prevailed. Organisa- tions were effected in nearly every camp, and stringent regulations adopted as soon as claims were staked off, and disjMites as a rule were amicably settled. The total production of gold in the United States, from 1847 to 1873, inclusive, was 81,239,750,000, of which $986,800,000 came from California. The gold yield of California reached its culmination in 1853, when it was $65,000,000. It gradually fell to $40,000,000 in 1861, when Nevada began to yield; and it has decreased steadily year by year since that time. Hf :i if I 144 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGIiArilY AND TUAVEL, 8. Methods of Gold Minivff. The first mining operations were simple, each miner (lepending for his profits on tlie jjan and tlie rocker. In tlie former lie dissolves the frold-beariny dirt, j)ickin<]j ont tlie stones with his hand. When all the dirt ap])ears to he dissolved, so tliat the gold falls by its weight to the bottom of the pan, he tilts it a little so that the thhi nnid and light sand run ont. This is repeated until all except the metal has heen washed out. CHINESE GOI.D-WASII I.H. The "TJocker" is something like a child's cradle. Cm the n])per end is a riddle witli a sheet-iron bottom which is punched with holes. In this riddle the auriferous dirt is placed, and a man rocks it with one hand, while with the other he [)ours in Avater. The water, liy the agitation, dissolves tlie clay, and carries it v ''h the gold into tlin floor of tht; rocker, M'here the metui, which is heavy, is caught hy transverse elects, while the nniddy water and sand run olf at the lower end of the rocker which is open. New and moro expeditious methods soon l)ecnnie necessary, and w.'iter was su])j)lied by ditches and Humes, and the " torn " which had been used in CJeorgia for years was introduced. It deep, ] ibot. inch h lower (' Ml do\\ over tJi( into a ij ^I'e to Oil JDto the men, avJij through t t"in the J •''■^solved.' Tlie t< ^ hoard tr ^^■if'i trans t^'t) goia, V tlescent of t^'e sluice the clay ai simply thi the goid. '^ ''(forwards f'^-' gold wa f'evise somo fiLster, and i ^ stream of •'i.^^'iiiist a ha. ^"•'tli tini.s t ^^"ite, and tj ^^i« sluice alo "1 a day; ,yit •^1' even ouf; r. if MINERAL RESOURCES. lio It consists of "a trou,i:>;li about 12 foet long, 8 inches deep, 15 inclios wide at the head, and 30 iuelies at tht; IVxjt. A riddle of sheet-iron puncliiid with holes half an inch in dianieter forms the l)ottoni of the torn at tlic lower end, so jJaced that all the water and tlie mud shall fall down throuuli the holes of the riddhi, and none ])a:rough the sluice in a torrent, l)earing down stones and tearini;- the clay and earth to pieces. At the head, the miners simply throw in the dirt, and at regular times take out the gold. At first the sluice was made short, but it was al'terwards lengthened to a mile or more, especially avIicu the gold was in line jjarticles. It was found desirable to devise some method by which the earth could be supplied faster, and the hydraulic process was invented, by which a stream of water was directed under licavy pressure against a bank or hill-side containing placer gold. The earth thus torn down was carried by the water into the sluice, and the expense of shovelling saved. While with the sluice alone four cubic yards of earth could be washed ill a day; with the hydraulic and sluice combined, fifty, or even ono hundred and fifty, could be washed. L ■'A ! 1 ! 1 ll ■ J 1 9 1 146 COMI'KNDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. i'<: 'ii! iwHi I I III Tlie auriferous clay was sometimes liard, and often required to l)e loosened liy the powder hlast. llii^li liills of gravel could now be attackeil, and river mining soon became un})rotitable to any except Chinamen, who worked for lower pay than white men M'ould ac(e])t. As tlie placer diggings became exhausted, it was natural tliat the rocky veins from which the ])lacer gold came should Ite searched for, and in hundreds of instances the gold was traced from the placers to the quartz lodes HYUHAULIC CiOLD-DlCGiNcJ, in tlie hill-;?ides, growing coarser as the sour(^(! was approached. Such discoveries Avere made in lM,"i(), niid companies were soon formed by whidi niillJDns of dolliii's were invested in machinery to work (piarl/; mills. Su]ht- inter'dents with the Avildest ideas were sent to erect tlicui, and in most cases the machinery was useless, the sujtcr- intendents incom[tetent, and the ventures complete failures. For many years the mill-castings weu olijects of ridiculu on the wliaives of San Francisco. The de\elopment of quartz mining, mdike that of the placer; subjeci Th introdii stone p ■'li arw] ^vJu'cJi ( wJiich f ^^'hen fin fition wii The cmphyeQ] to select every fou: however, nsed; in'si in cut, tJiej concentrate "itrochiced '^'^ mineral ^^'e "Great Tile fin I'lacers. T sfector is -Divide: - ' "The o-(j "lines exist ^'■c'lnentJy ( ^'•""»in.g ton ^'"'"e; Jeadin. ('"Jiioinin^g to' ^''"'^ed, a cre(> ^"'"<'y tJirou.-l ""■'fs, nnd ''^'^'eives the a MINERAL RESOUECES. 147 t^^ placers, has been slow, and, unlike tliem also, has not been subject to siidden decline. The first successful quartz miners were IMexicans, who introduced the orrastra, which consists of a small circular stone pavement, in the centre of wliich stands a post with an arm extending from it. To this is hitched a mule whicli drags around a heavy piece of granite, between wliich and the pavement the quartz is pulverised, and when fine the gold is separated by washing and amalgam- ation with mercury. The Americans at first erected costly steam-mills and employed a multitude of labourers ; and not knowing how to select the rich from the poor quartz, alxjut three out of every four quartz enterprises was a failure. Gradually, however, improvements were made ; iron stamps were used ; instead of falling with a simple downward move- ment, they were made to come down with a twist ; the concentration and chlorination of sul])hurets has been introduced ; and at present quartz mining forms a source of mineral wealth to nearly every State and Territory of the " Great West " of the United States. The first discoveries are made by prospectors and in filacers. The following excellent description of a pro- spector is given by the Earl of Dunraven in llie Great Divide : — " The general character of the country where placer mines exist may be said to be a series of deep gulches, fi'cfiuently dry in tlie height of summer, but carrying foaming torrents after heavy rains and in snow-melting time ; leading at right angles into a principal valley, and eomnining to form a little river, or, as it would be locally called, a creek. This princi]ial stream courses in a broad valley through the mountains for, perl laps, GO, 80, or 100 iiiiles, and at every two or thrive miles of its progress receives the waters of a little tributary torrent, tearing I 1 J 148 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL. I- \m w 'n ' 1 1 rV: tlirougli Uk! strata in deep canons for ten or twelve miles, and searching tlie very vitals of the hills. ])own these ,H'nlches, canons, and valleys are carried the yellow specks torn from their qnartz and feldsjxir cradles, hnrried down- ward hy the melting snow, and hattered into powder hy fall- ing bonlders and grinding rocks, till they sink in beds of worlldess sand and mnd, there to lie in peace for ag ^s amid the solitndes of primeval forest and eternal snow. Some fine day there comes along a dirty, dishevelled, tobacco-cliewing fellow — 'fossicker' as they wonld say in Anstralia ; ' prospector ' as he wonld he called in the States. Impelled by a love of adventnre, a passion for excitement, a hatred of ' the town and its narrow ways,' and of all and any of the steady wage-getting occnpations of life, he braves summer's heat and winter's cold, thirst and starvation, hostile Indians and jealous whites ; per- haps paddling a tiny birch-bark canoe OA'er nnmapped unheard-of lakes, away to the far and misty North ; or driving before him over the plains and prairies of a ^nore genial clime his donkey or Indian pony, laden with the few necessaries that supply all the wants of his precarious life — a little Hour, some tea and sugar tied up in a rag, a battered frying-pan and tin cup, a shovel, axe, and rusty gun. Through untrodden wastes he wanders, self- dependent and alone, thinking of the great spree he had the last time he was in ' settlements,' and dreaming of what a good time he will enjoy when he gets back rich with the value of some lucky find, till chance directs him to tlie gulch. After a rapid luit keen survey he thinks it is a likely-looking place, capsizes the pack off his pony, leans lazily upon his shovel, spits, and finally concludes to take a sample of the dirt. Listlessly, but with what delica(;y of manipulation he handles the shovel, spilliii,::^' over its edges the water and lighter mud ! See the look of interest that wakens up liis emotioidess face as the Sil lerau at prest yields United ^"evada ^vorld. to 187 fd)out t ^-ft'xico, lo4o. Ther in one 3 i'mn one in 1874 sold and ■\!S ! i! MINERAL RESOURCES SILVER. 149 residue of sediment becomes less and less ! Still niore tenderly he moves tlie circling pan, stooping anxiously to scan tlie few remaining grains of fine sand. A minute si)eek of yellow glitters in the sun ; with anotlier dexterous turn of the wrist two or three more golden grains arc exposed to view. lie catclies his breath ; his eyes glisten ; his heart beats. Hurrah ! He has found the colour ! ' and a d — d good colour too.' It is all over Avith your primeval forest now ; not all the Indians this side of Halifax or the other place could keep men out ot that gulch. Li a short time claims are staked, tents erected, slianties built, and ' Itoaring Camp ' is in full blast, with all its rowdyism, its shooting, gambling, drinking, and blaspheming, and its under-current of cliarity, whi(,'h never will be credited by those Avho value substance less than shadows, and think more of words than deeds." 9. Silver. Silver is as widely distributed through the Cordil- leran region as gold. Nevada, Colorado, and Utah are at present the principal silver-producing States, Nevada yields more than one-half of the silver protluct of the United States. The Comstock Lode at Virginia City, Xevada, is probably the richest deposit of silver in the world. The estimated product of the lode from 1861 to 1874, inclusive, was more than $169,000,000, or about the same as that of the score ol veins at Potosi, ]\Iexico, for the first fifteen years after cheir discovery in 1545. There is no other authentic record of the extraction in one year of nearly $23,000,000 in gold and silver from one lode, which was the product of the Comstock in 1874. The bullion has one -third of its value in gold and two -thirds in silver. Xevada ranks hidi as a '. ' ?! 11.-' fJiiM 150 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVKL. gold -producing State. In 1878 it yielded more gold than California. When gold was first (lisco\ ed in Nevada by Mormon emigrants in 1850, the presence of silver was not suspected. The ores were not recognised when seen, hut considered as interfering with tlie mining of the gold. The silver is found mainly in coml)ination, althougli deposits of native silver are not rare. The commonest ore is galena, which is generally rich in silver, unlike that of the Mississippi Vallty. It also occurs as sul]>huret, chloride, and telluride, especially in Nevada. At Lead- ville, Colorado, it occurs with carbonate of lead, and tlie ore resembles yellow sand in its appearance. Tlie follow- ing Table shows the production of silver from 1848 to 1858, 1859 18G0 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 nclusive Total $550,000 100,000 150,000 2,000,000 4,500,000 8,500,000 11,000,000 11,250,000 10,000,000 13,500,000 12,000,000 13,000,000 16,000,000 22,000,000 25,750,000 36,500,000 35,681,411 41,080,287 39,885,916 45,846,109 36,151,396 $385,445,119 Si City ii outcro locator PatricJ site of ricJi SI reservo below. imncis sold for In James ; Virginia Conistoc as " Old that he ( lie pure] succeeds tracted t niore tlia the worl( Imnii "nparalle ft'om a le picture of " One streets, tli corralled { I have ne tlie earlie: tliey so de 11 IMi COMSTOCK SILVER LODE. 151 10. The ComstocJc Lode and Virginia City. Silver was first discovered in the rej^n'on of Virginia City in 1857, 1»nt it was not nntil 1859 that the surface outcroppings of the Comstock Lode were found. The first locators who discovered silver were Peter O'Reilly and Patrick jM'Laugldin, who staked a claim on the present site of the Ophir mine. The ore they discovered was a rich sulphuret of silver, in an excavation made for a reservoir to collect water to wash for gold in the ravine below. Some of the dark gray stone was taken to San Francisco, where it was assayed, and a ton and a half sold for 83000 a ton. In 1858 a clahn had been located on the lode 1)V James Fennimore or Finney, who was known as Old Virginia, and from whom Virginia City derived its name. Comstock was a character familiar in the neighbourhood as " Old I'ancake." He demanded a share for the reason that he owned the water privilege. It is said also that he purchased the claim from Finney. At any rate, he succeeded in attaching his name to the lod(», which at- tracted thousands of miners, and has since 1860 yielded more than one-tenth of all the silver produced throughout the world. Immediately the lode was claimed for miles, and an unparalleled excitement followed. The following extract from a letter, written at Virginia iii 1860, gives a vivid picture of the excitement : — " One cannot help thinking, as lie passes through the streets, that all the insane geologists extant have been corralled at this place. Most vehement is the excitement. 1 have never seen men act thus elsewhere. Not even in the earlier stages of the California gold movement were they so delirious about the business of metalliferous dis- '% i »'' .1 I i . 1 • i 1 i ■ ii 1 f :Ln! 1 1 :1 1 ^ : ' ' ( i 152 CO.MPHXDH'M OF r;r,OG]!AriIY AND TltAVKL. ii: [I ' cnvery, Ilundieds and tlionsaiids are now here, wlio, reeling- that they may never liave another cliance to make a speedy fortune, arc resolved this shall not ]i:iss nnim- ]>roV(nl. They act with all the concentrated eneruy of those having- the issues of life and death liefore them. They demean themselves not like ratioiud Lein^s any more. Even the common modes of salutation arc chiin,^ed. ]\It'n on meeting do not inquire after each other's heahh, hnt after their claims. They do not remark about tlie Meather, had as it is, but about outcroppings, assays, sul- phurets, etc. They do not extend their hands in token of friendship on approaching, but pluck from their well-filled ]iockets a bit of rock, and, presenting it, nnitually in(juire what they think of its looks. During the day they stand apart, talking in couples, pointing mysteriously hitlier and yon : and during the night mutter in their slee]) of claims and dips and strikes, showing that their broken thoughts are still occupied with the all-absorljing subject. I shall be able to convey to your readers some idea of the inten- sity of this mining mania, when I assure tlieni that this portion of the American people do not even ask after newspapers, nor engage in the discussion of politics. Little care they whom you choose President ; conventions and elections, wars and rumours of wars, are nothing to them. They have their own world here. Here, bounded by the Sierra and the mountains of Utah, spread over the foothills and the deserts, is a theatre beyond which their thoughts are not permitted to roam ; to this their aspira- tions and aims are all confined. Whatever of energy, ambition, and desire are elsewhere expended on love, war, politics, and religion, are here all devoted to this single ]iursuit of finding, buying, selling, and trading in mines of silver and gold. Everybody makes haste to be rich; and so great is the mental tension in this direction, that it may well be questioned whether, if a sweeping disap- pointi duccd A\' nearly J'assed them i hceoniG mining is at tJ city of ; of tJie C is 52 m Pacific ; Truckee I'resent tained ai of 2;U5 one roon and slee J and tlie h atlvertisin Laws tiu-ers wIk ^vJlic]l wi legal verb voluminou ^age. Tiid Jirescribed laeiit. Tlie p Nearly one- ^iidirns in Mouses, bri "^any other COMSTOCK SILVER LODK. 153 pointinent should ovurtiike tlieni, many will not lie va- duct'd to a condition of absolute lunacy." AVitliin a i'ew months after the discovery of silver, nearly all the valuable claims on the Comstock li/d,ne had jiiissed from the hands of the ori,^inal locators, leaving tliem in general poor, while they migiit so easily have become nullionaires. This is the usual history in all nnnnig regions. Virginia City, which is situated on the Comstock Lode, is at the east loot of ^Mount Davidson, and is the chief city of Nevada. It was founded soon after the discovery of the Comstock, and is laid out on a precipitous site. It is o2 miles from IJeno, one of the stations on the Union raeilic IJailroad, at tlie terminus of the Vii'ginia and Truekee Iiailroad. It is unattracti\'e in appearance. 1'he present population is about 25,000. In 18G0 it con- tained an hotel and a newspaper office, with a population of 2o45. The newspaper oflice consisted of a shed ami one room. The former was used as a cooking, dining, and sleeping place by editors, reporters, and comjiositors, and the latter answered as an editorial, typographical, and ad\ertising de[)artment combined. Laws were necessary to control the lawless adven- turers who Hocked to the city, and a code was adopted, which was brief, practical, and unencundjered with legal verbiage. Any municipality which finds its own voluminous statutes inadecpiate might try it to advan- tage. There was no prison, and the two punishments prescribed for all offences were hanging and banish- ment. The population of Virginia City is cosmopolitan. Xearly one-half is probably foreign. " Piute and AVashoe Indians in picturesque rags, Chinamen in blue and bh'ck blouses, brawny Cornishmen, vehement Mexicans, and many other people from far-apart countries, mingle and I - iH ■ -ii M ! - I ^ i! I !' 154 COMPENDIUM OF GKOGUAniY AND TUAVKf,. surge along in the stream " that is constantly rushing through the ])rincipal thoroughfare. "While night falls on the visihle town, " the invisiltle town underground is glimmering with a thousand lights, just as it has heen glimmering through all the summer days and all the winter nights that have lowered ever since the Comstock Lode was first penetrated by a shaft. There is no repose in that mysterious region ; none of thi^ endless changes and renewal of seasons that sweeten existence on the earth; no relapse of day into night, or night into day ; no sunnner, no winter, and no Sunday. Nearly one-fourth of the whole population is hidden in the mines ; and when we see how overcrowded the su])er- ficial area is, and realise how many more streets and peo])le are out of sight ; how the crest of the mountain is the roof of a seventeen-story building which is constantly sinking deeper into the earth, we are prepared to agree with the proud citizen who assures us that Virginia is a pretty considerable place." The Comstock Lode has been traced over 27,000 feet on the surface, and has been actually explored 19,000 feet, within which sjmce the principal mines are located. A depth of over 2G00 feet has been reached (in 1879). It is situated in a heavy belt consisting principally of metamorphic rocks. In the middle of its course it occu- pies the line of separation of prophylite, a volcanic rock, and syenite. The former makes up both walls of the lode at other places. The main geological characteristics are the same that mark the greatest silver-bearing veins of Spanish America, and its general features are like those of other great argentiferous veins. Its ores are rich beyoud any depth which miners can reach. In 1859 the yield of bullion was $50,000 ; in 1860, $100,000. In 1868 it was $16,800,000, after which it diminished to $7,528,000 in 1869. In 1874 the yield was $2 iind in $40,00C ^'irginia "Jn made th. nacular. long beei ^vas ill fir hut it has expected tliesis is I adversity.' Anion (^'ityin 18 with the He concei\ vein at a t l^egun in ; to 11 feel tance of 1 1 work is ca when comp: not only d: but also ob^ I'atus, as t]i( i'ed action m- plorations ti humense po service of th Althoug saving by iu Mfe COMSTOCK 8ILVEK LODK. .00 was 822,400,000; in 1875 it was over $22,000,000 ; and in 1870 tliu total yield of thu Statu was over $40,000,000, a large proi)oitiou of which came from ^'ir^■illia City. " Jn tlie winter of 1874-75 the ^reat discoveries v.'cre made tluit aihled the Spaiiisli word honimxa to tlie ver- iiacidar. The technical meaning of tlie word, which has long been in use among American miners, to whom it was introduced by Mexicans, is a largo rich body of ore ; Itut it has found wider acceptance in the sense of an un- expected and brilliant stroke of good luck. Its anti- tluisis is horrasca, which means barren rock, bad luck, or adversity." Among the early prospectors who went to Virginia City in 1859 was Mr. Adolpli Sutro, who was inqiresscd with the magnitude and importance of the discovery. He conceived the idea of running a tunnel to drain the vein at a depth of 2000 feet below the surface. It was begun in 18G9, and has been driven at the rate of 7 to 11 feet per day, and will roach the vein at a dis- tance of 19,790 feet from the mouth of the tunnel. The work is carried on by the Sutro Tunnel Company, and, when completed, will have cost about $4,500,000. It will not only drain and improve the ventilation of the mine, but also obviate the use of the expensive hoisting appa- ratus, as the ore will be taken out through the tunnel to reduction works at the mouth. It will also enable ex- plorations to be carried to a much greater depth, as the immense power of the hydraulic column will be at the service of the miner. Although the expense of the tunnel is great, the saving by its use will be far greater. ■ ' r ' - Ph '^ i ■ h^ ■1 ' IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 11.25 112 ..|22 20 LL III 1.6 6" ^ Photograpliic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) S72-4503 y k^O {./ y. i/x L1>' iV iV \\ "% .V ^\ <^ \ ^^' ^J €^ %' ed. The Colorado basin lies mainly along the eastern edge of the mountains, extending from Canon City northward towards Cheyenne, Wyoming. Canon City, Liolden City, and the Boukh'r Valley are the principal localities of coal-mining operations. In the western and south-western portions of the State coal occurs abundantly, and in the Elk ^lountains anthracite has been discovered in limited areas. It is i 160 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. 11 1 not true anthracite, but is a bituminous coal from wbich tlie volatile constituents have been driven by the heat attending the eruption of trachytic rocks, in connection ^vith which it is found. Similar anthracite has lieen found in New IMexico. Coking coal has lately been found in Colorado and Utah. The Xew Mexican basin is as extensive as that of Colorado, although n(jt so well developed. Coal is found along both sides of the Eio Grande, in the Pecos Valley, at the riaciere IMoiintains, and south of the Eaton Hills. The three principal coal localities in "Wyoming Ter- ritory, along the line of the Union Pacific IJailroad, are at Carbon, llock Springs, and Evanston. Of tliese, Evanston is the most important. The miners at the latter are mainly Chinese, and in 1872 the average amount of coal mined was about 1000 tons daily. This has since been increased. Coalville in Utah has long been a source of supply for Salt Lake City and other ]\Iormon settlements. From all these localities the coal is approximately of the same cliaracter, the percentage of carbon ranging from 44 per cent to 54 per cent. The coal deposits of the Pacific coast are divided by Mr. Gabb, a geologist who investigated them, into two distinct groups geologically : the one, including all the workable coals of California and Washington Territory, is Cretaceous ; and the other, which is Tertiary, con- tains coal at numerous localities from Alaska to Cape San Lucas. P>ellingham P>ay, in the extreme north-western corner of "Washington Territory, is the site of one of the largest and best coal-mines on the Pacific coast. The bed is about fourteen feet thick, nine feet being available for mining. The coal is of fair quality, the only impurity being a small quantity of sulphur. The mouth of the mine is only about a quarter of a mile from the harbour, l\ ' I L.'^^^WBUi ^<^ora. Oe.,. Esiab^^or^Z inu^,.i lOfi iuo r|"' K ;ijr: ^ DA >. o i^ a'm^'>j To ^^ ^^S U. i\ f fiblwS oa. H, i A e£a^ -<» \ •^ -. B i- X'/jjSfN,.. r ' .^.vP'-^ ^tt' ^./z., , .; V' %**~^- .■ .;.\-- ''•^ /» luuu.' / (j.-j-f >■■ 11 :. ^Ji^i.J,n,l:-^ ^'^'* '7 f !l fit y// j -^ — b'^iiJ^^'*' "^i*^ -V C H L D II ^ R i" t'*K S t /•i/'if Kst^cado. ^W5»J*^<^^ 5* j?fwnrJ|a (i. ton 'Hoi y, J (rocJirtt A^ ^ . .\unif>terr [Burk .■f/lMrt.n/« v^_^ • ' 'ihiini'lii K ': .1. (ti> * Ai.x.i.tii.i. ./ri«' r L F a.-" f _- J 10 fi "Sfr kii > lift 7Vy !•»• KM)' J):." f)( LoikIoii: KdwaiMl StaJilbrcI . 'if*, (^haring (Voss. ig Cross. ill" s s f A > f'fr/, L.iA^"'"' ,.V.a« ,;,-.Ht <#' DOMINION OhCANADA Sculp of Br.iiah Miles 100 M n 1 00 ii I I I I V I t • joc Kxpliiiijitioii of Culuin-H .Hill » lu til Trrtiat\\ Ct'etaceouifi liixx^stc &• i/iiruti-iir (oiif yftuMiU'CM Xli-rmvCarhoTiitii-ouH Dnoniari I ik 162 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArHY AND TRAVEL. CHAPTER XI. HISTORICAL SUR\EY. 1. General Discovery and First Settlement. Of tlie two political regions whose leading physical features liave been sketched in the foregoing chapters, the great republic of the United States is undoubtedly the most important. Compared with British North America, it is more highly favoured, by reason of its more southern position, which, combined with its seem- ingly inexhaustible natural resources, unites all the con- ditions required for the development of a prosperous and well-ordered community, especially allowing for the growth of population, the first and most indispensable basis of all social culture. There has here been developed a com- plicated federal system of States, in many respects without a parallel in the history of human progress. The United States of America, which in 1876 celebrated the first centenary of its political existence, presents the singular spectacle of a nation, composed not of one, but o:' many peoples, presenting the only genuine example known to history of the application of republican principles to a numerous and varied population. From this point of view alone it may be well to bestow a cursory glance on the origin and growth of the United States. When and by whom the first discovery of America was made is wrapped in obscurity. It is quite well established that in very early ages the Northmen, coming HISTORICAL SUiiVEY. 163 from Scandinavia or Iceland, discovered the shores of Labrador and of New England ; but they did not people the country, and the traces of their occupancy are very scanty, and tell little of the history of their voyages. On June 24, 1499, the continent was rediscovered by John Cabot, a Venetian, then in the service of Eng- land and was named the " Tierra de Prima Vista." The northern regions of the i\.merican continent at first found little favour with the Spaniards, being by them described as worthless lands ("tierras de ninguu provecho"), be- cause they apparently yielded none of the precious metals. This one condition had, even before the discovery of America, largely determined the course of Spanish settle- ment, since they were almost exclusively attracted by the glitter of gold and silver. On this thirst for gold, dis- played by the Spaniard, many moral sermons have been preached. At the same time, it should be remembered that but for it few settlements could have been formed beyond the Atlantic towards the close of the fifteenth century. All agricultural colonies attempted to be formed by the English and the French on the eastern seaboard during the sixteenth century were literally starved out. Cut off from the home country, where a distribution of labour had been made, the settlers, after consuming the provisions which they had brought with them, nuist have necessarily sunken to the social condition of the natives, unless constantly supplied with stocks of manufactured goods from the old world. But such supplies were attended with a great advance in price, owing to the many risks at that time inseparable from a voyage across the ocean. Nor could the prices be covered by the pro- duce of the land, for this, even if obtained for nothincr, ■would not yet pay the cost of the homeward trip. i lG-4 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. I 'I i \ ! IF. 2. Eise of the English and French Settlements. Hence it was that Virginia, the first purely agri- cultural colony, did not begin to thrive till the opening of the seventeenth century, when a profitable return freight was at last found in tobacco. Thus it is mainly owing to tobacco, and perhaps also to the fur trade, that the present population of North America is of Anglo- Saxon origin. The fact that Canada was formerly purely French, and is still half French, is also due to another natural product of those regions. Round about New- foundland lie incredibly rich cod -fishing grounds, and even so early as the beginning of the sixteenth century a return cargo of stock fish was found to pay, because even in medioeval times it had to be brought from Iceland. Since the year 1503 Newfoundland was yearly visited by Breton fishermen from the north of France, who have given their name to Cape Breton. Sailing from those well-known waters, Jacques Cartier discovered the St. Lawrence, and following in his wake the French found their way to Canada. To blossom into fruit, a first settlement must above all be able to supply a profitable return cargo ; but once it has struck root, it grows like the mustard seed of the gospel parable (Peschel, Volkerkunde, p. 219). In this masterly sketch the whole historical develop- ment of the North American colonies is shadowed forth in few but bold strokes. We feel how they must have had to contend at first with cruel misadventure, but once the conditions of their existence secured, how they could not fail to enter on an almost iinchequered career of pro- gress. And so it came to pass. Merely for the purpose of completing the picture, it may here be mentioned that it was Sir Walter Ealeigh who in 1585 led the first colony to the shores of Chesapeake Bay. It was by him ("i HISTORICAL SURVEY. 165 named Virginia in homage to the maiden state of liis sovereign mistress, Queen Elizabeth of England, whose fame the " Poets' Poet " was even then preparing chival- rously to sing as the " Goddesse heavenly bright, Mirror of grace and Majestie divine, Great Ladie of the greatest Isle, whose light. Like Phoebus' Lamp, throughout the world doth shine." 3. S^tread of the English Power. But this first attempt came to naught, nor was it till about the year 1607, in the reign of James I., that the English settlements in the lands lying between the 34th and 45th parallels began to acquire a firm footing. They were soon followed by the Dutch and the Swedes, who took possession of isolated strips along the coast, the first founding the settlement of Now Netherland, with its capital New Amsterdam, the present New York, the latter settling first in Delaware and afterwards in New Jersey, but ultimately giving way to the Dutch. But before the close of the seventeenth century Dutch and Swede alike had passed under the rule of England, which was thus enabled to impart a certain stamp of uniformity on all her colonies on the eastern seaboard. The English now found themselves face to face with the Spanish domain on the south, and the more thriving French dominions on the north. The European contests, mostly fanned by the ambition of the Bourbon monarchs, to become masters in the Old, caused the flames of war to extend to the New, World. The long struggles that ensued resulted in the total expulsion of the French from the Northern Continent, where England henceforth reigned supreme. Of their former power in these regions the French have retained nothing but certain fishing rights in the Newfoundland waters. .V li-i m m I -\ y 16G COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. I !.<() ii ' !! ^ V< 4. Democratic and Xtcligioiis Character of the Early EwjUsh Settlements. Religious and pcjlitical oppression at home had driven most of the early English colonists to found those first settlements on the eastern shores of North America. Thus the northern colonies of New Hampshire, Massachu- setts, and Rhode Island were estahlished bv religious enthusiasts between the years 1G21 and 1G38, all four being united in 1643 under the name of New England. In the same way, the Catholic Lord Baltimore in 1G28 founded for his co-religionists the settlements of Maryland, with the town named after him. on Chesapeake Bay. Thither were attracted the persecuted Catholics in Europe, especially the Irish and Germans from tiie Palatinate. In 1G81 the Quaker William Penn, with many of his adherents, settled in Pennsylvania, and built Philadelphia, the "city of brotherly love." All these British North American colonists enjoyed from the first large democratic liberties, for the Puritans, constituting by far the greater number of the immigrants, had succeeded in carrying out a political and social system based on the strictest republican principles. It was of course easier to accomplish this in America than it would have been in a country like Europe, which wns occupied from time immemorial by a dense population cultivating almost every square acre of land. In the New World, the ground, with all its natural fertility, had first to be cleared, and was in the meantime called upon to support but a very scanty population. At that time the total area of the settled districts may have been some 320,000 square miles, with not more than 1,400,000 inhabitants in 1749, and in 1775 about 2,803,000,— that is to say, nine Europeans to every square mile. lu such extensive districts where vast distances sepa- IIISTOKICAL SUltVEY. 167 rated neighbour from neighbour, the personality of each individual is naturally brought into play far more than could be the case in crowded communities, nor is anyone powerful enough to impose an arbitrary yoke on the un- willing necks of men living so much apart. lu the early English colonies the only law unreluctantly submitted to was that of the Church, which, resting on the broadest possible basis, thus accpiired paramount and undue infhi- ence in temporal matters. Not only was the whole poli- tical organisation of the several colonies subordinate to it, but became in its hands a mere instrument for the acquisition of those higher aims that happened to consti- tute the essence of true Christianity in the eyes of the various sects for the time being in the ascendant. Every- tlung became subject to its sway, while towards noncon- formists each predominant sect displayed an unrelenting spirit of the most crushing intolerance. And not only could this despotic oppression fully reconcile itself with the principles of the most unfettered political freedom, but, as a faithful expression of the unrestricted will of the people, acquired an irresistible power from those very principles themselves.^ m 5. Political Enfranchisement and Adoption of BcpuUican Principilcs. Accustomed to act in the most arbitrary manner to- wards the native Eedskins, now slowly retiring beyond the mountains before each successive wave of immigration throughout the eighteenth century, — encircled by wide do- mains, a circumstance of itself favourable to the ideas of freedom, and thrown upon their own resources in their struggles with stubborn nature, — the New Euglanders could not fail to cherish and develop those maxims of liberty * John H. Becker, Die hundcrtjiihrige Ecpublik. mi i 'I i •J' ,. ■I I 168 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. and equality they had inherited from their forefathers. Hence the refusal of the Home Government to allow them a voice in voting the taxes they had to pay became a sufficient motive for the War of Independence, and when the thirteen Federal States proclaimed their political free- dom on July 4th, 1776, the only form of government they could possibly adopt was that of a commonwealth. This need not therefore be regarded as the triumph of any abstract principle, but rather as a simple matter of neces- sity, according, as it fully did, with the other social conditions of the colonists at that time. Nor did the new order of things involve any fresh step in the develop- ment of human progress, but flowed rather from the tenacious spirit of conservatism by which the American people were still animated. Hence, in asserting their political freedom, they proclaimed no new theories, but merely retained the old institutions and sentiments of personal liberty which are the heirloom of the Anglo- Saxon race, and which from the first found a genial home in that portion of the New World settled by them. European champions of freedom, such as Lafayette and Kosciusko, finding the progress of events in America to harmonise with their political views, were induced to take an active part in the struggle, which, after a pro- tracted warfare of eight years, resulted in England's fully recognising the independence of the united provinces at the Treaty of Versailles, in 1783. The leading men in the contest were Benjamin Franklin, who succeeded in securing many influential friends for the young republic in Europe, and above all, George Washington, no less wise in council than valiant in the field. Washington (born 2 2d February 1732, in the county of Westmore- land, Virginia, died 14th December 1799, at Mount Vernon) must be regarded as the true founder and sus- tainer of the new State. After his death, a federal city, \ f? IJi fc^ . " ^'''>**r^i, ,. / ^ .j-;S'''\ , / . .^y^ , „, " It I |i M V iKiiii, - i\.S,.-,l,n„ ,\: b\ill);l, l."itijtii iv:/. Yr T"'Af trA Sf- .W.ni./i..,«ir //„/,„,/ /:.1.<<. <*/ :j.-. ilr" -if"' . ,.„ .v,-;f.,'.^- M J i-(..ri»»i/ryi/r'/ 1 '(.(.■..( i//...)„,,. <,: .^''^ ■■'■..ir.< .illCiilllhuio |; Vm.h,)-.. 'i;,, .,,.>: lini«i'»**.* - ■?:;s:r£i::>VfSffi> IMTKl) STATES S.al.- .,!■ Klijjiisl. Milc-s '-^'l!i;S;&,";^"f.\iu.„u„.u. s»:' CtJNTlM rATUJN ' OI' KLOKIIJA ^A^ Hi so '■".'•■'1 -.■.•.....>^^.>«/ 7'J-'i-,.S-,v.,,,..,„.H,. i..l'. I '•kit ir^'^V, ""4!"" i!'^-ii>u-. J',..S„,.. ":''il hiirr ().. V "'"'J' K />',.r.l/)i,;Hi,.,.7y'''t.....>.viil,- i V l: ,;l»',/li*4- icT^i •--!-- r --T: ^^-- ' a ; ==3==:;;;=,=:^., I ■/„,,„;„.,,;(,/,■«« .vwv,.„„.,„, ;i V4',,i'x'-' O'ft"'"" #•'•'■■*"""" «• \o ;».'• Taiupit ■■-.., i ■S'lltflNllfllJt. fes;i i) ^^..■„OT''■•:;,!.: » j3*« di" 1-.. •>/ ••'"'•""• r.i..wi*.i»i)H ,■?)[>''.-' ;ra VVif .-« •\T',.7'»M'">tt' >l(;.FliiriilH lliilliil .!>■ I'ulliM' il<-l.rioi- .,*a i" ,'V""'Mi"'" 1.... ''5«*v<' '\ •klJUill'.^Krv r,„y-,.,„.An.^ '»'»'»'i<;:>i..-'.(t,;.,,„if,.; -■- !i ~tz-r. rfz.i:,:r- i ■; ; ■■ir-T--f—i— r—r^r- ->-:-i— i — i-"! I'tiK^'iliidf Wrsl ^.;.:.::. t ■J .'•../-,„„v- r,P«'"' y;.<^ cNlV^y..* '» .1 ,1,, Mississ,,.,.' HISTOUICAL AND rOLITICAL. 1G9 iiln'iidy founded in 17'.) 1, was Imilt almost in the centru of tlio rrpuhlic Jis then constituted, and lu'in^' destine(l as the seat of Congress, received the appropriate name of Washington. ('). Fcilrml Union — Vrogrcsn of Events. Congress liad liitlierto represented the united provinces in all foreign mattei-s, but each ]»rovinee now became a se])arate State, retaining its own original constitution. They had already concluded a recijirocal treaty of union amongst thenistdves in 1 787, referring to a central con- 1,'ress the chargii of all general all'airs. At the head of the feilt'iatjon was a ])resident chosen by vote, autl en- trusted with the executive. This ollice was limited to four years, but witli the option of re-election, and Cleorge WashingtiMi was naturally the lirst ap})ointed to fill it in the year 17S9. Under the tirst three ])residents the finances of the country were organised, the jniblic debt ])artly li(iuidated, partly funded and guaranteed, the saviige Indian trilies cither reduced to ])eace or semi-civilised, agricultuji; greatly encouraged, commerce developed to an extraordinary ex- lent, the jiojtulation increased beyond all precedent, and the territory of the Union considerably enlarged by the ac([uisition of extensive regions. This ra])i(l increase of power and prosperity suffered a brief interruption throuj^h the war with JMigland in 1.S12, whi''h, liowever, was brought to a conclusion the ni'xt year. Since then, although various complications frecpiently threatened to involve the Union in fresli wars, it continued to en joy the profoundest ])eace till the year 184(j, M'iien it engaged in a successful war against the nei'dibourinLr Mexican Piepublic. 'ffl ' 1 ' 1" "■ 1 1 I * ■ j 1 ! P .1 f '11 170 COMrKNDir.M OF C.EOClUArilY AND TKWKL. 1 V. S/iirmf of fhr Union to the l\icifu: ^rciintinu', as cryatiils radiiite round ji ^'ivcn centre, ono rejjjiou alter iinotluT Imd been attriictcil to tlic rnion duiin,!,' tlio lirst til'ty years df its cxistcni-c Sj)rfadin^ with extradrdinary rajiidity i'roni the Atlantic seaboard over the AHe^^lianieH to the hanks of tlie Mississipjii, and theiKC still westwards to the lloeky Mountains, it at last I'ound its natural iiinilstiii tlu^ shores of the I'acilic Oei-an. Like an irresistihle Hood, the Anylo-Saxon race anh to another. The Miixican campaign had ended with the acquisition of fresh territory, and as there now remained no dangerous rivals to overcome, the nation began to entertain a too complacent conviction of its own invincible power and 8U])erIative excellence. T.ut the hitiierto almost unche([uered career of victory received a heavy blow in the great civil war that ragcul from 1801 to 1805, presenting to contemporaries the sad spectacle of a free peojile tearing itself to jueces in a fratricidal contest eiitailing greater sacrifices of life and jiroperty than any other war recorded in the annals of the Morld. The causes of this colossal struggle, ending in at Ica.'it ..■"'•• ; (.•/••••-\ II-'" 'Li, ,^,,w ;(•«•■ <4"" s' ( ,. /i V •' s'mi •<.»••'■••' "v ^'Ar—^ I ,1"'' «'!/.«•« ,.«.V WJ" H \> 01.1 a** .ii*«'- . d* . 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HJ- '■ij .V ,',r'.',;, A.."i"" .'..V.:- :e^rr«i , W„||j,„gr^ tf',-. /"V'^" n. ?>•*. m ':fyici. ■'''^aYi»i •rliAllI STfioWJ* ••:(i«;»i.;j--j i..r^ i.^ W"^'' *,-;>,.,«*' " K'ilA .'^1 u, '"■>», '•*h;,J> M>* '¥ ■if^: (•'^"^^-iirMl^ r^w? «W/. ^t\h«.:. ■vC:"^ ■^f 4,^?*^ "^i*,. 1-i,, f'-VJiR,'**?* u c fi :i. Vii-v t'Ai.fcfc, tfi'.H/ntnw'*^'*'*^'— / Uy 'aiJJ ! "^ ^u ~d »->' <.mw«'''P EitapeuJa*;^ #»<*^ m: f^'' ?> I to I'C W . .-ic . . r,o,.iun Kilt. wo Min-eOiim WU ynte: ThepvfntlatH'n ti'The n-holf of J't/Uft/uui M nfiuli to ■irt.'l ■ llhim 130* 1; V I. I ff»pic ol' CaDc o p _i — J — 1 — i — ■^r _*y"Eii^ish Miifs. Luudou: Kdwon1SlB,,i5(;ha,.ii,jj , ross NITEdIsTATFS (188 0) AND OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA (I88I). 60^ )C:wni<»,AY f ^1 • ii)i|«i il lil '•! STATISTICS. 181 City a fair epitome of New York State, or Philadelphia of Pennsylvania. But though the larger cities have not absorbed the country, they were making rapid strides towards such an undesirable consummation when the financial crash of 1873 came. This turned the tide in the opposite direction, and since then the labouring classes have everywhere been driven from the cities, and forced to return to the culture of the soil. The principal cities of the Union may almost be counted on one's fingers. They are : — Boston, in Massa- chusetts — population, 362,535 ; New York, in New York State, 1,206,590 ; Brooklyn, in the same State, 566,689 ; Philadelphia, Pa., 846,984; Baltimore, Md., 332,190; Washington, District of Columbia, 147,307 ; New Orleans, Louisiana, 216,140; St. Louis, Missouri, 350,522 ; Chi- cago, 111., 503,304 ; Cincinnati, Ohio, 255,708; and San Francisco, Cula., 233,956. The older cities, including those on the Atlantic coast, were not at first laid out. They simply grew by a process of spontaneous generation. In the case of Boston, the streets of the older part of the city, it is said, were laid out by the cows returning from pasture, and cer- tainly the narrow winding streets give colour to this ludicrous origin. The more recent parts of these cities, with the entirety of those in the interior, were 1)uilt in accordance with plans — in regular sc[uares, with lu'oader streets intersecting at right angles, resembling, as has Iteen often said, gigantic chess-boards. In many cities the streets are designated by numbers and letters of the alphabet ; and in some, one hundred numbers are allowed to each scpiare, the next square commencing with a new liundred. These arrangements are of the utmost con- venience in finding one's way in strange cities, however much of the aesthetic may be lost in conseq\ienco. In the names of the cities one notes a certain pijvertv. [ i II 182 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAYKL. ]\Iaiiy are taken from well-known cities of the Old World — thus we meet with London and New London, Paris, St. Peterslmrg, etc. The classics are not neglected, foi- Troy, Utica, Alexandria, Carthage, and others have been ^ I resurrected on this western continent. The names of great men are very numerously immortalised. Washing- ton appears in nearly every State in the Union, and in many of them a number of times, causin^ great confusion. In Iowa there are 44, in Ohio 39, in Pennsylvania ID, and in other States several each. In the newer parts of the country, especially in the Western States and Territories, there are few self-styled villages. The sanguine American mind sees in every new settlement a future metropolis, and, like Minerva, it springs into being, a full-grown city. Every straggling settlement on the frontier — built, it may be, of logs — is a " city ; " and the speculator in corner lots confidently pre- dicts for it a vast future. The first building of these to-be cities is — not a church or schoolhouse — but a hotel, if a log-cabin of one room can be so-called consistently. Next, a saloon appears, and then a small proportion of dwelling-houses. When the town has passed its lawless stages, — wlien it has sown its wild oats and has settled down into a law-abiding community, — then churches and schoolhouses appear, and the religious and educational elements are ministered to. This is the general history of growth of settlements on the Western frontier. Again, many of these incipient towns die prematurely. Mining excitements give birth to numberless " cities " which perish when the mines become exhausted, or, from one reason or another, work on them is stopped. Thi' oil regions of Pennsylvania contain many of these mush- room towns which, from the failure of the oil-wells, arc now in a state of decay. All over the West are deserted towns, monuments of departed placer diggings, or "played- III IB 'E : I 1 || ' M 11 iJ ii f i/ NEW YOllK CITY. 183 I, 'I oat" quartz leads. Tlie railroads, too, contribute their tniotu t)t' receut ruins. Every important railroad, during i'.s construction, carries at its end a town — even a city in some cases. As the end of the road moves on, the town follows it. It is a city upon wheels. The houses are UKule of the thinnest and lightest materials, and are often carried bodily in sections from one sto])])ing-place to another. The Union Pacific liailroad, during its construc- tion, carried a town of several thousand inhabitants upon its end. As may be supposed, the people of this town were not of the most desirable sort. Besides the em- ployes of the road, it consisted mainly of gamblers, despei'adoes, and loose women of the baser sort. Law and order were unknown, save as administered by "Judge Lynch." Shooting was a pastime freely indulged in by both sexes and all classes. The revolver was king over the community. 5. New York Citi/. This, the chief commercial city of the country, is situated at the mouth of the Hudson Eiver, on the island of Manhattan. It was originally peopled by the Dutch, and by them named Xew Amsterdam. It is by far the largest and most important city in the country, and has a magnificent harbour, excelled by none in the world. Tlie older part of the city, situated at the southern end of the island, is more or less irregular in plan. But the general scheme of the city is that of long streets running north and south, lengthwise of the island, and mainly known as avenues, with cross-streets from one side to the other. The latter are numbered, commencing near Luion Park, at the upper end of the old part of the city. The southern portion of the city is devoted to business, the northern portion mainly to dwellings. Broadway, though not, as implied by its namCj a broad street, is the ■ :, ' ij !i i* 184 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TllAVEL. principal among the business streets. It runs down the island in a southerly direction to its lower end. The city contains, besides vast numbers of maoniiicent dwellings, many fine public buildings and Inisiness edifices. Of the public buildings, one of the most noted is the City Hall, a graceful and elegant structure, Avitli a white marble facade ; another is the new Court-House, notorious as the means whereby many were enriched from the city treasury. Tlie Custom-House is an immense and massive structure of Quincy granite. The national Sub- mg BROADWAY. treasury occupies the old Custom-House, a l)eautiful and spacious building of white marble. Tlie new I'ost-OHice building is the finest public structure in the city, and is admirably adapted for its purpose. With parks, the breathing-places of cities, this metro- polis is well provided. The largest of these is Central I'ark, in the northern part of the city. It is two miles and a half long, by half a mile in width, of a rectangular shape. It is divided into two unequal parts by the Croton reservoir, whence water is supplied to the city. The surface of tlie park is undulating, just sufficiently to PRINCIPAL CITIES. 185 give an agreeable diversity to the scenery. Nature had (lone little for it, but art has beautified it until it is one of the finest parks in the world. It is embellished with fine groves of trees and shrubbery, ponds and fountains, statuary, etc, etc. Besides Central Park, the cit)'- contains several other open places. Among these are the Battery, Bowling Green, the City Hall Park, Union Square, and others, amounting altogether to more than a thousand acres. The commerce of the city is enormous. Nearly 60 per cent of the foreign trade of the country passes through this port. In manufactures its importance is proportional. It contains 59 banks, representing a capital of 85 millions of dollars. As regards means of education, the city is well provided. There are 287 grammar and primary schools, with an average attendance of about 117,000. There are several schools of higher grade, commonly known as academies, and supported in whole or in part by religious denominations. There are two colleges, Columbia, and the University of New York, both of which are flourish- iii" institutions. There are also several schools of medicine and surgery. The city also contains no less than 23 public libraries. The public improvements of the city are by no means all that could be desired. Most of the pavements are in bad condition. The main business streets are paved with cobble stones, than which scarcely anything could be worse, although they are being gradually replaced by Belgian blocks. Wood pavements have been tried, but there, as everywhere, they have soon decayed, leaving tlie streets in a shocking condition. Although the city is admirably situated for carrying out a perfect sewage system, it is yet in a bad condition. The market-houses, too, are unworthy of the great city. li? ■I ; Pi , :i 180 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND THAVEL. The population is very mixed. Most of tlie lines of European steamers have this as their western port, and bring to it thousands upon tliousands of immigrants from the Old World, and the worst elements of this throng of immigration remain to curse tlie city. Tlie larger propor- tion of these are Irish, from the lower classes, and they are taken up by the Democratic party of the city, and in turn assist it in kee]nng political control. The result is that the city is mainly ruled, or has been in past time, by its worst, lowest elements, and a systematic pillaging of the public treasury was carried on for years with impunity, llecently, however, better men have regained control of power, and the reign of Tammany, it is to he hoped, is over. 6. Philadelphia. Philadelphia, the " Quaker City," the chief city of the State of Pennsylvania, is the largest in territorial area, and the second in population, within the limits of the United States. It is situated on the west side of the Delaware River in the south-eastern part of Pennsylvania, and extends N.N.E. along the river to a point 22 miles from the mouth of the Schuylkill Eiver, reaching 5 to 1 miles westward from the Delaware. The site was discovered in 1623 by the Dutch of New York, who soon located there. The Swedes settled along the river within the I ndary of the city in 1638. By the treaty between England and Holland in 1674, the settlements of the Delaware fell under Englisli authority, and in 1681-82 Philadelphia was laid out by William Penn. The present city has an area of 82,603 acres, and includes the entire county, which was consolidated in 1854. Previously it included only a strip a mile in width, which reached west- ward from the Delaware to the Schuylkill Eiver, a distance of two nules. The portion west of the latter ruiNciP.vL crn^.s. 187 stream is ikiw known as West I'hiladolphia, and other parts of the city are frecpiently called by the names which they have retained from the time when they were under independent mnnicipal !ii ■t il^iii ^^ 190 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. i il'i r: "K i ■ ; ri Hi l\ vessels at once; and another, on the Sclmylkill, has a capacity of 800,000 bushels, and can load six vessels at one time. In 1875, the value of petroleum exported \vas $7,927,399. The coal shipments, generally for Ameri- can use, are very large. The steamships of the American line are of the lirst- class, built of iron at Philadelphia, and are the only steamships plying between America and Europe which fly the American flag. There are six main lines of steam railroad radiating from the city, besides numerous local roads. Philadelphia was the seat of the Federal Government from 1790 to 1800, when Washington became the capital. 7. Baltimore, the Monumental City. Baltimore, the principal city of Maryland, is situated at the head of navigation of the Patapsco River, near the Chesapeake Bay. In 1870 it had a population of about 267,000. The city is mainly laid out at right angles, the build- ings being princijially of brick, with some of granite and iron. It contains many fine public buildings, among them the City Hall, built of white marble, and costing $3,000,000. It has excellent graded schools, in which about 40,000 children are instructed. It lias several academies or minor colleges, and one, known as the John Hopkin's University, which has just been instituted on a liberal endowment, and promises to become one of tlie first institutions of learning in the land. The city has many breathing places, in the form of small parks, and besides these, Patterson Park, in tlie north-eastern section of the city, which contains 54 acres. But the park is known as iJruid Hill I'ark, which is TKINCIPAL CITIES, 191 situated just beyond the north-west section of the city. This contains 704 acres of land, beautifully undulating in surface, and embellished by all that landscape art can supply, making it one of the most enchanting spots to be found in the neighbourhood of our large cities. 8. Washington. Washington, in the District of Columbia, the capital city of the United States, is situated on the left bank of the Potomac Iliver, about 100 miles above its mouth. Though but a few years ago a straggling, dirty, unhealthy village, it is now the finest and healthiest of American cities. Its plan is one of great beauty and symmetry. The city is laid out from the Capitol as a centre, in four sections, North-west, South-west, North-east, and South- east. The streets running north and south are numbered, starting from the Capitol ; thus we have 1st Street East iind 1st Street West, etc. Those running east and west are denominated by the letters of the alphabet, and we have, ill similar manner, A Street North, A Street South, etc. Those streets which radiate from the Capitol towards the four cardinal points are known respectively as North, South, East, and West Capitol Streets. Besides those streets, which divide the city into rectangles, there is a system of avenues which cut the streets at angles of 30° and 60°. These avenues are named from the States of the Union, as Massachusetts Avenue, Pennsylvania Avenue, etc. The streets and avenues are wider than those of any other city of the world, ranging in width from 70 to 100 feet. The crossnigs of streets and avenues have, in very many places, presented opportunities for small tri- aiigidar or circular parks, wliich serve to beautify and adorn the city, as well as to increase its salubrity. Be- sides these, there are many larger parks scattered about P' I I >i : 1 1 1 m mu ! ' j ' I ii 'I! A 192 COMPENDIU]M OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. the city, such as the Capitol Grounds, wliich comprise 52 acres; the grounds about the Wliite House (the Presi- dent's Mansion), containing 20 acres ; those of the Smith- sonian Institution, the Public Garden, the Agricultural Bureau, and the Washington Monument, in all about 100 acres ; and many others, each comprising a square or two of land. The combined area of streets and public parks is slightly in excess of that held as private property ; that is, more than half the area of the city is in streets and parks. WliUe tlie city contains very many fine private resi- dences, its public buildings far overshadow all others, by their magnitude and their architectural effect. First among these is the Capitol, whose great white dome is, from all directions, the first object in the city to attract the eye. Its general plan is that of a central building, surmounted by a dome, and flanked by two wings. Its entire length, from north to south, is 751 feet, with a breadth of from 121 to 324 feet in its different portions. The building covers nearly 3^ acres. The total cost of the building has been about $13,000,000. The height of the wings is 70 feet, while that of the dome, from the ground to the Goddess of Liberty upon the summit, is 285-J feet. The material of the main building is free- stone ; that of the wings is white marble, while the dome is of iron. The rotunda, occupying the central portion of the main building, is one of the principal attractions of the Capitol. It is a circular hall, 96 feet in diameter, by 180 feet in height to the top of the canopy above. On thi- spherical concave is painted a nuimmoth fresco by l^rii- midi, representing allegorical and historical subjects. The panels which surround the rotunda, nearly on a level with the spectator, are adorned with historical paintings. The Senate chamber occupies most of the north wing, It mmi PRINCIPAL CITIES. 193 It is 113 by 81 feet, and accommoflates seventy-six senators, while the galleries have a seating capacity for a thousand spectators. This room is without artistic decorations, with the exception of the glass panels of the ceiling, which have symbolic designs. On either side of the Senate chamber are the Senate committee rooms, most of Avhich are richly frescoed. Other rooms in tliis wing are richly finished in Italian and Tennessee marbles. The staircases, also, are of white and Tennessee marble. The south wing is occupied by the Hall of Represent- atives and the numerous committee rooms. The hall is the largest legislative room in the world, being 139 by 93 feet, atfording space for 300 members, while the galleries will seat 1500 spectators. The Library of Congress occupies the western projec- tion of the central building. This library comprises over 310,000 volumes, for which the space is entirely inade- quate, and measures are on foot for a new library building, with increased acconmiodations. The Supreme Court of the United States has its room in the central building of the Capitol. The interior of the building is finished throughout in marbles, with floors of stone or tiles. The walls and ceilings are beautifully frescoed. It contains very many works of art, statuary, paintings, and syinljolic frescoes. The building of the Treasury Department is a vast and imposing edifice in the Ionic style of architecture, and is built of freestone and granite. The building has a length of 4G8 feet, with a l)readth of 264, and contains 195 rooms. It cost $0,000,000. The great building of the State, War, and Navy De- partments, now in process of construction, will, when finished, be one of the finest in the city. It is in the Italian Iienaissance style, and is built of granite. The 11 v: , 1 194 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGHAPIIY AND TRAVEL. ! ; ,f' iGl • i\U dimensions of the edifice will be 567 by 471 feet, and it will cost about $7,000,000. The building of the Interior Department, which covers two entire squares of the city, is in the Doric style, and is of sim])le but massive proportions. It is of freestone, marble, and r;ranite. Opposite the latter is the building of the Post-Office Department, occupying an entire square. The order of architecture is Corinthian. The President's mansion, known popularly as the White House, is situated between the Treasury and the new State Department building, fronting on Pennsylvania Avenue. It is a plain stone edifice, surrounded by extensive grounds, adorned with shrubbery, trues, and fountains. Otiier public buildings are those of the Department of Agriculture, which is of brick, with brown stone trim- mings, and situated in the midst of large grounds ; that of the Smithsonian Institution and National Museum, built of red sandstone ; that of the Army Medical Museum, which occupies the building formerly known as Ford's Theatre, in which President Lincoln was assassinated ; the Naval Observatory, the Navy Yard, Arsenal, and Government Printing-Ofiice. Within the city and in its suburbs are many charitable institutions, su])ported in Mdiole or in part by the Govern- ment. Tlie Soldier's Home, for the support of aged and invalid soldiers, is situated a short distance outside tlie city, on the bluffs which surround it. It occupies a tract of about 400 acres, which, with its beautiful buildings, works of art, groves, fountains, and smooth lawns, forms a most attractive park, and is a favourite resort during the heated season. It was establislied by the Govern- ment, and is kept up by a small tax levied upon the pay of the soldiers of the regular army. cities o-j a'lvantfi ^y the v attractin class of Com ^iites sill iiieut, w] I'ltiou. t M PRINCIPAL CITIES. 105 it S, IS Tlie Deaf .and Dumb Asylum, situated just beyoud tlio limits of the city, deserves mention. It occupies 100 acres, comprises a number of buildings in semi-Gothic style, and accommodates 100 pupils. Among others are the Xaval Hospital, the Soldiers' and Sailors' Orphans' Home, and the "Washington Orphan iVsylum, besides several others, supported entirely by private subscriptions. In matters of primary education, "Washington is not behind other large cities. Its schools are excelled by none, save perha])S those of Boston, Massachusetts. But in the higher grades of learning it is sadly deficient. True, it boasts several so-called colleges, among them Georgetown College, Columbia College, and Howard University; l)ut, in point of fact, these do not rank higher than an average Xew England high school. The society of the city is very cosmopolitan. Gathered as it is not only from all parts of the country indiscrimi- nately, but from all countries of the world, and from all grades of society, it would be strange if it were not so. It is also extremely democratic ; such things as sects in this society cannot exist. While it has long been a political centre, it is rapidly growing to be a soientiHc and literary centre. The great number of scientific and literary experts employed by the Government in various capa- cities give a tone to the society ; while the unexam]iled advantages to the litterateur, artist, and scientist, all'orded by the vast libraries, museums, and works of art, are daily attracting to tlie national capital more and more of this class of population. Commercially, the city is nothing. Its business re - lates simply to supplying the employes of the Govern- ment, who necessarily form a large part of the popu- lation. I! 'ill I fM ! II It III 19G CoMrENDIUM OF GEUGKAPIIY AND TKAVKL. M i: i^/ / ii 9. BaffaJo, Cleveland, Detroit, Pittsburg, Cincinnati Of the towns ill tlie interior a lew only call fdi' speciiil mention. In the West, amon,n;st the chief cities are BnffUlo, Cleveland, and Toledo, the iirst iuid third heing great centres of the corn and cattle trade. The second is especially famous for its extensive petroleum refineries, rivalling those of Pittshurg, as well as for its lumber-yards, ironfoundries, smitheries, and shi])l)uild- ing-yards, and has one of the most fre(|Uented jKjits on the (freat Lakes. Detroit is a city of the second rank. Here are con- centrated the smelting-works where the excellent copper- ores of Lake Superior are smelted, and large quantities of bacon are also cured in this place. It has not yet for- gotten its French origin, many French Canadians residing there, and the French lan'>-uage beinii; still used to some extent. Mention should also be made of Fittsburg in Fenu- sylvania, originally the Fort Ducjuesne of the Freneli, now famous lor its smelting-works, petroleum-refineries, coal-mines, glass -M'orks, and manufactories of every sort. In a word, it may be regarded as the .Manchester ami lUi'minghaiu of the Xew AVorld. Xor should we overlook Cincinnati on the Ohio, the " Queen <'ity," or " I'oi'ko- polis," as it is frequently called, on ,iecr)unt of its im- mense trade in ])ork. Wine is also here ])roduced in large quantities, its champagnes, hocks, and es|iecially its sparkling Catawba, in the opinion of the natives, rivallin.u' in flavour the corresponding i)roduce of the European vineyards. 10. St. Louis and Cliveujo. r>ut the two great rival cities in the "West are un- doubtedly St. Louis on the Mississippi, in the Stale of H St. Loui.i rnidway ^''ikes am J. r pi' of PRINCIPAL CITIES. 197 ]\Iissouri, and Chicago on Lake ^Michigan, in Illinois. Tliere are few cities in America so favourably situated as HARBOUR, ST. LOUIS. St. Louis In the centre of the Mississippi Valley, ^*' 'ies midway between the extreme western point of the lakes and the Gulf of Mexico on the one hand and tno i!vl '\<\ I ! i i? '".'■ '■ ! I f I iM If 'It; =ii»^ > ;, I' (' ^'1 ': ' ' i 198 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Atlantic seaLoaid and the slopes of the Eocky IMountains on the other. It is further situated in a region capahle of nnliniitud expansion, all which advantages give it some claims to be regarded as the possible future capital of the great republic. Hence it is not surprising that the qnestion of the transfer of the seat of government from Washington to St. Louis has already been frequently discussed. The growth of this city has been astounding, the popu- lation increasing from 75,000 in 1850 and 100,000 in 1860 to 310,000 in 1870, thus doubling itself in each successive decade. In 1880 the number was 350,522. This rapid growth has therefore received a very decided check, but a further great development is so confidently relied upon that in all public establishments every provi- sion is made to meet it beforehand. No city in the Union presents such a charndng pros])ect as does St. Louis seen from the neighbourhood, washed as it is by the great river, whose mighty waters tiow majestically by, and whose shores are now connected by a really gigantic bridge, high enough to allow the largest Mississippi steamers to pass freely beneath its colossal arches. Of this magnificent tubular railway bridge Professor Mlincli, writing in 1875, declares that it remains, so far, without a rival in the Old or the New World. Still more rapid has been the growth of Chicago. In the decade between 1839 and 1849 its population rose from 3200 to 23,047, amounting in 1859 to 90,000, and in 1870 to 298,977. Notwithstanding the fearful fire of 1871, it increased from 304,000 in that year to 334,000 in the next, and the population, calculated by the Chamber of Commerce at 430,000 in 1873, is now (1880) 503,304. Chicago is the chief port on the great lakes, by which it is connected with the St. Lawrence and Canada, as well as through the Erie Canal with the "▼^^"•■PWW ^ m ^il nil^'l^. 'i1 u ; A ^ % MM • -V i 1 '9- . -j i 1 " / i- ~r- ; ■ ■ "J ^r-pfp**^- \n t ' I I ^: m If ' i.! I S.1 »' r //,* / 1 1 n ii!' I fi ^;' iUL hilly rUINCIPAL CITIES. 199 Hudson and New York. About twelve railway lines radiate from this place, which has justly been called the dau,yliter of New York. To its enormous import and export trade have already been added various branches ot" local industries. The si^lits of the place may easily bo seen in the course of a day, though in the midst of all this bustle and trallic one is apt to forget that he is in a new world, where nature must necessarily for along time present greater sources of U'sthetic enjoyment than the most po2)ulous of cities born but yesterday. 11. San Francisco. Tliis sketch of the more important cities of tlie Union would be incomplete without some reference to San Fran- cisco, the " Na])les of America." Like most of the other towns in the New World, the Californian capital is laid out in regular squares. But the straight streets here ascend such steep inclines over the sand dunes that it becomes at times impossible to follow them to the end. It often lia])i)ens that after the street has been laid out and built upon, more recent improvements, by effecting deep cut- tings through the crests of the ridges, have left the houses suspended like frowning bastions high above the final level of the roadway. Had the first plan been better adapted to the lay of the land than the straight lines here imprac- ticable, a really beautiful city might have arisen on these picturesque slopes. But notwithstanding this drawback, San Francisco still remains unquestionably the finest city in the Union. New York alone might perhaps compete with it in this respect, but any one long resident in both places, if un- swayed by partial feelings, will unhesitatingly award the palm to San Francisco. It is charmingly situated on a hilly site almost completely encircled by the waters of ;«'':C;-. '■! 200 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGliAl'IIY AND TIIAVEL. I"! i', ivtii IS n tlie racific. In liis Gmifrr Brituin, Sii' ('liai'U;H W. Dilko .s])eiiks thus of the " (jioldun City," us it is now often called : — " Siin Francisco is ill-placed, so far as mere biiildiii;:,' facilities are concerned. When tlu; first houses were built in 1845 and 1840, they stood on a strip of Ijeaeh surrounding the sheltered cove of Yerha Buena, and at the foot of the steep and lofty sand-hills. Dunes and cove have disa]»])eared together; the hills have been shot bodily into the bay, and the former harbour is now the business quarter of the city. Not a street can be Iniilt without cutting down a hill or filling up a glen. Never was a great town l)uilt under heavier dilliculties ; but trade requires it to be exactly where it is, and there it will remain and grow. Its former rivals, Vallejo and llenicia, are gxass-grown villages, in spite of their having had the advantage of a ' perfect situation.' While the s])ot on which the CJ olden City stands was still occupied by the struggling village of Yerba Buena, Francisca was a rising city, where corner lots were worth thirteen or twenty thousand dollars. When the gold rush came the village, shooting to the front, voted itself the name of its great Ijay, and Francisca had to change its title to Benicia, in order not to be thought a mere suburb of San Francisco. The mouth of the Columbia was once looked to as the future haven of Western America, and point of conver- gence of the railroad lines ; but the ' centre of the universe ' has not more completely removed from Inde- pendence to Fort Eiley than Astoria has yielded to San Francisco the claim to be the port of the Pacific. ... In my walks through the city I found its climate agreeable rather for work than idleness. Sauntering or lounging is as little possible as it is in London. The summer is not yet ended ; and in the summer at San Francisco it is cold after eleven in the day — strangely cold for the latitude of I'RINCirAL (;ITIK8. 201 Athens. Tlie ficvco sun senrchcs uj) the vallcvs of tlio San Joaquin aud tlio SacranuiUto in the early niorniu,Lf ; and the heated air, risiuf^ from off the ground, h'avcs its place to be filled by the cold breeze from the I'acitic;. Tiie Contra Costa llanj^e is unlirokcn exce])t by the siii.yle ga]) of the (lolden (Jate, and throii^nh this ojxMiiiiu' tliccold winds rush in in a never-ceasinj^' gale, sjtrciiding fan-like as soon as they have passed th(^ narrows. Jlfiu'c it is that the G(dden Gate is called the ' Keyhoh;,' and the wind the ' Keyhole Jjree/e.' U]) country they make it raise the water for irrigation. In winter there is a calm, and then the city is as sunny as the rest of California. "So purely local is the bitter gale that at IJenicia, ten miles from San Francisco, the mean temjR'raturc is ten degrees higher for the year, and nearly twenty for the suuuner. I have stood on the shore at ])eiucia when the thermometer was at a hundred in the shade, and seen the clouds pouring in from the Pacific and hiding San Tran- ciseo in a murky ])all, while the temperature there was under 70 degrees. This fog retarded by a hundred years the discovery of San Francisco Bay. The entrance t(j the Ciolden Gate is narrow, and the mists hang there all day. Cabrillo, Drake, Viscaino sailed past it without seeing that there was a bay, and the great land-locked sea was first beheld by white men when the missionaries came upon its arms and creeks far away inland. " The peculiarity of climate carries with it great advan- tages. It is never too hot, never too cold, to work — a fact which of itself secures a grand future for San Fran- cisco. The effect upon national type is marked. At a San Franciscan ball you see English faces, not American. Even the lean Western men and hungry Yankees become l)lump and rosy in this temple of the winds. The high metallic ring of the New England voice is not found in San Francisco. As for old men California must have been '. li ■:i! i i . M > r)* m 202 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAl'IIY AND TRAVEL. 'Ill that fabled province of Catliay, the virtues of which were such that, whatever a man's a^e wlien he entered it, he never grew older by a day. To dogs and strangers there are drawbacks in the absence of winter : dogs are muzzled all the year round, and mosquitoes are perennial upon the coast. " San Francisco is inhn^ ited, as all American cities bid fair to be, by a mixed throng of men of all lands beneath the sun. New Englanders and Englishmen predominate in energy. Tlie French and Italians are stronger here than in any other city in tlie States ; and the brown-skinned Mexicans, wlio own the land, supjily the market peo])le and a sniall portion of the townsfolk. Australians, Poly- nesians, and Cliilians are numerous ; the Germans and Scandinavians alone are few ; tliey prefer to go where they have already friends — to I'hiladclphia or ]\Iilwaukee. In this city — already a microcosm of the world — the ]'jiglish and American are in possession, have distanced the Irish, beaten down the Chinese by ibrce, and are destined to physically preponderate in the cross-brcetl, and give the tone, political and monU, to the Pacific shore. New York is Irish, Ph'' lelphia German, Milwaukee Norwegian, Chicago Canaman, Sault St. Marie French ; but in San Francisco, where all the foreign races are strong, none is dominant, whence the singular result that Caliiornia, the most mixed in population, is also the most EngUsn of the States" (ii. pp. 247-254). POPULATION. 203 CHAPTER XIII. THE POPULATION AND ITS VARIOUS ELEJIEXTS. 1. Statistics of the Native and Foreign Elements. Apart from the Aboriji-inal Indians and tlie men of coloui', whether jnire negroes or half-castes, of whom we sliall have to speak farther on, the white po] dilation of tlie United States belongs mainly to <"^'e Britisli, or rather to the Anglo-Saxon stock. An estimate for the year 1 8 G 8 distributes it in the following projwrtions, according to the various nationalities whence it is descended : — English, Scotch, Irish, and Welsh, 15 ; Germans, Scandi- navians, and Dutch, 10; Spaniards and Erencli (Latins), 5; Africans, 4 ; Native Indians and South Americans, 1. The census returns for 1870 gave 32,1)89,437 natives and i",56G,r>G4 immigrants, — tliat is in the pro- ])ortion of one to seven. Of the natives, both ])arents of 9,734,845 were foreigners, 10,521,2;)3 were the oil- spring of a foreign father and an American mother, while 10,105,G2G were descended from a foreign mother and an American father; strange to say, the census includes the first over agnin in the last two numbers. There were, tlicn, about 16,000,000 immigrants or their children. 2. Native Americans. By this t^rm is meant tliose Caucasians who were born and bred on American soil, wliatever their origimil derivation. They are found to dilfer widely in ditlerent r' ... ? i. s n iiiMT t A i 204 COMrENDIUM OF GliOGRAniY AND TUAVEL. n ! I I V »'/ ;l /" \ri .'!, III! ; '/; !i|.p I sections of the Union. This is natural, as tlie innnij^rants to dill'erent sections were of diiferent nationahties, aial were, and are, subjected to different social and climatic conditions. Tlie idea that one new race is in process of Ibriuation on tliis continent is manifestly incorrect, not only in fact, hut in theory, as all the conditions Avliich tend to modify the human type differ extremely in different parts of tlie country. New England was originally settled hy Turitau English, a people who lived a hard aiistere life. They were honest, conscientious, and intellectual, hut luirrdw and bigoted. A cold, hleak, damp climate and poor soil are the gilts of Dame N^ature to New England, and the history of the settlers has been one of poverty and hard- shi}). Such a hist(.)ry cannot fail to leave its mark u])Oii the offspring of this ])eo])le, and we find them, as a class, lean, tough, and wiry, with little development of muscle, but capable of great physical endurance. The face is narrow, with sharp features and high cheek-bones. The sockets of the eyes are deeply suidcen, and are compara- tivel}^ near to one another. While the ])hysiognomy of the Xew Englander has these peculiarities, his demeanour betrays a nervous, rest- less spirit, which contrasts strongly with the quiet and sober l)earing of his English kinsman. He is always busy about something, always in a Irarry. A state of inaction is almost mdvnown to him. The cause of this peculiar temperament, though possibly in a measure due to peculiarities of climate, is mainly owing to the fact that this has been, and is yet, a new country, where nuich and ra])id work is required to subdue nature, reclaim and settle it ; that life in it is full of change and excitement, and has not yet settled down to the monotonous existence of most European countries. As one proceeds westward to the newly -settled regions, he POPULATION. 205 finds this restless spirit greatly intensified, and in a newly- discovered mining district it amounts to a delirium. The New Englanders, as a whole, contrast favourably with their fellow-countrymen elsewhere, by their especial attachment to the home country, by tiie interest they take in its moral and intellectual life, as well as by the retention of mar.y good old Englisli customs, es]iecially shown hi their love of agriculture, and in the construction and internal arrangement of their dwellings. Their pre- eminent mental qualities are clearly perceptilde in their very features, and in the extraordinary inlhience exercised hy them over society throughout the Union. Although not numliering more tiian a tenth of the whole population, yet on an average more than half of all important national undertakings are due to tliem, while most of the Xorth- American writers and tliiiikers,- — men like Franklin, Longfellow, .Parker, Emerson, Ifawtliorne, and many utJK'rs, — are iS'ew Englanders. o 71ic Gcrmcm Element. The other two main elements of tlie pr)])ulation are the ri^sult of more recent, and still active, migratory movements of the European nations westwards. These immigrants are either crowded together in tlu> largo sea])orts and comniercial marts, and in the centres oi' industry and the inining districts of the east, or else follow the main line of railways through the inland States, s])re!idiiig somewhat iinit'orinly owr the more thickly ]ii'n|ilcd regions of the West, Avhile still shoM'ing a seeming jn'cfercnce for the iieighboui'hood of tin; great lakes and ri\eis. They {ire divided into two great classes, the Germans and the Irish. Under the generic name German may here be con- veniently included all the iteojjles of Teutonic blood except the Anglo-Saxons or English. It will thus com- prise, besides the High and Low Germans, the Dutch, 1 l.i> / )l 206 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL. the Flemings, the Swiss, the Eusso-Germans, and the Scandinavian Danes, Swedes, and iSTorwegia is. Tliese liave settk^d mainly in tlie north- western States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Michigan, and Wisconsin, althongli Pennsylvania has drawn a large quota to its mining regions. Some sections of these States are peopled very largely with Germans, the American ele- ment being decidedly in the minority. ]\Iost of the Germans who emigrate to America are from the labouring classes, and from them the ranks of miners, labourers in iron-work, and farmers, are laro'elv recruited. As a class they are sober and industrious, but very clannish, preserving the associations of race for generations. Ow4ng to the present policy of the German Government in regard to Socialism, very many of the adherents of this dangerous doctrine have sought asylums on these shores, where they have made many proselytes. This work has been aided by the industrial collapse under which the country is suffering, and will probably disap- pear with the revival of material interests. I'lie Germau element is, however, a dangerous one in tlie body ])olitic. According to the statistical returns, there are at present 1,090,533 Germans in the United States, dis- tributed amongst the various States as below : — Alabitma 2,482 Midiigan . (14,443 Vermont 370 Arkansas l.\')(i3 .Miniu'sota . 41,3(54 Virginia 4,050 California 2'.».10() Mississippi . 2,9(50 AVest Virginia (J, 232 Connei'tieut . 12,743 ]\[issonri . 113,(518 AViseonsin 11)2,314 Dulaware 1,142 Nebraska . 10,954 Arizona . 379 Florida . .''lO? Nevada . 2,181 Colorado 1,456 (Jcorgia . 2,7(!1 New irampshiro 730 Dakota . 563 Illinois . 2ti:5,7r)S New Jersey . 94,000 Distiiet of Indiana . 78,000 North Carolina 904 Columbia 4,920 Iowa (1<',102 (^hio . . 182,897 Llaho 3S8 Kansas . 12,775 Oregon . 1,875 Montana 1,233 Ki-ntncky 30,318 Pennsylvania 160,1 4(i New ]\Iexico 582 Louisifuia 18,933 IMiode Island 1,202 ITtidi . 858 Jlaino . 508 Sonth Carolina 2,751 Washing ton 645 Jlarylaml 47,045 Tennessee . 4,539 Wyoming 652 Massaclmsutts 13,072 Te.vas . . 23,985 UJip POPULATION. 207 Of the larger cities, Cincinnati contains 31,000, St. Lonis 40,000, Chicago 50,000, Philadelphia 60,000, and New York as many as 200,000 Germans. Some years ago ofiicial statistics of the immigration during the pre- vious fifty-one years gave a grand total of 7,448,922, of which 3,820,040 were accredited to Great Britain and Ireland, and 2,350,000 to Germany, including 101,000 from Prussia, The German emigration attained its greatest proportions with 200,000 in the year 1854, after which it fell below 100,000, but rose in 18G6 to 110,440, and in 18G9 to 124,766, and again fell to 74,490 in 1870. Since then it has continued to de- cline, coming almost entirely to a standstill in 1874, the gloomy agricultural prospects at that time causing even a considerable counter -stream of migration to set in, especially towards Germany. The deep national divoic^ betM'een Xorth and South Germany, intensified as it is by the religious element of Protestantism in the one and Catholicism in the other, is also kept alive in America, even after the ]»olitieal union of the people in Europe resulting from the Franco-l'rus- siau war. Put since that war the German element has begun to take a more promiaent part in jiublic affairs, at first rallying under the flag of one or the other of the great political parties, and then gradually forming an inde- pendent power with which the other conflicting elements may in future have to deal. 4. The Irish Element. The third main element of the population is tliaf of the Irish, mainly Poman Catholics. According to the last census, they number 1,858,82 7, and in proportion to its actual ])()])u]ation, Ireland lias contributed well-nigh ten times more to the peopling of Korth America than wm i io i ii! ■ i lid. ( 1' !i I ■ ! II' I ( I |(t li' m ) ! In! '{i .! 1 1 i 1 ; t 1 " t ! 1 1 ■ if 208 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. the whole of CJermany, in its widest sense. The returns show a total immigration of 2,377,391 from Ireland be- tween May 1, 1851, and I)cceml)er 31, 1875. The tide of emigration rose highest in 1852, when no less than 100,322 forsook the shores of the Emerald Isle. Since then, while subject to great fluctuations, it has still steadily subsided, sinking in 1875 to no more than 51,462. By far the greater number proceeded to the United States, where they have become a sort of " social evil." Ethnically speaking, they contributed to a serious deterioration of the breed, while socially acquiring a de- cided predominance in the State through their compact organisation and blind obedience to their self-elected political leaders. They show a marked jireference for the Atlantic States, where they form the mass of the artisans and of the menial element in the large towns. For agri- cultural pursuits they seem to possess little taste, not more than 138,000 altogether being devoted to the cul- tivation of the land. On the other hand, there are more Irishmen in Xew York alone than in Dublin. There they numlicr no less than 340,000, one-third of the whole ])Opulation, — through their decided majority and spirit of clanship deciding all the municipal elections in the Empire city. Their vote elects the mayor, the magistrates, and the police. Hence the jiolitical parties must ev^ery- where make large concessions or " bids " f nUt ^fli b '1 1 M r hl:i\^ till V. :i ! ^Wm 1 " If I, 'i : 'I '! ■ 'I / .; 212 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGIJAl'IIY AND TKAVEL. al)le to perforin it in so short a time as an equal nunil»er of more robust wliites or l)lacks, tliey will make U]) for this drawback by more steady and persevering habour. conscientious application, and uniform workmanship. They will, moreover, condescend to the lowest occu- ])ations, such as scavenoering, rag gathering, and the lik(.< ])ursuits, far too degrading for the European or American whites. But they also Uike readily to agricultural, mining, and railway work ; while in San Francisco they aspire even to the dignity of merchants and physicians, or at least quacks. At the same time, their Avants are ex- tremely limited ; and the little that they do require is mostly procured from China itself by means of the " Six Great Companies." Hence, however valuable the Cliina- uiau is as a producer, he is next to useless as a consumer. 8. Dcfiraded Habits and Vices of the " Celestials!' But their many good qualities are balanced, or more than balanced, by others of a very different stani]), that are quite sufficient to account for the ill favour in which they are everywhere held. Not only is their general standard of culture so low that they have not the remotest idea of the nature of the institutions of the country where they hay)peu to be residing, but they live, moreover, in complete seclusion from the rest of the com- munity, forming a caste for themselves, a State within the State. Both for the purposes of society and anmsemeut they resort to their own gathering-places, so that their intercourse with the whites becomes restricted to matters of the most absolute necessity. Their habits are also indescribably filthy, the dens occupied by them reeking with unsavoury odours, and swarming M-ith vermin. The Chinaman is, moreover, a born smuggler, esj)ecially in the matter of his beloved jit m '4 '.!' rOPULATION. 213 dpi urn. IIo is l>y nature suspicions, and loses no chance of circumventing the white man in all their nnitual deal- ings. He soon learns to apply his artistic skill to forging; lience enjoys no credit with his neigldtour, and is coni- ])clled to pay ready money for everything. He is, at tlie same time, a passionate gambler, and is inca]ial)le of any sentiment of ])ersonal attachment. However long he may have served his master, he will leave him at a moment's notice, as soon as he hears that more remunerative work is to be had elsewhere, though it may amount to no more than an extra half-dollar a month. Of the meaning, importance, and sanctity of an oath, or, in fact, of the virtue of truthfulness in any form, he has not the remotest conception. Hence he almost excels the ]\Ialay of Java in the utterly unscru]ndous way in which he will produce false witnesses, or allow himself to be suborned in the courts of justice. It has been made abundantly evident that a Chinaman will unhesitatingly swear to anytliing required of him, in return for a few coins of trifling value. The natural consequence is, that tlie Chinese everywhere find it a very difficult matter to get justice, even when in the right, and this is especially the case in their disputes with the whites when the deci- sion depends npon hard cross-swearing. In fact, their notions of right and law are altogether highly distor' '1. 9. Social State of the Californian Chinese. Amongst the Californian Chinese there is simply no such thing as family life, owing to the extreme scarcity of women of any sort, and especially those whose reputation would bear the least inspection. The few that are found amongst them have been imported simply to supply the dens of infani}' in the Chinese quarters of San Francisco. They are nothing but slaves, treated like so many heads i.,ll 1 li (! ! '.. > \ 1 (:■ \ u 1 '■'. it ■!,'■ I \ :' ^ -1 III 1 1 ' . ^'ii ■ t ■ t:W. nlll IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1 It i^ IIIM I.W 1" 11111== I.I illM m M M 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 M 6" — ► Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WESSTER.N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 v\ ff I i'i i i 214 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. of cattle. The whole of Califor- nia has set its face against this nefarious traffic, the most de- graded outcasts of the hunrnu race being regarded as angels of purity when compared with tlie Chinese women, who are handled in their own country like cheaj) or desi)ical)le wares ; hence have never acquired the least idea of decency, morality, or woman- hood. The local papers are accustomed to say that " a horde of Chinese women is worse than the cholera." The 'majority of the immi- grants from Hong Kong seem 0. to THK CHINK8K QUAKTKH, SAN FRANCISCO, U ?l< 1 POPULATION. 215 to belong to the scum of society, wliich the authorities of that colony make every efl'ort to get rid of in this way. This may also, perhaps, help partly to account for the great discrepancies often met with in the pictures of Chinese habits and customs as described by various im- partial writers. But that the " heathen Chinee " is at times able to give the Christian himself a sharp lesson icj shown by an anecdote related to Hepworth Dixon by an indignant " Christian citizen " of San Francisco. It oc- curred during the rainy season, when the mud lay fifteen inches deep in the streets. A Chinese, gaily dressed in violet satin, was picking his steps daintily over a plank at a crossing, a sight which so irritated a looker-on, that he advanced from the opposite direction and jostled the " celestial " into the mud. The manoeuvre and the spec- tacle of the Chinaman floundering in the mire greatly delighted the gaping crowd. But on recovering his foot- ing, and shaking the dirt from his satin robe, he made a curtsey to his tormentors " like a young girl," looked mildly round, and withdrew with the remark, loud enough to be heard by all : " You Christian, me heathen : good- bye." The same writer gives the following account of the Chinese element in the Pacific States of the Union : — " The yellow man, generally a Chinese, often a Malay, sometimes a Djak, has been drawn into the Pacific States from Asia and from the Eastern Archipelago by the hot demand for labour, any kind of which comes to him as a boon. From digging in the mine to cooking an omelette and ironing a shirt, he is equal to everything by which dollars can be obtained. Of these yellow people there are now 60,000 in California, Utah, and Montana; they come and go, but many more of them come than go. As yet, these harmless crowds are weak and useful. Hop Chang keeps a laundry, Chi Hi goes out as cook, Cum n i; 1 1': ': 1 . 1, i I i: 1 :i )r 1 t 1 216 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. 'i i(» (: 'i it II Thing is a maid-of-all-work. They are in no man's way, and they labour for a crust of bread ; carrying the hod when Mike has run away to the diggings, and scrubbing the floor when Biddy has made some wretch the happiest of liis sex. Supple and patient, these yellow men, thougli far from strong, are eager for any kind of work ; but they prefer the employments of women to those of men, delighting in an engagement to wash clothes, to nurse babies, and to wait on guests. They make very good butlers and chambermaids. Loo Sing, a jolly old girl in pigtail, washes your shirts, starching and ironing them very neatly, except that you cannot persuade him to re- frain from spitting on your cuffs and fronts. To him spitting on linen is the same as damping it with drops of water ; and the habits of his life prevent him, even though you should catch him by the pigtail and rub his tiny bit of nose on the burning iron, from seeing that it is not the same to you. To-day these yellow men are 60,000 weak, in a few years they may be 600,000 strong. They will ask for votes. They will hold the balance of parties. In some districts they will make a majority — selecting the judges, forming the juries, inter- preting the laws. Those yellow men are Buddhists, pro- fessing polygamy, practising infanticide. Next year is not more sure to come in its own season than a great society of Asiatics to dwell on the Pacific slopes. A Buddhist Church, fronting the Buddhist Churches in China and Ceylon, will rise in California, Oregon, and Nevada. More than all, a war of labour will commence between the races which feed on beef and the races which thrive on rice — one of those wars in which the victory is not necessarily with the strong " {New America, voL ii. pp. 17-19). !S ii' u POPULATION. 217 i 10. The Japanese in California. While on this subject, it may be mentioned that, be- sides the Chinese, a Japanese colony has also been settled in California since about the year 1860. A German named Schnell, resident for some years in Japan, came to San Francisco to establish a Japanese settlement in California on the co-operative system, the object being to introduce the cultivation of the tea and olive plants, the wax and nmlbcrry trees, and develop the silk trade generally. Schnell procured a considerable tract of land in the county of Eldorado, and the seedlings he at once planted here have succeeded remarkably well, not except- ing the tea plants, although for these the season was any- thing but favourable. The very next year a small crop of tea was sufficient to allow of an opinion being hazarded on the quality of the new product. Schnell has come to the conclusion that the climate of California, with its hilly grounds, is far more favourable for the growth of the tea plant than is Japan itself. The three-year-old mulberry saplings on the same occasion brought from Japan soon struck root, and the introduction of rice plantations began to be talked of in 1870. But since then no further reports have been received regarding the condition of the young Japanese colony in Cali- fornia. II lift ( !S i fi I F, \i 218 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. CHAPTER XIV. THE INDIANS. l'\' '!■ ;' II; : 1. Statistics of the Settled and Nomad Tribes. In the last census 66,407 only of all the Indians re- siding in the United States Territory are accounted for. No official estimate could be made of those still living in open hostility to the Government any more than of those confined to the territory of Alaska, who have been calcu- lated at 75,000. But according to the last report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, the total number of Indians in the United States is 255,938, exclusive of Alaska. This, however, can be accepted only as a toler- ably correct estimate, as there is absolutely no way of arriving at the truth. In speaking of the Indians two categories must be distinguished, — the settled and agricultural Indians, and those living on the produce of tlie chase. Of the first class, also, there are two divisions, — those who were ori- ginally and of their own motion settled in towns, and those who liave been induced to give up their nomadic life and settle down to agricultural pursuits by the efforts of the whites. The first of these latter divisions comprises the Pueblo and Moqui Indians, who are known as town-buildiug Indians. Their home is in New Mexico and Arizona. They are really a semi-civilised people, and are plainly to be distinguished from the rest of the aboriginal popu- J. INDIANS. 219 lation of America, from whom they differ in origin, mode of life, customs, and affiliations. They are probably re- lated, more or less closely, to the Aztecs or Toltecs of Mexico. 2. Puehlos. The Pueblos constitute several tribes, with different languaj^es. Some of them have become extinct since the occupation of the country by the Spanish, but those now existing are the Zunis, in the town of Zuni ; the Toltos, in Taos, with whom are classed the people of Picuris, Sandia, and Isleta ; the Tiguas in San Juan, Santa Clara, Xambe, San Ildefonso, Pojuaque, and Tesuque ; the Queres iu Cocliite, San Domingo, San Felipe, Santa Ana, Zia, Laguiia, and Acoma ; and the Jemez, in the Pueblo of the same name. In the nineteen Pueblos named there are estimated to be 8400 people, the most populous being Zuni, with some 1500 souls; and the least, Pojuaque, with but thirty or forty persons. At the time of the first Spanish conquest they were as far advanced as now, raising grain, vegetables, and cotton, and manufactming fine blankets. Their houses are sometimes built of stone, but generally of adobe, and are usually several stories in height, each one receding from the one below, leaving a terrace or walk. The general plan is a hollow square, circle, or irregular ellipse ; although in some cases they are built in a solid mass, like a pyramid, six or eight stories in height. In each pueblo there are large rooms, sometimes underground, for religious observances or councils, or for l)oth purposes, which are called in Spanish estiifas. The towns are some- times built upon the summits of high terraces or mesas, extremely difficult of approach. \ 1 t it It i 1 1 1 \ '■ i i,: ^ ' 1 i I ■r T^ t ■■ 220 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. |ft ' \ i\ •I /ii ', J/' •i ! i i 3. Moquis. This tribe of semi -civilised Indians live in seven villages on the plateau between the San Juan and the Colorado Chiquito rivers, in North-eastern Arizona. Their villages are perched upon the summits of mesas, 400 to 600 feet above the surrounding level. Tlie houses are built of stone, laid in adobe mortar, in terrace form, seldom exceeding three stories in height, and are reached only by ladders. The people have the reputation of being ex- tremely kind-hearted and hospitable. Their pursuits are agricultural, raising maize, squashes, pumpkins, and peaches. They also have large herds of sheep and goats. The women knit, spin, and weave, making tine blankets, women's robes, and other like articles. They use no intoxicating drink ; and are, men and women, industrious and virtuous. The men have adopted the usual Mexican dress, while the women wear a woven tunic, and a small blanket, fastened over the shoulders. Before marriage the hair of the women is worn in two large rosettes, one on each side of the head, and after marriage it is worn loose down the back, or rolled up on the back of the head. By a census taken in 1877, the population of these seven towns was 1604 souls. When they first came under the jurisdiction of the United States, they were estimated to contain 8000 persons, but the ravages of smallpox in 1855 and 1857, and a famine in 1867, reduced their number enormously. 4. The Nomadic Tribes. Under this head will be treated all the rest of the aboriginal population of the United States, including those who have been induced to give up their wild life and settle on reservations. INDIANS. 221 An ethDological distribution of the various tribes presents so many and such serious ditiiculties that no thorouj^ddy satisfactory scheme has hitherto been proposed. In the Appendix will be found a comprehensive scheme of classification, based mainly on languages, which is believed to be in the main correct. For details connected with the history and former range of these tribes the reader is referred to this Appendix. 5. Characteristic Traits of the Indian. The Indian is a savage, with all that the name implies. He is cruel and treacherous in the extreme, and naturally so, as war and hunting are almost his sole occupations. He has the reputation of being extremely taciturn and reserved, and so he is when among the whites, but when at home he is quite the reverse. He is possessed of immense power of enduring fatigue and exposure, and no amount of physical pain will draw from him a groan. He has the utmost cunning and perseverance, qualities which his occupations develop to a remarkable degree. Possessed of much animal courage, so as to love war for its own sake, he has little of that higher mental courage which is governed by the will, and which enables a man to brave death without flinching. In war he seldom engages in a pitched battle ; ambuscades and surprises, where he takes little or no risk, are his methods of waging war. He fights behind trees and rocks ; he creeps up, and stabs you in the back, or " jumps " your camp at midnight, when all are asleep. He is a capital horseman ; not unfrequently one sees boys of eight or ten riding, without saddle or bridle, save a bit of raw hide, their half-broken ponies on the racecourse. Horses are his wealth, and many Indians are very wealthy. They are used in war, in hunting, and in travelling, to carry not only the Indian and his family, ! i.' fll / li , If /' ' I' 'M 1/ ^m f1 1! ii 222 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. but all his household goods, and a moving Indian village makes a large cavalcade. At home, the Indian stoops to none of the menial duties connected with housekeeping. His squaw must take the loads off the pack-ponies, put up the lodge, bring wood and water, and coolc, while her lord and master reclines on the ground and smokes. The squaws are, like women in most barbarous tribes, little better than slaves. The practice of scalping, which is almost peculiar to Indians, is not, as some suppose, a method of torturing their victims, as is shown at once by the fact that it is performed only on those supposed to be dead. The scalp — that is, the skin of the top of the head, with the hair — is taken simply to prove the killing, as the hunter is required to show the ears of the wolf in order to claim the bounty. The following spicy description of the Indian is taken from the Earl of Dunraven's book, entitled The Great Divide : — " The sole end and object of his existence, the point on which all his thoughts and energies are concentrated, is to appear formidable to his enemies, and attractive to the women. If he can scare his foes by the hideousness of his war-paint and the ferocity of his appearance, he is delighted, because he may, perhaps without risk to him- self, shoot one of them in the back while running away ; and having done so, he and his friends would scalp the body, and kick it, and dance around it, and stamp upon it, and abuse it, and stick it full of knives and arrows, and have a ' gay old time generally,* and then go home and be afraid of the dead man's ghost. At any rate, he would argue that, even if he killed no one, he would not be killed himself, which would be a highly satisfactory reflection to his selfish mind. And if he sees that the bright vermilion bow ; shining sins Jie left ha: I] INDIANS. 223 partings of his hair, and the carefully designed and artfully painted 8tri])es and patclies on his face and chest, are making an impression ; if shy glances of approval note the swing of his guy hlanket and the style of his leggings, and if soft eyes brighten at the sight of his shell earrings, and the silver plates in his back hair, he is also delighted, because — well, for the same reason anybody else would be. " In short, he is the greatest coxcomb on the face of tlie earth, not to be surpassed even in London for inordi- nate vanity, stupendous egotism, and love of self. His features may not be strictly classical, according to our standard of beauty. His clieek-bones might be considered somewhat too prominent, and his paint certainly is inad- missible with us ; but, to do him justice, I must allow that he is not a biad-looking fellow in his way. Take, as an example, a young warrior of the Bannacks whom I saw riding througli a street in Virginia city from their camp in the neighbourhood. Smooth and easy as a hawk's flight he sweeps along, sitting his foam-tiecked mustang with the yielding gracefulness of a willow bending to the breeze ; swaying his lithe body with every bound of the animal beneath him. Before him, across the pommel of his saddle, he bears his rifle in embroidered elk-skin cover, adorned with long fringes, which, mingling with the horse's mane, and the tags and tassels of his gay leggings, spread out behind him on either side. His long black hair, plaited and tied with knots of scarlet ribbon, streams out in the wind, and, uniting with tlie horse's tail, seems almost to touch the dust. " Slung across his back are the lion-skin quiver and bow ; by his side hangs a revolver, silver-mounted, and shining in the sun. With the toes of his beaded mocca- sins he touches the loops that serve him for stirrups ; his left hand lightly holds the bridle; and from liis right l> 3 11* 'i /j| ili 'i' ill 1 224 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Iii| VI ■ III' ■; 'M. I r I : i i ■ wrist hangs by a thonrr his buckhorn-hnndled quirt or whip. As he giilloijs down the street, all his gay trap- lyings fly out in disorder behind him ; and when, with a jmll at the cruel Spanish ])it, he steadies into a walk, the folds of his scarlet blanket settle down, and hang grace- fully from liis shoulders, and he passes, an embodiment of savage life, full of wild beauty and bright colour, and no doubt attractive to the female eye ; glancing with supreme and undisguised contempt upon the plug hat, black store coat, and pants of some newly-arrived representative of civilisation." 6. A7X the Indians dying out 1 It has long been accepted as a self-evident proposition that the red race was rapidly disappearing before the ad- vancing strides of civilisation ; that, in the struggle for existence on this continent, barbarism is giving way, not so much by the advance of culture as by want of vitality of the lower race ; and this example has been used to point many a sermon on the inlluence of civilised on barbaric races. But lately it has been boldly stated — and the idea has found many and able supporters — that the Indians are not dying out, but that they are holding their own, — yes, even increasing in number. If this be true, then the question inunediately recurs with redoubled force, Can the Indian be civilised and made a valuable member of society ? and in seeking an answer to this question, it is necessary first to examine the policy of the United States towards this race, and its probable influence upon the red man, in the way of civi- lising him, in order properly to weigh the results thus far accomplished. It may and should, however, be pre- mised that the word policy in this connection is mislead- ing, as the United States have never had any settled course of treatment of the Indians. The history of INDIANS. 225 our whole intercourse witli tliem has heen simply tliat of a scries of makeshifts, each to suit a sepa- rate emergency. However, all tliese makesliifts have one feature in common. They recognise the tribes as sovereignties, and treat with them as such. In the early colonial days this stand was perfectly consistent ; but now, when the United States claim possession of the wliole country, the absurdity of its position, in treating as with a foreign power a people who dwell within and sub- l)ossess its own land, is apparent enough. They make treaties with them, effect offensive and defensive alliances, purchase land from them (and then fail to pay them the jiurchase money in many cases), then, suddenly forgetting that they are foreign powers, they imprison them on re- servations. On one pretext or another, in payment for land, or for the purchase of peace, the Government feeds and clothes nearly all the tribes whicli will accept dona- tions of food and clothing ; and as the Indian is at least no more inclined to work for a living than the average white man, most of the tribes have availed themselves of the munificence of the Government. And not only does " Uncle Sam " supply them with food and raiment, but with the best of breech-loading rifles and fixed ammuni- tion, which are, in very many cases, put to use by our red brother in depopulating the border settlements and in resisting the army. This policy of supplying the Indian with all necessaries of life is what is known as the "peace policy" It is a beautiful policy. Let us see how it works. The average Indian immediately jumps to the very rational conclusion that the Government is afraid of him, or it would not purchase a peace, and he is very apt to act accordingly. If things are not to his mind — if provisions, blankets, or ammunition are not forthcoming when and in such quantities as he wishes — he dons the war-paint, and a disastrous war is the result. The upshot I ' iS IW^t k .. I I* I ■ ri -m I).. m 1 1; I i ;! 'Ill I')' /^ il (l:' ;, ! ri 226 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAI'IIY AND TRAVKI,. of the war probably is, that he gets what lie fought for, ami he is confirmed in his belief that to get what he wants he has only to demand it under threat of war, Tlie theory is, that the Indian, kept (juiet on reserva- tions, and supported there, may be in time educated to civilised pursuits. But it is a pertinent question whether, under such circumstances, the average white would labour to support himself. If all his wants were supplied, what incentive would there be to labour ? And if, under such circumstances, the wliite man would prefer a life of inglorious ease, how nuich less would the red man be disposed to exertion, — the noble red nuin who regards all manual labour as degrading, and as worthy only of S(piaws. Under such circumstances, it is strange that any success wliatever has attended the project of civihs- ing the Indians, and it would seem to be rather in spite of this system than in accordance with it that any con- siderable portion of this people have ado])ted civilised ways. Yet such is the cnse, and it shows that they cau be civilised, and that if managed properly they might bo made into good citizens with conjparative rapidity. In Indian Territory, where many of the tribes have been congregated on reservations, there has been consider- nble advance towards civilisation. The Cherokee, Choc- w, Seminole, Creek, and Chickasaw tril)os, numbering altogether about 5G,000, have adopted civilised dress, liv^e in houses, cultivate tlie land, and su])port large schools. The Pawnees, Pottawotamies, and other tribes, contain a large percentage who have adopted civilisation. The Omahas, on a reservation in Nebraska, have of late made rapid strides in the same direction. In Arizona, the Pimo, Mojave, and Maricopa Indians are all engaged in the cultivation of the soil. The Sioux of Dakota, heretofore regarded as one of the most untamable of tribes, are beginning their career as farmers and stock- snow skin leadii stretcl peated Imnsit Indian; M-ith follow ■'^iiniiiiei Iviver ^iepubli vast up they cc t, IiNDIANS. 227 raisers. Tlie Navajoes of New Mexico have long ciilti- \ated the soil, having learned this art from tlieir sen>.i- civilised noiglihours, the Moquis. Many otlier tribes, not mentioned here, have made more or less advance towards self-support, so that it can no longer be said that the Indian is untamable. There are, however, several tribes which as yet have not shown the iniluenco of civilisation. Among them may be mentioned ])rominently the Apaches of Arizona, the Iltes of Colorado, the Bannacks of Ichdio, the Crows and Blackfeet of ]\lontana, and several bands of the great Sioux nation, with their allies, the Cheyennes and Ara- pahoes. The Comanches of Texas, too, continue to be the same lawless, plundering, wild tribe that they have ever been. 7. TIic rredatory Tribes of the IFcst. A few little forts occupied by slight garrisons in those inunense i)lains rolling from the ]\[ipsouri west- wards to the Iiocky ^Mountains, and beyond them to the snowy Sierra, are totally insuflicient to keep the red- skin in check, and })rotect the main highways of traltic leading to tlie racilic sea-board. On these highways, stretching right across the continent, there occur those re- peated acts of violence which so greatly impede the safe transit of goods and passengers bound westward. The Indians roaming over these regions are amply i'urnished witli ]irovisions, ponies, bulfalo meat, and furs. They follow the herds of bisons grazing on the jirairies in summer northwards to the lands between the White Ivivcr and Yellowstone, in winter southwards to tl\o Kepublican Fink and Arkansas Itivers, thus crossing the vast uplands and the great overland routes. It is when they come upon these post-roads that they fall upon emigrants, traders, trappers, and squatters, firing the r '■ Ml.i V « r" W'l ■:i 1 i riy. ( I (if < ^ "»* .,-^»»-'« if 1: (; 1 228 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. ranches, stealin|:^ cattle, mules, and horses, and even laying vaste the stage stations. These Indians belong mostly to the united hordes of the Sioux, Kiowas, Cheyennes, Ara- pahoes. Crows, and Comanches, — cruel, treacherous, and savage marauders, that have ever heen hostile to the [)ale-faces, and may continue to be so till the last of their race has breathed his last breath. Since the conclusion of the civil war, those red-skins have become more formidable than ever, and especially when some few years ago they went on the war-path and committed many nameless horrors without any provoca- tion on the part of the whites, brutally murdering whole families, falling upon emigrant parties, and repeatedly plundering and destroying the United States mails. " Peace Commissioners," says Sir Charles W. Dilke, " are yearly sent from "Washington to treat with hostile tribes upon the plains. The Indians invariably continue to fight and rob till winter is at hand ; but when the snow appears, they send in runners to announce that they are prepared to make sulmiission. The Commissioners appoint a place, and the tribe, their relations, allies, and friends come down thousands strong, and enter upon debates which are purposely prolonged till spring. All this time the Indians are kept in food and drink ; whisky even is illegally provided them, with the cognis- ance of the authorities, under the name of ' hatchets.' Blankets, and, it is said, powder and revolvers, are supplied to tliem as necessary to their existence on the j^lains ; but when the first of the spring llowers begin to peep up through the snow on the prairies, they take their leave, and in a few weeks are out again upon the war-path, plundering and scalping " {Greater Briiabi, vol. i. p. 129). Quite recently, however, several thousand Sioux and other fierce marauders are reported to have given INDIANS. 229 in their submission to the United States Govern- ment. Others seem to liave crossed the border, and EMIGRANTS ATTACKED BY INDIANS. will, doubtless, be taken care of by the authorities in the Dominion of Canada. !h ; r y Mh tvi\ 230 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. ''IK I 8. Indian Territory. In the year 1825 Congress passed a measure in virtue of which all the tribes still remaining on the east of the Mississippi were to be gradually driven beyond the western border of the States, and induced to settle permanently in the present Indian Territory and north of it, the maintenance of the various treaties concluded to this effect being at the same time intrusted to special agents and commissioners. The Indians yielded, some of them willingly, others through compulsion, the action of the Government in some instances resulting in sanguinary conflicts. A fresh measure was passed on June 30, 1851, creating a spe- cial Indian Oftice under a " Commissioner of the Indian Affairs," with four superintendents for the Northern, Central, Southern, and Minnesota Superintendencies, as they were named. In 1867 yet another commission was appointed by Congress, and the President for the manage- ment of the Indian affairs. Its chief object was to make choice of a district hitherto unoccupied by the whites, and remote from any of the various railway lines, but large enough to accommodate all the tribes of the Far West. This region was to remain for ever their exclusive posses- sion, accessible to the Government officials, but to no other whites without their permission. For the first few years the tribes, as they come in, are to be there supported at the cost of the States, and the Commission is instructed to use every means to induce them to settle willingly there, and to encourage a taste for agriculture and other peace- ful pursuits among them, and otherwise assist them in every possible way by supplying them with spinning wheels, machinery, agricultural implements, and the like. The question that presented itself before all others was, whether the tribes could live peacefully together, — whether squaA " Cor custo TJie few ( and M Ijirth, with their conscil lia\inf race oj that oi both ri the inc Tl themsf INDIANS. 231 it would be possible to obviate intestine wars, or prevent depredations between them and their white neighbours, which could not fail to lead to reprisals. Notwith- standing these forebodings the project was carried out, and according to more recent reports the Indians are busily engaged in organising their internal affairs, so that the best hopes are entertained by many that the scheme may be attended with favourable results. irt li 9. Half-Breeds. It seems as if the actual European element, wherever it has fused with the Indian, assumes the ascendant. At least the results of these alliances are very different in the west and south, where Spanish blood mostly prevails, from those in the north and east, settled chiefly by Anglo- Saxon and other Teuton races. From time immemorial the practice of selling their squaws was universal amongst the Indians, and the " Conquistadors " soon accommodated themselves to the custom, only as a ride preferring stealing to bartering. The union of white and red skins produced the Mestigoes, few of whom have got as far in their education as reading and writing. Scarcely one in ten can boast of legitimate birth, the whites scorning to contract lawful alliances with their squaws. What little knowledge has penetrated their brains is completely warped by superstition. In the consciousness of being neither white nor red, and of having no place in the Indian tribes, they despise the race of their mother as profoundly as they hate and detest that of the father. In them are intensified the vices of both races — the pride and cruelty of their Spanish fathers, the indolence and wantonness of their Indian mothers. The northern half-breeds differ very much among themselves in their characteristics, depending upon the il ii\- a If 1 :i, II 1 ,\- i ■ rf 1 • ii ft' :li #"l' 248 COMPENDIUM OF liEOCIlJAl'IIY AND TRAVEL. h ■u> I i'i. (^l tliis, tlio puLlic mind is ever in an attitude of inquiry; and any truth, whether scientific, moral, or religious, must hear the test of close and severe scrutiny, and must he weighed and sifted in the scales of puhlic opinion, before it can tind acceptance to any great extent. 2. Eccentric Forms of Bcligmis Development. Amongst the sects that Protestantism has given hirtli to, some call for more special consideration, as character- istic of the social and religious life in the Transatlantic States. Mediaeval history has preserved a record of some peculiar moral epidemics. The " black death " that raged in the fourteenth century gave rise to the sect of the " Flagellants." All Gemiany, Hungary, Poland, Bohemia, Silesia, and Flanders, contributed their quota to this mania. At the end of the same century there broke out a dancing rage, the rapid spread of which gave rise to serious apprehensions. The Jumpers, Shakers, and Spiritualists of the present day are the direct descendants of those mediieval dancers. lii ii 3. The Sliahcrs : Tlieir History and Constitution. The sect of the Shakers, founded by the Englishwomen -Tane "VVardlaw and Ann Lee, has thriven for nearly a century on American soil. " Mother Ann," the daughter of a poor Manchester blacksmith, could neither read nor write, but while still a child was favoured by " heavenly visions," or, as her mother thought, was a prey to hysteria and convulsions from her birth. In the hope of effecting a cure, her mother married her at a very early age to Abraham Stanley, a young blacksmith, by whom she had four children, who died young. With Stanley she lived so unhappily that he gladly gave her permission to join RELIGIOUS SECTS. 249 the sect of Jane Wardlaw, known afterwanls by tlic name of " Shakers." She soon became their leader nnder the desiji-nation " Mother Ann." Their funchimental doctrines required a community of •foods, celibacy, love of peace, and the 8e})aration of Church and State. Ann proclaimed, throu<^di the revelations slie was vouchsafed, that Adam's sin consisted in his marryiny; Eve, thus peopling the world with a lawless posterity. She further announced that for this posterity the time had come to sacrifice themselves, at least that the chosen few should show by their abstinence from earthly love how the world was to be regenerated. Hence her fixed idea was that botli she and her followers were calLnl upon to make eternal war against the flesh. But she does not seem, like her later disciples, to have taught that Ciod possessed a double nature, male and female, and that Christ was the incarnation of the one, and she herself of the other. She rested satisfied with inculcating the duty of celibacy, and as in this way the sect would soon die out, they were instructed to seek for new ])roselytes. This has always succeeded best on the occasion of the so-called " revivals," spasmodic fits of religious frenzy, which give us a deep insight into the aberrations of the human mind. On the other hand, Shakerism presents a more agree- able side, which it would be unfair to overlook. There are at present eighteen communities in America, numbering altogether 2400 members ; nor can it be denied that they liave given practical application to certain communistic principles with remarkable success. Each neophyte is required to consign all his effects to the community for a period of one year, after which term of probation, or sooner if he so desires, he may withdraw from the union, but without receiving interest for his capital, or wages for his work. Once accepted, he is bound to perform all the work imposed on him, receives a separate dwelling, takes ifi ? iij) rii^ fi 250 COMPKNDIUM OF ^.EOGRArilY AND TRAVEL. If Hi ' . 'I lli' his meals in common witli the rest, has his clothes from a common store, but never touches money unless he is one of the few chosen to transact the necessary business with the outer worhl. The American Shakers are mostly devoted to afrricul- tural pursuits, and to such tratHc with the neighbourinf,' places as may be recpiired to sui)ply all their more urj^ent wants. They make their own clothes, and are altooether in the jiosition of being able to satisfy, at the least pos- sible outlay, all their necessities, reduced as these are to a niininuim. They eat but little meat, and limit their drink to weak tea and coffee. Bread and milk, fruit and ve<;e- tables raised by themselves, form their chief nutriment. Celibacy is strictly enforced, men and women scarcely ever meeting except at the common meals and the frequent religious exercises. Tlie sexes meet also at their dancing parties, on which occasions, when too sorely vexed by the sj)irit, they are apt to fall into a sort of ecstasy, or delirium, or what vidgar peojde would perhaps call hysteria. But these ecstatic exercises are not of very frequent occurrence. Younger members, after a few years, generally withdraw from the union (Charles Nordhoff, The (Jomiimmstic Societies of the United States, etc., 1875). The moral character of tliese " peculiar people " is said to be above the shaft of censure. -i i' 4. The Ins2nrationist, Perfectionist, etc. On the fruitful soil of the United States sects spring up like mushrooms, and those, in one form or another, doing homage to the principles of communism are but a small fraction of the innumerable little communities spread over the wide domain of the reformed Church. Amongst the communistic sects may be mentioned the llappists, or the Harmouia, now dying out ; the Inspira- 1 RELIGIOUS SECTS. 251 )i I tioniata, and the Oneida Perfectionists, interesting accounts of which may be seen in Hepworth Dixon's Kcw America and Spiritual Wives. Some years aeen de- veloped very did'erently from that in th.e rest of the United States, haviiij^ acqiiiretl an or<,'anic character anythin<^ hut republican in its main features. Some 80, 000 or 1 00,000 sober, industrioius men, and even devout after their fashion, permit theii- leaders to indulj^'e iu the most nnbridled licentiousness ; and the tribute they lay at the feet of their rulers they .sjjeak of as sacrifices oll'eretl to (lod. I'TAU, WITH THE MOUJIONS' TABEUNACLK. 7. Joseph Smith — "The Booh of Mormon" Joseph Smith, founder of ^Mormonism, Avas the son of a farmer of Sharon, AVindsor County, Vermont. He was born on Se}>tember 23, 1805, and some forty-six years ago began to surroimd himself witli followers, who gave out that he was a pro])het sent of God, or rather a second Messiah. In order to sup]iort his pretensions with the necessary mystifications, he produced certain golden plates engraven "in Egyptian characters," and })rofessing to contain the laws and records directly dictated by God Himself. He further pretended that he had been enabled to decipher these records by means of an instrument I i ) M 254 COMI'KNDIUM OF GEOr.UArilY AND TUAVKL Ml 'Mill m[ imn n'U vi'ViMilcd to him in a visiuii, iiiul dcHcriluul by him as a " ('.urious iiiMdiinii'iit, whii-h the uiicit'iits oulh'd Uriin and 'rhimmiini, which coMsislcd of two lnins|tan'nt atones Hi't in tho I'ini, on a bow las((Mit'd to a breast phittv" The. jdalcs wcro siiid to liavc been written soon alter tho dt'strnt'tion o[' .li^'nsah'ni by Mormon, a .lowish proithct, and by liim bronijht to Anuirica, whcn^ they wow. al'tcr- wards buried. Smith retained the Old Testament, nmti- hiti'd the New% and supphMiiented all the obscure ])oiut3 of tJio Christian rebt;ion, especially those turning' upon (he I'utuni states In ISoO he publishi^l the Jiook of Munnoii, ])rol'essin<,' to be translated from tlu^ plates by means of the above-described instrument, and embodyiiijj; his new doctrines. This work his followers hold in tlm same veneration, and look n[>on as possessin<^ the same authority, as the J>ible itself. Smith selecti'd twelve ajtostles, and by means of miracles and many fresh revelations soon attracted a larni' luimber of the curious, many of whom became be- lievers, his convenient positive tenets suitini;' the tastes of a certain tyju' of weak-headed doubters. 8. N'aiiroo. Drix'cn from (he State of Ohio, the Mormons pitched their tents in (he, at that, time, still imcultivated district «)f Nauvoo, " the beautiful," on the banks of tlui Missis- si]»|ti, in Illinois. llert> tlu'V increased rapidly, and even bej^an to erect a vast temple, \iw;^o. enou_i!,h to I'ontiiin (he whole people. Meantime Smith (hniscd a political constitution, ^iviui;- him the fullest autocratic, powers, and although at that time he pi'cacluMl and wrote, aiiaiiist ]n)ly,namy, this doctrine was already laid to (he cliaijj,e of his adherents, (ouelher ^\ith many other unpopular insti- tutions, exciting the ill-feidinj;' and anli[»athy «il' the peo[ilo IJKMtilors Sl'.CTS. '2:>r> oil 1h)(1i .sides of ihc l\lississi|i|>i. ilost'itli lu'ciuno con- sliuitly (Mubi'oilt'd with the luitlioritics, Naiivoo \viis iit- (lU'koil, llu> ]»r()i»li('(. iincsti'd. lodj^cd in Ciirtliaui* jiul, luid soon idler nnirdered hy (he rioters, loj;t'tlier \villi his lirotlier lliiiim, who had also been coidiiied in the same lirisou. This occurred on tliiiie 7, IHI 1. }' 0. 7>i'!i/fi(nii Vdinn/, " 7'/ir Liou of the Lonl" — Ihsrirf. A Mormon named l»i_i;'doin now became rresiih-id, but was soon rephiccd by a certain Ihii^liam \'ouni;', " the Lion of the Lord," who be^an forthwith to h»ol< out. lor a hind wliere he mit;ht. on tlie part. oF " thi> (ieiilih's." llt^ lirst, of all led his followers to the wi'stein limit, of civilisation, boldly crossiii«,' the ice-bound Mississippi in the month of i'"ebruary, ami scttliiij;' ItMUporarily in tlll^ west, of Iowa. I'Voiii this ]Miiiit Ih'i^ham made reconnaissances beyond the bNu'ky Mountains, and at last, maih^ choice of the desert, shore of the (1 real. Salt Lake in I'tah, at that time beloiiniii"^ to Mexico, in the h()pe of thus for e\'er escapiii<;' from tin' (iovernmeiit and jteople of the I'nitcd Slates. Thither the " MoriiKaiites " migrated in IS47, eiicoiiiiterin^' in- credible ditliciillies aiiil prixations in this journey tliroiii;h the wild regions still occupied by .saxa-^'e Indian tribes. The jtlace, liy llicm named Peseret, in the Territory n\' Utah, was the wvv next, year ceded by .Mexico to the United Slates, and twenty years later its isolation was iiL:;aiii disturiied by the (Ircal Tacilic b'ailway crossing ilic I'litire con! iiieiit. from ocean to ocean. Mormonism was (aice iiua'e broui^ht into eollisi(ai with the outer World, and became, as it still remains, a. public scamlal luid eye-sm'e in the I'niled Slates. After proclaiming himself tl'o successor of tloseph • I .1 k Ml II . 1 256 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Smith, Young assumed the office of "projihet." Accord- ing to his teacliing God spoke through him, as througli an oracle, to His chosen people. He claimed to be the successor of Christ Himself, and by the great body of his B-vmsM OF A (new) mokmojj con\t:rt. adherents was looked upon ns being as powerful and glorious as the liedeemer. Christ, they say, was the first, Joseph Smith the second, and Ih'igham Young the third ^[essiah. They rely more on the Old than on the New Testament, and Abraham and David are the greatest of the in the Christ] Mohar Yo polygai dogma But his deny tl recalcit] withdre by a ce with bit to Idaho Acci ranks it children, his hea^ heaven o impoi-tan has othc and hum position women o man — w secures t 11. a Youn j"dge, am and of t aud what RELIGIOUS SECTS. 257 of the patriarchs. Although baptism is still performed ill the name of the Saviour, still Mormouism resembles Christianity on the whole perhaps rather less than does Mohammedanism. 10. rohjgamy. Young strengthened his own position, and made polygamy a doctrine of the Church, declaring that this dogma had been revealed to Joseph nine years previously. But his wife Emma and other members of Smith's family deny this, and have caused a schism in the church. The recalcitrant Josephites were persecuted, and in 1864-.5 withdrew mostly to Iowa. Another schism, occasioned by a certain Joseph Morris in 1866, was stamped out with bloodshed, a few families escaping with their lives to Idaho. According to Brigham's teaching, the men have divers ranks in heaven. The more numerous his wives and children, the greater his earthly merits and the higher his heavenly dignity after death. The women enter heaven only through their husbands ; hence it becomes all- important for every girl to get married. If her husband lias other wives, and if she has to endure many trials and humiliations on earth, the more glorious will be her position in the heavenly kingdom. Accordingly young women on their deathbed get married, or " sealed " to a man — where possible to a minister of the Church — as she secures through him a higher rank in heaven. ;;» \ !i '>• :' I I 1. 11. Constitution of Mormonism — Schism — Prospects. Young controlled everything. He was the supreme judge, and also the recipient of the bulk of the revenue and of the tithes. He alone decided what was his and what belonged to the Church ; he had the best of B 'j I J Ill fi 258 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. everything, the best workshops, farms, mines, and so on. He distributed office, and to the twelve apostles he added the council of seventy, in whose number are the bishops and elders. Besides their official duties these men carry on the most profitable industries in the country, some being merchants, others manufacturers and hotel-keepers, and as they enjoy the largest incomes, they possess also the greatest number of wives. The needy Mormon has one wife only, their number increasing with his worldly prosperity. Occasionally the wives support by their work not only their cliildren, but their husbands also ; but it is a mistake to suppose that the women alone are bound to labour while the men look on. Generally speaking, the whole sect is distinguished by extremely industrious habits, the so-called elders setting an excellent example in this respect. Tliese elders were well schooled by Brigham ; they instruct the people, con- firm them in the faith, and provide at once for the spiritual and national welfare. Their office carries no direct remuneration with it, but their position is other- wise so good that they can very well afford to dispense with this. Recently a fresh schism has disturbed the harmony of " the Saints." The I'rophet has hitherto in vain at- tempted to suppress it by sentence of banishment and expulsion from the community, and the latest returns sliow as many as from 5000 to 10,000 "dissenters" rejecting the doctrhie of polygamy in a total population of 150,000 in the State of Deseret. But a still more formidable foe to the community is the Congi-ess of the United States, wliero the " jMormon Question " now con- stantly crops up, and must continue to do so till finally set at rest. The Cullom Bill of 1870, aiming at " the suppression of polygamy," was tabled, but next year the Gr"ernment decided to take summary proceedings EELIGIOUS SECTS. 259 against the Mormons, though nothing could he done in consequence of the unsatisfactory state of the laws affecting such matters. In 1873 Brigham entertained the project of abandon- ing Salt Lake City, and removing with the greater part of the saints to Arizona, but tlie unfavourable reports of the Mormon pioneers in that region compelled him to give up this plan. In June 1874 the iirst serious blow was struck at polygamy, when tlie Lower House accepted the principle of the Poland Bill, declaring that polygamist judges and juries were incompetent to conduct civil and criminal trials and prosecutions of polygamists. The object of this measure is to protect the Mormon women by ensuring to them a fair share of the family effects in case of divorce, — in a word, to alleviate the hard lot of those who have come to be regarded as female slaves. Meantime the Mormon women themselves seem to be auytliing but grateful to the Government for its efforts on their behalf. In the beginning of 1876 a petition was presented to Congress, signed by 22,626 Mormon wives and daughters, praying for tlie rejection of the law against polygamy, and for the admittance of Utah as a State of the Union. These female advocates of polygamy declare that no force or other unfair means have been employed to secure their signatures, and that no girls under twelve have been allowed to sign the document. Since the year 1870 the largest accessions to their numbers have come from Denmark and Sweden, and quite recently they have been joined by many energetic East Prussians, possessed of considerable means. The Latin races, such as the French, Spaniards, Portuguese, and Italians, seem to be utterly opposed to Mormonism, and we are assured that not a single Frenchwoman is found in their seraglios. The great majority belong to the Anglo-Scandinavian races, though the Indian tribes I. 260 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. I'T ! I between California and Utah are also said to become Mormonised very rapidly. On the other hand in the community itself a tendency is continually showing itself to revert to European views of morality and social habits. This is attributed by Hepworth Dixon not so much to moral motives as to the inherent feminine weakness for vanity, love of finery and dress. But the destruction of Mormonism will prob- ably be ultimately due mainly to the Pacific Railway. Through it the hitherto unknown extravagance of the female fashions has penetrated into Great Salt Lake City, and if a man finds it difficult to indulge the taste of one wife for such things, most of them must shrink from the prospect of having to provide for the caprices of a numerous harem. Not every one is endowed with the colossal wealth of a Brigham Young, which alone could enable them to indulge in such a luxury, and the con- viction is slowly gaining ground that from the economical point of view polygamy is a mistake. This idea once thoroughly established, it must gradually die out. fl -!■ ^^i 1 1 m\ i i t m Ilii 'I i:!, 1 ■ ^ I II ! fn 1^^ > i i RAIN -MAP OF THE UNITED STATES and OF PART JS^ ?£? liS" English Miles. Loadon; E*»»^ '^♦"*«' ■ 1 il 11 w. t I, If i' mi 264 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. there were at one time as many as 77,000 plantations, previous to the civil war, worked by slave labour. In 1784 there were exported to Europe 8 bales, in 1821 about 425,000, and before the war broke out as many as 3,500,000. During the period of the war from 1861 to 1865 there were of course no returns, but the largest crop ever raised was in 1859-1860, amounting to 4,861,292 bales. The war for the time ruined this industry, and in 1868 the yield was only 2,519,554 bales. Since then, favoured by many exceptional circumstances, it again rose to about 4,000,000, but since 1870 has once more somewhat fallen off. At the same time, in all the Cotton States, except Florida, the area under cultivation has been reduced, the reduction in 1871 averaging from 14 to 15 per cent as compared with the previous year, since when it has continued to decline. A report of the Memphis Agricul- tural Bureau, covering half of the cotton crop, calculates the diminution in 1874 at 6| per cent as compared with 1873. The report of the crop for the year 1878 shows it to have been the largest yet raised. The cultivation of the sugar-cane is restricted to the extreme south, being most extensively pursued in Louis- iana, and next to it in Alabama and Texas. Maple sugar is produced principally in New York, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Ohio. Southern fruits, such as the melon, oranges, and figs, llourish chiefly in California and along the southern seaboard. 5. Cattle- Breeding — Farm Stocl\ The breeding of horses is restricted mostly to the North, being replaced by that of mules and asses in the Southern States. In the East and the Mississippi Valley the horses are of good size. Fine breeds of heavy AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. 265 animals for draught purposes are raised, while the trotting and running stock are deservedly celebrated all over the world. In the West, though generally of small size and rather indifferent appearance, the native horses are strong, and display great staying powers. Horned cattle are raised in vast numbers in all parts of the country, and especially in Texas, on the plains, and in the Pacific States. Sheep, also, have a great range, practically coincident with that of cattle ; and sheep- raising is at present a very profitable industry. Tlie raising of hogs is a very great industry in the Miss- issippi Valley States. The management of bees has proved most profitable in Pennsylvania, Ohio, New York, North and South Carolina, and recently some very choice California honey has found its way into the English market. The birds principally reared on the farms are poultry, turkeys, guinea-fowl, geese, ducks, and pigeons. 6. Timber — Ilecldcss Destruction of the Forest — Runtinrj and Fishing. Notwithstanding the extraordinary wealth and variety of forest timber, especially in the inland States between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi, including tlie maho- gany, cedar, oak, maple, etc., forestry itself has been strangely neglected. The clearances ha/e been conse- (piently effected with such astounding rapidity that the time has already come to impose some check on the reck- less destruction of timber. No less than 8,000,000 acres are yearly consumed, w^iile not more than about 10,000 are freshly planted. Chicago alone requires a.i annual supply of 19,000 acres of timber; and in a period of ten years as much as 12,000,000 acres of forests were burned down, merely in order to clear the land the more rapidly. In Wisconsin 50,000 acres are annu- -jiZ. M ■ w k J..! Hi ■|b:; i i M 266 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. ally felled to meet the requirements of Nebraska and Kansas. Hunting, especially in the North-\vest, is directed principally against the daily diminishing fur-bearing animals. The lake and river fisheries, though of con- siderable importance, cannot be compared with the cod, whale, and seal fishing, carried on chiefly by the Northern States in the neighbouring waters, but more especially in the South Pacific. 7. Manufactures. Previous to the year 1870 manufactures of every sort had received such an enormous expansion that the people of the United States began to turn from the field to the factory. Apart from the mines, there were 252,148 manufactories, with an invested capital of upwards of £4,200,000,000, yielding yearly returns valued at £9,250,000, and paying wages to the amount of £15,887,000. As regards the agricultural interests, it cannot l)e denied that, under the present wasteful system of culti- vation, much of the old soil is well-nigh exhausted, so that fresh and virgin soil must constantly be opened, and this in part explains the great nigration of farmers to the arid and semi-arid regions o\ the Great Plains and the valleys of the Cordilleras, where agriculture is impos- sible without irrigation. Another natural consequence is, that the people turn to more profitable pursuits, such as are offered to them in the workshops of the manufacturer. Nor can there be any doubt that the industries would have been still more developed but for the obstacles pre- sented on the one hand by the high rate of wages occa- sioned by the scarcity of labour, and on the other by the cheapness of imported English goods. To meet this second difficulty the American political economists had widely T„ MANUFACTURES. 267 recourse to a high protection tariff, pressing heavily on the people themselves, and causing many branches of industry actually to decline. The well-established prin- ciples of free trade have been thus once more abundantly vindicated in the New as they have so often been in the Old World. '1 ',( 8. Mercantile Interests — Decline of the American Carrying Trade. The American carrying trade was ruined by Southern privateers during the civil war, and the American vessels, whose flag fluttered in every harbour in the world, have well-nigh disappeared from the high seas. While the mercantile marine of England numbers 22,870 ships of 9,136,916 tons burden, tliat of the United States is reduced to 7312 ships of 2,387,376 tons, besides 578 steamers of 692,576 tons. Yet fifteen years ago the American flag eclipsed that of Great Britain. Of the many lines of steamers plying between Europe and America but one is owned in the States. The foreign trade reached the enormous figure of £260,494,525 in 1873, but the exports amounted only to £124,453,017, against £136,041,515 of imports. Since that year the balance of trade has turned in favour of the United States, and now the exports are largely in excess of the imports, and rapidly increasing. 9. Inland Trade — Bailways and Canals. The inland trade has been enormously developed, and is greatly facilitated by the grand natural water highways, numerous canals, and railways. A country where expedi- tion is of the last importance could not dispense with a widely ramifying network of railway lines. There are ITf' im 268 COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. A upwards of a hundred canals, amongst which are the Pennsylvania Canal, connecting the Susquehanna and Ohio, and the Erie connecting New York with the Cana- dian Lakes. The latter is 378 miles long, has eighty- five locks, is carried by aqueducts — some of them very imposing — over more than thirty rivers, is connected by means of branches with the Mississippi Eiver system, and is navigable for steamers. On all these natural and artificial water highways there ply upwards of 4000 steamers, the total tonnage of all vessels engaged in the lake, river, and coasting trade amounting to 3,101,000. And yet these vast means of transit are far below the actual requirements of the local traffic. Tiie railway system has also already grown to colossal proportions, notwithstanding its comparatively recent ori- gin. The first company was formed in Baltimore in the year 1827, under the name of the "Baltimore and Ohio Kailway Company." The first line was opened by this company on July 4, 1828, as far as tlie borders of Mary- land ; but it was at first worked by horse-power, the first locomotive not making its appearance in the States till the year 1830. This engine, which was of English manufacture, ran between Mohawk aijd the Hudson, but was only 6 -ton weight, and soon proved insutticient for the traffic. It was replaced by one weighing only 3 tons from the Cold Spring Works in New York. Lines now began to be laid down so rapidly that there was a total length of 1100 miles in 1835 and 0192 in 1848. They received a fresh impulse through the discovery of the Californian gold-fields, attaining a total length of 81,840 miles in tlie year 1879. The carriages are well fitted up, often in u sumptuous manner, as, for instance, the " Silver Palace " Cars on the Central Pacific, and " Pullman's Palace Saloon and Sleeping Cars." Hence the comfort of railway travel- ling in the States far surpasses anything of the kind in NATIONAL WEALTH. 2G9 Europe. Unfortunately the indifferent construction of the lines themselves, combined with the reckless management, often leads to fearful catastrophes. In 1873 there wero thus sacrificed as many as 576 lives, besides 1112 more or less seriously injured. On the other hand, wonders of engineering skill have been achieved in their construction — such, for instance, as the Pacific line, with its steep grades over the Sierra Nevada, or the tunnel through Mount Hoosac in Massa- chusetts, giving Boston direct railway comnmnication with the Hudson and the "West. This work was completed on November 27, 1873, and can be compared in extent only with the Mont Cenis Tunnel, which, however, it sur- passes in the amount of labour, cost, and time expended on its construction. It is a worthy rival of the Sutro Tunnel in Nevada. 10. National Wealth and JJahilitics. The prosperity of the people of the United States, as estimated by the value of the movable and immovable property of the country, was represented in the census of 1870 by the sum of £6,150,000,000. Since then the national patrimony has been on the one hand greatly augmented by the dis ^very of fresh natural resources, and on the other dimiuisued by the commercial crisis of 1873, the consequences of which still continue to be felt. Nor can it be denied that a heavy burden is imposed on the people by the national debt of £390,000,000, the legacy of the great civil war, and by the liabilities of the various States, counties, and municipalities, amounting altogether to about £126,000,000. Still it is to be hoped that better management and more careful measures may enable the country, with its incalculable natural resources of every sort, to recover from these evils. <^ II i i (. 270 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. CHAPTEE XVIII. POLITICAL ADMINISTEATIOX. ,'■1 ) ^' if i !.'; ^\ 1. The Federal Constihdion. The fundamental law of the land is based on the consti- tution of September 17, 1787, with the amendments of the years 1791, 1798, and 1804. The Union hereby forms a league of democratic and sovereign free States, each of them absolutely independent, with the reservation of certain rights and of all matters affecting the general weal of all the Union. These imperial interests are referred to a central administration. The constitution recognises a legislative, an executive, and a judicial power, the legislature being exercised by a National Congress, assembling at least once a year, and consisting of two chambers — the Senate and the House of Eepresentatives. All the laws must be submitted to the deliberation of Congress and passed by a majority of votes. To it nlso are referred all questions of peace and war, treaties with foreign powers, augmentation of the land and sea forces, all imports, excise and customs dues, the coinage, weights and measures, privileges and patents, admission of new States, and so on. 2. Congress. The Senate is composed of two senators from each State, chosen for six years by the local legislatures, and in such a way that one-third of the body are elected afresh ruLITICAL ADMINISTUATIOX. 271 every two years. Each senator has one vote, must be thirty years old, eight years a citizen of the Union, and at the time of his election a resident of the State he has been chosen to represent. The Vice-president of the United States is ex officio President of the Senate. The House of Eepresentatives consists of members of the various States, and delegates of the Territories, the latter of whom may take part in the deliberations, but possess no votes. The Members of Congress are elected for two years by the people of the various States according to the methods of election peculiar to each of them. Every representative must be twenty-five years of age, seven years a United States citizen, and at the time of his election resident in the State electing him. The Lower House chooses its own Speaker and other officers, and possesses the exclusive power of impeaching them, as well as the President and Vice-president, and all other civil function- aries, for violations of their public duties. All the public taxes are voted by the House of Ee- presentatives, but other measures may be initiated by the Senate. Before becoming law every Act must be pre- sented to the President of the Union for his ?\j,iiature ; but sliould he refuse to sign it the measure is again sub- mitted to Congress, and then becomes law if carried by a majority of two-thirds of both Houses. I 3. lite Executive — the President. The Executive is entrusted to the President, who, like the Vice-president, is chosen by electors specially appointed for the purjiose by the people of the several States. He holds office for four years. Both President and Vice- President must be native Americans, resident in the country for fourteen years, and thirty-five years of age. The presidential rights and duties are much the same as those ■m '' 'if' Mi: ll pi 272 COMPENDIUM OF GKOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. of a constitutional monarch, witli the limitation that Con- gress alone can declare peace and wiir, Avhile the President can conclude treaties only with the consent of two-thirds of the Senate. His nomination of the civil and diploma- tic functionaries is also dependent on the apju'oval of the Senate, and he is further enabled to exercise only a limited veto on the measures submitted to him lor his acceptance by the Congress. Ijefore assuming office he takes an oath to abide by the Constitution. His person is inviolable, but he is removable. On the other hand, he is re-eligible to office, and is ex officio commander-in-chief of the land and sea forces. 4. The Judiciary. Justice is administered by a Supreme Court consisting of a chief justice and eight judges, besides whatever lower courts Congress may from time to time see fit to consti- tute. The Circuit Courts hold their assizes twice a yenr in every State under the presidency of a judge of the Supreme Court and of a Circuit judge alternately. In all the States there are district courts, — in the district of Coliimbia one, and in the larger States two or three. All criminal cases, except those referred to the Senate, must be tried by a jury, whose verdict, to carry conviction, must be unanimous. Judges are appointed for life by the Pre- sident, and can be impeached and removed by Congress alone. 5. Constitution of the States and Territories. The democratic constitution of the several States is framed mainly on the model of the central administration. In all that concerns their internal aft'airs their authority is to a great extent supreme, while everything effecting the common weal and the general securitv of the Union is rOLITICAL ADMINISTRATION. 27 entrusted to the Federal Government. The provincial legislative bodies are also divided into a Senate and a House of Representatives, whose joint co-operation is usually required for the enactment of laws. The Execu- tive in all the States is intrusted to a governor elected by the qualified voters. The tenure of office of these governors, senators, and representatives, and the number of the two latter bodies, vary in the several States. Each State is complete in itself, and is divided into counties, and then the counties into townships, frequently consisting of a single city, but often comprising several centres of population. The capitals, often situated in a central position, are scarcely ever the largest towns in the States, but always the seat of the local government ; nor can the practical wisdom with which these bodies have been thus withdrawn from the influence of populous cities be sufficiently admired. Similar to the constitution of the States are those of the Territories, which are regarded as the common pro- perty of the Union. Here the Executive is intrusted to a Governor, appointed for four years by the President, with the approval of the Senate. The Legislative Assembly consists of a Senate and House of Representa- tives elected by all tliose entitled to vote ; but its legis- lative power is so far limited that all measures passed by it must be submitted to Congress for ratification. The admittance of Territories into the Union is conceded by Congress as soon as the number of the inhabitants has reached a certain figure, varying with the increasing jDopu- lation of the Union. The District of Columbia is placed under the immediate control of the Federal Government. 1 .III (i 274 COMl'ENDIUM OF GEOGUAniY AND TllAVEL. G. The Cabinet . Tlie rjonoral Inisinoss of the Administration is conducted by tlio Cal»inet, residing at Was]iin«;t(tn, tlie ca])ital of the Union, and consists of seven members bearint,' the title of secretaries — the Secretary of State or Minister of Foreign Affairs, and those of War, the Navy, the Treasury, tlie General Post-Ollice, Attorney-General, and Home Department, or Department of the Interior. They are appointed by the President, with the advice and sanction of the Senate, but are liable to be dismissed by the Presi- dent at any moment. The President is not bound to adopt the policy of his Cabinet ; nor are its members, on the other hand, responsible for his doings. 1 ' I 'It 'i R 7. Revenue and Uj^penditure — Zand and Sea Forces. The lievenue for the financial year ending June 30, 1880, amounted to £06,700,000. The Expenditure for the same year amounted to £53,500,000, leaving an excess of I'evenue over Expenditure of £13,200,000. The land forces of the United States consist of the regular army and the militia of the several States, in which, with certain exceptions, is enrolled every citizen capable of bearing arms between his eighteenth and forty- fifth year. The regular or standing army amounts at present to no more than about 25,000 men, and to keep it on this footing there require to be annually enlisted about GOO recruits. The yearly outlay involved is about £7,600,000. The active list comprises a general, a lieu- tenant-general, four major-generals, and four l;)rigadiers. The army includes a corps of engineers, an artillery and a signal corps, besides ten cavalry, five artillery, and twenty-five infantry regiments, the staff of the military academy, and an Indian corps of observation. rOLITICAL ADMINISTRATION. 275 On January 1, 1872, the fleet comprised 51 iron- clads of various classes, mounting 127 cannon ; 58 screw- steamers, with 865 cannon; 10 paddle-steamers, with 72 cannon; 20 sailing-vessels, with 215 cannon; 28 steam-tugs, with 11 cannon, 3 store-ships with 12, and 6 revenue-cutters with 88 cannon — making a total of 176 vessels and 1390 cannon. The naval commissioned officers numbered 1360. 1 II f Vi i I . I ,1 t H If' i. .,1 1 111 1 276 COiVU'ENDlUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TllAVEL. CHAPTER XIX. THE TEKRITORY OF ALASKA. 1. riiysiral At,j)cct of the Country. The extreme north-west of America formed a Russian possession till June 21, 18()7, when the whole of what was known as Russian America was ceded to the United States. This region, some 680,000 square miles in ex- tent, consists mainly of the north-western spurs of the Rocky Mountains, is full of lofty snow-clad mountains and volcanoes, but thickly wooded in the valleys and tlie bays of the coast ranges. The west coast is deeply in- dented with fiords, off which lie the archipelagoes of the Prince of Wales and George III. The straits separating Asia and America were first discovered by the Cossack Dschenew (read J^neu) in the year 1728, and again eighty years later more carefully explored by Bering, after whom they are now named. Some of the volcanoes are very high, and the streams numerous, though still but little known. The climate varieb much, but is far milder than that of the eastern seaboards of America and Asia under the same parallels. The north-west coast, as far as Alaska, enjoys a coast climate, with mild winters, cool summers, a copious rain- fall, very favourable to the growth of timber, but prevent- ing the further spread of fruit trees. The Cascade Range, which, extending northward from the United States, hugs the western coast through British ALASKA. 277 Columbia, here preserves its position as tlio coast raiiso, exteudiii|^' iiortli-weHtwurd in a series cjf volcanic peaks, several of wliich are active volcanoes, as far as the penin- sula of Alaska. Near lonijitude 142" it loses its distinc- tive character as a mountain chain, and mcrtjics with tho van^^•e8 fruni the north and east, beyond which [xiint it is known as the Alaskan Kan.ne. In this Cascade, or iSt. Elias lian«i,e, are many very liiyh peaks, rivallin;^ in altitude the famous volcanoes of Mexico. Anions' them are Mount St. Klias, 14,070 feet; Mount Fairweather, ]\Iount Criliou, and many others nf nearly ecpial heiglit. Between the Cascade Eange and the I'ocky ]\Ioun- tains, in British Amenca, are several ranues of hills, trendin,y parallel to these mountain systems. Beyond tlu'm are the li(jcky Mountains, trending at lirst nearly nortli- west, then turning Avest and even somewhat south of west, following the trend of the coast-lhie as that bends towards the peninsula of Alaska, and joins with the Cascade Bange to form the Alaskan liange. The Yukon, the largest stream of the Territory, and one of the great rivers of the world, rises in British Columbia between the Cascade and Bocky Mountains, cutting through the latter of these in its western course to Bering's Sea. North of the Bocky Mountains, the country, though broken and rough, contains nothing worthy to be called mountains, except the liomanzof Mountains. ' : . 2. Inhahitants — Indians, Eshimos. Amongst the 70,500 inhabitants of Alaska there are scarcely 700 Bussians, consequently not more than 1 to the 100. There are about 1500 so-called Creoles — that is, half-caste Bu-ssians and Indians. Of the 42,000 pure- blood Indians, some 15,000 only have been subdued, all 278 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAPIIY AND TRAVEL. !*ii / I/' / : , the rest leading a free and nomad life. On the east coast dwell the Eskimos, about 20,800 in niuuber; and on the western islands 2500 Aleutians. New AnOi- anj>el, the former seat of the Ilussian (Jovcrnment, wliieli liad searcely a population of 850 twenty-live years ago, now numbers as nuiny as 2200. After they had estab- lished themselves on the Anuu', tlie Jtussians were able to utilise the wealtb of the land in tind)er and furs, but it was in otlier respects rather a burden than a source of power to them. 3. Agriculfnral rroqwds. It is otherwise with the Americans, although tlH> re])ort of General George II. Thomas on the condition ol' Alaska in IBGi) held out no immediate pros]H>ct of colonisation, nor, indeed, has anything since been heard of any such ])roject. While the climate is extremely cold, there is far too much rain and too little sun for agri- cultural operations. At most of tiu; si'Atlements there are ganhuis ))i'oducing radishes, turnips, lettuces, other wat(uy vegc^tables, and excellent ])otatoes. But they last only a veiy short time, the humidity being so great that V(!getables grow well enough, but do not ripen or run to seed. The same dilliculty is experienced in cultivating barley, oats, or wheat. The stalk shoots up and remains green, the grain never fully rii)ening. 'Jliere is relativ(dy but little arable land, the best district, both as regards climate and soil, being the plateau on the east side of Cook's Inlet, stretching from Kenai to Ghugachik Hay. Here we iind a sandy alluvial loam, very rich and deep ; still, though ])leasant while it lasts, the summer is too short to allow of liold operations being carried on success- fully. ALASKA. 279 1 !l I 4. Ndtural Jicsoiarcs. Al(li(>iit;li timber of the finest ([uulity and well snitcd for liuildinn' ])ni'|)oses grows in fuvonred districts, still Oregon, Wiishington, and JJritisii Columbia ])ro(lnee it in equal abundance!, and in ])lact's where it is I'ar more con- venient to tiie market. Tiie lisheiies on the banks ot" the north-east coast of the Aleutian ]K!iunsulaand ai'chipeliigo are very extensive and ])ro(lu(^tive, and salmon is met with in all the rivers, ]>esi(k's i\u\ coal on Chugachik Jiay, s(!veral beds tire known to exist elsewhere, as in Kout- /nou Haven, in the Iskmd of Ivou, at Kassaan (»n Prince of Wales Jshind, and at Katniai in Alaska. r>ut what has been said of the timber is (uiually a|>i>iical)U! to the coal-lields in the neighbourhood of J'uget Sound. (In the whol(!, the most important pursuit of tiie people is seal- lisliing. n. T/ic Fur Tnn/r. The following iiotcis on the fur-scid and fur ti'ade :ire taken min'nly from Mr. Dall's aibiiirable book on A/as/.v 1(11(1 i/s Jicsdiirccs, published in ISTO. Tlu! fur ti'ade of Alaska has betui widely known for a century, and its history is almost a history of the country. The furs were the ])rincipal if not the only objects which led to its exploration and settlement, and the trade in them is tlu; only branch of industry which has heeii fully develojied in the Territory, all otluu's being Ibrgotteii in the enormous ja'oHts which have attended its suc(;(!ssful ])roseeution. The sea oiivr, the fox, marten, beaver, and other animals, all furnish fur, but the fur-seal is tlu; gn^al- source of the trade. It is at ])rc!si'nt obtained almost exclusively on the islands of St. Taul and St. (Jeorgo ill the Jlering Sea. From 1741 to 180'J nut less than 0,U 00,000 of skins were obtained. 1 if 280 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. The seal arrive at the islands about the middle of June, and leave generally aljout the last of October. They 11. 'H iP, ail l\ Iff. iiU mi' m w, mm m m OTTER-HU>'T IN THK ALIIUTIAN ISLANDS. are thought to spend the winter in the open sea south of the Aleutian Islands. The pups are born about the ALASKA. 281 middle or end of June. They are covered, when born, with fine black hair without down. The latter appears when they are about three months old, and about six months later the black hair is replaced by a stronger hair tipped witli white or brown. They appear to feed on lish, and sleep in the water on their sides, with the u])per nippers out of water. " They have three cries — a kind of roar, like that of a young calf, which indicates anger ; a milder cry, which they use in calling to one another ; and a kind of piping whistle when tliey are hot or tired. Tliey come up in droves of many thousands on tlie hill- sides near the shore, and literally blacken the islands with their numbers. The rocks, which tliey have scrambled over for ages, are polished and rounded." The ground which they frequent is destitute of herbage, and the vicinity has a strong and disagreeable odour. " They fight desperately among themselves, each bull having five or six females which he defends with the greatest courage, while they look on complacently, or enc(juvage him with their cries. The male has a mane and a longer tail than the female." The manner of conducting the fi.shery is as follows ;- — A number of xVleuts go along the water's edge, and, gee- ting between the animals and the water, shout and wave their sticks. The seal are very timid, and always follow each other like sheep ; yet, if brought to bay, they will fight bravely, A body of four or five hundred having been sei)arated as above from the main assembly, they can be driven very slowly by two men into the interior of the island, exactly as a shepherd would drive his sheep. Their docility de})ends on circumstances. If the sun is out and the grass dry, they cannot be driven at all. If the day is wet and the grass sutficiently moist, they may be driven several miles. Every two or three minutes they must be allowed to rest. Those who become tired are killed and I -i !| 282 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. ,! • ,! skinned on the spot by the drivers, as it is of no use to attempt to drive them. They would at once attack the driver, and perhaps seriously injure him. When the seal have been brought to a suitable place, they are left with some one to watch them until it is desired to kill them. The skins of old males are so thick as to be useless. The liussians restricted the killing solely to young males less than five years and more than one year old. No females, pups, or old bulls were ever killed. This was a necessary provision to prevent their extermination. The seal are killed by a blow on the back of the head witli a heavy sharp-edged club. This fractures the skull, which is very thin, and lays them out stiff instantly. The Aleut then plunges his sharp knife into the heart, and with won- derful dexterity, by a few sweeps of his long weapon, separates the skin from the blubber to which it is attached. The nose and wrists are cut around, and the ears and tail left attached to the skiu. When the operation is over the skin is of an oval shape, with four holes where the extremities protruded. These skins are then taken and laid in a large pile, with layers of salt between them. After becoming thoroughly salted, they are done up — two together — in square bundles and tied up with twine. They are then packed for transportation to London, where all the fur-seal skins are dressed. The skin is shaved very thin by a machine which cuts the roots of the stiff hairs, and leaves the down which does not penetrate to any distance. The former are brushed away, and the down is dyed black or a rich brown, and we have the skins then in the shape in which we see them at the furriers. In 18G8 the Aleuts received thirty- five cents each for the skins, the salt being furnished them ; and in New York, at oae time, they were delivered by the Russian American Company for $2-50 each. In 1870 the skins in the London market were worth about $5 '00 each in gold. ALASKA. 283 The price of the salt and the freiglit deducted leaves a large margin for the trader after paying the Aleut his thirty-five cents. The fur-seal were killed in immense numbers by the Russians. At one time 300,000 skins were destroyed in order that the market might not be overstocked. It was only when their numbers M'ere very greatly reduced that the number annually killed was diminished and re- strictions imposed. The estimate by the Fur Company of the peltry fur- nished by Alaska in the seventy-six years from 1786 to 1862 is over 6,000,000 skins, which is unquestion- ably below the truth, as they systematically underrate their profits and the amount of annual production from motives of policy. 6. Geology and Mineral Resources. The geological features of Alaska are but imperfectly known. The rocks belong mainly to the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations, although there are a few localities from Mdiich Carboniferous and Jurassic fossils have been obtained. Volcanic rocks also abound, and tliere is a very good record of volcanic phenomena, beginning with the year 1690. ' During the glacial period Alaska was covered with a continuous sheet of ice, and now almost every deep gorge of considerable size between the high mountains has at its head a glacier, or the remains of one. Some of them are of extraordinary size and grandeur, and the American student of glacial phenomena needs no longer to turn to the Alps for a field of study. "At the commencement of the cold period, huge animals, covered with hair to resist the severe tempera- ture, sprung into being. The elephant roamed over the 284 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. ii ft' tunclri of North America and Asia. Later, the reindeer and musk-ox followed the arctic vegetation as it spread southward" (Dall). Hot springs, mud craters, and solfataras, are abundant in many parts of the Territory. Coal is the most valuable of the mineral productions, and is found at numerous localities. Fine Carboniferous coal is found, although most of it is Cretaceous in age. Anthracite lias been reported, and is due probably to local metauiorphism through the agency of volcanic intrusions. Next to coal, sulphur is probably the most valuable mineral product of Alaska. It is found in many of the hot and mineral springs, and near the craters of a number of volcanoes. Kitre also occurs. Petroleum is found on the surface of a lake near the Day of Katmai. Gold, silver, and copper occur in limited quantities, ami white marble of excellent quality is obtained near Sitka. Lead, iron, graphite, and kaolin, are other minerals known to occur in small quantities. Mr. Dall says,^ " Wild and exaggerated stories have found a place, even in official documents, in regard to fossil ivory. This is not uncommon in many parts of the valleys of the Yukon and Ivuskoquim. It is usually found on the surface, not buried, as in Siberia ; and all that I have seen has been S(^ much injured by the weather, that it was of little commercial value. It is usually blackened, split, and so fragile as to break readily in pieces. A lake near Nushagak, the Inglutiilik liiver, and the Kotto liiver, are noted localities for this ivory. It has also been found on the shores of the Kotzebue Sound and the Arctic coast. " Ice has long been an article of trade with the Ilussian American Company. . . . The first cargo was sold for $75 a ton. It was soon found that it was ini- ^ Alaska and its Resources, p. 479. ALASKA. 285 possible to procure ice of good quality or in sufficient quantities in the latitude of Sitka. The establishments were therefore removed to a small island near Kadiak, where they still remain. At various times vessels have loaded with ice from several of the glaciers to the south- ward. The value of the ice imported into California in 1868 was $28,000. The demand for it has not greatly increased of late years, yet it seems as if, when once introduced into Mexican, South American, and Asiatic ports, that a profitable trade might be carried on. At present ice is taken from New England to India and China, a much greater distance, requiring a longer voyage through hot latitudes, and of course necessitating a large waste while on the way." :l .m» \W' MllL. 1, t)i IMU m 1 ■ ' i' ll ■ i 'i:i ill i 1 1 in* TEMPERATURE MAP of the UNITED S ' ?°. . . 9 }S^ ?r. i'V" ■♦J^" English Miles THE UNITED STATES, GREATEST COLD. 50 .'-^^^^''^^.^i: -^P-- yi:^^-"'L><^^' ''■/ r I, I- ol Caneur h1 M 90' Lnngimde V. of (Jrewpwich B0° ^<^ StaaA^f'd\ Geog^ SstaJh* f il 1^ ' I 1 ! ■ *v ti I ,1 t \\ in: Etiwt9ii Ou Mfitii Tt7nj>*'ritttiv fFiOiViiU 4.,'iM'Jf itftht fu>ftr.tt J'fif /}f/tirtw lit th Canuda repWH letiifieitttiwe t'of fht- kfftifit fiioritJt Pit- hrit^rnniu>t iii fjntiviit ftt.i-irtutiii ^2Jdiih,7:t\^^, » Unh, ^'-''^'k ^'^'^' ' i ■?,.■ i,o„n„„m or ■W.,,,4'^*i, *^ fe^a^>5 120' ^ ?S£___iSlL ?£?„_*9" Ru^lish ^: TlTi" K'"'. [..iiidoui f.awuMl SlaW.WChiuii,^ (■ THE UNITED STATES, GREATEST HEAT. ,..,,v- .«„..-■■-,. ^ ~.'P' Vu, "' 1 ,. o "'" " "■".U .1,-rS!^' -.^fr.-. .'ij; BO* LimiSitudf W. ot' rt II , i W 11 i iii:: ' ! i 1 i 1 ■ 1 flfiP I ' H-h, ■..if; ■J* Pr \ i 1 ■- ■^' ' '' ■ . i ' 1 II: i 1 1 \- v irii 'A —X U>ll -•^'- r — I 1 1 1 1 I ' » '.'I 1 .^ 1 1 I. Ill) II Kl ''■% X A li (• T I (' \ f ^' -j^^ '' M/,.,/ s^-^. ...V7 '^^ II II I //(7^/A/.v //( >V'i7 a/ifiyi' tlif .V«'ci. .I"' .V.vi/, ,■! tiii/ll.tli Mill I.D'idiiri . Kilviinl Slaiil'iMil m^ titm^m^m I III'. IM».>II. M().\ ( )| I .\ ■'^"•^ r.'ii 111) iiHi Ml nil '" ''" Mil '■•' '•" '■" , HI :tii V ;* • -TV Ml '^1 Ml V* h' ^ •^'^Hr^ r.ri \ /J r n s o N-^ ^i.i/;/l>' JUv iJftj' ..•.'■it. I «"i(lini . I .iviii-H Siaiilur.l %.'. t hiuni,\; I'i-ohh nmi$»mHv >mm^immmmmmifmmtifmi0mtm- i I/I.' I;!, . Ontiirio (5. Miiiiitobii . 7. Hritish Columbia Territories — 1. North -Wi'st Tcrri- tork's, iiicliidinf,' Lub- nidor, Distriutot' Ki'c- watiii, and Great I'lairie Territory to Kocky Mountains 2. Islands in tho Arctic j Oi!(!iin, and in llud- | son Hay . . .J 3. Newfoundland* Total area Suiit'illi'ii's In •Siiuiiru MiliiH. 20,007 27,174 2,i:5:J 188,t)S8 101,7:):} 12:5, '^00 a4i,au5 2,373,490 310,000 42,000 3,530,630 Pdimlatinn, CVnsuH 1881. AliorlRincM. Other Rncea. 1,401 2,12') 281 7,r.i5 ir.,;j25 ti,7»)7 25,001 45,472 4,000 None. 108,547 Total Population 440,572 ;i2i,2:i;} 108,891 1, :)-.!), 0-J7 l,lt:i:(,228 05,954 49,451 56,446 140,536» 4,471,3:18 108,547 4,579,885 Since the aliovo was in t.v]ie, four Districts have lipon estalilislicd in tlic I'niirio Hcction, t)y Order in Council of 8tli May ISSl', as fol- _ lows : — 1. AssiNinoiA, containing about OS, 000 square miles, is bounded on tbo soutli by the international boundary, on tlie east l»y tlii^ western l)omidaiy of Manitoba, on tlie nortli by tlie Otli correction line, Dominion I^jiiids (System "surveys, near 5L'd jiarallel ; on tlie west by a line dividing tlie lOlh and Utli raiij^es townships, nuinl)ered from tlie ttli initial meridian, Dominion Lands System. 2. Saskatchewan, eontaiiiiiiK 114,000 s(inare miles, is bounded on the soutli by Assiniboia, on the east liy Lake Winniiicg and Nelson Hirer, on the north by the IMh cjrrection line, suivey system, and on the west by a continuatiou northward of the western lioundary oi' Assinilioia. ;t. Ai.HEiiTA, about 100,000 scinaro miles, is bounded on the south by the inter- national bouiKlary, on the east by Assiniboia and Saskatidiewan, on tlie west by Ihitish Columbia, and on the north by the IStli correctional line, near the iStli liarallel. 4. AriiAnASOA, coiitainiiif,' about 122,000 square miles, is bounded on the south by Allierta, on the west by ilritlsh Columbia, on the east by a line between the 10th and lltli ranges tiiwiishi|is, already mentioned, until that iiiteiseets Athabasca Uiver, then by that river and Athabasca Laki' mid Xlave l.ake to the :!2d correction line, which forms the northern lioundary of the district and is near the tiOth ii:iral!el. Saskatchewan district includes nearly the whole main Saskatclii'wan and a jiart of South Saskatchewan, and contains such well-known jilaces as liattlcfonl, t'arle- ton, and I'rincv Albert. The forks of the Saskalidiewan, wlnre the Press Colonisa- tion Coiii|iaiiy is lueated, are almost exactly in the centre of the district. Assinilioia iiiclmles Qu'A]iiielle, South Saskatchewan, and Souris Rivers, and contains Fort I'elly, Fort F.Uicc, Touchwood Hills, etc. Alberta includes the liattle, l!ow, and IJclly River countries. Athabasca takes in the celebrated Peace River district. 1 These statistics are taken from the oflleial returns of the Census for 1881. '•i Here stated for reference as u part of British North Aiiierica, allliouyh not united to the Dominion. 3 Census, 1809. TIIK CJHKAT WATKRSIIKDS. 291 Tlic iifitiuiil ^'cnrrrtqiliiciil divisions, according to tho basins of tho river systems, are : — 1. The Northern or Arctic coast, with its archipelago of ishinds. 2. The Eastern, or St. Lawrence Basin, covering tho provinces of(l) Nova Scotia, (2) New lininswick, (3) I'rince Kdward Island, (4) (^nclxH;, (5) Ontario. 3. Tlie Central, or Hudson l>ay IJasin, end)racing (1) the East Main, (2) the District of Keewatin, (.'5) tho Province of Manitoba, (4) Tlu; Prairie section, with rivers draining eastward to ]Iudson Pay. 4. The North-AVestern, or Mackenzie River Pasin, north of G0° N. latitude. 5 The Western, or I'acific coast, represented by the Province of liritish Columbia, with Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands. This vast territory, occupying nearly one-half of the continent, and second only to liussia in area, is bounded on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Davis Strait, and Baffni Pay ; on tlie west by the formerly Russian but now United States Territory of Alaska, and by the Pacific Ocean ; on the north by the Arctic Ocean, and on the south by the United States of America. This latter boundary, starting from the Atlantic sea- board, commences at the inouth of tho St. Croix River, which empties into the Pay of Fundy, then follows this river and Lake Chiputentic '", and passes due north until it strikes the St. Jolm River ; thence by that river and one of its westemi branches it reaches the watershed between the St. Lawrence and the Atlantic, which it follows by a very tortuous south-westerly course to the 45th parallel of north latitude, in longitude 71° 30' west; thence by this parallel it i)asses westward to the St. Lawrence, and along mid-channel of that river, and of the Laknjs Ontario, Erie, Huron, and the main portion of II*, ' ; I '.'1 n ■ t, 7 .'■ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. m. '<^ hy of the bay and strait is not well known. It has never been fully explored, although the Hudson Bay Company have navigated it annually for over 200 years, and it is only lately since the country has been transferred to the Dominion of Canada that regular surveys of its shores have been conmienced. The narratives of Coats ^ and Chappell,- as well as the Government IJoport on the navigation of Hudson r>ay,^ have been consulted, Init the latest information has been derived from the Ifeports of the Geological Survey of Canada,^ under the direction of A, 11. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.li.S. These explorations, however, as yet only cover the south and east portions of tho bay and the imme- diate vicinity of Forts Churchill and York. Hudson Strait is about 400 miles in length, with an average width of about sixty miles, the narrowest part, about half-way between the Atlantic and Hudson Bay, being twenty-two miles in width. On the north is "Bailin Land," on tlie south tlie northern shores of the Labrador and East ]\Lain I'eninsula. The Atlantic mouth has, until lately, been described as lying between liesolution Island on the nortli, Gl° 15' north latitude, and Cape Chudluigh on the south, 00° 14' south latitude. It appears, however, that the inlet named Frobisher Bay, according to the re])orts of the * Geography of Ilndson Be )/. 2 Xnrrnt.ivc of a Voijaiji' fo Hudson's Bay in his Majesfi/s Ship "Bosa- mond," by Lieut. Clinpiioll, R.X. London, ]S]7. ^ Navigation of Jhtdson Bay, by J. S. Dennis, Surveyor-General to the Fetleral Government of Caniuln, 1878. * Geological iiurvcy of Canada — A. R. C. Selwyn, F.R.S., F.G.S., Director. 302 COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. ' Ji i I whalers who visit this coast, forms a part of Hudson Strait, and is only divided from it, hetweon Resolution Island and North Bay, by a chain of islands, of which Ilesolution Island is the most easterly, and tlie Savage Islands the most westerly. The different charts consulted agree in marking this shore {is a Meta Ijicor/nita, although some lay down Frobisher Bn/t/, and others Frobisher Strait. Newton's Terrestrial Globe of 1881, as well as the Dominion Maps, lay it down as a strait. According to liecher's ^ chart, Ilesolution Island is ten miles from the northern mainland ; and although it is known that tlie group of Button Islands lie otf Cape Chudleigh, still, so little have these coasts been explored that it is not known whether Cape Chudleigh is on an island or on the main shore. The centre of the channel is about 61° north latitude. The chief islands at the western entrance are King Charles, Nottingham, and Salisbury Islands. Tlie Digges Islands lie off Cape Wolstenholme, at the north-west point of East Main, while Mansfield and the southern Southampton Islands lie west of the western mouth. Prince Henry foreland is worthy of notice as a striking headland on the south shore, and about midway in the strait. The large Bay of Ungava, 150 miles across, lies on the south shore near the eastern entrance ; and almost opposite to it, on the northern shore, is North Bay, a long shallow bay, into which Frobisher Strait opens. The shores have never been examined, but appear to be high, rocky, and barren, with many islands and slieltered bays, and the water deep, exceeding at mid-channel some- times 300 fathoms. The western entrance, about the 7oth meridian, is seventy-five miles in width. ^ Becher " On Voyage of Martin Frobislier," Royal Geographical Society, 1842. HUDSON STUAIT. 303 Tlio princi'iifil isliinds on the iiortli shore, ?mincd by Coats, are ]ies(»hitioii Island, Snowyland, Siiddlcliack, Middle Suva;,'o Islanils, Gray Goose Island, and many others ; hut those names are not to he relied on. On the south shore are the Ihitton j^'roup, Akpatok Island, a lar<,'e hold island in Ungava liay, CJreen Island, Long Island, and, as supposed, many others. There are two large rivers emptying into Ungava r>ay, — Whale Iliver and the Koksoak or South liiver; of these very little is known. The George liiver, jjrohahly about forty miles in length, forms the boundary between East ^lain and Labrador. The tides in Ungava Bay rise to thirty or even forty feet, and the curients rush with mueh force, particularly at the narrows and at the mouth. The Hudson Strait current is regularly east from Fox Channel, carrying much ice when the arctic ice is moving southward. lioving bands of Esquimaux frequent the shores of the strait during the summer months ; but otherwise they are uninhabited. The region including Fox Channel, which is bounded on the west by Melville Peninsula and Southampton Island ; on the east by liatlin Land ; on the north by Coekburn Island ; and on the south by Hudson Bay proper, may be described generally as icy, l)iirt of it being within the arctic circle. The extreme length of Fox Channel is about 350 miles, with an uni- furni width of about 100 miles. The large island of Suutliampton lies at its mouth, about opposite to Hud- son Strait, and Wager Inlet opens into it on the western shore, about 66° north latitude, 87° west longitude. Very little is known of Fox Channel, except from the account of Fox, or of the shores, except from the reports of Hearne. James Bay, at the southern end of Hudson Bay, is 4 ;; ; / I' '/ 304 COMPENDIUM OP GEOGRAPHY AxND TRAVEL. M 1 V', ■fi eiglity miles in width at its moiitli, and has a pretty uniform breadth throughout its entire length, M-Jiich is about 300 miles. The islands of Agoomska and Charlton lie towards the lower end. The waters of James l>ay jire muddy,and near the shore shallow and braekish. The eoasts are low, and slightly undulating. They are well wooded, and some of the spruce timber is of fair size. Passing northward, a strip of land, several miles in width, along a part of East ]\Iain, appears suitable for agrieultural i)ur- podcs. In approaching Cape Jones, the larger trees begin to retire from the shore ; and the woods are interspersed with i)ark-like openings, which give the country a i)leas- ing and romantic a])]iearanco. The coast is 1 ringed with a labyrinth of low islands of different sizes, consisting of rounded rocks in sitv, boulders, shingle, gravel, and sand, and outside of these are many reefs of the same materials, only bare at low tide. The southern shore of James ]">ay, as well as the region on the west, as far as Nelson, enjoy a milder climate auJ a richer soil tlian is found in the corresiwnd- ing latitude on East Main. This dillerence in climate, referred to elsewliere, is sujiposed to arise from the iniluence of the warm westerly \vinds, and it produces a marked elfoct on the vegetation. Summer frosts are avoided, and the more hardy grains, as well as root crops and ord /ary garden vegetables, thrive. rroceetliug nortliward along the western shore, the soil and climate are favourable to the coarser grains, until the Xelson liiver, about 57° north latitude, is ]»assed ; while as far as the Churchill Piver cro])S may be grown. The following rivers falling into Hudson Uay, on the "Western sliore, are here siin])ly named, as thi^se that are known wUl be sjiecially described iiuther on. They are the Dubauut, falling into Chesterfield Inlet, in latitude HUDSON B\Y. 305 64° 30' north, 100° 40' west,— the inh^t is 250 miles long, and twenty-five miles wide ; the Seal, North, Churchill, Nelson, Hayes, Severn, Weenisk, Trout, Equan, Attahwahpiskat, and Alhany. At the southern end the Moose, Massiwaiba, Oggotika, Matta-ganii, and Abittibe. On the East i\Iain shore, proceeding northward, the Harrikanaw, Noddawai, llupert, East Main, Big lliver, Seal, Whale and Little Whale, Nastapoka, and Langlands, with many others still imnanied. North of Cape Jonos the coast is described in the report of the (Jeoh)gical Survey of Canada for 1877-78. The water there becomes as clear as that of the Atlantic Ocean. A change in the marine fauna is also noticed — new species of fishes and a number of the lower marine animals, which had not been observed farther south, make their appearance, while others which had been previously seen now become abundant. The shore begins to be higher and bolder, and these characteristii's increase as we go north. The hills near the coast rise to a lieight at first of a few hundred feet, and then to 1000 and even 2000 feet above the sea. Instead of the gently undulating outline which has hitherto jtrevailed, the shore becomes rugged and pre- cipitous. The islands are bold and lie in regular succession. They vary in si/e from mere rocks to thirty miles in length. ]\lost of the larger ones have a crescent-sha})ed outline, the convex side facing the mainland, and gene- rally presenting a clilf of greater or less height, while the top of the island slopes to the west and dips at a gentle angle under the sea. Tory Island, aliout thirty miles in length, lies off Ca])e Jones. A short distance ahead is Long Island Sound, full of reefs. X I II I! I 306 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL. ') i The Manitoimuck cliain of islands, forty miles in length, beyins opposite to the mouth of (Jrcat Whale River. The Manitounuck Sound, inside of this chain, is narrow and completely sheltered from the open sea, and looks somethin,^ like a river in sailing through it. The Nasta- poka chain begins opposite to the mouth of Little Whale River, and runs for ninety miles at a distance varying from ten and a-half to five miles from the mainland, the inter- vening water being called Nastapoka Sound. The Nastapoka and Langlands rivers, which empty into this sound, have each a beautiful fall at the mouth. The Hopev'oll chain of islands, farther north, lies close to the main shore ; the sound of the same name averaging only about one mile in width. At the end of this chain we come to Cape Dufferin, in al)out bS° 45' north lati- tude, the most prominent cape on the east C(jast of Hud- son Bay. The coast has now become somcAvliat lower than it was to the south. From Manitounuck Sound, to a point thirty-two miles north of the inlet of Ilichmond Cilulf, rocks similar to the upi)er co])per-bearing rocks of Lake Superior — dolomites, sandstones, and traps — are largely developed. Richmond Gulf, north of which trees are no longer seen on the coast, is a remarkable sheet of salt water, triangular in outline, and measuring about twenty-five miles from north to south, by fifteen miles from east to west. It is connected witli the sea by a gorge a mile in length, but only a few chains wide, cut through the high ridge which lies ' 'tween the gulf and Hudson Bay. This gorge is too narrow to allow the gulf to fill up with every rise of the tide, or to empty itself at the ebb to a level with the low-water mark outside. The result is that, with the exception of a few minutes at each turn II HUDSON BAY COMPANY. 307 of tide, the water rushes out and in through this rocky canon, causing wliirlpools and eddies, which are sometimes dangerous to small craft. The water at this place never freezes, and the locality is much resorted to by water-fowl, seals, and white por- poises, which are numerous in the summer time. The scenery around Richmond Gulf is extremely wild, grand, and picturesque. Mosquito Bay, an inlet of considerable size, and near the entrance to Hudson Strait, is not described, and has probably never been explored. On the western coast, about Churchill River, the land is high and rocky ; but at York Factory, at the mouth of the Hayes River, latitude 57° 2' north, longitude 92° 40' west, it is low and swampy. At the mouth of the Severn it is too low to permit of ships approaching the coast. At Moose Factory, in James Bay, the anchorage is good. In the southern part of this basin many of the well-known timber trees of Canada, including red and white pine, are found. The spruce is the last to disap- pear as one goes northward, but is suitable for building purposes as far as Fort Ueorge on the east and Fort Churchill on the west shore. The tamarac or larch {Larix Americana) has the same limits. The balsam fir reaches nearly to Fort George. Tiie Banksian pine is found near York Factory. Of the deciduous trees willows extend farthest north, the balsam, poplar, aiul aspen coming next. The white birch has the same range as tlie latter. The Hudson Bay Company have ten stations or trading ]iosts on tlie bay, with resident agents. At these points the trade with the interior is carried on, supplies of goods are received from London, and shipments of furs are returned. The ships visit the bay once a year. Passing from Britain vid the Orkneys, they enter the bay generally 308 COMrENlJlUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TIJAVEL. 1^' about the middle of July, aud leave about the middle of September. At the mouth of t^ie Churchill River are now standing the ruins of a fort, 100 yards square, with walls seven- teen feet thick, originally mounting forty guns. This fort was builc by the Hudson Bay Company at an expense of about $120,000, the dressed stone for the front of the walls having been imported from England. It was constructed probably more for the protection of the territorial rights of the Company, which were menaced by the French, than as a protection against the Indians. In 1704, Peronse, the French admiral, demanded its surrender, to which Hearne discreditably acceded. To the west of Hudson Bay game abounds, and the fur-bearing animals afford supplies to the Hudson Bay Company, who, although they have not now a monopoly of the trade, prosecute it as formerly. As the navigation of Hudson P>ay and Strait is now attracting much attention, the question of the practi- cability of establishing an ocean steam line for trade and immigration purposes between Europe and the north-west of the Dominion by this route, may be considered. Assuming that a railway be constructed westward from the western shore of Hudson Bay, as is now pro- posed, along the valley of the I»J'elson IJiver, and for which a charter has been obtained, the importance of this route is evident as shortening the distance to the fertile agricultural districts of the great prairie section of Central Canada, as well as that of the transcontinental route. Stretching a ta])e line over a terrestrial globe, it will be seen that the distance between Liverpool aud New York is about ninety miles more than the distance from Liverpool to the Nelson River, aud this point is lialf-way to the Pacific Ocean. It is further claimed that this northern route, for ( NAVIGATION OF HUDSON BAY. 309 of :al it 3W pUl ay lor climatic reasons, possesses special advantages for the transmission of grains and meats. The inii)ortant points to be proved are, that the navi- ■uation of tliis strait and of Hudson Bay is open a suffi- ciently long season for the purpose of trade and immigra- tion, and is safe. A very valuable report on the question, prepared by liieutenant-Colonel J. S. Dennis, Deputy Minister of the Interior, and published in 1878, is a synopsis of the latest information on the subject. The report can only be referred to briefly, but is worthy of attentive perusal. It is there stated that Professor Hind considers a Canadian Archangel may be established on Hudson Bay, and that with strongly - built steamers, properly handled, and using the magnetic -electric light in the latter part of the season, the navigation of this strait is jierfectly practicable during the months of June, July, August, September, and October. This opinion seems to be confirmed by that of other j)ersons, as well as by facts. For more than two hundred years, from two to five sailing vessels on an average, frequently with war ships convoying them, have sailed annually from Europe to Port Nelson or other ports in Hudson Bay, and returned with cargoes the same season, vid the only available route, Hudson Strait. What was practicable for the old-fashioned sailing ships is now rendered comparatively easy in consequence of the great changes which have taken place during the last ten years in the prosecution of the sealing industry, which has established the fact that properly constructed vessels of large ca])acity are, in skilful hands, perfectly adapted to push their way through ice-encumbered seas. The difficulty in this route is that of effecting an entrance into Hudson Strait from Davis Strait, for so 310 compp:ndium of geoguapuy and travel. i! , soon as the east entrance is passed the navigation is comparatively easy to the westward, since the Hoe ice, if driven, as it usually is, by the winds to the south shore, leaves the north sliore free, and vice vcrsd. Lieuteni'.iit Edward Chappell, R.N., of H.M.S. liosa- mond, visited Hudson Bay, and in the narrative of his voyage, published in 1817, adverts to the advisability of merchants sending a strongly-built brig into Hudson Strait early in the month of June, so as to reach Cape Saddleback before tlie Company's ships arrive, with a view to trade with the Esquimaux of those coasts. He states that a vessel intended for this trade should not remain in the strait later than the beginning of Octol)er. This would cover a period of about four months, according to Lieutenant Chappell, for a sailing brig, and with properly found steamers this term might be ex- tended probably two weeks. He further states that it is not to be expected that ships, during their return to Europe from Hudson Bay, will ever meet with loose ice, and that when at York Factory they consequently undid all their preparations for sailing among ice. Eobson, in his Accotint of Hudson Bay, considers that a safe passage may often be found through Hudson Strait in the beginning of June, before the ice breaks up in the bay, and is carried by winds and currents into the strait. He argues that the ice at the bottom of the bay, the north ice and the west ice, will not have time to reach the strait, " but that after June all the bay ice commonly reaches it," The beginning of June, therefore, seems to be the likeliest time in which to expect a free passage. Mr. Davidson, the master of the Hudson Bay Com- pany's ship Prince of Wales, informed Sir Edward Parry that, after reaching and leaving the headland called the NAVIGATION OF HUDSON BAY. 311 North Bluff, lying immediately above the Savage Islands, about the middle of the strait, they seldom met with any very serious obstruction, except from a body of ice which they usually have to penetrate near Charles Island. Sir Edward Parry states that the ebb-tides which come down the strait are not so strong as the Hood- tides which go up it, and that in his second voyage he was twenty-two days in the passage of the strait after entering, and but three days in the return passage. Lieutenant Chappell was twenty-four days between tlie entrance and Charles Island, and on his return left York Factory on the 18th of September, a^d nached Cape Desolation on the 6 th of October and the Orkneys on the 19 th of the same month. With steamers like those now engaged on the New- foundland and Labrador Coast in the seal fishery, the return voyage would probably have been accomplished in thirteen or fifteen days. The extent to which ice forms in Hudson Bay is not known ; but, judging from the statements of Hearne, whose opportunities for acquiring information were ex- cellent, ten miles from the shore may be the extreme limit on the deeper and north-westerly portions. The southern part of the bay and the eastern portion probably freeze over a much larger area than the north-western portion. The objective point in Hudson Strait, which it is desirable to attain at the earliest possible date in the summer, is North Bluff, in the rear of the Upper Savage Islands, from which place, as already stated, the Hud- son Bay Company's ships generally take their departure across the strait into Hudson Bay. Baffin anchored here in 1615. In Parry's chart the Savage Islands are represented as a small group, eleven in number, pro- 312 COMI'ENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. I!! .'( I', ;> tectiDg tlie enlrance to North Bay, a deep opening in their rear. In his work is a sketch of the largest island, which he examined and dejcrihed in 1821. The clilt's of the eastern island rise between 400 to 500 feet above the sea, and the highest portion to which Parry ascended is from GOO to 800 feet above the ocean. Here the group is a conspicuous object, and affords ancliornge-ground. From this point Parry took his observations on the tides, and on that occasion North Bay in the rear was entirely free of ice. The great rise and fall of the tides in such a narrow strait gives colour to the statement that ice never forms entirely across it, for it is well known that no agent is so powerful in preventing the formation of ice in northern latitudes as strong and continued tides and currents. Hence the suggestion of Lieutenant Chappell and Robson, that Hudson Strait should be entered early in June, before the ice brealvs up in the bay and is carried into the strait, acquires special importance in connection with the shelter afforded by the Savage Islands and North Bay. Here, if necessary, steamers might wait for the moving of the ice in Hudson Bay. Supposing that open water does not exist throughout the winter, or in the early spring, between Mansfield and the adjoining large island, thirty miles distant, it is extremely improbable that at the entrance to Hudson Bay, where the water is deep, ice ever forms a continuous barrier. The statement of Hcarne, that in the northern parts ice forms only " several miles " from the shore, is entirely opposed to its doing so, and, conjointly with the great range of the tides, it may reasonably be supposed that the ice seen a month later in the season consists of ice drifting easterly. Captain James alleges that when he wintered in the southern part of James Bay, ice was formed as far as the eye could see. This is very probable, for James Bay, though i*;. ICE IN HUDSON STKAIT. 313 much farther to the o(tiith, is very sliallow, and its waters for miles from the shore are brackish only. The Hudson Bay Company's ships, between the years 1773 and 1813, according to a table given by Lieutenant Chappell, arrived during the months of July, ranging from the 20th to the 31st, and from the 1st to the 2 2d of August, and two arrived in September, namely, 2d and 13th of September; but no criterion of the time when the navigation opened can be formed from these dates, as the vessels were old, and were frequently under convoy ; and further, no object could be gained by their early arrival at the eastern entrance to Hudson IJay, since one voyage each year to and fro was all that was required by the exigencies of the trade. As to the dangers arising from ice. Sir Eihvard Parry states that " the effects to be. apprehended from exi)osure to the swell of the main ocean constitute the peculiar danger of first entering the ice about the mouth of Hudson Strait, which is completely open to the inliu- ence of the Atlantic. A very inconsiderable quantity of loose ice is suliicient to shelter a ship from the sea, provided it be closely packed ; but when the masses are se})arated by wind and tide, so as to admit the swell, the concussions soon became too violent for a ship, strengthened in the ordinary way, to withstand for any length of time. On this account it is prudent not to enter the ice without a fair prospect of getting seven or eight leagues within the margin. For the same reason also, when likely to be beset near the sea, it is better to make a ship fast to small than to large pieces, in order to avoid the heavier concussions occasioned by the latter." The Newfoundland, the Dundee, and the Norwegian sealing steamers, properly protected, push their way into the apparently illimitable fields of ice in March and April I\ 314 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHT AND TRAVKL. III 'i V4[ ll in pursuit of seals seeking the ico, for it is there only tliat they can capture the seals. There are now twenty-five sealing steamers of large size in Newfoundland waters, and during the past ten years tliey have nearly driven the sailing craft from this, formerly styled, hazardous enterprise. It is not unreasonable to suppose that at the present day, wlien ice navigation is so thoroughly under- stood, not only by the captains of sealing vessels but by steam winders, the passage through Hudson Strait, successfully accomplished for 200 years by bulky and unwieldy sailing vessels and vessels of war, as well as by whalers, will become an easy problem. The French not unfrequently sent vessels of war into Hudson Bay, and more than once tlicy destroyed the Hudson Bay forts. All these facts show that old-fashioned sailing craft successfully accomplished for nearly two centuries, for the purposes of a limited trade, a supposed obstructed and hazardous navigation, which the interests of a country as large as the empire of Germany now invite us to encounter with the modern protected steamer, the magneto-electric light, and the experience of trained and skilful navigators. Mr. Horetsky, who resided for several years in Hud- son Bay, says that the Hudson Bay Company never lost one of their own vessels until the year 1864, when the Prince of Wales and consort went ashore at Mansfield Island, " with studding-sails set." It appears certain that some of the popular impres- sions respecting the icy character of Hudson Strait and Bay have arisen from the accounts which have been published from time to time of the climate and coast-line of Northern Labrador, which is not unfrequently neared on entering the strait. The descriptions given by the Moravian missionaries of the dangers attending an ap- proach to that coast, as far north as Hebron, before the month of August, are no doubt truthful pictures of reali- ICE CURRENTS OF LABRADOR COAST. 315 tics as they api)eared for the first time to the eyes of tiiese inexperienced saihjrs. Bnt the coast-line of North- ern Labrador is the unfortunate recipient of the com- bined eliects of no less than three se])arate arctic or su))- arctic ice streams. These are the East Greeidand ice stream, the Ballin Bay and Davis Strait ice streams, and the Hudson Strait ice stream. All of these ice-encum- bered cuircnts meet in the summer on the coast of Northern Labrador, and are the cause of its exceptionally cold climate. The reason why the eastern entrance to Hudson Strait is encumbered in early summer arises from the ice of the combined East Greenland and Davis Strait current sweeping in a broad stream past its entrance towards the Labrador coast, on which it is pressed by the earth's rotation. The only hindrance to an entrance into and through Hudson Strait, early in June, arises from the olistruc- tion presented by the two ice streams coming from East Greenland and Baffin Bay, down the west coast of Davis Straits. It is reasonable to suppose that these ice streams are less encumbered late in May or early in June than in July. The str-ait once entered, the chief difficulty is over ; and if entered before the ice comes down, as alleged, from Hudson Bay, Bluff Head may be reached and a new departure taken, as suggested by the authorities quoted. It is doubtful whether the northern portion of the bay ever freezes " several miles " from the shore, and it remains to be seen whether much, or indeed any, ice does come out of Hudson Bay. It is probable that the ice spoken of as coming from the bay really comes down Fox Channel, as showu by the drift of H.M.S. Terror, repre- sented on the Admiralty chart. There are two reasons for supposing that very little ice comes from. Hudson Bay. The first is, it would imply the constant occurrence 316 COMPENDIUM OF GEOORAPIIY AND TIIAVEL. I' /( of strong southerly winds and a considcraltle space of time to carry the ice from so large a surface as Hudson Buy through the contined channels leading into Hudson Strait, and experience teaches that ice is rarely met with after passing Charles Island, except towards the centre of the l)!iy. Moreover, from the description of the ice met in Hudson Strtiit, it is largely composed of hummocky or heavy Arctic ice, which comes down Fox Channel f/oni the north. It is more prohable that the Hudson Bay ice melts and disappears within the limits of the bay it- self. The second reason is, that tiie early o])ening of the ice on the west coast of the bay, — admitting the salmon and caplin to the shores in the latter part of June, even so far north as Churchill, and six weeks before the North- ern Labrador coast is free from ice, — ap])ears to show that local dissohition is the chief, if not the only, cause of the disappearance of the bay ice, and its remnant is occasionally found in the eddy near the centre of the bay in Jidy. If the bay ice found its way into Hud- son Strait, these would be most liable to be blocked up between Mansfield and Digges Islands, but this part is represented to be always clear. It may, with great propriety, be asked. Why should a patch be found near the centre of the bay ? If the bay ice drifts out into the strait, would not the ice under such circumstances be found near Mansfield Island instead of at the centre of the bay ? Why does the central patch not follow the stream ? Hence the greater reason for adopting the suggestion of Lieutenant Chappell, and entering Hudson Strait early in June, before the Arctic ice from Fox Channel co^nes clown, as shown by the Terror's drift. At all points of the route through Hudson Strait and tlie entrance to Hudson Bay, where ice accumulations are met with, the Channel, never exceeding forty-five ■nil I Til TIIK rORT NELSON ROUTE. 317 miles in Lriiadth, is siiniciently noar for tel('<,'rapliic coin- iiiunicatioii hy means of maj^neto-electric lij^jhts fnjm one side to the other, so tliat instant advantage could be taken of information conveyed respectinj^ the condition of the ice in the early summer. In a tideway where the tides rise at neaps thirty, and at 8])rinj,'s iorLy feet, and where the daily swin<;' of tiio tides is from twelve to twenty miles, carrying ice 1 tack ward and forward through that space twice every day, fresh channels are constantly opening, which a steamer can avail herself of, Iwit whicli are use- less to a sailing vessel, except with a fair wind. The importance of the opeiung of this route will b(^ understood when a comparison is made of distances. Port Nelson, on the western side of Hudson IJay, is distant from Liverpool 2941 miles, New York is 3040 miles, — a difference of ninety-nine miles in favour of the Hudson Vniy route in the sea voyage. In inland carriage the great advantage for imn-igrants, as well as for imports and exports, will be evident. Between Winnipeg and Liverpool, vid Hudson Tny, there would be a saving of inland carriage, as com] tared with the route vid New York or Halifax, of about 2000 miles — a consideration whicli i^ likely to produce its effects in hastening the completion of the Hudson lUiy and Nelson liiver L'ailway. On the transcontinental route there is a saving in dis- tance of over 2000 miles, thus : — Liverpool to Japan, vid New York and San Francisco, 12,078 miles ; Liverpool to Ja])an, vid Port Nelson and the Canadian Pacilic liailway to Burrard Inlet, 9734 miles, or a saving in miles of 2352. The Port Nelson and Hudson Bay liailway, 400 miles in length, is now being surveyed, the Canadian Pacific road is already built to a point 400 miles west of Winnipeg, and will be carried by the end of the summer 318 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. II of 1882 to the base of the Rocky Mountains — 800 miles distant from the point at present reached. Tlie comple- tion '^f the line to Burrard Inlet on tlie Pacific cuast, being the dirticult portion of the road, will doubtless require four to five years, but may possibly, from the energy of the syndicate now at work, be finished even at an earlier date tlian is now anticipated. It is not necessary to enlarge on the imperial and Dominion interests which are alfected by these facts, as the figures speak for themselves, and the intelligent man will appreciate their importance on the questions of im- migration and commerce. ^i k 1 4. Tlie Arctic Coaat}in Bay, and for some distance within Lancaster and Sniitli Sounds, although there is a formidable l)arrier of ice between this "north water" and Davis Strait of l70 to 200 miles in extent. ]')utlin worked his way through this ice-pack in 1()16, and although no man followed him for 200 years, still it is now regularly passed by the whalers in the prosecution of their voyages. This open water is attended by a somewhat milder cliuiate than is found farther south, and affords encour- agement to explorers of yet reaching the I'ole by this channel. Parry, it will be remend)ered, found himself carried southward on the " ice-pack," on which he had started in sledges, faster than he ])rogressed nortliward ; but sliould tiie ice on the Canadian side of the Polar Sea he laiul-bound, the I'ole niav vet be reached from this side. In 1832 Poss established the IMaguetic Pole at 70^ 5' 17" north, and 06° 46' 45" west. " The only section of the arctic coast tolerably well •IT f 320 COMPKXDIUM OF GEOGllAPHY AND TIIAVKL. .'/ I :{ known at a distance from the continent, is that whicli lies to the nortli-east of British America, now the Dominion of Canada. This arises from the efforts made since the time of Davis, in 1585, to find a nortli-west passage, and from the search aftar the lost Franklin, or later from Polar scientific expeditions. Through these means the coast of the mainland has been determined, and although the north-west passage is found to be practically barred by ice, still geographical as well as scientific knowledge has been extended, and we may now describe this coast, to which these " heroes of the north " have given a location and a name. The mainland of the Dominion of Canada stretches from Alaska, 140° 30' west longitude, to Fox Channel in the east, a distance of about 1000 miles. This coast line follows pretty closely the 70 th parallel, but is broken by bays and peninsulas, Boothia Felix, at Bellot Strait, 71° 55' north, 95° west, being the most northerly point. The coast is generall}^ low and flat, but is in some parts high and rocky. A small range of mountains lies between the mouths of the Mackeuzie and Coppermine rivers, and runs parallel with and near to the coast. It is irregular i'rom wide indentations, rather than from narrow inlets, as is the case on a heavy sea-washed coast. Tjiis is probably owing to the ice-guard of the solid pack, which skirts the coast at a short distance seaward, as well as to the archipelago of islands to the north. The principal bays met, in following the coast from west to east, are Mackenzie Bay, at the mouth of the river of the same name, 69° north, 135° west; Erskine Sound, Franklin, Darnlcy, Duke of York or Coronation Gulf, M'Laughlin, and Boothia Gulf, and the unnamed bay at the mouth of the Back or great Fish liiver, where it THE ARCTIC COAST. 321 will be remembered Dr. Eae, in 1859, and later Sclnvatka, in 1878, found the only relics of tlie Franklin party. The capes and peninsulas following the same order, and of which the latitudes and longitudes are only ap- proximately stated, are — Cape Bathurst, 70° 30' north, 128° west; Kent, 68° north, 107° west; Adelaide, 68° north, 98° west; Boothia Felix, 72° north, 95° west; Simpson, 68° north, 89° west; and Melville, 69° north, 83° west. The straits alongside the coast, and again following the same direction, are the Dolphin and Union, Dease, Victoria, Franklin, Bellot, Boothia Gulf, Hecla and Fury, Fox Channel and Frobisher or Hudson Strait. The rivers met in like order are the Mackenzie, named after its discoverer, who sailed down it in 1793, and reached the Arctic Sea. Two smaller rivers, discovered by Dease and Simpson, are found between the Mackenzie and the Coppermine rivers. The Coppermine Eiver, discovered by Hearne in 1771, enters the ocean at 68° north, 116° west, but is not navigable. The Back, or great Fish Paver, discovered by Back in 1834, has its mouth in the sound south of King "William Land, about tlie 95th meridian. Tlie arcliipelago of islands between the 125th meridian and Baffin Bay may be classed in four groups — The western, consisting of Banks Land and Victoria and Albert Land. The central, of King William, the Prince of "Wales, and Xorth Somerset Islands. The northern, of the I'arry Islands ; and the eastern, of Baffin Land, consisting of the vast mainlands of Fox and Cockburn Lands, and several smaller islands. To the uortli-east of the Parry Islands, and separated Y \nri 322 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. 1/ 4 from Greenland by Smith Sound, and from the Parry- Islands by Belcher and Jones Straits, lie tlie yet un- delined Ellesmere and Grinnell Lands. Kane, and afterwards Hall, sailed up Smith Sound, the latter to 82° 16'. Nares in 1876 took his vessels up to Dis- covery Bay, and one, the Alert, wintered in latitude 82° 27', the highest latitude yet attahied by any ship. He explored in sledges the coasts, which trend almost at right angles with Smith Sound, for a distance of 200 miles to the west, and 100 to the east, finding a sea of ancient ice to the north and north-west ; and jMarkham and Parr sledged to latitude 83° 20' 26", the nearest point to the l*ole yet reached. And here we may be allowed to turn southward to Baffin Land, Battiu Land stretches from Frobisher or Hudson Strait, 61° 40' north, to Lancaster Sound, 74° north, a distance of about 800 miles. At Cape "Walsingham, 66° north, 60° 40' west, Baffin Land extends towards Green- land, and forms Davis Strait. This group is cut by several inlets, connecting Fox Channel and Boothia Gulf with Baffin Bay, but these liave never been explored. Cockburn Island, the most northward of the group, is separated from jMelville Pen- insula by the Fury and Hecla Strait on the south, and from the Parry Islands on the north by Lancaster Sound. Cumberland Sound, a large gulf opening into Davis Strait, lies parallel with and to the north of Frobisher Strait, running north-north-west apparently 150 miles, with an average width throughout the whole length of about thirty miles. Between Cockburn Island and Boothia Felix Peninsula, with its adjacent North Somerset Island, lies tlie Gulf of Boothia ; and on the opposite or western side of tlie peninsula, and separated from it by the Franklin Channel, is Prince of Wales Island ; while immediately to the south THE AUCTIC AUC111PP]LAG0. 323 lie 1, hi of Prince of AValcs Island is Kinf? "William Island. These three islands constitute the central group. The narrow strait of Bellot separates the peninsula of Boothia Felix from North Somerset Island. It will be remembered that the existence of this strait was doubted, and that the island for a long time was supposed to form part of the peninsula. This peninsula is also the last link which intervened in the coast - line explora- tion between the exploring parties who passed from the cast westwardly and those who took the opposite course. Between I'rince of Wales and King William Islands and the western group are the M'Clintock Channel and Victoria Strait. Victoria and Albert Land miirlit be classed as a continent, being almost double tlie size of Xewfouudland, and yet not one-third as large as Baffin Land. It is cut by large and deep inlets or bays. To the westward it is separated by a lai'ge strait from the great island of Banks Land. The northern group of the Parry Islands consists of the following principal islands : — The most easterly, North Devon ; and in their order westwardly, Bathurst, Melville, and Prince Patrick, besides numberless small islands. This region is constantly ice-bound, and the land is almost destitute of vegetation. There are traces in fossil trees of a warmer climate than now exists, but animal life is now almost confined to the waters, which are rich in mammalia and fishes. Navigation is re- stricted to the midsummer months, and even then it is uncertain and precarious in many of the straits. At Smith Sound, however, musk ox, reindeer, and game abound, and Kane reports having foimd groves of trees one foot in diameter. Traces of Esquimiuix settle- ments exist here, and some are supposed to be still located north of Hall's highest point. Notwithstanding the sterility of the soil and the rigour 1 1 '■ 324 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPllY AND TRAVEL. of the climate, these nortliern seas have a commercial value which is not yet fully appreciated. Here is the home and the pasture of the seal, the walrus, and the whale, as well as of the highly-prized tahle-fish, the cod, the haddock, and the herring. Herein is no stint, and the ever- increasing fleets of the hardy whalers, who annually reap their abundant harvests, prove that the riches of the land may be surpassed by those of the waters. And from the fertility of the sources of repro- duction, it may be hoped that here at least the destructive agency of man will be unable to impair the supply. 5. Tlie Pacific Coast. The length of the coast-line of British Columbia has been estimated at about 10,000 miles, a predicate on that of Norway, the latter on actual measurement having been found to have in its indented line tliirteen times the length of its coast in a straight line. In point of fact the British Columbia coast is much more deeply indented than that of Norwav, some of the inlets being upwards of fifty miles. From San Francisco, as far as the Strait of Fuca, the coast presents a line remarkably free from indentations ; thence northwards, however, it is broken into a perfect maze of inlets, forming in their ramifications countless islands of greater or less extent. The minute explorations of this extraordinary archi- pelago by Vancouver in the years 1791-93 have given maps, the accuracy of which, under the circumstances, has excited the admiration of succeeding navigators. Outside of the archipelago lie two principal islands, Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands, divided from each other by a broad sound, and extending from the Strait of Fuca on the south to the frontier of Alaska on the north. I VANCOUVER ISLAND. oor. o ^ o ill |is, Ich lof th. Vancouver Island extends in a north-western direction from latitude 48° 20' to latitude 51° in length, nearly 250 geographical miles, its greatest breadth opposite to Nootka being about seventy miles. The shores are boldly ijicturesque, with piany pro- montories, clitl's, harbours, coves, and beaches. The west coast is cut by arms and inlets, niiirgined by rugged mountains bearing fir, hemlock, and cedar ; here and there the shore is skirted by lower wooded hills, among which, and along many streams, small patches of open or wooded flat land are found. There are no inlets on the north or east coasts, but in other respects the above description applies also to them. Near Jolinston Strait the shore-line is even more continuously mountainous and abrupt than on the west coast, Farther down tlie east coast, and also in the south-eastern part of the island, the coast is lower, and the proportion of Hat or gently undulating land, good for farming, increases, some of which is open or thiidy timliered. The prevaihng timber near the coast is the magniiicent Douglas fir, wliich often attains dimensions second only to those of the Sequoia of California and the Eucalyptus of Australia. Victoria, the seat of government and cai)ital of the province, is situated near the south-eastern extremity of the island, where the adjoining Strait of Fuca is aliout seventeen miles in breadth. The position of this rising city, both as a distributing point for the province at large, and as a nucleus for foreign trade, is extremely favour- able ; and the fact of its being the first available seaport north of San Francisco confers on it additional importance. Esquimault, three miles distant, is an extensive har- bour, capable of receiving vessels of the largest size, and is tlie station of Her Majesty's ships on the I'acific coa The harbour is eight and a half miles distant from the Eace Eocks, and is distinguished by the white T 326 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAI'IIY AND TRAVEL. / N ' M. ill w, ' O O Q . ) >:> o COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AND TRAVEL. iini * '!• '' M .1 I ! :/i i;ii scattered at random over the surface as to contradict almost any supposed law of distribution. Some of the chisters, however, that have been examined in connec- tion with their geology are most beautifully explained by the peculiar geographical distribution of the strata, which results from their very corrugated condition, combined with the unequal wear occasioned by the hardness and toughness of some parts and the softness of others. In the Laurentide region a straight line can scarcely be fol- lowed in any direction for a great distance without the occurrence of one of tliese expansions, and it frc(|uently happens that it will present a considerable area even where discharging by a very slender outlet. The profu- sion in "which the lakes exist, with in some instances only a short interval of land between them, though they may belong to different river systems, aftln-ds, with the aid of birch-bark canoes, a ready means of passing from one navigable stream to another, in whatever part an explorer may be ; and thus, if he is well acquainted with the country, he can reach almost any position he may wish to attain without much deviation from a direct route. Although a large number of the rivers of the Canadian portion of the Laurentides is still unknown, or only partially explored, upwards of 1000 of these lakes are represented on the published ma[)S of the country. It is only a few of them, however, that are sufficiently large to deserve especial mention. The following six are the best known, with their areas and their elevations above the sea : — ■ IToight. Feet. St. John . . . 300 ? Grand Lake . . 700 ? Teniiscamang . . 612 Keepawa . . . 7(50 Temagamang . . 800 1 Nipissing . . . 639 Area. Sij^uare utiles. 360 560 126 92 330 294 THE NIAGAHA ESCAUPMENT. 339 From the opposing flanks of the two monntain ranges which have been described tliere extends a vast iiiter- uiL'diate plain, the limit of which westward is tlie Rocky Mountains. In addition to six or seven isolated trap mountains in Eastern Canada, varying in height from 500 to 1800 feet (all visible from the hill near Montreal, which is one of thera), and the Adirondack Mountains, a nearly isolated mass of Laurentian rocks rising in New York to the height of 5000 feet between Lake Champ- lain and Lake Ontario, there are few sudden inequalities to break the smoothness of the general surface of the plain, with the exception of aljrupt descents through the drift to rivercourses, and an escarpment forming that step in the country which produces the world-renowned cataract of Niagara. The summit of that escarpment is of the middle Silurian period, and, tracing it from west to east, it is known to form the two horns separating Green Bay from Lake Michigan, thence running along the south front of the northern peninsula of the State, which takes its name from that lake and the south half of the jManitoulin range of islands, it reaches Cabot's Head, and composes the chief feature of the promontory separating Georgian Bay from the main body of Lake Huron. From this it constitutes the summits of the Blue ]\Iountains, and, rounding the western extremity of Lake Ontario, it forms St. Catherine Bidge and Queens- ton Heights. It thence follows at a short distance the south side of Lake Ontario and of tlie valley of the ^lohawk, and sweeps round into the valley of the Hudson. By tlie addition of terrace above terrace of strata of Silurian and Devonian age, the step farther on rises into tlie Catskill ^Mountains, beyond which it liecomes entangled in the folds of the Appalachian chain and is lost. m /' i 340 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGIiAPIIY AND TRAVEL. M Hi Wi 4. Rochj Mountains. Probably no mountains of the same altitude can be so readily traversed as the Rocky Mountain chain, owing to the great breadth of its base and its gentle acclivity. Among tlie highest known peaks in Canada are Mount Brown and Mount Hooker, the former about 16,000, and the latter 15,690 feet above the level of the sea, lying about 5 3° north latitude ; the general altitude of the range, how- ever, is supposed to vary from 10,000 to 14,000 feet. This chain in the central and west part of North America commences in New Mexico, in about 32° 30' north latitude, near Fort Webster. It extends nearly north-north-west throughout the north portion of the con- tinent to the Polar Ocean, terminating west of the mouth of the Mackenzie Eiver in latitude 69° north, longitude 135° west. This range, in connection with the Andes, of which it may be said to be a continuation, forms the longest and, according to Humboldt, the most uniform chain of mountains on the globe. Somewhat more than half of the entire chain belongs to North America, the name Eocky Mountains being usually applied to that portion only which is comprised within the United States and Dominion of Canada, although the exact limit of this mountain range towards the south can scarcely be said to be determined. The entire length, however, of the chain, following the wind- ings, may be stated in round numbers at 3000 miles. Among the most remarkable of the numerous passes may be mentioned that leading from the head-waters of the Athabasca to those of the Columbia, between Mount Brown and Mount Hooker, and called the Athabasca Portage. It has a height of 7300 feet, and has only been used by the traders of the Hudson Bay Company as the principal pass into the basin of Columbia. ;m be ■iiig ity. iiint and )OUt ow- b. ortli 30' larly coii- outh tude ides, the form longs being )rised nada, yards The kvind- ;s. aasses iTS of klount ibasca 1 only npany A n II rf THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 341 In a iiiimite by tlie Hon. Josc'iili "W. Trutch, late C'liiuf ( 'ommissidiu'i' of Lauds and Works for Jiritisli Columbia, it is stated that little lias hitherto been done towards the construction of trails or roads across the liocky IVIouii- tains north of the 49th parallel, and that the primitive paths throuf^h the various passes of this mountain ran<,'e, originally tracked out by Indians, and only kept open, year by year, by their travel along them, are still the sole means of coUimunieation between British Columbia and the North-West Territory. Many of these passes are, however, even in their primitive condition, so easy of passage that horses carry heavy loads over them M'ith facility, and through the Vermilion Pass loaded carts have been driven on the natural roadway unimproved by labour. But althougli, adds jNIr. Trutcli, the work of building a road over the Boeky JMountains has yet to be com- menced, much has already been effected by this province towards the consummation of the nmch-desired line of road comnnmication through British territory, between the sea-coast of British Columbia and Canada. In fact, more than one-half (in cost) of this work within the limits of the province is now complete. The Cascade Bange of mountains, the great barrier between the sea-coast of British Columbia and its interior districts, wliich presented a far more dillicult engineering ol)stacle to road-making, and one more expensive to overcome than the Bocky ]\Iountains themselves, has been pierced by two lines of coach road, which, commencing at Yale and Douglas respectively, the limits of steamboat navigation on the Lower Frazer and its trilnitary, Harrison Lake, unite at Clinton, 136 miles from Yale, on the high-rolling plateau in the interior, from which junction-point the road extends 242 miles farther northwards to Cameronton,in the heart of the Cariboo district, distant altogether 378 miles from Yale. ».i :.^V- .'WJ-s-e-jJ^w. 342 COMPEXDIUM OF GEOGUArilY AND TRAVEL. I'i i i A hraiich road, twenty-tlu'eo miles long', 1ms also been built from the main line, at a ])oiut on the Ihiona- parte liivcr 110 miles from Yale, to Savona's at the lower (western) end of Kamloops Lake, from which place unin- terrupted steamboat navigation extends through Kandoops Lake, and up the South Thompson liiver to the upper (eastern) end of Great Shuswap Lake, a distance of 115 miles, and also u[) th(! north branch of Thompson liiver, which joins the .South Tliomi)son at Fort Kamloops, to a distance of eighty- five miles from the latter post. These roads, constructed at a total cost of Jj^ 1,33 9,9 1") (about £270,000), are of a character very superior to that of public roads in most young countries. Loads of seven and eight tons are hauled along them by mules or oxen, at an average draught load of 1200 lbs. or 1300 lbs. to each team animal; and the moil coach drawn by six horses travels between Yale and Cariboo at the rate of nine miles an hour. From the Cariboo terminus of this road, and from Savona's, as well as from intermediate points along tlie road, various routes may be traced to the different pass(\s of the llocky Mountains. Of these passes, nine in number, only three appear to be fitted for forming lines of connection between the sea- coast of British Columbia and Canada, viz. the Leather Pass, 37G0 feet ; Howse Pass, 4500 feet; and Kicking Horse Pass, 5210 feet. Li either ease the road, 133 miles in length, already constructed irom Yale to Savona, would form part of the line of route. The distances of +hese two routes do not greatly vary, and the estimate of cost is about the same. Their rival merits, in the judgment of the Commissioner, can only be determined after more exact inc[uiry has been made. TIM'; MOUNTAINS IN mUThSlI CULUMIMA. 043 5. The Cascades, Coast, and Gold Jianr/es of Jirifish Col u labia. The main oro«:;raphiciil features of the west coast are tlie Coast or Cascade Jianj^'e, the great central hilly plateau or tal)le-land, and the ]iueky [Mountain chain ; subordinati! to the latter, and more or less parallel M'ith it, are two other belts of mountainous country, the Selkirk IMoun- tains and the Gold Eange. All these mountain chains, and likewise the central plateau, have a general north- west and south-east course. The Coast, or Cascade IJange, is the northward extension of the Sierra Nevada ; the hilly central i)lateau hetu's a similar relation to the great volcanic, arid, and hilly table-land of the State of Nevada ; and the Selkirk and Gold lianges may be paralleled with tlie Bitter lioot jNIountains between Montana aiul Itlaho, the Wasatch Mountains in Utah, and other chains which occupy a similar position, in relation to the main axis of the llocky Mountains. Exclusive of the volcanic cones and craters of Mount l^iaker, Mount Hood, Mount Ifainier, and others, from 10,000 to 15,000 feet high, none of which, however, occur between the Fraser Ifiver mouth and Alaska, the highest points of the Cascade ]\Iountains probably do not exceed 7000 feet. The central plateau has an average elevation of from 1000 to 3000 feet. The Selkirk Mountains, especially towards the north, in the vicinity of Cariboo, and about the sources of the North Thom])soii, have a somewhat greater average elevation than the Cas- cades, and they appear, likewise, to contain a greatcsr number of glaciers and of j)oints above the snow-line, though their more inland position may perhaps account for this fact irrespective of their altitude. 1^1 344 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArUY AND TRAVEL. CHAPTEE III. THE RIVERS AND LAKES. ': • i 1. General Features and Extent. Canada has been called the country of waterways, as it surpasses all others in the area and navigable extent of its rivers and lakes. Tourists, accustomed to the more restricted landscapes of Europe, do not readily grasp the idea of the majesty of the lakes, the grandeur of the rivers, or the awful power of the cataracts of Canada. This extensive water-supply is an indication of the excess of the rain- fall over the evaporation, and also represents, to a certain extent, the gradual melting of the snows stored in the mountain ranges of the Eocky ]\Iouu- tains, aiul mirrors in the azure waters embosomed in the lakes, or gliding in the rivers towards the ocean, the immensity of the source from which it springs. An idea of the quantity of these waters may be realised from the fact that the river St. Lawrence and its tributary lakes, wliicli constitute but one of the vast water-systems of Canada, are estimated to contain 12,000 cubic miles of water, or more than one-half the fresh water of the globe. The configuration of tlie great fan -shaped plateau between the Pacific and Atlantic mountain ranges lias been already noticed. It may now be remarked that almost all the great rivers of the continent take their rise on a limited area at the base of the Eocky Moun- 11 THE LAKE SYSTEM. o4o '^B' lea the ^es, of of bbe. 3au \as Ihat lieir luu- tains, namely, the Mackenzie Eiver, emptying into the Arctic Ocean ; the Missouri, with its alUuent the Missis- sippi, falling into the Gulf of Mexico ; the Saskatchewcan, running into Lake Winnipeg, and from thence finding its way to the Vtlantic Ocean through Hudson Bay ; and the Fraser and Columhia, entering the Pacific Ocean. Nor need Ave travel far nortli from this plateau to reach the head-waters of the mighty Yukon, which gains the Pacific Ocean at Pering Strait, or far east to tap the head waters of the St. Lawrence chain of lakes, which reach the Atlantic Ocean by the river of the same name. It Avill also be noticed, on reference to a map of the continent, that the several great lakes form a semicircle aroi.nd Hudson Pay stretcliiiig from the Arctic to the Atlantic Ocean, namely. Great Pear Lake, Slave Lake, Athabasca Lake, Wollaston, Deer, Winnipeg, AVinnipegosis, ]\lanitoba, Lake of the Woods, Superior, Nipigon, ]\Iichigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario, and the great basin of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, thus marking the ancient shore of the ocean retiring before a rising continent. This great water-system, in kee])ing with the immense plateau which it traverses, not only affords means of com- munication, and carries fertility with it, but at the same time tempers the summer's heat and winter's cold, and in its pure waters purifies the air, so that < ,'anada may 1)6 said to be free from the agues and malarial fevers which prevail where extreme heat and stagnant waters abound. Xor are these lakes and rivers barren of products and food for man, as their cool waters swarm with the choicest tish, and are as valuable, acre for acre, as the ricliest agri- cultural land. The elotpient Earl of Dufferin, when Governor-General of Canada, visited Manitoba and the North- West Terri- tories in 1877, and being entertained by the Mayor and h'H 346 COMPEXDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. i 7 -i s; Town Council of Winnipeg, delivered an address in wliic]; he referred to the extent and beavities of the " fluvial " system of Canada. In his usual felicitous manner, and with striking power of description and magic of language, he said : " From its geographical position, and its peculiar characteristics, ]\lanitoba may be regarded as the keystone of that mighty arch of sister provinces which spans the continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It was here that Canada, emerging from her woods and forests, first gazed ui)on her rolling prairies and unexplored Nortli- West, and learnt as by an unexpected revelation that her historical territories of the Canadas, her eastern sea- boards of New Brunswick, Labrador, and Nova Scotia, her Laurentian lakes and valleys, corn -lands and pastures, though tliemselves more extensive than half a dozen European kingdoms, were but the vestibules and ante- chambers to that till then undreamt-of Dominion, whose illimitable dimensions alike confound the arithmetic of the surveyor and the verification of the explorer. " It was hence that, counting her past achievements as but the preface and prelude to her future exertions and expanding destinies, she took a fresh departure, received the aftlatus of a more imperial inspiration, and felt herself no longer a mere settler along the banks of a single river, but the owner of half a continent, and in the magnitude of her possession, in the wealth of her resources, in the sinews of her material might, the peer of any power on the earth. " In a recent remarkably witty speech the Marquis of Salisbury alluded to the geograj^hical misconceptions often engendered by the smalhiess of the maps u])()ii which the figure of the world is depicted. To this cause is probably to be attributed the inadequate idea enter- tained by the best-educated iiersons of the extent of her THE NAVIGABLE WATERWAYS. 347 in liev Majesty's North American possessions. Perhaps the best way of correcting such a universal misapprehension would be by a summary of the rivers which How through them, for we know that as a poor man cannot afford to live in a big house, so a small country cannot support a big river. Xow, to an Englishman or a Frenchman, the Severn or the Thames, the Seine or the Ehoue, would appear considerable streams, but in the Ottawa, a mere affluent of the St. Lawrence, — an affluent, moreover, wliieh reaches the parent stream 600 miles from its moutli, — we have a river nearly 550 miles long, and three or four times as big as any of them. " But even after having ascended the St. Lawrence itself to Lake Ontario, and pursued it across Lake Huron, the Niagara, the St. Clair, and Lake Sujierior to Thunder Bay, a distance of 1500 miles, where are we? In the estiiiiation of the person who has made the journey, at the end of all things ; but to us who know better, scarcely at the commencement of the great fluvial systems of the Dominion ; for, from that spot — that is to say, from Thunder Bay — we are able at once to ship our astonished traveller on to the Kaministiquia, a river of some hundred miles long. Thence almost in a straight line we launch him on to Lake Shebandowan and Eainy Lake and Bivev — whose proper name, by-the-by, is ' liene,' after the man who discovered it — a magnificent stream three hundred yards broad, and a couple of hundred miles long, down whose tranquil bosom he floats into the Lake of tlie Woods, where he finds himself on a sheet of water, which, though diminutive as compared with the inland seas he lias left behind him, will ])robably be found sufficiently extensive to render him fearfully sea-sick during his passage across it. For the last eighty miles of his voyage, however, he will be consoled by sailing through a succession of land-locked channels, the beauty of whose n n M ^ ': ■n ill 348 COMrENDIUM OF CiEOGKAl'IIY AND TllAVEL. scenery, while it resembles, certainly excels the far-famed Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence. " From this lacustrian jiaradise of sylvan beauty we are able at once to transfer our friend to the Winnipeg, a river whose existence in the very heart and centre of the continent is in itself one of nature's most delightful miracles, so beautiful and varied are its rocky banks, its tufted islands, — so broad, so deep, so fervid, is the volume of its waters, the extent of their lake-like expansions, and the tremendous power of their rapids. " At last let us suppose we have landed our traveller at the town of Winnipeg, the half-way house of the continent, the capital of the I'rairie Province, and I trust the future ' umbilicus ' of the Dominion. Having had so much of water, having now reached the home of the buffalo, like the extenuated Falstaff, he naturally * babbles of green fields ' and careers in imagination over the primeval grasses of the prairie. Not at all. Escorted by My. ]\Iayor and the Town Council, we take him down to your quay, and ask him which he will ascend first, the lied Eiver or the Assiniboine, two streams — the one 500 miles long, the other 480 — which so happily mingle their waters within your city limits. " After having given him a preliminary canter upon these respective rivers, we take him ott' to Lake Winnipeg, an inland sea 300 miles long and upwards of sixty broad, during the navigation of which for many a weary hour he will find himself out of sight of land, and probably a good deal more indisposed than ever he was on the Lake of the Woods, or even the Atlantic. "At the north-west angle of Lake Winnipeg he hits upon the mouth of the Saskatchewan, the gateway and high road to the North-West, and the starting-point to another 1500 miles of navigable w^ater liowing nearly due east and west between its alluvial banks. I Till-: "WATERWAYS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 349 " Having now reached the foot of the Ilocky ]\Ioiin- tains our 'Ancient Mariner' — for by this time he will be quite entitled to such an appellation — knowing that water cannot run up-hill, feels certain his aquatic ex- periences are concluded. He was never more mistaken. AVe immediately launch him upon the Athabasca and ^Mackenzie Kivers, and start him on a longer trip than lie has yet undertaken — the navigation of the Mackenzie I'iver alone exceeding 2500 miles. If he survives this last experience, we wind up his peregrinations by a con- cluding voyage of 1400 miles down the Trazer Eiver, or, if he prefers it, the Thompson Eiver, to Victoria, in Vancouver, whence, having previously provided him with a first-class return ticket for that purpose, he will probably prefer getting home vid the Canadian Pacific. " Now, in this enumeration, those who arc acquainted with the country are aware that for the sake of brevity I have omitted thousands of miles of other lakes and rivers which water various regions of the North-West — the Qu'Appelle lliver, Belly Iliver, Lake ^Manitoba, the AVinnipegosis, Shoal Lake, etc. etc., along which I might have dragged and finally exterminated our way-worn guest ; but the sketch I have given is more than suth- cient for my purpose ; and when it is further remembered that the most of these streams How for their entire length through alluvial ^ lins of the richest descripti(jn, where year after year wheat can be raised without manure, or any sensible diminution in its yield, and where the soil everywhere presents the appearance of a highly-cultivated suburban kitchen garden in England, enough has been said to displav the aurieultural riches of the Territories I have referred to, and the capabilities they possess of affording happy and prosperous homes to millions of the human race. . . . " In a world apart, secluded from all extraneous i I \> • ^' U ^ '•■ 1 'HI 1 1 H ^ i § /; f fi L^ ! I 350 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. influences, nestling at the feet of her majestic mother, Canada dreams her dream, and forebodes her destiny — a dream of ever -broadening harvests, multiplying towns and villages, and expanding pastures ; of constitutionnl self-government and a confederated empire; of page after page of honom.ible history added as her contribution to the annals of the Mother Country and to the glories of the British race ; of a perpetuation for all time upon this continent of that temperate and well-balanced system of government which combines in one mighty whole, as the eternal possession of all Englishmen, the brilliant history and traditions of the past with the freest and most untrammelled liberty of action in the future. ..." In giving the statistics of these lakes and rivers, the following tabular statement shows their extent : — Length. Breadth. Area. I'^'l'"^- above, sea. Superior . 420 miles. 160 miles. 31,500 sq. m. 1000 ft. 600 ft. Huron . 2S0 „ 105 „ 20,400 1000 „ 574 „ Erie . 240 „ 57 „ 9,000 200 „ 565 „ Ontario . 180 „ 55 „ 5,400 COO „ 235 „ The lake system of the Korth-West Territories is low in altitude, covers . m area of over 13,000 square miles, and is as follows :— — Klevation Area. above si'a. "Winnipeg 710 ft. 8500 sq. miles. Manitoba . 751 „ inoo „ 'VVinnepefi;osi3 770 „ 1936 „ Cedar Lake . 770 „ 312 „ Dauphin Lak 3 782 „ 170 „ The four principal rivers on the eastern, northern, and western watersheds of Canada are : — The St. Lawrence Saskatchewan and Nelson Iilackenzie, without its affluents Fraser . . . . , Length in miles. . 1500 . 1.500 . 1200 . 450 Drainage area in sq. niilt'S. 330,000 450,000 440,000 30,000 ' ! ■/ ';■■ -■ i: ■ 'i : -i . 1 ii| ti'i 44 aut| by i Tin: ItlVKU ST. LAWItHNCH. 2. Tlic liifcr St. Laicrcnce. 351 This river, tlu; liir;j;est in Xortli America as to volume, and second only in length to tlie ]\Iississip[>i, united to its tributary the ^lissouri, issues from Lake Ontario in about 44° 10' nortli hititude, and 70° 30' Avcst longitude, and ilows in a north-easterly direction. It forms in a part of its course tlie boundary between the United States and Canada, and falls into the Gulf of the St. Lawrence liy a l)road estuary, in about 49° 30' nortli hititude, and G4° west lonj^itude. ViewinjT it in connection witli the great lakes, Xi])igon, Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, which arc its head-waters, and of which it is the outlet, it may bo said to rise at the sources of the St. Louis lliver, which flows into Lake Superior. The lie of these lakes is at first south-easterly, and trends gradually in a semicircle to north-east. The St. Lawrence receives nearly all the rivers tliat have their sources in tlie extensive range of northern mountains that separate the waters falling into Hudson l»ay from tlidse that descend towards tlie Atlantic Ocean, and also all those that rise in the highlands which are on the snutliern bank, and continue in a south-Avesterly course towards Lake t'hamplain. Of these rivers the principal ones on the north are tlie Ottawa, ^lasquinonge. Saint Maurice, Saint Anne, •facipies Oavtier, Saguenay, Betsiamite, and Manacougan ; and on the south the Salmon, Chateanguay, Chamldy or liicliolieu, Yamaskn, Saint Francis, Becaucour, Du Chcne, Chaudicre, and Du Loup rivers. In different parts of its course the river St. Lawrence is known l)y different names; thus, from the sea to Kingston it is styled the St. Lawrence, between Lakes Ontario and Erie the Xingara liiver, between Lakes Erie # 4 1 : i i' ! 1 j; 1 1 i ^ I H^^^B?*^ ' 1 i 1 ':■ 1 - ilii ll Iff 352 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUArilV AND TUAVEL. Hi i\ \i\ U ami St. Clair the Detroit, hetween Lake St. Clair and Lake Kiirou the river St. Clair, l)etween Lakes Huron and Superior the Narrows or Sault St. ^Lirie — all which sections form, united, a waterway of 2384 miles; the rapids iii the section between ^Montreal and Kinj^'ston, and again between Lakes Ontario and Erie, where tho Tails of Niagara intervene, being surmounted by canals. Lake Superior may be considered as the inexhau.stil)lc spring whence the St. Lawrence has continued to derive its ample and pure Avaters, which have the azure tint of those of the ocean. Issuing from this lake with a rapid current, it rushes through the narrows of the Sault St. Marie for a distance of twenty-seven miles, and, tumlilini;' over a rocky bed, enters Lake Huron, Lake Huron is united at its western extremity with Lake Michigan, a lake lying entirely within the United States, and sepa- rated from Lake Huron by the Straits of jVIackinaw and by a peninsula of about 150 miles across at its widest part. It is fed by many considerable rivers and several inferior streams from the height of land on this peninsula, as well as by several large rivers which enter it on its north shore and through the Georgian Bay — a large bay on its north-eastern side. Of these latter rivers tlie Trench river is an important one, as it connects with Lake Nipissing, and by a succession of smaller lakes affords an easy means of making the communication by water complete, from Lake Huron to the Ottawa lliver, and thence to the St. Lawrence at Montreal. From the extremity of Lake Huron to the southward, the channel contracts into the St. Clair liiver, which, after flowing nearlydue south for sixtymiles, between moderately high banks adorned by many natural beauties, expands into the small lake of tlie same name. Issuing from this lake the river continues its course southwardly for forty miles under the name of the Detroit ^HVHM ill ^ 1 !1 • • ':* ^;ii "1- ; I (t(l ill: f ' r n FALLS OF NLVGARA. To filer jKVje :','Si. NIAGAHA. River, and there fulls into Lake P^rie. There are many isliiuds ill this ])iirt of the river, some of them of con- sidoralile .size, and the scenery on the east side is diversified and ajireeahle. From the north-east end of Lake Erie the connection with Lake Ontario is l»y the Nia^nira Kiver thiily-six miles in lenj^th, and from half a mile to three miles in width. Its course is nearly north, and the stream is divided in several places by islands, the largest of which, Grand Island, is seven miles in lenj^'th. The levels of the conntry here change by a sndden drop to the lower ])lateau on which Lake (.)ntario lies, and as the Niai^ara Iliver approaches its fearful lea]) at the " Falls " its waters ap])ear to lash themselves into a fury, and surge like the breakers on a rock-bound coast. This jKirtion of the river, by its picturesquenes^ and " life of waters," must ever attract the admirer of nature. Har'ing now reached the great Falls of Niagara, a short descrip- tion will be given of them, as they are looked on by Europeans as the central point from which the continent of America radiates. N. P. "Willis, in r)artlett's Illustrated Canada, says : — " The Falls of Niagara impress travellers very differ- ently. Most persons, having heard of this wonder of the world from their childhood, have aggrandised their imagination of its a])])earance in proportion with the growth of their minds, and visit Niagara, at last, with the expectation of seeing an ocean poured from the height of the clouds." lie quotes a description by a traveller who remarks : — " I first visited these celebrated Falls in the month of September — a season of the year which in America is peculiarly pleasant. Until I arrived within a mile of the Falls, the sky was perfectly clear, the sun shone with his wonted splendour, and the atmosphere 2 A n.i r 354 COiMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAPIIY AND TRAVEL. ' • } t /| /; 'f i.i ih was remarkably dry and uncommonly lucid. But no sooner liad I approached their immediate vicinity, than a sudden and singular change took place in the whole aspect of nature. The earth, before parched and im- movable, became damp and tremulous, and the sky, till then unsullied by a single cloud, assumed a frowning, dark, and portentous appearance. The atmosphere, pre- viously dry and rarefied, now presented a dense and humid visage ; and my fancy, unreined by my reason, transported me into a world essentially different from that in which, a few minutes before, I lived and moved and had my being. " Still, howev'L^r, I pursued my course, and at length gained the summit of the craggy hills which tlank this noble river. My increased elevation did not contribute to dissipate t\\i)osed ship- canal route between the Ottawa liiver and Lake Huron, Above the Upper Allumette Lake there is a navigable reach of water forty-three miles in length. The moun- tains aliove Allumette Lake are upwards of 1000 feet in height, and the scenery is very grand. The mountains on the north side of Colounge Lake are 1500 feet high, and the scenery beautiful. The Tetewahweh, one of the largest tributaries, 140 miles long, drains an area of 2200 square miles; the Black River, 120 miles long, drains 1120 square miles; and thirty-nine miles above Ottawa City, the Madawaska, one of the greatest feeders, and 240 miles long, drahis 4100 square miles. Six miles above Ottawa the rapids begin which terminate in the celebrated " Chaudiere " Falls, whoso tumultuous waters plunge forty feet and partly disappear in the " Lost Chaudiere " by an underground passage, whose subsequent outlet is unknown. At Ottawa tlie great or main river receives the Eideau Biver on the south shore, distinguished by its canal, which connects the Ottawa Biver at the capital with Lake Ontario at Kingston. The largest tributary of the Ottawa Biver is tlie Gatineau, which empties into the Ottawa on the north baidc op- l)osite to the city of Ottawa. This river has a course of 420 miles, and drains 12,000 square miles of territory. Eighteen miles below Ottawa is the Biver I)u Lievre, draining an area of 4100 .square miles; below this river there are numerous tributaries to the Ottawa, varying from 90 to 160 miles in length, which cannot be here described, although worthy of being so. The rapids below Ottawa are avoided bv a succession of canals. One K THE ST. MAURICE RIVKR. 365 hundred and thirty miles behjw the capital of the Dom- inion the Ottawa's waters meet those of the St. Lawrence, and for many miles their dark hne distinguishes them from the azure waters of the St. Lawrence, afterwards hlended in tlieir onward course to the sea. The valhiy drained by the Ottawa is 80,000 square miles in area, for the most part covered with valuable timber, particularly red and white pine. It is abundantly intersected with large rivers, which afford the means of floating the timber of tlie lumberman to market, and contains a very considerable area of the best soil. The country, behind what has been called the red pine region, is generally beautiful and undulating, and sustains a growth of ma])le, beech, birch, and elm. No region of equal extent enjoys so much excellent water-power, with such ample supplies of timber and minerals. It is a region rich in ores of iron, lead, and copper, also in plumbago, marbles, ochres, and phosphates. The city of Ottawa was founded by Colonel By in 1827, at the time of tlie construction of the Rideau Canal. It is situated a little Ijelow the beautiful and curious falls of the Chaudiere, and stands upon a high and l)old emhience surrounding a deep bay. Lord Sydenham recommended Bytown, as it was then named, as a very favourable situation fur the seat of government, which distinction it afterwards received on the reference by the Canadian Parliament to Her jMajesty the Queen. The tributaries of the St. Lawrence are so numerous that the descri[)tion must be limited by our space to the principal ones. 2'he St. Maurice, which falls into the St. Lawrence at Three Bivcrs, just below Lake St. Peter, is about 300 miles in length, and is excessively rapid. It rises in the Laurentian range, traverses a mountainous country, re- ceives as its tributaries about ten large rivers, and falling fm t i\. w'' J, ■;f^! ^mM 3GG COMPENDIUM OF OEOGRAPIIY AND TRAVEL. (( ( V: I over a ledjjjo of rocks at the magnificent Falls of Sliawin- e<,'an, about forty miles from the St. Lawrence, for which (iJHtance it is navi<^'al)le and uninterrui)te(l, reaches its niouth in the St. Lawrence, where it is about a mile wide. live, S(tf/m'H((i/, from its mouth, about 12U miles below Quebec, where it falls into the St. Lawrence on the north shore, to a distance of seventy miles, is a river over a mile in width, bounded on either side by mountains of 1500 feet in height. This gorge is evidently a llssure in the Laurentian Itange, as, were the shores brought together, the opposite hills would apparently lit. The depth of the river is great, and in most places corresponds with the height of the precipitous mountains on either shore. The head-waters of this river are on the height of land dividing the province of Quebec from the Hudson Bay Territories, about 120 miles from the St. Lawrence. It opens out into the Lake St. John, about 100 miles inland. This lake is about thirty miies long and tweuty-iive miles wide. Some large lumbering establishments have been carried on here for years, but the Saguenay is celebrated chieily for its scenery and for the salmon rivers which enter it. Tadousac, a favourite bathing -place, is at its mouth. Here are still to be seen the foundations of the first stone buildings erected by the French in Canada, and a little wooden church, the first one erected in Canada, is still in good preservation in the little bay near the mouth of the river. There are steamers regularly running to Chicoutimi, seventy-five miles up this river, and a comfortable hotel at Tadousac is much frequented by tourists. It may lie remarked that the head waters of the three great tributuritis of the St. Lawrence on its north shore, namely, the Ottawa, the St. Maurice, and the Saguenay, rise in chains of lakes to the north, on the height of land above referred to, and that it is possible, by short im'tiujcs TIIK ItlCIlKLlKU KIVKK. 307 Lotweeu tlie lakes, to pass from one to tlio otlicr of tlieso rivers. rassin water is elevated 10 feet above Lake Erie, 852 feet above Lake Ontario, and 000 feet above the level of the sea. The depth of Lake Huron is greater than that of any other in the chain, averaging, probably, not less than 1 1 ! 1 ,il 372 COMI'EXDIUM OF GEOGHAPIIY AND TRAVEL. if/': /> d. I '■ 1000 feet. Off Saginaw Bay, it is said that leads have been sunk 1800 feet — 1200 feet behjw the level of thu Atlantic Ocean — without reaching the bottom. The waters are remarkably clear, es[)ecially towards the Strait of Mackinaw, and very pure and sweet. It is to their peculiar transparency that Dr. Drake attril)utu.s the fact, which he ascertained by actual experiment, that the temperature of the water at the surface and 200 feet below is precisely the same — fifty-six degrees. The sun's rays pass through the water as thr(nigh a cloudless atmo- sphere, without meeting with suliicient solid matter in suspension to elicit heat. This lake is said to contain upwards of 3000 con- siderable islands. It receives numerous rivers, and its coast affords very fine harbours. IJke most of the other lakes in the chain, it is subject to fearful storms, but its navigation is not generally considered dangerous. The scenery of the northern shore and around the historic Strait of Mackinaw is alone worth a visit from Europe. 7. ZaJce Superior. Lahe Superior is the most westerly and most elevatel of the North American chain of lakes, and is the largest expanse of fresh water on the globe. This is truly a sea. It extends from latitude 46° 25' to 49° north, anay Company found the fur trade, to which they chiefly confined their operations, very lucra- I:' i 378 COMPl'A'DIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. \\ i III I t I tive, and mudo groat efforts to maintain tlieir monopoly in silence, and to prevent all intrud(;rs from enterim,' the Territ(jries, or interfering with the Indian hunters whuui they hiid in their service. Suljsc(|uently to the conquest of Canada hy Great Britain, the ]jritisli colonists, attracted by the fur trade of the interior, organised a company with its headquarters in Montreal, and known as the " North- West Company," which i)rosecuted this trade so vigorously that, to avoid the rivalry of the op])osing company a union was eifecttMl with the North-West Company in 1793, and the original policy of exclusiveuess was maintained more rigorously than before. In the arctic explorations of Hearne, Mackenzie, Shnpson, and Dease, the Hudson liay Company con- tributed nmch to geographical knowledge ; but the narra- tives of hardships and sufferings endured by these ex- plorers gave ground for the im})ressiou of the severity of the climate, erroneously imputed, to the entire area of these Territories. One, and only one, agricultural settlement was per- mitted by the Company. The failure of this one, under- taken by the Earl of Selkirk and a colony of Scotcli Highlanders about the year 1812, on the banks of the lied liiver within the present Province of Manitolw, was utilised to discourage agricultural settlements, and the Company is charged, with some reason, — if their state- ments before the Committees of the British House of Commons in 1857 be referred to, — with the cultivation of the idea that the climate was arctic and the land sterile. Thus, for two centuries, these Territories were retained for the exclusive uses of the Company — a gi-eat " lone land " — untenanted excejjt by the scattered trading posts of these fur traders, and undisturbed, unless by the roving Indian hunter following the musk ox or the buffalo. ..,i,f » ■^■^'..-■f^. LS \^G^- undev- Scotcli of tlie nitolia, s, and state- use of tion of terile. letaincd " lone la po^^ts roving 10. FEllTILITY OF THE NOKTII-WKST TEUUITuKY. 379 At the present day it may be stated, on tlie evidence of facts and the retnrns of the settler, that this prairie section of Canada, instead of being an arctic waste, is the nidst vahiable and fertile part of tlie Xew World, and possibly ecjnal to any part of the Old one. As already stated, the area between tlie coast of Labrador and the eastern slope of the llocky jMountains, includinii; the islands of the arctic coast and the water surface of Hudson Lay, exceeds .'5,000,000 sipiare miles. The country is a plateau, rising in terraces from the Atlantic coast to the llocky JMountains. The soil is alluvial, underlaid with gravel, and has a covering of rich mould, varying i'unn a i'ew inches to ten feet, formed by the decay of the grasses and of the ashes, to which they have been reduced by the lires that have for ages annually mown and bedded them uniler. Occasional tracts, large in themselves, but small in comparison with the whole, are sandy or sterile, and again some are wet and will continue so until drained, as mav easily be effected through the deep eroded channels of the rivers cut in these alluvial plains. One-third of these Territories may be stated to be as well adajjted for the habitation of the human race as Eng- land, and, notwithstanding the erroneous opinions expressed liy a few mendjers of the Dritish House of Connnons in the deljate on the Irish Land Lill are much more salubrious than any part of Great Bru.iin, and as fertile as its highest cultivated districts. The remainder corre- sponds with Russia in similar latitudes, but is better timbered, and is in great part underlaid with coal. In 18G9, at the urgent solicitation of Canada, the Imperial Government obtained from the Hudson 15ay Company a surrender and transfer of their rights. The terms agreed on were £300,000 sterling, to be paid by Canada, the loan for the purpose being guaranteed by the ^;!i'] A ' I • i i>L IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I *:; ""™ 1 2.2 mil 1.8 1.25 1.4 16 ■ 6" ► ^ <^ /} a °% y em .> Photographic Sdences Corporation \ %< ^^ O 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ■■^ <> <^ >^ '^^ &?^ ^ l\ 1 l/ i; II I I fi J, 380 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Imperial Government, and a land grant of about seven million acres in the great fertile belt, together with valu- able blocks around each of their established forts and trading posts. The transfer was completed on the 1st October 1869, and tliese two impediments existed to the settlement of these Territories : — Tlie first was a dread of Indian hostility. The other was the difficulty of access. The first of these, as will be shown elsewhere, has ceased to exist, and the second is being rapidly overcome by the railways now in course of construction. Until these are completed through Canadian territory tlie influx of immigrants will be necessarily limited. With this transfer the care of the Indian population and the recog- nition of their rights in the soil was assumed by Canada. Subsequently treaties were effected by the Canadian Government with the several Indian tribes, as stated in the chapter on Indians, by which their title to the wliolo of the Territories was purchased on condition of perpetual annuities to them and to their children, and reservations of sufficient agricultural lands for their support. By tliis just and politic arrangement the Indian is now settling down as an agriculturist, and has already made progress in the arts of civilisation, which will, it is 1 lelieved, increase with each generation ; and thus has the Indian been rendered the friend and not the foe of his white brother, and the attached ally of his great motlier the Queen of Britain, and the Empress not only of the East but of the West. The territory around Hudson Bay has been already in part described, and our attention will be now cliiefly directed to the prairie region between Hudson Bay and the Rocky Mountains. But few persons know anything explicit or tangible of . ■— •^^ #-*.t»rf, ^i**« ^ '«4r-*!«i>«r«(v;"'J:;Kiriit" -■-..•►ik AGRICULTURAL CAPABILITIES. 381 the immense region called the " Xorth-West Territory." If we define it as the region westward from Lake Superior to the Kocky Mountains and northwards from the bound- ary to the 60° parallel, it includes 500,000 square miles of this continent, a territory equal to the British Islands, France, and Germany combined. The great North- West, however, is not the terra incognita it was a few years ago. Its vast plains have been traversed ; its rivers and lakes carefully traced, and treasures of iron, and coal, salt, and even gold, have been laid bare ; and its rich exj)anses of fertile prairies are now known to possess the capability of supporting a numerous popula- tion, equalling in numbers those now densely thronging the British Isles. What are the agricultural capabilities of the great region drained by Lake Winnipeg is very clearly stated by Professor Hind, who made a very able report on the subject not long since. He gives us the following statistics on the subject : — Acres. On the route from Fort William, Lake Superior, to the Lake of the "Woods, including the valley of Rainy River 200,000 The fertile belt, stretchinrr from the Lake of the Woods to the flanks of the Rocky Mountains, and as far north as the r)4th parallel, on the Atha- basca, west of M'Lood River (80,000 square miles) 51,200,000 Isolated areas in the Prairie Plateau, south of the Assiniboine 2,000,000 Isolated areas in the f:;reat Plain Plateau, the exten- sion northwards of the great American desert, and in the valleys of the rivers flowing through it 1,000,000 Total area of laud available for agricultural i)urposes 54,400,000 Approximate area suitable for grazing purpose? . 30,000,000 Total approximate area suitable for the abode of civilised man 84,400,000 Approximate area of the basin of Lake Winnipeg, within British territory 199,680,000 Area fitted for tlie abode of civilised man . . 84,400,000 Deaert area unsuitable for the permanent abode of man 1 1 5,280,000 Hi i-t ^ i.i t i: M !S 11 I )■ f i (I i: li If 382 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Comparing this extent of surface with Canada, we arrive at the following results : — Acres. Area of the province of Canada (340,000 square miles) 117,600,000 Area occupied by the sedimentary (80,000 square miles) 51,200,000 Area occupied by Crystalline rocks . . . 166,400,000 If we suppose that one-sixth of the area occupied by crystalline rock is capable of cultivation, as regards soil and climate (an estimate probably in excess), the total amount of land in Canada available for the purpose of settlement will be approximately . 78,900,000 Showing an excess of land fitted for the permanent abode of men in favour of the basin of Lake Win- nipeg over the province of Canada of . . 5,500,000 Tlie first re'iiilar survey of this prairie section was made by Captnin Talliser, E.E., in the four years from 1857 to 18 GO, under tlie direction of the Imperial Government. His reports and maps are interesting, and should be con- sulted by any one seeking information as to the details of the country. Tlie subsequent surveys for the Canadian Government by the officers of the Geological Survey, and of the Department of the Interior, as well as for the Canadian I'acific liailway, have materially increased our knowledge of the country, and corrected many erroneous ideas entertained even lately as to the sterility of certain sections supposed to be arid or swampy. Sandford Fleming, C.E., says, in his first report on the proposed railway route : — " A glance at a map of Xorth America will show that the field of inquiry extends from 76° west longitude ou the eastern side, to 120° west longitude on the western side, wliile it is bounded on the south by the 4r)th parallel of latitude, and on the north by tlie 55th parallel. " Its extreme limits thus embrace fifty-four degrees of longitude, and ten degrees of latitude, and, reduced to miles, the territory under examination will be found to ^ *F THE PRAIRIE REGION. 383 cover fully 2700 huiidretl miles in length, and a breadth ranging from 300 to 500 miles. " This extensive territory, with an area of 1,000,000 square miles, drains into three oceans — the Atlantic to the east, the Arctic to the north, and the Pacific to the west. . . . " The leading botanical, in conjunction with the geo- logical and topographical, features of the country divide it imi urally into three great regions. The Eastern is densely wooded ; the Western is wooded and mountainous ; the Central is a vast lowland plain, for the most part prairie." Kespecting the Central or Prairie Region, Mr. Fleming states that it may be described as an isolated triangle with a base of 1500 miles in length, and sides of from 900 to 1000 miles: — "This vast triangle, containing about 300,000,000 acres, may be described generally as a great plain, sloping nently downwards from its apex to its base. Its apex at the foot of the IJocky IMountain chain, between the sources of the Missouri and the South Saskatchewan, is estimated to be about 4000 feet above sea-level, while its base, lying along the series of lake expansions from Lake of the Woods to Great Slave Lake, will not, it is believed, averaj'e a hidier elevation than 900 or 1000 feet above the sea. " The river systems, which carry off the water-flow of this long sloping plain, are the Assiniboine, the Saskat- chewan, the Atha1)asca, and the Peace. The first two unite tlioir waters in Lake Winnipeg before finally passing out throuu'li the Xelson Eiver to Hudson I'.av. The last two are tributaries of the ^Mackenzie, {ind, through the cliaimel f»f tliat river, ultimately reach the Arctic Ocean. Between the Saskatchewan and the Athabasca the river Churchill takes its rise, and flows independently in a generally north- eastern course, falling ultimately into Hudson Bay. |: • ilHj n '• ill tti; , i 'nw s IM.'-' In") PiV t 1 4 fell ' ^ ii 'I ; i ' ■'! i '\ % ' 1 1- '■I ■ 11 384 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAPHY AND TRAVEL. "All the rivers of this divisiou of the country Unw for a great part of their length in deeply eroded channels, frequently of consideral)le width, and, as the materials underlying the plains are for the most part drift or suit rock formation, the channels which have heen furrowoil out are not much obstructed by fails or dangerous rapiils, but generally present, from the base of the mountains throughout the greater part of their course, a unilurm descent. "The i)rairie land passes into woodland in various localities to the north of the Saskatchewan, to reappear in higher latitudes. On Peace lliver there are extensive prairies with extremely rich soil. In other localities there is an agreeable mixture of woodland and prairie, and this character of country appears to prevail as far as Hay Kiver, 400 miles to the north of the river Saskatchewan. Hurlbert, in his valuable physical atlas of the Dominion, classifies these Territories according to their productive character, and has exemplified by maps the prairie, the f(jrest, and the desert lands, again sliowing the zones of — (1) conifer and mixed forests ; (2) of wheat, barley, rye, oats, pease, root crops, and vegetables ; (3) of maize and grapes ; and (4) of orchard and smaller fruits — to which we can only briefiy refer, and must direct the attention of any one seeking fuller information to tlio work itself.^ He says, " Xorth of the parallel of 49° east of the Itocky Mountains, there are about 120,000 square miles of prairie, an area equal to Groat Britain and Ireland. J'etween this and the North Saskatchewan the prairie land predominates, but is interspersed with groves. Xorth of the Saskatchewan the forests pre- dominate, there being not more than one-third praiiio. ^ Vhyslenl Alias of the Dominion of Canada, by J. Beaufort Hurlbert, M.A., LL.D. 1880. H1 .vlieat, (3) of fruits (liveet to the If 49^ O.OOO iritain (l witli (s pre- braivio. [uvlbert, o a ■j H if^l !| 'i in h! Ak exti bell pin( blac are the trcm taini the I Athf inth sevei temp unifo ofN( ous a tempe the c( but, ji tliat e nieado "I flocks, siiperk must a to be c "T; the ex Europe able err than 2 Hundrec \^^ THE I'KAIRIE REGION. 385 Along the eastern base of the Rocky ^fountains, and extending up into the recesses of the mountains, is a belt of conifers, the principal trees being tlie Douglas pine (this tree, is, however, an Abies), and the white and black spruce. East of these mountains the watersheds are mostly covered with heavy forests of spruce, but on the dry ground there are trees, with poplars {Fopulus trcmuloides). In the damp forest lands near the moun- tains balsam poplar is found in abundance, and this is the species which grows to such an enormous size on the Athabasca, Peace, and Mackenzie Ilivers ; all the islands in these rivers being covered with trees of this species, often seven to ten feet in diameter, and 100 feet in lieight. " In the interior of the continent, where tlie summer temperatures range from 60° to 80°, with somewhat uniform summer rains, are found the great mixed forests of North America, the most remarkable forests of decidu- ous and coniferous trees on the globe. " Most of the grains and vegetables of the middle temperate zone come to maturity wherever planted in the country to the south, east, and west of James Bay ; but, judging from the temperature and rainfall, no doubt that entire region would be best adapted for pasture and meadow lands. " The pastures and meadows, with their accompanying flocks, herds, and the dairy, have a value equal, if not superior to, the cereals. . . . The pasture-lands of Canada must assume in the near future an importance scarcely to be over-estimated. " Taking as our guide the temperatures and rainfall, the existence of native grasses, and the analogy of Europe, we are justified in the inference that the cultiv- able grasses in the Dominion would extend over more than 2,000,000 square miles, or more than twelve hundred millions of acres. 2 li ii i; ■( '( r ! / III i I (I I" I''' ) j it I (/ 38G COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. "The northern limit of wheat is about 58° nortli latitude. . . . Hence the immense areas in tlie north- west in Canada favourable for wheat. South of the northern limits, where wheat has been found maturiiiproacliing, they meet at 550 miles eastward from their source. The length of the North Branch, by the manuscript field notes of the survey of it by the North- West Company's astronomer, David Thompson, is 7*72-^ miles, and that of the South Branch, by the latest maps, is about 810 miles. From their junction, the course of the main Saskat- chewan to Lake Winnipeg is, by Thompson's field notes, 282 miles. This makes the whole length of tlie Saskat- chewan, from the source of the South Branch (which is the main stream) to Lake Winnipeg, 1092 miles. Fol- lowing the North Branch, as measured by Thompson, the total length to Lake Winnipeg is 1051-?,- miles. Passing through the north end of Lake AVinnipeg at 423 miles farther, the Saskatchewan falls into Hudson Bay, making its entire length from its source to the sea 1515 miles. In this last distance its waters are more than doubled in volume from the large tributaries that feed Lake Winnipeg; and as it descends 628 feet, its course is exceedingly obstructed by rapids and falls. The total area drained, by it is 500,000 miles. By the careful measurements of ]\Ir. Fleming, of the Canadian Exploring Expedition, the volume of water passing in the North Branch, in the month of August, was 25,264 ^iubic feet per second, or one-iifth more than tlie mean volume of the lllione, by D'Aubuisson ; aud that of the South Branch was 34,285, or 585 cubic feet more than the mean of the llhine, by the same authority. Iki&lLL THE SASKATCHEWAN RIVEH. 393 Measured below the forks, where it is 980 feet wide and twenty feet in average depth, that of the main Saskatchewan was 59,GG7 cubic feet per second, or nearly three-quarters of the mean discharge of the Ottawa at Grenville. In considering the character of tlie Saskatchewan and its country, as described by the Canadian exploring party, and others, let us ascend it from Lake "Winnipeg. From its mouth there are over two miles of strong current, up to the Grand Eapids, which are nearly three miles in length, with a descent of forty-three and a half feet. The river has there worn its channel, varying from 6 GO to 220 yards in width, down through the horizontal beds of limestone which form the basis of the level and generally marshy plateau behind. The second rapid referred to is four miles above the head of the Grand IJapid. It is fully a mile long, with a fall of seven and a half feet. From this up to Cedar Lake, which is twenty miles from Luke Winnipeg, there is a succession of rapids and swift currents, which, with the rapids already mentioned, make a total descent of upwards of sixty feet. Cedar Lake is thirty miles long, and twenty -five miles in greatest width. From the foot of it the river is navigable for steamers, without interruption, 180 miles up to Tobern's Eapids. North of Cedar Lake the country is described as low aud fiat for a long distance back ; the mainland and islands well wooded with balsam, spruce, birch, poplar, tamarack, cedar, and Bauksian pine. From Cedar Lake up to j\Iarshy Lake, about forty miles, the country on each side of the river is not more tliau eighteen inches over the water, which is skirted by a belt of willows, alders, and long grass ; in the rear is an extensive marsh, with occasional islands of small poplar M 394 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. and spruce. The floods cover these flats every spriii!;, depositing a very rich mud. No high ground is to be seen on either side. The Pas Mission is situated at the mouth of the Pasquia, a considerable tributary. The river banks are there ten or twelve feet high ; the soil a dark mould over drift clay. The banks, however, continue low alluvial, with a rather low country behind. Around Cumberland House (about 116 miles farther) the country is low and flat ; much of it is submerged in spring floods. Many of the marshes could be drained and improved without much difficulty. Here we have readied a very favourable country for agricvdtural purposes. Speaking of the twenty-nine miles above this, Mr. Fleming says : " The general character of the country we have passed through to-day is excellent, the soil being rich and the timber of a fair quality." Of the succeeding forty-seven miles upwards, he says he " passed through an excellent tract of country all day, the soil on both sides of the river consisting of a very rich alluvial deposit, ten feet in thickness above the water, well wooded with large poplar, balsam, spruce, and birch — some of the poplars measuring two and a half feet in diameter ; and, as far as I was enabled to ascertain, tlie land continues good for a great distance on either side, but more especially on the south side of the river." Of the next fifty-three miles he says that the land is "well adapted for agricultural purposes and settle- ments, the soil being a rich alluvial loam of considerable depth, well watered and drained by many fine creeks, and clothed with abundance of timber for fuel, fencing, and building." The country on the banks of the river continues the same for a few miles farther, till, approaching Fort a la Corne, the immediate banks become gradually higher, and L il^I—^Jl. THE SASKATCHEWAN RIVER. 395 the bluffs that form the edge of the high plateau behind on each side gradually approach nearer to tlie river. From Fort h la Corne, which is 150 miles above Cumberland House, up to the forks of the north and south branches, a distance of sixteen miles, the river sweeps, in magnificent curves, in a valley of about a mile in width, and from 150 to 200 feet lower than the general level of the country on each side. Describing the country on the south side of the Saskatchewan here, Professor Hind says : " The trail from Fort k la Corne to the old track leading from Fort Ellice to Carleton House ascends the hills, forming the banks of the deep-eroded valley of the Saskatchewan, in rear of the fort. It passes through a thick forest of small aspens initil near the summit, when a sandy soil begins, covered with Banksian pine and a few small oaks. The sandy soil occupies a narrow strip on the banks of the river, varying from half-a-mile to four miles broad. South of the sandy strip the soil changes to a rich black mould, distributed over a gently undulating country. The pine gives way to aspen and willows in groves, the aspen occupying the crest of the undulation, and the willows the lowest portion of the intervening valleys. The general aspect of the country is highly favourable for agriculture, the soil deep and uniformly rich, rivalling the low prairies of lied lliver and the Assiniboine." I7ic South Branch of the Saskatchewan. Immediately above the forks the South Branch of the Saskatchewan is only 180 yards in width, but the current is swift — three and a half miles an hour — and the aver- age depth seven and a half feet. For about 130 miles up its course its valley preserves the same character as that of the main river between the t i| if' !"i , 396 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. y forks and Fort h la Corne ; but the banks which the prahie phiteaus on each side present to the narrow valley of the river are generally lower, varying from 140 feet in height, exposing sandstone cliffs where c;^*" by th' bends of tlie river. The country on each side has a rich soil, with abun- dant woods in clumps and groves for a great part of the way. It then becomes gradually less wooded and more sandy in parts, especially on the west side, till, after passing the distance last -mentioned, it assumes the character of light, treeless, prairie land. Tlie river in tliis distance varies from 180 to 440 yards in breadth (in- creasing in width in ascending), generally from ten to fourteen feet in depth, the current three and three and a half miles an hour, with a swifter current and wliirlpools in a few places. The generally treeless prairie country, reached at 130 miles from the forks, is the commencement of the so- called great infertile region, extending westward over the iSouth Saskatchewan and its tributaries nearly to the hilly country at tlie base of the Rocky IMountains. Continuing about seventy miles farther in the same south-west direction, or nearly 100 miles by its course, the elbow of the South Branch is reached 210 miles from the forks. In the commencement of this distance is a rich alluvial expansion of the low valley of the river, called the " Moose "Woods," partly wooded, with rich glades between. It is twenty-five miles in length, and six or eight miles in breadtli, and bounded on each side by sandy-crested bluffs. From this to the elbow the river again assumes its narrow valley, the banks of which gradually ascend to 200 feet in height. About thirty-five miles above the elbow the South Ih-anch approaches the Eyebrow and Thunder-breeding Mountains, and there skirts the salient angle of the JlvuL — i^ "- '-, tUmiHtit THE SASKATCHEWAN RIVER. 397 Coteau Missouri, whicli springs like a vast bastion from the United States boundary. Its east face, whicli rises 600 feet above tlie elevated plain at its foot, is 200 miles in length ; and its western face, called the Cypress Hills, extends IGO miles, with much greater elevation, being, according to Dr. Hector, 4200 feet above the sea. For nearly 500 miles above the elbow of the South Saskatchewan, its upward course passes through the great infertile region of light prairie land, the greater part of which is described as consisting of arid wastes, from which, however, there are apparently some large excep- tions ; for instance, the Cypress Hills, covered with fine timber, abounding in excelle^it giass and well watered, and fairly, though not abundantly, stocked with game. The following extracts from notes by Professor Macoun, M.A., F.L.S., the well-known explorer and botanist, are taken from the Report of the Minister of the Interior, 1880, and describe portions of the north-west over which the professor has passed during the last year : — " Taking the Qu'Appelle at its mouth as a centre, and projecting a line nearly due west to the South Saskat- chewan, a distance of over 250 miles, and starting at the meridian of Fort Ellice, and including only the land south of the Touchwood Hills, a belt with an average breadth of 100 miles extends right up that river. Here we have 25,000 square miles or 16,000,000 acres of land lying iu one block, that, to my own knowledge, has over 90 per cent of it fit for agricultural or pastoral purposes. The only poor soil in this extensive tract is that portion between Spy Hill and Fort Ellice, and two small groups of sand-hills lying at the sources of the Qu'Appelle, No alka- line soil is known on any part of it, except a narrow tract extending from the head of Long Lake toward Quill Lakes. Numerous small brooks are found on both sides of the river, and where these are not seen ponds of good water r: 398 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGBAPIIY AND TRAVEL. are seldom wantincf. There will be no difFiculty in oli- taining first-class wheat crops throughont the greater part of it, as the soil is gener{illy a rich black loam, mixed with silica, and at times containing more or less gravel. The subsoil, in nearly every case, is alight-coloured cliiy, or clay and gravel coated with carbonate of lime. Nearly the whole of the surface is a gently undulating plain, easily drained, and over three-fourths of it sloping to the south. The crops at the Qu'Appelle Mission, about the centre of the area, ripen earlier than in any other part of the North-West; barley having been cut both in 1879 and 1880 during the last week in July. No summer frost has ever been reported from this region, and authentic reports say that the spring is two weeks earlier than tit Winnipeg. Forty miles west of the File Hills wood is no longer found, and from that to the Saskatchewan not a bush of any description is seen." As to game, he says : " After the middle of August we began to shoot ducks, and besides the species men- tioned above, the Gadwell or Gray Duck {Cliaiilclasmv.s strcperus) and lied-breasted Merganser {Mcrfjas scrriator) bred in numbers on the plains. Coots or ]\Iud Hens {Fidica Americana) and Pied-Billed Grebe {Podilyinbiis podiccps) were in great numbers, and afforded fine sport. We had to wade almost up to our neck to obtain our specimens, as they were very diliicult to kill, owing to their diving power. " After the middle of September the sea-ducks began to arrive, and it is no figure of speech to say that the ponds and lakelets were alive with them. For the fol- lowing six weeks feathered game of every kind were so abundant that any person in a week could have shot enough ducks and geese to have lasted a family all winter. The abundance of water-fowl in the interior is of such importance at this time, when Indians are being fed by II WILD FOWL, 399 the Oovernmont, tliat tlicy should be compollcJ to lay in a slock of i'ood tor tlienisolves duriii}^' the winter. To see hunters perishing' of hun^i^^csccns, and confcrtus var.) Hedy- saruni boroale, Thermopsis rhombifolia, Gaura coccinea, Galium borealo, Sisyrinchium Bernnidiana, Arnica angus- tifolia, and four species of Astragalus (A. pcdinafits, Jlexuosus, carijocarims, and hisulcatus). All of these would have been ornaments to any garden, ami grew in such profusion that they gave a marked character to the landscape. . . . " At the time we crossed the extensive plain lyiu;^ between the Grand Valley and Moose Mountain (the latter part of June), the whole country was gay with beautiful thnvers. The air was loaded with the ])erfiuiie of roses and the Ehvagnus, and every little mound was bright with the tall purple spikes of Oxytropus s])loiuIciis and Lamborti, while the level jirairie was dotted with patches of Arnica augustifolia, looking like the mari- golds of our gardens. Even the marshes were beau- tiful with the nodding plumes of the cotton grass {Ei'iopliorum poli/stachyon), and their borders lined with Dodecatheon and the little yellow star grass {Sisyrinchium Bcrmudian((). . . . " The grasses of the plateau were of the real pasturage sjiecies, and produced abundance of leaves, and were so tall that for miles at a time we had great diliiculty in forcing our way through them. The chief were species of Festuca, Danthonia, Poa, Avena pratensis, Bromus, MUSHROOMS. 403 (the with ivhuiie id ^va3 luleus ^Yitll inavi- beau- gvass [l with cluinn Iturage leve so lilty w tpecies and riileum nlpinum ; Jind altliougli tlieir vsocds were all ripe (August 4th), tlieir knives were quite <;rcen. . . . " Tlirouf,'hout tlie whole country extending from Old Wives Lakes to the Cypress Hills, a distance of 100 miles due west, the pasture was always good and the grass of species noted for their nutritive rpudities. "At this time (August 28th) mushrooms became very abundant, and continued with us until the latter ])art of Se[)teniber, when the frosts became too severe, and jirevented their growth. There were three species, all equally large and numerous, and, although we consumed great quantities of them, we never observed any ill effects from tlieir use. There was one species, however, which was very large and more abundant than the others, which I did not touch, as I did not like its appearance, yet the usual test indicated it to be nutritious. While crossing the great plains north of the Qu'Appelle in July 1879, we found mushrooms by the cartload, and the past season we used them every day for three weeks while travelling at least 200 miles in an easterly direction. From the reports of other travellers and my own obser- vations, I am led to believe that on nearly the whole prairie abundance of mushrooms will be ol)tained after any great rainfall during the summer. One species of Lycoperdon (Puff Ball) was seen that grew to a very large size, and numerous others were noticed during the whole season scattered over the plain in groat profusion. Xo Lycoperdon is poisonous, and all are highly nutritious if gathered young, before the spores turn yellow, and cut into thin slices and fried. Were it possible to teach the Indians to discriminate between the good and bad mush- rooms, immense quantities could be collected every year, dried, and stored away for future use, as is done in Xorway. . . . " In the valley of Strong Current Creek there were I 404 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. ■U m iM numerous thickets of Sheplierdia argentea covered at this time with its beautiful red and acid berries, and these, toj^etlier with choke cherries {Prunus Virginiana), were eaten with avidity, and the former very much relished when boiled to a jelly and sweetened. Wlierever the valley of the Saskatchewan was examined these species grew in profusion, forming at times impenetrable thickets and the fruit always palatable, the latter species never being astringent as it is in the east, but always sweet and pleasant. . . . " Experience has taught me tliat wherever trees and brusliwood are found there to look for a broken country and one that contains too much water, wliile the open treeless prairie generally condemned as sterile is by far the best farming land. " In conclusion, I may state that the appearance of the country passed through was altogether different froi" what I expected, having been led to believe that mucli of it was little else than desert. Having crossed that part of it north of the Qu'Appelle in the summer of 1879, I can speak with certainty of the fertility of tlie immense plain sloping towards that river on l)otli sides." The Surveyor-General, Lindsay Russell, states in his report to the Minister of tlie Interior : — "The area completely surveyed into townsli.ps, and ready for settlement and sale, was 4,472,000 acres; whilst an area of about 4,500,000 acres was partially surveyed — chat is to say, liad the block outlines ami a portion of the township outlines laid out in readiness to begin the subdivision work of anotlier year. " Of the townships surveyed in tlie Souris and Turtle Mountain districts, the reports received are favourable in the extreme. It would appear from these reports, ami from information received from the engineers explorim: for railway lines westward, that the whole of this countn FUEL SUPPLY. 405 south of the Assiniboine and Qu'Appelle Elvers, as far west as the so-called Missouri Coteau, in lonfi^itude 105° W., may be considered as affording first-class land for settlement. It is not so well wooded as the districts on the north side of the rivers mentioned, but it is by no means anything like a treeless prairie. More or less wood is met with on the banks of every creek or streandet, and ou the range of hills called IMoose Mountains quite a large quantity of timber is found." Extremely favourable reports of the country traversed have also been received from the township outline sur- veyors in the district north of the Qu'Appelle Eiver, and between the Assiniboine Eiver on the east and the Touchwood Hills on the west. In this latter retjion more wood, and of better qiudity and dimension than was anticipated, was encountered. In connection with the fuel supply for this part of the country, it may be of interest to mention tliat several barge-loads of lignite from the valuable deposits of that material on tlie upper waters of the Souris were floated down that stream and the Assiniboine to market at Winnipeg, by parties who had embarked in the enter- prise under permission from the Department. That portion of the special survey which consisted of the establishing of the Sixth Principal Meridian — that of 114° west longitude from Greenwich — was carried from P]dmonton southward to the boundary line at a point about south of Fort IMacleod, a distance of 350 miles. The returns of the survey indicate, along the eastern slope of the Eocky Mountains, between the Bow Eiver and Edmonton, and lying principally on the upper waters of that river, and of the Eed Deer Eiver, a beautiful tract of country both for cultivation and for grazing purposes, — one in which good rich imH is prevalent, where there is abundance of wood for all purposes of fuel and building, I li { \ I 406 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. ■i'l and peculiarly adapted, by the richness of its grasses, and by the shelter afforded in the river bottoms, or in the openings among the mixed wood and prairie glades, for stock-raising farms. The Honourable Minister of the Interior, Sir John A. Macdonald, K.C.B., states in this report that although it is, of course, an admitted fact that there are large prairie areas which are but indifferently provided with wood, yet the more the Territories are explored, the more pp- parent does it become that the timber supply is not so limited as was at one time supposed ; that, properly hus- banded, it is sufficient for all practical requirements ; that within a reasonable distance of the treeless plains there is plenty of building and fencing timber which can be procured at no very great cost when the means of internal communication have been improved; and that on the north slope of the valley of the Saskatchewan liiver there are, easily accessible to the lumberer, continuous forests of fir-timber, for the manufacture and transportation of the products of which that river and its tributaries afford facilities. The portion of the so-called American Desert which extends northerly into Canadian territory is proved to have no existence as such, for in the very worst parts of the country many tracts of good soil were found, and almost invariably the grass was rich and nutritive, offering excellent facilities for stock-raising. There is but one drawback to wliich Professor Macoun calls attention: the want of wood, for long distances. Lignite, however, underlies all tliis part of the Territories, the outcrops of which will furnish fuel ; and the introduction of railways will enable settlers to obtain lumber sujjplies. Streams are not plentiful, but there is an abundant supply of water to be found everywhere by digging wells, and at no great depth. STOCK FARMING. 407 The advantages offered by the Xorth-West for stock- raising are now receiving that attention from capitalists and experienced cattle-breeders which they deserve. Already numerous applications, backed up by the most substantial proofs of the ho7ia fides of the applicants, are before the Department, for leases of grazing lands in various sections of the Territories, and the purchase of the property on which to erect the necessary buildings. On the faith of a promise that his enterprise would receive every legitimate encouragement from the Government, one experienced Canadian agriculturist and stock-breeder of large capital, the Hon. Senator Cochrane, has gone to Great Britain with a view to an extensive purchase there of thoroughbred stock as the foundation of a ranch which he proposes establishing in the Bow Eiver region. This ranch is now (1881) in full operation with 40,000 head of cattle and about 150 horses. It is hardly necessary to say how important it is to the future of that country, — how intimately connected with the de- velopment of its best interests, — that this and kindred schemes should be successful, and how much it will con- tribute to the convenience, profit, and prosperity of the settlers in this new land that they should find at once at their very doors the best breeds of cattle from which to stock their farms. To the pioneer farmers of Canada, and to all who have had any experience of the difficulty of procuring well-bred animals in new settlements, this is a point which will suggest itself as of the utmost possible consequence. The most amicable relations continue to exist between the police and the Indians, and manifestations increase of growing confidence and good feeling on the part of the latter. P I '\ V' i y M 408 COMrENDlUM OF GEOGUAniY AND TRAVEL. The Xorfli Branch of the SasJcnfchcunn. The country (Iniinccl by the North l>r;inch of the SaskatchewiUi ami its extensive tribntiiiy, the l'»iittle Kiver, thou<^h inconi])iinibly more vahiuble tluin tlio country traversed by the South I'ranch, does not require so much des('ri})tion, owinj^ to its more unilbrm character. The North iJranch, for the greater ])art of its course, and the IJattle Iviver, lie in the great belt of country which all authorities describe as generally fertile land of the lirst quality. The Nortli Branch, for 520 miles up from the forks, and the Ikittle Iviver, for its whole course of 450 miles (excei)ting a short elbow of it), traverse a rich prairie country, more or less interspersed with woods. The remaining 282 niiles of the u])per course of tlio North Branch lie in the thick wood country, wliicli to the commencement of the mountains — about 200 miles — is represented as abounding in marshes, with patches of hue land in parts. In this distance the banks of the river display beds of lignite coal, l^eyond it the re- maining course of the river lies in the valleys of the mountains to the glaciers at its source. The navigation of the Saskatchewan will probably ])rove to be nearly as useful as that of the Ohio, but less liable, on account of its greater volume, to interruption from low water, to which the navigation of the Ohio is very subject in the dry months of sunnuer. 3. The Mson Elver. The largest of all tlie rivers entering Hudson Ray is the JVelsou, which is one of the great rivers of the world. It is estimated to be about four times the size of the Ottawa at the capital. Its waters are nuuldy, THE NELSON RIVER. 400 liiiLliiig in susj)cnsion, all the way to its mouth, the fmc- clay inattor brou])osite the extremity of IkMi'on Point, but it contracts rapitily, having a trumpet- like outline, and for the lirst ten miles up the wi 'Lh is ti'oni three to four miles. Tt continues to narrow gradually to Seal Island at the head of tide-wati'r, or twenty-four miles from the extremity of r>eacon I'oint (at high tide), where it is only one mile and a half broad. Above this it varies from half a mile to a mile and a half as far as we went. 14 410 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. m I'l iWi 111 " "When the tide is out the greater part of the spaco between the banks in the estuary of the river is dry, and consists of a dreary stretch of mud-flats dotted with boulders, constituting a continuation of the shoals fartlier out. A narrow channel with a somewhat irregular deptli of water winds down the centre of the estuary. From the soundings which I took it appears to have an average depth of from two to three fathoms at low tide from a point abreast of Beacon Point for about twenty miles up. At the mouth of the river the ordinary spring tides amount to about twelve feet and the neap tides to about six feet, so that at a high tide, from three to five fathoms may be found throughout the above distance. " The shallowest part of the river which we sounded was abreast of Gillam's and Seal Islands, or just where the tide ends and the proper channel of the river begins. Here the water was only about ten feet deep. But from this point upward, as far as we went, the average deptli of the centre of the river was found to be twenty feet, and sometimes our soundings showed over thirty feet of water. In this section of the river, the velocitv of the current varied from about two to six miles an hour, accord- ing to the experiments wdiich were made with the sub- merged tops of spruce trees, in order to ascertain the rate, at least approximately. The swift parts are short, and the mean velocity may perhaps be taken at from two and a half to three miles per hour, and the average Avidth at three-quarters of a mile between the water margins. " A short rapid occurs a few miles below the highest point to which we explored the river, but it does not appear too swift to be surmounted by steamers. Above it the Indians report no obstructions for about fifteen miles, when a cascade, called Limestone Falls, is reached. The Nelson Eiver may therefore be said to be navii ble for river steamers to a distance of about 100 miles froi.i the sea. THE NELSON RIVER. 411 " The distance from York Factory to tlie extremity of Beacon Point is about five miles. In going towards the latter, the baidcs gradually diminish in elevation from twenty-scA'en feet at York Factory to the level of hi^h tide at Beacon Point. They consist of stradfied grayish clay combined with more or less line sand. Below high tide the beach in the above interval consists of a muddy bluish clay with rounded pebbles and some boulders, and contains marine shells, which are toleral)ly plentiful. "As already stated, the shores about the mouth of Nelson Eiver are very low and Hat. Banks of clay, at first only a few feet high, begin to appear on both sides about ten miles above the extremity of Beacon Point; and in ascending the river the banks of clay on either side gradually rise till a point is reached about fifty-four miles, in a straight line from Beacon Point, wliere they are nearly 200 feet in height, and above this, as far as observed, they maintain about, the same elevation either immediately overlooking the river or at a short distance back from it. A layer of peat, averaging about four feet in thickness, was observed almost everywhere at the top of the bank on either side and extending inland. At Flamborough Head, a prominent point on the north-west side, nineteen miles from Beacon Point, the clay bank has attained a height of 126 feet. It consists of hard gravelly drift clay with some boulders at the bottom, and drab-coloured stratified clay towards the top. " No islands occur in the estuary of the river, but from the head of tide, in the distance to which I ascended, upwards of twenty, covered with timber, were passed, besides a number of others on which only grass was growing. The wooded islands are comparatively high, while the grassy ones are low and flat, and are evidently swept over by the river ice when it breaks up in spring. From the Puck-wa-ha-gun Eiver (sixty miles from Beacon ')}' ' I l Ml JR f f: Hi } ■ I '0 :|- jl i 412 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL. I'oiut), upward wide flats covered with good grass oocur, here and there, on both sides of tlie river. The grassy islands and flats probably owe their preservation to the underlying horizontal beds of dolomite, which prevent them from being worn away by the force of the ice. " A slight rapid occurs near the highest point reached. Below it the river is narrower than it is above, and here there is evidence of great ice-packing in the spring. On the sloping bank on the north-west side, the timber is prevented from growing below forty-five feet above the river. The outermost trees, standing on this level, are barked by the ice and boulders which have been pushed diagonally up the slope. A great am])hitheatre is exca- vated in the opposite bank, evidently by the water pass- ing a temporary dam of ice, blocking up the river by piling at this point, after a spring shove. On the 18th of July 18 78 some ice still remained on the north-west bank, opposite to this amphitheatre-like excavation, but was melting rapidly under a hot sun. "The timber along the lower part of Nelson Eiver consists principally of spruce, tamarack, aspen, and balm of Gilead. On the islands and lower levels the spruce attains a good size, and would be very suitable for build- ing purposes; but on the level ground, stretching away from the tops of the banks, the timber is smaller, and the ground is covered with a thick growth of sphagnum, under which a layer of peat, of variable thickness, is seen at the brink of each steep clay bank. " The region through which the upper two-thirds of the Nelson Bivcr Hows may be described as a tolerably even Laurentian plain, sloping towards the sea at the rate of about two feet in the mile. The river, for the first 100 miles from Great I'laygreen Lake, does not How in a valley, but spreads itself by many channels over a con- siderable breadth of country. This tendency to give off THE NELSON RIVER. 413 li ' stray * chiinnels is cliaractoristic of nuinerons rivers tlirougliout tlie northern and comparatively level Lauren- tian re^nons, but it is perhaps more stronj^ly marked in the Nelson than in any other. In the above section of this stream the straj^glin^' channels are of all sizes, from mere brooks up to large rivers. Jn their various courses towards the sea these channels here and t\ere unite either wholly or partially, but often oidy to divide again, and thus they constitute a sort of network of rivers, the islands between them being of all sizes and shapes. The channels themselves consist of a series of dead-water stretches, separated by chutes or raj>ids at longer or shorter intervals, which, however, vary nuich in the dif- ferent channels. The greatest descent at any one of the chutes visited takes place at the White j\Iud Falls, and amounts to twenty feet. These falls are divided by islands into three parts, and the 'discharge' on which they occur is supposed to represent about half the volume of the Nelson lliver. The White Mud Falls were con- sidered to represent more than twice the quantity of water which passes over the Chaudiere Fall at Ottawa. Should this estimate be correct, the whole body of Nelson Eiver would be more than four times as great as the Ottawa at the above fall. " Following the channel on the east side of Eoss Island, the first break in the smooth water extending down from Lake Winnipeg is the Sea Eiver Fall, at thirty-seven miles from the outlet. At twenty -one miles farther down we come to I'ipestone Lake, which is on the same level as Cross Lake, and separated from it by an irregular strait five miles long. IJetween tlie level above Sea Pdver Fall and that of Pipestone Lake, there are, in all, ten rapids, with a total fall of about thirty feet. Making an allowance of ten feet more for the current in the smooth portions of the river, there would be a dilference ■^°^^^"^- l\ 'I w 414 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. of about forty feet between tlie level of Lake Winnipeg' and that of Tipestone and Cross Lakes. By the channel on the west side of lloss Island the navi^'ation is unin- terrupted from Lake "Winnipeg all the way to Jjig lieed Lake, one part of which conies within four miles of the southern extremity of Cross Lake. Between Cross and Sipi-wesk Lakes ten more rapids occur, with a total fall of about eighty feet. This, with twenty feet for the cur- rent in the intervals between the rapids, would give a total descent of 100 feet from the one to the otlier. Below Sipi-wesk Lake no rapids, projierly speaking, were met with as far as I went, but two others are reported to exist before Split Lake is reached. Above Sipi-wesk Lake the first rapid occurs at the Chaiii-of-Iiocks, four miles up, and is very slight, having a fall of less than two feet. It could, no doubt, be easily passed by steamers. But the Bed Bocks Bapids, at seven miles from the lake, are more serious, and would terminate the upward navi- gation of this section of the river. From these rapitls downward, including Sipi-wesk Lake, there ajipears to be no insurmountable obstruction to the navigation of the river by steamers till the higher of the two ra])ids above Split Lake is reached, a distance of upwards of 100 miles. " Sipi-wesk Lake and the first twelve miles of the river below it run nearly north-east, or with the general strike of the Laurentian gneiss and miea-schist on which they are situated ; but at the above distance the river assumes a course bearing due north by compass (nearly north by east astronomically), or diagonally across the strike of the gneiss and the course of the glacial striaj, both of which have a general N.E. and S.AV. bearing. The branches from the right, in this interval, run south-west, while those from the left fiow north-east. The whole of the waters of the Nelson Biver appear to have come together in this stretch for the first time since leaving Great Play- THE NELSON RIVER. 415 green Lake. The width now averages about a quarter of a mile, or rather more, with a deptli of from forty to fifty feet. The current runs at the rate of aL(jut three miles an hour in the middle, except at two very narrow parts, where it is considerably greater. Owing apparently to the considerable depth of water across the greater part of the bed of the stream, strong eddies are found on both sides, wliich greatly facilitate the upward navigation of this part of the river. The general aspect of the country along the ui)per part of the Nelson Eiver is even, or slightly undulating, the highest points seldom rising more than thirty or forty feet above the general level. Whis- key-Jack " j\Iountain," opposite the foot of Sea Iliver Fulls, is only from thirty to sixty feet high. The " High Piock," four miles above tlie entrance to the Echimamish, lias an elevation of only about fifty feet. Such terms, a])plied by the inhabitants to mere banks and hummocks, indicate the general level nature of the country. On the north-west side of the inlet of Sipi-wesk Lake the hills rise to a height of from 100 to 150 feet, and appear to be composed of cltiy or drift materials. Along the north- west side of the lower part of this lake, the ground has an elevation of about 100 feet. Partridge Hill, seven or eijiht miles eastward of the outlet of the same lake, is the highest point observed in the district, and has an eleva- tion of about 200 feet over the water. " The solid rocks of the region are generally overspread with the prevailing gi'ay clay, which, in some cases, is liable to bake and crack in the sun, but in others it forms a soft, mellow soil of excellent quality. Of course a good deal of fixed rock is exposed at the water's edge along the principal watercourses, but even in these situations the iipper parts of the banks, including those of the smaller islands, are generally composed of clay. " On either side of the channel west of Cross Island, the ^ J 41G CO.MI'ENDIUM OF GF.OriHAPIlY AND TltAVEL. country is ratlior barren. The shores are low, and con- sist mostly of points and knobs of ;j;neiss witli sandy buys, and bogs and niarslies between them. AVhiskey-Jack Portage, whicli connects the heads of two bays from oj)- posite directions, ])asses along a strij) of dry coarse sand, which looks as if it might liave formed the north-wesU-rii side of an ancient watercourse." 4. Lahc Winnipeg. Lake "Winnipeg, lying between latitude 50'* and 54° north, and long. 9G° and 90° west, is 280 miles in length, and fifty-seven in its greatest breadtli. Its south- ern extremity is 350 miles west-north-west from Furt William on Lake {Superior. Its elevation above the sea is about 710 feet. From the mouth of tlie Iliver Win- nipeg, near its south end, to its northern extremity, it is the boundary Ijetween the generally rocky Laurentiau country, and the Cambro-sdurian limestone formation of the east side of tlie great central plain. It is very shallow at its southern extnunity. Its shores are low and marshy at the entrance of lied Hiver, and subject to inundations. By the rejwrt of Ca[)tain Munro, at low water the depth on the bar at the entrance of that river, in the shallowest part of the channel, is only four feet. The navigation of Lake Winnipeg derives an ad- ditional importance from that of its tributaries, the Great and the Little Saskatchewan ; the former being navigabk' for steamers, with but tln-ee interruptions, to Edmonton, on the North Branch, 772 miles, and probably iarther, to the base of the liocky Mountains ; while the Little Saskatchewan and its lakes present a navigation of upwards of 300 miles from its mouth, or 500 from Fort Garry, without interruption. Among the numerous tributaries received by Lake rnr AMTOliA,' ffledXaicaj n,rt<>'i' J lide West of Greenwieli StoM/brJJe Caog^ Sstoli". Zond/m, \mi\Aq mmii I .MANITOBA. THUNDER RAY Tfl rilUNDER BAV TO WIIVMPEfJ KiiwfLi'*) Htjtiiioifl. .*►.'» Chariii); ("pohh SVin/or^LA ■"tejog^ Esudi', !■ i^dun. v. ' \ ■I THE LAKES OF MANITOBA. 417 AVinnipor; are, — lied ]\iver, draining in part a region wliicli is in some degree tributary to the Mississippi. The English or Winnijieg liiver, 1G3 niih?s long, draining the region of the Lake of tlie Woods, and its trilmtaries 300 miles to the east. Numerons rivers come in from the eastern belt of the Laurentian rocks, which separates the valley of Lake Winnipeg from Hudson and James Bay. On the west side it receives the noble Saskatchewan, bearing its tribute from the Iiocky Mountains, a thousand miles to the west. Eed Deer Piiver and Swan L'iver fall into the Winnipegosis Lake, besides many other minor streams which drain the prairies to the west of those magnificent lake expansions. Lake Winnipeg drains a region 400,000 square miles in area. ),l:.!.i 11 fir 5. Lal'cs Muni tola and Winnipegosis. A little east of the middle of the tract of 240 miles in width, between Lake Winni})eg and tlie Assiniboine, and roughly parallel to them, extend Lake Winnipegosis on the north, and Lake ]\Linitoba on the south ; the latter receives the waters of the former by an elbow- shaped stream, and discharges its own into Lake Winni- peg from a bay on its east side, by a river called the Little Saskatchewan, which is fifty miles in direct length to its mouth. These lakes are each 120 miles in length. The greatest breadth of Lake ^Manitoba is twenty-four, and of Lake Winnipegosis twenty-seven, nnles. Taken together they extend 220 miles from north to south. They encloses between them and Lake Winnipeg a peninsula of 2 HO mih'S in length by 100 miles in greatest breadth, which is cut across at the n:iddle by the Little Saskatchewan. This peninsula, though as large as the kingdom of •2 E m !i'->i 41 S COMPENDIUM OF GEOOnAniV AND TRAVEL. I)rninark, counts for little in the north-west. Its interior is reported to be a low, Hat country, abountling in liikos ami marshes. liounil the south end of Lake ^Manitoba, for a circuit of about tifty miles, the soil is that of the richest descrip- tion of ]»rairie land. The few settlers consider it even superior to that of Ked Iviver. It is an undulating country of mingled woods and ojien prairie. Jn'tween the np]>er end of Lake Manitoba and the Assiniboine are the Hiding ^Mountains, and around Lake I'auphin thert^ is much rich jj^round. Mr. Hind u,ives the liidini4 ^Mountains an elevation of 1000 feet aliove the land on the shore of Lake Manitoba; and ^Ir. Dawson estimates the Porcujiine Mountains as risintj; about 1500 feet civer tin' j'lain at their eastern base. As the Little Saskatchewan, the outlet of Lake ]\rani- t<>b;i. is a tine navigable stream of T.'iO feet in lnvailtli, and the W'liti'rlicn Liver, which connects Lakes ^Manitoba and \\'innipcurt ( larrv to Mossy Portage, at the h(!ad of Lake Wiu- ui[)egosis, a distance of about 500 niiles. G. Ttic Winnipci(ls with treacherous eddies, whitened with foam, and huge swelling waves rising massive and green over hidden rocks. The cascades and ra[)ids of the Winnipeg are of great beauty, hut neither sketch nor language can portray the astonishing variety they present under different aspects — in the gray dawn of morning, or rose-coloured by the setting sun, or Hashing in the brightness of noon-day, or silvered by the soft light of the moon. The river frequently ex])ands into large deep lakes, full of islands bounded by precipitous cliffs or munded hills of granite. Tlie fort in the occupation of the Hudson ]>ay Company at JIat Portage is very prettily situateil at one outlet of the Lake of tlie "Woods. It is surrounded with hills about 200 feet high, and near the fort some white ajid red pine are standing amidst a vigorous second growth. The rock about Hat Portage is chloritic slate, which soon gives place to granite, so that no area capable of cultivation was seen until we arrived at Islinu'ton Mission.^ 1 5i TIic Character of the Country about the Upper Winnipeg. The broad river, with its numerous deep bays, stretches far to the north, and all around dome-shaped hills show tlieir Ijare and scantily-wooded summits in every direc- tion. (Jencrally they seem to be thickly covered with small stunted i>ine, but in the hollows or valleys between them, pine and sjiruce of large dimensions, with f.dr- sizod aspens and birch, llourish abundantly. ' Ki']Ktrt l\v H. Y. Iliml, At. A., Ooologist ami Xatuialist to the Caiuuliiui lied Kivcr Exploriiij^ Kxiicditiou. r- Wl 1 1 I? 420 COMrr-NDIUM OF GEOr.H.VrHY AND TUAVEL. Tlie nspuot of thi^ countrv is similar in its outline tn the reuke of the "Woods, a little over 100 miles from its mouth, and for that dis- tance Hows through the province of Manitoba in a nearly level ]»rairie of the richest alluvial soil. "J'his })rairie country is described as extending hack, on the east side of the IIcmI Ifiver, from four to al)out thirty miles, and on the west side about forty, to the ridire or hilly ground called the renibiiui Mountains. Tarts of it are marshy, as migiit be ex})ected of an alluvial, nearly level ]dain, in a state of nature ; l)ut they are desciihed as ailmilting of l>eing drained with little trouble. The big swamp in icar of the lied lliver Settlement is twenty- seven I'eet above the surface of the river; ami the nine mile swamp on Kat Kiver, a small tributary on the east side above the settlement, is described as capable of heinu draiiuMl with c(jmi)aratively trifling labour, and would form the richest of jtrairie land. From its lowness (to which it owes its extraordinary fertility, like many other alluvial valleys) ])arts of it are sometimes, although very rarely, subji'ct to iiiuiidii- tions. About forty miles from its mouth the Ited liiver receives its (diief tributary, the Assiniboine. At their ■i illinc to not to tcatures A' rilily. tlie I^mI course, dings it ■al (lirt'c- )()uni]ai'y Voocls, a tliiit (lis- a nearly ing hack, to about the, ridge Parts of ial, lU'arly de.scribtnl jIo. The s tweuty- thc nine the oast e of being ould form •aordiiiary irts of it i) inunda- Ited liiver At their THE RED RIVER. 421 ronflnencG is situated tlic city of Winnipeg, rontainin*,,' ir.,000 inhabitants, and being tlie connuorcial centre, as well as the seat of government, of the province of Mani- toba. Here also is the old fort of the Hudson Bay Company, known as Upper Fort Garry, The lied Kiver is 480 feet vvitle and twelve feet deep at the middle settlement. It is navigable to the United States boundary, ami far to the south of it by boats of light draft ; but the navigation is subject to interruption from drought in dry seasons. From Winnipeg to the United States boundary, about Hfty-seveu mik^s, its banks are fringed with wood, from a few yards to half-a-mile in l)readth, and the peninsulas it forms are well wooded. The woods of elm, poplar, oak, and ash towards its mouth have heretofore supplied the wants of the settlers. The alluvial clay of the Red River and the Assiniboine is well fitted for the manufacture of excellent white bricks and common pottery. Witli reference to the physical features of the Red IJiver, Hind says it is merely necessary to imagine a river from 200 to ooO feet broad, with a moderatelv rapid current, having in the course of ages excavated a winding trench or cut, to the depth of from thirty to forty feet, in tenacious chiy, through a nearly level country, for a distance exceeding 100 miles; and the gienera^ physical aspect of the Red River, within British territory, is reproduced. Here and there local diversities occur, which give some appearance of variety — Grand Rapids, where the even How is broken and disturbed by a ledge of limestone, which may occasion a fall of four feet within a mile. A lower plateau has here and there been excavated, perliaps ten feet below the general level of the prairie banks. Occasionally sand, mud, and gravel bars are formed at numerous sharp turns in the general course l| J' 42- COMTKNOIUM OF GEOmiAPIlY AND TUAVFX. -I'^ li I i M % w if ' Oi the .stivain, similar to tliose which may \w oh.st>rve(| ui>()ii tlio chart at Tuiiit D()u;4his, also ahove Fort (larrv, near hi liivicrc Siil, as well as near Scratching Creek, etc. These projectin}^ bars or points are often covered with fra;^- ments of limestone, boulders of })rimitive rocks, and vast numbers of lart,'e fresh-water shells. The current rouinl them is rajiid, and they jnesent a fornudable obstacle tn the steamers, exceeding,' 100 to 120 feet in length, which are used in tlie navigation of the river. Often, too, on one side or the other, and sometimes on both sidc>, a narrow belt v>f heavy forest tind)er closes ujioii tlie river, and seems suddenly to narrow and darken its abrujit windings. The most uniform character, however, and one which is more fre(iuently found on the west sitlc, Ls a clear and steep line of bank, about thirty feet in altitude. ])erfectly level to the eye, and forming the boundary of a vast ocean of prairie, whose hoii/on or intermeiliate surface is rarely broken by small islands of jioplar or billow, and whose long, rank, and lu.\in"iuiit grasses show everywhere a iniiform distiibuti(jn, and in- dicate the character of the soil they cover so iirofusely. A sidisciiuent closer insi)ection never fails to estahlisli tiie fertility of the S(ul, as well as its extent, over areas as far as the eye can reach, both e;istward and westward, on the banks of this remarkable river. t I lip mh 8. The Zah of the Woods. The Lake of the Woods is over seventy miles in extreme length, and from its exceedingly irregular fnnu has a very extended coast-line. Jt belongs to that system of inland waters which includes the (Ircat Lai w & ;«• ill" 424 COMrENPH'M OF (JKdGUArilY AND THAVKL. Anin-li'ini)t), \n\t dl'tcn Itoidcrcd l»y IdW siiinl-liills, aiul .stnitcliiiij,' (Mil iK'hiiiil llirm in urcat ircdy J///,s'/.> 7.-, (a Cliipju'Wii word j^fiMicially ii(l(»j)lt'(l to (Icsi^naU! the Nviilc, urassy swaniiis ol' this rcnidii). Tlai water is com- ])aiativ('ly shallow and soiutnvhat tuihid. To this jmii ol' thti lake tlu' naiiir Lake of thi^ W'ttods is ^funcriillv iipidied, but it is niorr jn'oiicrly called Lake of (he Saiul- liills. A third <,Mvnt division of t his system of waters liis lu'twt'en tlic eastern hays of Clearwater Laki^ and Lake of the Sand-hills. It eoniniunieates with the fonuer hy nanow ehannels, and from the latter is entered across a rocky ilivisioii known as Turtle rorta^c, 'J'his pail of the lake is desiLrnated White-lish Lake, and has never so far hi'cn jiroperly examined or surveyiMl. La;; I'lat, situated to the west of Clearwater Lake, may, tlieui,'!! inui'li smaller than the others, he counted a fourth divi- sion. The north-west an^lo inlet is a naiiow arm runnin;^' westward from near the junction of Sand-hill and Clearwater Lakes. On it is situated the eastern terminus of the road from Winnijie^s and in coiuiectiun with this theie is a (lovt'rnmont Station for innni};raiits. There is also a })ost of the Hudson r»ay Coiiijiaiiy, several trailers' houses, and usually a lar;;o camp of Indians. At llainy L'iver is another Ciovernment post known as Hungry Hall, and between this ])lace and the north-west an^le a steamer formei'ly ])lied regularly, fornduL!; a link in the water routt; from Lake Supciier to Mi'uitoba. The mouth of Rainy liiver is also, and has been from time immemorial, a favourite cami)iii»,f-place of the natives. At IJat l*orta;,^e there is a suuUl lluilson Bay tradin.Lj ])ost. 5| i 0. 'r/w Ikaicr or CluurhUl lliirr. The IJcaver IJiver has its source about I'orty miles from the North Saskatchewan at Fort Edmonton. Its course ^^' ■'^" w ■ li THE CIIURC'IIILL IlIVF.Il. 42i to Tludson liay is Jiboiit 1100 miles in Iciiuitli. Fur 250 inik's tVdiii its sourco, its course! is in tlu; i)laiii country of Siluriiui or more rectmL iorniiitioiis. It then, Ik'Iow Isle ii la Crosse, enters the ^n-iiL primary or azoic belt, which covers the retnainder of its course within this section. It may he considered as draininj.^ part of the same plain as the Saskatchewan, thcii- basins l>ein,L!; divided only by rocks a ft!W fe(!t in height. At Fm;^' Fortayc, 2;')0 nnles lower, crossin^n to a tributary of the Saskatchewan, the waters of the IJcaver tlow over into it at hi^li ilood. Sir John Uichardson says that the Churchill Kiver drains a c()ni})aratively small extent of prairie land, and Ca))tain Falliscr describes the country bt^tween it and the forks of the Saskatchewan as a thick wood country, with many lakes aboundinif in fish. Sir Alexander M'Kenzie, who speaks favourably of the soil on the u])i)er ])art of the IJeavcr Ifiver, describes the bnllaloes ran,ninj^ over the patches of prairie along it, and mentions a ganlen at Isle a la Crosse that well repaic. the labour best(jwed on it. He speaks of Lake a la Crosse abounding in " the finest fish in the world," and of the richness of its surrounding banks and forests in moose and fallow deer, with the vast nundter of the smaller tribes of animals, and the numerous Hocks of wild-fowl. As its IncUan name ]\Iississii)])i, " ^lucli Water," im- plies, the Beaver or Churchill, as it is called in its lower course, is a river of great voUime. At Island Portage, aliove Frog Portage, Sir J. liichardson speaks of its being 500 or (»00 yards wide, with a strong current where pent up and narrow. Eastward of Lake a la Crosse, where it passes through the primary or azoic formation, the soil of the country is poor, sandy, stony, and rocky. Describing ]>art of it, Sir J. Pichardson says the general aspect of it is like the country on the north shores of Lake Superior, though the water basin is not so deeply excavated. ' i' j; » i ; ifii i*^ illli 420 roMI'KNDIUM OF GEOCU.vrilY AND TUWKL. 11 w 'if Li J 1 1 iuiili .'( i t CirAPTKli V. THE BASIX OF TIIK MArKKNZIK KIVF.U AND ITS TKIDUTARIES. 1. llnwral Vicu.\ The Maekoiizio is tlio Lir^'cst river in tlie western licmi- spliere wliieli e.")(), 000 stpiare miles, dr almost double that of the St. Lawrence basin. It receives the waters of the eastern slojies of llic liocky ]\rountains thronj^h lifteiMi d(\L,nves of latitude, and that of the western slopes from M'l.eod Lake and the head of the I'arsnij) in latitude r»4° 20', to the ardir circle. The rivers by which this enormous volume df water finds its way to the Mackenzie are, from seiith to north, the Athabasca, the I'eace, the Liard, ami tlu' Peel. Its principal eastern drainai,^', comin;^ from tlie land of the musk-ox and the reindeer — 1'ho i»arn'n Grounds — is received thnnii^h the three rjreat lakes Athabasca, Clreat Slave, and (Jreat Bear. Between Lakes 'm£L- TAlilES. TIIK P.\>!IX OF TIIR MACKKX/.IK HIVKR. 427 i Atliiil)ii.s('ii and Great Sliivc, Lake tlio rivur is known as Stonv ] liver and Slave Iiiver. The iJarren (Ji'Dunds may lie defined as extinidin}^ from the water- part iii.Lj immediately north of Churcliill Ifiver to the Maekeiizie, alow^ the slojte.s towards Hudson J»ay and the Arctic Ocean. This extremely desolate and in- ho.'^pitahle re^ijion is occui)ied by a ])ortion of tiie j^reat Chipewyan or Tinneh trihe, M'ho regard it as the cradle of their race, whence they claim to have spread in other directions. Stunted shrubs of the hardiest kinds — dwarf birch, willows, and the likt; — scantily clothe the nu)re favoured spots alou^f the watcu'courses ; while! elsewhere various lichens, the ]ii'culiar food of the reindeer, inters|)ersed with stones and stagnant water-pools, alone characterise the dreary scene. Yet amid these unattractive wilds the natives obtain an abundant, if at times precarious, subsist- ence by fishinf,^ and the chase. Keindeer (of the smaller variety) are extriMuely numerous during the period of their northern mi,nration, commencing' in !Marcli ; and the musk- ox (Oribi)S mosclmhiH) linds in these solitudes a congenial iind ])erennial Held. On the immediate sea-frontier the poliir bear a])peiirs ; but no other of the larger quadrupeds tiian those enumerated is found. The beaver, common to nearly every ])ortion of North America, shuns a scene where all its industry would i'ail to procure it a living; and it is not till the hunters reach the line of about the 65th ])ar;dlel tliat they are able to procure the fur of this animal for the purjjoses of barter. The ptarmigan is found in abundance, as also the white fox ; with wolves, some of which are white, and in i)arts the arctic hare (Lcpus variahilis). ^lost of the lakes are well stocked with white-fish and other kinds ; and probably salmon of some of the numerous varieties ascend all the larger rivers between the Churchill and the Mackenzie, in neither of 1 I ': .'. ! ^ III w >1' (■' f Offi r ■^»^' 42S COMrEXDIUM OF -iEOGKAniY AND TRAVEL. Illli 1 ijPI whicli do thi'V MjiiH'ar. A Viirioty calK'd the " Copper Mine RiviT Saliiu»u" (Sal mo Jfedrnii of IJichardson) is known to ascend tlu; river of tliat name; and the native name of the Hack lliver — Title n-c-cJunlczdh (or tesyc)- — lead some to infer that tliat also is frequented either bv this or some other varietv. 77/A7(-('-r7/o, literallv " hii'- tish," enijthtyed liy tlie Tdh-cullji of the r[)]H'r Kraser to (lesii^nate the sturgeon, is on the Mackenzie a))plied to tlie sahnon of the Yukon. JJeindeer arc the only .species of the family found on the Ltarmi,uan {Luj/npiis alhi/s) ajijiears ahundantly as a ]>ermanent n'sident, a.s indeed alonLt the wiiole of the arctic watei'she(l and tlie shores of Hudson liay. The whitt'-tish (Coiriionm), several \arielies of carp, trout, and otlu-r lish, inchuliiii,' the inconnu (jirohalily ii:raylin^, Tlii/yiudluH fiu/ni/o; of Jiichardson 0. 'U'^' common to the stream and its tributaries. The jiike also is found, but no salmon asct-ud this river, which in this rc-pcct forms ])robal>ly tlui solitary exceji- tion auKHiLr all the larger sti'cams from California ujiwimls to this point. For the dehciency of this valuable fish there is no apparent cause ; nor docs iheri! seem to exist anv reas(»n whv it shoul-1 not he arliliciallv introduced at some future day. lli'^lier up, as wo a])iiroach the dis- charLic (tf the (Ireat Hear Lake, the evith'nces of an im- jirovinLl 1 th»> minerals in this (piarter little can be said; hut frcm the name of the rivers before mentioned, and from rejiorts THE ATHABASCA RIVKR. 429 we may be jiistilied in believinjj; tluit rich deposits of C()pi)er, at least, exist. The Jvsiiuiniaux occupy the whole seaboard. Mackenzie describes the nioutli of the river, latitude f)8°, as having innumerable islands, its depth to be from 4 to 50 fathoms, and its ]>readth from half a mile to two miles, with a current of six miles an hour, and a volume double tliat of the Niagara or ^Missouri IJivers. 'i'he islands are covered with trees of a small growth, and in places spruce and fir of a larger size ; the l)aid':s where high are wooded, ])ajtly with lurch and lir ; berries are abundant, and the ground in places is covered with short grass and ilowers. This was on the 12tli July, in latitude 08° north, ncavlv 2000 miles beyond the Lake of the "Woods in a (hrcct north-westward dii'cction, and -SOOO miles from I\b)ntreal, or as far as that city is from the mouth of the Orinoco in South America. This coni])aii- son is made to give an idea of the extc^nt of the country here described. ^Maclvcnzie a('Com])lislied the distance from Fijrt (,'hii)cwyan to the mouth of the river and back, a boat voyage of oOOO miles, between the .'id of June and the 12th of 8eptend)er, or in 100 days, thus slio\ving that thiring this season at least the navigation is open. The whale fisheries in Ik'riug Sti'ait, to wliich the Mackenzie L'iver alfoi'ds a short route and easy access, are the riclu'st known, and arc extensively resorted to by American whalffs, wlio, t'- reach this iishiug-ground, sail 1G,000 miles. The Atliabas(>a is the most southerlv extending tributary of tlie Mackenzie, and little if at all inferior to the Peace, either in length or in the volume of water which it cari'ies. It rises on the eastern slopes of the liocky .^b)untains, in the Leather oi Yellowhead and in the, Athabasca ])asses. The Aihabasca Lass, latitude 52° 20', is 002 5 feet above the sea. It crosses between i' i i i( n 1 [ i 1 ■ J'::|i|L|| ^I iJi m \ 1 w i I (!-• ; f'-' it *-«^4s; 430 COMI'ENDirM OF GEO(;i{ArilY AND TltAVKL. Mount Hooker and ^Nfonnt Ih'own, two of tlic liinliost peaks of llu; IJocky Monntains, and leads directly to the r>o.at Eneanii)inent on the ^reat sontli bend of the Cohnii- hia Iviver. The Leather I'ass, ;)74() feet al)ove the sua, strikes the easternmost sources of the Fraser llivor. From tl.iese ]>asses the "Whirljtool and the Aliette Ivivers issue, and the latter has a length (tf 18 miles and a full of ."'.oL! feet t«» its junction near ]fenry House with tliu "\Vhirli)ool Athabasca, 55 or 60 miles from the suniiiiit of the Athabasca I'ass. Thence the Athabasca or Klk IJiver taki's a ticni'ral north-easterly course, and, i)assiii'f Jasper ] louse, which stands in a wide and beamiful Aalley within the mountain, it ilows with many sweciiiii^ curws and shar]» licnds to Fort Assinilioine, .'UJO miles from its souri'c in the mountains. Its lai\u;est tributary in this ]i:\\[ of its course is the M'Leod J{i\er, which takes its water from the water-] »artin^) mik's. Thirty miles liehiw the conthienee of the l'end)ina, tlie ].csser Shi\i' h'iver comes in from tlie north-west, wilii a course of -10 inik's to its head ill Lesser Slave Lake. This lake exUiuls nearly east and west 100 mil(>s, with an aveva;^e bivaihii of 20 to .')0 mih's. From this tlu! river makes an cUinw south-eastwar\ pio- montories of tin- linest verdnre, where the elk and bulfalo lintl pasture." The sceninT and the ve,t,'elatinii remain, l>ut the elk and the linUalo have passed awav, to l)e re])laeed, however, at no distant date, hy vast herds of domestic eatlh', for the rearing,' of which the ma^iiiHceiit I)astures of tliis region are eminently adapted. Sii' ddhn IJichardson describes the scenery as un- eijualled, the soil as sandy, but on a limestone basis, wliicli is favtairable to its warmth as well as to its fer- tility. The whnle length of the Athabasca is DOU to 100(» miles. Ai>itroachin,. pa'je ill: — "The whole country around iln' south iind Avesl sid;'s of Lake Athabasca is a vast alhnial ]>lain, elevated but a xcry few feet above the levcd of tln' lake, and some ye;iis mmdi of it is Hooded. The first niuht after liM\iiiL: I'ort ('liii»ewyan we slept in the heats owiiiLT to tlie lowness o|' llie laml, not more tiian one feet above the water. The Athabasca has Ibrmed a larue (h'lta at its luontli, and is every year siltin;i up the lake witli the mud it brinijs (hiwn. For miles before wu entered it we ]iasse(l o\-er mud Hats (hu- to tlie same cause. Tlie mouth, oi' mouths, of the rivi'r are funiicd bv a series of wilh»w swamps and islands scarcely a tent abovt' the water. Wiiere we breakfasted the hind was t\ve feet above the watei', at diinu'r four feet, aiiil where we slept si.K feet. This was twenty-live miles finm the lake, and the first spruce was seen, showin.i:; that here the land Avas never permanently flooded. One day and a halt .'SJ LAKE ATHAnASCA. ^.CiQ oo from the lake \ve reached the Emhan'iis Iviver, where the (Itilta coninieiices. Here the general level is ahout ten feet above the \vater. The whole of the country ])etween this and tlie lake is alluvium, brou.L,dit down by the river in bygone ages. All this inmiense delta, including Lakes Claire and IManiawa and their bordering marshes, and all that part of the Teace IHver Valley below Peace Point, may be called the delta of the Peace and Atha- basca rivers. The water of the Athabasca is even mud- dier than that of the Peace, but that of the Slave Piver issuing from the lake is quite clear." In numy ])laces along the banks of the Athal)nsca, C'learwatei", and Slave rivers there are co])ious springs of salt and petroleum, and there is no doubt that tliis region will some day vie M'ith Pennsylvania and Ontario in the production of these valuable materials. In returning up the river Sir Alexander Mackenzie describes the air, for some portion of the way, as laden with a smell of sul})hur, caused by the burning of lignite on the riviu' bank. This was, however, probably a mis- take, as, although there are many and valuable beds of lignite coal in the I'cgion, and some of them are on fire, their O(unl)ustion does not give rise to deposits of sul])hur or to sulphurous odours. These are caused by the spon- taneous and more or less local condiustion of the ])yritous shales of j\Iesozoic age, which form clifls along the u])per tvibuta''es of the Mackenzie, and this curious combustion is well e vhiliited on " Smokv Piver," one of the localities alluded to l)y .Mackenzie. It is iuUy descrilied in the Peports of the Geological Survey of Canaila, 1875-70 and 1879-80. Lake Athabasca, or the Lake of the Hills, 180 miles south-west of Slave Lake and 020 feet above the sea, is an elongated body of water nearly 'J 00 miles in length, and 14: to 15 miles average width. Stone Piver, issuing 2 F i,| . . I mn 1 I i I V- i&- I' ' I' jl '1*1 ^ ^ •Ij ■ 1 1 I'M V ■;^^ I 4:u iiMl'r.NDirM OF GEOGUAT'IIY AND TRAVEL out of Lake Wooliistdn — a circular lake 4r> miU's in iliaiiU'tiT, lyiiiLT west -sdutli -west ol' Alhaliasca — ])assos throii^li scvci'al small lakes, lietwerii which it is seine- tinies eallfd reiciijtine Ifiver, and nil i mutely falls into the Lake of the Hills. Alioiit ')() iiiilc!-' cast el' Sioiii' liiver aimthcr lai'^e rixci- issues from Lake ^\'(l(llast(lll. ami after a iioi'thei'ly euurse of 100 miles, ht'uds sliar]ilv to till' south and tlows into iJeiudeei' Lake, the waters ef which emiityhvthe Churchill liiver into lluilsou I'av. hake WoolasidU is thus one of the main sources of the Mackenzie and also of the ( 'liurcliill. Stduy lli\er. the ]iriiici]ial outlet of Alhaha^eu L;ikt\ at its north- wcstci'u extremity Hows lietwi-en marshy haid<<. and at the distance of .')0 miles minules its waters Mith I'eace K'iver; the condiine(l streams torm Slave Kiwr, which \aiies ill width from three (|iiarlers of a mile to one mile and three ([iiarters. and is ;l(i(i nnh's in Icnutii, vMmiui 1.(1 miles helow its head its na\i,uatien is iiitci- rujited li\- a series of rapids, oecasioiiine' a succes>i()ii nf |Hiilau'es Itetween \^n'j[ liiver and the rapids of the 1 )vowned, after which the ri\-er is uninteri'u])tedly ii.ivi- uahle to Sla\f Lake. Issuing' freiii (Ireai Sla\'e Luke ;il the western t'lld. the liver hears the name of Maikeli/lr, it> disc(i\elci , and continnes its comse to the Arctic Sr;l, I'ei'cixin^ oil its wav the Liard fiiim tlu; west, with a cniir-e (if 7"iO to 1 l)0(» miles, as well a-- the I Ml ilDchti' and the waters of (ireat Hear Lake fmni the east. Ill: f i iri 2. n>' Pnin- nh-rr. The rn-i'jah ni' I'eace liiver, the lar-t'st hraiich of the Mackeii/ie, is fnianc(l li\- the ciintlueiice of the I'ais- ni)), the Nation, and the Liiilay. which I'ise on the west side of the main axis of the llncky Mountains hctweeii the o-hii and oTtli j^aiallels, and the ilMKh and ll'Tlli h^ iiiilts in — I Kisses is sonie- iiUs into dl' Slnlic odliiston. ^ slmi'iily Wiiters (if soil r>;iv. es itl' till' r;nn'1i nf llu' Pavs- 11 the west US lift ween ;ui(l lliTlk TIIK LlAlil) IMVEIl. 435 meridians, and drain a laruje section of llie - . IJl* 436 (OMl'KNDIUM OF GEOGIJAI'HY AND TliAVIX. it turns duo north, and continues tin's course for ncarlv 200 miles, until it enters the Mackenzie at Fori Sini])S()ii, 400 feet alune the sea. Fort J.iard is situated on it u little south of the r>Oth ]iarallel. Speaking' of this ])lii('t' llichardson says: " Tiioui^h this part is more elevate(l tliim Fort Simpson by at least 150 feet, and is only two degrees of latitude to the southward, its climate is said to he very sujierior, and its vegetahle ]troductions of better j^rowth and quality, liarley and oats yiidd good crops, and in favourahh^ seasons wheat ri])ens wtdl. This locality, then, Iw. adds, on the 60^ })aralh'l may l)e con- sidered as the northern limit (►f the economical culture of Avheat, Such heing the climate at that latitude on the Du Liard liiver, it may reasonably be assumed to he fully as favourable in the country extending 2<>0 miles farther south on its eastern branch and on Hay Kivcr." [i !} 1^ i| n '» 4. T/w Half Hiirr. Hay lliver, a tributary of Slave Lake, is ncaily 400 miles in length. ]t has two branches — the west one rises in Hay Lake, the other rises not iar from the banks of Peace Kiver, and ilows at no great distance from Fort A''ermilion. The country on this branch is described by Sir John llichardson as an agreeabh^ mixture of prairie and woodland, and freipiented by vast bands of butlidoes. This, he says, is the limit of those vast ])rairies which extend from New Mexico. lielow the folks of Hay Itiver, the country on it is covered with forests, and in- tersected with swamps. Here, as elsewliere in all the region drained by the ^lackenzie, the buM'alo is extinct, being now rarely if ever seen uorth of the Saskatchewan. ,'1. ft! U*:U tf r nearly Simpson, I on it ii his i)lii('e lU'tl than tnly twii t(j is said ctions of i(!l(l },'00(l 41. This ( be eoii- II cultuiv titude oil ;no(i to lie :00 miles Kiver." ,eaily 400 west one the. hanks In mi Fort iscrihed hv : of prairie f hufliiloes. iries which Ks of Hay its, uiul in- ill all the is extinct, ikiilchewan. i " i I fi ' i > liuirisii (l)Lr.MniA \- riii-: sa MeigtUJi ui- feet abav% t^iA Sea, i.fim)aii; Kiiwnrd StaiiK 5IA \. THK SASKATCIIKWAN TKKIUTOIUKS. 11.-." 11(1 /lOi' A,m'iW.W«y'i l.iiiu'nii. Mwnrd Stantonl. 5R ChMiui^ t'nmB. Longitude I2f)' W-sl of (".Twnwkih . 120* tyo 1^0 J^" .liaU of Enjjh.ili. .Vilf.9 rm BRITISH COLUMBIA. 437 4 CHAPTER VI. THE WESTERN SLOPES OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS AND THE RIVERS AND LAKES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. 1. General Vicio. British Columbia — bounded on the south by the U.S. territories of Washington, Idaho, and Montana, on the east by the Eocky Mountains, and on the north by the 60th parallel of latitude — is eminently a land of moun- tains, lakes, and rivers. It may be fitly designated tlie Alpine Province of the Dominion. It has an average length from north to Bouth of 800 miles, and a breadth from east to west of about 300 miles. Except the north-eastern section, drained by the Liard and the Peace, afUuents of the Mackenzie, its waters are carried to the Pacific Ocean by the Columbia, the Fraser, the Skeena, Babine or Simpson, and the Stickeen ; while a number of smaller streams empty into the heads of the numerous deep fiords which indent the coast from New Westminster to Nasse Harbour on the confines of Alaska. Dr. G. M. Dawson says:^ " Three main structure direc- tions serve to account for the greater part of the depres- sions of the surface now occupied by the rivers, lakes, and fiords of British Columbia — 1. A north-westerly and south-easterly series, dependent on the general folding of the rocks ; 2. A north and south series, due to systems * Quarterly Journal Oeol. Soc, No. 133, Feb. 1879. ! 4 .: I ; J. m 438 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGIIAPHY AND TRAVEL. of parallel breaks ; and 3. An east and west series, the cause of which has not yet been determined. " The arrangement of the lakes and their long river- like forms are very remarkable, suggesting, at least, the action of glacier ice, which, though it may possibly have formed rock basins in some places, has generally been instrumental in causing lakes by the arrangement of diift material in pre-existing hollows." The only important western tributaries of the Co- lumbia rising to the north of the 49tli parallel are tlio Okanagan and its large feeder, Similkameen. The former discharges the lake of the same name, and the latter rises in tlie high mountains west of Hope on tlie Fraser Kiver. Okanagan Lake is about 60 miles in length, and only 3 to 4 miles wide. The distance from the head of the lake to the confluence with the Columbia in lat. 48° north is nearly 200 miles. 2. The Columhia River. The Columbia is the largest river of America flowing to the Pacific Ocean. It drains an area of 298,000 square miles, and its length is esthnated at 1400 miles, nearly half of which is tlirough British territory. It rises 3090 feet above the sea, in the Upper and Lower Columbia Lakes, near lat. 50°, long. IIG W., at the base of the Eocky Mountains. From its source it flows north- westerly in a dee}) and narrow valley, parallel with the mountains for nearly 200 miles, to the Boat Encampment at the entrance to the Athabasca Pass. Here it receives its northernmost tributary, Canoe Eiver, coming from the north-west, and whose valley, together with those of the Columbia, the Kootanie, and the Fraser, from Tete Jaiine Cache downward, forms an uninterrupted and nearly straight north-west and south-east depression 450 miles mm THE COLUMBIA RIVER. 439 in length, from the 49th to the 54th parallel of latitude. This great but narrow valley, bounded on both side; almost throughout its length by snow-clad peaks, is one of the most remarkable features of British Coluinl)ia. Standing in the centre of the valley at Cranberry Lake, it is difficult to realise the fact that you are on a divide, so gradual is the fall north-westward to the Fraser, and south-eastward down Canoe lliver to the Columbia. Canoe lliver is here, between 50 and GO miles from its mouth, 2622 feet above the sea ; and Tete Jaune Cache on the Fraser, 13 miles distant, 2400 feet. From the boat Encampment at the ]3ig Bend, the Columbia turns south-west and south for 200 miles, to the United States boundary at Fort She])herd. In all this distance it re- ceives only one large tributary — the Kootanie. Its cliief sources are considerably to the northward of those; of the Columbia. It flows southward into IMontana, and receives the drainage of the west slope of the Bocky Mountains from its sources in the Vermilion and Kicking Horse passes, nearly to the 49 th piivallel. IMaking a great, ahiiost semicircuhir, sweep through IMontana, it re-enters biitish Columbia, and passing through the southern end of tlie great Kootanie or Flat Bow Lake, it issues on its western side with the added drainage of the lake, and falls into the Columbia 40 miles to the westward, a short distance below the Lower Arrow Lake. Its length is estimated at 450 miles. Opposite Fort Shepherd, on the 49th paidlel, is the mouth of Clarke's Fork, Bend d'Oreille or Bitter Boot Biver, the second largest atlluent of the Columbia. The sources of its northernmost tribu- tary, the Flathead Biver, issue from the Kootanie and Boundary passes of the Bocky Mountains between the 114th and 115th meridians, north of the 49th parallel. In Montana the Flathead Biver expands into a lake of the same name, 30 miles long and 12 or 14 nules broad. ii'i It ' I ii*^ 440 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. 3., I crossed about its centre by the 48th parallel of latitude; continuing its southerly course for 30 miles, it falls into the Clarke ; and the united waters then take a north- westerly course to their confluence with the Columbia at Fort Shepherd. In Idaho, between the 116th and 117th meridians, latitude 48° 10' north, the river again expands into a lake called Pend d'Oreille, 30 miles long, 8 miles broad, and 1600 feet above the sea. Gold has been found in the sands on nearly all the tributaries of the Columbia, both in British Columbia, Montana, and Idaho. Crossing the 49th parallel at Fort Shepherd, the Columbia flows southward to the 48th parallel, then westward to the confluence of the Okanagan Eiver, then south-west, south, and south-east for 160 miles, to the mouth of the Snake or Lewis River, its largest tributary, A few miles below this junction it strikes the northern boundary of Oregon, and abruptly changes its course to- wards the west, forming the boundary between Oregon and Washington territories for 250 miles to its mouth in the Pacific Ocean. The navigation of the Columbia is divided into four sections, a part of the upper section only being in British territory. The first is from its mouth to the Cascades, 160 miles, only a little above the head of tide water. Vessels of the largest size that cross the bar at its mouth can ascend to Vancouver, 115 miles. The obstruction to navigation at the Cascades makes a portage of 6 miles necessary. This is now made by means of a railroad. The second section is from this to the Dalles, a distance of 50 miles. Here another railroad, 14 miles long, has been laid to Celito. Thence the third navigable section reaches to Priests Rapids, 185 miles ; and the fourth section extends from Fort Colville, where the river is 700 yards broad, and 1050 feet above the sen upwards for 250 miles, passing through the Upper and Lower Arrow Lakes, 85 to 90 miles in length, nearly to w THE FRASER RIVER. 441 the Boat Encampment at the Big Bend. Above this th& river is only navigable for small boats, with numerous interruptions from falls and rapids. 3. The Fraser River. This river drains about 100,000 square miles, a much larger area within the province than the Columbia. It receives nearly all the water of the eastern slope of the Cascade Range from the 49th to the 53d parallel, also tlie greater part of that of the central plateau, and of the western slope of the Gold Eange ; while its eastern sources are in the Eocky Mountains between the 53d and the 55th parallels of latitude. Its main eastern branch issues from the mountains on either side of the Leatlier Pass, latitude 52° 55', longitude 118° 30' west. From the summit of the pass above Yellow Head Lake, 3746 feet above the sea, following the course of the stream to its mouth in the Strait of Georgia, is a distance of not less than 650 miles. Its main western branch, the Xechaco, takes its rise in Franqois Lake, or Lac des Fran^ais, only a few miles less distant from the mouth, and one degree north of its eastern source in the Leather Pass. This branch also carries to the Praser the water of the Stuart River and its long chain of lakes, the northern- most of which. Lake Tacla, extends nearly to the 56 th parallel of latitude, and lies in a long narrow de^^ression which separates the tributaries of the Skeena on the west from those of Peace River on the east, the interveninji distance being not more than 30 miles. The Nechaco joins the Fraser at Fort George, a trading post of the Hudson Bay Company, latitude 54°, and 1908 feet above the sea. Below this there are only two other tributaries from the west of any importance — the Black or Westroad River and the Chilcotin, respectively 40 ■1 y{\ 4 > ; I \ ': V m H-l il > 1 ! f 442 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. and 150 miles below Fort George. The former is of interest as having been the route by which Sir Alexander Mackenzie reached the Pacific on his memorable journey from Athabasca Lake, fid I'eace and Fraser Iiivers, in 1793, when lie su])posed the Fraser to be the Columbia. Except a number of small streams, the only tributaries of the Fiaser from the east are — the Quesnelle, at the mouth of which is situated the risiiifj town of the same name, and the point where the road for the Cariboo goldfields leaves the valley of the Fraser; and at Lyttoii, 200 miles lower down, the Thompson, which issues from the Wfst end of Kamloops Lake, bearing the united waters of tlie North and Soutli Branches. The North Thompson rises in Albreda Lake, witliin 25 miles of the bend of the Fraser at Tete Jaune Cache, but its water is chiefly derived from the glaciers and snowfields of the northoiii spurs of the Selkirk and Gold lianges. It Hows soiith- TALLEY OF THE THOMPSON. A SULPHUR SPRING ON THE HARRISON RIVER. 443 easterly, while the Fraser takes a directly opposite course, and after flowing 450 miles, the two rivers unite, as before stated, at Lytton, having circumscribed an oval space about 300 miles in diameter from north to south, and 120 miles from east to west. This space includes the Cariboo Mountains, and the whole of it has a high eleva- tion, indented with numerous deep valleys and lake basins. The South Thompson rises on the western slopes of the Gold Eange near the Boat Encampment and the Upper Arrow Lakes of the Columbia, and it carries the overflow of the Great and Little Shushwap Lakes, which, together with Kamloops Lake and the connecting river, aflbrd unin- terrupted navigation by steamboats for nearly 100 miles, for the most part through a fine agricultural and pastoral country. From Lytton to Hope, 60 miles, it receives no tri- butaries, but below Hope the Fraser receives two large tributaries from the north — Pitt Eiver, about 25 miles from its mouth, and Harrison River, some 35 miles farther, each being the outlet of a large lake. Pitt Lake is about 12 miles in length; Harrison about 30 or 35. They both fill deep gorges in the mountains, which rise abruptly from their banks, and in many respects bear a strong resemblance to the fiords of the coast. Harrison Lake is fed by the Lilloet Eiver, which, about 30 miles up, expands into a lake of the same name, 20 miles in length, fed by tlie Chatham, the Upper Lilloet, and the Birkenhead Eivers, the latter leading to the Pemberton portage, which connects, by Lakes Anderson and Seton, witli the Fraser Eiver 100 miles above Hope. Steamers can ascend from Fraser Eiver to the head of Harrison Lake. At the lower end of the lake, near the outlet, a hot spring bubbles up among the rocks, close to the water's edge, emitting a very perceptible odour of sulphur, and having its peculiar taste. The water of the spring has il Ikl 'i' 1 T 444 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. never been analysed. It will doubtless be found to possess valuable medicinal properties. Anderson and Seton Lakes, lying nearly at right angles to Lilloet and Harrison Lakes, cut through the LiUoet range of the Cascade Mountains. The former is about 14 miles long, bearing north-east. Between the two lakes there is a portage road about 2 miles in length, along a river 100 feet wide, which flows with great force, the difl'erence of the level of the lakes being about 60 feet. Seton Lake is about 1 6 miles long, of a serpentine form. Looking down from the head of it, a magnificent picture of mountain scenery is presented. The lake is only 800 feet above the sea, and the surrounding mountains rise abruptly 3000 to 5000 feet. A mile from the foot of Seton Lake the Cayoush Eiver joins that issuing from the lake, and 2 miles farther the united streams flow into the Fraser a little below the town of Lilloet. This chain of lakes and portages constitutes the well-known Douglas route, 100 miles in length, by which the interior of the country was reached before the waggon road was made in 1863 from Yale up the Fraser, Bonaparte, and Thompson valleys to Clinton. It was adopted to avoid the then impassable canons of the Lower Fraser, but it is now only used by Indians, and the road is overgrown with grass and brush ; while the mountain sides in the neighbouring valley of the Fraser are already echoing the shrill whistle of the locomotive as it rushes along on the iron road which at no distant date will connect this remote Alpine Province of the Dominion with her elder and more populous sister provinces in the east. The gorge of the Fraser Eiver through the coast range, though perhaps inferior to that of the Columbia, is a scene of rugged and picturesque grandeur. The forms of many of the summits are singular in the extreme. The forests which hang ou either side are broken by rocky cliffs and THE DELTA OF THE ERASER RIVER. 445 precipices and tiny waterfalls, and the river itself, com- pressed witliin narrow walls, rushes through as if impatient for the liberty of the ocean. This gorge may be said to extend from Lytton to Hope, but the river is navigable for steamers from its mouth up to Yale, 90 miles; thence to Lytton it is not even navigable for canoes. Yale is 13 miles above Hope. Between Hope and New West- minster the river spreads out into numerous channels, some of them dry at low water, having extensive " bars " of sand and gravel, and low islands between them. It is often, in fact, 2 or 3 miles between the extreme banks. The influence of the tides is felt as far as the Sumass, 5 5 miles up, where the first rapid occurs. Its entrance into the Gulf of Georgia is marked, as might be expected, by shoals, the deposit of its freshets. An extensive tract of allu- vial land, for the most part wet, and, till reclaimed by dykes, unfit for cultivation, lies between its mouths, and on the south reaches to Siniahmoo Bay. The immediate banks of the river are chiefly alluvial for a distance of 50 or 60 miles, and are overflowed in the summer. They are covered with cotton- wood (poplar) and a thick growth of willows. Back from the water are a few small prairies, of which the largest are around Langley, and on the Sumass and Chilukweyuk. The low lands much reseml)le those on the Lower Columbia. The prairies are rich, having about a foot of black mould, with a subsoil of clay and sand. It is here, between Burrard Inlet and the Noot Sahk, and extending from a little alwve the Chilukweyuk to the mouth of the Eraser Eiver, that the most extensive tract of level country in British Columbia is to be found. There is a remarkable parallelism in the general course of the two great rivers of British Columbia. From their sources they both flow in a nearly north- westerly direction for about 180 miles; they then both make a sharp turn, generally known as " The Big Beud," m Pi I (', I 446 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. to the south, flowing almost due south, and nearly parallel with each other for 350 miles — the Fraser to Hope and the Columbia to Colville, wlience they each reach the sea by almost rectangular bends to the westward through pro- found gaps in the coast range. 4. The Lahes. The characteristic feature of nearly all the lakes of British Columbia is their great length and comparatively small breadth. They fill deep troughs in the valleys of the rivers at the heads or on the courses of which they lie. Babine Lake, at the head of the river of the same name, a tributary of the Skeena, is 87 miles in length, whilst its breadth varies from half a mile to 5 or 6 miles. Franc^ois Lake, one of the western sources of the Fraser already alluded to, is 57-|- miles long, with an average breadth of only one and a half miles. Tacla Lake is 46 miles long and 3 miles broad, and nearly all the lakes in the province have somewhat similar propor- tions. Those above named, together with Stuart, Fraser, Cross, Upper and Lower Ootsabunkut, Chestatta, Tezzer Pinchi, Tchesinkut, Burns, and Decker, from 10 to 45 miles in length, and from 2200 to 2800 feet above the sea, are, Babine excepted, all tributaries of the Fraser, through the valley of the Nechaco, and lie between the 124th and 128th meridians and the 53d and 56th degrees of latitude. Babine Lake, the largest lake in British Columbia, has been so called by the French half-breeds in allusion to the fact that the Indians living on it had the custom of wearing a wooden labret, or lip piece, in the lower lip. The lake is known as Kit-Koin by tlie Tshimsians, and by the Carriers as Na-to-bun-kut, or long lake. The group of large lakes to which it belongs may be regarded as occupying two parallel valleys which M II TIIK LAKE REGION OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. 447 conform to the general north-westerly and south-easterly hearings, which govern the main features of the whole country between the Rocky jMountains proper and the coast. The physical features, climate, and vegetation of this great elevated lake region are described at length in the lieports of the Geological Survey of Canada, 1876-77, and 1879-80, and to these and their accompanying maps we must refer the reader for further details. The only other lakes of importance, some of which have already been mentioned, are Clearwater Lake, on a branch of the North Thompson ; the Quesnelle Lakes south of the Cariboo goldtields ; I akes La Hache, Green, and Horse, near the waggon road ; and still farther southward, on the east side of tlie Fraser Valley, the Shuswap, Kam- loups, and Xicola Lakes, the latter discharging its waters by the Nicola liiver into the North Thompson atSpence's Bridge. The interior mainland of British Columbia may be divided into three sections, each diifering from the other in its attributes. The first extends from the mouth of Fraser River to the foot of the rapids above Yale ; the second from that point to Alexandria ; the third thence to the Rocky Mountains. The characteristic of the lower district is a surface tliickly wooded in most parts with trees of enormous growth, chietly varieties of the fir and pine, and intermixed with the red cedar. Low alluvial points fringe these thickets. These, as well as the numer- ous islets along the river, are covered witli a luxuriant ;4i'ovNth of aspen, balsam, poplar, and alder. In the lower part are some extensive meadows, yielding, in their natural state, lieavy crops of a coarse but nutritions grass, and under cultivation enormous returns of cereals and other produce. e trouble- period ;quitoes m- . some along the river ; but there has never been mani- 448 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. fested any symptom of fever and ague or other simi- lar endemic, so often generated in positions of a like description. On the verge of the second or central division a marked change commences. Tlie copious rains whicli fall in the lower district are greatly modified after tlie mountain ridge, through which the river bursts near Yale, is passed. Evidences of a drier climate appear at every step. The character of the vegetation changes. About Lytton the Cactus begins to appear. In spots along the Thompson the Artemisia and other shrubs indicative of a dry and hot climate are found ; and in lieu of the thickly-wooded luxuriance of the lower region, a succession of open valleys, covered witli fine pasture, and bordered by grassy hills in parts more or less wooded, delights the eye of the traveller. Here and there belts of forest intervene, amid which broad expanses of open land lie scattered at intervals. This general description may be regarded as applying to a very large tract of country, extending from Alexandria on the Eraser, in latitude 52° 33', to the southern boundary on the Okanagan Itiver, and tlience at intervals eastward to the base of the Eocky Mountains. The third division of British Columbia, from Alex- andria to the mountains, varies materially from the otlier two. The agricultural region, properly so called, may be said to terminate in the vicinity of Alexandria ; though there are many small s])ots beyond that point which may be advantageously cultivated for culinary vegetables and the hardier cereals. Generally speaking, it is a wooded country, interspersed with large tracts of excellent soil and luxuriant pasture, especially in the direction of Eraser and Stuart Lakes, and on the Chilcotin high plains. The Skeena Eiver is the second largest river on the THE SKEENA KIVEB. 449 Canadian Pacific coast. Its mouth is in latitude 54° 10' north, and its sources interlock with those of the Fraser, the Peace, and the Liard. It has a j^oneral course fVom north-east to south-west of 300 miles, through a region of snow-clad peaks and glaciers. The tide ascends it for about 25 miles, and it can be navigated by stern wheel steamers for about 30 miles farther. Above this it is only navigable for small boats or canoes, with many interruptions by falls and rapids. The forks, or Hazclton, is situated on the left bank of the river, about 140 miles from the sea, and a little above the junction of the Wat-son-kua, a large tributary from the south-east. It stands on an extensive flat, elevated 10 or 15 feet above the river, and at the base of a terrace which rises very steeply to a height of 170 feet. Two or three traders live here, and there is an Indian village of about half a dozen barn-like build- ings, each inhabited by several families. The low ground about the forks, and the wide valleys of the Skeena, the Watsonkua, and the Kispyox, seem to be shut in on all sides by high mountain ranges. A triangular area of some 350 square miles, circumscribed by the valleys of the Skeena, the Watsonkua, and Kitseguecla, is occupied by the Rochers Deboule's Eange. The north-east angle of this compact mountain mass is a magnificent rocky summit, with an altitude of 5955 feet above Hazelton, or 6680 feet above the sea. Among some of the peaks near it is a small glacier, and great masses of snow still lay in June on the upper part of the range. Looking down the valley of the Skeena the axial mountains of the Coast Eange occupy the horizon, the highest point attain- ing a height of 8000 to 9000 feet. The Skeena district cannot be regarded as of much value agriculturally. On the lower part of the river — with the possible exception of a few islands — there is absolutely no good land. At 2 G 'III 450 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. about 20 miles below the forks, however, the hi;,Oier terraces at the sides of the river extend in some phiccs several miles back from it, and show soil of a fair ([uality. It is stated that the valley continues to present the same appearance farther up, and it is certainly wide and low for some distance above the forks. A consideralile breadth of land suited for agriculture is also found in the valley of the Kispyox to the north-westward. There may also be some good land in the wide valley of the Lakelse and Kitsunigallum,but unless in the event of some local demand arising, through the opening of mines, it will be long before these lands are utilised. The Skeena has been somewhat extensively used as a channel of communication between the Omineca gold mines and the coast, Ijut it is by no means well adapted for this pur- pose. The large canoes that the Indians of the coast hollow from the cedar are generally emi)loyed on the Skeena. Large boats carrying about 15 tons have been worked up to the forks, but the native canoes are better adapted for the navigation. Freight brought up to Hazel- ton costs four dollars a hundred pounds. The Skeena Iiiver above the forks being exceedingly rapid, and the Babine River in the canons quite impassable for canoes, the route for Babine Lake and the Omineca goldfiekls leaves the Skeena at the forks, and strikes nearly due east up the valley of the Suskwa Eiver to Babine Lake, distant by the trail about 50 miles — in a direct line about 41. All goods are carried by Indians over this trail at a cost of $4'00 per 100 lbs. The Indians on the Skeena and the Nasse live in permanent villages. The total Indian population of the region is roughly estimated at 2075. From about 50 miles below the forks the country is occupied by rocks of Mesozoio age, in many places affording evidence of the probable exist- ence of workable coal seams. These Mesozoic rocks are TIIK YUKON KIVKIl. 451 associated with porpliyritcs and other fclspathic rocks, whicli may he the reHuIt of conteinporaneous eruptions of volcanic materials. t'i The YuTxon, the larrjest American river flowinj^ to the Pacific, discharf^fes thn)iitioimlly favoured, viz. tlio l)iiy ot" Fiiiuly Khoro. Th(i winds si'cm to sweep into this hiiy, as into a fiuuiel, i'roni tlie niiM waters of the (lidf Stream, and make of a couple of counties of Nova Scotia a fianUui where the plum, the pear, the best of iijiples, and many other such products, come to perfection, ill! the more astonishing' from the contrast which the At- lantic and tlie Ciulf coasts of the same province oiler. 2. Climate of North-Wcst Territories and British Columhia. rroeeedinjj; west of the f^reat lakes the isothermal lino runs north-west ; and west of the llocky i\lountains, on the Pacific face of the continent, the clinuite of Canada is not unlike that of Great Britain. Vancouver Island jivesents many analogies. And, in fact, the western face of the continent, to a point below the latitude of San Francisco, bears many resemblances to the climate of AVest^rn Europe. This is due to the fact that the tropi- cal currents of the Pacific Ocean, and also the tropical winds, strike the western coast of America and ])ro- duce modifying climatic influences which give warmth and moisture just in the same way that the polar current on the opposite coast produces refrigeration. The Pacific currents and prevailing westerly winds carry this warmth and moisture through the comparatively low passes of the llocky ^Mountains into Piritish territory, and redeem a large portion of th ontinent from the conditions of desert area so common in North America below the 50 th degree of latitude until the tropical rains from the Gulf of Mexico are met. In other words, we have in Canada climates and pro- ductions similar to those of the Xorth-West and Central Europe — that is, of Eussia, Norway, the British Islands, l^enmark, Germany, France, Holland, Belgium, Switzer- i III A ■.%. <>'*\^% > IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1 1.0 I.I 1.25 »^-IIIIM 112.5 r- IIIIIM ijim U ill 1.6 V] <^ /^ ^;j ■c^l ■# 'li" le tlie IJus-^iau to build his capital almost on the GOth ])arallel are ])reeisely the same as those which send the warm air of the gulfs to ameliorate the climate of our own North-"West, and cause wheat and other cereals to be produced, in the highest perfection, as far north as this same parallel. Jti THE CLIMATE OF THE NORTH-WEST. 467 "After temperature, the most important factor is humidity, and here again we liave a remarkable example of a well-known natural law. As stated above, the -' inds are constantly drifting northward, and in winter, owing to their passage across the ' American Desert,' which is now very cold, they lose most of their moisture, and pass over our prairie as dry winds. In summer the very reverse of this takes place — the dry, hot plains prevent deposition, and hence the winds come loaded with moisture, and give the summer rains which cause such astonishing growth in June and July. In most cases, tliis dryness of the atmosphere is injurious to growing crops, but, owing to the situation of the plains, in our case it is a positive good, the rains coming just when wanted, and ceasing when of no further use to the growing crop. The following data, taken from the JMeteorological Report of 1876, illustrate this. Winter. Spring. Bummer. Autumn. Quarterly rainfall atWinnipcg . .00- 5 69 10-52 0-04 Toronto Snowfall, in inches, at Winnipeg ,, Toronto 5'51 6-63 574 318 Ist half 2nd half of year. of ye-ar. 28'6 297 677 457 It will be seen by the above table that the rainfall at "Winnipeg in summer and spring is nearly equal to that of Toronto for winter, spring, and summer; and where Toronto has over three inches in autumn, Winnipeg has scarcely any. The absence of autumn rains in the west is a priceless boon, as it enables the farmer to thresh and harvest his grain without injury, and, besides, gives him excellent roads when he needs them most. " The progress of the seasons cand the labours of the Inisbandman, throughout the North-West, mav be summed up as follows : — Early in April the hot sun dissipates the slight covering of snow, and almost immediately plough- 468 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAPHY AND TRAVEL. ing commences, as, after the frost is out six inches, spring work may begin. Seeding and ploughing go on together, as the ground is quite dry, and in a few days the seed germinates, owing to the hot sunshine. By the time the rains and heat of June have come, abundance of roots have formed, and the crop rushes to quick maturity. " After the middle of August the rains almost cease, and for ten weeks scarcely a shower of rain falls, givini; the farmer ample time for harvesting. These geneial characteristics apply to the climate of the whole North - West, and the same results are everywhere observed over tracts embracing 300,000 square miles of temtory. One important result of this peculiar climate is the hardness and increased weight of the grain. Another, equally important, is the production of natural hay, on which horses and cattle thrive much better than when fed ou made hay. All stock-raisers know that it is not cold that injures cattle or horses, but those storms of sleet or soft snow which are so common in Ontario and the Eastern Provinces. Such storms as those are never seen in the North- West, and the cattle are never wet from November to April. " Many intelligent persons are afraid of the winters of the North-West, because they estimate the effect of the cold by the thermometer instead of by the humidity of the atmosphere. J. A. Wheelock, Commissioner of Statistics for Minnesota, wrote as follows concerning the atmosphere of that State, over twenty years ago : — ' Tlie dryness of the air in Minnesota permits a lower range of temperature without frosts than in moist climates. The thermometer has frequently been noticed at twenty de- grees without material injury to vegetation. In the dani]! summer evenings of Illinois and Ohio, for example, the heat passes off rapidly from the surface of the earth ami from plants. Frosts develop under such circumstances THE CLIMATE OF THE NORTH-WEST. 469 ipring ;ether, ( seed lie tlie ' roots f- ) cease, general Nortli- 'ed over f. One hardness equally n wliicli 1 fed ou not cold [ sleet ov and the ever seen Iwet from Le winters effect of humidity 5sioner of Irning the ir range of Ites. The [wenty de- the damp iniple, the earth aiul lumstauees at a comparatively high temperature. The constant bath of moisture lias softened the delicate covering and en- feebled the vitality of plants ; and thus a fall of the tliermometer, which in Minnesota would he as harmless as a summer dew, in Ohio would sweep the fields like a tire.' " Wiiat "Wheelock says of Minnesota is equally true of the North-West Territories, and more so, as they are certainly drier than it. Dry air is a non-conductor of heat, and as the dryness increases with the lowering temperature, the increasing cold is not felt by either animals or plants, and we find a solution to the paradox, that, although water may freeze, vegetation is not injured except when a humid atmosphere is in immediate contact with it. The increase of dryness in the air has the same effect as an increase of warm clothing for man and beast, and we suffered less from a temperature of 10 degrees below zero, lying in tents, without fire, than we would have done in Ontario with 1 degrees of frost. Without tlie aid of a thermometer no one would believe the cold was so intense. " There is then in this region a dry clear cold winter, a dry spring with bright sunshine, a warm summer with abundance of rain, but not necessarily a cloudy sky, and a dry serene autumn, with possibly a snowstorm about the Equinox. " A country of almost boundless extent, with a climate like this and a soil of astounding fertility, may well be described in the words of Lord Beaconsfield as a land of 'ilHmitable possibilities.'" The climate of the valley of the Mackenzie Eiver is much milder than that of the section east of Lake Win- nipeg in the same latitude, from which it differs in many lespects that render it more valuable. Instead of being a rocky and for the most part infertile gneiss and granite If t I I'; 470 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TPvAVEL. :'' ii II: formation, it is an alluvial plain, underlaid by palaeozoic strata, chiefly limestone, and is more or less wooded throughout, almost to the shore of the Arctic Ocean. In the southern half of it barley and garden vegetables can be raised, and it abounds in workable beds of lignite coal. Its rich alluvial soil and superiority in climate, due in part perhaps to the prevalence of limestone, is such as to admit of the growth of trees as far north as the mouth of the river. Though in this region generally stunted and of the hardiest kind (wliite spruce), they sometimes attain a useful size in sheltered positions. Even at the north-eastern extremity of this section, in a sheltered grove at the mouth of the Coppermine River, one is noticed as being 37 inches in girth, 20 feet without taper, and 50 feet in height; but such trees are there exceedingly rare. The character of the surface already described would have made it a good agricultural country had its climate permitted. Such as it is, though its southern boundary is the limit of profit- able wheat cultivation, Colonel Lefrov and Sir John Richardson say that at 50 miles farther north, with a mean temperature in summer of 59^° Fahrenheit, barley grows well ; and the latter says that at Fort Norman, 340 miles north of latitude 60°, potatoes are raised, and in good seasons barley ripens well, and that latitude 65° may be considered in this region the northern limit of the growth of barley. He adds that at Fort Good Hope, 150 miles north of Fort Norman — that is, close to the arctic circle — turnips attain the weight of two or three pounds in favourable seasons, but barley has failed there when tried. If therefore a line be drawn between 60° and 65° north latitude, there is to the south of it, in this valley, an area of 120,000 square miles, which, with the necessary allowance for waste land and portioiis un- favourable through elevation or aspect, admits of the THE CLIMATE OF BRITISH COLUMDIA. 471 Eozoic ruoded I. In 3S can lignite limate, icstone, as far u this (white ;ieltered of this of the nches in fht ; hut racter of b a good growth of harley «as well as vegetables, and that would admit of the growth of rye on its northern limit. The following notes hy Dr. G. M. Dawson, which we give in an abridged form, respecting the climate and vegetation of British Columbia and the Peace Iliver country, are taken from the IJeport of the Geological Survey for 1879-80: — " The climate of the coast of the northern p.irt of British Columbia, while not subject to gi'eat extremes of temperature, is excessively humid, with much rain at all seasons of the year and occasional heavy falls of snow in winter. Neither Esquimalt nor New Westminster, which are the only regular meteorological stations maintained near the coast of the Province, give any criterion by which to arrive at a knowledge of tlie climatic conditions of other districts ; for both these places — but especially Esquimalt — are sheltered from the excessive precipitation wliich occurs where the moisture -bearing winds first strike the high coast-line. Observations maintained by myself while engaged in a geological examination of the Queen Charlotte Islands, during the summer of 1878 (published as an Appendix to the Iieport of Progress of the Geological Survey, 1878-9), fairly represent the dimate of that region during a few months. Observa- tions kept up during many years at Sitka, two and a half degrees north of Fort Simpson, and considerably farther west, doubtless represent a climate considerably worse than that of the northern part of the coast of British Columbia. It may, however, be useful to extract from these the following facts. The latitude of Sitka is 57° 3', or about one degree north of Glasgow (Scotland). Temperature observations extend over a period of 45 years with little interruption. * The mean temperature of spring is 41*2°; for summer, 54-6°; for autumn, 44*9°; for winter, 32-5°; and for the entire year, 433°, F. 1 I f* H I ! 472 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAl'IIY AND TRAVEL. The extremes of temperature for 45 years are 8 7 "8° and — 4"0°. However, the mercury has fallen below zero of Fahrenheit in only four years out of the 45, and has risen above 80° during' but seven years of that l)eriod. The coldest month is January, the warmest August ; Juno is slightly warmer than September.' The mean of the minima for seven years of the above period is 38'6°, and of the maxima for seven years, 4 8 '9°, show- ing a remarkably equable climate. Tlie average annual amount of rain, melted snow, and hail, from 1847 to 1864 (with the exception of the year 1855), was 82*60 inches, or within a fraction of 7 feet ; and the avera«ro annual number of days on which rain, snow, or hail fell, or heavy fogs prevailed, was 245, or two days out of three, while it does not follow that the other days have a clear sky. Tables by Liitke, from observations in 1828 and 1829, show that on an average each year there were 170 days calm, 132 days moderate winds, and 63 days with strong winds. " The excessive rainfoll, considered in conjunction with the fact that the sky throughout the year is essentially clo\idy, preventing rajjid evaporation and keeping the dew- point near the actual temperature of the air, accounts for the peculiar character of the vegetation, and the fact that ordinary cereals cannot be grown in the districts exposed to these conditions. At Fort Simpson, on the west coast of the Queen Charlotte Islands, and elsewhere, many of the hills are but partially covered with forest, the re- mainder of the surface being occupied by sphagnous moss several feet in depth, and saturated with water even on steep slopes. The low north-eastern part of the Queen Charlotte Islands is in great measure sheltered from the rain-bearing winds, and constitutes, in fact, the only extensive area of land which appears to be suitable for agriculture on the northern part of the coast. Mr. r^i THE CLIMATE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. 473 87-8° below e 45, t' that ivmest The period , show- annual U7 to 82-66 avevaj^o ail fell, out of J have a 11 1828 ere were 63 clays Aon with sentially the ilew- Uints for |faet that exposed |est coast many of I, the re- ^diagnous di water ■t of the d\eltered fact, the suitable Lst. Mr- Puncan, of Metla-Katla, who kept a metcorolofTJcal rejiister for some time after his first arrival in the country, estimated that tliere were on an avora^'o about seven tine days in a month in that place. The behaviour of tlie winds and barometer in both Vancouver and the Queen Charlotte Islands appear to indicate that the centres (d' most storms, travelling from west to east, pass to the northward of the coast of British Columbia, This being so, it is probable that the force of the gales is somewdiat jfreater on the northern part of the coast of the province than on the southern. " The cause of the exceptional mildness of the climate of this region is to be found not alone in the fui^t of the proximity of the sea, but in the al)normal warmth of tlie water, due to the Kuro-Siwo or Japanese Current. "Many of the islands lying oil' the northern coast of lUitish Columbia, and forming the great archipelago wdnch frhiges it, are low; but, though covered with luxuriant forest, possess very little soil, and are in many cases composed of almost solid rock. About Metla-Katla and Fort Simpson snuill patches of ground are cultivated by the Indiarjs as potato gardens, and good crops secured ; V>ut the total area of arable land existing on this part of the coast, with the exception of the portion of the Queen Charlotte Islands before referred to, is so inconsiderable as to be scarcely worth mention. " The coast about Fort Simpson and the mouth of the Skeena is very imperfectly sheltered from the rain-bear- iiifj winds by the Queen Charlotte Islands ; while the islands of the coast archipelago, being for the most part of moderate elevation in this region, abstract little moist- ure. Where these winds first impinge on tlie moun- tainous mainland the heaviest precipitation occurs, in exact correspondence with the height to which the moist air is forced up into the higher regions of the atmosphere. T' I i I 'f 474 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. and cooled there by its expansion and loss of heat by radiation. As the mountains attain a consideraljlc; elevation at the coast, and the increase in elevation of the peaks towards the axis of the range is comparatively gradual, the heavy rainfall of the coast is not found to be maintained in travelling eastward by the Skeena Itiver. At 45 or 50 miles above Port Essington, evidence of decreasing moisture is found, and is still more clearly apparent when Kitsalas Canon, about half-way from Tort Essington to the forks of Skeena, is reached. The devil's club and skunk cabbage {Echinopanax horrida and Lysichiton Kamtschat sense), luxuriant in the lower reaches of the river and indicative of a humid climate, no longer abound. "At Quatsalix Canon, 95 miles from the coast, the highest summit of the coast range having been passed, the vegetation characteristic of the northern interior of British Columbia may be said to set in ; the western scrub pine and aspen (Firms contorta and Popuhis tremuloidcs) growing abundantly on the flats and slopes. The change is so gradual, however, and the blending of the coast and interior floras on the Skeena so complete, that it is difficult to assign the precise position of the line. " With regard to the snowfall on the Skeena, ]\Ir. H. J. Cambie, during his survey here in 1877, gathered that from Port Essington to near the mouth of the Lakelse (56 miles), it was exceedingly heavy, reaching a depth of 1 feet or more. From this place to Kitsalas Canon it reaches, at least occasionally, a depth of 6 feet ; while about Kitwungah (16 miles below the forks) it aver- ages 3 feet. So far as information can be obtained from the Indians, it appears to confirm these estimates. " The Skeena usually opens during the last week in April or first week of May. Ice begins to run in the w THE CLIMATE OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. ( O lat by evable ion of itively found Skeeua adence clearly y tVoin [. The ida and reaches D longer e coast, ng been northern , in ; the Popuhs slopes, ndiug of omplete, of the I Mr. H. Ired that Lakelse [depth of ^Janon it while jit aver- led from [week in in the river early in November, but the river does not generally freeze till the end of December. The river being very rapid, the occa.sion of its freezing is usually tlie occurrence of a thaw. This sets free great quantities of anclior ice, sometimes very suddenly, blocking the river and ca\ising it to freeze over. In 18G7 the river closed on tlie l.'Uh of November, which was exceptionally early. The river is generally higliest in July, deriving most of its water from the melting snow on the mountains. It is lowest immediately after the ice goes. " Of the Watsoukua Iliver, whicli joins the Skeena from the soutb-eastward at the forks, Mr. C'nmbie reports that the valley tbrougbout its entire length is in part prairie and sustains a magnificent growth of grass, but is subject to frequent summer frosts antl unsuited to agri- culture. The Sus-kwa Valley, which joins the Watson- kua, and up which the trail from tlie forks towards Babine Lake runs, contains no agricultural land worth mention, but its northern side has been in many places very completely burnt over, and is covered with exceed- ingly luxuriant grass and pea-vine, forming an excellent summer range for cattle or liorses. " Babine and Stuart Lakes occupy portions of a single great valley, which is bounded by mountainous country on either side, and communicates northward with the flat country of the Lower Nechacco. The upper end of the lake rarely freezes completely across, but this is due, not to the mildness of the winter, but to the great depth of the water. A terrace at a height of about 200 feet is specially prominent round the lake, and after reaching this height the land frequently runs back several miles as a level or gently-undulating plain. In other places it slopes gradually up, reaching an eleva- tion of 500, 600, or 800 feet above the lake, at from two to five miles from it. The valley is not even then 'it 4VG COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArHY AND TRAVEL. \li 11 m. ;ii I h!J: hi iJii. I shut in by high mountains in its central part, but appears to continue at nearly the same or a lower level in some places for many miles. The woods are generally light, aspen and poplar frequently preponderating over spruce, and considerable tracts with a southern exposure, from which hre has removed the forest, are covered with luxuriant grass, pea-vine, epilobium, etc. The portage between Babine and Stuart Lakes is low, across wide- spreading benches, and from lialf to one-third of the surface appears fit for cultivation. Considerable areas of low land also border Stuart Lake. " The northern or lower extremity of Babine Lake being more closely hemmed in by snow-clad mountains, is evidently less favourably situated than the remainder (if this lake and Stuart Lake, and vegetation was found to be decidedly behind that of the Sus-kwa Valley. ]\lr. Sanpeve, who is in charge of two Hudson Bay posts, one at the north end, the other at the middle of Babine Lake, states that at the latter he can grow potatoes and many kinds of vegetables, and that his predecessor grew barley, which ripened well. " The portion of the Peace liiver country, for which the exploration of last season enables pretty accurate general information to be given, may be considered as extending eastward from tin middle forks of I'ine liiver. West of this point, as already stated, the areas of fertile land are small, being confined to certain river valleys which penetrate the foot hills of the llocky Mountains and high plateau attached to them. With this western limit, the region now to be described may be considered as bounded to the north bv the 57th i^araliel, to its intersection eastward with the Peace Ptiver. Thence the boundary may be assumed to follow the Peace Kiver southward to the mouth of Heart Brook, near the conflu- ence of the Smoky Pdver. Thence to run south-eastward THE PEACE RIVER COUNTRY. 477 to the extremity of Lesser Slave Lake, to follow the western border of the hilly region lying to the south of the lake to the Athabasca Eiver; thence to follow the Athabasca westward to the foot hills, and skirting the foot hills to run north-westward to the first -mentioned point on Pine Eiver.^ " The tract included within the limits above given has an area of about 31,550 square miles, and by far the larger part of this area may be classed as fertile. Its average elevation may be stated as little over 2000 feet, and this is maintained with considerable uniformity ; for though the general surface slopes slightly from the north and south toward Peace Piver, the region as a whole may be considered as a plateau through which the great gorge- like valley of the Peace has been excavated. This valley has in general a depth of 600 to 800 feet below that part of the plateau bordering it, with a width of two to three miles from rim to rim. Its tributary streams, at first nearly on the plateau level, flow in valleys of con- tinually increasing depth as they approach that of the Peace River. Those from the south-eastern portion of the region rise either in the Pocky Mountains, or near the Athabasca, the tributaries received by the latter stream from the north and north-west being — with the ^ " In addition to the area above defined, my explorations and those of my assistant, ilr. M'Connell, during the past season, inoUided an examina- tion of tlie uitper jiart of tlie Atiiabasca to Atlialtasca Landing, of the north slioro of Lessor Slave Lake and Li's.ser Slave Lake River, of a routi; from the east end of liOsser Slave Lake to old Fort Assiniltoine, and thenee to Edmonton, and of the road from Athabasca Landing to Edmonton. Also of the AthaliMsea from the Landing to the mouth of the Riviere la liiolie, by the valley of the latter to Lae la r)iohe, and tlienoe to Victoria and Egg Lake. The country examined on these lines is not included in ilie present report, as being less homogeneous in cbaractor than the great vogion above delinetl, it reijuires to be treated at greater length and in more detail. It may sufllce for the present to state that consiilurable areas of furtilo land are found throughout, but more particularly in the region south of the line of the Athabasca River." fir I. I 11 478 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. : I exception of the Batiste — quite inconsiderable in this part of its course. " The ridges and hills by which this region is occa- sionally diversified appear in all cases to be composed either of the generally soft rocks of the Cretaceous and Tertiary or of arenaceous clays containing erratics, and representing the boulder clays of the Glacial Period. These elevations are generally slight, and with exceed- ingly light and gradual slopes, the scarped banks of the streams constituting much more important irregularities. These ridges, however, often resemble detached portions of a higher plateau, and spread widely enough to occupy in the aggregate a considerable area, of which the soil is not so uniform in character as elsewhere. "With these exceptions, the soil of the district may be described as a fine silt, resembling the white silts of the Nechacco Basin previously referred to, and not dissimilar from the loess- like material constituting the subsoil of the Red Biver Valley in Manitoba. This silt, at a short distance below the surface, is grayish or brownish in colour, but becomes mixed superficially with a proportion of vegetable matter to a varying depth. It has evidently been deposited by a comparatively tranquil body of water not loaded with ice, probably toward the close of the Glacial Period, and has either never '^".en laid down on the ridges and un- dulations above referred to, or has been since removed from them by natural processes of waste. As evidenced by the natural vegetation, its fertility is great. " "West of the Smoky River, both to the south and north of Peace River, there are extensive areas of prairie country, either perfectly open and covered with a more or less luxuriant growth ot grass, or dotted with patches of coppice and trees. " The northern banks of the Peace River Valley are also very generally open and grassed, and parts of the i, :»■ |5! Ml THE PEACE RIVER COUNTRY. 479 .!l valley of the Smoky and other rivers have a similar char- acter. The total area of prairie land west of the Smoky Piiver may be about 3000 square miles. Tlie remainder of the surface is stency, and rich in the elements which are believed to nourish w THE WHEAT OF THE NOUTH-WEST. 487 vegetation. l)ro])ped into this soil, witli the otlier favour- ing circumstances, seed springs up and grows with an extraordinary vigour, and gives a sound and abundant crop. The average yield of wheat per acre in the lied Iviver Valley, north of Fargo, where the soil becomes heavier and more characteristic, is twenty-three bushels. In Manitoba and the Saskatchewan region the average is greater, and amounts to twenty-eight bushels. These facts become more striking when comj)ared with results in the district of the wheat supply at present. In Illinois the average for wheat to the acre is seventeen bushels ; in Iowa, ten ; in Wisconsin, less than ten ; in Kansas, ten ; while in Texas it is eight and one-half bushels. Nor does the land seem to deteriorate under a course of crop- ping, as does the lighter soil of States in tlie south. " In the parish of Kildonan, on the lied liiver, there are fields which have been sown to wheat every season for the last thirty-five years without the application of any fertilisers, and which in 1879 yielded an average of over thirty bushels to the acre. A soil which raises one grain in such perfection is, of course, suitable for other purposes. Stinmlated by the presence of buyers for the mills making the high-priced flour who offer innnediate payment for all their crop, the farmers have so far devoted all their energy to increasing their acreage of wheat. But the other cereals — oats, rye, and barley — sown to supply local needs show a like abundant yield, and when brought to outside markets these products of northern soil will be found entitled to the high estimation accorded to the present staple. " The larger yield to the acre, the better quality, and higher grade of crop, shown in this northern country, are matters lifted by the vast extent of the land above a question of individual profit to the persons now cultivat- ing the soil. If one-half the ground of that comparatively ! I ;i S I ir ^iji If 488 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. I'l, : small portion which is drained hy the lied liiver and its aflhients were sown to wheat, the product at an avera^'o yield would be 000,000,000 bushels, or more than the entire amount raised in the United States in 1880. " However uncertain may be ell'ects on the United States, we niay expect that the centre of activity in wheat, never very stable, will soon pass to the lied I'iver Valley — to ;,'o later, possibly, still farther northwiird. jMost valued by the farmers in Minnesota for seed is tl/e grain cominp; from the lied Eiver Valley, and espcciidly that from ]\Ianituba. Taken southward, if not renev; I frecpiently from the original source, it tends to degenen.io. and become soft. Harder and better still is the wheat coming from the region of the Upper Saskatchewan and the Peace River. This perfect grain has the create?! weight of all, and by cultivation even in the lied llivuv Valley shows a loss of its original quality." The Forest The value of the timber trade to Canada is well- known, and the forests of the Dominion are properly considered as one of the most important resources of the country. The absence of trees is undoubtedly caused by a deficiency of moisture, and the areas of summer droughts in the Old and New worlds are identical with the treeless areas. This climatic defect must operate permanently and with increased intensity upon plants. It will be seen on reference to the accompanying map that, with the exception of the extreme arctic coast, and the comparatively small section of the American desert which crosses the international boundary, Canada is covered with forest trees. The prairies of the North-West form the northern limits of the prairie lands, and being but park-like open- 'It^'T il THE FORESTS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 481) ings in tins vast forest region, have the rainfall and humid- ity which secure them rich crops of grasses and cereals. North of the parallel of 4I)°, east of the liocky ^fountains, there are about 120,000 square miles of jtrairie, an area equal to Great Jiritain and Ireland, lletween this and the North Saskatchewan the prairie land jn-edominates, but is interspersed with groves. North (tf the Saskatchewan the forests predominate, there being not more than one-third prairie. Along the eastern base of the liocky Mountains, and extending up into the recesses of the mountains, is a belt of conifers, the jirincipal tree being the Douglas pine (the tree is, however, an Abies), and the white and black spruce. East of these innimtains the water? beds are mostly covered with heavy forests of spruce, but the dry ground, where there are trees, with poidars {Populus tremnloides). In the damp forest lands near the mountains, balsam poplar is found ill some abundance, and tliis is the species which grows to such an enormous size on the Athaljasca, Peace, and Mackenzie Eivers, — all the islands in these rivers being covered with trees of this species, often 7 to 10 feet in diameter and 100 feet in height. In the eastern parts of the territory the Banksian pine is a small tree seldom attaining 12 inches in dia- meter; but on the southern shores of Hudson Bay it is found 2 feet in diameter and 100 feet in height. Another small pine {Finns contorta) ranges from the head of tiie Athabasca through the liocky Mountains, and forms thick forests of many miles in extent in Upper British Columl)ia west and north of the Fraser liiver. The forests of British Columbia west of the Cascade Mountains are very fine, and here the Douglas pine or Douglas spruce (Abies Doiu/lasii) and giant cedar attain their greatest dimensions. East of the Cascades the forest clings about the mountain tops, but the trees are n^^H!' i i ' :i|! 490 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. II much smaller. Pinus ponderosa is in some abundance on the Thompson Iiiver, and has much the appearance of red cedar. On the western slopes of tlie liocky Mountains are many species of fir and pine, which, in the near future, can supply the eastern plains with enormous quantities of first-class timber. The cone-bearing trees are found in a broad belt west of the liocky Mountains, sweeping around the shores of the North Paciiic and Arctic Seas, down the coast of Hudson ])ay and Labrador and across the St. Lawrence, keeping in the cooler and more humid climates of the Pacific, Arctic, and Atlantic Oceans. These forests are also mixed with white birch and poplar. In the interior of the continent, when the summer temperatures range from 60° to 80°, with somewhat uniform summer rains, are found the great mixed forests of North America, the most remarkable forests of de- ciduous and coniferous trees in the globe. These forests are made up of some sixty to seventy varieties of trees, birch being predominant, and forty to tifty of shrubs. The most valuable of tliese forests are in the Domiuiuii of Canada. In going northward from the United States boundary at the Lake of the Woods by way of Winnipeg Kiver and Lake, the Nelson Eiver and the tea-coast northward, Mr. Bell found the trees disappearing in the following order : — Grass wood, sugar maple, yellow birch, white oak, soft maple, gray elm, white and red pine, red oak, black ash, white cedar, serrated leaf poplar, mountain asli, balsam fir, white birch, Banksian pine, balm of Gilead, aspen, tamaiiick, white and black spruce. Black S])ruce is found some distance beyond Seal Iiiver, lat. 59°, long. 96". Here ]\Ir. Bell found black spruce 3 feet in diameter and 100 feet in height. Balsam poplar 6 to 10 feet in diameter is found on lied Iiiver, and very abundant THE SUGAR MAPLE AND THE VINE. 491 White spruce 3 foet in diameter is also found at Fnrt Simpson, lat. 62° 5'.^ Climates fatal to forest trees could not be favourahlt; to fruit trees, nor indeed to any agricultural products. Hence the absence of orchards and the frequent failures of crops throuf,diout the Western States from the deficiency of summer rains. The high summer temperatures and abundant sum- mer rains in Canada are unquestionably the conditions of climate necessary to produce these peculiar trees. We take the sugar maple (Acci' saccharinnm) as our starting-point for illustration. This forest tree is found over the greater part of the valley of the St. Lawrence up to latitude 49°, in the Red Eiver north of 49°, and the ash-leafed maple (N. J{a.nnifolium) on the Saskatchewan, lat. 54. It requires a summer of from 65° to 67°, and copious rains. The summer tenq^eratures of Eugland and the north of France are too low for this tree (London or, Liverpool 57°, Paris 64°). The British Islands have the necessary rain but not the heat ; the western prairies have the heat but not the rain. This beautiful tree attains, in Canada, the height of 120 feet, and 12 in circumference. Besides the sugar maple, there are four other varieties, one especially {A. dasyca^min), nearly as large as the one described abo\e. Wherever th'i maple grows, the wild vine may be found running to the tops of ordinary forest trees, and in favourable localities sometimes attaining 6 inches in (liaineter. This may be taken as a rough estimate of the extent of country — twice the size of Great Britain m the valley of the St. Lawrence alone — in which the gxape may be cultivated, for our vine-growers are getting hardier varieties, based on the native vine. ' J. Beaufort Hurlbert, M.A., LL.D., Physkal Atlas, and Climates, Productions, ami Resources of Canada. v\ « ii '!i * i 492 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. 1 1, f ir, .1^?^' I;ii n ■:1 I . I , mil The Canadian forests are made up of some sixty trees, with numerous shrubs. "VVe name only a few. The black walnut {Juglans nigra), in the western and south-western parts of Canada, lias an average heiglit of 120 feet, and 70 to the first limb. Trunks 6 feet in diameter and 18 in circumference were not uncommou in the pristine forests. The chestinit {Castanca vcsca) attains a height of 100 feet, and 3 in diameter; the butternut (Juglans cinerca) is also one of the largest forest trees, widely diffused over Canada, with 60 to 70 feet of trunk free from limbs. The gigantic oaks and elms are too well known to require description, and are found 18 and even 22 feet in circumference. The climate that produces the plane-tree or button - wood {Platanus occidentalis), 60 inches in diameter and 60 feet to the first Hmb ; the white- wood (Lirwdcndron tidipifera), a variety of the gorgeous magnolia, equal in height and size to the last-named ; the pepperidge, or sour gum tree {Nyssa midti flora), 100 feet high; the tlowerinii dog- wood {Cornus florida), 30 feet high and 8 inches in diameter; the red cedar {Junipcnis virginiana), 24 inches in diameter; the sassafras (S. officinale), 60 feet higli, — the climate that produces such forests, with a hundred varieties of trees and shrubs, needs no further defence with the botanist, nor even with those but partially acquainted with the productions of the earth and the localities where they grow. The writer, in 1862, made a very full collection of the woods and plants of Canada for the International Exhibition in London, with a view to correct the erroneous opinions so widely entertained as to our climate. Several eminent botanists, amongst others Sir \\ illiam Hooker, Director of the Kew Gardens, and ]\Ir. Lindley, made special reference to the collection, as illustrating this very subject. Samples of some sixty varieties of Canadian woods were presented to the Kew THE LUMBER TRADE. 493 Gardens, the British Museum, the Admiralty, to Lloyd's in London, the Industrial Museum of Edinburgh, and to the chiei' governments of Europe. These were highly prized as most irrefragable proofs of a high summer temperature, as well as for their connnercial value. The lumber trade, which for many years formed the largest item in Canadian exports, has felt most severely the general commercial depression of the past five or six years. The value of the total export of lumber for the fiscal year 1879 was only $13,201,459 against $19,511,575 in 1878, being a decrease of $6,250,116, or about 32 per cent ; and as compared with the largest yearly export, 1873, when values aggregated $28,586,816, the falling off is considerably more serious, the difference being 815,325,357, or about 54 per cent, the decrease being larger than the entire export for the latter year. It should be noted that the decrease in these exports from 1873 to 1878 was almost entirely in the shipments to the United States, they amounting in the earlier year to 812,498,417, and in the latter year only to $4,481,053. The figures for the san:ie years for Great Britain are nearly equal, being in 1873 $13,749,755, and in 1878 $13,271,372 ; but taking the figures for 1879 it will be seen that while the values of the exports to the United States show no material difference from 1878, those to Great Britain have declined from $13,271,372 in 1878 to $7,328,513 in 1879. It is satisfactory, however, to note that the supplementary returns of exports for the lust six months of 1879 exhibit a slight improvement in tlinse of lumber over the corresponding six months of 1878, the amounts respectively being $10,304,081 and $9,257,471. This indication that the trade is reviving is confirmed by reports from lumber dealers, that the close of 1879 and the opening of 1880 brought an im- proved demand, chieHy from the States, and that better I r i 'm\ wmn tik !l ;i; 1) i, il'i 1 pl'il 1 1 II I 1 1 1 i i j| II i 1 ' -1 1 1 i 494 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. prices were being obtained, which have often ruled ruin- ously low (luring late years. In wliich connection it may be remarked that the heavy decline in the value of lum- ber exports, while mainly attributable to increased de- mand, has been aggravated by low prices. TJie Grasses. The region of the cultivated grasses (timothy and clover chiefly) is identical with that of the summer rains, roughly sketched in the temperate zone of this con- tinent by the presence of forests ; where these do not exist the cultivated turf cannot be produced, unless in the higher latitudes and in a humid atmosphere. Hence the vast areas of the Western States, even east of the Mississippi liiver, unfavourable for pastures, and of course for the dairy. West of that river, pastures of these grasses almost wholly fail. As a general rule the culti- vated grasses fail south of latitude 39° east of the Missis- sippi, and at a much higher latitude west of it. The great prairies have many peculiar species of grass of most tenacious hold until the turf is broken, but then almost incapable of reproduction, as they rarely produce seeds, and never spread from the root. The prairie grasses make good pastures in their wild state, and grow where the timothy, clover, and even bhie grasses will not ; but when the land is brought under cultivation, the wihl grasses cannot be reset in districts even partially deprived of summer rains. In no part of the United States west of the Missis- sippi is there rain in the summer. In the nortli and north-west of Xew ^Mexico the rain is mostly in the winter, in the southern part of Texas and New j\Iexico it is in the autumn, and west of Arkansas in spring. The flocks and herds, and dairy produce of the pas- II DAIRY-FARMING AND FRUIT -GROWING. 495 tures and meadows, have a value equal if not superior to the cereals. From the great and rapidly increasing demand for horses, beef, and mutton in the great centres of commerce and manufactures on both continents, and from the increasing facilities for transport, tlie pasture lands of Canada must assume in the near future an importance scarcely to be estimated. The chief grazing region, the chief meadows and pastures in North America, the home of the herds, ilocks, and the dairy, must be in the Dominion of Canada, enil)racing as it does the zones of summer rains, and lying in latitudes and positions similar to the western and central parts of Europe. Taking as our guide the temperatures and rainfall, tlie existence of native grasses, and the analogy of Europe, we are justified in the inference that the cul- tivable grasses in the Dominion would extend over an area of more than 2,000,000 square miles, or more than 1,200,000,000 acres. Deducting such percentage of imtillable lands as is usually found in countries — and Canada is made up chieHy of the vast plains of four great river valleys — there would still remain an almost boundless region the most favourable for pastures and meadows. Fruit-Growing. A very important branch of farming in certain parts of Canada is fruit-growing. It is very generally thought by persons not familiar with the country that, owing to the severity of the winter, fruits cannot be successfully cultivated except to u very limited extent, and at a great cost. There is no foundation in fact for such an im- pression. On the contrary, in the production of such kinds of fruit as belong to the temperate zone, Canada cannot well be surpassed. The character of the soil in m t ; I « -1 M 496 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAI'IIY AND TRAVEL. ■■:l ! 1 ' 'ii lii . 1 1 1 i !i i ' i N !..! ii '4 /a it many districts is suitable for the apple, plum, pear, etc., while in the hot summer sun the peach and grape reacli maturity and develop fruit haviu. Since 1870 several new iiiines hav(; been opened. On Texada Island, in close proximity to the coal- mines, is a large deposit of magnetic iron ore, hut no attempt has yet been made to work it. Small veins of copper ore have been noticed in several localities, while fragments of rich ore and uf native copper have been found on the Thompson and Fraser rivers. liich ores of silver and argentiferous galena have been found in several places, and in the Omineca gold-fields and on the Similkameen liiver grains and small nuggets of native silver occur with the gold drifts. More or less fine platinum has been found witii alluvial gold in several of the streams of British Columbia, particularly in the Similkameen River. Ontario. — The most important mineral products of this province are petroleum, salt, gypsum or " plaster," silver, copper, iron, and phosphate. At present there are about 350 wells capable of producing petroleum. At one time about 500 small steam-engines for boring and pumping were on the ground. The oil-wells in Ontario have all been borud by the ordinary percussion drill. A small proportion of the oil is distilled at Petrolia, but the greater part is refined in London, about fifty miles to the eastward. Here there are fifteen refineries of a total capacity of PETUOLKUM. .03 |al)le of small Ion the bored L-tiou of I part is Istward. Icity of 12,000 to in, 000 barrels per week, tlie jirincipiil one lic'iuj,' the Atlantic Petmlenni Works. TIio total value of tlie plant, etc., eniploytul in the ]n'0(luction of the oil is cstiniateil at about $750,000, and of that used in the refiiuni^ processes at about $;") 50,000. Wanes are iij^L'.aO per day lor drillers, $2.00 for mechanics, and $1.2') for I'ETUOLIA. labourers. The following? are the (juantities refined in grams m uuiuno lor I ne live y ears i roni 1 o / i Lo i i 5 1 .' ) : — e gold fl Year einling oOth June 1871 . 26n,.3n.') 1 ari' •l3 of 40 gals. 1 \vith fl )) )> 1872 . 308,100 )» M uuibia, m )) » 1873 . 3(55,052 )> )t 1 )i » 1874 . 1«8,807 » )I .^4-n AT ^1 » » 1875 (about) 210,000 »> )t Latterly, the greater part of the oil has lieen con- sumed within the Dominion, only a comparatively small proportion being exported. Salt. — From the Eeport of the Geological Survey 1874-75, we learn that in 1874 the capital invested in the salt interest in Ontario was $024,000, the value of plant and works being $571,838. The total production of fine salt in 1873 was 438,076 barrels, and of coarse salt 13,500 barrels, valued at $436,218; of which 226,570 barrels were sold in the Dominion and 225,000 barrels 'I ! ■i ( ,| 1 , 1 1 ! ill l^il^ 504 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. in the United States. There were also manufactured about 3040 tons of land salt, valued at $8360. Gi/psum.— From 18(59 to 1871 the quantity of gypsum miui^/.l in Ontario was ahout 5000 tons a year, valued at $-7_^*'^"per ton. In 1876 the Ontario gypsum mines were producing about 14,500 tons per annum. The gypsum or " plaster " deposits of Ontario belong to the Onondaga formation, which is extensively de- veloped in Northein New York, crosses the Niagara Eiver into Canada, and extends north-westward to Lake Huron, a distance of 150 miles, again appearing at the Straits of Mackinac between Lake Huron and Lake Michigan. It not only affords gypsum, but is also the source of valuable brine springs, and in- cludes magnesian limestones, which are often suitable for the manufacture of hydraulic cement. The principal gypsum mines worked are along the Grand lUver, between Cayuga and Pr.ris, a distance of 35 miles. Dolomite is found immediately above and below the gypsum, and is sometimes interstratified in thin beds with it That above is often arched, forming domes or mounds at the surface indicative of gypsum beneath. Silnr. — The production of silver ore from the Thunde. Uay and Silver Islet mines, Lake Superior, for the three years from 1869 to 1871, was 1,156,304 lbs., — value at 'he mine, $823,077. The Silver Islet Mine is stated to have yielded, from 1871 to 1876, a total of 82,500,000 worth of silver at a cost of $1,500,000. It has since then been continuously and actively worked with profitable results, and several other mines have been opened on the mainland and on the adjacent islands. Copper. — The West Canadian mines on Lake Huron are the only copper mines in Ontario that have been worked continuously from 1847 to the present time. f! ; i SILVER, COPPER, AND IRON ORE. 505 These mines are situated on the Bruce, Wellington, and Huron Copper Bay Locations, which adjoin one another, the Bruce being the most easterly, "Work was begun on the last named in 1846, and has since been gradually extended westward, across the Wellington and on to the Huron Copper Bay, the whole length of the workings comprising nearly four miles. The present company purchased the Wellington Location from the ]\Iontreal Mining Company (who had previously worked the Bruce Mines from the time of their discovery in 184G) in 1853, and the Bruce Location in 1864, and tliey hold a renewable lease, obtained in 1858, of the Huron Copper Bay Location. For a time some of the produce of the mine was sent to Baltimore, but the great bulk of it has gone to England, which is the present market. The total amount of the sales of the copper ore and copper up to 1875 has been about .$3,300,000, and tliis has afforded a good average profit. Iron Ore. — The iron ores of Ontario belong to the Laiirentian and Hurouian systems, and are associated Avith gneiss and crystalline limestone. They correspond .vitK the ores which occur in the same systems in Nortlieru New York and in the highlands of Southern New York ;uul New Jersey, where they have long been mined on an extensive scale. The Swedish iron, which is famous throughout the markets of the world, is made from similar ores, which occur there in rocks of the same auje. The ore is chieliy magnetic oxide, but often mixed with hematite, and contains from 50 to 64 per cent of luotallic iron. The beds or veins vary in thickness from 1 foot to 200 feet, and there is practically no limit to the quantity of these ores which couhl be mined. Of the actual production there are no recent statistics \ but ill the years from 1809 to 1871, 65,440 tons were raised, of the value of $163,600. Since then the I!! irr 506 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. liHi 4 ' w. quantity mined has gradually increased. The cost of mining is about $1.50 per ton. None of the ore is at present smelted in the country, the whole of it l)ein,i>' exported to Cleveland and other points in the United States. Phosphate of lime or apatite in both beds and veins is very common in the Laurentian rocks of Canada, and has been mined on a small scale for some years. It is generally found in pyroxenic or garnetiferous gneiss, or in crystalline limestone ; and deposits several feet in tliick- ness, and almost entirely free from foreign minerals, are of frequent occurrence. The best known deposits in Ontario are in the townships of North and South Ihirgess and North Elmsley ; but important localities have also been discovered in Ottawa County, Quebec. The production of this mineral in Canada is now assuming very lai'ge proportions. It was first mined in Ontario in 1863, and up to 1876 about 12,000 or 15,000 tons had been mined. The price has varied from $16 to $22 per ton for mineral containing 74 to 85 per cent of phosphate of lime. Very beautiful and perfect hexagonal crystals of apatite are frequently found in tlie workings, sometimes exceeding 2 feet in length with faces 6 inches broad. As much as 8100 has been paid for one of these large crystals, while the smaller ones connnand correspondingly high prices, both in the United States and in Europe. Quebec. — Ores of copper and iron, gold, roofing slate, phosphate of lime, and asbestos, are the leading mining products in this province. Since 1 8 7 1 a number of valuable mines of phosplmte and asbestos have been discovered and worked with satisfactory results, while the production of most of the other minerals has considerably increased. Mw Brunswick — Iron ore, coal, manganese, gypsum, 1". ALBERTITE, PLUMBAGO, AND ANTIMONY. 507 (1 1'rom 85 per perfect in the \\ faces for one fcnimaml States [\>_^ slate, mining lospliate "d witli oi the rypsuni, and building stone are found in this province, and also the mineral albertite, which differs from true coal in being of one quality throughout, in containing no traces of vegetable tissues, and in its mode of occurrence, as a vein, and not as a bed. The vein occupies an irregular and nearly vertical fissure, and varies from 1 inch to 1 7 feet in thickness. It has been mined to a depth of 11G2 feet. Since the first discovery of the Albert IMiues the amount of the mineral exported, chiefly to the United States, during the twelve years from 18G3 to 1874 has been 154,800 tons. It has been used partly for the nmnafacture of oil, and partly for admixture with ordinary bituminous coals in the preparation of illuminating gas. For either of these purposes it is admirably adapted, yielding 100 gallons of crude oil, or 14,500 cubic feet of gas of superior iUurainating power per ton.- When employed with coal it leaves as a residuum a valuable coke. The vein is now exhausted, and the works suspended, but it seems probable that other similar veins may be discovered in the vicinity if properly sought for. Besides the minerals above named, plumbago and antimony ore have both been mined in New Brunswick at intervals, and with varying success. The veins holding stibnite, or gray sulphide of anti- mony, at Prince William, seem to have been known for a number of years without attracting much attention until about the year 1862, when fresh discoveries having been made indicating a considerable body of ore, several companies were formed with a view to its development. Through their explorations the mineral was found to be iiiore or less abundantly spread over an area of several ^fiuare miles, occurring chiefly in veins of white quartz or ^f c^uartz and calc-spar, intersecting hard clay slates and i II h • 4 :i! 1 il li L [ n 1; 1 1 1 1 i! ! 1 II 508 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. sandstones of undetermined age. These veins vary in thickness from a few inches to 6 feet, the ore being irregularly distributed through the quartz in strings or veinlets, sometimes attaining a thickness of from 12 to 1 5 inches. A large portion of that hitherto raised has been obtained within a short distance of tlie surface by means of trenches dug on the course of the lodes, but several shafts have also been sunk to a depth of over 100 feet. The value of the metal on the ground is 12 to 1-4 cents per pound. It is partly exported in cakes or ingots to the United States, and partly employed on the ground in the manufacture of Babbit metal (containing 15 to 20 per cent of antimony with lead and tin, or in the better qualities with lead, copper, and tin), valued at from 20 to 50 cents per pound. JVbva Scotia. — In the variety and value of its mineral resources this province stands pre-eminent, and it is the only one in which carefully compiled mineral statistics are annually published by the Government. From the Eeport of the Mining Department for 1880 we learn that the total value of the mineral productions of that year, which included gold, manganese, coal, gypsum, and building stone, amounted to about 31 millions of dollars. Besides the foregoing, copper, petroleum, and salt are likely soon to be added to the minerals produced in this province. As regards petroleum, the Inspector of Mines states: "During 1879 and 1880 large tracts of land in Victoria and Inverness counties. Cape Breton Island, were care- fully examined, and the following indications of the presence of petroleum observed : — Globules of heavy dark petroleum were seen rising through the water of Lake Ainslie, and spreading over the surface, so that the rocks on the shores were in many places saturated with it, and \m iry in being strings om 12 raised surface les, but IQV 100 2 to 14 >r ingots ) ground .5 to 20 lie better from 20 PETROLEUM. 509 this saturation was observed for several miles. Swamps were frequently found to be covered with oil, and many springs were so impregnated with it as to be unfit for domestic use. Gas was also observed issuing from fissures in the rocks in many places. " Seven wells have been sunk in the Lake Ainslie district. That of the Cape Breton Oil and Mining Company has reached a depth of 1100 feet. Consider- able quantities of oil have been secured. At present the quantity of salt water in the strata has caused a delay, and necessitated fresh pumping appliances." It would be instructive could we compare the quantities produced during the three years from 1879 to 1881, but there are no statistics available, except for Nova Scotia. In this case we find from the figures above given that the yield for 1880 is very nearly double that of the average of the three years 1869 to 1870. Assuming a similar development to have occurred in the other provinces, the total annual value of minerals raised in the Dominion would now be considerably over eight million dollars, of which the provinces of British Columbia and Nova Scotia yield more than two-thirds. This arises from tlieir productive coal and gold mines. The former, however, are destined in the near future to be surpassed in productiveness by the vast coal-fields of the territories east of the Eocky Mountains, but in which as yet no mines have been established. k\ ^'? I H III ) \f. ( H 510 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. CHAPTEE IX. I'M CANALS AND RAILWAYS POSTAL SYSTEM, TELEGRAPHS, ETC. The canals of Canada are among its most important public works, and are evidence of the energy and deter- mination of the people to provide facilities not only for their own internal communication, but also such as will eventually control the carrying trade of the whole south- west of the American continent. Their cost is stated by Sir Alexander Gait at $37,500,000, and by P. Forten, who includes incidental works, at $60,000,000. These canals are too numerous to admit of a detailed description. As engineering works, they are the pride of Canada ; but they are remarkable for their capacity rather than for their length, and are invaluable as forming a communication with the great lakes. Vessels of con- siderable tonnage pass through these to the interior of the country. Ships of 4500 tons burden, for example, can enter the harbour of IMontreal through a canal unsur- passed in magnitude by any other canal works, excepting those on the Clyde ; and it is this system which renders navigation practicable from the strait of Belle Isle, by the river St. Lawrence, through Lakes Ontario, Erie, St. Clair, and Huron to Duluth at the head of Lake Superior, a distance of 2384 statute miles. The total length of canal and river improvement THE CANADIAN CANAL SYSTEM. 511 IW emhraces about 250 miles upon the St. Lawrence, Ottawa, Kideau, and liiclielieu rivers. The canal systems of the Dominion, under Govern- ment control, are as follows : — 1. The river St. Lawrence and Lakes. 2. The river Ottawa. 3. The liideau Navigation from Ottawa. 4. The Trent Navigation to Kingston. 5. The river Eichelieu to Lake Chaniplain. G. St. Peter Canal, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia. Among canals projected is one to connect the Bay of Fimdy with the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and another to connect the St. Lawrence with Lake Huron, as follows: — 1. The Ottawa and Georgian Bay Canal, from ]\Iontreal, vid the Ottawa and Lake Nipissing, to French liiver. 2. The Toronto and Georgian Bay Canal, by way of Lake Simcoe. ;j. Tiie Hur- Ontario Canal, from Hamilton to Lake Huron, near I'ort Franks. The competit(jr with the St. Lawrence system of canals for the western trade is the Erie Canal, between the foot of Lake F2rie and New York. The works for the enlargement of the canal, com- menced in 1871, comprise the construction of locks 200 feet long and 45 feet wide, with 9 feet of water on the sills; the main channel having a depth of 10 feet and a mean width at bottom of 40 feet, varying at the surface from 50 to 80 feet. Canada has faith in her canal system, and expects that when she has reduced the cost of inland cnrriage to a luiiiiunnn, European and American capital will avail itself of the shortest and cheapest route from the Atlantic to the interior of the North American continent. The distance h'oui Chicago to Liverpool vid Montreal is 300 miles '!i it « \ n ill :ii 512 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. I shorter than vid New York. The differeace in time in favour of the lake aiul river route a«j;ainst the Erie Canal is seven to eight days. The Erie Canal is closed l)y frost several days earlier tlian the St. Lawrence canals, and the cost of transport by the latter is considerably less. For transatlantic trade the canals of Canada oiler a communication with the great lakes, the inland portion of which is superior to that vid New York ; but the sea portion of the route is inferior in rates of freight and insurance. By this system of canals, vessels of 4500 tons can enter the harbour of Montreal, and propellers of 1500 tons can pass thence to the head of Lake Superior. The tolls on these canals are almost nominal, intended simply to defray the cost of maintenance, and the policy of the Government is, as far as possible, to make them free, and thus through the increased traflic to secure an indirect profit to the country. 1. Railways. Canada owes her first railway, as well as her first J steamboat, to IMontreal. In 1831, on the announcement of the success of the| Liverpool and Manchester Ilailway, a charter was gouu'lit^ from the Parliament of Canada, and was granted in the following year, for a short line of railway between Laj prairie, on the south bank of the St. Lawrence, nearly oppoj site to ]\lontreal, to St. John's, on the Eichelieu Vaxax, the outlet of Lake Champlain. "Work was conmnncej in 1835. In tlie following year the line was used wit] horse-power, and in 1837 with locomotives. It may here remarked that one of the engines first used on thj road was the handiwork of the celebrated Eobert Stopher son, and this engine is still in use on a branch of the lii] ttO' ^'^NE W Vprlf^'o'h A IlIKS I ^-.■"^,f'^*^'*' LiA/erpo^ *<*, .1^^ .^v y»^ 7^ .»»* o* .v.v^ o tp J.-v'^ .grf" ,00" ^b3 .^ l4»^ <^ «^ ^ ^ fl6 > 1 70 ^* St2n/brci'.9 Otv^J' J!6tai*, Zondorh h> Ul \ U.\H.WAV MAI' Ol' Tin: IKIM I > I ON OK CANADA AND OK Til IKI ViO 100 Scale of Sruflifth Milas liUiitluii: K5 CI kiN'AUA \N1> »)|- TIIK NOirrilKHN I'AUT \ni'«l Sliiulni'il, Oil CJiJU'iii^i Crciris. ^■•"- -" '-iMM iilfci t I i^ t V i I Q 4i If, i ! 1>i Li'W(.Ui'i" Li I - .■P T > i w ^i» i^ TIIK RAPID GHOWTFI OF ('A\AT)IAN r\-i,WAYS. ni;; between Quobec uikI Moiitruiil, on tliu noitli .sliuiu of the St. Liiwivnce. Tlie first riiihviiy in Ontario was built between (^Mieenston ami ('lii|»|»ewa, on tbo Nia;^'aiu liivut. It was ojiened as a horsu railway in IH.'Jl). Tilt' proj^'ress in railway construction lias been as follows : — 18.10 .... \Si>'> .... IHrto .... IKW .... 1.H70 .... isrr) .... 1878 .... 1881 .... Areordincj to the statement of the Minister of Jlail- wiiys, there are at jncsent — Iviiilwiiys in oporntion . . . 6931 milos l)i). uiultr loiistnirtion (with tm.k liii.l) . 3:58 ., Do. do. do. . . 1U77 ,, Total . . . 8396 „ 38 nilos lUlS '2173 '2231 '2'!7y 48iM) .1700 0981 < u and tills niilea,i,'e is beinLj increased with ^nvat ra])idity iidt only in the older jtrovinces, but also in the Ncjrth-West Territories. 'i'he total contributions paid and voted to railways in Canada is estimated at not loss than one hundred millions of dollars. An idea of tht! ra])idity of constnu'tion may be realised when it is stated that on the Canadian Pacitic, or <,'re;it transcontinental road, an aver- a''e of two miles of track is laid dailv at the end of each line; the materials of construction, accom])anied by the engineers and navvies, with the commissariat, advancing,' iu the construction carria,L,'es in reijular succession, and Itroceedinjj; on the road bed as it is laid. JJeference is made to the accomiumyinij ^lap as show- ing the extent and location of Canadian railways in 1882 2 L '^111 !l iSlMm 514 c'lnirKxniuM of geography and ti:avkl. « , I 1 ' :i ■f ; , 'i I . \ i'l i;i betwoi'ii tlio Atlantic Oroait ami ^Taiiitoba, and the con- noctiniis with the Uniti-d Statos lines. This map, however, I'liils to show all the y)r()joeto(l lint»s, iuid it is nece.ssarv to ex])l;un that the rapid develnp- nienl of the North-West has sf^inndated an etloit on the ]iart of the American coinpan.e'- to secnre the antici- ]y,\U'd ]>rotits hy visitors from the west alont^ the south shore of Lake Superior ; whilst (Canada is hiiildintj her lines aloiiif the north shore of the sanu' lake, and jtreparim^ to ta]» the American system at the Sault St. Marie, on Lake Sn]terinr, ami thence thronjj[h Ontario to connect with the Si. Lawrence navi^Mtion or the Atlantic lines, II is necessary to ^rasp this idea to realise the yro- sent stru'julc in railway eonstructi(»n hetwien the I'liitcil States ao'l ('aiiada foi- the tratlic of the North-West, as wcjl as for transcontinental transitoit. I'lach is strivini,' to its utmost to utilise its ueo^raphical jtositiou, ami id take aihanla'ic of hdili land and watei- I'outcs. The railway is a com]it'titor with the waterway, hut each has special ail\ aiilai^cs. As a rule the one is a suj)- plement to tlie (ither, and the iticreased facilities for the trans]iort of passengers and mails by the former, and of ju'ttduce and heavy nu'ndiandise by the hitler, iuduce an increase of business whieh benetits hoih. Canaila has ju>t com|ileied an e.\tensi\(' systi'Ui of iidand na\i;^ation by eanals. as adjniicts to her rivers and lakes, and she is imw busily enua^ed in makiii'j her rail- way sy-^teiu eipiall\- (lUiijilete. The siuall icturns of some of the I'ailways already constructeil miuht (H^cour- au'e any fnrtlier extension, excejit on the luain routes of ira\el ; liut tlie incidental advantaj^'es tt) aui'iculture ami eonunerce in the o|ieinn'.r and settlement of the country, and the ant icijuitions of future tratlic, fully justify the course adopted. As has been fullv established in the I'nited States, iJi Il t f THE CHEAT WESTERN AND (iHAND TUUNK UA[LWAY. 515 tilt' railway is the )»ioiu'er to the settler, and introduces civilisation to the wilderness. The followinjjj list of some of the first railways, in tlie order of their construction, is here ffiven. 1. The Gn'(d Western lid ill i'es rver Cana- dian soil, and has always much sought after the through tratlic from t'liiciigo to New Yoj'k. The (ireat Western connects at Detroit with the Michigan lines, and has magnificent ferry steamers there which carry a whole train at a time across tlie river. It connects with the Xew York Central at Clifton, by means (if a sus])ensi()u railway bridge across the Niagara — a structure which is as gix'iit a triunij»h of engineering art as the Yictoria Ihidge itsilf. It connects with the (irand Trunk, ]>rinci)ially by means of a liranch from Hamilton to Toriiuto, also by a branch from llarrisburg, through Gait, toCuelph. Another imjtortant branch runs fiom Komoka td Suiiiia, on Lake llurt)n, when' and at HamiltdU the (■oni]>any owns line grain st(»res and elevators. A short line has also bei'n o))ened to the oil regions at Ti'trolia. 2. TItr (i'ri(/ii/ Tninh Ji'fn'linn/ (commenciMl in 185G). — If the Creat Western was originally built to carry Western trallic to the Atlantic at New York, the (Irand Trunk Railway was built for th(> o]»i»osite, purpose of ctirrying it as iar as jiossible through Canaila.and deliver- ing it at the seaboard at ^baitreal, C^hiebec, Tortland, or if necessary, even IVjstim. The acconnnodation and de- vcldpnient of the local tratlic of Canada was also a lead- iiii; idea of the ]irojectors of this line. Tlu^ fusion of these lines into one great company has jiNt hccn etfccted, and great results are contidt'utly anti- eipateil; but it is much to be regretted that at the building of the (Irand Trunk the (Jreat Western was not amal- li| •,■ 1 I! i I r •Csi > I " Ws 51G COMrENDIUM OF GKO(iHAI'HY AND TRAVEL. i w n : 1 j^iunaU'd witli it as w;us at lirst iiitciidtMl, and luado ils western sect ion. 'I'lie niisundiTstandin^ wlii<'li then oc- curred lias liad p'ievous consec^uences; the railways whiih should have heeii friends have always been rivals, to tln' detriment of their sharehohU'rs, and thus ultiniattdy to tliut of the dominion as well. The (ii-and Trunk Ilailway owns a hnuu'h from Detroit to Tort Huron, opjxjsite Sarnia, so that it competes at Detroit with other lines for the trallic of the "West. It has tine ferry steamere at Sarnia, and an unbroken line from this place to (^)u(d)ec on the St. J^aw- rence, and to Tortland on the Atlantic. The line crosses the St. Lawrence at M. Thf Nora Scotia Jiai/tmi/ extends from Halifax to rictou, on the (iulf of St. Lawrence, 145 miles, with a branch line from JIalifax to "Windsor, on the Uay of !Mine3. G. The Xcw BrunsiLiick and Canad(( Ilailvny extends from St. Andrews on the sea-cojist to Richmond, 88 miles, with hranch lines to St. Ste])hen, AVoodstock, and Iloulton. 7. 2'lic European and XoriJt American liniJiray con- nects St. John on the Ikiy of Fundy with Shediac on the tlidf of St. Lawrence. 8. The Western Extension is a branch of this railway westward tiom St. dohn to the Maine boundary, 1>0 miles in len^fth. This line is now conijileted on the Vmerican side of the boundary to llanyor, ]\Iaine, .i^ivinj^ I throu,i;h line from the United States railways to thosi' (if llie maiitime ])rovinces, 9. The Xorthern lUdhctoj was built to enable the tratlic of the ujiper lakes to ])ass I'rom Lake Huron to Lake Ontario by railway finm ( oUin^jwood to 1'oronto, ami vice versii ; also to afford an outlet to the front for the country throui^h which the road runs. To secure the "Western trallic it heavily sulisidised steand)oats to uiul fmm Lake Michigan jiorts, and so invtdved itself in ptrnniiiry ditliculties ; but recently, under the able maii- ai^'iMuent of tlu^ late Mr. Cundierland, who si'dulously euUivated the local trallic, it has retrieved its position. ill \ ' hi .iji ^ ( 518 COMl'KNDIUM OF (JKiXJUAI'lIY AND TUAVKL. [I if I t * p> \ 1 I I '. 1 ! 10. 77/'' Citnnthi Souf/irrn liailwai/ extoiids from tlu> Niiis^iira IJiver at Fort Erie to Aniliorstbur;^', on tlu; De- troit River, and Mooni on tlio St. Clair llivcr. Tli", dis- tanco to Amlicr.stburg is 229 ndle.s, and tlic l)rancli line to Moort^ ()0 mile.s. It connects with tlio MicluL^iui railwavH on tlu> west, and the New York tm th*; east, and is shorti^r hy some 40 nuh's than any othtT route lioiu liullido to ( 'hica|j;o. 1 1. T/tr Qnehcr, Mmifnal, Oitmirt, tinil Oiridaitnl Rdiliray^ tVoni Quebo(3 to Montreal, by the north shore of the St. J.awri'iice, and theuce along the north shore m' the Ottawa River to Hull. To this necessarily inijKM'fect list of existing lines miulii be added a larger innni)er of ]»rojected railways, of gnat importiince to tlije country, some of which are now under constiaiction, but a want of S]>ace oblige-' us to contiiu' our descri}»tiou to the railways which constitute the niaiu trunk lines and through routes. 12. 'I'he Int(!i'coloidal road is a continuous line be- tween Quebec and Halifax, following the smith short; nt tiie St. Lawrence a short distance below Kiniouski, and thence crossing N(!W IJrunswick to the Nova Seoliaii peninsula iis rliown in the j)receding map. 1 )). Thr Ciinadian Pdcifw Jlaihi'dii now to be moii- tioneii will add immensely t(j tlu; railway mileage of the country. J'y this railway it is intemlcd to form a conntM'tinii with the iiresent svstem of railways, in the Ottawa N'alley, passing westward along the north shore of Luke Sujierior, reaching and crossing the Trovinct! of Manitolia, th(!n Hweejiing over the great Saskat'-hcwan plain, gain- ing the passes of the llocky Mountains, crossing Ih'itisii Columbia, and landing on the shores of the I'acilic Ocean at Burrard Inlet. This railway, with its branches, may bo consiilered r t THE CANADIAN rACIFIC ItAILWAY. 519 as tlie jJTcat colonisation road of Canada, as well as one uf the most important In'uhways across the continent. Altliout^li it was early foreseen that the extension of tlie Canadian jurisdiction over the vast territories occii- ])icd by the Hudson IJay Com])any would enforce the construction of a transcontinental railway, it was not until 1871, when Jiritish Cohunhia became a member of the Canadian Confederacy, that the great undertaking was determined n])on. A survey was then commenced by the Covernment, and has been continued to the ju-esent time. This has involved the ex]>loration of 4(),000 miles (of which 11,500 liave been measured), the ex}>enditure of seven years of time, $3,000,000 of money, and the loss of some thirty-four lives. The estimated cost of the entire work nuities from 100 to 120 millions of ilollars. iietween Lake Superior and the Kocky Mountains the line will Ibrm an outlet to a territorv estimated to contain 1 (iO millit)ns of acres of land available for farming ])ur{)oses, niie half of which is arable ; a great ])art of this 80,000,000 acres is not exceeded in fertility by any part of the world. In 1878 the CJovernment, having taken advantage uf the reviving commercial i»ros})erity of the times, and the confidence of the i)eo]tle in what is known as Canada's "national })oliev," made a contract with an enterprising and strong syndicate of European and Canadian caj»italists, to build this missing link in the railway line between tlk two oeeans on Ih'itish territory. 'This contract is under the l)ominion Act, ca]). 1, 44 Victoria, 1881. The route is indicateany to vary the direction between the t'.Ktreme jjoints, subject to the ai)]>roval of tlu' Governor ill council, considerable variation from the course indi- cated will probably be -made. I i 1 1 •, ' "i- ' 1 i. .8' 'm , ;1 ■ : ■ i , ' ;: ! 1* 1 ! \y il ill r.o 20 COMPEXIUl'M OF GEOCKAPHY AND TRAVKL. The lint' is cliisscd under four sections. The Eastern extends from tlie terminus of the Canada Central Kaihvav, near the I'ast end of Lidntreal. Here the St. Lawrence liiver has to ])e crossed. 'The St. Lawrence Liver constitutes a .serious harrier in the railway route hetween tin; east and west. It is overcome in the Nia^^ara liiver at Lulfalo, and a^^ain at Xia^'ara, by sus])ension bi'id^es. These lirid^^es afford a connection in the western part of Canada with the Ameri- ^ The prtsiilciit (»f tilt' com puny has ncciitly stalt'il that the whole road will be coiuitluteil in live ye.ir.s inhUail ul Un. TIIK HUDSON 15AV UAILWAY, 521 ^>| li i ](' ran systom of railways. In Eastern Canada tlie only t'oniu'ction is by the Vi.'toria Uridine, uikUt the control ot* tlie (Irand Trunk Kailway Company. In order to allord t'artlu'r railway facilities, a hridiic; is ])rojected across the St. LawriMice at Morrislairi,' in coniu'ction with tlie Ottawa, Wadinn'ton, and New York liailway, and a fuither con- iK'clion, by a nt!W bridj^e, across the St. Lawrence; at the I.acliine Kajiids just aliove ]\rontreal, which is to be nminienced ininu!(Uately by the "Atlantic and North- western liailway Company," a stronj^ oruMiiisation inti- mately allied to the Canadian I'acilie JJailway in its iiiana,i,H'ment and interests. 'J'his "North-Western liail- way" is now en;j;a^ed in viiforously completing its surveys and ]»reliminary arrangements to open a free connection lor the Canadian Tacitic liailway south of the St. Law- reiice, and unitt; with the Atlantic system of railways iiiih']iendently of the CJrand Trunk liailway and the Victoria bridge. 1-1. The next railway to be mentioned is that ]tro- ]i(ised to be built, and now under survey, between 11 ud- Miii ]'>ay and AVinnipeg, thereby opening a new route from Kurope to the interior of North America, and sh(»rtening the distance, as com))ared with tiie CJnebec imite, about loOO miles, or, rid New York, aljout 2000 miles. This scheme has taken even the Canadians by surjtrise. AVhy, it may be asked, has this route remained so Iniig unused and ignored i The answer is, For tlie same reasons which have until now kept the fertile lands of lilt' North-West unsettled and imperfectly known. The lludsou Hay Com])any have, until lately, liekl the whole I'f the North-West as a hunting ground for its Indians, iiiul the interest of that Company lay in discouraging settlement or intrusion on its domain. As a consequence, ii has been the universal belief that the territory was :1' ! ) It ,. I i I 1 t» m i I : fli ■J : I il 522 coMrKNidiM of cieograimiy and XnAVKI,, sterile and the climate arctic in i(s character: these are now pmvi'tl to he delusions. The naviu;ati(in of Hudson I'ay has hitlicrto hccn eonlincd to the re^undar traders i»f the Hudson Uay ('onii)any, and to the American whalers, lioiii i)t" M JKirn had a stroni,' interest in maunifyiuji; its dauLjers. Jts o])eninj^ to commerce could not have })re- ceded the settlement (if tlie country , hut there are excel- lent reasons for In-lii'vinj.^ it entirely ]»racticahlc no\.. In the s])rin,u of 18S(l llu; I'arlianient of Canada ^'ranted a very lilteral and com]»rehensivc chart t {4',\ Vict. cap. 57) to the Nelson Valley IJaihvay and Trans- ])ortation Con ''any, which was formed for tiie ])jr|)()sc of opening,' up the Hudson Uay route. This charter ^'ives the com})any ]iower to construct a railway from ( hurchill Harhour to the foot of Lake AVinnipei;, with a hrancli or continuation south-wostwanl to connect with the v'anadiuii I'acitic IJailway ; also ])owc,r to construct telcL;ra])h lines and connnanying ma)) will show that the route from hiverj)0(d, hy way of Hudson Uay, is hy lar the shortest one to the Xorth-AVesl Territories of Canada. Churchill IlarlMuir is situated near the centre of the North American contim-nt, and yet, owing to the convergence of the meridians towards the north, it is actually nearer to Liverpool than eitlier "Montreal or Xew York. The distance from Churchill Harhour to Liver- ]){)o\, vid Hu2t) miles; from Mon- treal, rid Ca])e llace, it is 2*J0O, and fror,i Nt'W York, rid Ca])e Clear, ;'.04O miles, .showing (>4 miles in hivour of Churchill as comjiared with Montreal, and 114 miles as comjiared with New York. The fact of a seaport existing in the very heart of tln' m i"! r^^ I ■ ■«■« «■■■ iiiii< I III I ■ •« ' .1 522 ntMi'KNiiUM OF (;KO(;RAniY and tijavkl. I sterile niid tlu; cliinato arctir in its cliaraotcr : tlieso aro iiKW provi'il to be delusions. The iiaviLjiition of lludsun I'iiy has hithertc) been eontineil to the regular tradeis of the Hudson I Jay Conipany, and to tlie American \v]iah'i-s, both of whom had a stroni,' interest in magnify Imlj its dangers. Jts ojH'nin^ to comnieri'e eould n(»t have ])re- ceded the settlement of the country, but there are .'xeel- Knt reasons for believinjj; it entirely ])raetieable no\>. In the spring of ISSO tlu; Parliament of Canada jjjrantetl a vny libi-ial and eom]»rehensive cliart t (4l? Viet. eap. 57) to the Nelson Valh'y Ifailway and Trans- portation C'on'"any, M'hieh was formed fenin^ \\\) tin Hudson I5ay route. This chart'^r ^'ives the comj)any jiower to construct a railway from ( hurcliill Harbour to the foot of Lake AV^innijJeL,', with a branch or continuation south-westward to connect with tlu; V'anaiHan I'acitic Kaihvay ; also ]>(»wer to construct tele,i;ra])h lines and common roads, to run steamers on the lakes and rivers and ships on the sea, to^u^ether with various othei' jirivilem'S. The whole length of the line will be uhuiit 850 miles. A glance at the accomjianying maj> will show that the route from biverjiooj, by way of Hudson IJay, is by iar the shortest one to t!ie North-West Territories of Canada. Churchill Harbour is situated near the centre of the North Amci'icau continent, and yet, owing to the convergence of tlu^ meridians towards the north, it is actually nearer to LiveriH)ol than either Moritreal or Xew York. The distance from Chunhill Harbour to biver- ]HKi\, vid Hudson Strait, is about 292tJ miles; from Abm- treal, rid Cajte llace, it is 21100, and frora New York, rid Ca])e Clear, ;504O miles, showing i'A ndles in favour of Churchill as comi)ared with Montreal, and 114 miles as com])ared M-ith New York. The fact of a seaport existing in the very heart of the I.dikIoii: KdwHi"*! Slnnlbitl .;")."> ( ■T - -I S*an/pr(i^ (ieogr\^hicl 1 ij! a I i ) 5i 1 530 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. 120,141 tons. Assuming tlie average value to be .$30 per ton, the value of the registered tonnage of Canada on the 31st December 1880 would be $39,336,540, or £7,809,308 sterling. From a statement compiled from the Repertoire GMnd for 1880 and 1881, it appears that the tonnage upon the registry" books of the British Empire, including Canada and the other colonies, was 8,259,748 tons register. The United States of America comes next with a tonnage of 2,438,912 tons, followed by Norway with a tonnage of 1,420,788. Canada stands next with a tonnage of 1,311,218 tons, followed by Germany with a tonnage of 1,157,178 tons. From this statement it appears that Canada is fourth on the list of the ship-owning countries of the world ; but these figures do not include the tonnage of inland sailing vessels or of steamers under 100 tons register, except in the case of Canada. The Canadian figures include registered vessels of every description and registered steamers of every tonnage. This report contains also much interesting informa- tion in relation to the value of the fisheries of Canada. The kinds of fish which abound most largely in Canadian waters can be ascertained by the following table for the year 1880, when the yield was one of the largest re- corded : — Cod $4,.534,009 Mackerel . 2/ -8,966 Salmon ti;55,427 Herrings . 1,511,012 Haddock . 406,075 Lobsters . , 2,143,312 Whitefish . 203,0i8 Trout 134,897 Notwithstanding the large dimensions which tliis in- dustry has already assumed, as shown by the foregoing figures, it may safely be predicted that when the prolific "0C3^ breedii fr I THE FISHERIES. 531 lan the re- L2 (5 10. IS in- going rolifio fishing ground of Hudson Bay and of the Arctic and Tacific coasts are entered upon, these figures will soon be doubled. At the mouth of the Mackenzie Kiver and along the 7 0th degree of north latitude, the Americans many years ago stated that they had taken in one season $8,000,000 to $10,000,000 worth offish. The codfish is obtained chiefly in Nova Scotia, and in the Gulf within the Province of Quebec ; mackerel and haddock are obtained most largely in Nova Scotia, herrings in New Brunswick, lobsters in New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia, salmon in British Columbia, and trout and whitefish in Ontario. The number of men employed in 1880 and the number and value of vessels and boats were as follows : — Vessels. Men. No. Dols. 57,421 1,181 1,814,688 Boats. No. Dols. 23,848 708,563 Averaging a family at five persons, it would appear that 287,105 persons, or one-fifteenth of the population, are directly sustained by fishing, and that the capital em- ployed in the industry, irrespective of tackle, amounts to 82,523,000. It is not probable, however, that all those engaged in fishing are heads of families, inasmuch as the aggregate value of the catch represents an earning of only $250 per annum for each engaged, — an amount too small to maintain a family, although sufficient to afford a comfortable living in cases where two or more of a family prosecute the industry. There are twelve fish hatcheries in the Dominion, the expense of maintaining which was, in 1879-80, 829,109.61. From these breed- ing establishments there were distributed, in the spring of 1880, 21,520,600 young fish, of which 14,300,000 were white fish, and 0,300,600 salmon, and last fall there were deposited in the hatching troughs of these breeding establishments 26,212,000 vivified eggs, of r^ i " I !:||| ii m 532 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. "f^ (■■ !'■■ 'i 'i ll'i-l which 18,000,000 were white-fish, and 8,084,000 sahnon and salmon trout. The wliole expense of the fishery department of Canada was $86,162.55 in 1880, and from this amount has to be deducted collections amount- ing to $19,423,16, leaving the net expenditure only $66,739.39, a remarkably small outlay considering the importance of the industry. Dairy products form an important item in the exports of the Dominion, the aggregate annual value of butter and cheese shipped averaging over 10 per cent of the whole value of domestic exports. The value of these articles exported during the fiscal year 1878-9 was $5,8 92,1 97, being a decrease of about half a million dollars from the previous year, and a million dollars less than 1876-7, which is the largest year, by value, on record. The cheese trade has assumed its present proportions within a decade. The total quantity exported during the year 1878-9 was 49,616,415 lbs., showing an increase of 10,000,000 lbs. over the previous year, and about double the average of the years 1870-77. Cauadian cheese has gained a high reputation, and at the International Dairy Fair, held at New York, carried off the prize of $100 for the best cheese made anywhere. The principal customers of Canada for butter, in 1879, were — Great Britain, to the extent of 12,859,274 lbs.; United States, 292,852 lbs.; and Newfoundland, 1,161,508 lbs. Of cheese, in 1879, 47,160,808 lbs. were shipped to Great Britain, and 2,311,776 lbs. to the United States. Of eggs, the bulk of the export is to the United States, which received from Canada in 1878-9 more than five million dozen. Poultry-raising is only beginning to be much looked after in Canada, probably because .poultry is so cheap. In course of time, however, as the market extends, and as means are found of exporting fowls, geese, and turkeys f " THE EXPORT OF CATTLE TO GREAT BRITAIN. 633 to England, lienneries on a large scale will be established. The exportation has already begun. Bee-keeping is profitably carried on in many parts of tlie Dominion, and the late introduction of Syrian and other foreign bees is likely to make bee culture in Canada an important industry. Near the large towns, market gardening is profitably carried on. A comparatively small capital is necessary, and with industry and perseverance, backed up by ex- perience, a good income is assured. Like everything else, however, none but those who have had experience in Canada should attempt it. These few points show that what may be termed the smaller branches of farming are not neglected by the Canadian husbandman. Still much remains to be done in this respect. The export cattle trade has made rapid strides in the last few years. The total value of live stock exported for year 1878-9 was $2,648,983 more than in 1874-5, nearly the whole of which is in exports to Great Britain, which were almost nominal in the earlier year, that trade then being in its infancy. The bulk of the exports were formerly to the United States and Newfoundland. Another cause for congratulation is that, while the ex- ports have been increasing, the imports from the United States have been decreasing: in 1874-5 they were $999,787, or about 50 per cent of the exports; in 1878-9 they had fallen to $441,930, or less than 10 per cent of the exports, showing that this large increase in the trade was supplied by home-raised cattle. We may add that the latest returns show an extra- ordinary increase in the production and consumption of home industries, and the statement of the Eevenue and Expenditure of the Dominion for the fiscal year 1880-1 gives a large surplus of revenue. Canada, like the mother '1 ! •! I iJJI 534 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGItAPIIY AND TRAVEL. country, is not without a public de])t, but the pacific purposes for which it has been incurred cannot fail ultimately to promote the prosperity of the country. The debt is not, says Sir Alexander Gait, as is the case in every other country, excepting always the various Britisli colonies, the melancholy record of blood and treasure squandered in foreign or intestine wars ; but, on the other hand, registers the peaceful progress of a people conscious of the vast resources of their country, and earnestly devoting themselves to its development. B: :i ■ ..'! THE PEOPLE. 535 CHAPTER XI. THE PEOPLE. 1. Mimhers. By the Census Act, 42 Vict. cap. 21, a decennial census is taken in Canada. Under the last one in 1 8 8 1 , we find the population of the older provinces to be as follows : — Dominion of Canada, ordinary population Indian population — Census, 1871 . Newfoundland — Census, 1874 4,324,810 102,3r)8 161,374 The increase under the French regime between 1605 and 17C0 was slow, as shown in the following table. Since then there has been a steady and fair increase in spite of many hindrances, the greatest being a want of knowledge of the geography, climate, and resources of the country. At last a new era appears to have dawned, and it is reasonable to expect that there will be hence- forth a large influx of population into Canada. The following table shows the progress from the first settlement in 1605 to the present time, 1881 : — In 1605, Port Royal had a population of 1608, New France (Quebec) • • 44 . 28 1613, St. John's (Newfoundland) . » , 62 1701, Acadia . . . . , , 1,134 1698, Newfoundland, English . 1,600 French 466 1,966 1706, New France . . . . • • 16,417 1739, „ . . . . • • 42,701 1741, Newfoundland, English • ■ 6000 1749, Acadia . 13,000 Cape Breton . . . . . 1,000 New Brunswick . . . 1,000 Prince Edward Island . 1,000 ^R rtnn \ii ll ,(,■ '■ft i I I- ;3G COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Mk>i In 1700, New Franro . 1702, Nova Scotia, English 1790, Canada 18(il, 1871, 1881, 70,000 8,104 >» 78,104 1<31,;311 3,0<)li,5»il 3,485,7tn 4,271,424 The population of the four provinces forming the Dominion at the Census of 1871 consisted, to the extent of more than four-fifths, of natives of ISritish Nortli America. These numbered 2,900,531, of whom 1,138,794 were natives of Ontario, 1,147,664 of Quebec, 360,832 of Nova Scotia, 245,068 of New IJrunswick, 405 of IManitoba and British Columl)ia, and 7768 natives of Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland. Of alien born inhabitants the most numerous at the Census of 1871 were 210,451 natives of Ireland, 144,999 of England and Wales, 121,074 of Scotland, 64,447 natives of the United States, and 24,162 natives of Germany. The following table shows the growth of the five older provinces during the past forty years : — 1842. 1851-62. 1800-1. 1871. 1881. Ontario . . . 487,053 952,004 1,396,091 l,62ii,S.51 1,913,469 Quebec . . . 697,084 890,261 1,111,566 1,191,516 1,358,469 New BrunsAvick — 193,800 252,047 288,594 321,129 Nova Scotia — 276,854 330,857 387,800 440,585 Prince Edward Island — — 80,857 94,021 107,781 Increase of population in the cities of Canada — 1871. 1881. Increase. Pei- i^t. Montreal 107,225 140,682 33,457 31 Toronto 56,092 86,445 30,353 55i London 15,826 19,763 3,937 25 Ottawa 21,545 27,417 6,872 27 Hamilton 2ti,716 35,965 9,249 34 Kingston 12,407 14,093 1,686 14 Quebec . 59,699 62,447 2,748 4i Halifax 29,582 36,102 6,5-JO 22 St. Jolui 28,805 26,128 -2,677 -9 The increase in the past ten years has been 664,337 in the five older provinces, or 18'02 per cent against 15 per cent in 1861-71. This growth may perhaps be thought unsatisfactory when it is compared with the GROWTH OF THE POPULATION. i37 inorease of 30 per cent made by the Unitod States in tlie same period ; 1»ut it is manifestly unfair thus to compare the two countries, since the increase in the United States, which oives tliis hirge percentage of growth, occurred ahnost wliolly in the Western States. Witli the (Canadian North- West now opened for settlement, with railway comnuinica- tion throughout that territory being ra])idly pushed to completion, and with more active energy in promoting emigration to that country, there can hardly be a doubt that the decade upon which Canada has recently entered will witness ciuite as large a percentage of growth as has been enjoyed by the Western States in the past, or will bo made in the future. But the percentage of increase in the five older provinces of the Dominion is about equal to that of the New England States of the United States, viz. 14*55 per cent against 1 5 per cent ; while Ontario shows a growth of 3 per cent more than the New England States, and only about 2 per cent less than that of the Middle States. It will be noticed from the terms of the Census Act that the census details required are very comprehensive. Each census according to the Act shall be so taken as to ascertain with the utmost possible accuracy, in regard to the various territorial divisions of the country, their population, and the classification thereof as regards age, sex, social condition, religion, education, race, occupa- tion, and otherwise ; the houses and other buildings therein, and their classification as dwellings, inhabited, uninhabited, under construction, and otherw'se; the occu- pied land therein, and the condition thereof, as town, village, country, cultivated, uncultivated, and otherwise ; the produce, state, and resources of the agricultural, fish- ing, lumbering, mining, mechanical, manufacturing, trading, and other industries thereof; the municipal, educational, charitable, and other institutions thereof; and whatever other matters may be specified in the forms and instructions. ., Si IS '1 i!;^!: !IJ! ml 538 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. !l: ( it I i I,: :!■ ■ I The extent of the Dominion and the wide distribution of popuhition add to the ordinary difliculties of census enumeration ; still, the care taken under the system adopted secures a near approximation to the facts, and should there he any error it is probably on tlie side of an under estimate in the number of the population. It is useless to attempt any calculations as to future increase from the data of the past, but Canada's position at the present time is very favourable for a large and rapid increase, in consequence of the forced exodus of the European nations from overcrowding, and the ad^'autages for settlement which this country affords. Placed as we are beside the United States, it becomes of interest to compare our position with theirs, and tlie following figures show that the Dominion in 18G1 had a population about equal to that which the States possessed when they achieved their independence. In 1790 the population of the United States was 3,929,827. The population of the Colonies comprised in the Dominion of Canada was, in January 1861, — Males. Females. Total. Upper Canada (now Ontario) . 725,.')7'^ 670,516 1,396, Jl Lower Canada (now Quebec) . 567, 8t 543,702 1,111,566 New Brunswick 129,948 122,009 2,52,047 Nova Scotia .... 165,584 165,273 330,857 1,588,971 1,501,590 3,090,561 To this we must add, if wo de- sire to si)ow til? *'i]\ strength of the British popuhition in North America at that date : Prince Edward Island . 40,800 39,977 80,85" Newfoundland (1857) . 65,118 59,170 124,288 British Columbia and Van- couver's Ishuul . 20,862 13,954 34,816 Rupert's Laml, including the 1 Ked lUver Settlement . Total . 51,000 50,000 101,000 ; 1,766,751 1,664,691 3, '•31,522 m ill niYSIQUE U¥ THE rOPULATION. 539 The decenuial censuses of the United States are as follows : — In 1790 . . 3,929,827 In 1840 . . 17,069,453 1800 . 5,305,925 1850 . . 23,191,876 1810. . 7,239,814 ISGO. . 31,445,0S9 18-20 , . 9,638,131 1870. . 38,555,983 1830. . 12,86G,U20 1880. . 50,155,783 From this comparison, coupled with the great natural increase of the population independent of i/innigration, it may be anticipated that in two decades from now, or at the end of the present century, Canada will have attained a population of 7 millions; and m CO years from now, or two generations hence, of 23 millions. The sparseness of the present population to the square mile, compared with the exter_^ of territory, is seen by the following table : — Ontario . . Quebec , Kew Bru .swick Nova Scoiia The Dominion 15 souls 6 11 21 II 10 Princ3 Edward Island 44 isouls Newfoundland . 3 ,, British Oolumbia and V. Id. . 1 to 5 sq. miles Rupert's Land 1 to 50 sq. miles General average of B.N. A., 1 to the sq. mile These figures appear almost ludicrous when we com- pare them with the 253 souls to the square mile of Great Britain and Ireland, the 177 of France, the 432 of Belgium, the 320 of China, etc. etc. They show us liow much has yet to be done to fill up the vast territory of British America. 2. Phjsiue of the People. Harvey J. Philpot, M.D., Assistant Surgeon to Her Majesty's Forces in the Crimea and Turkey, says in his Guide Book to Canada (London, 1871), p. 67 — " Canada is an exceptionally healthy country. I do not hesitate to make the statement after seven years in m} 540 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL. li! i4< the country engaged in an extensive medical practice. Ag a race the Canadians are fine, tall, handsome, powerful men, well built, active, tough as pine knot, and bearded like pards. The good food upon which they have been brought up [with the invigorating climate], appears to develop them to the fullest proportions of the (jcnus homo." Marshall, in his recent work on Canada, says — "I am persuaded that, despite its severity, the climate of Canada is one of tlie healthiest in the world. It is ex- pressly fitted to develop a hardy race. For the bringing up of a young family, it is to be preferred very decidedly to the climate of almost all the states of the Union south of the chain of Canadian lakes. The fact of the generally healthy condition of the people, the splendid develop- ment of the men, the preservation of the English type of beauty of the women, may be taken in proof of the excellence of the climate" (pp. 237-8). " The Canadian, whether English, Irish, or Scotch, is well-proportioned and vigorous, often tall, with broad shoulders, sinewy frame, and capable of great endurance. He is quick of resource, enterprising, sober-minded, per- sistent, and trustworthy. The races of the British Isles and of Norway have certainly not degenerated here" (P- ^)- . . There is a point worthy of special notice by the English people, who suffer so severely from throat and lung diseases, that the dry bracing air of Canada, and particularly of the North-West, affoKls a greater security against consumption and more curative results than the balmy south. Tliis fact is being recognised by the leading physicians of Great Britain. As compared with the Western States, where the bane of the country is ague, it may be stated that affuc and bilious fevers are unknown on the prairies of Canada. n ^p' MILITARY POSITION AND MILITIA. 541 It does exist in some of the low parts of Ontario, but not in Quebec or in the North-West. The natural increase of the population is extraordinary, particularly among the French Canadians, many families numbering twenty, and sometimes more, children. 3. Military Position and Militia. " The position of Canada for defence is the strongest possible. With her north inaccessible, lier east and west resting upon the Atlantic and Pacific, Labrador on her left, and the mountains of Columbia — the coast range, the Blue and Eocky Mountains — on her right, she never could be approached, by the most powerful nations, except from the south ; and here she has fastnesses more inac- cessible than Scythia in her Ottawas, St. Maurices, and Lake regions. Even admitting that these, defended by a hardy population, could be overcome during the summer, the winter frosts and snows would force back the enemy and limit the invasion to half the year. When our interior shall have been settled, the country, from its very extent, would defy conquest. "Let the reader run his eye over the map of the world, and he will see that there is no country so im- penetrable and invulnerable as Canada. Every nation of Europe and Asia has, in turn, been ovennin — the enemy meeting few obstacles but opposing armies ; a Northern army marched through the Southern States ; a Southern army penetrated the north, and was checked only by superior force. Eussia is the only country at all resem- bling Canada in the strength of its natural defences ; but European Eussia is a vast plain, and Napoleon laid it waste, against the whole force of the empire, for 700 miles from its western frontier to the ancient capital. Winter, however, did for the liussians what their armies :*;'• liF'ii*; ;\ i|' !* 1 542 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AND TRAVEL. could not do, Canada, in addition to winters of Russian severity, is everywhere studded with barriers to an invad- ing army, and with the strongest strategic positions for defence." Tlie Canadian militia cc^sists of all male British subjects between the ages of 18 and 60 years, not exempted or disqualified by law. These are divided into four classes, establishing the order in which they will be called upon to serve. 1st Class : Unmarried men, or widowers without children, between 18 and 30 years. 2d Class : Unmarried men, or widowers without chil- dren, between 30 and 45 years. 3d Class : All married men, or widowers with chil- dren, between 18 and 45 years. 4tli Class : All between the ages of 45 and 60 years. The Militia is divided into " Active " and " Reserve." The Active consists of Volunteer, Regular, and Marine Militia. The Volunteer is composed of corps raised by volun- tary enlistment. The Regular consist of volunteers for that service, or of balloted men. The Marine or seamen of sailors on steam and sail- ing craft of the Dominion, The Reserve embraces the whole not serving in the Active Militia for the time being. The active force is by law fixed at 40,000 men — the reserve at 600,000, Provision is made for annual paid drills from 8 to 16 days of 40,000 men in addition to officers of the Reserve, the number being regulated by the money vote of Par- liament each year. Por the present tlie nunibex is 30,000. The Active Militia is clothed, armed with breach- THE MILITIA AND VOLUNTEKRS. 543 > II loaders, and equipped ready to take the field at short notice. The numher called out for annual drill has ranged from 20,000 to 40,000 and over, according to the money voted for the purpose. The returns of the Reserve show a force of over 700,000 men upon the rolls. After the Fenian invasion the Volunteer force tender- ing service was 45,040 men. In 1809 the Active force was as follows : — Ofllcers nnrt Men, Cavalry 1,500 10 Field Batteries (42 guns, 441 horses) 750 Garrison Artillery .... 3,558 4 Companies Engineers 232 Naval Brigade, Halifax 233 73 Battalions Rilles and Infantry . 37,268 Total .. 43,541 ft 'i^^M Wf',fl i T^ tw •; ;1: : .jjl •: 1 1 ' ■' '' In 1870 the Fenians entered the Province of Quebec at two points, and were met in both cases by Volunteers in sufiicient force to defeat them. The men were called out on the 24th of May, and on the 27th 13,540 otiicers and men were reported at the posts assigned them. Dominion Artillery Corps have replaced 'he Imperial troops at Quebec and Kingston, at both of \\hich places there are schools of gunnery. Infantry schools are estab- lislied at Toronto, Kingston, Montreal, Quebec, Fredericton, and Halifax, at which thousands of officers have obtained certificates. A military college for the education of cadets, with a four years' course of study, is established at Kingston. In his report on the Canadian IMilitia to the Dominion Government in March 1870 Colonel P. Itoljertson-Koss says — " The rural battalions are almost entirely composed of the agricultural population, the bone and sinew of the H li. I' 544 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TIIAV. '.. In ■fill land, who have a stake in the country, and in many instances are the proprietors and sons of proprietors of the land ; and it is imiwssihle to see a hardier race, or finer material for soldiers. In many instances their physique is most remarkable, and they all ap])ear imbued with a spirit of ^reat loyalty to tlieir Queen and country ; and the same spirit and aptitude for military service are exhibited by the city battalions." These facts justify the statement of Sir John A. Macdonald, that Canada is a source of strength — not of weakness — to the empire. 4. Visitors. When so many thousands of the 1)etter classes of the English people seek health or recreation on the Continent — especially during the summer and autumn of each year — it is a matter of surprise that so few ever think of visiting the New ]5ritain on the other side of the sea. Though all who have taken a run through Canada in the holiday season give a glowing account of the magnificence of the scenery, the perfection of the means of travel, and the comparative cheapness of living, tourists from the mother country are not nearly so numerous as the attractions of the journey would lead one to expect The Americans, who are always in search of pleasant resorts, are wiser in their generation than tlieir English cousins. Thousands of them visit Canada every summer. They come even from the States in the far south, and are to be met with at the watering-places, in the towns and cities, and on the railways and steamboats, in every part of the Dominion. The Englishman will run off to the Continent, see Paris and Eome, " do " Switzerland, or swelter in a little German watering-place, and return little blotter in health and much poorer in pocket, entirely oblivious of the fact that he midit have crossed the 111. ATTRACTIONS FOR VISITORS. 54.-) Atlantic and spent a few weeks very profitahly and pleasantly, and certainly more chea]>ly, ainon<^' people of his own race and nationality. The number of English pleasure-seekers who visit Canada is, however, increasing- year by year, and it only recpiires that the attractions of the journey should become more widely known to make this one of the chief holiday excursions for Englishmen and their families. Let us, in imagination, make the trip with the reader. On a pleasant summer's afternoon, say about the middle of July, we find ourselves on the deck of one of tliose moving villages, a transatlantic steamer, in the Mersey. All is bustle and noise ; everything seems topsy-turvy, for the last of the passengers, with moun- tains of luggage, has just come aboard, and the ship is on the point of sailing. In a few moments the last good- byes are said, the tender casts off, the machiuciy moves, and the great ship glides slowly down the broad stream, bound for the Far West. On the fifth or sixth day out from Ireland the rugged coast of Newfoundland is sighted, and another day's run takes us through the Strait of Belle Isle into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A few hours later the island of Anti- costi is seen on the right, and the first signs of civilisation appear in the shape of a tishing hamlet or two at the water's edge. Farther on the mighty St. Lawrence itself is entered, and thence to Quebec tliere is land on either side, though at certain points, so great is the width of this majestic river, it cannot be seen except in very clear weather. Ascending the stream, village after village of the French inhaltitants is passed, their white houses nestling in pleasant gardens, with a glorious background of deep green, stretching away in the distance as far as the eye can reach, and forming a characteristic and charming picture. And so we move on, the towns in- 2 X \\ M. If 5 40 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. • 'r I 111. creasinfT in nuinljer and size, till, on the eighth or ninth day out, the j^rand old fortress of Quehec looms up as we round Point Levis ; a little later the uol»le ship is at the landing-stage, and the traveller steps ashore ou Canadian soil. C^uehcc is the most Old World city, and one of the most interesting on the American continent. Here a day or two can be most agreeably spent in visiting the Falls of jMontmorenci, the Plains of Al)raham, the citadel, and other interesting sights inside and outside the walls of this venerable city, which, because of its strength as a fortress, is called " the Gibraltar of x\merica." Thence the traveller goes westward, either by rail or by river steamer ; if by the former, some very fine agricultural districts are traversed ; if by tlie latter, a charming trip of 180 miles up tlie St. Lawrence is made under the most favourable circumstances in one of those "floating palaces" for which the lakes and rivers of the Xew World are famous. Two or three days may be profitably spent at ]\Ion- treal, the commercial metropolis of Canada, and one of the finest cities on the American continent. The drives around the town are delightful, ihe churclies are massive and grand, while the Victoria Bridge, which crosses the St. Lawrence here at a point where the river is two miles wide, is one of the most wonderful structures in the world. From ^Montreal to Ottawa by rail or river is our next stretch. The capital of the Dominion is well worth visiting, for its artificial as well as for its natural beauties. The Houses of Parliament and departmental buildings are justly ranked amongst the best in America. A well- known writer has described them as being among the " architectural glories of the world." The Eideau and Chaudiere Falls are wonderfully beautiful. The saw mills, which are here by the score, turning out their millions of ihl ATTRACTIONS FOR VISITORS. 547 t ^Ion- one of 3 drives massive sscs the miles in the !!■ is our .11 ^Yorth leavities. lugs are I A weii- long the [oau and lw mills. lilliou3 of ft'et of hoards each day, never fail to prove full of interest to the European tourist. This is the ceutre of the tiniher trade — one of the leading industries of (Janada ; and at auy time liunih-eds of acres of "lund)er," as the hoards are called, may he seen ]uled over the islands and on the river hanks. I»y rail from Ottawa to I'rescott, thence westward by the Grand Trunk through a fine agricultural country and past many tlourisiiiug towns, any of which would he well worth visitinj:? if time permitted. The run, however, is made through to Toronto, 3133 miles west of Montreal. This is the second city in Canada in wealth and population, and one of the most attractive. Its public buildings and institutions are numerous ; and, in visiting these, as well as driving through the wide and beantiful streets, a few days are pleasantly passed. From this point many routes are open, bnt we choose the Northern llailway, and go by steamboat and waggon as far as pos- sible into the ]\Iuskoka country ; in other words, into the backwoods of Canada. It was onlv a few years ago that these townships were thrown open for settlement, and now they contain a very considerable population, with several flourishing towns and all necessary branches of industry. This is known as the " Free Grant District," as the land, which belongs to the Ontario Government, is given absolutely free of all charge to actual settlers. The scenery along the numerous lakes and rivers is unsur- passed in rugged beauty. But this district is attractive chiefly for the reason that it affords opportunities for getting an insight into what is called " roughing it in the bush;" in other words, the sort of life the first settlers in the backwoods of Canada lead, with all its hardships and its drawliacks, as well as its pleasures and its free- dom. We shall be compelled to rough it ourselves, but this will only make our experience the more enjoyable. A week or 6o here, then out into civilisation again, up the i! t'-i;; u 'I I ii 548 COMrENDlUM OF OEOGHArilY ANT) TRAVEL. ;i t II i ll V ' )■ X(jrtlu!in liaihvay to tlio town of Collin^wooil, and thence by steamer to the head of Lake 8u])enor. Tliis trip tlir(»ii;^h the upjier lakes is snrnmndeu witli i\iany attrac- tions. Traversing tlie hirj^est body of fresh water in the worhl, throu;:,di j^roups of charniinj^ islands of every size and shajie, we enjoy the grandly massive scenery of Luke Superior, visit the copi)er and silver mines for whicli tliis region is famous, go to the very limit of civilisation in this direction, and at the various stojiping places see many families and villages of the Canadian Indian little removed from his original condition of barbarism. The head of Lake Superior reached, we may return by another fine line of steamers to Sarnia, and back to Toronto by the Grand Trunk Railway, through one of tha linest farming districts in Canada. This trip will occupy about ten days from Toronto. A two hours' sail across Lake Ontario brings us to the old town of Niagara, formerly the capital of Upper Canada, now a summer resort. Thence we run l)y rail up the west bank of the majestic river, a distance of al)out twelve miles, passing through scenes of historic interest, and alight at Clifton, within sight and sound of Niagara's mighty cataract. Two or three days will be suthcient here, though we should be glad to spend as many weeks, did time permit. Taking the Groat Western train at Clifton, we run westward through one of the finest fruit- growing districts in the world. On every side are orchards of apples, poaches, plums, and berries, vineyards witli their wealth of clustering grapes, and garf]ens bright with a profusion of Howers. A day at the beautiful city of St. Catherine's ; thence on to Hamilton, Avliere another day may be most pleasantly spent. Here, if time presses, either train or steamboat can be taken for Alontreal, about 400 miles distant. It will be better, however, to run on to London by the Great Western, and thence by the (' , ATTRACTIONS FOR VISITORS. 149 (Irnnd Trunk to Guolpli. This will a<,'ain take us tluonf^'li the very best I'ariniiif? district in Ontiirio, and iiiable us to form some idea of the a<,n'ieultural wealth of the province. At Guelph the Model Farm, Mhirli is (•arri(!d on under the provincial government, may be visited, as well as some of the s])lendid farms for which the county of Welliniiton is remarkable. A few hours' run hy the (irand 1'runk brings us once more to Toronto. Should time permit, we may take a trip over one of the narrow gauge raihvays into the beautiful country north- west and north-east of Toronto, and returning take a lake steamer for ]\Iontreal. Steaming along the shores of Lake Ontario, we halt at many beautiful and flourishing towns, and enter the St. Lawrence at Kingston. Between tb.is point and Montreal is one of the most charming excursions imaginable, through the ever-varying but always beautiful Thousand Islands, and over the boiling surging rapids. Xothing can be conceived more enchanting and more exciting than " running the rapids ;" and, when the plea- sure and danger are past, and the steamer is moored to the wharf at Montreal, our hope is that we may soon be able to repeat the trip. If time permits, a run should be taken from Montreal to Lake Mem})hremagog, which is remarkable for the beauty of its surroundings. Then having come from Quebec by water, we return by rail. The ship is in the stream ready to start, and an hour later we are ploughing our way down the mighty river. Two hundred miles below Quebec the mails are taken on board, and in eight days more we are home again in " merrie England." This is a holiday trip that any Englishman of mode- rate means may safely undertake. It can easily be done \vitliin eight weeks ; the cost is not so great as if the same time were spent on the Continent, or even at a fashion- alile English watering-place ; while the attractions which J ,) - \ >n ') u IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 ^ IIIM 2.5 '- IM IIIIIZ2 ^ m 1 2.0 mil 1.8 U IIIIII.6 V] ^ /a A /A *'V^ o 7 Photographic Sciences Corporation m V m O ^ l^? 4^ * 6^ % '1? ^*> ^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTEffN.Y. 145B0 (716) 872-4503 *" C^x c^ i WJ>. l^.r \ ^ 650 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. the trip presents are so varied, so novel, and so numerous, as to far surpass those of any ordinary European tour. 6. Artists. As in all new countries, the fine arts did not make much headway in Canada until within the last few years. Men were too much taken up with trade and commerce — too eagerly struggling for wealth,, to give up any portion of their time to art studies. Yet as wealth accumulates, and as education elevates the mind, the puhUc taste be- comes refined, and a desire for such things manifests itself. Canada is a country fitted by nature to make its people love the grand, the beautiful, the sublime. Her vast rivers, her mighty waterfalls, her lovely lakes, her grand forests, her beautiful valleys, her toweriii;T mountains, and her charming pastoral scenes, present a variety of scenery that cannot be surpassed. Such sur- roundings as these must tell in time on the tastes of any people. And so, we are glad to say, it is in Canada. Not many years ago, before the present degree of refinement and culture had been reached,, a painter could hardly make a living in Canada. Now there are scores. In the province of Ontario there is a society for the pro- motion of native talent ; and there is annually a very pleasant re-union, at which tlie works exhibited are drawn for as in the London Art Unions. The subjects are generally Canadian water-colours, though a few artists confine themselves to oil paintings. It would be unrea- sonable to expect them to rival the works of European painters, yet there are several very promising artists in the Dominion, some of whom may yet be heard of on the other side of the Atlantic. The English painter in search of new subjects cannot do better than go to Canada. There he will find every ATTRACTIONS FOR SPORTSMEN. 551 variety of scenery imaginable, while at the same time he will enjoy an " outing " that cannot fail to invigorate and strengthen both body and mind. 6. Attractions for Sportsmen. Canada offers a splendid field for the sportsman. Game and fish are abundant. All game is common pro- perty ; the sportsman is at liberty to shoot where he hkes, what he likes, and when he likes, with this excep- tion, that during a certain time of the year it is illegal to take game. This is necessary in order to preserve it from total destruction. However, no true sportsman — law or no law — would kill game out of season. The cli- mate, as we have already said, is invigorating and healthy ; and ex- perienced guides and assistants can be engaged in any part of the country. The sportsman need experience no difficulty in suiting his taste. He can have any form of sport he likes, from bagging squirrels and partridges and pigeons in the old settlements to tussling wdth grizzly bears in the wild canons of the Rocky Mountains. The royal tiger and the lordly lion he will not find ; but if he be sufficiently venturesome he may gather together a collection of hunting trophies of w^hich he will have no reason to be ashamed, and at the same time undergo excitement and danger sufficient to satisfy any reasonable mortal. In the way of wild animals there are in the old pro- tf i^^^ 1^ m * ^^^^^K*(&)f^^ ^^^^^^^^■nEv^ MARTEN IN LABRADOR. \ ^ i I J-^ Mi 1 1 i 'iiii 1 1 ll 1 'i 1 i u 552 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. vinces bears, foxes, wolves, moose, cariboo, red deer, otter, mink, pine marten, sable, hares, racoons, squirrels, etc. ; while in the Far West there are immense herds of buffa- loes on the plains, and grizzly bears and other animals in the Rocky Mountain region. Of feathered game there are woodcock, snipe, pigeons, plovers, partridges, quail, geese, ducks, brant, curlew, and prairie fowl ; while of eagles, hawks, owls, and other such birds there are many varieties. On arriving in Canada, the sportsman, if he has no friends in the country with whom to consult, should at once call on the nearest government agent, wlio, even though he may not know much about sporting matters himself (though most agents do), will place him in com- munication with persons who will afford every assistance. The half-breeds are, as a rule, trustworthy, honest, and respectful; still it is always the best policy to have the advice of one in authority in making your arrange- ments. In the forests of New Brunswick and Quebec, moose, to say nothing of other game, large and small, are abun- dant; but it would not be safe to enter on the chase without experienced guides. These can be had without difficulty and at a small cof^t. Most of them are Frenchmen, or a cross between the French and the Indian. They are active, enduring, shrewd fellows, thoroughly trustworthy, hardy in camp, and cunning on the trail. They will find the game if it is to be found at all, and when brought down they know how best to treat such parts as are to be preserved as trophies, and how to cure the choice cuts of the meat. The French and half-breeds are to be preferred to the full-blooded Indian, because they are more cleanly as a rule, and much better cooks than the latter. It is not well, how- ever, to allow any of them, especially the Indians, too n " » d- in :re lil, of ny no at 'en ers m- ice. md ave ige- ose, lUl- lase lOllt are the JWS, on iund ;t to and 3nch aded and low- , too \b: I liMflf 'i I ■- • '-■■•' . ' i'i 1^ 1 piH ^ Ml |ipi I ■.■»•. f ATTRACTIONS FOR SPORTSMEN. 553 !' much liberty with the spirit flask. After a liard day's work on the trail, they are deserving of a glass of whisky and water, but let it be one and no more. ^Moose and cariboo hunting is a hard, tiresome, and occasionally a very exciting amusement. While on the moose trail the hunter comes across a variety of other game, beasts as well as birds, and thus lie is enabled to form an interesting and sometimes valu- able collection. Duck shooting is to be had in every part of Canada. The birds come north in the spring of the year, and make their homes for the summer in the numerous small lakes to be found in the interior of every province. They hatch their young on the shores, bringing them up on the wild rice and other food with which the lakes abound. In the autumn they are to be seen in countless thousands. Two men well up in the sport may easily bring down three hundred brace in a day. Such shooting does not compel one to go beyond the confines of civilisation. Many of the best lakes for the purpose can be reached from the large towns in a few hours by rail or coach. At or near the lakes there are clean, comfortable, M-ell- kept hotels, where one may be accommodated for four, six, or eight shillings per day, everything included. Wild geese are frequently killed in these lakes, though as a rule they spend the summer farther north ; while in the woods near the lakes a day's shooting is almost certain to bring the sportsman a well-filled bag of miscellaneous game. It is essential, however, to have one or more well-trained dogs, and these are not readily procured in the country. The best and most exciting sport on the American continent is buffalo hunting, and the best fields are the grand prairies of the North- West. The party should be provided with good breech-loading rifles, a revolver each, and an abundant supply of ammunition. M \: II •^|. ' V * I: I L 554 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL, The hunting grounds may be reached by Canada Pacific railroad from Prince Arthur's Landing Tiiumler Bay to Winnipeg, or by way of Sarnia and Collingwood and the Great Lakes to Duluth ; thence by the Korthern I'acific to Glyndon ; and thence by the St. Paul and Pacific llailway to Winnipeg. There is also the choice of an all- rail route vid Chicago and St. Paul, in the United States. The Lake route will be found particularly pleasant, and the time taken is very little longer. There is a class of men in Manitoba known as " plain hunters," from the fact that they live chiefly by buffalo hunting. They are nearly all half-breeds, a cross between French or English and Indians, and are undoubtedly the most expert and successful buffalo killers on the American continent. The services of a few of these men can lie secured without difficulty and at a moderate cost. Their horses, an active, wiry breed, are trained to the sport, and appear to take as much pleasure in it as do their masters. At Winnipeg, men, horses, tents, camp furniture, and everything else necessary for a hunt over the prairies, can be either hired or purchased. It is not intended here to describe a buffalo hunt, with all its excitement, danger, and novelty. Enough to say that it is the perfection of hunting ; and as horse, rifle, and revolver are brought into service, it will at once be seen that it has special attractions for Englishmen, accustomed as they are to both hunting and shooting. To the genuine sportsman nothing can be more enjoyable ; and he returns after his two months on the plains feeling that he has at last, for a time, been in reality a dweller in " the happy hunting grounds." Those who have time and who have made the neces- sary preparations may extend their trip westward to the Eocky Mountains in search of bears and other large game. They may even pass onward into British Coliunbia, the ^ 'i ATTRACTIONS FOR SPORTSMEN. • 00 forests of which afford splendid sport ; or northward to the land of the musk ox and the reindeer. I'rairie fowl may be killed in any number on the plains, while the lakes swarm with ducks and geese. Canada has the best fisheries, inland and marine, in the world. A recent pamphlet issued by the Nova Scotian Government says : — " In some seasons our bays and harbours teem with fish of various kinds — mackerel, herring, cod, haddock, halibut, hake, pollock, shad, smelt, perch, eels, etc. Lob- sters are abundant, and are usually sold in the Halifax market at about one shilling per dozen. Good sport is afibrded in spearing lobsters at night by torchlight. We have a plentiful supply of shell-fish, viz. oysters, scallojis, clams, quahaugs, mussels, etc. Indeed, no country in tiie world can produce a greater variety of sea fish, or in greater abundance ; while the rivers and lakes afford salmon, trout, and grayling. Any boy with a bean-pole, a half-dozen yards of twine, with a hook on the end of it, and a few angle worms or grasshoppers, may go out in the morning and kill as many trout as will supply a large family for breakfast. In some lakes they are quite large, and are taken as heavy as four or five pounds. In other lakes they are small, seldom weighing more than one pound. The little brook trout is an excellent pan fish. The prince of all the trout tribe is the sea trout ; this fish is taken in large numbers at the mouths of rivers emptying into the Atlantic." All the rivers in Canada connecting with the sea, on the Atlantic as well as the Pacific coast, contain splendid salmon. The fish were taken indiscriminately and at all seasons up to a few years ago, when the Government stepped in and put a stop to the slaughter. The best salmon streams are in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and British Columbia. In the upper lakes there H ^ fj i I i' I ill m 556 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. are numerous other varieties of fish which make capital sport. Some of the salmon rivers on the Lower St. Law- rence are leased from the Government ; but permission for a week's fishing can be readily obtained. The lakes and rivers up the country are all free. Brook trout may be taken in all parts of Canada, but the trout-fishers' paradise is to be found in the rivers on the north shore of Lake Superior, especially the Nipigon. This is a large, clear, cold, and rapid stream, affording splendid fishing from its mouth to its source. The fish run from one to seven pounds in weight ; they are firm and hard, beautifully marked, and always " die game." To reach the Nijjigon the fishermen go to Colling- wood or Sarnia from Toronto by rail, thence by steamer to lied Eock at the mouth of the river. At Sault Ste. Marie, on the way up, it is well to engage a couple of half-breeds and a canoe, having previously laid in the necessary camp furniture and provisions at Toronto. From Eed Rock the party proceeds up the river about eight miles and there camps out. As the country is in a state of nature, one must rough it and live under canvas. Three weeks on the Nipigon will make glad the heart of any disciple of old Izaak Walton. It is glorious sport, and, as the surrounding scenery is grand in the extreme, the student of nature will find much to admire and think of in after days. The fish that are taken need not be wasted. The half-breeds know how to cure them so that they will keep for months. •:..^'- »y clearly CHAPTER XII. INDIANS AND INDIAN TREATIES. 1. General View. It is a matter of great difficulty to obtain reliable information respecting the Indian population ; their migratory habits, and the great extent of country over which they are spread, misleading all calculations. ]\Iost of the estimates of the aboriginal population made by both early and modern writers, from information given by Indians themselves, or by travellers and traders, are doubtless over-estimated, so difficult is it to realise the fact of the enormous extent of territory necessary to supply man "with food by the chase. Tlie question as to tlie past and present Indian popula- tion in what is now the Dominion of Canada has been clearly stated in the "Census of Canada, 1870-1," and it is there explained that, taking the whole of the aboriginal population of British North America, including the few triljes wlio live chiefly by agriculture and industrial pur- suits in the older provinces, as well as the tril)es placed in exceptionally unfavourable conditions in arctic climates, the mean inhabited superficies is thirty-four square miles 558 COMPENDIUM OF OEOGRAniY AND TRAVEL. n \ per liead. Eliminating from the calculation those two extreme classes in the scale of comparison, the mean falls to about twenty-five square miles per head, the minimum being about ten sijuare miles per head. This maximum is found in the most rigorous cliumtes, and the minimum exclusively where there are abundant sea-coast fisheries. In the best hunting grounds with a temperate (climate, in the absence of extensive fisheries and of cultivatidu of tlie soil, the increase of the Indian population to a larger ratio than one inhabitant to fifteen square miles causes misery and disea.se, or incursions upon neighbouring territories, and consequent warfare. Sir Cicorge SimiJSon, in 1857, in his replies to the Special Committee of the Ihitish House of Commons appointed to inquire at that date into the affairs of the Hudson Vtay Company, jioints out the fact of these periodical oscillations of increase and decrease among the Indians. He states tliat the tribes of the western woods, after having been decimated by diseases for several years, were at that time passing through a period of increase ; whilst the prairie tribes were at the same time suffering from decrease caused by tribal wars and disease. It is also evident that Indian populations keeping to the habits of hunting tribes diminish in number, in the ratio of the extent and frequency of their relations with civilised nations, by the destruction of their primitive means of existence and the introduction of vices and diseases, or by absorption in the creation of a half-breed race. Some of the earliest records (1611) are found in the Jesuit accounts. Charaplain has also given estimates of certain tribes with which he held intercourse, but the most reliable statistics have been afforded by the records of the Hudson Bay Company, connected with their several trading posts throughout the country, and from the census eiuime- ration of 1870-1 in the settled provinces of Canada. |l .1 T TIIH INDIAN TllIUKS. 559 It would "be iini>()ssible to givo the names ap])lie(l by tiavullers, or by tlie natives themselves — sometimes aoeurdiiii,' to locality or to dialect — to each of the tril)e3 and sub-tribes of the Indians. The names sanctioned by the authority of ethno<;ra pliers are classed as enibraciuf^ four aboriginal famiHos, and include all the native popula- tion of the Dominion, riamely : — 1. The Eskimos, or Innoit. 2. The Den6-I)injiL\ 3. The Al,i,'onquins, or Algic. 4. The Huron- Iroquois. Tlieir locations may be broadly stated thus : — Tiie Eskimos inhabit or frequent tlie coasts from Labrador on the north-east to Bering Strait on the north- west. The Den6-Dinjies are found south of the Esquimaux and west of Hudson IJay, occujn'ing all the territories uorth of latitude oS"" N. as far as the I'acitic, and passing southwards to the United States boundary, over all the territory west of the 115th meridian. The Algonquins are distributed over the remainder of British Xorth America, with the exception of a compara- tively small portion held by tlie Huron-Iroquois family on their reserves at the Grand Eiver, between Lakes Ontario and Erie, and on the St. Lawrence River at Caughnawaga, and at the Lake of the Two Mountains. Those who lately entered Canada in the neighbourhood of the Souris River, known as the Sioux, are now returning to the United States. The Algonquins have always been the largest tribe in British North America, and still occupy the most extensive area. This was also the case in the Linited States, but the American Indians are being gradually forced westward towards the head -waters of the Missouri «.o 1^ '1 d If 5G0 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. anil the sjnirs of the Kooky Mmmtains. Many, howcvor, have retired before the whites to the plains of the North- West Territories. The respective nunihei"S of these four divisions are estimated thus : — - i .J h Eskiiiiiis, or Iiiiioits . . 4,000 H Dc'iii'-Dinjit^ .... • 42,000 ■ Al^'oiKluiiis, or Alyio , 4(i,02.S Huio;i-Iro(|uoi3 • ]o.:!:f0 H the H (iobatr 102,358 _- 1 hi 17 And their territorial divisions thus • — ■ to Ce Provinco of Priiu-c Edward Island . ,T23 ■ ns mil ,, Nova Scotia i.iit;(i 1 1 flocreas „ Now Hruiiswick „ Quebec . ^,m ■ be doul „ Ontario . 12,978 1 1 ^ii( ,, ^Manitoba 500 1 H „ liritish Columbia (ostiniatod) 23,000 1 ■ mifirrato ,. l{u|HU't'.s TjMud ,, 33,500 1 I century I,abrador and Arctic Watershed 22 000 ■ 1 ■ tmcnt t 102.:!5S 1 1 Strait 01 I 1 in laiirri Or, East of the Rocky Mountains • 70 •)5S 1 1 tribes, m- West ,, „ ■ 2t;i(ioo 1 ^1 1 the Japa 102,358 f Tlie ■ H As compared with area : — I ilorived i SuporRciPs in H ^'oiiiniuni Siiiiarc Mil(/s. H Newfoundland none 42. Olio 1 •ire only Prince Edward Island (Census, 1871) Nova Scotia ,, New Urnnswick ,, 323 l,6(i8 1,403 III; 1 t'le nortl of the tei I'rovince of (Jiicliec ,, 6,988 19:!, 35,') H ft-'niples ( „ Ontario ,, 12,978 lorjrso H ,, Manitoba (Census, 1870) 500 14!o()0 ■ t'licircliii., ,, IJritisii Columbia 23,000 350,000 ■ Teak Liibiador, Tlujiert's Land, and the \ ^1 North West Islands in Arctic Ocean and ''n > 5;', 500 2,405,712 ■ ^slanders, 1) ■/» Hudson Bay ) 310,000 fl ^"cihc sh It is ^^H 102,3.'J8 3,540.000 ■ althouirli J THE INDIANS. 661 As regards mode of living : — By fishing, say In caiiips and liy iimirio hunting . In villagos in sfttli'il districts In faniilius iu thu womls . 2n,ooo 18,000 i7,;ir)0 41.000 102,3r)0 Whether the aborigines have increased or not since the occupation of North America by tlie whites is a debatable question. Judging from the estimates made iu 1730, and the immigration from the United States to Central Canada, it i» probable that they are now as numerous as ever in Canada ; but that they have decreased in the United States and its territories cannot be doubted. The Eskimos or Innoits are supposed to be a migratory tribe, who about tlie begiiuiing of the tentli century passed from the arctic coasts of the Asiatic con- tinent to those of the American continent by Ik'ring Strait on the west, or Greenland on the east. They diU'er iu language and appearance from the other aboriginal tribes, who resemble the Mongolians, or more particularly the Japanese, in appearance and customs. The language of thesit last tribes ap[)ears to have Innm derived from a conmion source, and they must have htdd communication among themselves, as cowry shells, which are only found in the south, are in general use among the northern tribes. They have no knowledge, however, of the temple-builders of Central Amerii'a, whose terraced temples correspoml in form with those which are found eucircling the world about the line of the tropics. Teak canoes, such as were made ])y the South Sea Islanders, have been found embedded in the sands of the Pacific shore of Southern California. It is dillicult, however, to trace their origin, and although many of their customs as to the burial of the 2 'if5 ^"P'i!i| I 562 COMPENDIUM OP GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. 11 w^^'i iif II! dead and the observance of seasons correspond with those of Eastern nations, still their mats made of rushes, and their bark boxes ornamented with porcupine quills, in imitation of plaited straw, and sometimes with straw itself, resemble, in material, style, colour, and pattern, the work of the Japanese. As with other nations, there is much difference between the tribes, according to location and occupation ; but the free air and warlike habits of the prairie Indian make him one of nature's noblemen. Brave, intelligent, courteous, dignified, an orator in council, faithful hi friendship, fierce in war, using stratagem to overcome an enemy, patient, stoical, and scorning death when himself overcome, he chaunts his " war song " under the most cruel tortures, and dies, as he lived, untamed and unsub- dued. The Huron-Iroquois, although classed together, have waged incessant war with each other until, from being the most powerful of the tribes, they are now the weakest in numbers, the Huron branch having been almost exter- minated by their brethren, and the Iroquois much reduced in numbers. The Hurons originally occupied the northern sliores of Lake Huron, and of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers as lar east as Quebec. The Iroquois occupied a broad extent of territory to the south of Lakes Erie and Ontario, and to the south of the St. Lawrence as far east as the Eichelieu or Iroquois Eiver, and had established a confederation known as tlio " Five Nations." Their history is beautifully told by Parkman, who has contributed so much to the early history of Canada. This confederation played an imiioi't- ant part in the English and French occu])ation of this continent — at war first with tlie one and then with the other, and courted alternately by each. Led by Biaudt 'iir. THE " FIVE NATIONS." 663 they made a desolation of Wyoming, as sung by Campbell in his " Gertrude of Wyoming " : — " Accursed Brandt ! he left of all my tribe Nor man, nor child, nor thing of living birth." Carrying at other times the tomahawk into the homes of the French, massacring them incessantly, so that around the villages, as the settler, gun in hand, sowed his seed, the Iroquois often reaped his scalp ; — hunting their kins- men, the Hurons, the allies of the French, from Detroit to Quebec, and destroying the last of their bands under the very walls of that citadel ; — such were the Iroquois in war. The rallying of the tribes by Pontiac, to avail them- selves of the antagonism between the French and the English and drive them both from the continent, was a piece of statecraft worthy of " advanced civilisation." This confederation of the Iroquois is supposed to have been the model of the United States confederation, and in its latest application of the Canadian one. The last of the Huron chiefs died at Lorette village, near Quebec, a few years since. The names of Tecumseh and Brandt will ever be associated with the heroic age in Canadian history. The remnants of this Indian nation in the older provinces are engaged in agriculture, or act as wyageurs and pilots. ]\Iany of them are being amal- gamated with the French inhabitants of the province of Quebec. A band of Sioux, of this same tribe, sought refuge in Canada, after the Minnesota massacre, in 1862, and a second band under " Sitting Bull " after the destruc- tion of "Custer's command," in 1877, but most of this band have lately returned to the United States. The enmity of the Indians in the United States to the Americans is natural, as they consider themselves deprived of their lands and their means of support, and unfairly used under the treaties made with them. m r ' ' »' E i ' 564 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. When Canada had to deal with the quieting of the Indian tribes to the North-West Territories, the difficulties in the way were apparent. Here was the last refuge of the Indian on the con- tinent. Under any circumstances, treaty-making witli the warlike tribes of the prairies would have been a delicate matter, but this difficulty was increased by the experience of the American tribes, who had carried their evil report of the white man north of the international boundary. Whilst Canada was desirous of having these terri- tories opened to the settler, she was not prepared to run the risk of a conflict which would certainly have been a serious one, and might have impeded for an indefinite time the occupation of the North-West Territories of Canada by the " white man." Treaties were, however, made for the transfer of the Indian title to the whole of these territories, which treaties appear not only just but politic, aud affi^rd good grounds for belief that the bargain will be equally advantageous to both parties. It is a satisfaction to be enabled to say that the Indians' faith in the British Government is unbounded, and has paved the way for the treaties with Canada. From an account given by the Hon. Alexander Morris, who acted as the Commissioner for the Government in the negotiation of the most important and difficult of those treaties,^ we gather the following facts : — Since 1870 no less than seven treaties have been made with the aborigines in Canada ; but three treaties must be first mentioned as preliminary to the late ones. 1. That of Lord Selkirk in' 1811, whereby he purchased the Indian title to the tract of land acquired * Treaties of Canada with the Indians of the North ■ West. Hon. Alex* antler Morris, P.O. Toronto. 1880. '!^ THE INDIAN TREATIES. 565 by him from the Hudson Bay Company, for the pur- poses of settlement. 2. The treaty of 1850 for certain portions of the sliores of Lakes Huron and Superior, where rich deposits of copper had been found ; and 3. The treaty of 1862 for the Great Manitoulin Island on Lake Huron. The late treaties by the Dominion may be summarised thus : — 1. A relinquishment to Canada in all the great region from Lake Superior to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, of all the Indian right and title to the lands covered by the treaties, saving certain reservations of land for the exclusive use of the Indians ; and 2. In return for such relinquishment, permission to the Indians to hunt over the ceded territory, and to fish in the waters thereof, except such portions thereof as should pass from the Crown into the occupation of individuals or otherwise. 3. The annual payment in perpetuity of $5 per head to each Indian man, woman, and child; $25 to each chief; and $15 to each councillor. 4. The allotment of lands to small bands instead of to tribes, each family of five persons receiving 640 acres to be held by them, and only sold with the consent of the band. 5. The gift of fishing nets, agricultural instruments, seed, grain, and oxen and cattle to form the nucleus of herds. In the negotiation of these treaties the Indians ex- hibited much intelligence, good judgment, and tact, and displayed wonderful oratorical powers. They have a ohildlike reverence for their great " mother over the water," and point with pride to the medals received by their forefathers from her grandfather George III. i f 1 > ^ )) V If J i 566 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. A little incident •which occurred at the Qu'AppeDe Treaty ^vv '11 exemplify tliis. It must; be borne in mind that an Indian treaty is nut lightly broken by the Indian, and that he is not inclined to sign a bond until e\ -ny stipulation is complete. The terms of the treaty had been settled, the bond was ready for execution, but the money stipulated " to be paid down " was not in hand, and in the midst of the prairie was not to be had. The chiefs hesitated, but the commissioner, Governor Morris, was equal to the occasion, and extending his hand, said, " See the money in this open hand which I extend to you." The treaty was signed. The future of the Indian depends on the possibility of a gradual civilisation without demoralisation. The bison, their mainstay for food, is being rapidly exter- minated, and they will have to adopt the habits of tlie white man to secure tlie means of sustenance. The object of the Government is to induce them to adopt an agricultural or pastoral life, and to educate their children. This they are eager to do, and already give good earnest of their sincerity. As they are prone to the abuse of alcohol, every precaution is taken to keep " fire-water " out of the land ; schools are provided, agricultural colleges established, the tilling of the soil encouraged, and even justice secured to all. As far as possible they are not treated as a distinct class, but as citizens of the Dominion. They are under the superintendance of the Minister of the Interior, who is the Superintendent- General of Indian affairs, and as such has the charge and care of their lands and property. There are about fifty schools for Indian children established in the Dominion, prin- cipally in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Some of the teachers are paid out of the Indian Fund ; others are supported by various societies. The number of pupils is about two thousand. II !' INDIAN MISSIONS. 567 !•! In the annual report of the Department of the Interior for 1876 the following encouraging statement is made by the Minister of thij Department aa to the condition of the Indians in the Manitoba and the North-West super- intendencies : " The moral and material condition of the Indians in the North-West has been steadily and surely progressing since the North- West Territories were included within the Dominion. The liquor law and the Mounted Police Force have together succeeded in stamping out almost entirely the vice of drunkenness. Crime is com- paratively rare. The irritation and distrust which existed in certain localities, or among particular bands of Indians, have been replaced by an almost universal feeling of contentment, and of gratitude to the Government for its liberality and benevolence." The interesting question of the care of the Indian is attracting much attention, and there are philanthropists and statesman in the United States who join with those in Canada in hopefulness for the result. In this meeting of the eastern and western peoples in the Dominion of Canada, let us hope that the subjects of our noble Queen will recognise a brotherhood with the " untutored Indian," and that so long as " the sun shines and the rivers flow," the faith pledged between them will be maintained. 2. Indian Missions. The Moravian Missions — Government. — The Mora- vians, who first attempted to settle amongst the Eskimos in 1752, founded the station of Nain (56-30 N. lat.) in 1771, and that of Okkak, north of it, in 1776. In the same year the first " medicine man " was baptized. In 1782 was founded Hopedale, the southernmost — in 1838 Hebron, the northernmost — of their stations; and lastly, in 1866, Zoar, between Nain and Hopedale. But V tr 568 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. there would seen to be still some imbaptized Eskimos even in Hopedale. The Christian Eskimos conform to the practices of tlie Moravian community, and are content and grateful for the teachers residing in their midst. Although their conduct may still fall far short of the evangelical precepts, there is nevertheless a great differ- ence between these converted Eskimos and those in the north, who have not yet adopted the Christian religion. 3. Games. The Indians are much addicted to gambling, which they practise generally in a game with small pieces or sticks of wood. This vice leads them, through their impulsive nature, to stake everything they possess, and rather than desist they will part with goods, horses, wives, children, and even their own liberty. Without describing their sports generally, it may be allowed here to introduce a description of their favourite game of Lacrosse, now adopted as the national game of Canada, and attracting much attention abroad. The following account of the game is from the pen of a gentleman connected with the Hudson Bay Company, who has lived a Ufetirae among the Indians of the North- West : — " I first had the pleasure of seeing the gar.:o of Lacrosse played at Fort William, on Lake Superior, in the summers of 1820 and 1821, perhaps in both. It was a favourite pastime amongst the ' Sautteux ;' that is the general French name of the natives in that quarter of the country and around the north shore of Lake Superior, and as far westward as Lake Winnipeg. The Indians themselves style their nation the Ojibiweyuk, including the tribes immediately south of the Crees, or Killisthenaux, who are of cognate extraction and speak a . Wl Wt THE GAME OF "LACROSSE. 569 language of similir derivation, bnt differing in dialect. In the time of the North- West Company, Fort William, like ' La Grande Portage,' was a summer rendezvous of the Ojibiweyuk. At the time referred to we had Indian families camped around us coming from their wintering grounds, close to Fond du Lac, others from the I51aok and Xipigon Bays, and bands from up the Current River towards the Dog Portage, as far as IMille Lacs. These again had connection with the Ojibiweyuk of llainy Lake, where the old Sachem, or head of the tribes, was wont to hold his court in former times, amidst the united bands, from the Vermilion and Eed Lakes to the sources of the Albany River. It may be said, then, that I saw the pure Ojibiweyuk at their favourite pastime of Lacrosse. " I have ever considered the game, as I saw it then played, as peculiar to the Ojibbeway and Cree tribes, anil natives from the same stock. I have understood that it was played at Isle k la Crosse, in English River, a part of the north possessed by the great Cree nation, after they had driven the Chipewyans (quite a different people) back to the Peace River. Lac Isle k la Crosse must have rjot its name from the first Canadians who passed under Frobisher having seen the game played there. " I have never heard of the game being played north of the Crees, nor did I ever see it played on the waters of the Columbia, or at any of the great gatherings of Indians west of the Rocky Mountains. Foot races among men, as well as horse racing, were the principal and absorbing sports there. The Sohauptues and Kayuses were always occupied with these, as well as the Spokans, Ivullespelins, and Flatheads, whenever they met together, whether it might be between iadividuals or in a more extended way between the tribes. The unfriendly terms on which the above-mentioned races were with the numerous Shoshonees or Snake nation prevented any intercourse with them. 1 ^H ' ' ^B 1 i ^H 1 !.1 iiiii^ 570 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. The lattiT were kept to their lands on tlie southern tributaries of the south branch of the Colunil)ia. As for the Indians of tlie ' prairies ' proper — say, the Sioux and their various bands, and the lilackfeet, Piegans, Grog Ventres, etc. — T cannot speak definitely as to their not havin<^ the <,'ame anion<^ them, for I know but little about them ; but 1 have never heard it mentioned in the travels of any one, nor spoken of by those wlio have sojourned amonf^t tliem. And I may say the same of the nations south of the Missouri, the Pawnees, Cheyennes, and Piccarees, and others. Should it be found that any of these prairie tribes possess, or ever possessed, the game of Lacrosse, it would still be a difticult matter to prove whether it had originated with them or with the eastern nations. " The crosse used at Fort William by the Ojibbeways was different in shape from the one usually played with at Fort "William. The stick was of the length of a long walking cane, the wood thinned off at the end until it could be turned to an exact circle, or small hoop slifjhthj larger than the ball. Across this round little hoop were tied two small pieces of whip-cord sufficiently loose to form a bag wherein tlie ball rested, but not deep enough to allow it to sink far in below the middle, but so as to keep it easy for delivery, or the casting of it. The ball when in the air may be sometimes caught in the hoop, and if on the ground has to be lifted up by the hoop being placed over it and a quick turn of the wrist. The principal difficulty appeared to me to consist in keeping the ball within the cup in running, and the throwing of it straight where required. The crosse had to be held obliquely, high in the air, to keep the ball uppermost hv a bend of the wrist. Then in running, at each step the arm had to be moved backward and forward by the action of both shoulder and elbow, so that the ball might not THE GAME OF " LACROSSE." 571 jump out. Even when runniii;T alone this was not easily prevented, Init when the otlier lacrosse sticks wore ruttliiii^ about, the possessor of the ball had a most dilHcult task to keep it. The slightest touch might unshij) the ball. Every opponent had to be dodged in some mode or other, however marvellous, that being the safest game. In delivering the ball to another from the cup, or throwing it to the goal, it was necessary to discharge it with a jerk or check that it might leave the hoop freely and in the direction wanted. "You will perceive that with the cup lacrosse, as with the raquette, a great amount of agility is necessary to play the game well ; but in the matter of stopping the ball in the air, or catching it in the cup, as is sometimes done, great exactness of eye and expertness are called for. This and the projecting the ball freely and straight constitute the most skilful play. I had seen much of cricket, football, and hockey in my day, but I can safely say that I have never witnessed such elasticity and elegant exertion of body and limbs in men as I saw in these pure Ojibbeways at their favourite pastime. As regards the rules or regulations amongst the Indians in playing the game I can say nothing. "I was quite new to the Indian country, and could not speak the language, and left Fort William for the interior, after my second summer there. Any differences or quarrels over the game I cannot recall. I believe there were none. On such occasions of amusement the Indians met each other for enjoyment, and probably on that account their passions were laid still. Many of them had families, with whom a quarrel at such a time would have been all loss and no gain. Besides, quarrels for them were very serious things, and when they did occur, unhappily, were frequently settled with the gun abroad, or the knife or tomahawk if in the camp. This \ a iW ill 572 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. of course would tend to keep tliem gciitlemon in their li^dit sports, and I must say I do not renieniher to have seen any rovyh treatment of each other, or foul play at lacrosse amon<,'st these children of the forest." From this interestinj,' statement it may he inforrod that the game of lacrosse is peculiar to thrj Ojibbcway i/" Algonquin and Iroquois Indiai'S (to whcMU may be adtlcd the Hurons). Wliether this game is of native oiigni or has been derived from the ancestors of the AmeriL >n In "lian cannot be stated. Catlin in his valuable vvork on the American Indian does not mention the game. It is distinctive from " hockey " and " golf," both Celtic games, and to which it bears sonie resemblance, inasmuch as the ball is picked up and carried with the croase. Some one has well remarked tliat the physical and mental characteristics of a people may be inferred from their games and ballads. In this game, where running, throwing, catching, and dodging are developed, it is indicative of a system of life peculiar to a race of hunters and skirmishers whose occu- pations were the chase and war. This game is well suited for outdoor exercise, and is likely to prove an excellent means for training skir- mishers to act in concert or independently. 4. The Mdiis or Mixed Races. The power of France in North America h.is passed away, but the memory of its rdgime still endures through- out the vast territories discovered and colonised by the hardy Canadian pioneers, with the blood, language, and character of a large proportion of its inhabitants. Always the friends of the Indians, the French ex- plorers, traders, and wyagcurs often became iilentified with their interests and fortunes, and freely intermixed witli i: 1' ^iT THE IIALF-BREED8. 573 tlicin. Tlieir mixed blood descendants, found mostly north and west of the «,'reat lakes, scattered thron,,|/;. >ri F \ :^' < Villus (virk ^'^//V-.HV/X^ X, M ■^ ^ '' '■ ' « * * ^P A, . ij'usijuoehi) ^*^V/.».r,V,„Av i. superior/ ^■)cr' • — — y I J <^ \Patnv L . I fre4eru-k. -^^"•owwahrt i*> •'''''"•'*" ■-""//M.V.V < /.. ' t -l-^ i-i-fl a7 Kt, vVi I -Ics Qiii Kt"** i'.'^J i'ort'.j ■■^A R.Te^"^'^'' 4^ »•>"'' v "niakong „ 's >^ 4ilU>i *'i>/r/ V ' •1*' ^ <■ ■ Ji*^ i-k •ra' td^t'"- %>'^' --41 •if>- ',• hurntl,. if JlfJandJ »«•! r^' 'Tradin//, inn |5i^.W.;7/< L,, . . , Stnrvalion jnaucnoift L. £ , , \rj Bair '""//£ 7^- >, . , / J t( (n'ntjnwtthuui/lun L . W/c fl^"* >& ..^-.y; ,' o CatAth, r {• BurrU-L.s \j \rtf ^>''v,. ' i'('*Tvuii"'" i£i V « I*"''*:'' / 1 xSi >^ - >, r.v< .villi;/"''"" V A/KJi?// r '*'"'•■ '•'■ ..i¥. Trwervc fci. '^I'uUjilot naUkiwijifk. •luwii r,f WiJi- jUr.ii;. 1v"'>": •^D ^.^-W-.-L- \sUwa{foiiiif/H >k L. uuiis ■'it <;■ •■'> - «SL •*, % . ^*^ Sw />^ Ktiffti .J "j -o KiuiiisU/vl * (hrUnm ^ ^. 1. iX. Qrand nV ^^j^: \ ■UiiUhiiit "^^ 5^«Cr, V/fc .j\j^g ft" i-^^' . rnin'hfi/il, IT r t»3Srf^ L B wH ict* ail v» '.'f (r <* J'otM V " ^'^^t) ■>i^ ti X^'-^'' 1*0 fjl 7.tinfv/i*rr/:v(7r. /.(pp.-/- bw,/« S^'/ "iP^ / \\iMMcif ) C ■ \. J iJntnuirk ^"v/ SI ^ i/i«*' ^s''^^ <3^ J"*/,. Skiuu '^ !>:;!/;' / • 7 J" -a \"B^".»<'i'«\'^ SayfeJiniorl. ■»**\[i./Jii." -U/O IWmoW .vJo/ ( CiW«Jlr,>,^.L,|„i j \ \ . l%illi{>.ilon t vcrt't )li„rrt l^'^'*" ^ wport Vg^'^ J j^^P^iui, (ft V_ 1 I 7|« ' "P itUUi. 76 rn ^^ Ku.y _- fnuHliuyf.tffkV.lt ... >! TIJ . vk. 1 zlvMei T -y A' »or«a London: Edward Staiiturii, / liVliy, llinufi riymottfh ^>^ '1 ton 'arrf ? i\Miff^ •ven-t )Oitrr. [Spring ifldl^'^ 'Hi X '•*^i. ^*>^ A>»'ojrji>iliV/i PU/y^ sNe^rbury Port S- Mcrrimac R. •?► '•-^^ o . 47 vc*! M Massachusetts r T s I 'nhai»«t_ Bay .1 tM^tn^^ i^ljF*-' • Cod Vfltfleet OHean* Virect } O =P -i T N rr r;|»n n - n'^^Tn ^ T= ei6 ivard Slaiitbrd, 55 Cliarin^' Cross. > \ Hndf,, Aiuuuiplif 1- flAm.B isi'A'"' r A MAP OF THE PROVINCES OF O NTA RIO, QUEBEC, NEW BRUNSWICK, NOVA SCOTIA, and PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND- in the 07 CANADA SofJe of En^iah Miles, ao jg" ■a. N 616 rr T I c LoTil^'iUKld W. 04 ol' (trelnn>V'ich Railwiiyft t/tu.t .»-.--.-- Ifriffht-i in Kniflinh -tWt Suiiuiui I'rtt' TeJeAjrof'k CaJbies ... .^.V.".". .7. F. .'r.'. . iTtjTrm^;2^^ oLnn/brdis Gaog' Estnh\ London,. '".^■J'M~''— wtv * ■.»- — - ^>^ ,.** „l".l '' ffl WM i "T I'.'L.^yj-'.li^w. ■..,.■■■:;.; --JU •:.c u,;^,'gs;-;..^.^\ ^■- ,j„^xj-. tliilil- lllllI.WHllUIMH ■.. ;86 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TPvAVEL. cliff and tlie harbour. This terrace was commenced by Lord Durham and completed by Lord Duff'erin. Several monuments mark the histories of the great battlefield by which the Dominion of Canada fell from France to Britain. These are in the upper town, whilst in the lower town the timber merchant has his office, and along the river on either side are coves for receiving and over- hauling large logs of squared timber, and in the roadstead ride large timber ships ready to receive their freight, and occasionally a vessel of war resting on a peaceful cruise, or paying a friendly visit. Quebec, named by the Indians " Stadacona," was first visited by Cartier in 1535. The city was founded by Champlain in 1608. In 1629 it fell into the hands of the English under Keith, but was restored in 1632 with the rest of Canada. In 1690 an English attack failed, but in 1759 it was conquered by Wolfe. In 1775 the Americans under IMontgomery failed in their attack, and lost their brave leader. It is not the seaport of the St. Lawrence, nor is it commercially a progressive city, although its position is favourable and its citizens not wanting in enterprise. Possibly the new railway lines with which it is identify- ing itself, and the industries, — specially in the manu- facture of beetroot sugar, — as well as the introduction of French capital, may stiumlate them to advance more rapidly. Meanwhile, Canada without its Quebec would be incomplete, and the Frencli Canadians without a home. Quebec is the see of the Eoman Catholic archbishops, and the cliief French University, namely that of Laval, is in this city. If the English population of Canada excel in scientific and practical work, the French distinguish themselves in literature, in the professions, and in music ..J iMum ed by leveral eld Ly lice to in the [ along 1 over- idstead [it, and cruise, Ji as first ded by ands of 2 with : failed, '75 the ,ck, and nor is position terprise. dentify- 1 nianu- Lction of se more ould be home, ibishops, if Laval, jxcel ill itinguish n music ,!;, Mmmii^^ iifi!l!ir":if!ii|j|i| ""% ^^■V'V.- ••:.;,■:;., MONTREAL. 587 m 1 1' now as they did in chivalry and in explorations nndor tho French n'r/ime ; and Quebec is the C(iiitre around which the associations of the past circle and the representatives uf the old noblesse delight to conj^'regate. As a city where hospitality is dispensed by the hand of beauty, Quebec stands unrivalled in America. Quebec is in lat. 46° 49' K, long. 71° 13' 45" AV., is 200 miles from the mouth of the St. Lawrence at Point des IMonts, 180 miles N.E. of Montreal, and 328 miles N.N.W. of Portland. fm 6. Montreal (Qitchec). ]\Iontreal, the chief city in the province of Quebec, and the present commercial and linancial centre of the Dominion, with its population of 140,082, is the lar'^jst and most attractive city in Canada. It is situated in hit. 45° 31' N., long. 73° 34' W., on the soutliern shore of the island of the same name, at the junction of ocean and river navigation, and is the sunnner seaport of the vast inland system of the St. Lawrence river and lakes, [t is 620 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, 180 miles south-west of Quebec, 320 due north of New York, and has extensive railway connections with the whole Dominion of Canada and with the United States. Tlie island of Montreal is a beautiful and fertile island 32 miles long by 8 to 10 miles wide, lying at the confluence of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers ; and the city, whether seen from the river front, where the St. Lawrence is about 2 miles wide, or from the park covering the heights of Mount Eoyal, about 2 miles back from the river, has a picturesque and imposing appearance. The harbour stretches from the entrance of the Lachine Canal at the west, to i town of Hochelaga on the east, a distance of about 3 miles, and is lined by a raised roadway or terrace 588 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AND TRAVEL. fronted with a parapet u? masoniy, and backed by ware- houses. Behind tliis roadway the city is built on a succession of gently-rising terraces, surmounted imme- diately in rear by the wooded heights of Mount Royal, 720 feet above the level of the river St. Lawrence. Tlie buildings are imposing, and with their material of grey marble and tinue burned the Parliamentary buildings, which were situated on the site of the present St. Ann's Market, and the seat of government was in consequence removed to Kingston, and then, by alternation, to Quebec and Toronto, and finally to Ottawa. In July 18 5 2 a destructive five laid waste a large part of the city, burning 1108 houses, and destroying property valued at Jj^ 1,3 03,204. in ISlJl) MONTREAL. 591 the city was visited 1 )y the Prince of Wales, in 1 8 G 2 by the Dnke of Edinbnrgli, and in 18(3 9 Prince Arthnr made it his residence for several months. The Htjtel- Dieu was founded in 1644 by Madame de Bouillon, and six years afterwards the Convent of Notre ])ame was founded by Mademoiselle ]\Iarguerite de Bourj^eois. The island of ^lontreal, originally granted in fief by the King of France to the company of the Cent Assuci^s, was restored to the Crown, and in 1033 was conferred on the Order of St. Sulpice of Paris, who estal)lislied a branch in jMontreal. After the conquest tliis local branch claimed the right of representation of the parent society. This claim was objected to, and it was not until 1840 that an ordinance was passed confirming their claim, but at the same time providing for the gradual extinction of this seignorial burden. Hubserpient legislation has been adopted for the early and complete extinction of the feudal system, but the Seminary of St. Sulpice by this grant has become a very wealthy corporation in the city of ^Montreal. Tlie two oldest churches in ^Montreal are the Bonse- cnurs (lioman Catholic) and St. Gabriel (Clmrch of Scot- land). The former was erected in 1658, was burnt in 1764, but rebuilt in 1771 ; the latter was built in 1792. ]\b)ntreal is surrounded by villages, whose population numbers over 40,000. ]\Iontreal is the see of the Anglican as well as of the Pioman Catholic l)isliops of JNEontreal. The Englisli cathe- dral here is one of the finest specimens of church archi- tecture on the continent. As ]\lontreal merchants were the pioneers in steam- shi]) and railway enterprise in Canada, so are they still the leaders in industrial progress and connnercial exten- sion, both home and foreign. Witli much conservatism, they nevertheless anticipate, initiate, and make liberal ;:li 592 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. provision for utilising and maintaining the natural facili- ties which their position affords, and they fully appreciate the fact that trade established in a certain route continues naturally therein. It will not he their fault if in com- mercial rivalry with their sister cities they do not make great additions to their present trade, and render this city of the Dominion of Canada what New York is to the United States — its financial centre and commercial capital for all time to come. It is now becoming as much the centre of the vast system of railway traffic for the Dominion and with the United States, as it is the seaport of the Dominion. 7. Ottawa {Ontario). Ottawa, in the province of Ontario, and the capital of the Dominion of Canada, was in 1858, on the reference of the parliament of the old province of Canada, elected by Her Majesty the Queen as the seat of government, and under the Confederation Act has been continued as the Dominion capital. It is beautifully situated on the right or southern bank of the Ottawa, here 150 feet above the river, and ac the confluence of the Rideau and Ottawa rivers. It is immediately below the falls of the Chaudiore, once beautifid in a state of nature, but now surrounded and almost hidden by immense saw-mills and timber slides, which indicate the industrial character of the poj^ulation, and the extent of the timber trade, but certainly mar the aesthetic appearance of this once picturesque cascade. The city has a population of 27,417, which is rapidly increasing, not only on account of its industrial advan- tages as the great entrepot of the timber trade, but also by reason of the attractions of a capital, with its re})re- sentative of the Crown, its ministers, statesmen, aud PT ■• ■^^■"■^"'F OTTAWA. 50.". ['acili- eciate :iniies coni- make r this is to iiercial departmental bureaux, all occupied in the management and organisation of a vast country. Again, the I j- minion Parhament Lilnvary, the Geological and Natural History Survey Museum, and the Art Academy, are special attractions in making Ottawa a literary, scientific, and art centre. During the war of 1812 with the United States, it was found that gunboats were exposed on their way through the St. Lawrence to the great lakes, between tlie point wliere tlie international boundary strikes the St. Lawrence Eiver near Cornwall and J\.ii'gston at the entrance to Lake Ontario. To obviate this, Colonel V>y, an officer of the Royal Engineers, planned the route by the Ottawa River, across tlie peninsula, using the Rideau Elver and a succession of lakes to Kingston. This route was adopted, the Rideau Canal with its succession of locks was constructed, and in 1827 a commencement was made under the name of Bytown, of the present city, which was changed in 1854 to Ottawa. Tlie Houses of Parliament, by their prominent location, size, and architectural beauty, necessarily con- ptitute a striking object in the appearance of this city. They stand on the old " BaiTack Hill," overlooking the river Ottawa, and cover, with the ornamental grounds surrounding them, about 25 acres. The foundation stone was laid by H.R.H. the Prince of Wales in 18 GO. The style is Italian Gothic. The main building 500 feet long, and the two departmental buildings each 375 feet in length, form an open parallelogram, in rear of which stands a beautiful semi-detached octagonal library building. The several erections cover 4 acres, cost 64.000,000, and are specimens of modern architecture which would do credit to any country. In fact it would be dilHcult to indicate any other recent structure of which the general effect is more harmonious or striking. 2 Q ■ \ 594 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Ottawa is a curious example of transformation from a lumberman's shanty to a beautiful city, and this within a space of fifty years. Ottawa is in lat. 45° 25' 59" K, long. 75° 42' 4" W., and 126 miles W.N.W. of Montreal, 95 miles N.N.E. of Kingston, and 450 miles from New York. The town of New Edinburgh forms a suburb of the city, lying about two miles to the east of it, and is the centre of attraction in a social point of view, as at the Government House, now occupied by the Governor-General, the Marquis of Lome, and H.R.H. the I'rincess Louise, is disj)ensed royal hospitality, coupled with a fostering care of art and literature, and crowned, as is the home of their royal mother, by a noble Christian example. " It needs no royalty to hedge her round AVlio stands supreme in woman's grace." 8. Kingston {Ontario). Kingston, a city of Ontario, at one time the capital of Upper Canada, situated at the outlet of Lake Ontario, 172 miles west of Montreal, lat. 44° 12' K, long. 7G° 41' W. The city occupies the site of the old Fort Frontenac on the north-east shore of the river (opposite Wolfe Island), which here enters the lake. The west shore is bold, and shipping of any size may lie here in perfect safety. I^ast of the bay the land projects southward, terminating in l*oint Frederick, or Navy Island, beyond which is Haldi- mand Cove, a deep basin of water protected by this point on the west, and Point Henry on the east, and guarded from southerly winds by Wolfe Island in front. Kingston is, after Quebec and Halifax, the strongest fort in the Dominion of Canada. There is a fort on Missessaga Point, and all other accessible points are secured by batteries. There are extensive military works on Navy KINGSTON. 595 L'om a vitliiu t" W., J.E. of )VV11 of about ractiou se, now Lome, I royal xrt and tr royal Point, and on Point Henry is a fortress which completely commands the harboiir and town. A long bridj^e across ("ataraqui Bay connects Kingston with Pittsburg, besides which there are the su1)urbs of Barrietield French village and Williamsville. The city is reguhirly laid out with streets crossing each other at right angles. It is chiefly built of blue limestone, which underlies the town. The streets are lighted with gas, and the houses are partly supplied with water. The Kideau Canal, connecting this port with the Ottawa Eiver, has made Kingston a place of considerable commercial importance. A settlement was begun here by the French, by De Courcelles, as early as 1672, under the name of Fort Cataraqui, and the fort subsequently received the name of Fort Frontenac in honour of the French count of that name. This fort was afterwards in the possession of the French and the Indians, until it was destroyed by the expedition under Colonel Bradstrut in 1758. In 1762 the place fell into the hands of the British, from whom it received its present name. It was incorporated as a city in 1838. Population (Census 1881), 14,093. Kingston is a see of the Anglican and Roman Catholic bishops. A military college, adopting an organisation and curriculum similar to Woolwich, and under the direction of officers of the British service, has been established here for the purpose of training officers to take charge of the public works of Canada, and protect them if necessary with military defences. There are now about 100 cadets, to whom four prizes are annually offered of commissions in the British army. The other cadets who graduate are much sought for as civil engineers. It was at this place that La Salle built the first vessel for the navigation of the lakes. It was, however, lost on its first trip. 596 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. 9. Toronto (Ontario). Toronto, formerly York, is the capital of the Province of Ontario, and the leading commercial city of Western Canada. It is situated on Lake Ontario, behind a sand- bar which affords shelter to a large and safe harbour, and is in latitude 43° 49' 4" K, longitude 79° 31' 5" W., 333 miles W.S.W. of Montreal, 161 miles from Kingston, 39 miles N. by E. from Hamilton, and 500 miles N.W. of Washington. Its proximity to the waters of the great lakes renders the climate here milder than in Mon- treal. The mean temperature of the year is 44° 4'; winter 26° 4', summer 63° 8' Fahrenheit^ The bay is entered by a narrow opening, and is separated from the lake by a low peninsula, about 6 miles long, flanking a bay one mile and a half across. The site of the town is low, but rises gently from the water's edge, the observatory being 108 feet above the level of the lake. The streets are wide, and are laid out verv regularly. The buildings are substantially built, chiefly of white brick ; and many of them, particularly the pubhc ones, are of very good architectural design. There are several well-built common schools and grammar schools. In connection with higher education there is the Uuiveriiity of Toronto, one of the finest buildings on the .'ontinent of America, and reckoned second to none on this side of the Atlantic as a seat of learning. It is of Norman architecture, with a massive tower and richly-sculptured doorway for its main entrance. It is beautifully situated at the western side of the Queen's Park — a noble public park for the recreation of the citizens, whose spacious avenues are ornamented with rows of statelv trees. There is a monument erected here in honour of those Toronto volunteers who fell in defence of their country during the first attempted invasion of -#P kH>iVl'VI I ¥1." TORONTO. 597 Cancada by the Fenians in 1866. Trinity College is finotlier educational institution, in connection with the Kl)isco])alian Church ; and there is also Knox College for the theological training of students in connection with the Canada Presbyterian Church. The Upper Canada College is an extensive range of buildings, and has a high repute as a grammar school and boarding school for boys. There are two schools of medicine, each having its staff of professors. There is also an ably-conducted Veterinary College. Toronto was founded by Governor Simcoe in 1794. Parliamentary buildings were erected, and the Legislature assembled there for the first time in 1797. In 1813 it was captured by the Americans under General Pilce, who was killed in storming the fort ; but it was held only for a few days. Since that period the city has made steady progress, and has assumed considerable importance as a mart of trade and commerce. In 1834 it was incor- porated as a city, and its name changed from York to Toronto. Population (Census 1881), 80,445. Toronto is a see both of Anglican and Eonian Catholic bishops of Toronto. Toronto has increased in population more rapidly than any of the older cities of Canada, and had in 1871 but 56,092. This progress is due mainly to the rich agricultural country by which it is surrounded, the rail- way facilities it afibrds, the shipping by the lake ports to and from the United States, and the enterprise of its citizens and merchants. The citizens of Toronto are not admirers of their French brethren in the Province of Quebec, and are per- liaps somewhat inclined to provincialism. They are extending their railways to tap the great North-West Territories, and hope to become the "^nmercial centre of the Dominion. 598 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAI'IIY AND TUAVEL. Whatever be tlie relative proj^ress of tlie city as compared with others, it is certain to he deservedly j^a-eat ; and its educational facilities, the pride of the ]*]ii^Hsli population, are hearing tlieir fruits in the rapid advance of the whole province of Ontario, and the consetiuuiit importance of Toronto as its natural centre. 10. Winnipeg {Manitoba). "Winnipeg, or Fort Garry, the seat of government of the Province of Manitoba, is situated at the junction of the Assiniboine with the Red Eiver, in latitude 49° 55' north, longitude 97° 8' west. It is 40 miles south of the lake of the same name, 65 miles north of Pembina, the frontier town of the United States on the lied Paver, and 1180 miles north- west of Montreal, vid the Canadian Pacific Pvailvvay, but 1843 miles by the United States route. It is the representative city of Central Canada, and of the great North- West, and has sprung suddenly into existence, resembling in this respect Chicago and San Francisco in the United States, and Melbourne in Aus- tralia. Prior to 1870 it was an important post and the headquarters of the Hudson Bay Company, where the Governor, Sir George Simpson, had been accustomed to summon an annual council of the officers of the Company. At that time it had a population of about 300 souls, many of whom were descendants of the early settlers under the Earl of Selkirk, and many were half-breeds. All trade was then monopolised by the Hudson Bay Company ; from hence the hunter started on his buffalo hunt, and to this point he returned to enjoy the gaieties of society. Within the last six years, owing to the knowledge of the resources of the country, and to improved facilities of II IM «'«•■«*' WINNIPEG. 599 ity as •ireat ; Mi^lisli dvance Tient of iction of 49° 55' le name, 1 of tlie :s north - way, but a, and of Illy into and ftau in Aus- and tlie lere the ,oined to onipauy. 00 souls, settlers df-breeds. son Bay us buffalo le gaieties wledge of icilities of access through the United States, it has increased to 15,000 ; but as railway connection is now completed with the older provinces of Canada, and an innnigration and land fever is raging, it is quite probable that it will double its present population within twelve months. What gold was to California and Australia, wheat is to IManitoba ; the harvests of the latter, however, attract- ing a class of settlers superior to the former, and ail'urding more certain and satisfactory returns. Of this new and vast field for enterprise, in whicli failure is not dreamt of, Winnipeg is the centre of attrac- tion and radiation. The Canadian Pacific Itailway here crosses the Eed Kiver, and the latter river, as well as the Assiniboine, drain the golden harvests gatliered over wide stretches of territory. Moreover, branch railways and radiating lines are being rapidly built, and more are pro- jected. Even the trade by the Great Xorthern or Hud- son Strait route is sought to be attracted here by a railway to Churchill. The construction of all these rail- ways, and particularly of the great transcontinental road, leads to large disbursements of money, and every one here is busy in making his fortune, if not his " home." The Anglican and Roman Catholic missionaries had wisely established churches, schools, and colleges, and now under the direction of a joint board Winnipeg pos- sesses in the University of Manitoba a well-managed and well-attended university, with the Most lieverend Robert ]\Iachray, the metropolitan of Rupert's Land, as Chan- cellor, The city also enjoys municipal institutions, civic government, and legislative halls, like the older capitals. Winnipeg is situated on a " dead level " prairie on the left bank of the Red River, which river, as well as the Assiniboine, has eroded broad but ditch-like gulleys through the alluvial plain. The prospects from the city are extensive, but far GOO COMPENDIUM OP GEOGUAPIIY AND TRAVEL. from picturesque. The streets are wide and long, and may be extended indefinitely. The first houses were all l)uilt of wood. The new ones are of stone, or chiefly brick, for which the chiys in the neighl)ourhood afford abundant material. Some of these buildings are of superiur style, and building ()})erations, considerable though they be, fail to su])])ly the wants of the i)e(»ple. ]>y the time that the present excessive stimulus given by railway construction has abated, Winnipeg will be fully estal)lished as the commercial centre of the villages, towns, and cities springing up all over this vast country, and will doubtless even then maintain its supremacy. Such at least is the belief of the people, and this faith materially help.-> to secure the anticipat(jd result. 11. Victoria {British Columlia). Victoria, the seat of government and capital of British Columbia, is situated near the south-east ex- tremity of Vancouver Island, where the adjoining strait of Juan de Fuca is 17 miles in breadth. It is 14o miles from Olympia (Puget Sound), 3 '20 miles from Portlaiul (Oregon), and 3000 miles from Monti-eal. Latitude 48° 25' 20" north, longitude 123° 22' 34" west. The surroundings of Victoria are singularly beautiful. To the south is a wide stretch of sea closed by the mag- nificent range of the Olympian Mountains. To the east- ward is Mount Baker, which at a distance of nearly 100 miles rears its snowy peak amidst the clouds. To the westward is a wide stretch of sea, bounded on one side by the Olympian range, and on the other by the mountains of Vancouver ; whilst to the north are ranges of hills and mountains, prominent amongst which, and within five or six miles of the town, are the peaks of jMount Tolmie and Cedar JMountain. From these heiuhts the most beautiful VICTORIA. 601 , and re all ] trick, utlant style, )e, fail 1 given /ill bo illages, ountvy, cy- lis faitl^ pital of east ex- y strait 3 miles Portlanil ude 48° cantifvd. die mag- the east- udy 100 To the side by lountains hills and 1 five ov Imie and beautiful panoramic vinvs of the southern end of the island, the surrounding ocean, the Olympian liange, and the coast range on the mainland, far away to the westward, may be obtained. The country in the neighbourhood of Victoria is remarkably picturesque, with its parks of aged oaks, its inlets, bays, and l)eaches, and groves filled with a profu- sion of roses, ferns, and wild flowers. The climate re- sembles that of the south of England, being clear, cool, and fresh during the summer, and mild in the winter. Three miles from Victoria is the harbour of Esqui- mault, one of the finest on the Pacific coast. Here is the Pacific station of North America for the British Xavy, with a graving dock capable of admitting vessels of the largest size. The city boasts of some good streets, with fine drives over excellent roads, in various directions. Adjoining the town a large extent of ground has been reserved for a public park. This picturesque locality, known as Beacon Hill, borders on the strait. Here is the public racecourse and cricket ground. On the outskirts of the town are many attractive residences, and every cottage displays its ])retty garden. There is very little of the past to record of this youthful city, as it was not until the capital had been removed here from New Westminster that it became the chief city of British Columbia. Nova Scotia was said to be somewhere " east of sun- rise," and British Columljia " west of sunset." The Canadian Pacific road Avill, however, soon link these distant provinces ; and as Halifax will represent the one on the Atlantic, so Victoria will represent the other on the Pacific, and this citv will doubtless have a future and satisfactory history when the rail-car shall traverse the continent, and the steam-ship lines now being prepared shall carry the merchandise of the East to it,s wharves. C02 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AND TRAVEL. ik 12. Kew Westminster {British Culionhia). Now \Vostininst(!r, the former ca])itiil of TJritisli Colmiil)iii, is beautifully situatiid on the north biuik of the Fraser lliver, 75 miles from Victoria. Latitude 49 12' 47", longitude 122° 5:3' west. At present the princi])al industry is salmon -fishin;,'. Salmon, sturf^eon of fal)ulous size, trout, and otlufr kinds of fish, are cau«;ht in f^reat abundance. New Westminster, when the capital, was a ])rosperons and busy place; since the removal of the seat of government to Victoria it lias materially decreased in business and population, but nothinj,' can deprive it of its magnificent site, .and of its fine climate and scenery. The steamers from Vancouver Island make it their forwarding statit)n for all passengers and freight from al)road ; and the river steamers their headquarters .vheiice they convey passengers and freight to Yale, 100 miles distant, the head of navigation on the Fraser River, and supply the demands of the whole of the interior, liurrard Inlet, one of the finest harbours (tn the Pacific coast, and the ])roposed terminus of the Canadian I'acific Iiailway, is only a few miles from New Westminster. Population, 4000. Tabulau Statement of the Population of Pbincipal Cities. Census 1881. Province of New Brunswick — St. .John . . 26,128 'Fredricton . . 6,218 Province of Nova Scotia — ^Halifax . . . 36,102 Province of Prince Edward Island — 'Charlottctowu . , 11,485 Summersido , . 2,853 Province of Quebec — Montreal . . . 140,682 'Quebec . . 62,447 Province of Quebec — Three Rivers Levis Slicrbrooke Hull St Henri . Sorel St. Hyncinthe . Province of Ontario — ^Toronto Haniilton . . 9,296 7,597 7,227 6,890 6,415 5,792 5,314 86,445 85,9t)5 1 Provincial Capital. :f^»|'^';,io:|;;S[]i'f Ivitish ink ol' Ae 49^ it tho cau, juxed to establish a settlement at Tadousac. All these eflbrts failed, and the first per- manent settlements made were those of the French iu 606 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. 1605 at Port Royal in Acadia, and at Quebec in 1608, and the English settlement at St. John's, Newfoundland, in 1613. Constant wars were waged between the French colo- nists of New France, as Canada was then called, and the English colonists of New England. Quebec was taken by Kertk in 1629. Louisbourg was captured for the second time in 1758, and althougli the greater part of Canada was actually wrested from the French by the English more than once, prior to its final capture in 1759, it was always restored to France. Pending the struggles, a deportation of about 6000 Acadians took place from Acadia to the several English colonies to the south. These French colonists would neither take the oath of allegiance to England nor observe the duties of neutrals, and in spite of the sentiment in their favour, which has obtained poetical expression in the pleasing fiction of " Evangeline," their expulsion from the country was a political necessity. Parkman, in his charming history of the French r Imi)t)rial authorities, which i)(jiiitcd to u federal uiiioii (jf the provinces as a solution of the grave dilliculties which ]>resent(!d themselves in carrying on the Queen's govern- ment in Canada. The defeat and subsequent resignation of the Derby-Disraeli Ministry in England prevented any decisive action at that time on the part of the Imperial authorities. A resolution favoural)le to union was passed unani- mously by the Nova Scotia Parliament in April 18G1, and having been transmitted to the Colonial Ollice, was forwarded by the Duke of Newcastle, the then Cidonial Secretary, in a des])atch, dated Gth July 18G2, to the Governor-Ceneral, and to the Lieutenant-Governors of the several provinces. His Grace, after stating that Her Majesty's Government was not pre])ared to announce any definite policy on a question which had been taken up by only one province, expressed his own oj^inion in the following M'ords : — " If a union, either partial or com- plete, should hereafter be proposed with the concurrence of all the provinces to be united, I am sure that the matter would be weighed in this country both by the public, by Parliament, and by Her Majesty's Govern- ment, with no other feeling than an anxiety to discern and promote any course which might be the most con- ductive to the prosperity, the strength, and the harmony of all the British communities in North America." The Lieutenant-Governors of the several provinces brought the subject before their respective legislatures, at the commencement of their several sessions of 18G4, for the purpose of appointing delegates to confer as to the practicability of establishing a legislative union between the Maritime Provinces. Delegates were accordingly appointed by the Govern- ments of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince HISTORY OF THE FEPKIfAL IINIOX. 613 to tlu> union of iS which jToveru- signutiou )rcvetitu(l t of the 3(1 nnani- ril 1801, )tUce, was I Colonial 12, to the lors of the that Her lounce any liken lip hy ion in the al or com- -oncun-ence •e that the oth by the ^'s Govern- y to discern most cou- le harmony >» ;iea. al provinces _;islatvires, at 3f 1864, for ;r as to the jion between the Govern- and rriiice Edward Island, and it was arranged thai on U'C Isl of Si'j)teinl>t'r they slioidd meet at Charlottetown. iMeanwhile Canadian statesmen were en^ai^cd in eon- sicU-rin^ the feasibility of effecting sneh clianLjcs in tiieir constitution as would reconcile the contlicting interests of the eastern and western seetions of the ])V()vin(i'. Tarty government had becinne wellnigli ini])(»ssil)lo, and ministry after ministry had to retire from the seemingly hfipelesa attempt at eaiTying on the government, when, on the defeat of the Taehe-jMacdonald ministry, in June 18G4, overtures were made by the leaders of the J^eform party to the Hon. John A. INIaedonald with a view to the settle- ment of the sectional dilliculties by the adoption of a federative system, applying either to Canada or to all the Ih'itish Xorth American Trovinces. These overtures were cordially received, and the result was the formation of a coalition govennnent, pledged to the introduction of the federal system, ]*>y a fortnnate coineidenec, within a month of the formation of the coalition ministry in Canada, the Charlottetown Conference was arranged, and the Canadian Government hastened to ask permission to send delegates. Their request was promptly comjilied with, and, in accordance Avith previcms arrangement, on the 1st September the delegates met at Charlottetown. The Canadian delegates, not having been authorised to consider the question of a 'sUifivc union, were informally present. The proposal to unite the Maritime Provinces in a legislative union was looked upon as impracticable ; but the delegates were unanimously of opinion that a union on a larger hasis might be effected ; and for the purpose of considering the possibility of a federal union and its necessary details, the Canadian I^finisters proposed that a fnrther conference should be l.eld at Quebec, subject to the consent of the govern- ments of the Maritime Provinces, and at such time as IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I - IIIIIM 5 "l"== IIM - m 22 m t m 1 ^^ 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 1 < 6" ► V/ ^ /a /y '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation m 4^ % \ S^. «> \\ ^^^' >» ^^ ^ \'- 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. )4SB0 (716) 872-4503 &?. ($> ^%w ip^ b- o^ « 614 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL. His Excellency the Governor-General might name. This arrangement being agreed to, the Charlottetown Conference suspended its deliberations. The delegates to the Intercolonial Conference at Quebec met in the Parliament Buildings on Mondoy, the 10th of October ; the whole of the members, thirty-three in number, being present. There were seven delegates from New Brunswick, five from Nova Scotia, seven from Prince Edward Island, two from Newfoundland, and twelve, comprising the whole Canadian Ministry, repie- senting Canada. The conference sat eighteen days in Quebec, and the result of their deliberations was the famous " Seventy- two Eesolutions," which, in accordance with the final resolution, were authenticated by the signatures of the delegates, and were ordered to be submitted by each delegation to its own government, the chairman submit- ting a copy to the Governor-General for transmission to the Secretary of State for the Colonies. After a tour through Canada, during which the delegates from the Maritime Provinces were fUed in princely style, they separated, each delegation being pledged to use every legitimate means to ensure the adoption of the scheme by their several legislatures, and by the Imperial Government. The Canadian Legislature met in January 1865. On the 3d of February Sir E. P. Tache in the Legislative Council, and Hon. J. A. Macdonald in the House of Assembly, simultaneously moved : — '* That an humble address be presented to Her Majesty, praying that slie may be graciously pleased to cause a measure to be sub- mitted to the Imperial Parliament for the purpose of uniting the Colonies of Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island, in one government, with provisions based on certain resolu- HISTORY OF THE FEDERAL UNION. 615 tions which were adopted at a conference of delegates from the said colonies, held at the city of Quebec on the 10th October 1864." After a debate of over a fort- night's duration, the resolutions were adopted in the council on the 20th of February, by a vote of forty-five to fifteen ; and in the Assembly, after a most exhaustive and exhausting five weeks' debate, tliey were agreed to on the 10th of March, by a vote of ninety-one to thirty- three. After the close of the session in April 1865, the Hon. Messrs. Brown, Cartier, J. A. Macdonald, and Gait proceeded to England, in order to confer v/ith the Imperial authorities upon the subject of confederation and other matters connected therewith of colonial and national importance. The Imperial Government again renewed their assurances of their approval of the con- federation scheme, and their desire to promote its adop- tion by every legitimate means. In New Brunswick the Quebec scheme was brought before the people at the general election in March 1865, and a House of Assembly hostile to that scheme was chosen. An anti-confederation ministry came into power, and things looked ill for a speedy success of the union cause. However, after events proved that the real sentiments of the people of New Brunswick upon the subject of confederation had not been obtained, and that the elections of 1865 had been carried in a great measure by side issues. Ultimately a resolution was adopted in both Houses favourable to confederation, and thus the question was settled so far as the Government and Legislacure of New Brunswick were able to further it. To Nova Scotia belongs the honour of having taken the initiatory steps which led to the adoption of the con- federation scheme. In the session of 1861 a resolution which received the unanimous assent of the Legislature 616 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. was the means of bringing about the Convention at Charlottetown, which, as has been seen, resulted in an adjournment to Quebec. After the Quebec Conference, the Government of Nova Scotia took no immediate steps for the furtherance of the confederation scheme. Early in 1866, however, the following resolution was submitted to the House of Assembly by Hon. Dr. Tupper, and carried by a considerable majority : — " Whereas, in the opinion of this House it is desirable that a confederation of the British North American Colonies should take place: " Resolved therefore. That His Excellency the Lieu- tenant-Governor be authorised to appoint delegates to arrange with the Imperial Government a scheme of union which will effectually insure just provision for the rights and interests of this province. Each pro- vince to have an equal voice in such delegation, Upper and Lower Canada being for this purpose considered as separate provinces." In Newfoundland the subject of confederation was brought before the Legislature by His Excellency the Governor in his speech at the opening of the session, 30th January 1866 ; and the House in Committee of the whole on the address in reply to His Excellency adopted the following paragraph in answer thereto, 16 th February 1866, Mr. Knight in the chair : — " On the important question of confederation, in recognising the solicitude of Her Majesty's Government for the welfare of this colony, we concur in the view of your Excellency that the abstract advantages of union are so obvious as to be almost necessarily acknowledged; whilst with regard to this colony and on the details of so grave a measure it is natural that much diversity of opinion should prevail. This is a matter which shall engage our serious attention." HISTORY OF THE FEDERAL UNION. 617 L at I an snce, steps iarly itted and Lrable jrican Lieu- ;es to rae of )n for 1 pro- Upper ;red as m was cy the ession, of the opted bruary ion, in rnment view of lion are ledged ; ils of so rsity of ih shall On the 8 th March the House of Assembly, after sitting in Committee of the whole House for several days, adopted the following resolution : — " Whereas this House has recently, in reply to the speech of His Excellency the Governor, on opening the present session, abstained from pronouncing any decision on the proposal for a union of the colonies, or on the details of the measure as regards this colony, and consider- ing the present uncertain state of public sentiment on this grave question, and being unadvised of the action thereon that may be tak^n or contemplated by the other provinces : "Resolved, That wliilst duly regardful of tlie moment- ous character of this subject, and of the promise to His Excellency to give it attention, yet, as no information has been received demanding its immediate reconsidera- tion, this House does not deem it expedient to enter upon its discussion with a view to any decision thereon." Had the course which was shortly afterwards taken by New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, in appointing delegates to confer with the Imperial Go\'ernment, been adopted somewhat sooner, or had the meeting of the Legislature of Newfoundland taken place a few montlis later, so as to give the members an opportunity of know- ing what was being done on the subject of confederation in the sister colonies, it is more than probable that a similar course would have been adopted in Newfoundlantl. The Legislature of Prince Edward Island repudiated the action of its delegates at the Quebec Conference, and that island was the latest province received into the Dominion. Just about the time of the final struggle in Nova Scotia, the Legislature and people of British Columbia were taking steps to secure their admission into the sisterhood of colonies forming the new Dominion. On the 18th of March the Legislative Council of that pro- vince unanimously adopted a resolution expressive of their 618 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. desire that British Columbia should be admitted into the Canadian Confederation. And on the 19tli March, at a large public meeting in Victoria, Vancouver Island, resolutions were adopted urging that steps should be immediately taken for the furtherance of the wishes of the colony in that direction. During the summer of 1866 the colonies who had pronounced in favour of confederation made arrangements for the meeting of a conference of delegates from the several provinces to settle the details and determine the precise terms of the Act giving effect to the union of the provinces of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, which should be submitted for adoption by the Imperial Parliament, The several Governments duly appointed delegates, and these gentlemen met, according to the appointment, in London, early in December 1866, and immediately proceeded to business. The Hon. John A, Macdonald was elected chairman by the unanimous voice of the conference, and for several weeks they were engaged late and early in their arduous task of framing a nation's constitution. Lord Carnarvon afterwards bore testimony to the statesmanlike qualities which were dis- played in the settlement of sectional difficulties, the unravelling of knotty points, the mutual forbearance and the zeal and assiduity displayed during the prolonged sittings of the conference. The Imperial Parliament met on the 5th of February 1867. On the 7th the Bill for the Confederation of the North American Provinces was introduced into the House of Lords by Lord Carnarvon, the then Colonial Secretary, and was received with approbation by all parties. On the 19 th it was read a second time, was passed through Com- mittee of the whole House on the 2 2d, and on the 26th February was read a third time. It was at once brought down to the House of Commons, and on the 28 th tj p| aj l{ Bl li P^ 01 Bj til] ofl sei ■ THE DOMINION Oi CANADA " PROCLAMATIOX. G 1 9 'ebruary 1 of the e House Bcretary, On the jh Corn- he 26th brought lie 28th Februaiy was moved to a second reading. After a long and interestmg debate, during vvhicli no member of any prominence, with the exception of Mr. Jhight, opposed tlie measure, the motion was agreed to without a division. It passed through Committee of tliC whole House on the 4th of March, and was read a third time and finally passed the House of Commons on the 8th of JNIarch. On the 28th of that month it received the royal assent and became one of the laws of the empire. The name cliosen for the united provinces was " The Dominion of Canada," Upper Canada to be henceforth called Ontario and Lower Canada Quebec. The work of legislation being finally completed. Her Majesty was graciously pleased to issue her proclamation on the 2 2d of May, declaring that tlie Dominion of Canada should commence its existence on the 1st of July 1867, and appointing the members of the Senate. By this proclamation the two provinces of old Canada, now designated Ontario and Quebec, were united with Nova Scotia and New Brunswick under the name of the Dominion of Canada. On the 15th July 1870 the vast territories in the occupation of the Hudson Bay Com- pany were incorporated with the Dominion, which ex- tinguished the title of the Company by a considerable payment, and assumed the formal Imperial responsibilities attendant on the management and control of the numerous Indian tribes of the interior. On the 20th July 1871 British Columbia entered the Confederation, and on the 1st July 1873 Princ'3 Edward Island joined her sister provinces, thus finally completing the consolidation under one Federal Parliament and Government of the entire British possessions in North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, with the single exception of the island of Newfoundland, which thus far has maintained its separate political existence. 620 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Under this Act the complete control of everything pertaining to their internal affairs was conferred upon the people, subject only to their allegiance to a common sovereign, and their duties as members of the British Empire. These powers are exercised under tlie Federal system, by which the united Parliament, consisting of the Governor -General as the representative of the Queen, with the Senate and House of Commons, enact all the laws in which the public at large may be said to have a common interest, such as trade and commerce, navigation, fisheries, indirect and direct taxation, postage, criminal law, and the establishment of a suitable government for the vast regions of the interior. Under the United States system the Central Govern- ment is the delegate of the sovereign States, whilst under the Canadian Confederation the ImperiaL/rovernment is supreme, and has delegated to the Dominion and Provin- cial Parliaments a limited sovereignty, with control in the departments entrusted to them respectively. It was feared that the heavy strain put on the Ameri- can constitution by the late civil war would have been fatal to their system. The Central Government, however, maintains the national existence, and the United States developed astonishing recuperative power. The opponents of Canadian confederation objected to what they assumed to be excessive powers conferred on the Central Govern- ment as tending to prejudice provincial interests. So far no inconvenience has been felt on this point ; and whilst the older nations of Europe are watching with interest these two systems of confederation, the people of Canada feel assured of the fitness of their system to the wants of the country, and rejoice in what they enjoy, namely, actual independence, a responsible government under their own control, and a close and loyal alliance with the British Empire. EDUCATION. 621 CHAPTER XVI. EDUCATION. Canada offers a fair and free education to all who attend her public schools ; a higher education in her grammar schools at a trilling cost ; and the highest education in arts, sciences, and professions in her universities at a very moderate expense. Military engineering and science are taught at the Military College, Kingston, open to all British subjects who pass the prescribed competitive examination of this Canadian Woolwich. Agricultural colleges, combining a sound literary edu- cation with practical agriculture, and almost free of cost, train the youth of the country to agriculture, and have been established in the Provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba. The higher education of women is not ne- glected, and separate colleges or special courses with graduation have been adopted in some of the English- Canadian universities. Free schools of art and design, in connection, with industrial pursuits, as well as an academy for the cultivation of the higher branches of art, are in active operation. Even the blind and mute have at their service the means of education devised for their benefit by philanthropists ; and when to this list is added the several organisations for education in technical branches, and the private seminaries and schools which abound throughout the land, Canada may be said to afford educational advantages equal to any country in the world. C22 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. In the Provinces of Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and Manitoba, the denominational system obtains in the pubHc schools, the rights of universities being protected under the Confederation Act, so that a certain number, constituting a minority, may establish a separate school, and apply their rates exclusively to itfi support. Each public school receives from the Government of the pro- vince an annual grant, on the basis of the average attendance. In New Brunswick, and in Prince Edward Island, provision was omitted under the Confederation Act for separate schools, which has caused dissatisfaction on the part of the minority of Eoman. Catholics, but will pro- bably be remedied by legislation. The Province of Ontario ranks first in primary in- struction, not onlv in Canada, but in the world, as the attendance of scholars in her public schools has reached 23 per cent of the total population, the highest per cent- age ever attained in any country. Under the Ontario Education Acts all public schools are free, and the gradation from primary or common schools to grammar schools and collegiate institutes, with the university in perspective, is by competitive public examination. Every child from 7 to 12 years of age has the right to attend school for four months in the year, and a penalty is imposed on parents or guardians neglecting this provision. Pupils are not required to observe religious exercises objected to by their parents, but they may receive such religious instruction as their parents desire. Religious education does, however, receive equal care and attention with secular education in Canada. Apart from the several churches, Sunday schools for the young and training schools for Sunday school teachers are a EDUCATION. C23 a jcting ,1 care Apart young are a noticeable feature in the Canadian educational system. The Sunihiy school, ori<,nnally used as an elementary one for children not havinj,' the benefit of ordiiiary day schools, is now recognised and adopted as l)enelicial to all, so much so that it has become the broad foundation on whicli the Protestant churclies in Canada gather their supporters around them. Clergy and laity vie with one another in this field, and their influence for good is felt in the family and in the State. The Komun Catholics adopt the religious training of their youth as an essential part of their system in their universities, colleges, con- vents, and schools, but do not fiivour lay teaching. The universities of the several provinces are well attended, and well managed. Those of Ontario, in Toronto, King- ston, London, Ottawa, and Coburg, would do credit to any country. Even Manitoba has its colleges, both Protestant and Poman Catholic, In the Province of Quel)ec M'Gill and Laval, the former in Montreal and the latter in Quebec, are flourisliing institutions. j\PCJill University has several colleges affiliated with it, and is governed, under an amended charter, by a board who are the repre- sentatives of the " Poyal Institution for the Advance- ment of Learniug." It was founded by the late James M'Gill in 1811, received its charter in 1821, obtained a new charter in 1852, and was reorganised in 1854. It is specially referred to here as having received its original endowment, and as having been maintained almost en- tirely, by the munificence of the citizens of ]\Iontreal. Its characteristics are — that it is Protestant but not denomi- national, and that under the management of Principal Dawson, LL.D., C.M.G., F.R.S., it has developed facilities for literary, scientific, and professional training, and has maintained so high a standard for graduation that it sheds a lustre on the educational system of Canada. Already the several denominational colleges are crys- 624 COMl'KNDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. tallising around it ; the names of some of its professors and associates have more than a local reputation in science; and it is attracting to Montreal the scientific associations of the neighbouring republic and of the leading nations of Europe. . The accompanying sketch of University College, Toronto, is illustrative of the style of building and size of an Ontario university > jiiy Landan: Edward Stanford, 55 Charing Cross. S2 ^DLAND flHUU ical Map HAV, i'.G.S. lish Miles 4o ao 8o _i 1 1 wTttkus if Colours HSlburian, JSounf, 'Innaa 62 heeb ftwta„ .^1 'jtBcnayirta ^ ^ fCatidiaiSr. Wof Gi-«iOTich If^ AND tahaaSr. \f .i'- £ f^U'.S! Bmias /sT JOHNS I VBhtMuUs Cape Race 4 N f Grwmwich 48 NEWFOUNDLAND. 625 CHAPTER XVII. ROl \*A |l*S NEWFOUNDLAND. This island is the outpost of the continent of North America, and the nearest land to Europe, being only 1650 miles from the west coast of Ireland. It is the largest island in the Atlantic, and lies between 46° 38' and 51° 40' north latitude, and 52° 35' and 59° 35' west longitude. Lying across the mouth of the Gulf of the St, Lawrence, it divides it into the Strait of Belle Isle, with the coast of Labrador to the north, and the main entrance with the island of Cape Breton to the south. It is supposed that it was the first land in the New World visited by Europeans. The Icelanders are said to have landed on its shores in a.d. 1000 ; and the English in 1536 attempted the first settlements. In oui day it has maintained the lead to which its geographical position entitles it, and received the first telegraphic cable on its shores which was laid across the Atlantic Ocean in 1861. The superficial area of the island is 42,000 square mQes, with a circumference of 1200 miles, and a coast line of 2000 miles. Its widest point between Capes Ray and Bonavista is 300 miles, and the extreme length from Cape Race to Griguet Bay is about 419 miles, measured on a curve. The form of the island is that of an irregular triangle, with indentations of several deep bays, the most remarkable of which are Hare, White, and Notre Dame Bays, Bay of Exploits, Bonavista, Trinity, and 2 s i 1 626 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Conception Bays, on the east coast ; St. Mary's, Fortune, and riacentia Bays on the south coast ; and St. George's and the Bay of Islands on the west coast ; with several smaller bays and hnrbours. Most of these bays are com- modious and well sheltered, with numerous streams run- ning into them, and nearly all of the harbours have safe anchorages, with clear and good channels. The interior of the island has never been fully explored, but from the reports of Mr. Murray, the geolo- gist, who has been for many years past, and is stiU, engaged in its exploration, there is reason to believe that its resources, both agricultural and mineral, are of very considerable importance. The greater portion, however, appears to be rocky, with numerous tracts of moss, much intersected by rivers and lakes, and but thinly wooded except on the banks of the rivers. Great boulders or loose rocks, scattered over the country, increase its general roughness. Hills and valleys continually succeed each other, the former never rising into mountains, the highest not exceeding 1500 feet, and the latter rarely expanding into plains. The " barrens " of Newfoundland are those districts which occupy the summits of the hills and ridges, and other elevated and exposed tracts. They are covered with a thin and scrubby vegetation, consisting of berry-bearing plants and dwarf bushes of various kinds. Bare patches of gravel and boulders, and crumbling frag- ments of rock, are frequently met with on the " barrens," which are generally destitute of vegetable soil. The sea- cliffs are, for the most part, bold, lofty, and witli deep water close to the shore. The rivers of Newfoundland are numerous, and though the majority are small, yet some attain to respect- able size. The largest are the Humber, Eiver of Exploits, Gander and Terra Nova rivers. The Humber in its main branch is about 80 miles long ; in its second, or De Nel aA entj sys[ micl ceni comi GoJ(| cadiJ homl petr( JiiarH oriiaj GEOLOGY OF NEWFOUNDLAND. (127 are of inds. frag- :ens," sea- deev and Ispect- Iploits, lin its Grand Pond branch, it is aboiit 48 niil-^.s long. Tho Exploits is about 150 miles long, and drains about 3000 square miles of country. The Gander is somewhat over too miles long. Nearly all the rivers issue from lakes or ponds in the interior. Many of them abound with excellent salmon. Fresh -water lakes and ponds are numerous over the face of the entire country, and on the very tops of hills. The surface covered with fresh water has been estimated at one -third of the whole island. Sixty-seven ponds have been counted from one spot on the north-east mountains of Avalon, some of them two and three miles in extent, none less than 100 yards. The principal lakes in the island are the Gander Pond, Deer Pond, Grand Pond, and Eed Indian Pond. The Grand Pond contains an area of about 185 square miles ; this includes an island at its south-west end, which con- tains an area of about 50 square miles. Deer Pond has an area of about 3 square miles. The Eed Indian Pond has an area of 64 square miles. The Gander Pond is sup- posed to be of large extent, but has not yet been measured. Except some limited areas of Carboniferous and Devonian strata in the north-western parts of the island, Newfoundland is exclusively occupied by formations of Archean and Lower PaliBozoic age belouging to the Laur- entian, Devonian, Cambrian, Cambro-Silurian, and Silurian systems ; the first, consisting chiefly of granite, gneiss, and mica-schist, being the most prominent, especially in the central and southern districts. The economic minerals comprise ores of iron, nickel, copper, lead, and manganese. Gold has also been found, and traces of bismuth and cadmium. Gypsum has been largely worked both for home consumption and also for export. Coal, jilumbago, petroleum, peat, shell marl, salt, red ochre, limestone, marbles, building stone, brick clay, serpentine and other ornamental stones, are also mentioned by Mr. Murray, !'i >r r 628 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEI*. and it seems probable that nearly all of these useful mineralfi are in sufficient quantity to be utilised. The principal mines are the Tilo Cove Mine (copper), the Notre Dame Mine (copper), both on the eastern side of the island ; and La Manche Mine (lead) on the south- ern coast. The first- named has-been very productive; the other two have not been so successful, though there is no doubt they are rich in mineral. The climate is not liable to so great changes in tem- perature as that of the neighbouring continental provinces, the winter being much milder, and the summer not nearly so warm. The mean of the various months at St. John's, New- foundland, is : — Jan. Feb. Marcli. April. 3Iay. June. 1 1 St. John's 23°3 20°9 o 24-2 33°4 39°3 o 48 '0 July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. St. John's o 56-2 o 57-9 53°0 o 44 -.5 34°0 o 25-3 ! 38°3 The temperature is thus like that of Halifax, singularly even, but considerably lower in the summer months, a difference which is probably less on the Gulf shores than it is on the Atlantic. Bishop Mullock gives the highest reached temperature at 96°, on 3d July 1859 ; but the records sent to the Smithsonian Institution give 88°, in August 1859, and 86°, in July 1834, as the two highest markings. The Smithsonian tables give -14°, in Feb- ruary 1834, as the lowest point reached, a degree of cold which is of rare occurrence. The fogs which prevail on the banks do not extend to the island, except with certain winds, and the mean obscuration of the sky at St. John's is not more than in the other chief cities of rais ras] foui agrii acrej islai settlJ AOrJCULTURAL CAPABILITIES. 629 lie in .est eb- I of Hvail H^ith Hr at ■so! North America. Some \ irts of the island grow fair hard- wood, but the neighbourhood of the fishing stations is generally of poor soil, and supports, in addition to moss, only a small growth of spruce. In a recent report, 1876, on the timber lands on the Humber and Gander rivers, the pine timber is thus described : — To give a rough estimate o. the extent of fine timbered land from the mouth of the Humber to the Grand Pond brook, I should say that in all there is less than twenty square miles which would on the average yield five trees of from one thousand to two thousand five hundred superficial feet each to the acre, or three thousand two hundred trees to the square mile. The principal trees are, however, spruce, birch, larch, and willow, which do not generally attain a large size. Great varieties of evergreens and other heavy growing bushes abound. The agricultural capabilities of Newfoundland are un- doubtedly considerable ; wheat will grow in some places, and has been known to yield 3 bushels per acre ; barley and oats everywhere ; and the even temperature permits of the regular growth of grasses, so that it ought to be as well adapted for sheep farming and grazing as any other part of North America. Potatoes are product- ive and of excellent quality ; and all garden vegetables, such as cabbages, carrots, turnips, are brought to the highest perfection. Apples, plums, and cherries, are raised with success, also gooseberries, strawberries, and raspberries. There appears to be no reason why New- foundland should not, some day, be the home of an agricultural population numbered by millions. The timber lands, amounting to nearly one million acres, and situated principally on the western side of the island, and by the chief lakes and rivers, are wholly un- settled and ungranted, though they are of high importance ^ 630 COMrENPIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. with a view to settlement. What may be the extent and nature of the lands of the interior it is impossible to say, as they have never been fully surveyed. No lands are let for lumbering purposes ; the laws provide that they shall be disi»osed of for settlement alone. With the ex- ception of the grant to the New York, Newfoundland, and London Telegraph Company, which consists of one hundred square miles in blocks of three miles each, no land has been given to purchasers in quantities exceeding 200 acres, save in very few instances. The only animal peculiar to the island is the New- foundland dog, famous the world over. Among the wild animals may be enumerated the deer, the wolf, the bear, the beaver, the marten, and wild cat. Land and aquatic birds are numerous. Seals are numerous on the coasts, as are also whales, grampuses, and porpoises ; while for fish there is no place in the world comparable to Newfound- land, especially for cod. The famous Grand Banks swarm with cod and every other variety of fish. These banks form the most extensive submarine elevation on the face of the globe ; in their full extent they occupy 6"^ of longitude, and nearly 10° of latitude, being over 600 miles in length and 200 miles in breadth, with a depth of water varying from 10 to 1 6 fathoms. The mean depth is estimated at 40 fathoms. The prosecution of the fishery on the Grand Banks has of late years been left exclusively in the hands of foreigners, principally French ; whilst the shore fishery, which, with less risk, is more convenient, is depended upon by the fishermen of the island for their support. The cod fishery opens in June and lasts till the middle of November, and may be said to form the chief occupation of the inhabitants of the island. The seal fishery is next in importance. The imports of Newfoundland consist of all articles used for food and clothing, as well as for domestic and les; of coL cat RAILWAY ACHORS THE ISLAND. 631 py 1 a he on en ■uy en ens lay of Icles laud fishing piirpnsos. The principal exports are fisli and fish oils, seal oil and skins. The (Jovernincnt of Newfoundland pays $120,000 annually for the steam service of the colony. The steamers sul)sidi.si'd are the Allan Line to and from Liverjiool and Ilalifa.x, or some port in the Dominion or United States, once a fortnight ; one steamer once a fort- night from St. John's nortlivvard ; one steamer once a fortnight from St. John's westward; one from St. John's to Conception Uay ; one to convey the judges on circuit to the several courts held on the island ; and one on the Lahrador coast, running once a fortnight along the shore from south to north, and vice versd, giving information to the fishermen where the fish is most abundant. The puhlic aCt'airs of Newfoundland are administered by a Governor, an Executive Council of six members, a Legisla- tiveCouncil of thirteen members, and a Legislative Assembly of thirty-one representatives. The judicial department comprises a Supreme Court, with a chief and two assistant judges ; a Vice -Admiralty Court, and a District Court. The inhabitants of Newfoundland are principally the descendants of the settlers from England and Ireland. The first Governor was appointed in 1728, and the first Legislative Assembly met on the 1st of January 1733. The most noteworthy town on the island is St. John's, the capital. It has telegraphic comnuuiication with Canada, the United States, and Europe, as well as with the principal places in the island. A railway, now under contract, and intended to cross the island from east to west, promises, it is said, to bring about the extension of agriculture and the consequent lessening of the present drain caused by the importation of nearly all the agricultural produce required by the colony. It is calculated that at present farm produce, cattle, and horses are imported to the annual value of a 632 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVrL. million and a quarter of dollars, all of which could be raised in the island were the fertile lands rendered acces- sible by a railway. As an illustration of the necessity of a railway for the purpose referred to, the Geolof^ical Surveyor, writing of a district lying round the Gander Lake, says in one of his reports : " Within this region there probably are nearly or quite seven hundred square miles admirably adapted for the pursuits of agriculture, and a not much smaller area still covered with pine and spruce, where a great trade in lumber might be prose- cuted with profit to adventurers and immense aa 'ant.age to the country at large. A very large proportion is of rich and fertile soil." Mr. Howley, assistant geologist, says : " The soil here, over a vast area, is of excellent quality, and capable of yielding rich harvests. Takmg everything into consideration, I do not think a more pro- mising country, or one more easy of access, could be found in British America. In all my travels about the island I have nowhere seen anything like the quantity of pine timber to be met with here." At present this splendid dis- trict of 1400 square miles is a complete solitude without a single settler, and from the want of roads it is entirely inaccessible. The same is true of the Exploits Valley, containing 1020 square mUes, most of it favourable for settlement. This too will be traversed by the railway. The extent of arable land and grazing lands which will be rendered accessible by the railway will be about five millions of acres. Iii fact, there is no reason, either in regard to soil or climate, why Newfoundland may not become very largely an agricultural country. Of course there are large districts comparatively barren, and which will never be reclaimed, but the same is true of every province in British America ; and, be it remembered, this island has an area of 42,000 square miles, and is one- sixth larger than Ireland. When its inexhaustible THE FISHERIES AND THE TUEATIES. C33 Ive in lot cse tch jry lis le- fislu'iies, its forests, iiiinumls, and a<;i'icultuml lands, aro all taken into account, it is evidently capable of sustain- ing a very lar^^e poi>ulation. At present the population is only 180,000. The small islands of St. Tiorre, ]\Ii(|U('l()n, and Lan^loy, lyinj,' off Fortune Bay on the southern coast, and distant from the mainland about 7 niles, are the last of the French possessions in North America, being held under the treaty of Utrecht as a fishing station, with certain fishing rights hetween Cape Ray northward thrcjugh the Strait of Belle Isle, and then eastward to Capo St. John, and the right of drying fish on the coa.t within these limits. No fortifications are allowed on the island, and only a garrison of 50 men. The Americans had also certain treaty rights under ihe several treaties of 1783 and 1818. The reciprocity treaty of 1854 was abrogated by the United States in 18GG, and the present treaty of Washington gives them the right to the shore fisheries, and of curing their fish on the unoccupied shore, and in fact equal rights with British subjects, but no more, as they would sometimes assume. The rights of the Americans under the treaty of Washington will continue for 12 years from the 1st June 1874, and then it is probable that the "headland" ques- tion will be revived, unless some arrangement be made by further treaty. Great Britain has always held the fisheries of New- foundland in high estimation on account of their com- mercial value, as well as justly considering that these coasts afford a training ground for her seamen. The French and the Americans covet these " preserves," and constant difficulties arise between the seamen of the several nationalities, the islanders being inclined to inter- pret the treaties strictly, and the others Uberally. 634 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Si. John's, Newfoundland. St. John's, the most eastern seaport and city of North America ar ^ the capital of Newfoundland, lies near the extremity of the easternmost of the numerous peninsulas which project from the eastern portion of the island. It is IG60 miles W. by S. of Galway, Ireland, this being the shortest distance between any two seaports of Europe and America, 107G miles N.E. of Montreal, lat. 47° 33' 6" N., long. 52° 45' W. The harbour is one of the very best on the Atlantic coast. It is inclosed between two mountains forming the entrance called the " Narrows," only 95 fathoms wide in its narrowest part, and 100 fathoms long. This entrance is defended by several for- tifications, and cculd easily be made impregnable. It has 12 fathoms of water in mid-channel, but only one vessel can pass at a time. Within there is ample space for shipping in good anchorage, with perfect shelter. There are no perceptible tides ; a light on Cape Spear (distant 3 miles from the harbour) is visible 30 miles at sea. In foggy weather a 32-pounder is fired every half hour, and a compressed air-trumpet is sounded continu- ously for seven seconds in qvk^i:^ minute, enabling vessels to enter the " Narrows " at all times. The town is situated on an acclivity, and consists chiefly of one street, 1^ miles in length, rather irregularly built, but containing many good shops and warehouses. The trade of St. John's consists chiefly in supplying fishermen with clothing and fishing and hunting gear. During the spring season the harbour is thronged by merchant vessels from almost all par<"s of the world, loaded with goods and provisions renuired in the fisheries. British sovereignty was established in Newfoundland as early as 1582 by Sir Humphrey Gilbert. The French Se EXPORTS. G35 subsequently took possession of the island, but it was again taken by the English in 1762. The construction of a railway across the island of Newfoundland, the working of immense deposits of copper on the eastern and north-eastern coast, the discovery of large beds of coal, and the development of the timber lands in the interior, and access to good agricultural lands on the western side of the island, are giving an impetus to Newfoundland, of which St. John's will reap the benefit. Population of St. John's in 1874, 23,890. Statement of Exports from Newfoundland and Labrador fur the year ending 31st July 1880. IS iet, ing rr Im iar. by Irld, Ithe md Inch Quantities. Value. FisJi, and Fish Products — Blul.bcr 60 tuns at 70s. £210 Codfish, dried . 1,419,505 quintals 17s. 1,206,579 „ green 372 „ 6s. 111 Cod oil . 4,483 tuns £25 112,075 ,, refined 172 £45 7,740 Cod roes 760 barrels Us. 670 Caplin .... 440 „ 2s. 6d. 5r> Cod sounds . 28 pat'kages 7 Halibut, pickled . 88 cwt. 20s. 88 Herrings, frozen . 2,398 barrels 4s. 6d. 539 ,, pickled . 56,197 „ 20s. 56,197 Haddock 712 cwt. 13s. 46J Lobsters 1,124,580 lbs. 5d. 23,428 Mackerel, pickled 5,766 baiTcls 15s. 4,324 Salmon, pickled . 6,765 tierces £5 33,825 ,, in ice 1,512 lbs. 37 ,, in tins 34,884 ,, tins 6d. 864 Trout, pickled 1,080 baiTels 30s. 1,620 Turbot, pickled . 7 „ 20s. 7 Cod dregs 7 tuns £12 84 Skins, Oil, Copper Ore, etc — Seal skins . . . . 223,795 4s. 44,759 ,, oil . . . . 4,849 tuns £31 150,319 Whale oil . 44 „ £25 1.100 Other oils £22 44 Copper ore . 25,545 tons £5 127,725 Uneuuinerated articles . 1,000 £1,773,769 636 COMPEX.DIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Labrador. Not entered in Newfoundland returns. Codfish, dried 398,397 quintals £338,637 9 green 337 „ 101 2 Herrings 31,690 barrels 31,690 Salmon 264 tierces 1,320 Trout .... '^ barrels 4 10 Seal oil 11 tuns 341 Cod oil . 78 „ 1,950 Seal skins 101 404 £374,448 1 £1,773,769 374,443 Total . . £2,148,217 The average catch of cod in the French colonies of St. I'ierre and Miquelon, during a period of five years ended 1871, was 15,425,080 kilogrammes, a kilo, being equal to 2205, or a triile less than 2-^- lbs. The average number of ships employed in these French fisheries, during five years ended in 1874, was 76, and 590 men — total tonnage 12,386, the number of fishermen being 5335. The yearly catch on the banks and on the shores of Newfoundland amounts to 2,750,000 quintals. NEWFOUNDLAND DOG. INDEX. Ahie.^, or Douglas pine, li. 385 Abittibi' river, ii. 305 Ac'^adian liighlands, ii. 330 Adams inouiit, i. 112 Adelaide cape, ii. 3'Jl Adironacks mountaius, 1. 6, ii. 329, 339 Admiralty, Canadian woods at the, ii. 493 Agoomska island, ii. 304 Akpatok island, ii. 303 Alabama, minerals in, i. 13 A la Crosse lake, ii. 425 Alaska, formerly Russian America, i. 270; ii. 289 agriimlture, i. 278 acquisition, i. 276 climate, i. 278 coal-bccis, i. 279 export of ice, i. 285 geology of, i. 283 inhabitants, i. 277 minerals, i. 284 seal fisheries, i. 279 timber, i. 279 Albany river, ii. 305 Alberta, district of, ii. 290 Albreda lake, ii. 442 Aleutian islands, otter and seal hunting, i. 281 Aleutians, i. 278 Alexandria, ii. 447 Algonquins, or Algie tribes, ii. 559 locations, ii. 559 numbers, ii. 560 Aliaskiin range, i. 277 AUeghanies, the, i. 7 ; ii. 329 Alleghany coal-fleld, i. 15, 17, 28 river, i. 24 Allumette lake, ii. 364 Amargosa range, i. 108 Avielanchier alnifolia, ii. 400 America, continent of North, i. 1 census returns, i. 203 colleges, i. 242 Cornell university, i. 244 Danes in, i. 206 discovery of, i. 163 Dutch in, i. 165, 205 education, i. 240 America, first English settle- ments, i. 164 Flemings in, i. 200 Germans in, i. 200 ground-plan of towns in, i. 181 Iri.sh in, i. 207 names of towns in, i. 182 national debt, i. 269 New Englanders, i. 204 Norwegians in, i. 200 prehistoric, i. 232 principal cities in, i. 181 Puritans and Quakers in, i. 166 religion in, i. 246 Russian, or Alaska, i. 276 Kusso-Germans in, i. 206 schools, i. 240 social relations, i. 239 Swedes in, i. 165, 200 Swiss in, i. 200 Tertiary age, i. 54 universities, i. 242 Amorpha. cancsccns, ii. 401 Ampelopsis qu inquefolia, ii.40O Amur river, i. 278 Anapolis basin, ii. 295 Anderson lake, ii. 443 Anthracite, first discovery of, i. 10 amount obtained in fifty years, i. 17 Anticosti island, ii. 298, 361 area of, ii. 298 Antigonish, ii. 297 Appalachian mountain sys- tem, i. 5 ; ii. 329 coal-fields, i. 14 geographical structure of, i. 5 mineral resources, i. 11 ranges, vegetation of, i. 8 region, geology of, i. 8 valley, the Great, i. Aravapa caflon, i. 129 Archipelago between 125th meridian and Baffin bay, ii. 321 Arctic coast, ii. 291 commiTcial value, ii. .324 general account, ii. 318 result of the Franklin ex- peditious, ii. 320 Arctic ocean, shores of, i. 4 Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, ii, 402 Arizona, Indians settled in, i. 218 gold and silver in, i. 13t) Arkansas river, i. 23, 128 "hot springs," i. 27 Arrow lakes. Upper, ii. 443 Artemisia, i. 40, 81 Assiniboia, district of, ii. 290 general account of, ii. 397-407 Assiniboine river, botany of, ii. 400 clay of, ii. 421 Astrala^us, ii. 402 Athabasca, district of, ii. 290 or Elk river, ii. 430 lake, ii. 432 or Lake of the Hills, ii. 433 landing, ii. 477 river, ii. 349, 429 Athikesipich6gan or Frog jwrtage, ii. 431 Atlantic coast, general ac- count, ii. 295 length of ahore-line, ii. 295 Attahwahpiskat river, ii. 305 Aux Coudres island, ii. 361 Avalon, mountains, ii. 627 Aylmer lake, ii. 335 Aztecs, ruins of cities of the, i. 235 cave-dwellings, i. 237 pottery of, i. 238 Babine lake, il. 440 or Kit-koin, orNa-to-bun- kut, ii. 446 or Simpson river, ii. 437 vegetation, ii. 476 Back or Great Fish river, ii. 320, 321 "Badlands,"!. 49 Baffin's explorations, li. 319 Baffin island, ii. 321 land, ii. 322 Bale des Chaleurs, ii. 298 Bale Verte, ii. 298 Baker mount, i. Ill ; ii. 600 Baker's park^ i. 90 638 INDEX. Balsam, Great, mountains, i. 7 BaltiiiiDre, tlic Mouuiiiental City, i. 100 education, i. 190 paries, i. I'JO jioimlation, i. 181 public builiUnt^s, i. 190 Banks land, ii. 3'j;t " Barr';ii Grounds," the, ii. 427 flsh, ii. 428 fruits, ii. 428 game, ii. 427 Barrielleld, ii. 595 Basin, Anapolis, ii. 295 of Mines, ii. 295 St. Lawrence, ii. 291 Bathunst cape, ii. 321 Battle river country, ii. 290 Battleford, ii. 290 Bays— Bellinghaiu, i. 160 Cataraqui, ii. 595 Chebucto.or Halif.ix Har- bour, ii. 581 Chedabucto, ii. 296 Chesapeake, i. 190 Conception, ii. 626 Darnley, ii. 320 Esquimaux, ii. 299 of Exploits, ii. 625 Fortune, ii. 026 Franklin, ii. 320 Frobisher, ii. 301 of Fundy, ii. 295, 583 Georgian, ii. 371 Griguet, ii. 625 Hare, ii. 625 Hudson, ii. 300 Invertoke, ii. 299 of Islands, ii. 626 James, ii. 300 Khogochaik, i. 278 M'Intyre, ii. 375 Mackenzie, ii. 320 Mosquito, ii. 307 North, ii. .302 Notre Dame, ii. 625 Ombabika, ii. 374 Saginaw, ii. 372 St. George, ii. 297 St. George's, ii. 626 St. Mary, ii. 295 St. Mary's, ii. 626 of St. Paul, ii. 300 St. Peter, ii. 296 Siniahinoo, ii. 445 South, ii. 375 Thunder, ii. 461 of Toronto, ii. 596 Trinity, ii. 625 of Ungava, ii. 302 White, ii, 025 Beacon hill, Victoria, ii. 601 Beacon point, ii. 409 Bear river, i. 104 Beaver or Churchill river, ii. 424 Becher's chart, ii. 302 Bedford basin, ii. 581 Bee-culture, ii. 533 Bell, Profe.s.sor, ii. 376 Belle Isle strait, ii. 297 Belleville, ii. 309 Bellingham bay, i. 100 Bellot strait, ii. 320, ;!23 Belly river country, ii. 290 Benicia, i. 200 Bering strait, discovery of, i. 270 whale fisheries, ii. 429 Betsiamite river, ii. 336 " Big Bend," the, ii. 445 Big Horn mountains, i. 82 Big Horn river, i. 82 Big river, ii. 305 Birkenhead river, ii. 443 Bitter Hoot range, i. 58 Bizard island, ii. 357 Black or Westroad river, ii. 441 Black Dome, i. 7 hilLs, i. 47 mountains, the, i. 7 river, ii. 364 Blackfeot Indians, ii. 570 Blanc Sablon, ii. 361 Blodgett, Lorin, ii. 459 Bloniidon, cape, ii. 295 Blue Uidgo, the, i. 7 Boat Encampment, ii. 430 "Bonanza" and "borrasca," i. 155 Bonavista cape, ii. 625 Boothia Felix peninsula, ii. 320, 323 Boothia gulf, ii. 320 Borax found in California, i. 135 Boston, population, i. 181 Boularderie island, ii. 296 Boundary - line of United States, i. 33, 34 Bow river country, ii. 290, 407 Brandt, leader of Indians, ii. 502 Brandy Pots islands, ii. 361 "lirnsd'dr" lake, ii. 296 Brier island, ii. 295 British America, "formid- able " climate, ii. 483 plains in, i. 49 British Columbia, ii. 437 area of, ii. 290 climate, ii. 294, 448, 471 general view, ii. 437 gold in, ii. 294 Indians in, ii. 560 interior mainland, ii. 447 lakes, ii. 446 minerals, ii. 501 population, ii. 290 trade, ii. 327 vegetation, ii. 447 British Museum, Canadian woods at, ii. 493 Brooklyn, population, i. 181 Bross, mount, i. 157 Broughtoii mountain, ii. 334 Buffalo, i. 196 peak, i. 88 wheat market, ii. 486 " Buffalo " grass, i. 45 Buffalo, or American bison, i. 51 hunting, ii. 553 Burns lake, ii. 446 Burrard inl(;t, ii. 318, 445 Button islands, ii. 302 Brown mount, ii. 340, 430 Bryant, poem on the prairies by, ii. 390 By, Colonel, ii. 365, 593 Cabot, John, re-discoverer of America, i. 163 ; ii. 605 Cacti, i. 46 California, gold and silver in, i. 136 Japanese in, 217 valley, formations of, L 134 Calavaras grove, i. 123 CalysUgia sepiuvi, ii. 400 Cambie, J. H., ii. 474 Canada, Dominion of— agricultural capabilities, ii. 382 area of, ii. 293 art in, ii. 550 Atlantic division, ii. 293 backwoods of, ii. 547 bee-culture, ii. 533 boundaries, ii. 291 British military adminis- tration, ii. 606 canals, ii. 510 cattle trade, ii. 533 census of 1881, ii. 535 Centennial Exhibition, IL 496 central division, ii. 291, 294 climate, ii. 292, 294, 453 coal, ii. 501 coast of, ii. 320 colleges, ii. 623 constitutional history, ii. 607 dairy products, ii. 532 Dominion proclaimed, ii. 619 early history, ii. 604 eastern division, ii. 291 education, ii. 621 English in Newfound- land, ii. 605 expulsion of PVench from Acadia, ii. 606 first settlements in, i. 164 fisheries, ii. 292, 528 forest section, ii. 294, 488 fruit-growing, ii. 495 game for sportsmen, ii. 551 general view of, ii. 289, 32S grasses, the, ii. 494 INDEX. G39 Canada, Dominion of— grazing region, ii. 405 licaltliinens of, ii. ,0.'!'.) history of tliu Federal Union, ii. 010 immigration, ii. 570 iron, ii. TiOo lakes, ii. o;i5, ;!:!S, :m, 440 landing of tlic C'abots, ii. CO') Laurentiiles, tlie, ii. 335 length of boundary, ii. 292 mainland of, ii. 320 manufacture.s, ii. 627 market gardening, ii. 533 military i>o.sition, ii. 541 militia, ii. 542 minerals, ii. 501 mines, ii, 501 mountain ranges, ii. 328 natural divisions, ii. 21>1 navigable water-jiartings, ii. 347 northern division, ii. 201 north-western division, ii. i 291 origin of name, ii. r.o'i raciflc division, ii. 294 petroleum, ii. 502 jihysique of people, ii. 539 j)opulation, ii. 203 postal system, ii. 524 jirairie section, ii. 294, 489 public debt, ii. 533 Quebec Dill, the, ii. 007 railways, ii. 512 roads, ii. 341 red and white pine, ii. 307 routes for immigrants, ii. 623 salt, ii. 503 shipping, ii. 529 silver, ii. 504 tour forvisitors, ii. 545-50 1 trade and commerce, ii. 527 the"U.E. loyalists," ii. 608 " Union Act," conferring goverinnent on the Pro vince of, ii. tiOO universities, ii. am bay, i. 100 California, i. 101 Cordilleras, i. 159 Elk mountains, i. 139 Evanston, i. 100 Oregon, i. 161 Rocliy mountains, i. 1.59 Upper Missouri, i. 159 640 INDEX. Coal- Vancouver island, i. 161 ; ii. 295 Washington tcmtory, i. 161 Coal basins in Colorado, 1. 160 New Mexican, i. 160 Northern, i. 159 Pacific, i. 160 Wyoming, 1. 160 Coast, eastern, 1. 3 Gulf, i. 2 Pacific, i. 3 Coast ranges, the, 1. 45, 120 ; ii. 329 formations of, i. 184 Coats, account of Hudson bay bv, ii. 301 Cobequid hills, ii. 320, 331 Coburg, ii. 369 Cockburn island, ii. 322 CoUingwood, ii. 548 Colorado or Front range, i. 84 caftons, i. 94, 96 Chiquito or Flax river, i. 92 fauna of plateau, i. 102 flora of plateau, i. 102 gold and silver in, i. 130 parks of, i. 86 plateau region, i. 92 river, i. 41 table of silver yield, i. 157 Colounge lake, ii. 364 Columbia, British, area of, ii. 290 climate, ii. 294 gold in, ii. 294 population, ii. 290 Columbia river, ii. 438 gold in its tributaries, ii. 440 Combustion of pyritous shales, ii. 433 Comstock silver lode, i. 151 yield for seven years, i. 155 Constitution, Federal, i. 270 of the States and Terri- tories, i. 272-3 district of Columbia, i. 273 Commerce — cattle trade, ii. 533 decline of mercantile marine since the ^Yar, i. 267 increase of exports, i. 267 inland trade, i. 267 lumber trade, ii. 493 trade in petroleum, i. 19 trade of British Colum- bia, ii. 327 Comox district, ii. 326 Conception bay, ii. 626 Congress — administration of justice, i. 272 the Cabinet, i. 274 component parts, i. 270 Congress- executive, i. 271 President, i. 271 Cook's inlet, i. 278 Copper mines, ii. 504, 505 Coi)permine river, ii. 320, 321, 470 Cordilleras, mountains, i. 40 Coiililleran i)latcau, i. 40 climate, i. 43 natural vegetation, i. 45 Cordilleran region, agricul- tural resources, i. 124 cattle and .sheep raising, i. 125 geology of, i. 127 minerals of, i. 134 Cornwall, ii. 357 Coronati(m or Duke of York's gulf, ii. 320 Coteau Mis.souri, ii. 306 Cowitchaii, ii. 326 Cranberry lake, ii. 439 Crane island, ii. 360 Cratcegus coccinea, ii. 400 Cree tribe, ii. 569 Cross lake, ii. 414, 446 Cumberland, Mr., ii. 617 house, ii. 394 river i. 24 SOU' id, ii. 322 " Custer's command," ii. 563 Customs of the Indians, i. 222 Cypress hills, ii. 397 Dairy farming in Canada, ii. 494 Dairy produce in Canada, ii. 532 Dakota, gold and silver in, i. 136 Danes, the, i. 206 Darnley bay, ii. 320 Dartmouth, Halifax, ii. 582 Dauphin lake, ii. 300, 418 Davidson, Mr., report by, ii. 310 mount, i. 153 Davies, W. H., account of Esquimaux bay, ii. 300 Dawson, Dr. G. M., ii. 437, 471 Dease lake, ii. 435 strait, ii. 321 Death valley, i. 108 Decker lake, ii. 446 Deer Pond lake, ii. 627 Delaware, State of, ores in, i. 12 Demarcation point, ii. 451 D6n6-Din,jie tribe, ii. 559 locations, ii. 559 numbers, ii. 560 Dennis, Lieut.-Col. J. S., re- port on Hudson Bay by, ii. 301, 309 Des Moines river, i. 24 Destruction of timber, i. 265 Detroit, i. 196 river, i. 34 ; ii. 352 Deux Montttgncs lake, il. 357 Diable, Monte, i. 120, 161 Diamond cape, ii. 359 DIgby Gut, ii. 395 DIgges islands, ii. 302 " Uirty Devil" river, i. 02 Divide, the continental, i. 91 Dixon's entrance, ii. 451 Dog river, ii. 434 Dolphin and Union strait, ii. 321 Dome, Black, i. 7 Douglas tir-trees, ii. 325, 489 Dove's charts, ii. 465 Dschenew, discoverer, i, 276 Dubaunt river, ii. 304 Dufferin caiie, ii. 306 Dufferin, Ijord, visit to ami description of Manitoba by, ii. 345 Duke of York or Coronation gulf, ii. 820 Du Liard river, ii. 435 or River of the Moun- tains, ii. 4,35 Duluth wheat market, ii. 485 Du Uocher river, ii. 434 Duncan, Mr., ii. 473 Dutch, the, i. 205 "East Main," ii. .300 peninsula, ii. 301 river, ii. 305 East Tennessee, i. 6 Eastern townships, ii. 45S climate, ii. 459 products, ii. 459 Eboulemens mont, ii. 337 Echimamish river, ii. 415 Kchinocystis lobata, ii. 400 Edinburgh, Industrial Mu- seum of, Canadian woods at, ii. 403 Edmonton, ii. 416 Education in America, i. 240 Egg lake, ii. 477 EUvagniis argentea, ii. 400 Elbert peak, i. 89 Elk range, i. 89 Ellesmere land, ii. 322 Embarras river, ii. 433 Equan river, ii. 305 Eric canal, ii. 511 lake, i. 32; ii. 350, 369, 370 Eriophormn polystachyon, ii. 402 Erskine sound, ii. 320 Eskimos, the, i, 278 ; ii. 32:i, 559, 660, 5t)l or Innoits tribe, ii. 5.09 character of, ii. 562 locations of, ii. 559 Esquimaux bay, ii. 299 Exploits, bay of, ii. 625 river of, ii. 627 Eyebrow mouutain, ii. 396 Faroo, ii. 487 Father point, ii. 361 INDEX. G41 I350, 360, ii. 32:!, J ii. 5&9 |56i! 5lj',) 201) 1625 ii. 300 Federal Oovernment, i. 273 Feilernl Union, tlie, i. lO'.t File hills, ii. :isis Finlay river, ii. 434 Firehole or Miulison river, i. tU " Five Nations " Inilian Con- federation, ii. fii'i^ " Fish Spring," Yidlowstone lake, i. Vii Fisheries in Canada, ii. 528, cxjjort.?, ii. 529 hati'lieries, ii. Ml table of llsh varieties, ii. 030 treaty withUnited States, ii. 029 Flatheads, Indians, ii. 500 Flathead lake, ii. 430 river, ii. 430 Flemings, the, i. 206 Fleming, Sandford, C.E., ii. 382 Forests in Canada, ii. 4S8 aretie shores, ii. 4!i0 Athabasea river, ii. 4S0 British Columbia, ii. 480 Dominiou, the, ii. 400 Fraser river, ii. 489 Ijibrador, ii. 400 list of habitats of trees, ii. 400 Mackenzie river, ii. 4S9 maples, sugar, ii. 401 New Brunswick, ii. &52 North Pacific shores, ii. 490 Peace river, ii. 489 Quebec, ii. 552 Rocky mountains, ii. 490 Saskatchewan, ii. 489 specimens of wood at Kew Gardens, from Canadian, ii. 492 varieties of trees, ii. 492 Fort Assiniboine, ii. 430 Chipewyan, ii. 429 Churchill, ii. 301 Colville, ii. 440 A la Come, ii. 395 Edmonton, ii. 424 EUice, ii. 290 Frontenac, ii. 505 Garry, ii. 418, 4(i2 Upper, ii. 421 George, ii. 441 Laramie, temperature, ii. 406 Liard, ii. 436 Norman products, ii. 470 Felly, ii. 2i)0 Shepherd, ii. 439 Simpson, ii. 43(5 Vermilion, heat at, ii. 405 William, ii. 4(U, 569 temperature of, ii. 461 York, ii. 30' Fortin, P., ii. i ' Fortune bay, ii. 626 l-'o.x channel, ii. 300 size of, ii. 303 .strait, ii. 321 Fox island, ii. 321 I'nuH.'ciiH lake, ii. 441, 446 Franklin, lien.jamin, i. I'iS bay, ii. 320 strait, ii. 321 Franklin, Sir John, relics found, ii. 321 Fraser hike, ii. 446 river, ii. 349, 3,''.0, 441, 444 Fredricton, New Brunswick, ii. ,582 " Free Grant District," ii. 547 Fremont jieak, i. 78 Frobisher bay, ii. 301 or Hudson strait, ii. 321 Frof; portage, ii. 425 Fruit-growing in Canada, ii. 495 Fuca, strait of, ii. 325 Fiilica Ameriauid, ii. 30S Fundy, bay of, ii. 295 agricultural products, ii. 463 Fur trade, i. 279 Fury and Hecla strait, ii. 322 Galena, productions of, i. 31 Gallatin river, i. 59 Gait, Sir Alexander.G. C.M.G., High Commissioner for Canada, account of Canada by, ii. 293 account of Manitoba by, ii. 387 on emigration, ii. 576 Gander Pond lake, ii. 627 Gander river, ii. 027 Gardiner's river, i. 75 Qasp6, ii. 297 Gatineau river, ii. 364 Genessee river, ii. 369 German populations, statist- ics of, i. 206 emigration to America, i. 207 Germans, list of States in- habited by, i. 206 George river, ii. 303 George's island, ii. 581 Georgia, minerals in, i. 13 strait of, ii. 441 Georgian bay, ii. 371 Geyser basins- Beehive, i. 65 Castle, i. 66 Firehole river, i. 64 Giant, i. 07 Giantess, i. 65 Gibbon river, i. 71 Grand, i. 67 Grotto, i. 67 Lower Gev.ser basin, i. 68 Old Faithful, i. 05 Red Mountain, i. 71 Shoshone, i. 70 The Minute Man, i. 71 2 T Goy.6 basin, the, i. 42, 103, 130, 131 Balsam mountains, i. 7 Beiir lake, ii. 422, 434 Falls of the Missouri, i. Kanawha river, 1. 24 lakes, the, i. 32 geology of region of, i. 38 Manitoulin island, ii, 56."> Playgreeii lake, ii, 412 Salt luk;,', Utah, i. 106, 132 analysis of the water, i. 107 Slave lake, ii. 422 Smoky mountains, i. 7 Great Plains, the, i. 47, 126 arable land, i. 124 cattle range of, i. 126 fauna, i. 51 geology, i. 54 grazing on, i. ."iO Green island, ii. 303, 361 lake, ii. 447 mountains, i. 6 ; ii. 329 river, i. 78, 92 river caiions, i. 90 Greenhorn or Wet mountains, i. 85 642 INDEX. Grey Goose ialan Digby, ii. 29& Haldimand cove, ii. 694 Halifax, ii. 581 harbour, ii. 20(5 mean temperature, ii. 4(V2 Hall, explorations by, ii. 322 Ham mountain, ii. 334 Hamilton, ii. 548 Hamilton inlet, ii. 209 area of, ii. 299 Harbours— Canso, ii. 298 Churchill, ii. 522 Esquimault, ii. 325, tiOl Grand River, ii. 370 Halifax, ii. 290, 581 Kingston, ii. 594 Leamington, ii. 370 Lepreau, ii. 295 Liverpool, ii. 206 Louisbourg, ii. 296 Lunenburg, ii. 206 Miramichi, ii. 208 Montreal, ii. 512, 587 Nasse, ii. 437 New Glasgow, ii. 293 Pictou, ii. 208 Port Colborne, ii. 370 Port Dover, ii. 370 Port Stanley, ii. 370 St. John, ii. 295 Bhediac, ii. 298 Shelburne, ii. 296 Sydney, ii. 296 Torbay, ii. 291) Whitehaven, ii. 200 Yarmouth, ii. 296 Hare bay, ii. 625 Island, ii. 301 Harrikanaw river, ii. 305 Harrison lake, ii. 443 river, ii. 443 Harvard mount, i. 89 Havard, Dr. V., ii. 573 Hay lake, ii. 436 river, ii. 436 Hayes river, ii. 305 Uazelton, Skeena river, ii. 449 Hearne, reports by, ii. 303 Hebron Mission, ii. 567 Hecla and Fury strait, il. 322 Hector, Dr., ii. 397 Henrietta Maria cape, ii. 300 Henry mountains, i. 130 house, ii. 430 Higgins, Professor D. P., ii. 4112 Hills, Lake of the, ii. 433 Hiiul, Professor, ii. 381 Ilnchelaga, ii. 5S7 Holy Cross mountain, i. 80 Hood mount, i. Ill Hooker mount, ii. 340, 430 Hooker, Sir William, ii. 402 Hoosuc mount, i. 200 Hope, ii. 443 Hopedale Mission, ii. 507 Hopewell chain of islands, ii. 30t) Horetsky, Mr., Ii. 314 Horse lake, ii. 447 "Hot springs" of Arkansas, i. 27 Hudson bay, ii. 300 extent of, ii. 370 general features, ii. 377 ice in, ii. 31l-li') lakes around, ii. 345 navigation in, ii. 311 route, ii. 317 ti02 increase or decrease, ii. 658 in island.s in Arctic ocean and Hudson bay, ii. 660 locations, ii. 559 Metis or .Mixed races, ii. 572 character of, il. 574 missions, ii. 607 mode of living, ii. 561 Moquis, i. 220 noniailic tribes, 1. 220 numl)ers, ii. 600 observations on their condition, i. 224 present condition, ii. 567 Pueblos, i. 219 recent treaties with, ii. 505 schools for, ii. 560 Sioux, i. 228 on Skeena river, ii. 450 statistics of, i. 218 territory, i. 230 traits of the, i. 221 treatment of i)redatory tribes, i. 228 tribes, ii. 559 now civilised, i. 226 uncivilised, i. 227 Inlet, Burrard, ii. 31S, 445 Chestcrtield, ii. 304 Cook's, i. 278 Wager, ii. 303 Innoit or Eskimo tribe, ii. 559 iMvertoke bay, ii. 200 Irish, ntimber and position of tlie, i. 207 Iron, where found, i. 29 mountain, i. 30 ores, ii. 505 Iroquois Indians, sec Huron- Iroquuis history of. ii. 502 Iroquois or Richelieu river, ii. 3t)7 Island, AnticostI, ii. 20S, 301 Agoomska, ii. 304 Akjiatok, ii. 303 Aux Coudres, ii. 361 Baffin land, ii. 322 Banks land, ii. 321 Boularderie, ii. 206 Bizard, ii. 357 Brier, ii. 295 Cajie Breton, ii. 296 Chariton, ii. 304 Cockburu land, ii. 322 Crane, ii. 360 Fox, ii. 321 George's, ii. 581 Gillam's, ii. 420 Goat, i. 34 Grand, i. 34 Great Manitoulin, ii. 665 .---.-wlp* INDEX. 643 lurou- rivcv, Lis, 301 61 96 322 I, li. 565 Islaml, Green, li. 303, 861 Grey Goose, ii. y03 Grnsse, ii. .'<60 Hare, ii. ;i(il Jesus, ii. :ij7 Kftinomiislsa, ii. 361 King Cliarle.s, ii. 302 King William, ii. 3'.>3 Ijiiigley, ii. 2S!>, 633 LoiiK, ii. 303 MaiiHllfld, ii. 302 Slifiuclon, ii. 2S'.), C33 Minitrcal, ii. 307, 587 Navy, ii. ,0114 North SoiiierHct, ii. 321 Ndttinnhaiii, ii. 302 of Orleans, ii. 360 I'arry, ii. 323 Pcrrot, ii. 357 Petit Anse, i. 31 Pilgrims, tlie, ii. ;,'61 Prince I'Idwaril, area of, ii. 2'JO Prince of Wales, il. 322 Red, ii. 301 Resolution, ii. 301 Rhode, i. U Ross, ii. 413 Salisbury, ii. 302 St. George, i. 27\) St. Heleiie, ii. 358 St. Helen's, ii. 588 St. Paul, i. 279 St. Pierre, ii. 280, 033 Heal, ii. 410 Southam]iton, ii. 303 Tory, ii. 305 Vancouver, ii. 325 Victoria and Albert land, ii. 321 Wolfe, ii. 356, 594 Islands, archipelago of, near Uattin bay, ii. 321 Aleutian, i. 280 in Arctic ocean and Hudson bay, area of, ii. 290 Brandy Pots, ii. 301 Button, ii. 302 Digges, ii, 302 French, ii. 289, 633 Hopewell chain of, ii. 306 Magdalen, ii. 298, 362 Manitounuck, chain of, ii. 306 Middle Savage, ii. 303 Mingan, ii. 298 Nastapoka, ii. 306 Queen Charlotte, ii. 326 Saddleback, ii. 303 Savage, ii. 302, 311 Snowyland, ii. 303 Southern Southampton, ii. 302 the "Thousand," ii. 356, 549 Upper Savage, ii. 311 Island portage, ii. 425 Islands, bay of, ii. 626 Isle 4 la Crosse, ii. 425 Isle Royale, i. 33; ii. 373 Islington .\lisniiin, ii. 419 Ita.Hca lake, i. 21 JAfyrKs Cartier riser, ii !'.67 ilanies, t'aiitain, ii. 3rj James bay, ii. 300, 304 ' size of, ii. 303 timber near, ii. 307 JapancHc^ in Cnlifornia, i. 217 ! cultivation ol tea, i. 217 j j mulberry trees, i. 217 ' Jajianese current, the, or Kuro-fSiwo, ii, 473 Jasper house, ii. 430 JelftTSon river, i. 59 Jehovah People, account of tlie, i, -Jol Jesus isle, ii. 357 Jones cape, ii. 300 coast near, ii. 304 islanils near, ii. 305 Jornado del JIuerto, i. 50 Kabitotiquia river, ii. 375 Kaniinisti((Uia river, ii. 347 Kaniloops lake, ii. 442 Kaniouniska island, ii. 361 Kanawha, Great, river, i. 24 Kane, exidorations by, ii. 322 Kansas or Kaw river, i. 23 Kayoshk or Gull river, ii. 375 Kaynses Indians, ii. 569 I Keejjawa lake, ii. 338 river, ii. 363 Keewatin, ii. 2S9 Kent cape, ii. 321 Kentucky, ores in, i. 13 river, i. 24 Kew Gardens, Canadian wood in museum, ii. 492 Khogochaik bay, i. 27S Kildonan, ii. 487 Killisthenaux Indians, ii. 568 King Charles island, ii. 302 King William island, ii. 323 Kingston, Ontario, ii. 269, 694 forts, ii. 594 history, ii. 595 militiiry college at, ii. 543, 595 population, ii. 595 Kispyox river, ii. 449 Kit.salas cafion, ii. 474 Kitseguecla river, ii. 449 Kitsunigallum river, ii. 450 Kitwungah, ii. 474 Klamath lakes, i. 132 Koksoak or South river, ii. 3C3 Kootanie or Flat Bow lake, ii. 439 river, ii. 438 Kosciusko, i. 168 Kullespelins, Indians, ii. 569 Labrador coast, ii. 299 exports, ii. OSii ice currents of, ii. 315 Labrador, temperature of, ii. 456 Labrador and Arctic water- shecl, Indians in, ii. 560 I-achine canal, ii. 587 Lacdoclie mountains, ii. 337 " lacrosse," Indian game, ii. 5t)8 Ijic la Biclie, ii. 477 I^ic Plat, ii. 424 Lafayette, i. 168 |ji Grande portage, ii. 569 l.a Ilache lake, ii. 447 Ulke Albreila, ii. 442 Allumette, ii. 3ii4 Andersofi, ii. 443 Athabasca, ii. 422, 432 Aylnier, ii. 335 Babine, ii. 446 " Bras d'Or," ii. 296 Burns, ii. 446 Cedar, ii. 350, 393 Champlain, i. r> Chestatta, ii. 446 Claire, ii. 433 Colounge, ii. 364 Cranberry, ii. 4.'!9 Vross, ii. 414, 446 A la Crosse, ii. 425 Dauiiliin, ii. 350, 418 Dease, ii. 435 I>ecker, ii. 44i) Deer Pond, ii. 627 Deux Montagues, ii. 357 Kgg, ii. 477 Krie, i. 32, 38 ; ii. 350, 369 Flathead, ii. 439 Fraii(;ois, ii. 441, 446 Fraser, ii. 446 Gander Pond, ii. 627 (Jrand, ii. 338 Grand Pond, ii. 627 Great Bear, ii. 422, 434 Great Playgreen, ii. 412 Great Slave, ii. 422 Green, ii. 447 Harrison, ii. 443 Hay, ii. 436 of the Hills, ii. 433 Horse, ii. 447 Huron, i. 32, 33 ; ii. .i50 Itasca, i. 21 Kaiidoojis, ii. 442 Kecpawa, ii. 338 Kootanie or Flat Bow, ii. 439 La Ilache, ii. 447 Lesser Slave, ii. 430 Long, ii. 397 Lower Arrow, ii. 439 M'Leod, ii. 426 Mamawa, ii. 433 Manitoba, ii. 350, 417 Matapedia, ii. 335 Memphramagog, ii. 335, 549 Megantic, ii. 335 Michigan, i. 32, 34 ; ii. 352 644 INDEX. Lake Na-tn-bun-kut, or Kit- koiii, or i):il)ii>c, ii. 440 Nifiilii, ii. 417 Nijiinoii, ii. :i74, .OSiJ Nipissiii^,', ii. XM OUaimKHii, ii. 4:!H Ontario, i. 3'J ; ii. 3J0, S.W, StJS Ootsalmnkut, L'liperand Lower, ii. 44(i Pi'iirl il'On'lllf, il. 4311 riiii'lii, ii. 44ii I'ilu.'.stoiK^ ii. 413 I'itt, ii. 443 ryramiil, i. 132 (iiiil!, ii. 3!t7 Hainy or Ui'iic, ii. 317 Ul'iI Iiiilian I'oinl, ii. &27 lleiiiileiir, ii. 4.'U St. Clair, ii. 3.'-)2 1st. Francis, ii. 33.''i (St. Joiiii, ii. 33S, 3iii> St. Hi'nis, ii. 357 Salt, i. 13-.> Srton, ii. 443, 444 SliL'lianilowan, ii. 347 Shoal, ii. 34i> Sinipsiin, ii. 435 Sipi-Wfsk, ii. 414 Soda, i. lOit Stuart, ii. 44ii Stnr^'con, ii. 4S0 Superior, i. 3J, 33, 39 ; 350, 372 Tacla, ii. 441, 440 Tcliti.siiikut, ii. 44ii Teinnganiaiitt, ii. 338 TeniiHcaniang, ii. 338, 3ri3 Teniiscoiiata, ii. 335 Tczzi-r, ii. 440 Victoria, ii. 477 White-llsli, ii. 424 Winnipeg, ii. 348, 350, 416, 422 WinnepcRosis, ii. 3.50, 417 of the Wood.s, i. 33 ; ii. 347, 422 Woolaston, ii. 434 Yi'llow Head, ii. 441 Yellowstone, i. 72 Lakes, the, ii. 440 Great, the, i. 32, 38 Great and Little Shusli- wap, ii. 443 Great Salt, Utah, i. 100, 132 Klamath, i. 132 Old Wives, ii. 403 Upper Arrow, ii. 443 Lakelse river, ii. 4.'50 Ijanca.ster sound, ii. 322 Langlands river, ii. 300 Langley, ii. 445 1m Plata Mount, 1. 89 Laprairie, ii. 512 Laramie plains, i. SO range, i. 84 La Riviere Sal, ii. 422 Larix Americana, ii. 307 Lassen's peak, i. 110 I.iaurcntlde ninuntalns, ii. 32!), 335 Lead, where found, I. 30 Leiiclville, ('olonido, i. l.'iS Lcatlier or Vcllowhead moun- tains, ii. 42!» LctVoy, (Jol., ii. 470 Lewis or Snake river, ii. 440 Liard river, ii. 420 liievrc, l)u, river, ii. 304 Lilloet range mountains, ii. 444 river, ii. 443 Up)ier, ii. 443 Lineoln mount, i. ss Lindley, Mr., ii. 41i2 Llano Estacado, or Staked I'lain, i. 4H " liloyds," Canadian woods at, ii. 4!t3 liondon, Kngland, table of u year's temperature, ii. 455 Ijong island, ii. 303 Island sound, ii. 303 lake, ii. 31t7 | point, fowl at, ii. 370 i Long-Sault, ii. 303 Long's peak, i. 84 Lorette village, ii. 503 I^ouisbourg, ii. 000 Louisiana, salt deposits, i. 27, 31 Tiower Arrow lake, ii. 430 l0 account of, ii. 340 ManitolMi, Indians in, il. 500 lake, ii. 3.^0 Metis in, ii. 573 jiopulation, ii. 2!t0 settlers in, 387 Manitoiinuck chain of islands, ii. 300 sound, ii. 300 Mnnstluld island, ii. 302 Manufactures, i. 200 Marcy or Taharus mount, i. 7 Markham, Clement B., C.B., on I'olarexiieditions, ii. 318 explorations by, ii. 322 Marquette, i. 33 .Maryland, ores in, i. 12 Massive mount, i. Wt .Massiwailia river, ii. 305 .Matanne river, ii. 334 .Matapvdia lake, ii. 3.3) Matawan river, ii. 304 Matta-gand river, ii. 305 .Maumeo river, ii. 370 Medecine Uow mountains, i. 128 Alegantic lake, ii. 335 Melville cape, ii. 321 peninsula, ii. 303 Meni]ihramagog lake, ii. 335, 549 Merced river, i. 117 Mirgu.i mrriittor, ii. 398 Merritt, W. IL, ii. 510 Mestigoes, half-breed Indians, i. 231 " Mito Incognita," ii. 302 Methy |H)rtage, ii. 430 or a la Loche, ii. 431 Metla Katla, ii. 473 Mexican campaign, i. 170 Mexico, gulf of, i. 20 Michigan basin coal-Uelds, i. 28 lake, i. 32, 34 ores, i. 27 Middle park, i. 80 Savage islands, ii. 303 Miette river, ii. 430 Milford Haven, ii. 2!)0 .Mille Lacs, ii. 420 " Mine La Motte," lead-mine, i. 31 Mines in Canada, ii. ,501 .Minerals in Canada, ii. 501 Mingan islands, ii. 2!)8 Minnesota climate, ii. 468 river, i. 24 Missessaga point, ii. 594 Mississippi basin, the, i. 24, 20 river, i. 20 Lower, i. 23 Upper, i. 23 valley climate, ii. 459 extent, i. 20 coal-flelds, i. 27 geology, i. 25 minerals, i. 20 i*»s"erM .-rcx^M INDKX. 045 303 Ld-iuine, |oi li. 501 Is 468 t94 |c, i. 2-1, |4j9 27 lo Missiniri basin conl-flclilB, I. rdiiiinoiiiisc, (lie, i ITj (iiviit Kails of, i. 77 (iivs, i. ^7 raiiKi', i. fiS river, i. -^3 viillry, 1. 77 Mitclii'll's peak, i. 7 Mount Aihiiiis, i. ll'J Hakrr, i. Ill; ii. ilOO liniss, i. 1,')" Hniwii, ii. :ilO, 430 Daviilsiiii, i. l.'^i KlMiiili'iiifiis, ii. 337 Harvard, i. Sit 11 1, i. Ill HcioUcr, ii. 310, 430 HiiDsat', i. "Ji'i'.t La I'lata, i. S!> Liin'olii, i. ss, loy JIarcy (jr Taliariis, i. 7 Mas.sivc, i. M) Ouray, i. S'.t I'riiii'ctoii, i. SO Kainii'r, i. 1 1 1 Koval, ii. .'jss Kt.'Klias, i. Ill ; ii. 4r,2 St. Helens, i. Ill IShasta, i. Ill iSliavano, i. Kit Tijiiiiie, ii. tidO Washinj^toii, i. Whitney, i. 133 Yale, i. S'.i Mountain, limu^'liton, ii. 334 Cedar, ii. liOO Kvebrow, ii. 3;m) Ham, ii. 334 Holy Cross, i. S!) Iron, i. 30 Orford, ii. 334 8r. Honaii's, ii. .331 Sutton, ii. 334 Tliunderdirecdinj,', ii. ■iW Mountains, Adironaeks, i. ; ii. 3'JO, 3:;;i Allaskan raufje, i. 277 Allef,dianies, i. 7; ii. 3J',I Aniargosa ran},'e, i. lOS Aiii>alaL'luan, i. 5 ; ii. 329 .Vvnlnn, ii. &27 liif,' Horn, i. 82 Hitter Hoot range, i. 58 Black, i. 7 Ulaek liill.s, i. 47 Blue Uidj,'e, i. 7 Carilioo, ii. 443 Cascade, 1. 40 range, i. 110 ; ii. 320, 343 or St. Elias range, i. 277 Coast ranges, i. 120; ii. 320, 343 Colorado or Front range, i. 84 Cordilleras, i. 40 Elk range, i. 80 Great Balsam, i. 7 Mountains — tireat .Smoky, 1 7 (Ireeii, i. ii; H 3'j',t (iold range, ii. 441 Henry, I. 130 Ijleliiclie, ii. 337 l.aramie range, 1 St Laurent ide, ii. 3'J'.i, 335 l.illoct range, ii. 411 Medicine How, i. I'JS Missouri range, i. 5S Notre-Hanie, i. (i ; ii. 331 I'lyniiiian, liritisliColnni- liia, ii. iido raeillc ranges, i. 110 I'linamint range, i. lOS I'ark range, i. S'J, 88 I'emliina, ii. 4'JO I'laeicre, i. ICiO riireuiiine, ii. 418 lii'ling, ii. 418 Uixliers belioule's range, ii. 41'.' Hoeky, i. .57 ; ii. 340 extent of, i. l'J7 : li. li'J'.i geology of, i. 128 sonthi'rn, i. 83 lionianzoll, i. 1^77 St. Klias or Cascade range, i. 277 Kan Franeiseu. i. 130 Saiigro du Cristo range, i. 85 San .T'liin range, i. iU) Sawateli or " Sierra Madre" range, i. 80 Selkirk, ii. 343 rang(s ii. 442 Sliieksliiiek, ii. 3;!3 Sweetwater range, i. 42 "Three lluttes," i. 81 Vermont range, i. (3 Wahsatch range, i. 103 AVet or (ireenhorn, i. 85 White, i. (1 of Coleraine, ii. 334 Wind river, i. 78 Yellowliead or Leather, ii. 42'.t Yellowstone ran.gcs, i. 78 Zuni, i. ',10 M(mte Diahle, i. 120, Kil Montreal, ii. 358, 54i), 587 ehurehes, ii. 501 foniier seat of Govern- ment of Canada, ii. 500 liistory of, ii. 580 houses in, ii. 500 island, ii. 357, 587 liojiulation, ii. 500 railway, ii. 512 river, ii. 303 roval visits, ii. .501 or'" Ville .Marie," ii. 5S0 MormoiMsm, account of, i. 252 its constitution, i. 257 j ctleet of I'acilic Railway ' on tlie toniniunity, i. I 200 I Mormonism — future iirospeets, i. 250 MormouM at Nauvoo, i, 254 jiolygainy, i. 257 schism niipears, I. 258 settlenu'Ut in Utah, i. 25,') .1ose]ih Snuth, fiuiniler, i 253 Drigham Young, sueces- sor, i. 25.'-> Moisie rivir, ii. :i3ii .Monongaliela ri\er, i. 24 Montana, gold and silver in, i. i3i; Montmiirenci river, ii. 307 Moose Factory anchorage, ii. 307 river, ii. 305 " .Moose Woods," tlie, ii. 300 Sloravian missions, ii. 300, 5ti7 Munis, (lovcrnor, anecdote of, li. ;'p('.('i Mosi|uilo liay, ii. 307 Mossy jiortage, ii. 418 Mound-builders, ancient, i. 232 Mullock, Hev. Pr., ii. 483 .Muskoka country, ii. 547 Musk-ox, i. 54 Mushrooms, ii. 403 N.xiN Mission, ii. 507 Na-me-wa-miu-i-kan or Stur- geon or I'ojilar l.,o(lge river, ii. .375 Nana'Uio, i. Kil ; ii. .32(5 Nares, explorations by, ii. 322 " Narrows," tlie. ii. 034 Nastapoka river, ii. 300 islanils, ii. 300 Nation river, li. 434 National delt of America, i. 200 Navy island, ii. 504 Nechaco, Lower, Lake, ii. 475 Nechaco river, ii. 441 Negroes, the, i. 200 jiresent condition, i. 210 recognition by law, i. 211 slaves, i. 172 Nelson district, ii. 326 river, ii. 304, 350, 408 survey of, ii. 400-410 njilier part, ii. 412 Nevaila, gold and silver in, i. 130 Sutro tunnel in, i. 155 Newfoundland, ii. ti25 agricultural capabilities, ii. 620, Ii32 area of, ii. 200, <',25 " barrens," ii. 626 climate, ii. 483, i>2S cod-fisheries, ii. 630 coi)per mines, ii. 628 dog, the, ii. 6.30 exports, ii. 631, 635 tislieries and treaties, ii. 633 64G INDEX. Newfoiiiullaiicl — llNllillK-KroOIKlH, I. l(i'l foffH, tniu account ol' the, il. (I'.'S frcHli-wiitcr poiuN, ii. 027 Kmln^y, ii. 027 iin|>i>i'ts, ii. (i:m Jit'HiMlatiirf, tlm, ii. 631 llli'iili triiilMTittliru, II. 0'i8 iiiiiii'iiijs, ii. ii'J7 )Mi|>uliiti<>ii, il. ^00, 0:i:! rivers, ii. CrJii Kial-llshiiiK, Ii. MO tillllllT, Ii. f!'.".i wtitcr.s, Hti'anii'rs in, ii. ■M4, (i:U Nark, I. Krt North I'olar sea, coii,i(>rture« respecting, ii. 31S ex)>lorations In, II. iiVi, 322 ningnutli* pole, it, 310 North riviT, il. 3{)5 North Somerset island, il. .121 North-Wcst territory, ii. 381 liecount of, ii. 4ii4 ngricnlturul capabilities, ii. 881 area of, ii. 2110 (diiiiate, ii. tii3 fertility of the, ii, 37!" forests, il. 48S fuel supply, il, 405 lioliulatioD, il. 2'.i0 Hcasons in, II. 4117 stock-raising, ii. 407 table of ai res aiipropri- ateil in the, ii. 580 whcat-llclds, ii. 484-88 Norwegians, the, i. 20(1 Notre Dame bay, il. 025 ino\iiitains,'i. (i ; ii. 331 Nottingham islaml, ii. 302 Nova Neotia, area of, ii. 21'0 climate, ii. 4(i2 IiKliaiis in, ii. 5(>0 minerals in, Ii. 508 jietroleuni wells, ii. SOit ]io]iulation, il. 2'JO, 531) jiroducts, Ii. 402 valley of, II. 331 Oak trees In the Sierra, I. 122 Ogdeii river, I. 104 Oggotlka river, il. 305 Ohio valley climate, II. 45'.i river, 1. 23 O.jibiweyuk, Indians, ii. 508 Okaiiagan lake, il. 438 Okkak Mission, ii. 5i'>7 Ohl Wives lakes, ii. 403 ()lyin|>la, I'uget sound, ii. 000 Olymjiian mountains, ii. 000 Oniliabika bay, ii. 374 Omincca gold mines, ii. 450 "Omnibus Hill," the, i. 175 Ontario, area of, ii. 2',iO (diinate, ii. 401 cojijier mines, ii. 504 "Free Grant District" at, Ii. 547 fruits, ii. 4()0 Indians in, Ii. 500 iron ore, Ii. 505 lake, I. 32; Ii. 350, 350, 308 petroleum, II. 502 jiopulation, ii. 2ii0 Ootsabunkut lake, Upiierand Ijower, Ii. 440 Oregon, gold and silver in, 1. 130 Orford mountain, il. 334 Orleans, Island of, il. 300 Oswego river, ii. 309 Ottawa, il. 540, 592 Ottawa or Uytown, II. 305, 503 Chaudlero FaHs of, II. 304 Colonel Uy, II. 3115, 593 Uovernment House, II. 594 Houses of Parliament, 11. 5l»3 Iiopulatlon, II. 592 river, Ii. 330, 303 HJtnation, ii, 592 limber, Ii. 305 Otter- hunt In Aleutian is- lands, i. 279 oiiray nmunt, i. 89 outarde or llustardc river, II. 33il Owl's Head )icak, il. 334 I'AClFii' const, length of, ii. ;J4 general account, ii. 324 great archiiiclago, ij. ;)24 ranges, general view of, i. 110 Palliser, Captain, R.K., Ii. 382 I'aiiamint langc, i. 108 I'ark, llaktir's, i. 90 National, i. 59, 70 North, I. 80 Midille, I. 80 Range mountains, I. 82, 88 South, I. 80 Parks of Colorado, i. 80 Paria river, i. 92 Parr, explorations by, ii. 322 I'arry, Sir I'M ward, account of Hudson bay, II. 311 chart, ii. 311 explorations, II. 312, 319 Islands, ii. 323 Parsnip river, ii. 434 Partridge hill, Ii. 415 Pasjiebiac, Ii. 520 Pas Mission, 11. 394 Pas(iuia river, ii. 394 Passes in Canada — Athabasca, Ii. 429 Athabasca portage, ii. 340 Kicking Horse, ii. 439 Leather, il. 342, 430, 441 Tejon, I. 110 Vermilion, ii. 341 Pntapsco river, i. 190 I'awiiees Indians, Ii. 570 Peace river, II. 420, 434 or Ungigah, il. 434 district, Ii. 290, 470 valley, ii. 478 Peak, Uuttalo, I. 88 Klbert, i. 89 Fremont, i. 78 Gray's, I. 84 Lassen's, I. 110 Long's, I. 84 Mitchell's or Clingman, i. 7 Owl's Head, il. 334 Pike's, i. 84 f. ■ ^^^* 5y <»«>• ^— * ji*^^ INDEX. G4" Peak, Qufttidary, i. 8S Mlii'iiiiati, i. U'J Siiniir l.iiiif, ii. ;VM Pi'nkH, .SimiiiMli, i, 85 IVi'os riviT, i. ts Viilluy, i. ItH) ^l•^lil\Cll^ll^^])h(l.^i(nlelllts, ii. tOl I'l'i'l riviT, il. -t'-'ri I'fliiaii, Hwnii, iir Clcarwiitrr river, Ii. 4;'.l Pi'ily rivir, ii. i:.I ri'iiilH'rIciii ]Miit.'i^'p, ii. 4i:i Pi'iuliiiiii iiioiintaiiiM, ii. I'JO Pl'iul (I'Olrillf lill, i. 2.M Prnmso, A.liniral, ii. ms IVrrot islaiiil, ii. X>7 Pftaw.'iliwi'h liviT, li. 'M'4 Petit Alise island, i. Ml aiiciuiit reinniim found, i. 32 Petroli'imi, wlioro found, i. is in Calil'iirnia, i. l:i."( in Nnva Sciitia, ii. .''.OS in I'l'iuisylvania, i. l:j.'> statistics of, ii. fjO:! trade in, i. li» Petrol ia town, ii. .^0H Philadi'liOiia, i. l»i chief iiiannfaetnring city, i. IS',1 f'XjHirts, i. ISO formerly tlio capital, i. IPO Germans in, i. ISS, -MT ]M)|>nlation, i. 1»1 pul)lic l)nildinKs, i. 188 streets in, i. I.s7 Philiiot, l>r. Harvey .T., ii. r,'M Phos]iluite of lime or apatite, statistics of, ii. ,''j()ti Piegans Inilians, ii. ,^)T0 Pike's jieak, i. S4 PilKrims, tlie, island, ii. SiU Pilot Knr>li nionntain, i. 'M Pin<'hi lake, ii. 4l('i Pine river, ii. 4:i.'), 477 Pines in tli(^ Sierra, i. V22 rinuK pimiiirusii, ii. 41iO Pipestone lake, ii. 41.'i Pitt lake, ii. 44;{ river, ii. 44.'t Pittsburf;, i. liMl ; ii. .W) Placierc monntains, i. 100 Plain, Staked, i. 4S Plains in liritish America, i. 4i) Great, i. 47, 12(5 Laramie, i. Sij Snake river, i. 81 Plotenu, Cnnllllpmn, i. 40 t'ulorado, i. 112 on th livide," I. 82 region, I. 12S; ii. ;i:!0 or ColortKlu pluteAU, i. 121> Platte river, I. 2:t North, i. M South, i. Hi I'ltilih/iiiliitH jHiilii'i-im, ii, ;uKs I'oint Father, ii. :ini Fred.'rick, li. .'-1)4 DiMi^las, ii. 422 Henry, ii. !i, :i'M) Anti<'osti island, ii. 2!kS Kultiniore, i. I.'sl lleUeville, ii. OOil liostofi, I. 181 Jirantford, ii. 00:t liritish Columtiia, ii. 200 and Vancouver iH- lan:is Itrockvillc, ii. f.o:) lirnnklyn, i. Ihl ( anada, il. 2i»:(, .'■);l,''), ;,M lape lireton, ii. .''i.lrt Charlottetown, ii. 002 Chatham, ii. i:03 Chicat,'n, i. LSI comparative, of chief citii'S, i. liO Kniersoii, ii. oiM I'redrictoii, ii. 5.s;t, 002 (ialt, ii. ('i(i:< Great I'rairie territory, ii. 2110 Gnelph, li. OO.'t Halifax, ii. .WO, 002 Hamilton, ii. !>'M, 002 Hull, ii. 002 Iiidian, ii. ,'i35 islanils in thu Arctic ocean and in Hudson liay, ii. 2H0 Koewatin, district of, ii. 2!'0 Kingston, ii. S.'iO, 50j, ou:t Lalirador, ii. 200 Levis, ii. 002 Lindsay, ii. OOH London, ii. filiO, 003 Manitolia, ii. 200 and liritish Colum- liia, ii. .'iiiO Montreal ii .'.oo, 002 Ncwf.mndland, ii. 200, ,Mi5, .'i:iS, 033 Ni'w lirnnswick, ii. 200, .'.30, .'il'S New l-'ranco (Quebec), ii. ,')3,j, .^;!i> New Drlcans, i. 181 New York, i. 181 Population of New Wefitmin- Hter, ii. 0O3 Nortli-WcHt territories, II. 200 Nova Scotia, II. 200, 630, 63S Ontario, II 200, .'..10, 8.1H Ottawa, li. .'.,30. ,'.02, 00;i Pitcrboro', il. 003 I'hiladclpliia, i. l.Hl, I.SO Port Hope, ii. 003 l'..rt Uoyal, li. .'.3.'. Prince Kdward island. li. 200, .'.3ii, .'i3S Quebec, ii. 2'.MI, ,'.30, OlV.' Knpcrt's land ami Ked Hivcr Hcttlenieut, il. &3S St. Catlierlnes, li. 003 St. Henri, ii. 002 St. Hvacinthe, ii. 002 St. .lolin, ii ,'.30, .-(S-i St.. lolin, New lirnnswick, ii. 002 St. Jolm's, Ni'wfoun.l- land, ii. ,'.3,'., 003 .St. Louis, i. 181 St. Thomas, ii. 003 San I'rancisc.., i. isi Sherl.rooke, ii. 002 H(.rel, ii. 002 per s(|uare mile, ii. JJ30 Ht.alistics, ii. '.3:'.-0 Stratford, ii, 003 Snmmcrsicli', ii. 002 tables of, ii. ,'i3.'i, ,'.30 Three Uivers, ii. 002 Toronto, il. ,'.30, ,'.07, r.02 Lnitcd Stab'.s, i. 170 Victoria, Vancouver, ii. 003 WashinK'ton, i, isi Windsor, ii. 003 Winnipeg:, ii. ,'.00, 003 Woodst(.ck, ii. 003 Porcupine or Stone river, ii. 434, 4.'.1 mountains, ii. 41S PortaKc de la Traite, or Froi? portage, ii. 431 Port KssinKton, ii. 474 Hood, ii. 207 Hope, ii, 3i;o Nelson route, ii. 317 Portland, Oregon, ii. 000 cliaiinel, ii. 4.01 Powder river, i. 82 Prairie n'gion, ii. 382 country of thu West, ii. 402 descrijition, ii. 390 extent of, ii. 3S3 Grand, tlie, ii. 481 iidertilc region, ii. 390 )irairie dog, i. 53 produce, ii. 38i> river system, ii. 383 tind.er, ii. 3S5 vegi'tation, ii. 384, 402 404 648 INDEX. Prairies, the, i. 25 Prt'snitt, ii. 4S4, :.47 President of till) Unite. 1 St.'it.'s, llrst, i. Ill',) Priliee Albert, ii. '.".10 Edward island, area of, ii. 'J'.iO Indians in, ii. ')(iO 1 ■ pulaliiin, ii. 2'.i0 ]iroduets, ii. irtS Henry foreland, ii. ;U)'2 of \Vale;i island, ii. liL'l William, .slibnitu at, ii. ,">07 Princeton mount, i. 81) Provoor Timjianogos river, i. 1(11 rniini.< Anin-icitiii', ii. -100 I'irijinhniii, ii, luO Puek-\va liai;uii river, ii. 411 I'tlget sound, ii. (iOO Pyramid lake, i. 132 Quandary peak, i. SS Qu'Aiilielle river, ii. L'OO, 3!t; jilaiiis iit'ur, ii. 40:( Quatres Fourelies river, ii. 430 <2uatsalix eaflon, ii. 474 Ijueen Charlotte i-sland.s, ii. !V_'0 agricnltural possibilitie.s, ii. 472 elimate, ii. ■'!27 forests, ii. 327 Quchoe, ii. 3,'ii), .S4ii, .OSf) area of, ii. 2'.'0 French inhabitants, ii. :o() history of, ii. S.SO Indians in, ii. .WO ores in, ii. .OOO origin of name, ii. .IS.'i Plains of Abraham, ii. poimlation, ii. 200, fiSO or Htadaeuna, ii. 5Si> nniversity, Freiieh, ii. OSO Qtlesnelle river, ii. 442 Quill lake, ii. 3'J7 Rack eape, ii. 02,5 roeks, the, ii. .'S2,') . :'.il\vay bridges, ii. MO J lihvays in Canada, ii. ;'il2 Canada Sonthern, ii. .OKS Canadian Paeilic, ii. fiUS Kuropeau and Nortli American, ii. .'il7 Grand Trnnk, ii. .'il.') Great Western, ii. U\r> London and Port Stanley, ii. 5U) New IJrunswick and Canada, ii. f)17 Nortliern, ii. ,''il7 Nova Scotia, ii. .117 Quebec, Montreal, Ot- tawa, and Occidental, ii. ,018 Railways in Canada routes iirojected, ii. fi21 Welland, ii. .Mii Western Kxtension, ii. ,117 Kainl'all in Arkan.sas, ii. 4'.il California, i. 121 iMississijipi, west of, ii. 4!it New Mexico, ii. 4',14 Texas, ii, 4'.i| Hainier mount, i. Ill or Taehonia glaciers, i. 112 Rainy or Rene lake, ii. 317 river, ii. 123 Raisiu river, ii. 370 Raleigh, Sir Waller, li.uMdi"! colniiy in Virgini.i, i. Uil Randolph co., gold iii, i. i ( Rapids of the ,St. Lawrence, ii. 3,'i7 Rut Portage, ii. 410 river, ii. 420 Riitou hills, i. KiO Ray <'ape, ii. 2'.i7, ti2.') Recarccs Indians, ii. .170 Red I>ccr river, ii. 1 17 Red .Mountiiin springs, i. 71 Red luilian I'oinl l-'ic, ii. ('.27 Red islaml, ii. 3rd Red river, ii. 417, 420 Red river, the, of Louisiana, i. 23 Reindeer, i. ,14 ; ii. 427 Reindeer lake, ii. 434 Reno, i. 1.1.3 Resolution island, ii. 301 Rhode island, coal in, i. 14, 1,1 Richardson, Sir John, ii. 432, 470 Richardson, I>r., ii. 3S() Uichelieu or Iroipiois river, ii. 3(17 Richmond gulf, ii. 300 Uideau canal, ii. 511,1 river, ii. ,3il4 Riding mountains, ii. 418 Rigouh.'ttc, ii. 2110 Rio Grande I.owei' .Mississippi, i. l':! Mackenzie, ii. :!-(', :i-l, :i,"iO, -I'-'ii .Mailawaska, ii. ;iiil .Madison, i. .M) M.'iniecinaKan, ii. :i!'4 Massiuailia, ii. :>0r> Mataniie, ii. !i;il Watawan, ii. :ti''l Matla-Kaini, ii. 1105 Manniee, ii. :i70 Mel-eed, i. 117 Mii'ttc, ii. tliO Jliniiesiita, i. 'Jl Mississi|ri>i, i. "JO Missouri, i. 'Jli Moisie, ii. ;i:i{i Jlonon-aliela, i. 21 Jloiilniorenei, ii. 'M7 Montreal, ii. :Ki Moose, ii. ;i(l.') Na-nie-wa-niin-i-knn or Sturgeon or I'oplar l.oil};e, ii. .'l"/i Nastapoka, ii. .'100 Nation, ii. 4:il Nechaeo, ii. 1 II Nelson, ii. ;t(il, ;iMi, 103 Niaf;ara, i. :M ; ii. li.'jlt Niiola, ii. 447 Noddawai, ii. liO.'i Nonwatan, ii. ;u'i Nortli, ii. ;U!5 Onden, i. 104 O^notika, ii. ;!0r> Ohio, i. LM OUana^an, ii. 4:!8 <)s\veK'>, '•• '"''•' Ottawa, ii. ;t;n!, :iii:i Outarde or liustard, ii. ;!:iti I'aria, i. 012 Parsnip, ii. 4.^4 r.-isipiia, ii. :f!i4 I'ataiisco, i. llK) I'eaee, ii. 4Jti, 4;!4 I'eeos, i. 4S Peel, ii. 4l!ti, 4.-il I'eliean or Swiin or Clear- water, ii. 4:il I'elly, ii. 4.M Pet;iwaliweli, ii. :!04 Pine, ii. 4X> Pitt, ii. 44:! Platte, i. i!3 Pon'upino, ii. 4,M Powder, i. S'J I'rovo or Tinipanapis, i. 104 rn'^7 HIviere la lilehe, ii. 477 Koek, i. '-'4 HoliertsonKoss, Col. P., ii. liuperl, ii. nor) .M:t .SaKnenay, ii. ICit!, :itil, iU'iii | H(d)erval, ii. tlo;. Samlusky, ii. :i70 Uolj.son, aeeoiint of Hudson Whirlpool, ii. 4:!0 Whit.', i. •J4, O'J William's fork, i. 02 Wind, i. 7.S Winnipc},', ii. 41S, 410 Wisconsin, i. "Jl Yanipa, i. OJ Y.i/.oo, i. '_',( Yellowstone, i. •2'.i Yukon, i. 'J77 ; ii. 451 Ste. Anne des Monts, ii. !St. Clair, i. :i4 ; ii. 'S:<'2 St. I'Yaneis, ii. Hi bay by, ii. .'110 Uochers Delioulc't) ran^e, ii. 440 " I!i»lics-iuiiiitiiiini\:t," i. 70 St. I'Yaneis, ArkansaSji.'J:! I Koek river, i. '24 St. .lohn, ii. :)S'. St. Ijiwrenee, i. lij, ys ; ii. :i:i0, ;!,')(), ; St. Marie, i. :i;t St. .Mauriee, ii. ;iOj Salmon, i. 81 San .luan, i. O'J Saskaleliewan, ii. 204, ;!5(), :iOl Great and Little, ii. 410 Soiil, ii. ;ior> Sov'jru, ii. 305 Sevier, i. 105 Shuswap, ii. 447 SiniilkanuM'n, ii. 4;i.S SUieua, ii. 437, 44S, 475 Smoky, ii. 435 Snake, i. 70 Souris, ii. 200 Soulli Platte, i. I'JH Saskatchewan, ii. 200 Tliomp.son, ii. 413 Stiekeen, ii. 437 Btone, ii. 4.33 Stuart, ii. 441 Suniass, ii. 445 Suskwa, ii. 4.')0 Swan, ii. 417 Sweetwater, i. 82 Ti'iniessee, i. 24 Terra .Nova, ii. 020 Thompson, ii. 442 Tinipanogos ov I'rovo, i. 104 Ton^'ue, i. .'*2 Trent, ii. 3r,0 Trout, ii. 305 Uintji, i. 02 llplier .Mississi]»pi, i. 23 Vermilion, ii. 435 Vir^'eii, i. 02 Wabash, i. 24 Wati'rhen, ii. 41S Watsonkna, ii. 410 W.'ber, i. 104 Weenisk, ii. 305 Uocky mountains, i. 57; ii. 340 extent of, i. 127 ; ii. 328, 340 glaciers in, i. 70 Kouthern, i. 8.3 Uoinan/oir mountains, i. 277 Hosti hliiiiihi, ii. 100 Hoss, explorations by, ii. 310 Itoss island, ii. 113 Uonte, Douglas, ii. 1 1 1 Houtes Hudson bay, ii. 317 for innnigrants, ii. .'i23 Liverjiool to ,la[ian, two routes, ii. ;!17 Port .Nelson, ii. 317 Iloyal nniunt, ii. 358, ,'>bS Hoyale isle, i. .33 " Uunning a rapid," i. 100 Uupert river, ii. .)()5 Itupert's lutid, IiuIiauH in, ii. 500 metropolitan of, ii. 500 Kussvll, Lind.say, ii. 401 Itussian America or Ala.ska, i. 270 Uusso-Uermans, the, i. 200 SaiiI.k cape, ii. 330 Sneramcnt." valley, i. 121 Saddlcb.'U'k eape,"li. 310 islands, ii. 3U3 "Sage brusli," or Artemisia, i. 50 Saginaw bay, i. 33 ; ii. 372 Ste. Anne des Monts, ii. 334 St. Anil y, falls of, i. 21 St. Catherine's, ii. 548 St. Clair lake, ii. 35'2 river, i. 34 ; ii. 3.V2 St. Klian or Cttseiulo range, I. 277 St. Klias mount, i. HI ; ii. 452 St. Frnnei.s Inke, ii. 335 river, i. 23 ; ii 'M' 650 INDEX. Bt. George, Utah, i. 125 bay, ii. 'J'J7 island, i. 279 Bt. George's bay, ii. 020 St. Heleiie isliiiul, ii. ;i.')S St. Helen's island, ii. 58S St. Helen's mount, i. Ill St. John, New lirunswiek, ii. 583 lake, ii. 338, 306 river, ii. 582 St. John's, Newfoundland, ii. 034 harbour, ii. 63-t population, ii. 635 trade, ii. 034 St. Lawrence basin, ii. 291 gulf, ii. 297, 302 gulf and river products, ii. 457 St. Lawrence river, i. 32, 38 ; ii. 351 or Detroit, ii. 352 or Niagara, ii. 351, 353 or St. Clair, ii. 352 or Sault St. Marie, ii. 352 islands in, ii. 301 lake.s and rapiils, ii. 357 length of, ii. 350 "traverse" of the, ii. 300 valley of the, i. 6 width of, ii. 360, 585 Louis, i. 196 Germans in, i. 207 population, i. 181 tubular bridge, i. 198 Marie river, i. 33 Martin's, Montreal, table of a year's temperature, ii. 455 St. Maurice river, ii. 365 St. Mary's bay, ii. 295, 020 St. Paul, bay of, ii. 300 St. Paul island, i. 279 St. Peter bay, ii. 290 St. Regis lake, ii. 357 St. Ronan's mountain, ii. 334 Salisbury island, ii. 302 Salmon river ranges, i. 81 Salt Lake, i. 132 deposits, i. 27 mines of Louisiana, i. 31 statistics of, ii. 503 valley, i. 105, 125 Sandusky river, ii. 370 Sangre de Cristo range, i. 85 Sanguenay river, ii. 336, 301, 360 San Francisco, i. 199 bay, i. 120 climate, i. 201 or "Golden City," i. 200 Golden Gate, i. 201 inhabitants, i. 202 mountains, i. 130 population, i. 181 Ban Joaquin valley, i. 121 San Juan range, i. 90 river, i. 92 Ban Lucas cape, i. 100 Bt. St St, San Luis valley, i. 87 Sanpere, Mr., ii. 470 Sarnia, ii. 548 Saskatchewan, district of, ii. 290 river, ii. 294, 348, 350, 391, 392, 397, 398 Great, ii. 416 Little, ii. 416 (North), ii. 408 (South), ii. 395, .397 valley temperature, ii. 402 "Sautteux" Indians, ii. 508 Savage islands, ii. 302, 31 1 Sa watch or "Sierra Madro" range, i. 89 Scratching creek, ii. 422 Seal-fishing, i. 281 Seal river, ii. 305 island, ii. 410 Selkirk, Lord, treaty with Indians, ii. 504 mountains, ii. 343 range, mountains, ii. 442 Sehvyn, A. R. C, F.li.H., F.G.S., account of Hudson bay by, ii. 301 Semi-tropical regions, i. 25 Seton lake, ii. 443, 444 Severn river, ii. 305 Sevier river, i. 105 Shakers, history of the, i. 248 Shasta mount, i. Ill, 113 Sliavano mount, i. 89 Shebandowan lake, ii. 347 Shenandoah valley, i. Shcpherdia argentea, ii. 400 Sherman peak, i. 112 Shickshock mountains, ii. 333 Shipping statistics, ii. 529 Shoal lake, ii. 349 Shoshonees Indians or Snake tribe, ii. 509 Shuswap lake, ii. 447 Shushwap lakes, Great and Little, ii. 443 Sierra, the — " Big Trees " of, i. 123 vegetation of, i. 122 Sierra Abajo, i. 130 Blanca, i. 85 Carriso. i. 130 el Late, i. 130 Magdalena, i. 90 Mateo, i. 90 de las Mimbres, :. 00 Nevada, i. 110, 133 la Sal, i. 130 Silver, a year's product, i. 137 taV)le of production of, i. 150 Silver in — Clear Creek county, i. 157 Colorado, i. 149, 157 the Cordilleras, i. 149 Georgetown, i. 157 Idaho, i. 150 Lake Superior, ii. 504 Silver in— Leadville, i. 158 Nevada, i. 149 San Juan, i. 157 Sunnnit county, i. 1.57 Utah, i. 149, 150 Virginia, i. 151 Similkaineen river, ii. 438 Simjison cape, ii. 321 lake, ii. 435 Sir George, ii. 558, .598 Sinialimoo bay, ii. 445 aUiuK IndiaiKS, ii. 559, 503 liome of, i. 82 Sipi-wesk lake, ii. 414 Sitka, mean temperature, ii 471 " Sitting Bull," Indian, ii. 503 Skeena river, ii. 437, 44S, 47.'> Slave lake. Lesser, ii. 430 river, Lesser, ii. 430 Slavery, abolition of, i. 170 introduced, i. 171 Smith sound, timber and game at, ii. 323 Smoky river, ii. 435 vegetation, ii. 479 Smoky, Great, niountiiins, i. 7 Snake river, i. 79 or "Mad" river, i. 80 Shoshone, fall on, i. SO l>lains, i. 81 Snowyland islands, ii. 303 Social relations in America, i. 239 Soda lake, i. 109 Soliau])tues Indians, ii. 509 Sorel, ii. 358 Sounds— Cuniberlar-'l, ii. 322 Erskine, u. ..20 Lancaster, ii. 322 Long island, ii. 305 Manitounuck, ii. 300 Smith, ii. 323 Souris river, ii. 290 Soutliampton island, ii, 303 South bay, ii. 375 South Carolina, ores in, i. 13 Soutli I'ark, i. 84, 8ti Soutli Platte river, i. 128 South Saskatchewan river, ii. 290 Soutliern Southampton is- lands, ii. 302 Southern States, blacks in, i. 209 whites in, i. 209 Spanisli peaks, i. 85 Spear cape, ii. 034 Spence's bridge, ii. 447 Sjiokans Indians, ii. 509 Spy hill, ii. 397 Stickeen river, ii. 437 Stone river, ii. 433 or Porcupine river, ii. 434 Straits- Belle Isle, ii. 297 Bellot, ii. 320, 323 Dcase, ii. 321 . straits — DoIj)hin and Union, ii. Vox oliannel, ii. 321 Fraiiljlin, ii. ;!2i of Ftica, or Juan de Fuca, ii. 325, 000 of Georgia, ii. 441 Hecla and Fury, ii. 322 Hudson, ii. 301 of Mackinaw or Midiihili- niafinae, ii, 371, 372 &t. Mary or Saiilt St. Marie, ii. 373 Victoria, ii. 321, 323 Struthiopteris Geniiaiika, ii. Stuart lake, ii. 446 river, ii. 441 Sturgeon lake, ii. 4S0 Sujiar Loaf peak, ii. 334 Sunia.ss river, ii. 44.5 Superior lake, i. 32, 33, 30 ; ii. 300, 372, 504 products, ii. 401 scenery, ii. 548 silver mines, ii. 374 tenijierature, ii. 401 Suskwa river, ii. 450 valley, ii. 475 Sussex- CO., ores in, i. 12 Sutton nmuntain, ii. 334 Swan river, ii. 417 Swedes, the, i. 200 Sweetwater range, i. 42 river, i. S2 valley, i. 82 Swiss, the, i. 200 Tacla lake, ii. 441, 440 Tadousac, ii. :wr, Tahaurus or Marcy mount, I. t Tchesinknt ir.ke, ii. 440 Tccumseh, ii. 503 Tejoii ]iass, i. 110 Teniaganiang lake, ii. 338 Temis-cainang lake, ii. 338, 303 Temiscouata lake, ii. 335 Tennessee, ores in, i. 13 river, i. 24 Terra Nova river, ii. C20 Tete Jaune Cache, ii. 438 Tezzer lake, ii. 440 Thonijison, David, ii. 3i)2 river, ii. 340, 442 North, river, ii. 442 South, river, ii. 443 "Tliousand Islands," the, ii. 350, 549 " Three Buttes" mountains, i. SI ' Three Rivers, ii. 359 Thtinder bay temperature, ii. 401 Thunder-breeding mountain, ii. 300 TimjiatioKos or Piovo river, i. 104 INDEX. Toledo, i. 106 Tolmie mount, ii. 600 Tongue river, i. 82 Toronto, ii. 369, 647, 596 bay, ii. 596 history, ii. 697 population, ii. 597 rainfall at, ii. 467 temperature, ii. 590 university, ii. 596 or York, ii. 596 Tory island, ii 305 Touchwood hills, ii. 290, 897, 405 Tourmente cape, ii. 457 " Traverse," the, ii. 300 Trees, habitat of various, ii. 307 Trent river, ii. 309 Tributaries, .secondary, of Mississippi, i. 23 Trinity bay, ii, 025 Trout river, ii. 305 Tunnel, Mount Iloosac, i. 269 Tunnel, Sutro silver-mine, i. 155 Turtle portage, ii. 424 UiXTA range, i. 42, f'6 basin, i. 96 river, i. 92 valley, i. 97 Ungava, liay of, ii. 302 f-squimaux near, ii. 303 tides in, ii. 303 Union restored, i. 170 spread of tlie, i. 170 Lnited States- agricultural products, i. 171 ' agriculture, i. 261 boundaries, i. 179 canals, i. 267 cattle-breeding, i. 204 Civil war, the, i. 170 "colonial jiroduce," i. 203 confederation formed, i 108 expenditure, i. 274 Federal Union of the, i 169 fleet, i. 275 historical survey, i. 102 industrial collapse in, i, 177 land forces, i. 274 Northern free, i. 174 number, i. 179 population, i. 179, 180 railway system, i. 20S revenue, i. 274 Southern slave, i. 174 timber, i. 205 wheat products, i. 201 wine and tobacco, i. 203 Upper Savage islands, ii. ;iii Utah, gold and silver in, i. 136 silver first called lead in Utah. i. 156 651 Vancouver, explorations by, li. 324 ■" Vancouver island, ii. 825 coal in, ii. 295, 326 discovery of, ii. 324 timber, ii. 325 Vermilion river, ii. 435 Vermont, marble in, i. 14 range, i. 6 Viburnum Lcntago, ii. 400 l^uhcscens, ii. 401 Victoria, Uritish Columbia, ii. 000 climate, ii. fioi docks, ii. 001 lake, ii. 477 strait, ii. 321, .323 " west of sunset," ii. 001 and Albert land, ii. 323 \ irgen river, i. 92 Virginia city, i. 153 climate, ii. 459 colony founded in, by Sir Walter Haleigh, i. 165 ores in, i. 13, 15 toba(H'o in, i. 164 Vilis riparia, ii. 400 Wabash river, i. 24 Wa.ger inlet, ii. 303 Wahsatch range, i. 103 Walsingham cai)e, ii. .322 Washington, i. 191, I95 Capitol, i. n»2 charitable institutions, i. 194 education, i. 195 George, i. 108 gold and silver in, i. 136 mount, i. pojiulation, i. 181 public buildings, i. 192 White House, i. 194 Waterhen river, ii. 418 Waterways of Canada, 346-50 Wat-son-kua river, ii. 449, 475 Weber river, i. 104 Weenisk river, ii. 305 Welland canal, ii. 309 Westminster, New, ii. 437 445, 002 Wet or Greenhorn mountains, I. 85 • Whale river, ii. ,303 Whale, Little, river, ii. 305 Wheat in Illinois, ii. 487 Iowa, ii. 487 Kansas, ii. 487 Manitolw, ii. 4,so Minnesota, ii. 4S8 Peace River region, ii. 488 Red River valley, ii. 487 Saskatchewan region, ii. 487 Texas, ii. 487 Wisconsin, ii. 487 Wheat markets, tables, ii. 485, 4S6 652 INDEX. i. 63 Wheat markets- Buffalo, ii. 4Srt Cliicago, ii. 485 Dulutli, ii. 485 ■Wliei'lock, J. A., ii. 4r,4, 46S Wliirlpool river, ii. 4;iO Wliiskey ■ Jack "mountain, ii. 415 Whitc-llsh lake, ii. 424 White mountains, i. (> of Colerai'iie, ii. .'i;H White Mountain springs, Wliite bay, ii. 025 river, i. 24, it2 Whitney mount, i. 133 Willamette valley, i. 120 William's Fork river, i. !''J Williamsville, ii. 595 Willis, N. r., account Niagara falls, ii. ;'i5,'J Wind river, i. 78 mountains, i. "S valley, i. 82 Windsor, ii. .'itiO Windsor, Ontario, tahle mean temperature, ii. 4(il Winnipeg, Manitoba, ii. 421, 598 ajipearance, ii. COO of of Winnipeg, Manitoba— contliicnue of Red river and Assiniboino, ii. 348 country about, ii. 419 education, ii. 5ii!> or Fort Garry, ii. 598 hi.story, ii. 598 lake, ii. 348, 350, 416, 422 mouth of Saskatchewan, ii. 34S jiopulation, ii. 599 rainfall at, ii. 407 river, ii. 418 Winnipegosis lake, ii. 350 Wisconsin river, i. 24 Wolfe island, ii. 350, 594 Wolfville, mean temjierature, ii. 462 Wolstenholme cape, ii. 302 Woods, Lake of the, i. 33 ; ii. 422 or Clearwater lake, ii. 423 or Lake of the Sandhills, ii. 424 islanils of, ii. 423 Woodstock, New Brunswick, ii. 5S3 Woolaston lake, ii. 434 "Wyoming, Gertrude of, ' ii. 503 Yale, ii. 444 mount, i. 89 Yampa river, i. 92 Yazoo river, i. 23 Yellowhead lake, ii. 441 Yellowh(!ad or Leather moun- tains, ii. 429 Yellowstone lake, i. 72 geology, i. 70 Grand cation and falls, i. 72 National park, i. 59 ranges, i. 78 river, i. 23, 72 vallcv, hot springs in, i. 01,"71 Yosemite valhiy, i. 117 falls, i. 119 York Factory, coast near, ii. 307 Yu(!ca, or Spanish bayonet, i. 40, 50 Yukon river, i. 277 ; ii. 451 ZoAU Missioii, ii. 507 Zuni mountains, i. 90 THE END. Prinfed by Edward Stanford, JJ, C/iaring Cross, London, S.JV. __ iC^ * ii. lOUU- falls, ill, i. ir, ii. lot, i. 101 RECENT GEOGRAPHICAL PUBLICATIONS. THE LONDON ATLAS OF UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY. QUARTO EDITION. CONSISTING OF FORTY-FOUR COLOURED MAPS, CAREFULLY DRAWN, AND BEAUTIFULLY ENGRAVED ON STEEL AND COPPER PLATES. WITH A COPIOUS INDEX. Imperial 4to, half morocco, gilt edges. Price 30s. CONTENTS. I. 2. 3- 4- 5- 6. 7- 8. 9- 10. II. 12. 13- 14. IS- 16. 17- 18. 19. 30. 21. 22. 23- WOBLD, on Mercator's Projection. Europe. British Isles, Orographical. British Isles, Hydrographical. England and Wales. Scotland. Ireland. Sweden and Norway. Denmark. Oermany, West. Qermany, East. Austria-Hungary. Switzerland. Netherlands and Belgium. France. Spain and Portugal. Italy, North. Italy, South. Balkan Peninsula. BusBia and the Cauoasus. Asia. Turkestan, West. Turkestan, East. 34. China. 25. Japan. 26. India. 27. Ceylon. 38. East Indies. 29. Holy Land. 30. Africa. 3t. Egypt. 32. South Africa. 33. 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" In respect of size and price, it occupies a place about midway between the best school atlases hitherto published and the most costly and elaborate works of cartography ; but, as regards beauty and clearness of engraving and colouring, accuracy of detail, and recognition of the latest results of geographical research, it will stand comparison with any of the latter. It contains in all forty-four maps, and has been planned with a special view of representing the geographical features of those parts of the world which are most nearly connected with British interests. At the end of the Atlas there is a comprehensive index, containing more than 19,000 names of towns, villages, mountains, capes, islands, rivers, and other features shown on the maps. Altogether the Atlas is admirably designed for use, either as a work of reference or by the advanced student of geography. — Scotsman. LONDON: EDWARD STANFORD, 55 Charing Cross, S.W. RECENT GEOGRAPHICAL PUBLICATIONS. By the late KEITH JOHNSTON, F.R.G.S. A PHYSICAL, HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, AND DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Second Edition. Large post 8vo, cloth, with Illustrations and 21 Maps, I2S. ; Calf, i8s. " Mr. Johnston, while avoiding the minute and often tedious details to be found in most school books of geography, has produced a work in some respects more complete than any other of the kind with which we are acquainted. He has aimed at giving the general results of the latest and best research in the great departments of geography ; and, amid the ever-increasing host of competitors, his text-book deserves to take a high place. The work is copiously illustrated with maps ; those relating to historical geography are gems, picturing as they do the gradual rolling back of the gray cloud of ignorance from B.C. 450 down to the latest Arctic expedition. Altogether the work is a clear, simple, and .iccurate exposition of the main facts and principles in the various depart- ments of geography, not only useful as a text-book for colleges and the higher schools, or as a handy reference-book, but to a 'arge extent very interesting reading." — Times. " Mr. Keith Johnston's text-book of geography is a work of much thought, wide research, and no mconsiderable literary skill. It contains a vast amount of information on the physical features of the countries of the world, their climate and p.-oductions, com- merce and industry, political institutions, administrative divisions, and leading towns. A set of maps, coloured so as to distinguish forest regions, agricultural lands, steppes, and deserts, forms a welcome addition to this judiciously planned and carefully written text- book. " — A thetuetan. By Sir ANDREW C. RAMSAY, LL.D., F.R.S. THE PHYSICAL GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 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Edward Stanford's Catalogue of Books can be had gratis on application, or per post for Penny Stamp, LONDON: EDWARD STANFORD, 55 Charing Cross, S.W. RECENT GEOGRAPHICAL PUBLICATIONS. an poir.: llr. Hull J.W. STANFORD'S NEW SERIES OF LIBRARY MAPS OF THE GREAT DIVISIONS OF THE GLOBE. CONSTRUCTED BY ALEX. KEITH JOHNSTON, LL.D., F.R.S.E., ETC. Engraved in the Finest Style, on Copper Plates. Price of each, Coloured and Mounted on Linen, in Morocco CasCy/^T, : 13 :6; on Roller, Varnished, _^3 ; on Sjiring Roller, £6. EUROPE. Scale, 50 miles to an inch ; size, 65 inches by 58. This new Map of Europe shows the boundaries of all the Independent States, even the smallest, and also the subdivisions of the larj;er Continental States. The Railways are accurately and distinctly delineated, and the Lines of Submarine Telegraphs inserted. The Southern Shores of the Mediterranean are included, so that the Overland Route, as far as Suez, the Egyptian Railway, etc., may be distinctly traced. ASIA. Scale, 1 10 miles to an inch ; size, 65 inches by 58. This new and original work exhibits the Empires and other States of the Oriental world with a stricter regard to their actu.il boundaries and divisions than any other pub- lication has yet attempted. Although the size of the Map extends to the limits of con- venience, its scale of no miles to an inch serves to show how inadequate a small Map must be for the representation of so large an area. AFRICA. Scale, 94 miles to an inch ; size, 58 inches by 65. The whole range of Soudan, from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, has been remodelled from the labours of the French in Senegal, — of Barth, liaikte, and others on the Niger, — and of Von Heuglin, Petherick, Speke, and Baker, etc., in the Upper Basin of the Nile. South of the Equator vast spaces have been filled up by Livingstone, Burton, Speke and Grant, Dti Chaillu, and Andersson, while great improvements have been made by the Surveys of the Colonial Governments. 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