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Las diagrammaa suivants illustrant la mOthoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 IMCaOCamf MKHUTION TKT CHAIT (ANSI ond ISO TEST CHAUT No. J) A ('16) 2aa - :>9e9 - r„. ^/f^^i^ CANADA DEPARTMENT OF MINES OBOLOOIOAL BUBTKY BltAXOX Hon. W. TMrLHMH, Minhtu; K. P. U»w. Dwstt MiNimai R. W. BmoK, DiiKiM. MEMOIR No. 1«-E THE CUY AND SHALE DEPOSITS NOVA SCOTU AND POKTIfliNS OF NEW BBUNSWICK UEINHICU RIES AS8laT£D BT JOSEPH KEEI.B OTTAWA QOVEKNMKNT PRINTING BUREAU 1911 No. IDS '4 f HoNWTti LEGEm> o Fire cbnn Hitd ^ 7 ^ <*' ^U-yi A '-^ jfUUml. .^ :^a2&»- yM iTOll*— '» tfminiia IriNtirtmrat of itttnrs OCOLOOICAL tURVCV HoNWTtMntMAN MittisTfd A H Low DtPut. f" ■•'» i.Kttcm) o »» tktf ami g ^g s ^^s ^ ^^^^ H MAP Z2A NOVA SCOTIA riliill ( 4y A Kcb"' A Mmnptmf Umutr Si Hi DEPARTMENT OF MINES •aOMMIOAI. ■VSTBT ■mawffli Ho*. W. THmjMAa. Mmmimi A. P. Low, Ow«tt Utmtimi MBMOIB No. 16-B THE CLAY AND SHALE DEPOSITS NOVA OTiA AND PORTIONS OF NEW BRUNSWICK •T HlilKBICa RIK8 MallTBII BT JOSEPH KEBIiE OTTAWA OOVEKNIISNT PRINTING BUREAU 1911 Nu. 1118 To R. W. Brock, Esq., Director Geological Survey, Department of Mines, Ottawa. Sir,— I beg to submit, herewith, a report on the Clay and Shale Deposits of Xova Scotia aiul a portion of New Brunswick. I have the honour to be. Sir, Your obedient serviiiit. (Signed; Heinrich Hies. September 20, 1910. 89*7-11 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Letter of trnnsmittal S Introductory D I'AI.'T I. Clav Deposit? and Clay Tiiilii-tiy IS Xova Scotia i:t Chapter I i;t Formations of nil tjiciit viiliie to the clay workiis n Pre-Cambrian l.t Coxheatli inotiiitiiin it Siiiirian in Devonian Id Triassic 17 Important clay-bearing fonmitions 17 Loner Carboniferous seric- 17 ley area. IK Hawkesbury area is I'ligwash ]^ Shubenacadie 20 Millstone Grit 21 Coiil Measures 2t Sydney field 21 North Sydney to Bra« il'Oi 2.1 Black point 30 Black point to Oxford point 32 Keating pond to Plant imint Xi Black Rock point 34 .■Sydney to Cow Bay :^, Low point to Glace Bay 37 Glace >i;l^ eastward 3!i Toron.' y liue 41 Sydney area 43 Pictou field 43 Inverness field 49 Port Hood field .53 Joggins field s,i Permian 57 Chapter II tiO Pleiftucene clays (jO Miia river (ij Sydney and vicinity 62 McKinnon harbour go baddeck f;3 Eden Siding 04 6 oEor.noioAi. survey, caxaha Cliapter II— Coiifiiiiipd. I'lci-tocpiif clays— CxHtinucd. f\r,E. Diogenes brook OS Antigonish Ri! Sylvester Rli Parrsboro and Tioinity (it! Shubenacadie valley 67 Elmsdale 67 Knfleld CH Shubenacadie 70 Annapolifi volley 71 Avoiiport 71 Middleton 72 Annapolis Koyal 73 Yarmouth 7.'t Mo-nw)ic 73 •-'lays in MusiiiiO(l(ilM>it valley and at Shubenacadie. . 73 Musquodobnit valley 74 Borings for clay near Elmsdale 77 Borings for cloy in Middle Mii-quodoboit 7S Analyses of 'lays from Murphy brook 83 Shubenacadie 93 Borings in J. A. Ettars Held 84 Uor'igs near Kilpatrick Siding 85 ' .igs on Mr. Deivi>' property Si rtorings on property of Mr. M. .\ntlioiiy 8."> Age of the Shubenacadie fireclays 87 K»K Brnnswiok 88 i'hapter III 8S Lower Carboniferous 88 Weldon creek, near Albert Mines 89 Shale from Frederick brook 89 Chipman, Queens Co 89 Doichester 90 (,'oat Measures 90 Grand Lake distrirt 90 Salmon bay 91 Flower cove 92 Minto 94 Harcourt 94 Beersvillf 95 Permian % PU^istocene 90 Fredei icton % St. .Tohn »; Moncton 97 Chapter IV 98 Cay working! industry fls Nova Scotirt 98 Annapolis Rnyal 99 Middl.'toii 99 CI.AV AXn SFfAT.K DEPOSITS Chapter IV— Continued. Clay wnrkinu indnatry — Continued. Pmc. Avoiiport 100 ShiibptincaHif 100 riiMMlalp 101 Piignnsh lOi \cw Glasgow 102 Kdpii Sidiiis 1 Mira RiviM- lOi Nevf Brunswick 105 I'rederirton lOi St. John lOT, Chaptf r V lO: Tests of brick 107 Method of testing 107 Cnishing tests 107 Absorption tests lOS Results of tests: tables V)A PART II. OriKJn and I'roiMrties of Clay 11.5 Ofijjin of clay 115 Definition 115 Weathering processes involved 115 Residual clay US Kaolin 117 I'orm of residual deposits. • - Transported clays „■ Sedimentary clays X Origin US Structural irregularities in sedimentary clays 119 '.'lassification of sedimentary clays 119 Marine clays 119 Egtuarine clays Ijg Swamp and lake clays 120 Flood-p[ain and terrace clays 121 Drift or boulder clays 121 iEolian clays 122 C'lassitiration of clays 122 Secondary changes in clay deposits 123 Mechanical changes 123 Formation of shale 123 Chemical changes 123 Changes of colour 121 Leaching 124 Softening 125 Consolidation 125 Minerals in clays I35 Kaolinite 125 Quartz. 120 Feldspar 12(i "JKuI.ooicM. srriVEY. CAVADA Origiu and Properties of Clay-Confinw.rf. Minerals in c\ty»— Continued. Mica Iron orpn Limonite Sidoritr ryrite ".."..'..■■..'■..■'.,'. ,„« Calcite ; '-*' Oypsiini '■* f'heniiral annlyris of rlars . I'ltimate analynis Uational anaWsis.. .. '■" 131 in 131 Paoh. 127 127 127 12S Substances pre.«»nt in clar, ■.•ui\ ttnii- .in'.t Silica. Sand. lOO Iron oxide , Kffects of iron coniponiul.. '" ♦ ■olourinK action of i,.,„ i„ .,nbur'iM-.i ',lav.'.' ,oo Colouring action of inih ..> id.. o„ Imr i Vl.iv. ,« IluxinR action of iim, .sule '.. \'.^. ESect of lime carbomitr nii tiny Effect of gypsum Magnesia 13(; 137 Alkalies. 137 Titanium.. .......!.... "." Water in clay Mechanically combined wat.. Chemically combined watci. . Effects of carbon in clay.. .. Eflects of Tater on "black a.nuK. ,., Sulphur '" Ul l,3S i:w 13!» 140 Reactions involved in expul«i<.r. of Soluble salts Origin Quantity Prevention ''': Methods of use ^'' Remedy for wall-wlnl. .. , Plasticity Definition Tensile strength DeBnition Practical bearing Relation to plasticity.. .. Measurement of tensile ^-treuirtli. ,,„ Shrinkage '*' Air shrinkage. Fire shrinkage Fusibilitv ''*'' 15/1 incipient vitrificatw 11 " Con'plete vitrificatiMji . ^'•'^''***r V. v. ;; ;; ;: •; ;; 15, ulphur 143 H4 14» 147 148 14S IIK 14K 14S 14*i 148 149 14!l ci..\x .\xn ?>n.\T.F PEroisiTs !) Origin and Properties of CUt— Confinufrf. Fnaibilitj— rmirr.v of Maritime Brick Works, Pngwash. N.S., top of bank jg " IV. Qiiarrj- of Maritime Brick Works, Pngwash, N.S., base of bank ](; " V. Cranberry head, near Sydney Mines. C.B 2B Vr. Coal Measuips shales. Indian cove, Sydney hrrbour, C B ofl ^'f- Shalo bank near Victoria Mines P.O.. Sydney har- bour, C.B .. .. 36 VIII. Joint of sandstone, overlain by red shale. Lower Barachois. C.B sg 1^- Shales near No. 2 mine. Glace Hay, C.B 40 " X. Lower shale in pit of Dominion Fire Brick and Tile Company, Xcw Glasgow. X.S 44 " Xf- 'ieneinl view of .Standard Drain' I'ipe Works. New Glasgow, N.S 44 " Nil. New (ilnsgow Brick and Tile Works 46 Xin. Shale and sandstone beds north of Port Hood, C.B. 52 XTV. Clay outcrops south of Port Hood. C.B 51 XV. -Alternating beds of shale and sandstone, .loggins, N.S 56 NVI. Shale bids south of Merritt point flO XVII. Continuous kiln under construction, Mira River Brick Company, C.B m XVIII. Clay conveyer. Mira River Brick Works, Mira river, C.B 60 XIX. Clay hank, Mira River Brick Works. C.B 60 XX. View of brick works at Sylvester, X.S 62 " XXI. Miller Brothers' brickyard, Eden Siding, C.B.. .. 64 XXII. Clay pit at Miller Bros.' brickyard. Eden Siding, C.B. 64 " XXIII. Robert Shaw's brick works, Avonport, N.S 70 XXIV. Clay bank, showing laminations, Avonport, N.S.. 70 XXV. Plant of Buckler Brick Co., Annapolis Royal, N.S. . 72 XXVI. Clay pit. Buckler Brick Co., Annapolis Royal, N.S. 72 XXVII. I'resoott's pottery between Elmsdale and Enfield, N.S 84 XXVIII. Gnipial view of Miller's 'irickyurd, KInisdale, N.S. &t I 1^ 10 r-OI.OorcAI. SIMVKV, CANADA Plat, XX:X. v:-. „, co.I mi.,, at B,„.vill,. .onth,.,t „f ^r. ^"^ court. N.B XXX. Q,„p,al ,.,.„. of ,„.jc|< w„"rk;'„V V.o.Vi.Wll', no.^ Moiirton. N'.B.. . ^, AAXll. C l,,y hank at »nnic.. .. „ % DraiHngt and Mapi. '""■ 2 Son\V',:,l'''r''f '■''"''"» '""''''^ Fro,.ti,pi..o. C B. "^ '° ''""■■•^ "" Co^heath mountain. ;; 3. Outline Map of P„,;«r«,h a„,l viciniti-.'xls !a Bra', d'o-^'cB""" "■""' "*"'' ''"'" ''""'"'■'••^ ''•"•'^ ^" " 5. Section at Cranberry heaii. C.B.! ^ 6. Swtion of Bluok point, V.B.. , ." I" 5^*'°°"'" '""t »'''" of O^foid point. C.B..'.' i," !o"Lw''^iIt^'"'"'' '■'"" "'■''* ''■""' V'-f^-Mine, P.o: 9. 0''»|^"^«MapofSydn;;;;arH;i,i"fr„mBarachoi;t^ *' .. ,, a "'"' ^'P "f '"'•"°" °' >f»»' 01a«go.r coal 8eld. i. 12. Section one milo north of .Toggins XS 13.. OutUneMap,.f .Shubenacadievali;,. iK.t«;;„'K;.W,d-a,;,i *•' "■ '^""wer*''"' °' " '"■'*'"" "' *^^ '"""J- »' th'Musauodoboit •■ 16. Outline Map of" AIberr\fines.X.BV. and vicinity.:;; :; m Kf> THE CLAY AND SHALE DEPOSITS OK NOVA SCOTIA AND PORTIONS OF NEW BRUNSWICK, BV HEIRBICH KIES, ASMSILU B\ JoMph Keele. INIRODUCTORV. The followiiiu; reporf on the clay and ghale depo^iiti of the ilari- tiiiie Provinces embraces the results of field work carried oti durini{ the siimrier of lOOt); and lahorutory tests made during the followini; winter. The writer was asrsisted in the Held by Mr. Joseph Keele, anil in the laboratory by Mr. E. K. Soper, and in part by Mr. Keele. The object of the investigation was to ascertain, as far as possible, wiiich of the geolojfical fonnations in the area referred to contained clays or shales of economic val'.ic, and, consequently, special atten- tion was given to those that appeared to be promisinar. In our field work we were guided to a large e.xtont by the jreologic maps prei>ared with such care by the late Mr. Hugh Fletcher. Certain areas were examined by Mr. Keele alone, and the de-- criptions of these are credited to him. As it is difficult to tell much about the qualities of a clay from its appearance in the field, samples for laboratory tests were taken from a number nf localities, riic-e samples were generally of about 50 pounds weight, and were talien usually by trenching the l)ed from top to bottom, throwing out or excluding only such impurities or layers as it would be practiciil)le to remove in workimr. In the laboratory the sample* were put through a jaw crusher, the crushed material ini.xed with the necessary amount of water, and moulded into bricklets 4" 2" x IV'. 11 13 '■flUOHICAI, »l IJVKV, OAVAPA Thm. l.ii.kl.t. Nvur.-. after nir .lr.ving, l.urne.1 u, cone 010 in au "il kiln, ill 10 li„ur». Tlit- other burn* were made in ■ Kai-flred kiln. The shrinkoKP. lour, liardnp**. nml absorption of the brioklet* were meiig\ired after burning to laoh lone. ^Inny of the samples were b.mied at guoce«gively higher tempera- tur.s until they fu»e.l. but others of kw importanre were fired ntonly '■ue or two Pone«. A M-piinitf l..t of I'liiy w,i« iiii.xi.,1 \ip for nmkint; the l.riiiuettes. In (le«eribinfr the rrsnltg of the work it seems b.it to take up tl.o disenpsion of tiic rln.vs bv formation^, treafinir the several i-r-.- vinces Jicparatel.v. The olH.v.w(,rking industry, m.,I the tests iriH.le „„ the hri.-ks. are t;iv( II in cfparnte chnpters. ^. Ill ail kiln. :-klet» pera- tonly ttes. e up pro- , are PART I. THE AY DEPOSITS AND CUT INDUSTRY. NOVA SCOTIA. CHAPTES Z. The geologioal foriiiutioi!:« of Nova .**cotia range from tin? Pre- Cambrian to the Triasjic, and r.ie nearly everywhere cvirlaiii by ;i »"ttntle of Pleistocene material of variable thiekneM. In certain fiirnialions the fluirneter of the material is such that there i« little |ir«i>ability of its Ijaiiig of any value to the clay worker; others, how ever, contain a large number of argillaceous bed«. Those geologic furinations of little or no value are referred to fir«t. while the detail-^ of the more promising ones arc discussed next. Fomwtioiu of no Great Valne to the Clay Worker. PRE-CAMBRIAX. The Pre-Canil)rian, which iiiciuilo crystoUine rooki of either ig- neous or metamorpbic ch'iracter. underlies a large portion of south- western and southern Nova '^'cotia proiH>r, as well aa extensive areas ill northern CaiH? Brctmi and scattered tracts in the southeastern portion of it. .Vone of the l*re-<'aiiil)riuii rocks are of plastic character, nor do they iiecome pla«tic when finely ground, and while they have no doulit weathered down to residual clays in the past, these have been larifcly removed by glacial action. The only deposit of residual material known to the writer is a »uiall pocket on Coxheath mountain, near Sydney, the clay there hflving been formed by the decomposition of a light coloured felsite, rather common in that reRion. This deposit is too small to he of any economic value, but iievertheles's it has served to attract atten- tion lo the locality, and in recent years numerous ruuors have been circulated regardinjf the availability of the felsite for fireUricl; manufacture. In view of these facts the locality was examined with some care. 13 14 '•lOLWlIfAL •t-KVEV, CANADA .1.-...,.. ,r... .1.. ..i,v ..f S,..i>.e.v. It i. .urround^l b7 0^1/?: U.uferou. ,h,U H,."''''"'•!•'»' «hit« tv,*. .n.l tl« Cher d«,p re.!. Th.. former ha. a ..on,po.iti„n .om.wh, .-.•►..mM.nK that .,t .. .ili.vous fireclay, a t i, pn*al.Ie that iu n iiroperty, and piled up by the opening. (See Plate I ) This material i, a fine-grained, much sheared fel.ite,' often hav- .ng a .omewhat talcce ap,*ara„ce. and in places traversed by numerous small quartz vein, which appear to occupy torsion cL I At the eastern end of the quarry .he fel.ite is in contact with a darker colonre.l sheared porphyry. (Fig. 2 ) In order to thoroughly test the possibilities of this rock, a sample thVcrui: "^''" '""' ''- '"' "' ''' """-^ '"'' •'-"- ''-"■" three sets of mixtures were made up as follow. :_ i! i a s 3 B i B JS I £ '3 t iiicrx^j p. H I ji.. ILAY AND SHALE DKrOSlTS 15 I. Felsite "'» )ier cent, and 25 per eeiit elny from Husscy drift at Inverness. TT. Fel?itp ."0 per cent, mid r per cent. Cone Old. tire shrinkage, 1-ti per cent. Ci.ne .".. tire slirinkajrc. n per cent; absorption, 0-22 per cent, (one it, fire sbrinkajte. <> iier I'eiit; absorption, .'i -4.5 per cent. The brii-klets were solid and steel hard at cone .">. II. Water recpiired, IT l>er cent. .\ir slirinkatre, .5.i; per cent. Pone 010, fire er cent. Cone .'>, fire shrinkage, 3'3per cent; absorption. il-SI per cent. Cone !•. tire sbrinkape. ."!." per cent; absorption. .T-n,^ per cent. The clay burns >itcel hard at <-one .">, and shows a tendenc-y to form "litrht cracks aronnd the angnlar felsite crain-i. IIT. Water reqtiired. 1!( per cent. .\ir shrinkape. H-H per cent. Cone 010. fire shrinkaKc l-I! per cent. Cone .", fire -hrinkane. 4 pi-r The bricklets were steel hard ,Tt cone .'. IG ''EOI.00ICAL .SL-IiVtV, CA.N.VIJA S.v.-bey contain Le'U't.^r'-' '"'"'; '° "^ ^^^''^" ^ iSII-fHIA-V. Imnied clay wares. "laimtacture of Some of those associated witli tlie Clint.. tested, but were found to be •. , "'" -^"'"'S "•^^'^ of low fire shri'lir H t 1 7 7 '" *'""■ '''^^''^'''^•' -"^ -'-> i-obable use w^ ie /: iV*"' *-" °""' "■'^"' '•""-^- -^'-^ onl,- DEVONIAN-. ^t..its of ca;::M:::r-H:^i:::'"^^ ■^" '"- "-"— ■ ^'-'^ of tbe The Devonian roel'^-- ..o,... in some ease:,::::^t::;ris:;.f ------ ■Some of th. Utter may be OrdovTcian. CLAY A\D SJIAr.E DEPOSITS TRIASSIC. 17 The Triassic rocks underlie one belt that follows the Anna- polis valley, and another one along the north shore of Cobequid bay, tapering out east of Truro. They are usually sandy in char- acter, and, as far as has been determined, cannot be considered as a source of either clay or shale to be used in the manufacture of clay products. Important Clay-Bearingr Formatiom. From what has been said in the preceding pages it will be noted that the formations likely to yield clay or shale deposits of value must be the lower Carboniferous, Millstone Grit, Coal Measures, Permian, and Pleistocene. These are few in number, but neverthe- less they underlie areas of considerable extent. LOWKB CARBONIFEROUS. Underlying, as it does, u rather extensive area in central Nova Scotia, and another one in Cape Breton, it is to be regretted that the lower Carboniferous has not been more widely investigated by clay-product manufacturers. The formation has strong possibilities, however, and should be carefully looked into, but it cannot be expected to yield plastic materials at all points, especially where it is composed largely of conglomerate. The so- called Carboniferous Limestone member is the most promising. Many shales associated with the gypsum beds are quite plastic when ground and mixed with water, but in places these are also highly ferruginous, and often contain impurities, such as concre- tions of gypsum, etc. They could be used for brick manufacture, provided these impurities were eliminated by screening, or rendered more or less harmless by crushing. The Carboniferous Limestone Series. — This is described by Flet- cher as ' consisting of thick beds of red and grey argillaceous shale, sometimes calcareous, approaching in character to marls, and fre- quently without any traces of lamination or bedding; these beds being often copiously charged with nodules of limestone and argil- laceous iron ore. With them are associated numerous beds of lime- stone, concretionary, laminated, and compact, and generally dark grey or almost black.' Beds of gypsum and sandstone may also be present. 8907—2 18 GEOLOCICM. Sl-ItVKV, (ANAnv was 3-9 per cent ' **''"« """ sJw'nkage head there are a nuler of „ f ; "'^^ "^''^ «^ ^" -^hales. Most of trere a e fe Lt"'^ "' T'^^"^ "'^'^ '"^"-^^^'^ -ere of proper qualTty thev " " ' "'"'°"^- ^^^" '^ ^^ey f..s.. at cone 1. '°'°'"' "'*'' « ^°- fi'« ^f-nnkage, and Snner harbour at Pug^a^h-Zf . "°"''^'''' ^'^^^ °f the ^.oin, evidentiv parts ftt " 'f """^-^ »" ^^e n,ap. Fig. 3. i-e.ular oval for^ L L 07;.'^'^ ^."°^*'^' «•""" «- "^ »i*^-.... Tl.AlK H. :■- vV^*"**^'".'. liiiiiral vifwiif M.iritiiiH' llriik Wfnks, l'ii(?w:i-.li, N.na Sciiiiii I'l.MK iir. (.Juaiiy of Maritinif liiii'k Work*. I'vijrw^i^li, Nova Scoiia. Ton of liank. W 1(17 - \<. IS I 5307-p. 18 -ae CLAT A5D SHALE DEPOSITS 19 i irm/r mf rfitma 8907—21 Fig. 8.— Map of Pngwiwh niid vicinity. 80 OK«M.IKlK.\l. HLUVtV, lAXAUA In the ar«t nanii-d of ilu- chiw arou«. u« i, Hom.'timcs tin- the shale ii fur more ahuii.hiiit Ihuu tho limestone, l.ut no dt «'uten.eiit c.ui be inude regarding the other two, owing to thj sci of outcrop*. It is in tho urc-u on t!io west side of tlie inner harl.our tl clay pit has been opened for obtaining briek material, and the Bcter of the product made is sueh as to warrant its trial at Iwal.ties where tho .hale of this f<,rn.ution ean Iw found. Tho crop at Pugwash forms a bank about 25 feet high, the upper 3 being e somewhat stony glacial clay, but under it is the »t 'lipping mellowed shale, which seems to extend to a depth of 10 feet, below which it becomes sonicwhat harder. About 500 feet west of the shore, u stee|ily dipi.ing bed of I stone has been worked for furnace flux, and the shale is said t. lend buck to this. The only visible impurities in the shale are some streak selenitc. The following tests give the characters of a mixture of mellowed and nearly fresh shale, the sample Ix-ing taken from stock pile at the factory. The shale worked up with 22 in-r cent of water to a smooth i tic mass. 67 per cent of which, when dry. ,.assed through a 20<) n sieve. Its air shrinkpw was per cent, an.l the average tei strength 75 pounds per square inch. The firing tests we~ as Wo? Cone Firn Shrinktge 010 OB OS 1 36 73 Abwirption. Co'.Mir. 1-i 8 »1 2 !» {Ketl. I Dark retl. Red brown. Thi.s is n good brick clay, for it burns to a hard body, with fi-e shrinkage, goo.l colour, and moderate absorption at 010. It comes steel hard, but of darker colour at 0.3. A good dry-press bricklet. with 8-16 per cent absorption, an.l d red colour, was obtained at cone 03. 8hubenacadie\-Two miles west of Shubenacadie grey pla« shales occur on th^^oper ty of Mr. .Tohn McDonal.l. The sh ' Examined by J. Keele. " "*--b44> tiinc!« tlie vane, >ut no (Jeliiiite to th J scarcity larlioiir tliut u and the cliur- trial at otiior »d. The oiit- 3 upiwr 5 feet is the steeply ith of 10 to 15 ; bed of iinie- is iiaid to ex- le streaks of ixturp of the ken from the smooth pluH- h a 2()i) mosh eroge ten silo 9 as Iwlow: — CLAY AND SHALE DEPOfllTH SI Co'.. jrown. Jy, with low 010. It l.e- )ii. nnd dark ?rey plastic The shale weathers easily at the -turface into a dirty yellowish plastic clay. The thickness of the shale bed is unknown, but it is at least 4 feet thick where exposed in the field near Mr. McDonald's house. The same shale is also seen on Ryans brook in this vicinity. The shale when worked up with W-4 per cent of water was quite plastic, but rather irritty, the uverane air shrinkaRe being 80 per cent. In burn- ing it behaved as follows :— Cone. Fire Hlirinkngr. Abwirption. ST % 03 1 tt /n 21 83 J7 10 It burns to a fair colour, but is not steel hard at cone 03. Com- mon brick could be made from it, but with the abundance of good surface clay which exists in this region it would hardly pa.v tu work it. MILLSTONE GRIT. This formation is well exposed at a number of points, as fol- lows: (1) in the area north of the Coal Measures in the Joggins district; (2) north of the area of outcrop of t' -• Coal Measures in the I'ictou coal field; (3) southeast of Ilawkesbury; (4) near Wal- lace in Pictou county; (5) north of Antigoni.^'i : (C) west and south- west of the Sydney coal field. Speaking in general terms, one cannot predict the universal dis- tribution of promising clay or shale beds in the Millstone Orit, but small beds are not uncommon. Unfortunately, outcrops are scarce in many of the areas underlain by the rocks of this age. and this increases the difficulty of finding clay or shale beds in it. North of Joggins, the Millstone Orit shows a continuous exposure in the cliff.s along the Bay of Fundy shore; but the beds are mostly sandstones, witn here and there a few thin shaly layers. Only one shulc bed of importance was noted, and that was in the grindstone quarry about one mile north of the Joggins wharf. This bod is not more than 10 feet thick, nor is it well located for extensive working. If used, it would have to be opened as a long narrow cut. In the Pictou coal region, some red-burning shales are found in ..he MilUtone 'trit, just north of the Intercolonial railway, and about 29 LKULOaWM. HUIIVEY, CANADA h«lf way bomecn Now (iU.gow «„d Woodbum; but they , doubtful v.lue, partly by reu.o„ of the uneertaiaty of their e Ihe overbunlon i*. mor«ovor. too thick to permit the .-lay workoJ a. an open pit. and it i. not of .ufloiently high ffra.l underground mining. There are .onu. exposure* of a aoft shale in the Mill.tone along the shore road ju.t west of Wallace, but they do not ai to be of high grade, and their proximity to the highway and rounlinK house- would prevent their teing worked. Red pi .hole. ,v,re f, und by Mr. hVle along the road creasing on B brook, P.ctoti county, w.thin the area underlain by the Mill- (int. Thi8 Ih?.1 fomes to tho nirfaco. and is of sufficient thi,-l to form a workable deixwit. Tho following diitn -how the rosults obtained on testing- (1) rp.1 shnle of AfilNtonc Orit from Raiiey brook. Pictou countv (2) n nnxture of .-50 per rent Xo. 1(112 and SO per .-ent grev Silu shale from Arisaig: — PiMtioity Air thrinkac;" Cone 010- Fire ahrinkafro. Alworptioii CoUmr Cone 05 — Fin? xhrinkage. \ Iworptiun CiJour Cone 1— Fire shrinkaffu. Alworjitinn. . . Culuur Fair. 4 3 20 !» .1 Red. r> 3 4 R«l. S3 2 Re«l brown. Low. 3 .-M 11 !) Red. I) 3 5 Dark rtMl 8 IN Brown. A similar bed of red shale, but containing sa7dy layers^ posed on the shore about half a n.ile teyond the mouth of Knovd brook. ' ' One drawback to the Bailey Brook material is that it lies too i from ra.l or water transportation. Yet it ii probable that this sa. shalo may l,e found in a more favourable location, since the forn tion extends northeastward to the shore, and southwestward to t line of the Intercolonial railway. '*-aj, CI.VY AND MKAI.K HKI'OSITH It they are of if their extcut. he p|«y heinir mh ffraJe for k>(ill(tone Grit, do not appear iway 011(1 aiir- Red plastic ing on Dailc-7 the MillKtniip ient thifknei^ iting: (1) the 1 county, and (trey Silurian Low. 3 33 11 » Rnl. I) 3 5 Dark red. 08 18 Brown. lyers, 13 ex- )f Knoydart lies too far it this same the forma- i-aril to the The MilUtiiiic (irit nccupii"* u rather cxit urea to the eu«t of Sydney, and burder'4 tht> Coal Measure') uii the west, nouthwo'tt, and Koiith. a ittrip projiM-ting to the ghure on the north tide of Ciiw bay. The be points to the ontraiKt? of the Little Bras d'Or; and (4) on the north side of Cow bay. \Vher«vi-r exposteil the formation coiiitist^ u^uully of saiiddtoiio, with ocrusional l>eii- ing to obtain clay for stopping tho tap holes of tho blast furnaeo->, taking their supply in part from surface clay, and in part from the weathered outcrop of a li' foot layer of shale, underlying sandstone. The lower 4 feet of the shale bod are somewhat sandy. This shale, when ground and passed through a 20 mesh sieve, was mixed with 22 per cent of water, giving a smooth and plastic mass. The air shrinkage was !••■_' jK-r cent, and the tensile strength averaged 148-3 pounds ttt square inch. The firing tests were as follows :— WET MOULDED BBICKLETS, — ' - . - Cone. Fire Slirinka(;e. Ab«orptis the only interruptions being at a few points where th^ and su, face ,s low and covered by drift, and at Cape Percy on the no t swT "/' '''"^ ''"'• ^••'"^ ^'•^ ^'•"^^o- Grit extent t I Bhore I.ne and cuts out the Coal Measures. i 1^^. CLAY AND SHALE DEPOSITS 25 s even to cone ;olour at cone is not a fire- 3 of the most le Coal Meas- il drift covers e required to although the it would be II behind the y. y and shale- hat detailed 1 because it » was unfor- 9 of fireclay ustom many « a fireclay, ly that fire- Indeed, we die district, nd include: I Inverness )unty area; deposits of ney region, orm an al- Or to Cow 5 land sur- the north- ids to the Owing to the almost uninterrupted line of cliffs along the shore n fine series of exposures was obtained. By way of general explanation it muy be remarked that the Sydney coal region is divided into several parts by deep northeast- southwest bays, and, consequently, it is somewhat difficult for geolo- gists to correlate the sections in the several subdivisions of the field. It may be stated, however, that the coal beds are interstratiticd with shales, sandstones, and some limestones, the whole scries be- ing bent into a number of gentle folds, forming the bottom of a. broad trough dipping out under the sea. Cow bay, Glace bay, Syd- ney harbour, and the Bras d'Or mark the position of the synclinal basins. Low dips prevail throughout the region, thus giving fairly broad outcrops in many cases. The coal seams appear to be fairly continuous, but the same can- not always be said of the shales or sandstones. This, consequently, minimizes the importance of any statement relating to the strati- graphic position of any given shale beds. Towards the northwestern and southeastern ends of the field the sandstone beds predominate, and the shales are of poorer quality, being very gritty; but in the central portion representing the higher beds, the shales are as abundant as the sandstones. The shales themselves range from fairly smooth, fine-grained, plastic shales of grey or red colour to others quite silicecus in their character, and of doubtful value. Although the aggregate thickness of the shale beds is high, few of the individual beds are very thick; indeed, there is frequently a rapid alternation of shales, sandstones, and sandy shales. As a result, many shales of good quality arc not workable under local conditions, because of the abundance of sand- stone layers which they contain. The land area occupied b.v the productive Coal Measures amounts, according to Fletcher, to about 200 square miles. The Coal Measures overlie the Millstone Grit, but are not always sharply differentiated from it. The several parts of the coast line exposures may now be referred to in more detail, beginning at Sydney and following the coast to the Big Bras d'Or, and then from Sydney to Cow bay. North Sydney to Big Bras d'Or. — From North Sydney to Indian cove (Fig. 4) there are low cliffs of sandstone, with few shales, lie- longing to the Millstone Grit. The Coal Measures, however, l)egin J OIOIXKilOAL SUBTXT, OANAOA 4t. Cr. 1'I.ATK V. ■o o 3 2 ('riiiil)ttr.v liiail, near Sytlnt-y Mints, ('a|»- linlnii. I'l.MK vr. 1 s ■3 3 a x'MT - 1,. -.i; I'oa! Mi'as\ire« »liaW, Inilian cov>', Sydiiiv liarli'Mit. C'a|»' linfon. f i Hi i U CLAY AND SHALE DEPOSITS 27 about half a miie south of Indian cove; and about quarter of a mile south of this point there is a low northeasterly dipping bed of shale about 10 feet thick, which is overlain by sandstones, but which could be worked along the outcrop. This shale is of somewhat gritty character, but worked up with 17-6 per cent of water to a fairly plastic material, whose air shrink- age was 4-3 per cent. Ckme. Fire Shrinkage. Alaorvtion. 010 08 • % 07 6 % 13-43 6-84 The clay became steel hard at 03, and had a fair red colour, but it was much darker at cone 1, and would not stand much more than this. It could be used for common brick. This is about 300 feet south of Stannart point, and shortly before reaching the first house on the shore south of Indian cove. Between Vis point and the dock nothing promising appears. Just north of Indian cove there is a shale bed, similar to the ^idoberry Head material, but it carries a heavy overburden of sand- stone. (Plate VI). From Indian cove to Cranberry head there is an almost unbroken line of high cliffs, containing many shale beds, but so interbedded with sandstones that they are not workable. Moreover, to work these would interfere with the surface operations of the 3oal company. When Cranberry head, north of Sydney mines is reached, some good exposures appear. Cranberry head is a point which projects into the sea from a point on the shore line, li miles north of Sydney mines. The sides are quite steep, and the point is surrounded by water. On the south side one sees a good exposure of shale, which is not less than 20 feet thick and dips eastward, (Plate V), so that it passes under other beds forming the end of the point. The bed is mostly a greyish, soft shale, containing small iron car- bonate concretions in the upper 3 to 6 feet. Under this is a greyish shale, then a layer streaked with limonite and some thin films of OEOLOOICAL SURVEY, CA5ADA coal. This shale, which is underlain by a harder one not less thai 15 to 20 feet in thickness, weathers down to a soft, very plastic claj Since it was evident that the deposit as a whole was probably no a fireclay, but that certain portions of it which were clean ant smooth looking might be, small samples were tested of the severa parts, and a large sample representing the run of the bank. Thi results were as follows: — The first sample was collected from 4 feet below top of shall bed, near northeast end of outcrop. Scattered concretions wen found in the layers over it. The clay is plastic but somewhat gritt; to the feel, with an air shrinkage of 5 per cent. Its fire shrinkagi at 010 is 0-5 per cent; absorption, 14-42 per cent, and colour buff. At cone 1, it bums brown, with a fire shrinkage of 5 per cent and absorption of 3-08 per cent It is unaffected at cone 3 and would probably stand heating t< cone 6. The second sample tested represents a streak 3 feet thicl beginning 6 feet below the top of the bed. It contains a fev very thin coal streaks, and looks more ferruginous than the preced ing, and behaves somewhat similar to it. This shale had air shrinkage of 5.1 per cent. At cone 010 it: fire shrinkage was 0-5 per cent, colour red, and absorption 19.96 pei cent. At cone 1, fire shrinkage 4 per cent, absorption 4.72 per cent and colour red brown. It is nearly fused at cone 3, being, therefore slightly less refractory than the preceding. This, the third sample, represents the lower 3 feet of the bed and was not included in the large sample. Like the two preceding it burns buff at cone 010, and red browi at cone 1. It is nearly fused at cone 3. A sample of the entire bed, excepting the lower 3 feet, gave th( folloving results: — When well ground, it worked up with 22 per cent of water t( a smooth and plastic mass, whose air shrinkage was 6 per cent. The average tensile strength of the clay was 85 pounds per squari inch, and 33-6 per cent of the material passed a 200 mesh sieve In burning it beliaved as follows: — ii -5 CLAY AND SHALE DEPOSITS WET MOULDED BRICKLETR. 29 Cone. Fire Shrinkage. Absorption. Colour. % /3 010 17 1&'81 Hink. 06 4 3 8»» Lterkred. (13 4 )i 6 4» „ 1 5« 1-35 Chocolate brown. 3 66 HO " A sample of the clay moulded dry prey's had 13-20 per cent absorption at cone 03. The clay burned to a good colour and was steel hard at cone 05, but at 1 it was too dark, and apparently vitrified. It held its shape even at cone 3. The probabilities are that this clay could be worked for either common or pressed brick, or when hard burned might even be used for paving purposes. If this deposit were worked, it could be opened up on the outcrop, or possibly worked from the base, in which case it would be necessary to remove the material by boat, or else haul it up an incline to the top of the bluff. --^^ — .3». /•>«/ j.i:ae/v£} ^v:^<-i C So Si.jiU Flii. 6.— Section at Cranberry head. Vlong the north shore, and just west of the base of Cranberry l.ead is a considerable outcrop of a reddish, somewhat plastic clay shale, which becomes more sandy to the eastward. The main outcrop is just at the foot of the street leading northward from No. 2 shaft of the Nova Scotia Steel and Coal Company. As the bed has a width of outcrop of not less than 50 feet, and strikes south, it could be opened as a cut extending inland for some distance. (Fig. 6). 30 (JEOLOaiCAL BURTKY, CANADA The physical properties of this shale wen as follows: wi required for mixing, 16-8 per cent; plasticity, fair; air ohrinki ri-25 per cent; average tensile strength, 7t pounds per square ii When ground up for moulding, 20-8 per cent passed through a mesh sieve. The clay behaved as follows in burning: — WET MOULDED BRI0KLET8. Om Kitn Shrinkage. Absorption. Colour. mo 06 OS 1 % 0-4 fi 3 70 FuNd 1400 sn 234 Itarkred. A dry-press brivklet burned to a dark red at cone 03, and she an absorption of 6-02 per cent. The shale would make a good common brick at cone 010, gives a good hard body at cone 05. It should make a good commou brick, and could probably be u also for red pressed brick. The shore line from here to Long pond is low, and shows outcrops, except for a short distance just west of the Cranberry H shale. In this short distance there is found a thin bed of grey sh associated with the Lloyd coal seam, and thought by some to b fireclay, but it did not prove to be such. Black Point. — The red shale of the Cranberry Head type, as ^ as other shales, are found outcropping along the shore in this vicin Thus, on the west side of Black point, the section is as shown Fig. 6. Here there is a soft shale underlying the middle coal se; It is not accessible for working on the point, but comes to the 6 face with a broad outcrop and low dip about 350 feet south of point. The following data give the prope' ties of this shale. As this shale did not slake down at '-nee when put into wa two samples were tested. One of these was ground in crusher set at A", the other was ground still finer. The cos '^'^-Hi^ CLAY AXO SHALE DEPOSITS 81 Hows : water ir Dhrinkage, square inch, trough a 200 >. Colour. rkred. * ■ ' .' ^ . • • * ■ '\ gf-^^^14 ?fll^g^ ^.* /,,,. - ^X-'^/M0 1;,,; ■;"! l.-^l Iri-rA^I Y'-.'A 9*m/» Fio. «.— Section of BUok point. , and showed >ne 010, but lably be used i shows few nberry Head if grey shale, ome to be a type, as well this vicinity. as shown in le coal seam. ! to the sur- south of the lale. ; into water, und in the The coarse material is Lab. No. 1513a, and the finer material is 1618. For comparative purposes the tests on the two are given in parallel col- umns below: — Pot rent watOT reqiiinid Air ■hrinluge Tensile etrength Ibf. per tq. in. Cone 010— Fire ■brinlcAge. Abeorption Colour Cone OS- Fire shrinkage. Abmrption Colour ConeOa— Fire Khrinkage Abeorption Colour Cone 1 — Fire shrinkage.. Abxorption Colour Lab. No. 15ia 23 8 67% 78-2 1-6% 14-86 Pink 3 13 20 Light red. 4 6 10-61 Red 9 3 1 06 Red brown Lab. No. 1613a. 18 5 8-2% 61-4 1% 4 12 62 Light red 4 9 70 lUd 7 1 39 Red brown Comments: No. IfilSa has a good ring when burned to 010, and n fair colour, which does not deepen much up to cone 03, at which it is nearly ste^l hard. The colour is too deep at cone 1. S9 (IKULOOICAI. SURVEY, CANADA No. 1513, aside frcm tlie differences noted above, doe* not ( much from the other. The clay also make» a dry-press brick of fair colour. Black Point to Oxford /'oin*.— Sample 28 was taken on wes of Black Point. Just west of this, and to the east of furnaiH dump, there is an outcrop of red clay of the Cranberry Head tj Beyond the slag dump to the northwest there is a long beach at the end of this the shale outcrop* again. That outcropping at this last-mentioned point is, at best, only for common brick. Its air shrinkage is 4-2 per cent. It 1 buff at 010, and red brown at 1, with fire shrinkages of 1 and O- cent, and absorptions of 16-97 and 142 per cent respectively at conea. j.4C»enfo, mm So// et/ur Shai'r EIZD •Sttoty*. Fin. 7.— Section on eut side of 0»(oid point. On the east side of Oxford point, (Fig. 7), beginning at the i west end of the beach and going towards the east head of the the low cliff sho'- the red Cranberry Head shale type first, and 2.';0 feet farthe is capped by a thin 2 foot bod of shale wh thought by so to be a fireclay, but tests prove this to be inc< It is fair ■ omooth and plastic, with an air shrinkage of cent. It shrinks 1 per cent at cone 010, and 6-3 per cent at c the absorption at these two cones being WO" and 1-42 pel respectively. The clay burns buff at 010, and red brown at c It is not a fireclay, ns it is thoroughly vitrified at 3 and fu cone .5. Farther west along the shore line, a* a point just north small beach, and due south of cast from Alder Point P.O., tl Cranberry Head tyiw again outcrops, and is here und by a 5 foot !«(' of blue shale, of somewhat gritty characte loe^ not differ n on we«t side if furnace slag 7 Head type. }ng beueh, and at best, good rent. It burns 1 and 6:) per rtively at these CLAY AXD tllALK DEPOIIITa 8S IS at the north- d of the point, first, and about shale which is to be incorrect, [ikage of 4 per cent at cone 1, 1-42 per cent own at cone 1. 3 and fuses at list north of n t P.O., the red lere underlain character, but good plasticity, and which burns to • good red colour and bard body. It breaks up rather easily, and with ordinary grinding 85 per cent paaiea through a SOO meah sieve. It also requires only 15-4 per cent of water for working, and has a tensile strength of 68 pounds per square inch. The air shrinkage is S-0 per cent. In burning, the wet-moulded bricklets behsTed as follows : — Com. Fir* Shrinksffn. Abnurption. Coluiir. % % 010 00 08 1 s s 33 * IS 13'4» 7«> CHS 1 80 ISO Lifht red. Chooolale brown. M H The clay is in part beyond vitrification at cone 1, which accounts for the slight swelling. There is no reason why this should not be mixed with the C'ranberry Head type of shale which overlies it. The shale also gave a good dry-press bricklet at cone 03, with 11-80 per cent absorption. Keating Pond to Plant Point — Just southeast of the inlet to Keating pond there outcrops blue shale similar to that found on the southeast side of Oxford point, but gritty so far as could be ascer- tained. To the north of the same pond, and opposite point marked ' 40 feet,' there is some shale, but it is under a rather hea^^y cover and not accessible. It is of doubtful value. On the same shore, just due east of a point marked Little Fond P.O., there is a high cliff, which shows bluish shale at the bottom, but it is too gritty and covered by too much overburden. Bonar point is bordered by inaccessible cliffs, and the shales observable in them do not appear promising. In the coastal cliffs to the northwest of Bonar point there are biuish siliceous shales at the base of the cliff. Again, at a small beach, at the juncture of two roads, three- eighths i>f a mile south of Merritt point, the red Cranberry Head type of shale outcrops, and is 8 to 10 feet thick, as well as being free from overburden for a distance of about 150 feet. 8907—3 34 OKOLOOICAL IDRTBY, CANADA Grey iliale K feet thick outcrops on tb* north tide of M( point. Sample 30 wan tMken north of Merritt point. The road cronies the neck to Little Brat d'Or. Sandy thalet are seen here at several pointt, and there i* a i)urt8<-« flay for brick along tho road where the arm makw a quarter of a mile southwest of Kidd creek. Illaik Roek Point. — Thi» point, lituated at th« entrance t (ireat Lras d'Or. is ch|i|ic<1 by Iwulder clay, underlain by Coal ] unft shale. The liittcr dut-n not crop out on the point, but is ex] 8s another thin bed siippoaed to l>e fin which is also buS burning, with 13-74 per cent absorption at It i» not vitrifiejthwe«t of Victoria Minea P.O., where the Coal Measures begin, and are ex- posed in a line of low cliffs as far as a point about one mile south- west of Low Point lighthouse. Flo. H.— M»pof Sydney ami field from-Viuforiii Mines P.O. to Ix>w iwint. A bed of hard grey shale, not less than 15 feet thick, outcrops along the shore lielow the wagon r. iil, and at a point just south of the first mine building at Victoria Mines P.O. It is n dark eoloured shale, with a "-andstone capping, and a harder and sandy under shale of a type common near Cranberry head on the other side of the harbour. The dip is steep. The material did not show up as well in the laboratory tests as it appeared to be in the field, for it has low plasticity. 36 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, CANADA The «ir shrinkage is 6 per cent, and only 20 per cent of material washes through a 200 mesh sieve. The burning tests ol wet-moulded bricklets were as follows: — Cone. Fire Shrinkage. Abcorption. Colour. 010 06 03 % 1 1 % U'6S 9-66 BS7 Red. Brown. A dry-press bricklot at cone 03 showed 12.28 per cent ab tion. The clay does not yield a hard bricklet below 03, which is hi than common bricks are usually burned at. Fifty feet north of this, along the shore, is a bed of red about 7 feet thick, which is interbedded with greyiah shales, bu total available bed of shale is small. The beds strike north 70" and dip 40° northwest It represents the best of the shale types along this part o shore, the others being more sandy. This is a coarse-grained shale, working up with 13 per cent v and having an air shrinkage of 4-2 per cent. It bums to a good red at cone 010, with 5.0 per cent fire sh age, and 6-91 per cent absorption, but at cone 1 is almost fused Farther along the shore, at a point just northeast of a I coming down from a pond, IJ miles west of Waterford lake, is i of shale similar to sample 16, with layers similar to sample 16. The shales continue to outcrop for the next 500 feet, am represented in character by a soft shale, which, though soft, ap to be porous and lacking in plasticity. The sample has 3 per cent air shrinkage, and burns red at 010, with per cent f re shrinkage, and 10-13 per cent absor] It fused about cone 1. The shore now bows out a little and shows a series of sand beds, which are evidently higher up stratigraphically than the s and there is then an absence of exposures up to Low point. "--^ r cent of the \g testa of the Colour. cent absorp- hich is higher 1 of red shale ihales, but the lorth 70" east, is part of the )er cent water, nt fire shrink- loat fused. st of a brook lake, is a bed imple 16. feet, and are 1 soft, appears DS red at cone int absorption. e of sandstone ban the shales, point. r~ . IM t • ... ^■■^ ■ Lati s'Ni; 11. ;«i 'II .r-- 1 ! CLAY AND 4UALE DEPOSITS 37 Low Point to Olace Bay. — There is a more or less continuous Feries of outcrops along the shore between these two points, but few favourable localities for working exist even if the shales were good. There are several reasons for this. In the first place, the shales are often interbedded with sandstones, and, therefore, could not be economically worked. A second reason is that there is a low dip seaward, and the shore line is approximately parallel with the strike. The beds do noi outcrop on the surface for some distance inland, which also precludes economical working. Samples were collected, however, at a few of the more favourable points, even though the deposits were not very large. Two thin beds of coal outcrop in the first cove east of Lower Bara- chois. Between these is a thin bed of shaly clay, not unlike many Pennsylvania fireclays in appearance, but it was found to be lacking in refractoriness. This shale, though quite gritty, is fairly plastic. It burns red, and at cone 010 and 1, showed a hard body, but it is not a fireclay. About li miles east of Lower Barachois the outcropping red shale (Plate VIII) is quite gritty, and when ground and mixed with water does not show much plasticity. ' Brickleta made from it had an air shrinkage of 4-1 per cent. Their fire shrinkage at 010 and 03 was 0-3 per cent and 1-6 per cent, respectively. The corresponding absorptions were 13-18 and 4-52 per cent The shale burns red, and fuses at cone 1. About 150 feet west of this point is an outcrop of red shale free from overburden. This shale is also rather low in its plasticity, but could be improved by weathering. It bums to a red colour at 010, with per cent fire shrinkage, and 14 -26 per cent ab- sorption, but fuses at cone 1. At one locality, however, al.ing the shore northeast of Glace bay, and at a point directly opposite No. 2 colliery, grey shale is exposed in low bluffs along the shore for a distance of not less than 150 feet. At the northeast end of the exposure the shale is overlain by a ■hill sandstone bed, but this disappears towards the southwest, its l>lace being taken by a thin layer of stony clay. The bed could be worked inshore for some distance, without the probable necessity of removing much overburden. A sample was taken for testing, and worked up with 13-2 per cent water to a mass of moderate plasti- city, whose tensile strength when air dried was 58 pounds per square 88 1 ; I t sa i i 3. 3 8!to7 p. ;w ii ir'i'i k ; I i I OIJIY AND BHALS DEPOSITS 89 inch. About SO per cent passed a 900 mesh wire sieve. The air shrinkage was 6-1 per cent. The burning tests of the wet-moulded bricklets were as follows : — Com. rinShrinluff*. Abnrption. Colour. 010 05 09 % 1 36 46 FoMd. % 13 73 674 s-u Light n-d. Dwknd. The wet-moulded bricklets had a good ring and colour even at cone 010. A dry-press bricklet at cone 08 gave a good body of red colour. Weathering would undoubtedly improve the workability of this brick shale. Glace Bay Eastward. — Eastward along the shore from Glace bay the Coal Measures outcrops continue until near Cape Percy, where the Millstone Grit appears. They are well exposed in the cliffs, and present the usual suries of interbedded sandstones and shales, although the former rather predominate. At a few points, beds of brownish, fissile, though somewhat gritty ahales occur, which could be worked. One of the best exposures of this type is along the shore just east of the entrance to Glace Bay harbour, where the bluff is quite low (Plate IX). The shale bed which appears to dip northward at a very low angle is not less than 10 feet thick, and is free from overburden for a distance of 75 to 100 feet. Inshore, the land rises but little, and the shale could be easily excavated in that direction. A sample of it gave the following results on testing, having first been ground so as to pass a 40 mesh, in order to improve its plasticity, which it did. Water required, 17-6 per cent; air shrinkage, 5 per cent; average tensile strength. 67 pounds per square inch. 40 r.Koi.ooir.\i. hi;kvkv, caxada T? ■# ! ! 8 I I s I HKCp. 4I» M CLAY ASD SHALE DEPOSITB 41 Cunr. Fin Shriakata AliM>r|itiuii. CoUmr. % % 010 II W iUd. U6 1 a 10 «l M « s 217 1 51 1 IS This it • good red burniiif; thale, which burns to a hard brick, but udIms ground and weatliered tint it may cause trouble in mould- ing. The Millatone Qrit, ai exposed on Uw north shore of Cow bay, ■hows but few ihaljr layen. Few outcrops of shale are to be seen in the Coal llesHures around Port Morien. but a so-called fireclay underliea the Blockhouse f>eam in the mines of the North Atlantic Coal Company at that locality. We were not able to see it in place, but took our sample from a large pile that had been brought to the surface under the direction of Mr. Richardson, fonner superintendent of the mine. The following tests indicate that it is not of refractory character. The clay works up to a quite plastic mass with 15.4 per cent water, and 33-4 per cent of the clay passes a 800 mesh sieire. its average tensile strength is 64 pounds per square inch, and the air shrinkage 6-6 per cent. The wet-moulded bricklets behaved as follows in burning: — CiNie. Fin* ShrinkacK. Absorption. Colour. 010 OB 03 1 % 4 3.1 6 B /o 17-25 13 32 »■»« SS2 KmI. The dry-press bricklets hurnetl to a hard Inxly at 03, with 10 per rent absorption. Toronto Mine.—'Settr Little Bras d'Or bridge the Colonial Coal ''ompnny was in the summer of 1909 re-opeiiing an old mine, which had not been worked for 30 years. Tw. openings have been made, rnc of these being a drift run in from a point along the Little Bras £ 42 UEOUXilOAL •CRVBY, CAKADA ^^ jbmL^ on a 12" layer of clay may yield a considerable supi^y of mal the accompanying coal seam is extensiTely worked. Howe* such a thin bed could, if persistent, be removed and used, an< mining operations were at all extenaive, not a little clay c obtained in thia manner. There ia, of course, a poitaibility 1 bed may thicken, and an equal |io««ibility that it may tl altogether. As the teats xiven l>elow will show, the material ia not a but it is one of the best clays found in the Coal Measuret Sydney district. It is a smooth, sticky clay, 32-2 per cent of which passea a 900 mesh sieve. The clay, when worked up with 27-;.' r water, had an average air shrinkage of 7 per cent It* avert sile strength was good, being 129-1 pounds per square inch. In burning, the wet-moulded bricklets behaved as follows Cone. Fira Shrinkage. Absorptioo. Coloi % % 1 •M 2 WW Buff. 06 5 • aa 1 ** 03 K 187 . 1* 1 7 3 or Yellow broi 1 The bricklets were not very hard at 010, but had a good 05, and were steel hard at 03. The clay could no doubt be worked dry-press, but laboratc indicated that it would have to be burned to cone 1 in order duce a good brick. CLAY AND ailALC DKP08ITH 4a I hill and DMrer the ootl, but no work it. At the and this in turn r ■ plant ir> ^hale II 19 to JS inche« of it w>« taken, flible occurranre^ becauM a thick- In !>oni« caaes [y of inatartal if . Howarar, aran uMd, and if tba .le clay could be Mibility that the X may thin out is not a fireclay, Measures of the fa paaaes through th 27';; per oent Ita average ten- ire inch. IS follows: — Cokmr. Buff. Vellow brown. d a good ring at t laboratory te^l* in order to pro- Sydntp Area.— Another refractory shale was reported from the new fan shaft of No. 4 colliery of the Nova Scotia Steel anid Coal Ouiii- pany, but it is a hard gritty material of no probable vadue. Immediately over the clay, however, is a 3 foot layer of smooth, though ttomewhat carbonaceous shale, containing numerous plant im- presaicHis. This material is sandy, but still rather plastic when grouiui up and niike17 [>er cent, respectively. The shala bums bu£F, and if enough of it '^uld be obtained, could probably be employed for face brick. Piclou Fi*ld. — In this field, in which the coal mining operations are letiircd around the towna of New Glasgow, Stellarton, West- villc, and L'lx.rburn, tliere is* a strong development of shales in the Coal .Mouijure!*. The latter conaibt of shali^s, sundstones, ami coal beds, the whole series having a atineral northward dip, intemipted here and there by local folds, and aho ii iiumlfsr of faults. The shales are not uniformly distributed though the field, nor are they all of the same character. Thus, those around New Glasgow are often of smooth c! .ii>i<'> it -'. : *. Clellan brook. Shale brook, and East river. The most important opening is that worked by the - . ' t<) Drain Pipe Company, whose bank lies along McClellan broou. (Fig. 11) about a quarter of a mile west of the work«. About .tO feet of greyish-black shale is exposed, overlain by a reddish glacial clay, containing scattered pebbles. The shale, which strikes northwest, and dips about 15° northeast, contains small discontinuous layers of siderite concretions. These, if not thoroughly ground up, cause fused spots in the burned ware. 44 OGOLOOICAL 8CRTET, CA5ADA 1 a "s s 1 •5 a •I i W.KIT l>. 44 I 1 i' JLjaigiii Kor; ).. 41 'iv. CLAV ASD SHALE DEPOSITS ♦•'» The fresh materiri is a moderately hard, smooth shale, which, when ground up and mixed with 17-6 per cent of water, gave a mass of fair pUsticity, 31. 29 per cent of which (in the dried state) passed through a 900 mesh siere. Ito air shrinkage was 6-5 per cent, and the average tensile strength 107 pounds per square inch. The wet-moulded bricklets behaved as follows in burning:— Com. 010 06 03 Fire Shrinkage. % % -08 14'20 Stt « M 4 OU 60 2 10 Newly fuwd. Abnori'tion. Colour. Buff. Red bmwn. The shale bums to a good hard body, and is utilized in the manu- facture of sewer pipe, and hollow blocks. It has to be burned with great care, however, owing to the quantity of carbonaceous matter which it contains. Indeed, even the bricklets burned in the labora- tory had to be held for some hours below 900" C in order to free them from the carbon which they carry. Specks or lumps of carbonate of iron may be present in the clay, and these are liable to cause blistering in the bricks above cone 1. North of this point, and not far from the works of the Standard Drain Pipe Company, is an old pit. opened on a bed outcropping perhaps 30 feet above the stream level, and extending to a point above Brook's common brick-yard. This was formerly worked to supply the pipe works, but was abandoned because of the numerous layers of concretions. This I'd is l.itther stratigraphically than that workeil at the plant of the Dominion Fire Brick and Tile Company, a short distance up the stream. At the Utter works, an opening has been made close to the stream level, for extracting a smooth, greyish-black shale (Plate X) which turned out to be the moat refractory worked in this district. The properties of this shale are given Mov. This works up with 18 per cent water to a smooth, plastic mas'^. whose air shrinkage is 6 T*r cent, and average tensile strength 98-5 pounds per square inch. About 59 per cent of the ground material passes a 200 mesh sieve. 46 nEOLOOICAL BITRVEY, CA5ADA In bumiiifr, the wet -moulded bricklets behrved M foUowt: Cone. Firr Hhrinkane. Abunrtitiuii. Colour. % % 010 11-43 Ctmoi. OB as 8 43 Buff. 01 S6 7 57 „ 1 6 TO* Buff brown. .s 5 OM Brown. & 6 120 Orey 9 080 Brown. 14 Nearly fuwd. The bricklets are not sufficiently hard at 010, but make n go body at 05. The shale is steel hard at 03, and holds its shape to cone 9, though portions are l^eyond vitriiication, which causes t swelling. It is considerably more refractory than the Standard Pi Company's shale. A thick bed of black shale, appearing like oil-shale, outcro by a ford over MoClellan brook about half a mile south of east the Trotting park. The material is not adapted to brick making, it is very gritty and of low plasticity. It burns rod, with a low i and fire shrinkage, and fusee a little above cone 3. Its absorpti ranged from 19-02 per cent at cone 010 to 14-24 per cent at cune Some distance east of New Glasgow, on the road to Woodbui grey shale outcrops in the bed of a small brook. It is probably n workable, owing to its position. It is not a fireclay, as it bums tc dark red colour, and is practically vitrified at cone 1. Tlie fire tei were : — Cone. Fill* Shrinkage. AbHorption. Colour. 010 I 3 % 06 7 Fu««l. 1.5 65 276 Liffht rail. DurkrwJ. Coal brook, a tributary stream of the Ea^t river, passes direct across the strike of the beds in the distriot iiortliwest and north Stellarton. 1 (.'^ '"^k i V t *^, OI'AT A!n> HnALS DCPOfllTS 47 The beds dip northeaU, and, therefore, in going down itrcam one i« pasting over the ontcropa of aucoeeaively higher bedfc Mo»t of the ahalM encountered along this tection are carbf nac«ou. in their character, but there are aeTeral bedi which are free from «uch impurity. One of theie lie« between the Third and McGregor seanii. and outcrop* juit northwest of Coal brook and on the south Bide of the old Middle Biver road. Tlie day worked up with 17 per cent water to a mass of fair l.lHsticity, whose air shrinkage was 5 per cent, and average tensile strength W pounds per square inch. Of the shale prepared for moulding, 26-4 per cent passed through a 200 mesh sieve. The wet-niouldcd bricklets gave the following resulu in firing:— Cona. 010 <» Fire Shrinkage. % 8 ss 6 8 5-7 4 Atnorptioo. % 16 14 12'S» 4 S7 4M Colour. Dwkbuff. Had brown. Spotted brown. A^ry-press bricklet gave a good body at cone 03, with 12.20 per cent absorption. It should be burned at cone 1 if dr>-pressed. The wet-moulded brickleU gave a rather coarse-grained body of fair ring at cone 06, but the colour was not very good. At cone S the clay was beyond vitrification, and the fracture of the bricklet showed numerous quartz grains in a fused matrix. Another sample was taken from a point along Coal brook, about half a mile southwest of the Allan shaft of the Acadia Goal Com- ,mny. It is not less than II? feet thick, and lies between black fissile shales, which outcrop coniiuuously aloi.g Coal brook from the old Middle River road to the Allan shaft. The black shales, though abundant, are probably too carbo" ■ xi;^' to be of any value. ^ The other shale, however, is fairly plastic in its cha-o-M. r, .■.ot worked up with 18.6 per cent water. Ite air shrinkage is 5 per cent, nnd it? average tensile strength 146 pounds per square inch. When irround in the crusher foi mouldinK. 33-2 per cent passed a tX- mesh sieve. 19 flKULOGKAI. Sir«VKV, CAXAOA Tho weMiw.ul.UKl briiklcU g«vo the following re«ult« on twtinir: i I Tlie dule burned terpii»ii 9-V> |mt (•••iif. and (iilour huff. At e tKl. Hn- •hriiikuiK- -I''- |»'r "■••ut. ulworpti-'ii ■»■<« l*r i-.-iit. At «. I, rir.' -hriiikiigr <•• » l"' ""•"I. and ttl>-"»rpti..ii 4 ""> |>.i cent. At loiK- :!. »ir.' .Iiriukum- » \tr .ml. uh-orptinu .'''M ikt ivnt. aii.i r.)lu point wa« deteriuiucl to Ik- iilxiut ■•.me U. Owinit t.. tit.- farbonniw««■. t.. lie tukeu u. tiring it to l.urii ..tf the ■■iirlioii. uue worke.1 in either u ntlrf niiid ..r .irv-iire^s inuiliiii.-. an.l givfw » gtxxl ilry-piv»* ••"•'x "I '•""'• "•'• **'•'' "" '»*>»"n'tioii -.1 (•.SA per cent. Inrtm*** Field.— \ small coal area is f.>uiid along tlw shor.- •<< (aiw Breton, in iIk? rejiiou surr.>undiiig Inverness, the Coal Meu"iirr- being expose.! al.init the »h.ire both north and «outh of tlie town, un I (.inning a shallow buxin. whi<-h piti^he* westward under the water- (if the Gulf of St. I.iiwrenf them apin-ur to 1.0 |ironiiiing, u- the beds are mostly sandstone. About one-eighth of u mile »..uth of .M.-Uaae iwiid a 3i foot coal seam outcrops, and this i-< un.lerlaiii by a \<^\ of sm.wth. pbi-ti.-. mottled clay shale, not \e** than ■< feet thick. The following tests give its projtertie". This smooth, plastic xliule. when «r..un.l uj. rea.lv for mouldinu. lia.l 01 per cent of grain-" that would pa-^ a HX) mesh sieve. It was worked up with iX-' per cent water, ha.l an air shrinkage of .l-T ?>"t ooiit. and an averjif.' ten-iile -treiigth .if U.'. p.'iin.W fvr ?.iunre itu-h. 1-03 i>er cent. s»a7— t ■■ Miaocorr msowtion tbt chart (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) ^ >^PPLIED IN/HGE 1653 Eo»f Mam Street (716) •82 - 0300 - Phon. (716) 2M-59a9-Fo, ■T»-^ .,l,<>I.O5. At fone 1 nun.erons blister, iegan to appear. It i. badly Mistered and pH^t vitriti....tion at cone 3. North of Jlclsaae pond are a number of low chfFs along the sho;e. showing southerly dipping beds of shales and sandstone. V small sample was taken of the shale outcropping half wa> be twe'en the Inverness mine and Big river, or about ^<^ /««* ^''^J °^ the line dividing the Coal Company's property from the old Mu ,rave pro,*rty. The material is a clay shale, ot low dip, viz., 15 west, and strike north. It is covered by drift. The shale is smooth and of fairly plastic character, wOien worke „n with 22 per cent water. Its air shrinkage is 5-0. At cone 01 the fire shrinkage is - ■« per «.nt. absorption 18.06 per cent, an cohuir buff. At cone o:! the tire shrinkage is 7-7 per -"»• '^^sorptio .V42 per cent, and clour red. The shale burns steel har.l at and has a good colour. It is hardly of sufficient thickness to I "'' More sandv shale outcrops a little farther along the shore to tl norih. Test^' show that the shale, although sandy, works i to a verv plastic mass with 19-4 vor cent wat^r. and 4-4 per ce air shrinkage. At cone 010 the fire shrinkage is per cent, abaor tion 16.01 per cent, and colour reddish buff. At cone 03 the fi shrinkage h 3 per cent, absorption S..s jn-r cent, and colour r, It gives a good hard bricklet at the latter cone. The most important deposit in the district is the clay overlyi the 13 foot or Hussey senm. This is well seen in the outcrop along Big river, north of Inv riess. where a drift was run in. known as the Hnssey drift The coal seam at this point is overlain by a clean looking plat ^rev clav. which ranges in thickness from !« in-l.-es to nearly 3 f. i^^ cr.AY AXI> SlIVi.E IIKPOSITS 51 This is in turn overlain by an 1>> int'Ii "cani ni dial, and over this ajriiin there is r dark shale, whiili could not lae properly sampled twins; to the wash from the upper i>art of the bank. The flay is very plastie in it< character, and appears to be free from coarse sand, hut per cent. The average tensile strength was ■206 pounds per square inch. The burning tests on the wet-mouldtd 1 ricks are as follows: — Coup. Fiff Sliriiikap'. Alwrrptinn. Colimr. % ■-/ 010 1 ii:< 1 1 1 0-3 4 3 ir).74 !l T'.l 2 2.") •» I'iiik liiitf. I'.iiff. Dark Imtf. 1 r> 73 10 Buff. Dnili. ,. •Jrcy. The clay behaves like a stoneware clay, and its fusing point lies about cone 25. It makes u goofl dry-press body at cone 1. A chemical analysis of this clay made by M. F. Connor, of the Uibora'tory of the Mines Branch, gave: — Silica ">f>'»2 .\luinina 2*>H0 FVrric oxidt* 2'.^ Titanic oxide 1'"* MaKtioia ^''^> Litiif "-afi Si>da '••"3 l'Gt««li 3-43 Water «'3il 11)0 2.'i This is one of the best clays found in Xova Scotia, and several jossible uses suggest themselves. It could no doubt be used for 8907-4i 52 GKOLOOICAL BUUVEV, CANADA pressed brick. If mixed with some burned clay (grog), it could t W used for firebri<-k. The high plasticity and dense burn.ng qu tie* abo n.ake it available for stoneware manufacture Lastly, represents a type of clay used for mixing with short-fibre asbes for making asbestic. On McClellan brook, which lies between Big river and Kenn brook, the 13 foot seam is present, but the dip here is very low ( over 10° west). Ihe clay here is not as clean looking as in Hussey drift. It. properties given below, .how that it is also slig different in its characters. This material is very plastic, and 50 ,«r cent of it passes a n«^.h sieve. It worked up with 2« iH^r cent of water, had an shrinkage of 7-8 per cent, and uu average tensile strength of pount shore of Cape Breton. Tlic Coal Measures form a somewhat uusjmmetrical trough, whoi-e axis extends approximately northeast-southwest, ami carries one cnl ^elnu which is worked. Both north and south of I'ort Hood there is a M.niewhat eontiuu- (pii« series of exposures. Northward from I'ort Hood, the section in the cliffs shows a ^erier- of shales, with interstratitied sandstone beds. (Plate XIII i. ■J'iie hitter occasionally predoniiimte t

e Linzie. proved to U- red burning and ii<'t refractory. Another sample tested was a shale clay, overlying sandstone, above quarry on Cape Linzie. There is not a heavy beer cent air shrinkage, and at 03 the fire shrinkage is i',-:! per cent, with il.24 per cent absorption. It is not refractory. Shale also out.U .un.Uto.it-. until u point about two lui „.uth of the town i. re.i.-hed. wher.- tlu- -•-un line turns shghi .onthwe^twanl un,! .Tosse. th- strike of the W-'U at a very act unglo. Some ^hules then In-gin to ai>l>«''ir. One of these i* of a light greenish clour, of rather sn..M,th f an.l plastic .-hura-t^.r. which worketl up with :!3 i«r .-ent water, i had an air shrinkage of « l)er cent. At .one 010 the fire shrinkage was under 1 |«r cent. ah«orpti 20. IH ytev cent, and colour buff. \t cone m the tire shrinkage was «.3 per ce:-.t. absorption !:• per cent, and colour pink. This shale can be useil for common br manufacture, an.l burns steel hard at 0:5. V little farther south, and at a point lying south 50^ west fi the'north end of Henry island, and south 25° east from the so poi.it of Smith islan.l. there is a rather long outcrop ot vert.c, dipping, bluish clay shale, fro.u 8 to 10 feet in thickness. (P XIV.) This is really the only important be-l in the section f. Port Hood to Judique harbour. Its characters were as l)elow:— Clay plastic and smooth, working up with 29-4 ,«r cent wate a mass whose air shrinkage was 5-8 per cent, and average ten strength 05 pounds iier square inch. WKT-.Mol LUKK BRUKLKTS Cone. 010 05 oe Fire Shrinkage. I 2 7 ti '.♦ f. 12-6 .■Vb«orptKin. 2.52 4 114 IDl on Colour. Red. The clay burns steel hard at cone 05, giving a very smooth of good colour. It would do for manufacture of common earl ware or drain tile. Tust l.efoPe reaching Judique harbour the Measures end, and the lower Carboniferous shales with their gyi beds appear. One example tested shows the shale to be very s il'Sb cliffs! utuiig ; two mile' riis slishtlv very acuti' 1^ west from lu the south of vertically 1699. (Plato section from ;ent water to erage tensile I I'l.AlK MV. Clay onUTiipH soiitli of I'lirt H.Kxi, Cajie Hntdn. ■ smooth body imon earthen- hour the Coal their gypsum be very sandy I WKI7--1>. 54 ( r.W AMI SIIAI.l; KH'Ofl'l!' ami of low iilu!"l>i'it.v. It' uir ^liiii ,ugf Ci'i \>*t o'liti i- tlu'rel'ir.' low. It l)iirn« to u good ni\ colour. :inil i-ould be improved by weatlior- iiig. At cone 010 till' hiv ^lirinkuiri- i- - 0-.'! ikt rent, ubsorpti.ii I.'.-Tk |KT ifiit, mill roiiiiir ri'ij. At cone 0:i tin- tire ^^liriiikuuf i^ 4!J Per ivnt, ubsorption >«.i'.i (m-, (■put, ami colour reer of ii unr iiiiit- north uf Joggiii". While the shale beds in the ("oal Measures ore very uumerou-. (Fig. 12), there are several factors which prevent the profitable work- ing of most of then., : — (1.) Few of the \ are thi a...l in oilier plB.-e-* thicken* to :i feet. In thi cM»e it may 1* ...li.l »hal.'. or a mixture ..f »hale an.! fan.litore. At iiretent ..uly the upinr -'plit ..I the .lo|tKiti« «e«ni in worket and the shale j.arfii.K i* left as a floor, unl.s!. the hottoin ha» to h taken up to t:et hi'a.l room. The Hflmph. taken from the mine of the Maritime ('..al. Uailwa; i.n.1 I'ower (.mipany at .loifKi"*, reprew-it* the nm of the ihule par inif. It \* 11 hard shale when tir«t .i.iarrieer cent, an an :.v.-rHjre tensile utreiiL'th of .'>^-.'. poiin.ln per square inch. It liehaxid a« follows in burning:— Cm Kin- S)irinkBf(>-. AI««>r|>tioii. iilo (a •A II r, a li :« t'li"*.!. 1.1.1.1 « 72 5 00 Colour. Ke.1. It (jive* a ijoo.l re.l hriek at 01«, an.l is steel hard at 1X5. T -hale .-ouM iirohahly l;e »*v\ for .•ommou or prefsed brick, but n l)uviii(; lirii'k. A^ the north end of the cliffs, showing ('oal Measarea exposur th.-r. is 11 thick bed of clay of the Cranberry Head type, probably tiet thi.k. There is a 10 foot capping of sandstoue over it, but t , iit.rop i- -luite broad. (Fig. 12). No tests were made, but could U- .I.Mibtless used for brickmcking. No oili. r outcrops occur northward along the shore until Lev . .,vc. whouth of Joggins, and is suitable for brick manufacture, but the quantity is not large. I'EBUIAN'. This includes: (1) a series of disconnected areas extending from Chignecto bay, along the north shore to a little lifvond Merigomii^h harbour; (2) an area south of Jogging. As far as could be ascertained, there are no clay ur shale beds I'i' importance in the Permian, e.Ncept around Woodburn, east of New (ilasgow. This area, according to Poole's map of the Pictou coal lield. lies in the Permian conglomerate, but a map published by the fieological Survey, ( 'anada, places the southern boundary of the I'ermian a little farther to the north, which, if correct, would put the Woodburn clays in the ilillstone -(i per cent; air shrinkage. 7-6 i (viit; average tensile ^-trength, 190 pounds per square inch: — WET-MOLLDED BRICKLETS. Cone. Fin> Shrinkagf. .\bwir|>ti SUA! i; IlKPOSl'l 5'.» There are not sufficient oiitcro|H to definitely ascertain the strati- graphic relations of the clay on Small l>rook, and thut one mile north of Woodburn, but from the nieugre evidence it seems fairly safe to say that the latter overlies the former, and that a limestone l)ed to the west of the second outcrop lie* between the two. The material from the locality north of Woodliurn station is a red and mottle*! shaly clay, which is not less than 15 to 20 feet thick. The clay dips to the northward ut a low angle, and at the bottom of it is about 10 feet above the creek lei'el at which the lime- stone outcrops. It could not be worked far into the hill without having to strip off heavy overburden, but could be worke'l for iijuie distance along the strike, however, without much strippin^t. Scattered through the clay are small sandy concretions, but these could be easily crushed. The clay somewhat resembles that on Small brook in appearance, but is evidently higher up stratigraphically. It had the following physical characters : — The clay worked up to a smooth and very i>la$tic mass with 19-S per cent water, the air shrinkage of which was 6 per cent, and aver- age tensile strength 157 pounds per square inch. About 64 per cent passed through a 200 mesh sieve. The wet-mouldes(>rptii>ii. Ciili»ur. % % 010 3 12 75 Rnd. 06 3 10 33 „ 03 3.S 814 Dark mi. 1 4-3 1-77 Ked brown. 3 !. I 54 " The bricklets were nearly steel hard at cone 03, and fully so at 1. They also had a good red colour up to 03, but at 1 were rather dark, and showed small fused spots. The clay makes a good dry-press bricklet if burned to cone 1. Tfcis material could (jrobably be used for face bricks, or fireproofing, or even common ornamental terra- cotta. k 60 OEOLOOICAL SnRVF.Y, CANADA CHAPTER n. Pleittooene Clayi. These niaj- be roughly divided into two cUmcs, vi«: (1) glaci> flays, ofteu of stony character, but very plastic, tough, and red bun ing, and (2) estuarine clays, usually strongly laminated, but aU quite plastic, and red burning. . . , j There are some, such as those at Eden Siding, which do no strictly speaking, fall in either of the two classes mentioned, an may be modified drift clays. The descriptions of the individual localities are taktn up ge graphically from east to west. Mira River.— mm river is a stream emptying into Cow bay Mira station on the Sydney aud Louisburg railway. The Btreai proceeding upward, passes first through a narrow but not deep gor, known .8 Mira Gut. and then broaden, out into a lake, conUmi. numerous islands, only to narrow again in a short distance. Bord. ing this lake at several points are low hills, which are underlain many places by deposits of laminated clays and sands, evidently estuarine character, and resembling those found in the Annapo valley, although more sandy. At the time of our visit the deposit was being worked at ore poi by the Mira Kiver Brick Company, at a locality about four mi from Mira Kiver station. (Plate XIX.) The clay bank, which lies to the west of the works, shows at le. 25 feet of blue laminated clay, overlain by a Eomewhat sharply < fined Iver of yellowish clay, from 2 to 3 feet thick, which is sligh denser and more sandy than i,he blue. Topping this is a pebbly sand layer 2 to 8 feet thick, the pebb being of different kinds, but not a few of them representing cr talline rocks. More clay is found at Clay Banks, tour mUes up i river, and at a point about li miles down stream. In utiliring this clay it is necessary to add about one-third s« to counteract the shrinkage, but unfortunately no attempt is m« to screen the sand. The clay is loaded into barrows and whee I'LATK XVI. 7 ^ Hhale beds, red on top and b!ur below, south of Merritt f»int. 1'I.ATK XVII. Continuoua kiln under oonttrnetion, Min Kivni Brick Ca, Cape Breton. 8907-p.OO I ) 1 ' I i I I'rATK .will. Cliiy ciinvcyer, Mira Kivnr Brick W'nrku, Mira rivtr, Cii|»- Hritini. (*!K)7- !■. CO \'U I I 88GT-y. CO 'l;^ I i I ! II ! £ ! ; 1 II.W AMI !«II.VM DEIHMtT* «U tn a l>olt oiiive.vor, whii-h takes it to th« moulding maobine. Tbi« belt it not run to iU full capacity. The blue clay it taitl to hare a bighcr ihriakagc tban the yellow. If the iiind were tcreened, a tmoother brick would retult, and in many caaet alto a ttrnnfiwr one. The clay i« moulded in a toft muJ machine, dried on pallet rack*, and burned in a teveu chomber Haigh continuous kiln. Thit clay deposit in taid to have been fint worked about 42 year« ago, the first yard lieing run by a man led Haite, half a mile up ttreanj from the present yard. About 40 years ago Caleb Hunting. }n liegan manufacturing brick on the site of the present yard. The brinks are loadetl on toow* and taken to Olace bay and Sydney. Tests of the clays follow : — No. I represents the blue clay; No. II is the yellow cloy: N'>. Ill is the brick mixture. The three are placed in parallel columii" for comparison* — WET- MOULDED BlUrKUCTa. Ill Wst«r raquind 34% Plastiiiitj «iood. Air nhrinkate — ! 7 /i Traiil* •tnnath, lb*, per aq. in | 80 Pet cent pwnng 90O ineiih ! ^ /, Cone 010— I Fire shrinkage ' «■«% Afa«>rpti--prp»t at coiic 03. 11. Thi» i» ail ('Sc<>eeen found luul workei| ii«, And liM'* red body in [ion at cone dney region Imi pelilily I rrputaticn f have lieeii ound Ko. :i 'his particii- is, but the brick aloiiK to 8j<'ii*y clay pitd in of BtifT red knolU along een well ex- to the new mild Iw" \isfd ere removeIillfr Bros", brickyaiil, Kden siding, Cai>e Brrtnn. I'LATK XXII. 89U7-P.6I Clay pit kt Miller Bros', brickyard, Eden siding. Cape Breton. m 1 ■ I i t rii I OLAT AITD BHALK DEPOSITS <5 The bricklets have a good colour and ring at 010 and are steel bard at OS. A good dry-press bricklet was obtained at cone 03, which had 9-16 per cent absorption. Diogenes Brook. — Considerable attention has been drawn to cer- tain deposits of Pleistocene clay found on Diogenes brook, and some rather exaggerated statements have been made regarding their extent and value. In order to confirm or contradict the statements which have been somewhet widely spread, the locality was visited by Mr. Keele, and his notes are given below. These show that the clays do not possess the market value which has been assigned to them by some persons. Mr. Keele's notes follow: — " A deposit of white clay is found near the headwaters of Diogenea brook, one of the tributaries of Denys river. This brook cuts through the eastern flanks of the Craignish hills, which form the western border of a wide valley across which Denys river flows. " The clay is at present only exposed at one point on the brook, at a short distance below a small fork that comes in from the west. A few years ago a quantity of the clay was shipped, but the open- ings made then are now concealed by gravel slides. " The portion of the brook where the clay occurs ia situated in a narrow gorge of steep grade, sunk to a depth of about 350 feet be- low the level of the upland. A road was built down the brook, lead- ing to the open valley belcw, in order to haul the clay to River Denys Station, the nearest point on the Intercolonial railway, a dis- tance of nine miles. The bottom of the gorge is so narrow that there is scarcely room for both the road and the brook. " Borings made on the clay were said to have revealed a sufScieut thickness to form a workable deposit, but that the clay was inter- stratified by sandy layers. The deposit, however, appears to be of limited width, as rim rock crops out at several points along the gorge. Any attempt to mine the clay on a large scale is liable to serious interruption by landslides from the glacial drift, which clings in ]&Ts^3 masses to the steep slopes. " Both the valley bottom and the slopes of the gorge are now heavily timbered, which serves to hold the loose material in place. " At the forks of the stream, at the upper end of the clay deposit, is a considerable thickness of white clayey sand, from which the white 8907-« i j ii: r';. ij 66 OEOLOOICAL BUBTEY, CANADA clay appears to have been derived by the washing of the brook. The white Band appears to be preglacial, and is probably derived from the breaking down of the igneous rocks which form the upland. The principal rocks are felsite, syenite, and sericite schist, judging by the wash in the bro Notes by J. Keele. CLAY AND 8UALX DEPOSITS 67 were made about fifty years ago. The thickest deposit of this clay occurs at Whitehall creek, about one mile south of Parrsboro, and bricka were made at this point about 20 years ago by Mr. John Man- ning. During the rebuilding of St. John, after the great fire, a schooner load of bricks was sent to that city from his yard. " This plnstio red surface clay probably extends for some distance up the Talley of Parrsboro river. No bricks are manufactured in this neighbourhood at present. Shuhenaeadie valley. — ^During the glacial period a considerable quantity of glacial drift, much of it of gravelly, stratified character, was deposited in the Shubenacadie valley. Subsequent to this there was a submergence of the land, to at least 75 feet below the present level, during which the sea entered the Shubenacadie and Annapolis valleys, converting them into arms of the sea. It was at this time that much fine clay and sand were laid down on the uneven surface of glacial drift which floored these valleys. A (subsequent re-elevation of the land caused the streams occupying these valleys to erode some of these clays, but much of it has been left, and is now found underlying the flood-plain terraces on either side of the river. It will be easily understood that the depth of theee estuarine clays must be variable, because of the uneven surface of the underlying drift. Indeed, in some cases the drift rises close to the surface of the intervale, or sometimes extends above it. Along the Shubenacadie river, which rises near Halifax, and flows in general northward, into Cobequid bay, the estuarine clays are found at a number of points, and are worked at several localities us described below. Elmtdale. — The clay deposit worked by the Elnisdale Brick and Tile Company lies near Charley brook, a branch of the Shubenacadie river. It underlies the flat lands bordering the river, and is of un- even depth, ranging from 4 to 20 feet, with gravel underneath, and an occasional thin covt.ing of sand on top. The top clay is of a greyish colour, and the underlying material reddish brown. 8907—51 68 (iKOt.OOlCAL SL'KVEV, CANADA The following tests give tlie properties of, ' ' '>8 clay, and (2) the clay with onc-quurter sand added: — \VET-MOl'l,UED BRIIKLETS. i n I f I Wa'.er reqiiinKj Average tvnsili HtreiiKth. I'er cent |«i)ti'ig SiUO uimh Air iihriiik«ge Con* 010— Fin* ahriiikage . Ctilour AlMurption Cone OB - Kire shrinkagu Colour Abwirption Cono OS- Fire Hhrinkage Colour Akeorptiun Cone 1— Fire alirinkagf 305% 14311m. 90«% * % Ked. 18 0% »'fl% Krd brown. ll3-8% 14U llM. 70-0 % 7-3i « 64% 4% ed bri Red brown. MelU-d. 00% Red brown. 4'33% 7 0% Ked brown, 1-14% Nearly fused. No. 1 burns to a hard body at 010, but shows a tendency to warp, and shrinks too much at that cone. It is very plastic, and does not work well alone wet-moulded, but works all right when dry- pressed. This clay can also be used for drain tile. No. 2 represents the green-brick mixture, that is. No. 1, with about 25 per cent sand added. The addition of the sand reduces the air and fire shrinkage, as comparison of the two sets of tests given above will show. A good body for common brick u obtained at cone 010, and a good dry-press at 05, although at this last cone the colour deepens considerably. Enfield. — Clay is known to occur at a number of points bordering the Shubenacadie river, from Shubenacadie to Enfield. Between Enfield and Elmsdale, the material is variable in its character, and some of it is quite smooch and plastic enough for making pottery. Near Preston's pottery, IJ miles south of Elmsdale, the clay is to be found at a number of points in the flood-plain border- CLAY A\D 8irAT.F: DKPOMTd flO ing the river, but its thicknees is not frrrat, ranging from !i to 15 iWt, and underlain by gravel. Going away from the river thp rlnv thini out. 1 1, \ / ^S:^^ \\ ^^w\ ^^^VtfV/'^'rfX / fA'^'i}} \\ y ' u '1 -> ' uy \y ^\^ \ s ;» i 1 -* Fid. 13.— Map of the valley of the .Shubenacadie, between Enfield and KlnuJale. The clay in its general properties is somewhat similar to that worked at the briok-yard above Elmsdale, but it is less sandy. The clay used for this purpose represents one of the finer grained and more plastic phases of the estuarine clays found bordering the Shubenacadie river. It is an exceedingly plastic and smooth material that required 30 per cent of water to work it up for moulding. In spite of its appar- ent smoothness and fineness so far as one could judge from the feel, only 70 per cent passed a 200 mesh sieve. The average tensile strength is 226 pounds per square inch, and the air shrinkage 8-3 per cent. rl 70 OEOI.OOICAI. SURVEV, CANADA The clay I>chavfd a* follown in burning:— C'lw. Yin Shritiliitti)'. Alii«ir|>tii>n. Colimr. % Oil) 19 UA rn in H ;« I Ku«d. 11 !4t ail 0(W7 K»l. RhI lirowii. Rod Limwii. The clay burn* to a dense liard bwly at 010, and is steel hard at 05. It made an excellent dry-prossed body at 03. In some pits dug by the pottery makers there is a .'ower red clay, which differs somewhat from the blue in having higher fire shrinkage, as shown by the following tests: — Water retiuired, 31-6 per cent; per cent parsing 200 ntesh sieve, S9.i; averngo tensile strength, 104 pouiidi iier square inch; air shrinkage, 9-2 per cent. In burning, the wet-moulded bricklets behaved as follows: — Cone. Fire Sliriiikaifi-. Abi«ir|>ti(>n. Coliiiir. o. o 010 j 8-4 0-3 Nearly fuaed. 14 «'.» 42 IW Dark r.-I Tl The e«tuariiie ilay, or that u«e.l for brick manufBcture, U as much •» 25 feet thick and in tinderla,.: by (fravolly RlaiMal day. It i* mostly rcddinh brown, with bluish >tlreak«, and there is a blue clay at the bottom which carries a hiuh percentage of soluble salt^, wliicii come out •trungly, if any of this clay is used. Annapolln VaUey Region.— Yrom Wolfville to Annapolis bay there is a valley bounderising, sinw the Hoor of the valley must hn\ • biiii flooded during the post-glacial submergence. We have no records, however, showing that the deposits are of great thickness; and that this is often improbable is shown by the fact that in all the clnv pits glacial drift is encountered at no great depth. At present these clays are openwl up for working at Avoni>ort, Middleton, and Annaiwlis Royal. Another deposit, not being worked at present, is located at Bridgetown, south of Middleton. The character of the deposit* at several of these localities i^ given below. Avonport.— X laminated clay, with sandy laminie more numer- ous in the upper portion, is opened up near Shaw'i brickyard. (I'lnte XXIV.) The average thickness is 9 to 10 feet, but it may reach 2.1 feet in places. There is a thin bed of capping sand, but the two are not always sharply separated, and the sand where different! able is not over 2 feet thick. The lower beds in the pit are more plastic, and the clay rests on a so-called hardpan. The following tests indicate the character of the clay:— Clay fine-grained, 96 per cent passing through a 200 mesh sieve. It worked up with 25-6 per cent water to a vc v smooth and plastic mass, whose air shrinkage was 7-2 per cent, and average tensile strength 1-13 pounds per square inch. 5 ! 72 CteOLOOtCAL ICRVEV, CANADA Tbs w«t-moukl«d bricklett b«h«T«tiua, % II 3» « 4S aw Culuur. 010 lib lO J % ts ft 11 Fiufd. KmI. K»l. KmI lirown The clay gives a good body nnd colour at cone 010, which it holdi up to 03. A goo«l dry-pre** bricklet, with 6-4:i per cent absorption wu« obtained at 03. This makes a good common brick at 010, and could aUo be used for drain tile. M\ddlelon.—T)M town lies on a flat sand-plain, which is underlain by a laminated, at times silty clay, known to be from 5 to 10 feet in thickness in the brick-yard pit, but said to be over 100 feet thick in some of the well borings around town. The material is probably iin estuarino clay, deposited in a basin in the stony glacial clay. The latter is found in the field to the west of the brick-yard, and the same material is found underlying the stratified brick clay at the yard, at a depth in places of not more than 6 feet. The qualities of the brick clay are given beli>w, these determina- tions being made on a sample cut from the top to the bittn- of th»> working face. The mldition of 21 per cent of water to the dry cloy gave a very plastic mass, with an air shrinkage of 7 per cent. At cone 010 the fire shrinkage is 0-3 per cent, absorption 21 .36, and colour red. At cone 03 the fire shrinkage is 2 per cent, absorption 13-31 per cent, and colour the same. A saleable brick is obtained even at cone 010, although the ab- sorption is rather high. This moterial makes an excellent common brick, while the more plastic smoother portions are also employed for drain tile. The latter can also, without washing, be used for making the cheaper kinds of art pottery ond art tiles. iiL I'lut will l{..U II Slmw\ liri' k »..lk-. \i..l.l...rl, N..v^i S,-..ll:i I'IMK \.\l\. CI. IV iiaiik. -lidwimf litiiiinitiiiiis, .\\"ii|H.r t. Ninil Srcitia 'iio: II. 71' 1 ■ :f I -I; 1 1 1(1 I I'l.MK X.W. I'lMiit ..f liiiekl.T I'.ricU C... Anii;i|».li- l!...Vi.l. N.ixa S,..ti, Vi.yn: WVI. f 'liiy pit Itmklfi- lirirk ('i>. Ami ii«.li» linv;il, N.naSc.ii !h: M W CLAY AND SHAt-K DEPOSITS rs Annapolis Royal. — A small area of estuarine clay is being utilized by the Buckler Brick Company, southeast of the town. (Plate XXVI.) The deposit is claimed to have a depth of 20 feet, and is under- lain by jravel or boulder clay, and covered by 1 to 2 feet of sand, the latter Ubually sharply separated from the former. The clay whose properties are given below is less strongly lami- nated than that at Avonport and Middleton, but appears to be tougher. The lowest beds in the bank evidently contain an appreciable quantity of soluble salts, for they whitewash badly if it is used. The clay deposit does not appear to rise much more than 30 feet above the shore line of Annapolis bay. Tests on the Buckler clay gave an air shrinkage of 7-2 per cent. At cone 010 it had shrunk 1-3 per cent, and absorbed 13-41 per cent. At cone 03 the fire shrinkage was 5-3 per cent, and absorption 5-S.") per cent. It burns to a good red colour and body at 010, but does not become steel hard until cone 03. The clay is adapted to the manufacture of common brick, and it is probable that the smoother and more plastic portions of it could be used for making drain tile, and common red earthenware. Yarmouth. — We were informed that a pottery was at one time in operation at this locality, but were unable to find any trace of it, and the rumour probably had no foundation. Indeed, aside from bare rock, the only surface forT>iation is boulder drift. ZOIC. CLAVS IX MUSt^UODOBOIT VALLEY AT SHUBEXACADIE. A most remarkable clay, and one of undetermined age, is that found in the Musquodoboit valley, and at Shuben°'adie. The material is a highly plastic clay, of dark grey, white, or mottled red and white colour, lying beneath glacial drift, and resting probably on bed-rock. Scattered lumps of lignite were found in the clay at both locali- ties, and it is hoped that the age "f these can be determined. It is exceedingly difficult tc ..ine the exact area underlain by this deposit, owing to the heavy mantle of glacial drift overlying this region, but the fact that the material is found at several points, ex- tending over a distance of seven miles, indicates its probable extent. i-i OEOLOOICAL SURVEY, CANADA unless some of the masses hove been puslied along with the drift. Borings could, of course, only be made nt those i>oiiits where the drift cover was thin, or absent. o 1 3 I a The following description of the deposit, and the sections obtained by borings, are mainly by Mr. Keele. Musquodohoit Valley. — The valley of the Musquodoboit river is a broad hi sin-like depression, bordered by rather high even-topped CLAY AND SHALE DEPOSITS 75 ridges with gentle side slopii. The valley is floored with glacial drift, which overlies unconsolidated sediments of unknown depth, and is here referred to as the ' underclay.' The river at present flows with B meandering course, in a wide trench cut through tlit- glacial drift, and at some points has sunk its bed below the surface of the underclay. The intervale, or flood-plain of the river, averages less tlian half a mile in width, and is generally fertile meadow land. The underclay outcrops at a few points along the buiiUs of the river at the village of Middle Musquodoboit and for several miles above, and en Murphy brook, and Paint brook, two small streams entering from the north. By reason of its bright colours and high plasticity, ll.e underclay has attracted the attention of the inhabitants along the valley for many years. Samples of the clay have been taken out at various times for the purpose of testing its quality, b"t no aefinite result as to its uses, or concerning the character of the deposit, has been hither- to available. A small portion of this deposit was examined in 1900 by Mr. F. H. Mason, of Halifax, his operations teing confined to a part of Murphy brook at Middle Musquodoboit. The results of his investi- (fatiou were given in a paper read before the Nova ScotL-^ Mining Institute, in 1901. He was in search of a highly refractory material to use in the manufacture of firebrick, and did not test the clay for any other purpose. The underclay was laid down previous to the glaciatiou of the region and consequently has suffered much from erosion during thfit period. The glacial drift— principally a stiff boulder clay— covers the underclay for the most part with a thick mantle. The matrix of the boulder clay contains a fairly large proportion of the underclay thoroughly mixed with ordinary glacial clay, but occasional largo patches of the underclay were floated off and incorporated in the drift. The underclay is rarely seen, as, owing to its liiglily plastic nature, it flows easily, when exposed by river erosion to a vertical face, thereby causing the collapse of the overlying drift, which effec- tually buries it again. The limited number of borings made revealed the fact that there is not a mass of pure high grade clay, such as is wnerally alleged in the neighbourhood, but that the occurrence is a stratified 76 (iKOI.OOIC.M. SIKVEV, CANADA n ! deposit made up of alternating beds of clay?, silts, and sands, with occasional layers of lignite, and some concretionary iron pyrite. llie sections obtained show considerable variation in the sequence and thickness of the beds, even within short distances, which would ii.dicnte that the deposit is irregular in its horizontal, as well as in its vertical distribution. The prevailing colour of the clay is mottled grey and re Grey nand 1 M jttled red and grey clay H Coarse dark red sand f5 On Paint brook— 75 feet higher up stream — Kt. Inn. Soil and gravel 3 fi Mottled red and grey clay 4 6 Light grey clay 2 Mottled grey and red clay 6 Dork grey clay 1 li Mottled red and grey rlay ... . 1 tl 18 m 9 ! : I ' ^J 78 (lEOLOOICAI, SITHVEV, CANADA On ruMl ntrar I'reibyterian churvh, patoh of ol»]r expoMii on roadaule— Kt. I III. Light grey cUy 1 •' C'liarw bitiwn »nd 4 O Light grey clt^' C- U Yellow Mtnily clay 6 Muttled reil and grev clay 8 U Ked ami grey atratinnl aand with Mime thin layen uf clay, tl Mottled red anil grey cUy 1 Light grey aand 3 19 In Held on intervale, property o( 1>. W. 6. Keid, about &0U feet weat o( church— Ft. lu. .Soil and glacial clay with pebble* II Mottled red and grey clay . . 6 U Loiwe pebbleK from Hide of Ixinibole jammed the auger and prevented further boring at thii |>oint. A sniull (juutitity of the uiiderclay haii lei-ii mined and sent abroad from Murpliy brook at Middle Musquodoboit, where the clay may be seen at two or three places in the brook. The sections here show a rather good body and quality of clay on the lower portion of the brook, near Mr. O. T. Reid'8 house, the clay being at least 17 to 20 feet thick, beginning at the surface, and containing no sandy partings. At a short distance from the edge of the creek in this vicinity, the overburden liecomes heavy, particularly on the east side, where there is a gravel terrace about 20 feet high. Although good bet lying, -vhich they appear to be. BORINGS IN CLAY AT M1I>DI,E MrSQlOIWBOIT. Borehole No. 1— Murphy brook, about 225 feet alnive G. T. Reid's houae (ciay exposed in bed of brook)— Ft. Ins. Grey clay, with »ome mottled red and grev bods 17 Silty clay ; 4 Mottled red and grey clay 1 22 CI.AY A.M> SIIAI.K DEPOHITS 79 Bomhole \u. 2— Murphy brook, sliout MM (crt kbuvf* No. i (clay r>| Dark ^rvy clay "J i> M&ttled red and grey clay 1 o l>ark grey clay 1 '• Red and grey mottled claj 1 " Light grey clay 2 o R»id and grey uiottled clay I (irey nanny clay 1 o Red«and 1 Whito land— wat«r 2 Hi Borehole No. 4 —Murphy brook, about 250feet aluive No. 3 (clay exii«»*(l on iMnk) — Kt. Inn. Light grey clay ;t t> MoUImI red and grey clay 2 II .. »ilty clav 4 D Yellow, white, and grey nratified xanda !» 18 o Borehole No. 8— ()n William McCurdy'a property (clay exjKjseil at edgr of Mnwiuu- doboit river) — Kt. In^'. Mottled white and red clay 1 Grey clay 3 (I Mottled red and grey clay H o Red and grey »ilty clay I! o (Irey clay 4 o Brown and grey ailty clay 3 Gn^y and niottIe II aand with lignite 1 n White clay 2 Reddish eand 1 o Mottled red and grey clay 1 fi White sand o li Mottled red and grey ailty clay 2 80 liF.OLOUICAt 81 IIVKV, CANADA ' ^ Siiriio of tlie boriiiif* made lij Mr. Mu>ioii, on Murphy brook, roSultcil 08 follows: The fir*t borehole showed 4' -6" of white clay, tlion 2 feet of micaceous sand, in which occurred fair sized iiiecos of iron pyrites, then ll'-O" of mottled clay. The next hole, some »!00 feet hitflicr up strenni, Rave (1 feet of white clay, followed by li feet of niottleil clay. Another hole, 100 feet away from the last, Ruve 1 foot white, 7 feet mottled, then 17 feet of white, and another hole pave 7 feet of surface alluvium, and 2J feet of white day. Several other boreholes were put down and some shafts sunk, but the detiiiU were not given. He states that there is undoubtedly a lurne body erf clay at this point, but the general results are disappointing, as the clay contains too much iron to be of any use as a fireclay. Ifr. Mason had some of the clay made up into bricks, containing 25 \>vr cent of silica sand. These were subjected to the heat of the bla-t furnace, with the result that they were cut up in 24 hour>i. The deposit is unquestionably an extensive one, probably covcrinsf several square miles in su|)erficial area. A complete vertical section would bo extremely interestin;<, from a scientific point of t-iew at any rate, but it is unlikely thai olay prospectors will bore so deeply. In prospecting for workable deposits of this clay it is advisable to make several borings in order to locate he best material and the amount of coveri. :ipon it. The surface of the ground forms no clue to the depth .. ,.hich the uncerclay will be found, as the upi)cr surface of the underclay is undulating, owini? to uneven glacial scouring, and at some places comes quite close to the surface, while at other places it may be too deeply buried to be economically worked. Owing to the shifting character of the sediments the individual beds are often of very slight lateral extent, so that a good bed of clay suitable for some of the better grades of pottery ware may be found to pinch out, or become too sandy, or carry too much iron within narrow limits. The plasticity of the clay is g:;nerally good, even the silty beds possess fair plasticity, and as the shrinkage of the latter is less than in the purer beds, they may be manufactured into the higher grades of structural ri.aterial, such as pressed brick and floor tiles. Along the strip of intervale, and generally close to the river, are some large patches of very stitf and very adhesive clay of light grey or bluish colour. The searcher for clay is likely to be referred to these localities by the inhabitants, but they are of no importance, II CLAY AXD ailALR DKPCMIT* 81 b<^in» iiHUiilly nlioiit a foot in thiclciicss, and reprMenting ndiment dopoititoil in time of Hool. The only means of transportation in the region i* liy wa«iiti. Thu road followed in going to market, from Nfiddlo Muwiiiodolioit l.'ini^ to Shubenucatlie on the Intercolonial railway, a distaiici- of ul,,)!ir eighteen miles. Thi^t road traverses an undulating, well woodol, but othoiwiiW rather barren oountry, and is poorly maintained. The physical test* of the clay, ami chemical coinpo>itioii, an- given l)el<)W. The re-. .MMwirptiiin, /■ /' 010 1 21 IW OS 2li IS 2!» 03 6 13»! 1 6 3 7 1)0 6 3 5 41 l 7 3 :m»; 9 » 2W Coloili. Haltnon i>ink. |Lii;lit salmiin pink Pink.' Pink. :R«1. Uwl brown. The bricklets had a good body at 05, and were steel hard ut 03. They preserved their form at 9, but the shrinkage was rather, high. The clay gave a good dry press body at cone O.'J. Another sample represents the light grey clay from the opening farthest up Murphy brook. This was also very smooth and plastic, and 99 per cent of it passed through a 200 mesh sieve. The clay had an air shrinkage of C-^ jier cent, and an average tensile strength of 81 pounds per square inch. S987-6 m )^''- Wi 82 OEOt-OOlfAI, HrHVEY. TAX ADA It {trliavcd a» followx In liiirtiing: — WtT-MOlLDKO ONICKLETfl. Com. Yin Hhriakaiic. Alwjrition. % % OiO • 4 19S (« r» I« 71 (IS •'• l^ )« I • 7 41 s T« 7 71 t 7» 4 M( • •-• 4 S4 Cokmr. Whito. Cnoiii. The liricklets were loiiiewhat ooft at eone 010, and fairly hard at |05, but did not become »te«l hard until cone 1, at whioh cone the body is very dense, like that of a stoneware oluy. The colnur did not deci>en until ennc i). The clay fuses at cono I'T. It may, there- fore, be classed as a No. 2 fireclay, and could be used in the manufac- ture of stoneware, face brick, or terra-cotta. It bums ratlier dense for a firebrick, and if ut«d for making the«e, some grog would haye to be added. The following chemical analysis of this clay was made by M. F. Connor, of the Laboratory of the ^Mines Branch: — lii 8ilio» SB Aluminn 28 Ferric i«id<> l Titenic oxide .. . 2 Magnf Ilia. o Lime o Ruda Potath Jgg Water 9-24 100 4tt CI.AY A»D HIIAt.! nCPOIITB AMAtYMlH OK CI.AVti riKiM Ml nrilY B«m>K.' eJJ Aiiul.v«'» of tlio U.rinpH won- nuuli." Iiy ciittinK V "liapwl pi<<<><>t out of I'uih Mctimi of tlu' core, giving the following re«ultt:— Kliwtnl white cloy tnm, 1^ ,\ 1?'^ in..itl«l W rt. U«..l>oU.. , 'Il'^i'V- cl.y. whit^eUy. Mili.» Alumiiw (>iid« of iron Limx &Ia(»niia AlkiUiM Lijw r>ii ignitifm. . TitMiie okhIk. , . . M 3)1 :» afi I 7J nil tram 1 m 12 tm 1 « lU Ml 1H «) 5 7« triK* truce 10»l na 110 3!l Ml 3» 13 10 32 10 1 7« nil tracv 0!»7 12 211 'Not drteruiiiMKl. Shubenaeadie.—X light Rfpy oolourci plii-tic clii.v is ixposcil Iv side the Interpolonial Railway truck!*, nlioiit t!irf>i>-(itiartprs of n mile south of Shubrnacailio station. Small qiiantitiex of thig clay were iiiiiieii several years ago uml ^hipped to the Enfield pottery, where a pohr»e stoneware was manu- factured from it. I.,ately, an effurt wag made to place the elay again on the market, iind a shaft was sunk liy Mr. E. Thompson on his property adjoining the railway track, and not far from the original exposure. This shaft i« about .30 feot «lfep, and ponetrateg marine and liouldcr clay for 20 feet, and grey clay for a depth of 10 feet. About 7 feet of clay ig exposed in the face of three short drifts leading from the shaft. A boring made by the auger in the bottom of tliis shaft showed an additional depth of Ifi feet of grey day of a rather silfy character. Furt' tr boring in the shaft was stopped by the auger striking a stone w.iich could not lie penetrrtted, but whether n boulder or bed-rock is unknown. A number of borings were made at various points around the village of Shubenacadie. The most of these borings did not reach the grey clay on account of the bouldery nature of the overburden. From the evidence obtained, and the information given by well borers, it appears quite probable that the greater part of the ground occupied by the village of Shubenacadie is underlain by this clay. ' Analysis by Mr. F. H. MaKon. 890T-6i ^ mv 84 OKOr-OOICAI. SUBVEY, CANADA The grey olay was deposited previous to the glacititiuu of the rogioii, and has suffered much from ice erosion, so that its upi)er surface is very uneven; consequently the depths at which it may be struck below the ground will be very irregular, even where the present sur- i |i i m \ \\ Kki. 15. — Map of Sliulienacadie, showing lucation of shaft in firrclay. face is fairly level. For example, while the clay lies at a depth of 20 feet below the ground in the shaft, at a point about 350 feet north of this, in Ettars field, the clay comes almost to the surface. At 150 feet farther north the boring did not reveal the clay at 10 feet deep. Tlic boring in Ettars field revealed the following section: — BORING I.\ J. .\. ETTARS FIELD. Ftlna. Soil Grey clay with silt and sand layers 4 6 Grey clay 3 Black clay with lignite 6 Grey clay B Sand .. 6 Black clay with lignite 3 (Jrey sandy clay 2 Com|iact grey land ( not iienetratnl) - - Id I'l \TK XXVII. iflli'^i ilJUffll *^ 4 •r PrfMnttV I'otttrv. Iietwiiii Kliii»hile uikI Kntirlil, Ni)va Stiitia. IM.MK XXVII I. Sli07~|i. K4 (Ji'iieral vif »• of Millrt'ii briikyanl, Elni^A The clay ia nearly steel hard at tone 03. It doea not burn dense enough for stoneware, but tests made on a larger sample show that it is sufficiently refractory for firebrick, and could be used for pressed brick, and terra-cotta. The shaft shows at least 7 feet of clay, mostly of light colour, with layers and wedges of the dark clay. Near the floor of the drifts the clay is sandy, and contains pyrite concretions which have formed around the sand. The Intercolonial Coal Company had a number of borings made in the lot in which the shaft is sunk. Most of these were bored under rising groiaid, where the drift overburden increases, so that only red gravelly clay was encountered. No borings were made on the north side of the ridge, A laminated clay, evidently of estuarine origin, overlies the glacial material in the holes indicated. FIRECLAY FBOH SHVBENACADIE. Tlie tests were made on a suiuple taken from a carload lot dug out of the shaft near Shubeuacadie. The clay, of which 74 per cent passed through a 200 mesh sieve, worked up with 22 per cent of water to a very plastic mass, the air shrinkage of which was 0-3 per cent. The average tensile strength wae 110 pounds per square inch. In burning it behaved as follows : — Coa*. Fire Shrinkage. .\b«orption. Colour. % % 010 14-9 White. 06 06 139 03 IB 12 06 „ 1 20 9 !)6 Creun. 3 30 9 1 Buff. A 30 90 9 30 4 Fiurd. 4 41 Siwttod buff. The clay is not very hard at cone 010, but gives a good body at cone 03. The fire shrinkage is low, and it is somewhat dense-burning. It could be used for firebrick, provided some grog was added. Th« material could, I believe, also b* employed in the manufacture of pressed brick, terra-cotta, and stove linings. CLAY .VXD SICAI.E UKl'OSITS .S7 Analysis of clay from shaft at Shuljcnaeadie, by M. F. Connji-, of the Laboratory of the Mines Branch:— Silica 74 0» Alumma 17 80 Ferric oxidt< 1 • i;, Titanic oxide 1 04 Magneaia OKI J-ime 8H Soda U ,->S Jot**!" urn Water 4 7H WfiTi A(>JJ or THE 8HUBENACADIE FIRECLAYS. It required only a hasty examination to convince us that the lire- clay found near Shubenacadie, and in the Musquodoboit valley, was quite different from any other found in Nova Scotia. It is evidently of pre-glacial age, because it underlies the drift Its lithological character is so unique as to reasonably preclude its belonging to any of the geologi-al formations of pre-Pleistocene age hitherto reco;^- nized in the Province. It bears a striking similarity to the lower Cretaceous clays found in New Jersey, and like them contains lig- nite. No other organic remains were found in the clay, and for the present the determination of its age n-iit rest on the identification of the wood of the lignite, if this i "^le. For these reasons the clay is tentatively classed as ITcsozoic m ftii >■'■ HI: lii pM i i i: I SS UEOI-OGICAI, Sl'RVEV, CANADA CHAPTER m. NEW BRUNSWICK. Lower Carboniferou. As most of the field season was spent in Nova Scotia, little time remained for investigation in New Brunswick. Several areas were, however, visited, and some preliminary notes regarding them are here jiresented, the localities being grouped according to the geological age of the cla.v or shale formations which they contain. The field data were collected mainly by Mr. Keele. CESZl if^r,^ Cm Kir.. 16.— Mitp of Albert mines and vicinity, N.B. CLAY AND SHALK DEI'OSITS 80 Weldon Creek, near Albert Mine*.— Thi» shale is of very sandy character, and not highly plastic. It worke Col,. Buff. K*v- f'LAY AM) HI(AI.r. DEPOSITS 9;} ever, ubtaiiicd at coiic 010. The clay burn* t,) a Kiit>-Iody, and probably for making t>oiler (let- ting brick. The Barn«H coal mine i« 8ituatetic, but somewhat gritty. The air shrinkage was •>•> per cent. Cone. Fire Shrinka^. AljHortitiiin. Col()\ir. % % 010 03 1 3 5 015 400 BOO 600 VincoHn. 1327 7.'« 75 90 Pink. Red. Dark rel. Red bri>wn. Gives good common brick at the lower cones, or good dry-presi at cone 1. 04 UKOU IICVI. BUBVEV, CVXADA iM If i i/into, N.H- Tht I -y oTPrlyirtK the coal at the Erant mine work* up to a mast i rat her low planticity, vthoMs air shrinkage it n.5 p«>r cent. In bi; .linj,'. the wet-raouldetl brickleta behaved ai follow* : — Cimf. M isn; ■ ■■ 010 ■ i Ahaur|»tion, '■^olour. 1 % US «T 1 1 1 P»l«r«!. K«d. Rod liniwn. Kud bn>wn. The body is att-f a i a( j" The under shale fr m tiie u 'ne jjave better reoult*, burning to a handsumo buff ■ ,h fnv i ,.«o of iro.i o*ide, and should be well adapt« longer in operation. The present yard was es- tablished abont 1SS5. using a double-header plunger machine, made by Norsworthy, of St. Thomas, Ontario. The product now made consists mainly of common brick, which are sliipi'cd to different ports on the Xova Scotia coast. Tests of the brick are given in the following chapter. Middle:o>i.—\ brick-yard. oi)erated by the Middleton Brick Com- pany, is located along tlu- tracks of the Dominion and Atlantic rail- vvay on the western edge of the town. The clay is too plastic to be used alone f< r brick, and sand found underlying the clay is adde. and also of some that were only moderately burned. The results crs. It require to be mixed with sand before moulding. The bricks are moulded on a side cut, stiff mud machine, and burned in Dutch kilns. Steam heated tunnels are employed for dryiiii;. Some drain tile, fireproofing, and conduits are also made, the latter being salt-glazed. Burning of the hollow ware is done in a circular downdraft kiln. This yard was started by Lantz an0<>. the product being dry -pressed brick. A second yard, belonging to the same Company, (Miller and Sons), is located about, an eighth of a mile farther up the treek. The olay is similar but the methods more primitive, and only common brick are turned out. There ia a line of soak pits, in front of which a track i« laid. The horse-power soft mud machines are placed on this, and moved along from one soak pit to another. Drying is dorc in open yards. Spares Bros. — This yard is looate derived from the CarlMiiiifrroua Kiino«ti>nr forniatimi, the aim lieitiK to avoid the »**• of the freiih (hale alone. Tin* material U brought from the pit tu the work* on a niirruw gaufce ^tcaiii road. At the work* it i» put (imt through two pair-t of rolls, and then cbarge, and burning in a Ilaigh continuous kiln. The maufacture of bricks was started by this firm in l"*))*. They first trieil ^urfuee elay from Kiver Philip, near Oxford, there being Bt that time works near that point, but the clay was found to be unsatisfactory, ami ditl not give g(H)d results on a dry-press ma- chine, which was the ty|>e then eniployeeen in oiwration in this region in the past, but none are running now. AlH)ut 50 years ago (1860) a man namcwden liegan making hand-mouldev fouriii in the next chapter, The foilowiriB 'U'tcrniiiintidin were ni»ortton of burned brick; III, black core of biirniNl brick. — ' II 9m III Fe.O, O So. 0ft 8-34 IS Nr>M. aT I'nd't. Wry taiatl. N<».t. The analy-es were made by Mr. F. O. Wait, of Uie chemical laboratory. Miii*»« Branch, Department of Miiic.i, Ottawa. The black core is due to the hiifli |H»reenf;ii.'.' . ferroiM iron caused by improper burning, u* a rt»»ult of wliich tlie forno iru'. wm mostly rtnluced to the ferrous form. II*! the niui-tu.i uiid -u.-lion been driven off first, and the brick held at a low r tl to |i':ririit t\\< iron to oxidize, thi* would not have occurred. As it was. 'Iierc wa-t an instufficiency of air present, the carbon robbed the ferric oiiitc of its oxygen, reihii'ing it to the ferrous form. After thf carbon was driven off, the heat was raised ti>o rapidly and the pores of the clay closed up so that the iron in the interior of the brick did not get a chance to oxidize again. fleorge Brooks o|)eratcs a small common brick-yard, locateil on the bank of McClellaii brook, about 1% miles ea»t of south of New Glasgow station. The material used at the time of our visit was a somewhat silty clay taken from the bel at the centre under ' Load,' and tlie modulus of tramverse rupture under 'Mr!.' calculated by the following formula: — 3 Wl Moduiu«= — — rr •2 bd Where W is the breaking load in pounds: I tlie length in inches; b the widtli of brick; and d the depth in inches. CBUSHIN'G TE.STs*. For these tests half of each brick brokoi In tho preceding test was prepared by sawing the fracture- sand (passing through 40 mesh sieve) one-«ighth of an inch thick, was placed upon the lower crushing block of the machine. The brick was placed upon this cushion of sand and another bed of sand was placed upon the top of the brick. The upper crushing block was then lowered so a« to just touch the sand on top of the brick, and the sand was struck off by mean* of a thin steel straif^t edge so as to leave the surfaces strictly parallel, and then the crushing was proceeded with. The sand cushion in each case was one-eighth inch thick before compres- sion. It is believed that greater uniformity is gained in this way than by any other method. s* ff ABSORPTION TESTS. For this test the half bricks were tirst thoroughly dried by lieing kept in a steam-heated room for four weeks. Ther weie then weighed, a Fairbanks seale weighing to single gram-i being used. The bricks were then imsaersed in water, where thoy remiiined for 24 hours, and after being sligrhtly dried on the outside wirh blotting paper, were weighed again. Absorption is expresr^ed as a percentnire of water abswbed referred to the weight of the brick when dry. RESULTS or TESTS. The foHowing tables give tlir results of thf»e tests: — CLAV AND SHALE DKPOSITS 101) di i- a; i I ?3 I :^1 as B i S5 5 vi^ X X X K X rf i; ea I IK 3) I • X /* • X X » ^ ^. Wt 10: ^ a M > & .5 j s 1 t i , ■J . s Is u > ■S § s^.»J^ 9) ?1 S t«dl«4 tit tu I- mi i;^» |S| w ^1$ n 3>3 60 00 n n M X M M M M 6Q 6C CO Vm CQ SO I 1 %ti ill M W X A ^ H i X *"! K K « *! l« « X X X « M^isonx — 9t99«io;e -Jtf^WUl^ — »• « * u*; tf 110 OEOLOOICAL BUKVEYj CAXADA M a I I I 1 I I iliiii 09 •3 ;•< M M M M M n n n A A n §§l£Ss U.I()IUIIJ{ II II l« %t II N K M M >f M M a' S .' g .'a'a'a' M M M M M K 1 00 X OCX oc ae ^•m^tn« M U CI.AY AND 8HAI.E DEPOSITS 111 H O' < U M P3 .J U S ea o feS d :? 1 i T. I Iff i I ■s 7. iia 'T « « « ^ ! as mm \ i mm t- « to « F- 1<- ■joqmn,<{ J< W K K K ** 5 1 S'SfSrS'S?^ i giiiis tt: e e o« M M M ti' »( H M M M •21=11 i P Is " > 5 i§lilsl 1 SI •e M M M M M M f ||8g||g 1 Si •« •j-Kjmnn; M K X M K M M W WW I^ K W W^ << ^ M M M M M I — WW — rf:-«i- 112 OEOLOOICAL aUIVET, CANADA I' I "A \i S m a ai M X t .s lis ?IJie i d H I s M »« M M M M wSsrt n fo n iiiiii " I Bi! «^i»Mm.— Clay ia tha tam appliad to thoM aartliy matariala ooearrinc in natura tha moat praninant im^orty of wUeh U that of plaatidty whan wat. On this aoeonnt thoy can bo moulded into almoat any d< lirod thiqio, whidi >• nUinad whan dry. Furthar- Bora, if haatad to radnaM. or hirW. tha matarial baoomaa hard and rook Uka. Phyaieally. elay it made np of a number of nnall paHi- elaa, moatly of mineral character, rancing from grain* of coarae land to thoae wbidi are of mioroeoopie liae, or under Hate of a millimati* in diamalar. If ineralogieally, it conaiata of many mineral fragmenta of Tarying dagieea of fraahneaa, and repieaenting «hfm<«fiTy »i,ft ny difhrent compound*, tuoh aa oxidea, carboDatea, •ilioatea, hydroz- iika. etc. i^oma of the coiutituento are of edloidal character. Wtalktring Pt*cm$m /•••Jiwrf.— Cl,y, tn alwaya of leeondary origin, and raault primariy from the deeompoaition of rodu, Tory frequ^tly from rodu conUinii« feMqwr; but in some ca*e* rocka eonUining littie or no feldqMU-, rach aa gabbro or (erpentine, may, on weathenng, produce *ome . The most prominent chemical change is the alteration of the feldspar grains to a white, powdery substance, known as kaolinite, a hydrous silicate of alumina. The alteration of the feldspar is termed kaolinization. Other silicates, such as hornblende, probably undergo similar changes. As a result of these changes the entire rock may slowly but surely break down to a clayey mass. I Retidual Clay. — Where the clay is thus found overlying the rock from which is was formed, it is termed a residual clay, because it represents the residue of rock decay, and its grains are mnre or less insoluble. If a granite which is composed chiefly of feldspar decnyi under weathering action, the rock will be converted into a clarey mass, with quartz and mica scattered through it. Bemembering that the weathering began at the surface and has been going on there for a longer period than in deeper portions of the rook, we should object to find, on digging downward from the surface, (A) a layer of fully formed clay, (B) below this a poorly defined sone containing clay and some partially decomposed rock fragments, (C) a third zone, with some clay and many rock fragments, grading downward into the solid bed-rock. In other words, there is usually a gradual trans- ition from the fully formed day at the surface into the parent rock beneath. The only exception to this is found in clays derived from limestone, where the passage from clay to rock is sudden. The reason for this is that the change from limestone into clay does not take place in the same manner as granite. Limestone consists of carbonate of lime, or carbonate of lime and magnesia, with a variable quantity of clayey impurities, so that when the weathering agents CLAY ASD BHALB DEPOSITS ivt attack t*-3 rock, the carbonates are disaoked by the surface waters, and the insoluble day impurities are left behind as a mantle on the undissolved rock, the change from rock to clay being, therefore, a sudden one, and not due to a gradual breaking down of the minerals in the rock, as in. the case of granite. Kaolin.— A residual clay derived from a rock composed entirely of feldepar, "r one containing little or no iron oxide, is usually white, and, therefore, termed a kaolin. Deposits of this ^rpe may contain a high peioentage of the mineral kaolinite', this being assumed, because, after washing the sand out of such materials, the silica, alumina, and water in the remaining portion aie in niuch the same ratios as in kaolinite, although, as previously mentioned, otLer alum- inous silicates may at times be present. A clay made up entirely of kaolinite is sometimes termed a pure clay, but since the term clay refers to a physical condition, and not a definite chemical composition, it would perhaps be more correct to term kaolin the simplest form of clay. Form of Besidual Veposita.— The form of a residual day deposit, which is also variable, depends on the shape of the parent rock. Where the residual clay has been derived from a great mass of gran- ite or other clay-yielding rock, the deposit may form a mantle cover- ing a considerable area. On the other hand, some rocks, such as pegmatites (feldspar and quartz), occur in veins, that is, in masses having but small width as compared with their length, and in this case the outcrop of residual clay along the surface will form a narrow belt. Clay derived from a rock containing much iron oxide will be yellow, red, or brown, depending on the iron compounds present. Between the white clays and the brilliantly coloured ones others are found representing all intermediatj stages, so that residual clays vary widely in their colour. The depth of a deposit of residual clay will depend on climatic conditions, character of the parent rock, topography, and location. Rock decay proceeds very slowly, and in the case of most rocks the 1 The terms kaolinite. referring to the mineral, and kaolin, referring to the day-mass, are often oareleesly confused even by scientifio writers, althontth there seems to be little excuse for so doing. 118 OEOLOQICAI. BDBTET, OAITADA rate of decay is uot to be measured in months or years, but rather in centuries. Only a few rocks, such as some shales or other soft rocks, change to clay in an easily measurable time. With other things equal, rock decay proceeds more rapidly in a moist climate, and consequently it is in such regions that the greatest thickness of residual materials is to be looked for. The thickness might also bo affected by the character of the parent rock, whether composed of easily weathering minerals or not. Where the slope is gentle, or the surface flat, much of the residual clay will remain after being formed, but on steep slopes it will soon wash away. In some cases the residual materials are washed but a short dis- tance, and accumulate on a flat or very gentle. slope at the foot of the steeper one, forming a deposit not greatly different from the original ones, although they are not, strictly speaking, residiid clays'. Deposits of residual clay are exceedingly rare in all parts of the Dominion of Canada, for the reason that nearly all of those formed have been swept away by glacial action. None are known to occur in Nova Scotia, except the small pocket referred to on Coxbeath mountain. Tnuuported Clays. Sedimentabv Clays. Origin.— As mentioned above, residual clays rarely remain on steep slopes, but are washed away by rainstorms into streams, and carried off by these to lower and sometimes distant areas. By this means residual clays, possibly of different character, may be washed down into the same stream and become mixed together. This pro- cess of wash and transportation can be seen in any abandoned clay bank, where the clay of the slopes is washed down and spread out over the bottom of the pit. As long as the stream maintains its velocity it will carry the clay in suspension, but if its velocity be checked, so that tne water becomes quiet and free from currents, the particles begin to settle on the bottom, forming a clay layer of variable extent and thickness. This may be added to from time to time, and to such a deposit the name of sedimentary clay is applied. All sedimentary clays are stratified or made up of layers, this being due to the fact that one 1 Colluvial depotiit of O. P. Merrill. ikMi CLAY AND SHALE DEPOSITS 111> layer of sediment b laid down on ti p of another. These layerg may also vary in thickness, and since there ie less cohesion between un- like particles, the two layers will tend to ^I'parate along their line of contact. As the finer material can only be deposited in quiet water, and coarse material in disturbed waters, so from the character of the deposit we can read much regarding the conditions under which it was formed. If, therefore, in the same bank, alternating layers of land, clay, and gravel are found, it indicates a change from dis- turbed to quiet water, and still later rapid currents over the spot in which these materials were deposited. The commonest evidence of current deposition is seen in the crosg-bedded structure of some sand beds where the layers dip in many different directions, due to shifting currents which have deposited the sand in inclined layers. Sedimentary clays can be distinguished from residual clays chiedy by their stratification, and also by the fact that they commonly bear no direct relation to the underlying rock on which they may rest. Structural Irregularities in Sedimentary Clays. — All sedimentary clays resemble each other in being stratified, but, aside from this, they may show marked irregularities in structure. Thus, any one bed, if followed from point to point, may show variations in thickness, pinching or narrowing in one place and thickening or swelling in others. Occasionally a bed of clay may be extensively worn away or «orroded by currents subsequent to its deposition, leaving its upper surface very uneven, and on this an entirely different kind of mater- ial may be deposited, covering the earlit^r bed, and filling the de- 'j)re8eions in its surface. CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTABV CLAYS. The general character of sedimentary clays is more or less in- fluenced by the locality and conditions of deposition, which enables US, th'jrefore, to divide them into the following classes: — Marine Claps. — This class includes those sedimentary clays de- posited on the ocean bottom, where the water is quiet. They have, therefore, been laid down at some distance from the shore, since nearer the land, where the Water is shallower and disturbed, only 120 OEOLOOIOAL SUaVBY, CANADA coe:-8er materials can be deposited. Beds of clay of this type may be of va«t extent and great thickness, but will naturaUy ahow some variation, horizontally at least, because the different rivers flowing into the sea usually bring down different classes of material. Since most murine clays have become deeply buried under other sedimen- tary rocks subsequent to their deposition, they ere often changed to shale: these shale beds, moreover, are sometimes interstra "'^d with sandstones. The shale is now found exposed, because the ocean bottom has been uplifted, and the overlying rocks worn away. E»tuarine CIoj/».— These form a second type of some importance in certain areas. They represent bodies of clay laid down in shallow arms of the sea, and are consequently found in areas that are com- paratively long and narrow, with the depoeito showing a tendency towards ^ isin shapes. If strong currents enter the estuary from its upper end, the settling of the clay mud may be prevented, except in areas of quiet water in recesses of the bay shore. Or, if the estuary is supplied by one stream at its head, and this of low velocity, the finer clays will be found at a podnt most distant from the mouth of the river. In such cases we should anticipate an increase in coarse- ness of the clay bed, or series of beds, as they are followed from what was formerly the old shore line up to the mouth of the former river that brought down the sediment. Estuarine clays often ahow sandy laminations, and are not in- frequently associated with shore marshes, due to the gradual filling up of the estuary, and the growth of plants on the mud flats thua formed. The clays of the Annapolis and Shubenacadie valleys are of estuarine type. Swamp and Lake CZoi*.— Swamp and lake clays constitute a third class of deposits, which have been formed in basin-shaped de- pressions occupied by lakes or swamps. They represent a common type, of variable extent and thickness, but all agree in being more or less basin-shaped. They not infrequently show alternating beds of clay and sand, the latter in such thin la-ainae as to be readily over- looked, but causing the clay layers to split apart easily. Many of the Ifke clays are directly or indirecUy of glacial origin, having been laid down in baeins or hollows along the margin of the conti- nental ice sheet, or else in valleys that have been dammed up by MMl ■![ CLAY AND SHALE DEPO«>ITS 121 the accumulation of a mass of drift acrosa them. Thii wall of drift lervea to obstruct the ''-ainage in the valley, thus giving rise to a lake, in which the clay has been deposited. Clay beda of this type are extremely abundant in all glaciated regions. They are usually surface deposits, of varying thickness, often highly plastic, and mor« or less impure. Their chief use is for common brick and earthen- ware, and they are rarely of refractory character. Flood-plain and Terrace C/ay«.— Many rivers, especially in broad valleys, are bordered by a terrace or plain, there being sometimes two or more, extending like a series of shelves, or steps, up the valley aide. The lowest of these is often covered by the river dur- ing periods of high water, and is consequently termed the flood-plain. In such times much clayey sediment is added to the surface of thi» flood-terrace, and thus a flood-plain clay deposit may be built up. Owing to the fact that there is usually some current setting alongr over the plain when it is overflowed, the finest sediments cannot settle dawn, except in protected spots, and consequentTy most terrace clays are rather sandy, with hero and there pockets of fine, plastic clay. They also frequently contain more or leas organic matter. Along its inner edge the terrace may be covered by a mixture of clay, sand, and stones, washed down from neighbouring slopes. Drift or Boulder Clays.— In that portion of the United State» formerly covered by the continental ice sheet there are occasional deposits of clay formed directly by the glacier. These are usually tough, dense, gritty clays, often containing many stones. The mater, ial deposited by the ice (till) is usually too stony and aandy Uy serve for brick making, although often known as boulder clay. Locally, however, although the ice-transported material haa been largely ground to a fine rock flour, the boulder clay is plastic enough, and not too full of stonee for use. Such deposits are mostly of limited extent, impure, and of little value. In addition to this type of clay, formed directly by the ice, there were days depoaited in lakes or along flood-plains by the streams issuing from the glacier. These were composed of material derived from the ice, but since they were deposited by water they were strati- fied, and may properly be classed as lacustrine, estu /ne, or flood- 1/lain clays of glacial age. Boulder clays, although b adantly die- 122 GEOLOGICAL 8DRVKY, CANADA tributed, are often too stony to be of much value for the manufac- ture of clay products. .tJolian Clayt.— hi many part* of the west there is found a silty, often calcareous clay, termed the loess. This, although commonly a water deposit, may at times have been formed by wind action. It can, therefore, properly be classed as transported clay, and also shows a stratified structure. CiMtifleation of CUjn. Considering the different ways in which clays have been formed, it is possible to formulate the following classification, based prim- arily on their origin, and also bringing out, somowhat, their com- mercial characters. A. Residual clays. (By decomposition of rocks in place). I. Kaolins or china clays. (White burning, and derived from igneous or metamorphic rocks low in iron oxide), (o). Vein-like deposits derived from pegmatite veina or dikes of igneous rock, such as rhyolite. (6). Bknket deposits, derived from extensive areas of igneous rock, (c). Pockets in limestone, as the indianaite of Indiana, U.S.A. II. Red-burning residuals, derived from different kinds of rocks. These may be formed by the decomposition of such rocks as granite, by a process of solution as in limestone, or by simple disintegration as in ■ many shales. B. CoUuvial clays, representing deposite formed by wash from the foregoing, and of either refractory or non-refractory character. C. Transported clays. I. Deposited in water. (o). Marine clays or shales. Deposits often of great extent. White burning clays. Ball clays and plastic kaolins. •I I CLAY AND 8HALK DEPO'ITS 123 (6) (c). id) FircclayH or iilmle«. Buff burning. Impure ilay. or .hal... iC;alcareoui. I Noit-calcareous. Lacustrine clay* (deposited in lakes or swampij. Fireclays and some shales. Impure clays or shales, red-burning. Calcareous clays, usually of surface character. Flood-plain clays. Usually impure and sandy. Estuarine clays (deposited in estuaries). Mostly impure and finely laminated. Seeoadary Chanfea ia CUy Depotitt. Changes often take place in clays subsequent to their deposition. These may be local or widespread, and in many cases either greatly improve the deposit or render it worthless. The marked eflFect of •ome of Ukm changes is often well seen in clay beds of which only • portion has been altered. These secondary changes are of two kinds, vii., mechanical and chemical. MECHANICAL CUANaES. Formation of Shale.— Clay deposits laid down on the ocean floor often become covered by many hundreds of feet of other sediments, whose weight alone is often sufficient to cause a consolidation and hardening of the clay mase. Deposition of mineral matter around the grains may cement them together and aid in the hardening pro- ovi. Such a consolidated clay is termed a shale. When ground and " 1 h water, it may develop high plasticity. Shale d^osita received their properties by deep burial, but are now often ?5l ' tie surface because the overlying strata have been worn Shale beds were originally formed in a more or less horizontal position, but since then have often become more or leas tilted by uneven movements of the earth's crust. As evidence of this the shale beds near Grand Lake, N.B.. are nearly flat, while those around Sydney or Joggins show varying angles of dip. CHEMICAL CHANGES. Nearly all clay deposits are frequently changed superficially, at least, by the weather, or by surface waters. The changes are chiefly i '-> ■! !(«3 124 0EOI.0OI0A.. •UBVKY, CANADA ohemival, and can b« froupeJ under the foUowing hesdi: 1. ohangt of colour; 2. leaching; 8, softening; 4, consolidation. Changi of Colour. — Ha^ty clay deposits which are yellow, red, or brown, near the surfac«, are grr.' or greyish-black below. This ia due primarily to the iron in the clay being oxidiced, that is, changed from ferrous to ferric oxide. (See under iron oxide). This change in colour will extend to a variable depth below the surface, depend- ing on the distance to which the weathering agents haye penetrated the clay. Ltaehing. — Clays usually contain at least some soluble materials, the commonest of which is lime carbonate. Sorfuce waters aeepinf into the clay may toke this lime carbont.te into solution, and thva the upper layer*, or portion of the deposit, may be freed from it The lime carbonate so removed may be carried off by the infiltrating waters, or depositee' in the lower layers. In a deposit of cakareoua clay, therefore, the upper layers may be red burning, while the lower beds are buff-burning. This change is more common in moiak than in arid climates, and at any rate, is characteristic only of high- ly calcareous days. The idea held by some that lime, or even other impurities, wiU decrease with the distance from the surface, is "r- roneoua. Some days contain oonaiderable gypsum, often in a findy divided condition. Such days sometimes show coarse oryatalline masses of gypsum on the outcrop, due to the fact that water entering the de- posit has dissolved the gypsum, and brought it to the surface in solution, where, on the evaporation of the water, it haa crystdlixed out in large crystals. This process takes place chiefly in arid regimis. In moist climates this segregation of the gypsum usually occurs within the clay mass, and transparent plute-like masses of selei^te of varying size may be formed. The formation of concretions may be regarded as the result of leaching action. By concretions are meant the hard, often rounded masses found in many clay or shale deposits. They are most commonly formed of iron carbonate, or hydrous iron oxide (limonite), but lime curbon- ate concretions are likewise not uncommon. They have probably been formed by the dissolving of iron or lime compounds ia the CLAY ANr> aiiALK PRPOSITa 12.-. day by infiltrating waters, and thair re-dapo«ition arouii'l (otno Bttoleua. Conrrctioiig of lime carbonate are found in the brick clay* of the Shubenacadie valley; of iron carbonate in the CarbonifffXM ahale*; of pyrite in the Shubenacadie ' fireclay. TTnleaa ground up or removed from the cl»: cr.ioretions may cauM coiuideralle trouble, auch at splitting of thn bricka in drying and burning. The lime pebblea found in some aurface clays cause similar trouble, but are not to be mistaken for concretion*. SofUning. — Many shalaa become softened on exposure to the weather. This it largely a aimple process of disintegration, and uaually inrolves Ifttle change in composition, except in the case of ealcareoua thalea, which may ahow but little lime at the turface. Corttolidation, — Clayt, etpecially thoae of a sandy and porous character, sometimes become hardened along certein layers, or along joint planes due to the deposition of iron oxide. This may result ' in the formation of a number of cruets, or hard layers in the dep )sit. which have to be cruahed or thrown out if the day is to be used. In some looalitiea these are so numerous aa to render an otherwise good clay worthless. Xiiienli in Claj. Owing to the jne-grained character of most olaya, it is usually impoaaible to recognize the mineral graina in them with the naked eye, but microscopic study of days has revealed the presence of a number of different mineral speoiea. A few of these, such as quartz, mica, gypsum, calcite, and pyrite, are sometimes of sufiicient sise to be recognized at sight. It is not ne . y here to enumerate all the mineral species that have been fount days, and only those which are of probable com- mon occurrence need be referred to. Kaolinile. — This mineral, which is a hydroua aluminium silicatf , having the formula, A1,C^ 28iO„ 2H,0, is thought by many to be present in all days, but its existence has not in all cases been defi- niflv proven: moreover, it is somewhat difficult to recognize even under the microscope. If the kaolinite itadf is not present, it is pvobablo that other h^ i-uus aluminium silicates, such as phclerito, halloysite, etc., exist In the clays. lit GKULOOICAI. ■I'lVET, CANADA t'Uyt of high purity no doubt conutn a coniiderabl* ,«rcentaca o< kaolinite, th« iMt khUm of china clay runninf aa high ai 98 t>«r c«nt, or even mor«. Kaolinite ii ex<««NiingIy refractory, and i» to be refarderetent. This fact ii contrary to the view fornierly held by many Hrcbrick manufacturem. It will be leen from what hai bc«n naid above, that a good fireclay ahould be low in •ilicia and high in kaolinite. ^»Mor/t.— Thii mineral, whoie formula ii SiO^ it found in at .Satt imall quautitiet in nearly every clay, whether reaidual or sedi- mentary, but the graint ar, rarely large enough to be teen with the nalced eye. They are trantlucent or tranaparent, uaually of angular form in reaidual clayt, and rounded in tedimeirtary onea on account of the rolling they have received while being washed along the river channel to the tea, or dashed about by the wavea on the beach piv viout to their depotition in deeper, quiet water. The quarti grain i may be colourleaa, but »Te more often coloured tuperfioially re«i ^r yellow by iron oxide. Nodular maatea of amorphoua tiliea, lormed chert or flint, are found in some clays. Both quartz and flint are highly refractory, being fusible only at cone 86 of the Peger series, but the pretence of other mineralt in the clay may exert a fluxing action and eaute the quartz to soften at a much lower temperature. The amount of quartz in clayt varies from under 1 per cent in some kaolins or firaclays to over SO or 60 per cent in tome very sandy brick-clays. FeWapor.— This mineral is nearly as abundant in some clays at quartz, but, owing to the ease with which it decompoeea, the graint are rarely as large. When fresh and undecomposed the grains have a briftht lustre, i- id split off with flat turfacet or cleaTagea. Felda- par is slightly softtr than quartz, and while the latter, as already mentioned, scratches gls-i, .he former will not. The fusing point o' s,)Hr is about cone 9 (see Seger cones, under Fusibility), uut the different species vary somewhat in their melting points. The feldspar grains may, however, begin to flux with other ingredienta of the clay at a much lower temperature. (See under Alkalis). CLAT AKD SHAtE DEPOBIfi 127 Mica. — Tbii it one of the few mineral* in cl«' that can b« ea»ily (letectad with the naked eye, for it occur* coiumonly in the form of thin, icaly parliclet. vhoae liright, ihiniriK »urface renderi them »ery contpicucu*. even when fwaH. Very few clay* are entirely free from mica, even in their wanhed condition, for. on account of the light acaly character of the mineral, it float* off • >th the clay par- ticle*. Some clay* are hixhly micaceout. but »Uih are rarely of much commercial Talue. Iron Or«.— Thi* title include* a icriea of iron eompoundn. which are sometime* grouiied under the above heading, becauie they are pr»- ciiely aimilar to those that serve .^s orei of iron when found in suffi- ciently concentrated fonn. The mineral species includef iron, and then to limonite. Clays containing pyrite are not, as a rule, desired by the day-worker, and in mining the . pyritic material is rejected. Pyrite may be found in almost any clay or shale, but owing to the ease with which it is converted into limonite its formation or permanence in surface clays is rare. Calcite (CaOO,=CaO 6600 per cent, CO. 44-0 per cent).— This mineral, when abundant, is found chiefly in clays of recent geologi- * In some oUys this may be maroasite, the orthorhombie form of FeS,. OLAT AWD 8HALE DEPOSITd " 12j) c«l age but some shales also contain considerable auantitie. of it It can be easily detected, for it dissolves rapidly in weak acids, «,d efferresces violently upon the the application of a drop of muriatic be seen with the naked eye, but has been detectea wSth the ^cro- scope. In some clays, ealcite. as well as some other minerals, may form concretions. Th« brick clay fomid on the Mira river contains lime carbonate in a ttndy divided form, but not in sufficient quantities to make the day bum buflF floured. Gypsum (CaSO 2H.O=CaO 32-6 per cent. SO. 46.6 per cent, H.O 20.9 per cent).-It ,s doubtful whether this minerd is widely distributed m clays, but it is true that some deposits contain lar« quantities of it. It may occur in a finely divided condition, or in the form of crystals, plates, or fibrous masses of selenSte. Its (foft- ness, pearly lustre, and transparency render its identification easy when the pieces are of sufficient size to be seen with the naked eye When heated to a temperature of 250' F, (121» C) the gypsum loses Its ««ter of combination, and when burned to a still higher tempera- ture the sulphuric acid passes off. The lower Carboniferous shales of Nova Scotia sometimes carry nodules o* plates of gypsum. Ciltemieal Analyds of CIeti. There are two methods of quantitatively analyzing clays One of these IS termed the ultimate analysis, the other is known as the rational analysis. The Ultimate Analysis.~ln this method 'oi analysis, which is the one usuaUy employed, the various ingredients of a clay are con- -idered to exist as oxides, although they may really be present in ""•"i J""" """"P'" ^''''"'- '^'"''' '°' ^'""P'*' '=»'"'«° carbonate (CaCO.). if It were present, is not expressed as such, but instead it is CKjnsidered a« broken up into carbon dioxide (00.) and lime (CaO), with the percentage of each given separately. The sum of these two percentages would, however, be equal to the amount of lime carbonate present _ Altogether too much weSght is attached to the chemical analysis by those unfamiliar with the properties and behavilour of clay and 8907—9 130 OEOLOOIOAL 6ITBVST, CANADA many wholly unwarranted deductions are made from it. It is true that the chemical analysis indicates the percentage of different sub- stances present in :the day, and that the effect or action of these sub- stances is understood in a fairly definite way, as indicated on pages 123 to 125, but their effectiveness depends to a large degree on their uniformity of distribution, and this is not indicated by the analysis. Moreover, the ultimate analysis gives us little or no information regarding certain physical properties, such as the plasticity, degree of shrinkage in drying and burning, density after burning, etc. It is, therefore, more or less absurd to conclude from a chemical analysis alione that a clay could be used for certain classes of ware. But, regarding the matter from a fair and conservative stand- point, it would seem that :the following inferences may be made from an ultimate chemical analysis, provided the clay is of fine-grained uniform texture, and the elements in it evenly distributed, and not forgetting !that there may be numerous exceptions io every case: — (1) The purity of the clay, showing the proportions of silica, alumina, combined water, and fluxing impurities present. High grade days often show a percentage of silica, alumina, and chemi- cally combined water, approaching quite closely to kaulinite. (2) The approximate refractoriness of a day; for other things being equal, a clay with high total fluxes is commonly less refractory than one with low total fluxes. Several factors, it must be remem- bered, such as texture, irregularity of distribution of the constitu- ents, and condition of kiln atmosphere may affect the result (3) The colour to which the day bums. This must be judged with extreme caution. Assuming the constituents to be evenly dis- tributed, then a clay with 1 per cent or less of ferric oxide is likely to bum pure white, but at high temperatures titanium, if present, appears to produce discoloration. One with 2 to 3 per cent ferric oxide is likely to burn buff, and one with more than this will prob- ably burn red, if there is not an excess of lime or alumina present. (4) Excess of silica. A high percentage of silica (80 to 90 per cent) may indicate a sandy clay, and possibly one of low shrinkage, but it does not necessarily indicate low plasticity. High silica in a fireclay usuallCr shows moderate refractoriness, provided it is even- ly distributed. (6) Carbon. This should be determined, as it causes trouble in burning if present to the extent of several per cent, requiring tbor- CLAT AKD SHALB DXPOUT8 131 ough oxydation in firing before the clay is allowed to pagg to the Titnncation stage. (6) Sulphur trioride. Since this may be the cause of sweUing in improperly burned wares, and also indicate the presence of soluble sulphates, it should also be determined. (7) The presence of a high percentage of lime carbonate shows tho clay to be of calcareous character, and if this is evenly distributed It IS likely to be of buff-burning character, with low refractoriness, and a narrow margin between vitrification and viscosity. (8) Titanium dioxide should be determined in fireclays, as 3 or 3 per cent may reduce the refractoriness to an appreciable degree. Yet, though the above deductions appear to yield much infor- mation, the conclusions are not definite, and, as mentioned above we are stiU left in the dark regarding many important physical properties. The physical teste of a clay are, therefore, of vastly more importance and practical value, and it is for this reason that so few chemical analyses appear in this report. The Bational Analytit.—ln this method of analyaia an attempt is made to determine the compounds actually present in a clay, such as kaolinite, quartz, feldspar, etc. The methods thus far developed are unsatisfactory. SvbitaBoei present in Clay and their effe«t. SilieaK— This is present in clay in two different forms, namely, uncombined as silica or quartz, and in silicates, of which there are' several. Of these, one of the most important is the mineral kaoH- Hite, which probably occurs in all clays, and is termed the clay base, or day substance. The other silicates include feldspar, mica, glau- conite, hornblende, garnet, etc. These two modes of occurrence of silica, however, are not always distinguished in the ultimate analysis of a clay, but when this i« done they are commonly designated as 'free' and 'combined' silica, the former referring to all silica ex- c^ that contained in the kaolinite, which is indicated by the latter term. This is an unfortunate custom, for the silica in silicates is, properly speaking, combined silica, just ae much as that contained in kaolinite. A better practice is to use the term sand, to include q uartz and silicate mi nerals other than kaolinite, which are sup- inica.^b^ij!!* ^•~'"'P*>""' »' *• «niner*lB qw»t«. feldspar, kaolinita. and 8907-H 132 OEOLOOICAL 8UBVST, CANADA posedly not decomposable by sulphuric acid. In most analysM, however, the silica from both groups of minerals is expressed collec- tively as total silica. The percentage of both quart! and total silica found in cloys varies between wide limits. The free silica or quartz is one of the commcT>4it constituents of clay, and ranges in size from particles sufficiently large to be visible to the eye down to the ^uiallest grains of silt. Sand (quartz and silicates) is an important anti-shrinkage agent, which greatly diminishes the air shrinkage, plasticity, and tensile strength of clay, its efiect in this respect increasing with the course- mess of the material; clays containing a high percentage of very finely divided sand (silt) may absorb considerable water in miz'ng, but show a low air shrinkage. The brickmaker recognizes the value of the effects mentioned above, and adds sand or loam to his clay, and the potter brings about similar results in his mixture by the use of ground flint. If too much sand is added to the brick mixture it makes the product too porous, and soft. It is thouglit by some that because of the refractoriness of quartz its addition to any clay will raise its fusion point, but this is true only of those clays containing a high percentage of common fluxes and silica, and which are burned at low tonperatures. Its effect on highly aluminous low flux clays reduces their refractoriness. In considering the effects of sand in the burning of clays, it must first be stated that the quartz and silicates fuse at different temperatures. A very sandy clay will, therefore, have a low fire shrinkage, as long as none of the sand-grains fuse, but when fusion begins a shrinkage of the mass occurs. We should, therefore, ex- pect a low fire ihrinkage to continue to a higher temperature in a clay whose sand-g^rains are refractory. Iron Oxide: Sources of Iron Oxide in Clays. — Iron oxide is one of the commonest ingredients of clay, and a number of different mineral species may serve as sources of it. tin- most important of which are grouped below: — Hydrous oxide, limonite; oxides, hematite, magnetite; ailicates, biotite, glauconite (greensand), hornblende, p;aniet, etc.; sulphides, pjrrite; carbonates, siderite; sulphate, melanterite. "^ CLAY AND SHAM DEPOSITS I33 In some, such as the oxides, the iron is combined only with ZT;" ," '*"" 'T"^ **' ^°**' '"*« «'^-'-' <'-»'«-^- thl "^'I'^'^'T '- ^l"* «^J«y -hen fusion begins. In the case of the sulphides «d carbonate, on the contrary, the volatile elemZ gas of the B,der.te, h-ve to be driven off before the iron contained in hem .s ready to enter into similar union. In the silicates the iron s chem.cally combined with silica and several bases, forming mix- tures of rather complex composition, and all of them of low fusibility particularly the glauconite. Several of these silicates are easily de- composed by the action of the weather, and the iron oxide which they contain combines with water to fonn limonite. Thi. is usually i„ • finely divided condition, so that its colouring action is quite effec- live. Effect, of Iron Compounds.-Jron is the great colouring agent of both burned and unburned clays. It may also eerve as a flux, and even affect the absorption and shrinkage of the material. Colouring Action of Iron in Vnhurned Ciay.-Many clays show a yellow or brown coloration due to the presence of limonite and a red colouration due to hematite. Colouring Action of Ir.., Oxide on Burned Ciay.-AU of the iron ores will, in burning, change to the red or ferric oxide, provided a sufficient supply of oxygen is able to enter the pores of the clay be- fore it IS vitrified; if vitrification occurs the iron oxide enters into the formation of silicates of complex composition. The colour and depth of shade produced by the iron will, however, depend on, (1) the amount of iron in the clay; (2) the temperature of burning; (3) condition of the iron oxide; and (4) the condition of the Idln atmosphere. Clay free from iron oxide burns white. If a small quantity sav the burned material, but an increase in the iron content to 2 or 3 per cent often produces a buff product; while 4 or 6 per cent of iron eTer'ti" J7 T ""'" *'^ "'"' •'"™ '^- ^^^^ --■ W Sr.!. M w." ^ r ^'^P*'^''^ to the above statements. Thus, we find hat the white-burning clays carry from a few hundredths^^; Srirr r '"H °' "''^ ^"'''' "^ """- ^--^-- -"tak- ing more iron than the purer grades of buff-burning days. Again [.. II IM it^'ii W OEOtOOICAL SUBVET, CAITiLnA among the buff-burning clays we find soiue with an iron oxide con- tent of 4 or 5 per cent, an amount equal to that contained in some red-burning onea. The facts would, thereforo, seem to indicate that the colour of the burned clay is not influenced solely by the quantity of iron present. The brilliancy of the colour appears to be influenced by the texture, as the more sandy clays can be heated to a higher tamperu- ture, without destruction of the red colour, than the mere aluminous ones. Alkalis also appear to diminish the brightness of the iron coloration. Among the oxides of iron two kinds are recognized, known re- •pectively as the ferrous oxide (FeO), and ferric oxide (Fe.O,). In the former we see one part of iron united with oxygen, while in the latter one part of iron is combined with one and one-half parts of oxygen. The ferric oxide, therefore, contains more oxygen per unit of iron than the ferrous salt, and represents a higher stage of oxidation. In the limonite and hematite the iron is in the ferric form, representing a higher stage of oxidation. In magnetite both ferrous and ferric iron are present, but in siderite the ferrous iron alone occurs. In the ultimate analysis the iron is usually deter- mined as ferric oxid", no effort being made to find out the quantity present in the ferrous form, although if there is any reason to sus- pect that much of the latter exists it should be determined. Iron passes rather readily from the ferric to the ferrous form. It aho oxi- dizes easily unless carbon and sulphur are present, in which case its oxidation is not possible until these two substances have been oxidized. Indeed they are sometimes supplied with oxvgen at the expense of the iron, which may be left in a ferrous, magnetic, or even spongy, metallic condition; so if there is a deficit of oxygen in the inside of the kiln the iron does not get enough oxygen, and the ferrous com- pound results, but the latter changes rapidly to the ferric condition if sufficient air c.^^nring oxygen is admitted. If, : wover, the oxida- tion of the iron does not begin until the clay has become so dense as to prevent free circulation of the air through it, then it may form ferrous silicates, which impart black or dark colours to the clay. ICoreover, in the burning of ferruginous days it is usually de- sirable to get the iron thoroughly oxidized to prevent trouble in the later stages of burning. To accomplish this the iron must be freed CLAT AND SHALX DEPOSITS 185 of any sulphur or carbon dioxide which may be combined with it •nd other volatile or combuatible element, in the clay must be driven Off. io aa to allow the oxidizing ceases to enter the clay and unite with any ferroua iron that may be present. SulLhide of iron (pyrite) loses half its sulphur at a red heat, and the balance will, under oxidizing conditions, pass oflF prob«hlv by 900 C. while siderite or ferrous carbonate loses its carbon diox- ..le between 400= and 500» C; magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate lose their CO. at about 500' C, and 800- to 900' C re- spectively Carbonaceous matter or sulphur, if present, must also be carefully burned oflf. Tf the clay contains much volatile or com- bustible matter the burning must prooeeccially if rapidly Jried. owing to the rapid etcape of the water vapour. Me- chanical water may hurt the clay in other wayr Thus, if the material containt any mineral compounds which are toluhle in water, the latter, when added to the day, will ditaolve a portion of them at ieatt. During the drying of the brick the water rises to the sur- face to evaporate, and brings out the compounds in solution, leaving them behind when it vaporiiet. It may nlao help the in guet to act on oertain elements of the clay, a point explained under " Burn- In*." ChtmUallv Comlinei H'a^tfr.-Chomically combined water, at iu name indicates, ii ti.at which exists in the day in chemical com- bination with other elements, and which, in nost oases, can be driven out only at a temperature ranging from 400° C, (782» F), to 600' (1119' F). This combined water may be derived from several minerals, suiH as kadinite, which contains nearly 14 per cent white mica or muicovite with 4 to 5} per cent, and limonite with 145 per cent Unlets a day containt considerable limonite or hydrous tilica, the percentage of combined water is commonly about one-third the percentage of alumina found in the clay. In pure, or nearly pure kaolin, there is nearly 14 per cent, and other days contain varying amounts, ranging from this down to 8 or 4 per cent, the latter being the quantity found in some very sandy days. The loss of its com- bined water is accompanied by a riight but variable shrinkage in the day, which reaches its maximum some time after all the volatile matters have been driven off. In many clay analyses the chemically combined water is deter- mined as loss on ignition, which is incorrect if the day contains carbon dioxide, sulphur trioxide, or organic matter, all of which are ■driven off, in part at least, at a dull red heat. 140 t i| 1 1^1 OKOLOOIOAl •IHVEV, CAKADA crrtrra or oahk>n in cut. (Vrbon inajr b« preM>nt in il»y in Um ionn of: (1) Tt«»ubl« m«tter; (a) wphaltic c«rboii. and (3) find carbon. Onlj tha atoood' and third of tha Rroupa mentioned naed b* conaidMcd. Tha firat alone rauaet trouble when it ooturt in the form of atioka or thick roou. and hat to be tcreened out. It ia, therefor^ not included ia what follow*. C'arbonaceoui matter often tenrei 1.4 a strong colouring agwit of raw c!ay«. tinging them grey, blui.hgrey. or black. Indeed, lo ■ itrong may thi. be that it matki the effect cf other colouring agent*, •uch i iron. In fact, two clayi coloured black might burn red and white reapeotively. becau*e one had much iron and the other none, and yet. owing to their black colour, thia could not be foretold with definitenes*. Aiphaltic carbon, aside from its colouring action, often causes much trouble in burning, causing black core., or eren swelling and fuaing of the brick. More than this, it may keep the iron in a ferrous condition and prevent the development of the best colour effects in the ware. The reason for this is due to several causes. Carbon has a strong affinity lor oxygen, much utronger than that of iron, therefore as long as it remains in the clay it will monopo- lize the supply of oxygen and keep the iron in a ferrous condition, the form in which much of it is, in grey or black clay* and ihales. Now, in burning a clay, one of the aims of the clay worker is to get the iron into a ferric condition, so as to fully develop it* colouring properties and i.revent other trpuble*. A3 long h» any carbonaceou* matter remain* the oxidation of the iron is prevented or retarded, and consequently the carbon must be burned out. The experiment* of Orton and Griffin have »hown that between 800° and 000° C is the be«t temperature interval for burning off the carbon, a* below this its oxidation does not proceed a* rapidly, and above this there i* danger of vitrification beginning, and the oxidation being stopped. The met*'od of procedure would, therefore, be to drive all mois- ture out of the clay first, then raise the heat as rapidly a* possible to a temperature between 800° and 900' C, and hold it there until; the ware no longer show* a black core denoting f»»rous iron. OtAT ARD •RAtB DIPOllITl 141 I« ordtr to bum off tho cwb- 1 ud oiidio tb. iron. Mr lupply- 1"« oiygoa «u« b. dr.w« i„u, tb. kil« during burniu,. £„, tb. f>iM of oombu.tion from tb. fu.1 will .upply „ou.. O.id.tiou mv /u '1 ^ '"•'"'••in* th. .mount of air .nuring tb. kiln, •nd by reducing th. do„,iey of tb. cl.y .. muob .. po-ibl.. In .«•• thii .. not do,,., .nd th. porM of th. .Iv clow up b.for. .11 h. carbon .. burn.d off. it .!«, int.rf.r.. with th. .xpuUion of •ulphur prM.nt wb,ob m.y r..ult in . .w.lling of th. city. Thi. m.yb.,v,n follows! by comrtet. fu.ion of th. interior of th. n,.«. c.uMd by th. formation of m «».ily fuiiW. f.rrou. .ilict.. \Vh.n th. crbon i. .11 bumod ..flf th. iron h.. . ch.nc. to o,idi«. If tho civ cont.,n. much ..ph.ltic c.rbon th. o.id.tion mu.t b« c.rriH on w,th .. httl. air .. po..ibl.. „tb.rwiw th. he.t gcn.r.i«l by th. burn,ng hydroc.rbon* m.y b. .., int.n*. „ to ritrify th. w.r. (H,fnre tn. oxidation it completed. Sine d.n.. clayi ar. more difficult to osidiie than tho«i which .r. porou.. th. procM of manufactur. may al«, influ.nc th. ro- •ult.. and ,n thii conn.xion it ha. ben found that brick, mad. bv tb. Mf* mud proc... ar. mo.t rapidly oxidi««l. follows! by either th. .tiff mud or dry-prw. (th.r. b.ing no differ,nc botw^n to. two), and lastly by the iemi-dry-prw.. ma of Water on Black Coring.-U i, oft«i 8tat«l by brick- maker, tbat black corw a,, cauwd by tb. brick being .et too wet " Th.. .. not .trictly true, and the relation is a yery indirect one. lo an'd 9^-'r» "f """' "''-' '*'""'" "^ temperature, of 800 and 900 C. it also pasMs off somewhat at much lower tem- peratures. If the br,ck is set wet it requires so much more heat in the early stages of firing to drive out or erapornte the water thi.t other changes, such as the oxidation of the carbon, will be retanied snd brick begins to vitrify before the process is completed. SULPHUK. Many clavs contain at loast a trace of sulphur, and some show appreciable quantities, but determination, cf it are rarely made, unless the clay i. to be employed for Portland cement maZ facture As can be seen from the experiment, of Seger, and more especially Orton and Staley. it may cause serious trouble, and should always be determined in the an.lysi. of a clay. 142 OEOLOOIOAI. BUBTXT, OASADA. i I Sulphur might be preient in a clay, as:— (1) Sulphate, such as gypsum (CSO„ 2H,0), epsomite (HgSO^ 7H,0), or melanterite (FeSO^ 7H,0). (2) Sulphide, as pyrite (FeS,) or marcasite (FeS,). Few inveatigators have, however, given much attention to the matter. From experiments on a Columbus black shale, running high in carbon, ferrous iron, and sulphur, Orton and Staley adopted the series of conclusiond given below: — The shale contained an average of 2-997 per cent of total sul- phur, expressed as the element, of which 0-76 per cent was contained in soluble sulphates, and 2-236 in sulphides. They conclude: — (1) Both sulphates and sulphides experience rapid diminution by dissociation, in that portion of the bum up to 800° C, in those por- tions of the ware which get air freely. This loss of sulphur may amount to two-thirds or three-fourths of the amount origiunlly present. (2) Both sulphates and sulphides experience a further slow dimi- nution by dissociation or oxidation, beginning at 800° C, and con- tinuing as long as the clay structure remains porous and permeable to air. The loss of sulphur may amount to 90 per cent or more of the initial sulphur content at the end of the period, but it proceeds increasingly slowly, and would probably never become complete. (3) In the interior portions of the clay, to which air cannot readily penetrate, the loss of sulphur may be less, and if there are any bases, such as FeO, CaO, or MgO present, with which the sulphur may combine, the sulphur is not likely to be expelled. (4) Carbon, even in small quantities, interferes strongly with the expulsion of sulphur, which does not pass off to any extent until after the carbon goes. The clay may, therefore, have become too dense by that time for the oxidation of the sulphur to proceed, so that the carbon has virtually prevented its escape. (5) Sulphur retained in the clay in any form, and from any cause, is not likely to cause physical disturbances in the clay until a fairly complete degree of vitrification is reached. (fi) When a clay reaches a dense vitrified condition it proceeds normally, after a longer or shorter interval, to become less dense, by reason of the development of multitudes of minute vesicles in CLAY AMD 8HALB DJ1P08IT8 14;5 the viscous body; this process is progressive and in the end th. K . becomes spongy and worthless * ^""^^ •ctive as the temperature rise. In » '°'" mcreasingjy combined with thH^Zr ' ""'"""-**« *^« •>-- ^"""erly (9) In clays of low sulphur content nn^ ^t t for oxidation, the amount of IpluT^^tl^ IT""^' **'"'''"" i. very small. Hence the pe,iod"\::lf f, 1?^^.'^ cular s.ueture develops slowly, and the clay is said t^l^ :Z w;iJ:^^i^::j:^-::::;^-^-ensestructurcun- escape of the sulphur is prevent^' Jrrha Zr^n """"' ''' of usefulness, or none at all Ja fl ■ , ^ "'""^ P^''*"' enormously eLaggera^i *"' '^"""'" "*■•"''*-« »— (11) While this premature and exaggerated awAli;n»* may in aggravated cases occur in well Sdi^T I " "^'*''" certain to occur where clays con^t r^fp^ ^l-^^^^^^^^^^^ allowed to reach the vitrification period ^ "'"' "- thJlSJ^'' ^'"^"'"^ ^°"'' °^ '"^'^'^ compounds by sUicic acid is u e S yraTre^o""" °',^^ ^"'"^*"™ ^'^^"'"^ "^ "^^ - 1 ^"^ J^^.P'.^'P*'' ^'^y to avoid the effects of sulphur in vitrifvin^ ml hT ; V'' " '^"•'^"^^ --^ --p'«^' o" r,:rtr men whale the clay remains porous. This wiU rid the day of t) greater part of the sulphur, and wiU r.r«™nt jj ' " slagging of the clay by Lr^o J ^fT^" ^et: 7 '"""'T has such a tendency, and will thus' avl soL ^^l^T cond.t.ons which favour swelling. Cays 'which ti Ztn^^ from swelhng after this treatment must be regarded as bad Tay^ REACTIONS INVOLVED IN EXPULSION OP SDLPIIIR probable ones only being giren:— • "■" t !44 GEOLOGICAL SUBVEY, CANADA Pyrite heated to 400' C, gives FeS, + heat=FeS + fl. The S in the air catchea fire and bums to SO, or 80„ but if liberated in a clay soft and spongy by heat it may attack FeO, CaO, or MgO. However, most of it probably escapes. FeS exposed to oxidizing conditions might oxidize to ferrous sulphate, but further heating to 550-6P0° C breaks it up, leaving FeO, the latter in an oxidizing atmosphere changing to Fe.O,. Calcium sulphate also breaks down, but at higher temperatures than ferrous sulphate and less completely. The action of carbon in restraining the liberation of sulphur is explained as follows: — FeOO. + 426° C=FeO + CO,. If, now, free sulphur is liberated in the immediate vicinity, FeO + 0+S=FeS + CO. This ferrous sulphide cannot be broken up by heat alone, but only by roasting in air, or interati>jn with silicic acid, for as pointed out by Seger, silicic acid at high temperatures has the power of displacing all other common acids, and combining with their bases to form silicates. It thus has the power to r^lace sulphuric acid, and the sulphur of sulphides. He found that a biailicate glass mix- ture, saturated with sulphates, showed 4 per cent sulphuric acid; while the same glass, with one more molecule of silica added and melted at the same temperature and under the same conditions, con- tained only 2 per cent sulphuric acid. Now, in raising the tem- perature of burning, the fusing matrix of a clay becomes more sili- ceous, resulting in the expulsion of sulphur. SOLUBLE SALTS. Origin — It has been pointed out, in explaining the origin of clay, that in the decomposition of mineral grains in clay soluble compounds are often formed. During the drying of the clay the moisture brings these to the surface, and leaves them there when it evaporates, thus forming a scum on the air-dried ware, and some- times a white coating on the clay after it is burned. Those found in the clay are commonly sulphates of lime, iron, or alkalis, and their formation is generally due to the decomposition of the iron pyrite frequently contained in the clay. A much greater quantity of soluble sulphates will be formed if the pyrite is in a finely divided condition and evenly distributed through the clay, but soluble com- pounds may also be formed without the aid of pyrite, as when car- CLAT AJfD SHALE DEPOSITS 14,'", bonates are set free by the decomposition of silieates, ,uch as feld- spar. When the soluble compounds have formed in the green clav their presence can often be detected by spreading the dug clav out to weather, which will result in their forming a crust on the surface of the mass. Their formation does not cease, however, when they are removed from the ground, for in some cases fresh pyrite grains remain in the clay after mixing, and if the clay is stored in a moist place then- may decompose, yielding an additional amount of soluble materia! One means of preventing this would seem to be the use of the clay as soon as possible after mixing. In some cases soluble sulphates may be even introduced into the clay by the water used for mixing, for distilled water is the only kind that is free from soluble salts. All well and spring watcr- contam so> at least, and if these flow or drain from clays or rock- containing any pyrite they are almost sure to contain soluble salts Those flowing from lime rocks are usually hard, on account ot the lime carbonate which they contain. Still another source of soluble salts ,n raw clay lies in some of the artificial colouring materials which are sometimes used. Soluble salts brought out in the drying of the clay are termed dryer-white, but do not differ in composition from those formed during burning and known as kiln-white. Soluble sulphates are sometimes formed in burning, through the use of sulphurous fuel, that is. coal containing more or less iron pyrite. When the coal is burned part of the sulphur in the pyrite .8 expelled, and, uniting with the oxygen, forms sulphuric-acid ga^ (SO,). This passes through the kiln, and. if it comes in contact with carbonates in the clay, converts them into sulphates, because some substances, such as lime (CaO). have a stronger affinity for sulphur trioxide (SO.) than for carbon dioxide (CO,). It frequently happens that clay products come from the kiln apparently free from any superficial discoloration or coating but develop one later on if subjected to moisture. This type of coating " .rrr ^"-"h'*^- I* ^^y be derived from salts formed with in the body of the ware during burning, and subsequently brought to the surface by the evaporation of moisture absorbed during rainy weather, or it may come from the mortar, either by the direct in- 8907-10 146 OXOLOOIOAI. »VXV*r, CANADA troduction of soluble salts from it, or by reaction between carbon- ates of magnesium, potassium, and sodium of the mortar, with caU oium sulphate in the brick. This gives calcium carbonate. Mickler found that, in a series of fifty bricks examined, the sum of the sulphates of lime, magnesium, and alkalies varied from •0134 per cent to -7668 per cent The coatings thus far mentioned are all white in colour. In some instances, however, the product becomes covered with a yellow or green stain, which is caused either by the growth of vegetable matter on the surface of the bricke, or by soluble compounds of the rare element vanadium. Quantity of BoluhU Saitt in Clays. — The amount of soluble salts present in a day is never very great, but less than 0-1 per cent is often sufficient to produce a white incrustation. Prevention of Soluble Balie. — The methods of prevention that have been suggested for dryer-white and kiln-white are: — (1) Use of the day in its unveathered condi'* , or before the soluble salts have time to form. (2) Use of the day in a thoroughly weathered condition, thus permitting removal of soluble salts by leachicg. (3) Change of the soluble salts » a harmless form by precipita- tion with barium compounds. (4) Prevention of concentration of salts on surface of brick by rapid firing. (5) Removal of whitewash in the kiln by using a reducing flame. (6) Coating the brick with some ccnnbustiMe substance, as wheat flour, or coal tar, which bums away with a strong reducing action and removes the whitewash. Beferring in more detail to (3), it may be explained that the sub- stance commonly added is either barium chlorido or barium car- bonate. When barium salts come in contact with solable sulphates, barium sulphate is formed, a combination which is insoluble in water. This is expressed by the first of the following chemical reactions, if barium is used, and by the securd, if barium chloride is employed: — (1) CaS0.-fBaC0g=C8C0.-f-BaS0.. (2) CaSO.-fBaCl,=CaCl,+BaSO.. ni II OLAT AND SHALE DEPOSITS 147 We thus we that in both cums we get compounds which are in- Mlnble, or nearly to. If .oluble sodium compounds are present, the addition of barium carbonate, or barium chloride, will form either sodium carbonate or sodium chloride (common salt), but since both of these are easily soluble in water they can be washed off without much trouble. Method of iwe.-As carbonate of barium is insoluble in water; m order to make it thoroughly and uniformly effective, it should be used in a finely powdered condition, and distributed through the clay as thoroughly as possible, because it will only act where it comes into immediate contact with the soluble sulphates. While only a small quantity of barium is necessary, it is desirable to use some- what more thau is actually required. According to Qerlach, a clay containing 0-1 per cent sulphate of lime, which is the same as 0-4 grams per pound, would need 0.6 of a gram of barium carbonate per pound of clay. For safety however, 6 or 7 grams should be add»d to eveiy pound of clay This would be about 100 pounds for every thousand bricks, based on the •upposition that a green brick weighs 7 pounds. As a pound of barium carbonate costs about H cents, the amount required for 1,000 bricks would be $2.60. It is cheaper to use barium diloride, for the reason that the salt is soluble in water, and hence can be distributed more evenly with the use of a smaller quantity; the chemical reaction also takes place much more rapidly when ,t is used. There is this objection to it. however, that as near the theoretic amount as possible must be used; for if any remaios m the clay unchanged, that is, without having reacted with the soluble salts, it may of itself form an Incrustation. In the case of a clay contemning 0-1 per cent calcium sulphate it would require 26 pounds of barium chloride per thousand bricks and this, at 2* cents a pound, would mean an outlay of 66 centfc With the barium-chloride treatment, chloride of lime is formed, but this is decomposed in burning. Since, in drying moulded-clay objects, the evaporation is greatest from the edges and comers of the ware, the incrustations may be heaviest at these points, but the more rapidly the water is evap- orated the less will be the quantity of soluble salts deposited on the surface. Incrustations which appear during drying ar« found 8907-lOi 148 GEOLOGICAL 8UBVEY, CANADA w more commonly on bricks made from very plastic clays, which, ow- ing to their density, do not allow the water to evaporate quickly. Remedy for Wall-white. — This is more difficult, but consists pri- marily in preventing entrance of moisture to the walls. It is sug- gested to make the walls as impervious as possible by the use of well-bumed brick, and proper drainage and waterproofing ..f the foundations. If the efflorescence appears, the walls may be painted 80 as to cover the efflorescence, but it may then peel off in damp spots. A Cf.it of paraffin or linseed oil will conceal the white coat- ing somewhat, but also darken the brick. They should also be made waterproof if possible. PLA -ICITV. Definition. — Plasticity is probably by far the most important property of clay, lacking which it would be of comparatively little value for the manufacture of clay products. Seger has defined it as the property which solid bodies show of absorbing and holding a liquid in their pores, and forming a mass which can be pressed or kneaded into any desired shape, which it retains when the pressure ceases, and, on the withdrawal of the water, changes to a hard mass. The term hard, of course, refers to its hardness as compared with its wet condition, for some air-dried clays are rather soft. TENSILE STRENGTH. Definition. — The tensile strength of a clay is the resistance which it offers to rupture or being pulled apart when air-dried. Practical Bearing.— The tensile strength is an important prop- erty, and has a practical bearing on problems connected with the handling, moulding, and drying of the ware, since a high strength enables the day to withstand the shocks and strains of handling. Through it, also, the clay is able to carry a large quantity of non- plastic material-, such as flint or feldspar, ground bricks, etc. Relation to P/a«° C (3470* F). A» the temperature rite* tb* C(ii)<> besin* to Moften, and when it* fusion-point ii reached it be> gint to bend over until its tip touches the base. For practical pur- poses these cones are very successful, though their use has been sotnewhat unreasonably discouraged by some. They have been much used by foreign manufacturers of clay products, aad their use in the United States and Canada is increasing. The composition and fusing points of the different members of the series are given below: — COMPOSITION AND rUBING-FOINTS OF SIOIR OONU. Naof Com. 0S2 on 090 019 ■018 •017 016 015 OU 013 -013 ■Oil •010 09 ■08 07 -06 06 04 ■03 02 Oomposition. BIl*lPl / >'0 8iO, 10B.( iBPbO 6P3)/"* liO,\ . Ai.oJM;g;8;}. g^5b>»A1.0.(?.J$|}. ■?5b>3A1.0.{M||8:) ■»»•"•; 10B,^j Aio./ »0KO,i 16 N>i0 >6N»,0 SPbO 06 g?5b°}0 66A,.O.{?:^^}. :.»Sg>}««Ai.o.{?:s|8:}- ;:gNj^o}0 7Ai.o.{ng;8:}. 1-6" N&o-}o.,5x..o.{;:s|8:}- »^^O}0 8Al.O.{3«g8:} i6Pb tSKjO |0-2Fe,O, fS 60 SlOli 17 C»0 /O'S A1,0, \0 60 B,0, i • I3K.O \0 2Fe,O, f3 5BiiO,l irC«0 /OSAljO, t0 48B,o!^ l8K,O 10-2Fe,O, /3 60 8iO,\ I 7C»0 /O .S A1,0, to 40B,O,/ i3K,0 \0 2Fe,0, (8 65SiO,\ I 7C»0 J0 3AI,0, \0 36B,OJ i 3 K,0 \0 2 Ff,0, f870SiO,l i7C»0 JO 3A1,0, 10 30B.O,/ SK.O \0 2F«>,0, /3 76 SiO,' •7C»0 /0 3Al,O, (0 28B." 8K,0 10 2Ke;o; 7CaO f- - - ' ,oj- /3 80 SiO,\ 3Al,O, 10 20B,O,/ I 8 K,0 1 2 Ff,0, rS t(6 .Si'O; I 7 C»0 10 3 A1,0, 1 16 B,0, 8 K,0 10 2FeaO, /3 90 SiO.l I 7 C»0 /OS Al.O, to 10 B,0,/ «'o.i Fusing-poiat. DegTMS F. 1,0M 1,148 1,908 ],98« 1,810 1,8«4 1,418 1,479 1,696 1,580 1,684 1,749 1,778 1,814 1,860 1,8(« 1,922 1,968 1,«M 2,030 DegrsssO. 6M 660 680 no 74» 770 600 880 860 890 990 960 970 990 1,010 1,090 1,060 1,070 1,090 1,110 CLAV A.M> NIIAI.K ItKPOHITfl 1S3 COMPOHITION AND FUMVHPOINTH OK SKUEK COXES. 0«M. 01 20 21 23 23 24 26 26 27 Coin|ic»itioa. /0SK,O l0 9Fe,O, r3 95 8iO,\ l0 7UO/0JAl,O, (OOBBjO;/ f0SK,O\0 3F«,O, Umn \ /0JK,o ioir»,b, /. „in I \07CiO/0 4AlW \ *"'**• ) -0IK,O\0 06F*,O,/ .„.„ I 07 do /o « a7,o' I * "'O, ) . ... 7 C.'o )<"**»•"• *»'0- {0 7QJo}0»AI,O, 68iO,., {0 7Olo]"«A»A "SitV- 7Olo)0'A»A 7^'Ot ??¥iO\oi 7C»O, 8K,O\o 7Ci>O r /0 8K,O I, \0 7C«O/* f0 8K.O 1, l0 7C»O/' [0 8K,0 1, 07C»O j* 8K,Ol, l0 7C«O '* 8A1,0, 8 8iO, 9A1A OBiO... 0Al,O, 10 8iO, 3A1,0, laSiO,. i AI,0, 14 SiO,. 6 A1,0, 16 BiO,. 8 A1,0, 18 aiO,. . {o7cio}«»A'A218iO, OS K,0 Cio}' (OS 107 l/0 8K,0 l\0-7C«O ( ' 4Al,0,24»>Or. 7A1,0, a7SiO,. 1 A1,0, 81 8iO,. 8 A1,0, 36 SiO,. 8A1,0| 89BiO,. 4 A1,0, 44 SiO, . 9A1,0, 49 SiO,.. 4 Al.O, 64 SiO, OAl.O, CO SiO,.. 6A1,0, 66 SiO,.. 8K,0 t, 7C«O /' (0 8K,O1. \0 7C»O/" /0 3K,O\- 10 7C»0 /' (0 3K,OK to 7C»0 I* f0 8K,O \. »0 7C«O /* /0 8K,Ol. 10 7 CO /" (OSKjO \- \0 7C.or r0 8K,0>g \o 7c«o r {0 7Cio/"8Al,O.72SiO,. {0 7cio}30A'.O.2OOSiOr, FiMiDf-point Drgnn F. D^'wtC. 3,066 1,180 2,103 i.iao 2,188 1,170 3,174 1,190 3,210 1.310 3,946 1,380 3,383 1,380 3,818 1,270 3,864 1,3!I0 3,890 1,310 2,436 1,330 2,463 1,360 2,498 1,S70 2,684 1.390 2,670 1.410 2,606 1,430 2,642 1,460 2,678 1,470 2,714 1,490 4760 1,610 2,786 1,630 2,822 1,660 2,868 1.670 2,894 1.690 2,930 1,610 ?,«66 1,6.« for measuring temperature, but rather for measuring pyrochemical effects. The cones used in the different branches of the clay-working in- dustry in the United States and Canada are approximately as fol- lows: — Cammaa brick OU-01 Bud bornad, oommoD brick 1-3 Buff face brick 5-9 or ctmi higher. Holk>w blocks and fliaproofing 08-1 Tem-3otU. 08-7 or 8 Cooduita 7-S Olj^T A:»B •■Al» D1HW1T* 166 FiMMalu lUd MrtilMWM*. KlMlriatl porwiatai. aft pipn tt-ii APPEN^Dl Laboraturjr ! Field Nuiiil»r. Niimbrr. 1505 1511 1518 'I) 152S 16*«l 1531 IKJa 1533 ir*» 1535 153ti 1637 15SH 153!) 1540 154L' ir>44 1545 1>'>4(> 1517 1548 IMtf 155(, 1651 i652 luUtJ 1570 1571 1172 1374 1575 1576 1677 157H 1579 1580 1581 1583 1584 1585 1580 1587 1588 158» 1690 1591 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 15!I8 1606 1606 1807 1609 liOCALITT. 16 41(a) 22 ' 11 8 29 :ti 32 :« 34 17 60 40 38 36 20 19 18 39 AG 51 16 86 70 72 56 80 71 81 77 73 57 57(a) 57 H) 67(d) 57 (f) i~{f) 57(3) 62 63 67 67(a) iHha e on brook between New Glasgow and WcKjdburn. jMiale, near Victoria Mines P.O . . Blue day from marsh, Albert Mines, X.B Shale above san.l-tone quarry, north of Port Hood [Green shale, soiuh of Port Hood 76 75 8907- Fireolay, Shubenacadie jShale near sandstone quarry, north of borchesttrN.B'. iShale on shore. Port Hood Shale, near sandstone quarry, north of iiorciiester jhhale along shore, soutli of .Toggins ... jSub-earboniferous shale, south of Port Hood I r ireclay, Shubenacadie IRed clay, Diogenes brook, C.B. . . ] iVvhiteclay „ ... j Blue clay „ IRed shale, Sackville, N.B '.'.'.'.'.'.".. iTidal mud, Shubenacadie iShale, Port Hood ''..'.'.[['.'.'.'.'.'..". Shale on shore, between Inverness and Big river... ...... jUnderclay. 13 ft seam, Kennedy brook, Invernew.' '.. .' 'Brick clay, Baddeck, C.B I Red shale near Haroourt . . , jUnderclaj', King mine, Minto, N.b! '.".['. Shale over coal, Itanies mine, Minto. . Underclay „ Shale from Chipman, N.B., at R. R. station'. '.'.'.". White surface clay, near Marshalltown . , S ■ , . "' B'>»nifield farm, near Shubenacadie Brick clay, Annapolis Brick clay, Middteton Silurian shale, Ariaaig ■Shale from Baltimore, N.B ......! ^TDIX I. Wkt Moii.iii). Coin* IHO. Ciine 01!. Per cent .■Vbuiiriitirjii. Fire ShriiikuKe. Cone 1. 1 Per cent .Abfurptiun. Kire Shrinkage. CnUmr. Cojiiur. Per i-.nt AbMAirptioti. II Kwllmff Reii'.. '.'.".'...'.'. Buff 1 11 (ii-. HOG '. aj 62 18 60 • 13 C2 X'.fWi 14 42 16 97 16 64 1.". 43 13 76 15 79 10 13 19 02 13 37 10 78 12 71 14 26 13 18 13 11 1 13 42 ! 18 37 i 15-65 6 91 wnriia in theb 14 2018 20 19 13 1.-. 13 09 13 90 i 13 50 15-70 1 14 23 ' 13 66 13 72 11 97 14 74 10 7 It is' Brown Bright red . . barkrWi..!! .!. 5 27 5 70 is'is' -0 6 -0 G ;i 4 ii u ' 6 i)ai-k n-.i..;.;;;; '" ii-oti 2-4" r. 3 2 4-0 , 5 Red 4 7-i 3 (>8 1 -:•_' (15 Buff 10 l> 3 7 6 5 3 1 Hixlilinh brown. Red...'.' .'.' ... 14 " 4 27 Ull „ 00 Bruwn '•7 i-o' Red Darkrwl.. 1388 !l-13 '. ^ " Red 14 24 Dark red Pink Buff Dark red.. .. Red Light red. ... Red" Lisht red. . . R^ Cracka and Pink Buff 0-3 -or> M 3 10 i'ii' Buff Reddish brown. . 7 77 4-52 4 Buff 5 Red;..'.'...'.'.'.'. '\"_ 7 ■•( 0-7 5 5 6 Dark re\vTi. . Dark red ' Red ; Light re I5I!t lu 1..20 ;{ I ".21 m 1022 -W I. -.24 21 ir.25 54 1."i2li 12 i">2r 2;t 1J2H 44 15211 4 l".n 2 lJ5!t (i4 i.">54 ur, l.V>5 !s;i l.Vifi 82 1 ViT fw l.V>!t IW l"i«0 N4 irmi (io l.")«2 !87 I")C» 78 1564 74 !")((,"> 7!» 15l>ii 'i!) ir>(!7 8.". IfiOl iiU liaJ2 <(5 iik);< 1«)M llJlll Hill •K;;l.:^:l^^^^ "■ ''•"^''""' "'»""" ") Hrick-eiai;; Kh:::i.7r"""' ^""' •-■'■•• ^"'' **""•"' l2 .a r. Interc„I„nial Coal fto., Wel.tville ^^ iJhal'S one mile .vest of WooHljiirii j«ha e, run of bank, Cnmlierrj liead.O.lt jSha e ui..ler wndKUme, A»hby i.it, Sydney ' jShalu near Alder Point P.O., OB jUiiCK clay, Kden siding. Shale inider middle coal, west iiide of Black Point ( " H . . ,1 he >anie, KTonnd coan*.. • '' Shale east of entrance to (jiac^e Bay harlioiir.; '. '. ' .' Same, (fiound finer. . Shale exst of No. 2 ('olliery, Ulac* 'Biiy.' ..hale, t.„al brook, «iutli of Allen »haft, New (ilasirow' ' iBrk, lower shale, New (JlasRow. "'»»(fOW . ■ Ked Hhale, t'ranlierry head Pottery clay, wmtli of Klmwjale.". :&;• '^.i::";^^""^' ^-^^ ^'•» ^-' co; : : ; : : IBlue clay, .\lira River Brick Worit«,' C.B. j I .lacial clay. McKinnon harbour. . I IJ riderclay, Toronto mine, C.B I Brick mixture, Mira Kiver Brick WoricH, C. B I ITndercIay, of "Jage «.am. Htellarton . Ix.wvr re.1 el.-»y at Pottery. Hoiith of Klmwlale Brick mixture, Klmsdale fop clay. Hu8.,ey drift, Inv«nie'««.;.'. Sim e, south of Mclsaiu,- pond, Invern^w' '. Undertlay, Beersville, N.B Clay over coal, Beersville, N.B Briokclay, Baddeck, C.B. Shale, north of .fudiciue harbour Vf f»l' HI I'ranoh yredeii.k bi-.K,k, All»-rt Mines V B Br cL'h "J^y.'- ^i^'I'I'V ''"-.k, .Mid. Mm«,...kI,.1« it. tlrick clay, h redericton, N.B Brick clay, Avon|x)rt ... .Shale, Piigwaah . fM.hale, Weldon creek, AllH.rtMin«« N.B Underclay, Can. Cc«l Co., .Salmon bay, N.B Shale over coal Can. C.al Co. , .Salmon hay, N.B \\ eathered shale. Flower Cove N B '' ■^■" !Bi k mixture, St. .rohn. N.B Shi, <•, Flower Cove, N B Oveirlay, Kvaiis mine, .Mint,., N.B I'nderelay „ „ S907— 6 li'uff. I'ink. I'iiik" .'. '. Red I.itrht ie.1. .1 "4 4'U -0 3 o;i ' -' uixr..'.;; "2 I.ilfht re-d. 15 hed. . 1 li 10 << 10 10 »" «.'r..am '»■< R«l 13,,, 1 3 „ -"1 AVhiu.;.. "« ? lH<''"t' hrrwn. " -t iKed. . . "2 Bulf. . . US ihed . f» 8 I Dark buff -'■« |Re,l .1 8 -23 5 2 8 3 ,._ "1 I.Salmon pink' Buff. Pink ■ iBuff. iRed White. . . . Red.. Buff. ..... Dark buff . 3 Cream pink 3 White!!" ' Pale iwl "3 Buff.... Red Kecldish brown. Buff.." I>ark'i^.' Darkbuff .... I Dark i-ed I Light red. .'. " j Dark r«l. . Ketldinl, br,',w",i Buff I 'ark rwl . . . ! ■ R«'dish bn.wn. .Dark red... White.... ■■ Red Dark red.. .- .. ,Buff.... 4 3 Dark red... Reddish brown Dark red Reddish brown Buff ,^^t.„,....;:;| ■ Buff...; - . (Red ... I , 3 6jReii i„ 10 lilllf.. i> Dark iH,r •3 !Re,ldi>U„; ■3 jDaik I-,-,] ■« j White . Re.1 .. I Dark n-,r Hutf.. Dark l,r.,«„ C ' 3 K.. Dark r,,i j ;Reli l,ii„ i ,' r. 1 'Dark liuff. I jR.-d ;.■;, ' ,l'al,' pink (Dark l.n.wii jRed Reddi.'h l.riiw While'.' Dark red. ... t^JiJKDTX 11 WkT Moi'LIIKIi. •'■■M. 0.1. • •-l..l„. il a = — e I X Cuiie 1. Culoiir. C'oiie 3. = 3 t _J| ,|| f..lu„r. ' n.ni- ..,1 * '>-irk I,., I ' Hiilf. I „ ,L)Hik r,:,( ]"nhi 1)1, ir ■ l>mk iv,| i-i(fi,ti.,i.,'.;; Kr-iiii,»i, I,,,',;,.,; liiiff Diirk rcil ^Kfddi^l, lii-,,iin I'aik IV, 1 R«l Dark nil Hutr L)ark lir..«ii ftMliliah l.fuwn. Jark liulf. <«)c!i»li liMvri. )ark tmI t«l(li.|i Imiwii. •ark liulf. :.-d ;;■; all' pink. . . '; ark liniuii Hi " irk r«i . ... ■'i'--.-'..'..[ eaui .rk red . . , I'ain I ^ ;| K«Wi»li Im.H,,. " " Uriiu n lio' ■ ••■0 jiiuflr'... 2-;t ; „ 6<1 lllnrk I'in'.wn"' 6l> |Li(flit iMilf ... ■ ■iO Hark lirimii.... »•'• :i>ark i,n,«n" t 'it i ,, ' ' ' s-sl..., '■> -I IDark linm.i .■.■;; ' I a-O Crekin.". ' «•« 5." 0".';'' ''■•'''«n ..'. 1 Dark l«(iw„ 6T 8 •! Kpddi.h brow,;.! ' 12 6 |Reddi,h bn.wn ' Drab ! 5'3 Brown I « .'t Ked ; 1 77 3 52 "iiol 4-«0 I 4 M 1 .K :i tu . l'8!l ! i (w'ii 'I* jlti-dili^ih liiiiwn H I .M Con. .-.. ' "olliui , Coll.. y. Cull, I S.2 1>I1V I'l •'"liiiir. ^'J ! .S ■I « liiiitr, "■'-■oi' fi. lMrkb.„w....... ,,, » ;i Dark br..w,i.;; i i ii 3 3 23 iliiff.. Vellowiaii i^r,.' 3 ir> •i IB 23 Bmwii i «3 Kwl.. I (« „ I ^ Brown ■;■■■; «3 Hulf.' '■»t| at KeUdW.br.mn: Butf..'.'... , ■ I K«l(li»li i.h.wn I U.'jrk nni.. m 2'H';"no!ii„k^,^- aitt j 3 « iHnir;;;:;;;;;; l» !«• i ". ti jCn/v 9 10 ■■! Crekm.'.....' * i)apk brown.'..'.' ' 2 ai 50 »7'»|;;-; ;.y ooo-iiaVjD^,;;; 70 Krown "i\./ii'>! « i'; 8 3 Pink.;;; i^i; -i ';v •■ ;;; ;;;;;;;;. ' I '^ R«^di«h br„«„ 1 2U j 0(1 Bmwn . »ark ,«i:::;:: I '■■'■"■■ I m I ;; ' ^■•1 1 On-ani... OS RiKl ;« '?«'""»•' '"-"wn; "2 ,\-"/'»"'l.br.,wn, 'S I'ark brown OJ M..ttlwi brown.; 1 «:»' Bn.'wn ,• '"W «;' Buff. <« ;Hnk.. "? M.,ttHre ! Red brown;; lOjBnflf "0 jcream;. ;;;;;;;;;■■ j:^^ •' '> |Ked brown...;;; 2-4 4 •'; Red brown....;; "ii' ' " B"ff ; 100 4':'n Cream.;;;; "«*y . . ; ; jSpec'lcWbiilf; ■ 2«VjBuff';;;;; 1 Dark buff. ; ; ; ; ; Mottled niii'ii.;;; tt oil ii'ist 12 III U 112 4 r>2 6 2!) ir. 7f) I.'ruii l.'i fi«> 12 fill 8 7H 13 211 io iii' 10 , of eUri m iMlTrit, oUj, Mwri^ brook H " SkvboMCMli. ;; 17 AsMpolU Bertl. eUf Afomi %t '.. n " mkaafootaro of briek at .. w Annapoiia V*U«r rogien 71 Antboay, M., boring on proportr of It -AatigonisK, briekjard* at ,, m AabMtic, elay iraltabl* for gg Aronpert, briok makiag at IM clay at ....'.:;• '.. n ■ BaddMk, clay in rieinitjr of m Baddaekito ,'." " ^ Barian, prarantiro of •olnblo talU .'.' im Baraw eoal mine. ihaU proearod from a Vattjr* Briok Co IK BoorcHUo. N.B., ibalo at K Black point, sbal* at gg " Book point "' g^ Boaar point, sbale at.. .. , gg Briok, paring gg " t»^of 1M.107 motbods cmplorfd .'. 197 " remits 10,.1,4 BriokmaUng. claj smtablo for M,S7,t8,as Brooke. Ooorge, briekjrard at N > Olaagow Igg iron in ehalo at '.".;■ igg Vaekler Briek Co 7g^gg " " Annapolte, result of tests iig C -Caleito in day 12g -Campbell, C. L., day on proporty nf gg Canadian Coal Corporation " gl iron in sbak '.' " ,'.' .".' igg ■Carbon in day 14g 18T m 158 OKOtOOIOAL ■UBTar, oakaiu rim, CwboBlfwoM. Iov»r, in N»w Bnuuwiek ■ " ihak Bt Hareonrt •• W»ftTUW •• CbMBiMl •Bklriii of elayt f CkipB»B, shkla d*p» " mechanical changr* in IB mlncrali in !•• " origin and propertiet of 115 " plaaticity of !«• " rwidnal "• " " tare in Canada !'• rMvlta of te«tt tf.M. U. M. S8. W, 62. 6S, 64. M, 66. 70. 71,7S,80.n, n,l5. 66.M,96,»7 " eedimentarr IM " " claMiScation of HI " thrinkage of !«• •• tolnble talts ir !♦♦ " tabatancea pi*»' n »n IW " tnlphnr in.. . 1« " nrarop and labo !•• " tensile itreogth of ■• 1** " rarioai depoiiU detcribed S7. 41. 41,48.51. 10,65. 66. 87, 68. 71.72.75, 80, 96 " viicotity of 181 " ritrificatiott of !•• " water in !■ CU7-b«aring formations 17 Coal ICaaanrea 24, 90 Coal Maaanres of N.B •• Colonial Coal Co i ♦* Conorationa, formation of in clay 124,127, 128, lit Connor, M. F., analyaia of olay by 81,82,87 Coxbaatb monntain, pooket of raaiJnal clay 18.14 Cranberry head, ahale at " D Deal. Norman, boring on property of 77 DoTonian in Nova Scotia !• Dawis, Mr., boring on property of •* Diogenea brook. Pleistocene clay on •* OTAY A!fD SHAtR DCyOCITI 1S» Ooalaion rtr* Briok ud Til* Co ^ 0,111, IM DoBiaioa Iron ud Steal Co ,, ,. |g DorehMtor. N.B.. iksU *ipotarM at .[ w Drift elaya. Sr» PUUuwMi alto Clay. Diyer-whlta Itf , Itf ■ Earthanwara, day for M, 71 M " maniifaetvrc of In Nora Sootia 'tt ld*B lidiag, briokyard at IM clay in Tioinlty of '. m IMakia, BUjah. aarly brickyard at WolfriU* m ■iBMdala Brick and Tila Co 17, Mt " briekmaking at ' m " clay d<>po«it at 17 Blmirala, boringa for clay 77 EaBrld, clay at.. .. 10 pottery '. " gg Eatuarinc eUyi. Set Pleiitooane; alio Clay. Bttar. J. A., bnriag on property of g4 BTanii Mine, Minto, N.B., ihalo and ^oal at N F Faldppar in clay ]2^ F»liite, n*r of j4 Firebrick, clay anitablr for U, 75, tt, M larga nnmber required by Sydney itaal works I» " made in Nova iSootia gg *^'*«'»y '.'.".i4,"M. '86.98 " not always associated with coal 24 Flaahed brick, bow produced Igg Fletcher, Hugh H " description of Carboniferous Umestont series.. .. 17 Flower coTe, N.B., nnderclay at gg Foley. J. W. and Co., pottery at St. John ." igg Frederick brook, shal* deposit at gg F. * -'-ton, brickmaking at Igg estnarinr clay at gg Fusibility of clay 15g Q Olaeial clay at Moncton g7 " daya. See Pleistocene. Orand Lake district, N.B., clays and shales in gg Qypanm, effect of on clay 137 " sometimes found in clay 124, US' H Haile, , aarly brick manufacture by gl Halloysite in day Ijj Haroonrt, N.B., Carboniferous shale at ... gg IflO (tK.ni. JI7.1JS HI Kratiiig pond, «hal» at SS Kp*Ip. .lotw-ph, asMirttanrf of ac-kn'JwIedgiMj It " uolM on Diogcnra Brook rlay* U Kiln, reducing and oxidising ftr«» IS* Kiln-whit*. 144. M« Kilpatrick aiding, log of boring near •* King mine, iron in shale at ISi L Laboratory teats, mi-thod!i of making U Lantz and Thompaon, brickyard at ElumdaU 101 Lm'» brickyard, 8t. John g W. lOK •• •• •• reiialt of taota 109 Leverin, H. A., analyses by 1S8 Lignite in clay of MuM|Uodoboit valley 73 " " Shubenacadie 87 Lime carbonate, effect of on clay 136 Limonite in clay 127,133 Louisville, briokworka at W Lowden. — . hand moulded bricks made by 102 M McCallum, A. L., analyses of clay 5g McCurdy, Wm., boring on property of 78,79 MccDonald, John, shale on property of 20 McKinnon harbour, clay in vicinity 62 McMillin, John, felsite deposit 14 Kacphail. Prof. A., tests of brick 107 CI.AV AMI BHAtE DrPOIlIT* Itll M»gn»,l«. ,a**t at in rUy. ''**• M.nn...» johD. brirkm.kiB,'.t'i>,;,.taw';: :: '" M»|.. Albert MiDM.iid Ticinltr MiddU Miiwiundobolt rulUf.. !* N»w GImvow ro»l Md.. .. "* VoraNoolia.. . . ♦♦ I'liKwaiih " ■'. ■'_ " ■ *'■'«•»• •• "ijUney roBl »,ld. B«r«choi«"to"Gla<»'uy.'.' ''' .'.' ' " ]| " " Cr«n»»rry bsad »o iirai d'Or. m " Northwiit part JJ •• Hhub.Mc.di.." ^'''*""' '"""■" "' ^' •^'°*" •'• •• •'• M T.ii.,.'." .■■ .■; ;; ■♦ Murcn-itR W Mnritiin- Cloy Work... .. '. . '.'. " '** (•...!. Railw.y .nd IWer Co.. .. '"• "* MB.ki't r..r rlny product, of \ov,. Srotja Mr.r!';, ^' "; '^»:"''"'*''-» "' »«"^Phy bmok uud;r;i«yby'.. 7^2 Miintt |)oiiit, Khnlc at "f "J «.■>. KO .Ml ^onoir fi'i Illation . . '* Mi<» in clny 7S, 87 .NfMldIp Mi.>-,„o.. brickyard nt Eden Vidinu ,? Miller. .f,.n.P, and Son., brickyard at Shub..„„;adi,.V .".' :; ;; '.'. ,». uH .,;,. . , . , . ' " result of tr.tB 'in, Miller, brickyard. Elmsd.Ic, result of ,e«t,.. .. MilUtone Grit formation '" " near .'iyilncy .^' Minto, N.B. .hale overlying coal at. *^ Mirn gut »• Mira river *" Brick Co.. ....".. *" brickyard at '..".. *"■ "^^ result of testi.. .. J°* Moncton, brickworks and day at.. Mooney. B. and Sons, l.rickyard at St. John " ,!! Murphy brook, a Mysi. of day lOfc of boieholt's at V« 7« ■| outcrop of undcrday on n thickne.'fH of nndrnlay on.. .. If Masquodoboit valley, clays in , 73, 74 N New Brunswick, day induxtry in investigations in *? New OluHijow Brick and Tile Co ''. " result of tertt ,,, 8907-11 "* jeS haw. Robert, brick works at Avonport lOO ..,,.., " " result of tests Il3 hhaws brickyard. Middleton, result of tests.. 1M Shrinkage of clay Jjl Siderite in clay ' " " JJr Shabenacadie, borings at g, brickmaking at lOO fireclay, age of "' __ '[ '[ gj ". " »* 86,99 similarity of to New Jersey clays 87 shales at on „.,. ". , ^»"ey. clays of ....'.'.'.' .'.h'.Wia.SS silica in clay .,. Silurian in Nova Scotia Small brook, analysis of clay from .. .. .. .* .'.' ."' '" " 59 clay deposit on ._ *" " " " j» Soper. E. K., assistance of acknowledged .. 11 Spares Bros., brickyard at Elmsdale.. .. ,n, Standard Drain Pipe Co '■ [ " " " ^^^ Pipe Works ',nA iron in clay at jog Stoneware, clay suitable for '' 52 83 98 Sulphur in clay Sutherland. M. E., prospecting done on Small bro^k *w Sydney area i8'24'4-« fi2 Sylvester Brick and Tile Co w. «. 43, ffi Sypher. F. W.. day collected at Flower cove.. ....".."..' .'.' \\ 92 T Tensile strength of clay Terra cotta ware, clay suitable for.. .'.■ '.[ '.'. '.'. \\ V.ss', 59, M,M,'93, 98 Thompson. E.. shaft .sunk in clay by a. Titanium in clay '.. 1S7 Toronto mine _ \. .. Triassic in Nova Scotia .. .... .. .. .. ."." .' j. U Ultimate analysis of clays .a. V Viscosity of clay ... Vitrification of clay ' ' ' " "_ ^^ ... 164 OEOLOOICAI, SURVEY, CANADA w PMi. Wait, F. O., analrses by 103 Wall-white 145 " remedy for 148 Walton, Jacob, brick works at Avon port 100 Water in day 188 Weldon creek, shale deposit at 89 Woodbnrn station, clay oatcrops near 57,58 Yarmouth, pottery at. N m N< R) No CANADA DEPARTMENT OF MINES OEOZ.OOIOAI, amtVET BBAKOR fTnn. TV. Tumpi.ih.ji, Minictm: A. P. Low. Dwott Mimwh. R. W. BicKi. Diucnw. SELECTED LIST OF REPORTS AND MAPS (SINCE 1885) OF SPECIAL ECONOMfC INTEREST rUBLISHID IT 'IK (JEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Report >. .^eriioni- No. 245. Regort of Mine. S... lion. ISSO. Xo. Bfl2. Report of Min.-. So, tion, 1897. .^^^ >. ,. "^'- »'!»« " " 1S98. •300 301 334 335 360 572 eo2 625 I S,S8. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 69S 718 744 800 835 893 1893-4. •928 1895. 971 1896. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. M. iy05. nineral Prodiioilon otraiiitda: — No. *414. Year 1886. •415 " 1887. •416 " 1888. •417 " 1889. ♦418 " 1890. •419 " 1891. •420 " 1886-91 •421 « 1892. No. *422. •5.55 ♦577 •012 •623 •640 •671 •686 Year 1,89.1. .Vo. 719, Year 1900. „ lS9-t 7i9a « 1901. lS9o 813 " 1902. 1896. 861 • 1903 " 1880-06 896 « 1904' -" ,'I,?J- "2* " J90.5: " 11^: ^' ' '^- nineral Reaoiirres Bullelln:— No. •818. PUtinum. No. 860. Zinc. .55' • ^o?'- 869. Mica. I!^:^tti Earth. «72. Molybdenum 858. Maneaneae. 859 Salt. and Tungsten. •877. Graphite 880. Peat. No. 881. Phosphate. 882, Copper, 913, Mineral Pig- ment'9. 953, Barytes, 984. Mineral Pig- ments (French), Report or the Sertlon of ChemUtrr and niperaloKyi ''°-:Z Y»r 1874-5. No. •169. Year 1882^-4. No. 580. Year 1894 •119 •126 •138 •148 •156 1875-6. 1878-7. 1877-8. 1878-9. 1879-80. 1880-1-2. 222. 246 273 299 333 359 1885. 1886. 1887-8. 1888-«. 1890-1. 1892-3, 616 651 695 724 821 •9,->8 J»PubIicatlons marked thus are out of print. 1895. 1896. 1898. 1899. KXK). UKKl. RKPORT8. GENEHAL. 745. Altitudes of Canada, by J. White. 1899. •972. Descriptive Catalogue of Minerals and Rocks, by R. A. .\. Johnston and U. A. Young. 1073. Catalogue of Publications: Reports and Maps (1.S4.3-1909). 1086. Descriptive Sketch of the Geology and Economic Minerals of Canada, by O. A. Young, and Introductory bv R. W. Brock. Maps No. 1084; No. 1042 (second edition), male 100 in. - 1 In. 1086. French translation of Descriptive Sketch of the Geology and Economic Minerals of Canada, by O. A. Young, and Introductory by R. W. Brock. MapsXo. 10S4; No. 1(M2 (soondedition), scale 100 m. -lin. 1107. Part II. Geological position and cliaractcr of tlie oil-shale deposits of Canada, by R. W. EUs. 1146. Notes on Canada, by R. W. Brock. YUKON. •260. Yukon district, bv G. M. Dawson. 1887. Maps No. 274, scale 60 m. -1 in.; .Nos. 2^.'> and 277. scale 8 m-1 in. •2fl5. Yukon ami Mackcnilc basins, by R. G. McConnell. 1889. Map No. 304, >i'ale 48 m. = 1 in. 687. Klondike gohi fields (preliminary), by R. G. .McConnell. 1900. Map No. S4-1,049. 1097. Reconnaissance across the Mackenzie mountains on tlie Pellv, Ross, and Gravel riviTs, Vukim, and .North West Territories, bv Josepli Keele. Map No. 1099. scale 8 in. = 1 in. 1011. Memoir .No. o (Preliminary) ; on the l^ewes and Xorden-skiold Rivera coal field, Yukon, by I). D. Cairnes. Maps .Nos. 1103 and 1104, scale 2 m. = 1 in. BRITISH COLUMBIA. 212. The Rocky mountains (between latitudes 49° and 31° 30'), by G. M. Daw- son. 1885. Map No. 223, scale 6 m. = 1 in. Map No. 224, scale H m. = 1 In. •235. Vancouver island, by G. M. Dawson. 1886. Map No. 247, scale 8 m.- 1 in. , 236. The Rocky mountains, geological structure, by R. G. McConnell. 1886. Map No. 248, scale 2 m. - 1 in. 263. Cariboo mining district, by A. Bowman. 1887. Maps Nos. 278-281. •271. Mineral wealth, bv G. M. Dawson. •294. West Kootenay district, by G. M. Dawson. 188S-9. Map No. 303, scale 8 m. —1 in. •573. Kamloops district, by G. M. Dawson. 1894. Maps Nos. 556 and 557, scale 4 m. = 1 in. 574. Finlay and Omineca rivers, by R. G. McConnell. 1894. Map No. ,'.67, .scale 8 m. — 1 in. • PublicittionH marked i hiw are out of print. 1800. Map No. 742, arale 743. Atlin Lakp mining division, by J. C. Gwilllm '•^ '^'■'cltu„rL"SfD°'-B' tt^"-"'"' ^''"'»' -""* ^»"» British n25 iSiet.5SoTl'n-n*"'= ''"■ ••V"V;s{S.Vr,V/l?o; Map« Nos. 249 and 250, srale ALBERTA. •237. Central portion, by J. B. Tyrrell. 1886 8 ra. — 1 in. ^'*''^'To^i^t^^\^l^'^,^t'''''''y^-^'-^'<'-nn,ll .,s,,o.l. Map 703. Yellowh^d Pa.sa route, by J. McEvoy. 1898. Map So. 676, scale 8 m.- •949. Caacade joal-6elds, by D. B. Dowllng. Maps (8 sheets) X„.,. 929-936, Z ^l5^/^"-!iaie^^m.■=l ^r-'- ^'^^ ■^•°- ««^- -•"« ^ - - 10«. Coal-fields of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and likntern HriH h r i 1115. Memoir^ No^8-E:^ l^^^t^^i^lt ^\ P; »• f>o»nn« Maps Nos. SASKATC^' VAN. 7. G. McConnell. 1885. Maps 213. Cypress hills and Wood mount. «n. n .^™- 225 and 226, scale 8 m. 1 601. Country between Athabaska lake and . hill river hv T n t, ii j MANITOBA. 264. Duck and^Riding mountains, by J. B. Tyrrell. ,887-8. Map No. 282. 704. Lake ^»«"^eg (west shore), by D. B. Dowling 1898 ] 705. Lake W^^^Mjr^rby V\ TyrreU. .898.' f «°""^ --»"- "^- ^'-'^1^^ b^W^r^^p Nr;cJf6,ralf^^^^^^^^^ -- NORTH WEST TERRITORIES. 217. Hudsou bay and strait bv R Bell isjki; m x- »«« . 238. Hudson bay, south of b/ A P Uw %6 " ' ^' '^'* '«'"-' '■-• 23» Attawapiskat and Albany rivers, by R. S' 1886. •Publications marked thus re out of print. 344. Northern portion of the Dominion, by O. M. Dawson. 188A. Map No. 25.'}, araln 200 m. - 1 in. 2fi7. Jainn l»v and country east of Hudson bajr, by A. P. Low. 578. Red lakp and part of lierens river, by D. B. Dowling. 1894. Map No. 57l>, m-alo 8 m. — 1 in. *584. Labrador peninsula, by A. P. Low. 18SS. Map*< Noh. 08^-888, arale 2.5in.-l in. niS. Dubawnt, Kaian. ans Nos. .589 and 560. scale 4 m. -> I in. 723. Iron deposits .-Uong the Kingston and Pembroke railway, by E. D. Ingall. 1900. Map No. 620, scale 2 m. —1 in. -and plans of 13 mines. *739. Carleton, Ru.s.sell, and Prescott counties, bv R. W. Ella. 1899. (See No. 739, Quebec.) 741. Ottawa and vicinity, by R. W. Ella. 1900. 790; Perth sheet, by R. W. Ella. 1900. Map No. 789. sc".le 4 m. -1 in. 961. Sudbury Nickel and Copper deposits, by A. E. Barlow. (Reprint.) Maps Nos. 775, 820, scale 1 ni. - 1 in. ; Noa. 824, 825, 864, scale 400 ft. - 1 In. 962. Nipi.s.'iing and Timiskaming map-sheets, by A. E. Barlow. (Reprint.) Maps Nos. 599, 600, scale 4 m. =■ 1 in.; No. 944, scale 1 m. -1 in. 'Publications marked thus are out of print. »70. 977. BSO. 1081. 902. 998. 990. 103S. 1059. 1075. 10S2. 1(101. 1114. 1110. fuuhurv .\ii led and I opprr ili |i -it^. \iv .\. E. Harlow. 1 1 rtnrli.) Report 'on .MaKiira FalU, by .1. W Spcm er. M»p« .SO-. !c'il. Ofl7. Report on Penibrolce «heet, b.v U. \V. KIN. .Map .\o. (MHJ, •" ale 4 m. — 1 in. Oeoiogiral reronaalH.ianre of a iKirtinn of Aleomn and Thunder Itav dUtrl.t. Onl , by W. .f Wll-on. ! Map No. Wii, iirale 8 m. ~ 1 In. Ilound tuKether. On the region lying nortb of I.alce Siipcrinr. iHtwifn the Pir and .XIpigon rivrrx. Ont., by W. H. ('.il. i linn. Map Xo. 9'ed by .N'ational .'ran-rontinenlal railway, between Lalcu Niplgun and Sturgeon lake, bv W. II. L'olUn-'. &fap No. 00.3, srale 4 m. - 1 in. Report on I'linbroice sheet, by R. W. Ell.«. (Fremli.) Map No. OCO, wale 4 in. — 1 in. Freneh translation Cmwganda Mining Divioion, by W. II. Collin^. Map No. 1(170, »™le 1 m. - 1 in. French translation report on tlic Tranirontinental Railway lo'atii'n between Lake .Nipigon and Sturgeon lake, bv W. H. CoDln--. Map No. do:), Miali- 4 m. - 1 In. Genlogiial reionnai^sanoe of the region traversed by the .National Tran-- continental railway between I.ake .N'ipigon and Clay lake, Ont., l,v W. il. Collins. Map No. 90H. -.ale 4 m. - 1 In. Oowganda Mining DivLsion, by W. 11. Collin-. .Map No. 1()7G, wale 1 in. — 1 in. Memoir No. fi : Geology of tlie Ilaliburton and liancroft areas, C'nt , l.y Frank D. Adams and Alfred li. Harlow, Maps No. 70>*. -rale 4 m. - 1 in. ; No. 770. siale 2 m. - 1 in. Memoir No. 1; On tlie Ci* of thf .\'ipig*pn b:\ in. (Jnt., bv A. W. 'J. WiUon. Map No, l()9ti. -.air 4 m." I in. frenili tranilalion: GeologiiBl reconnai.s'-anc eof a por- ) tion of Algonia and Thunder Uav di-trict, Ont., by W. J. Wilson. Map No. 0(14. scale .'S m. - 1 in. ' I'renrh tran.-lation : On the region Iving riorth of Lake r I'Mjiind together. Superior, between the l*i'* an.i .N'ipigon ri\ers. I Ont., bv W. U. Collins. Map No. !».!'1. Map -Vo. ,*.0(1, -rale 4 m. — 1 in. Auriferous deposits. , situtliea-tern portion, by J{, f'iialmrr-. l'-l'">. Map No. tiOT, srale N m. ^ I in. Eastern Town-hips. Three River- sheet, by II. \V. F:il-. ISOS. Argenteuil. Ottawa, and I'ontiac counties, bv H. \V. Ells, lsit>i. ;.-«, No. 7.10. Ontariol. '02, scale U) in =^ 1 in. 1001. Map- X..-. -74, -Map No. 228. scale 8 I. .Via Xottaway basin, bv U. Bell. 10(1(1. *Mi .Vo. ' Wells on Island of Montreal, bv F. I). A<, iins. 87.'>, 87t'>, Chibougamau ngion, by .\. I'. Low. \'M)'t Timiskaming map-sheet, by '4 m. .A. E. Barlow. (Reprint^. Map- -No-. "i!i'.<, 606, scale 4 m. =1 in.; No. 944. --ale 1 m. —1 in. Report on Copper-bearing nnk- of E;i-tcrn Town-iiip-, by J. A. hrc -cr. Map .No. 076. scale 8 m. => 1 in. Report on Oipper-ln-aring rock- of Ka-tern Town-liip-. bv .1. A. Hie— cr. (French I. Report on the Pembroke sheet, by R. W. Ell-. (Krenclil. Ref>ort on a Recent i)i-coverv of Gold near Lake Megantic, l^ue.. i>v J. A. Dresser. Map Xo. 1020, scale 2 ra. - 1 in. 'Publications marked thus are out of print. 8907-12 io:i2. low. UtI. 21S. 210. 342. 269. 330. 661. 799. 803. 983. 1034. llf[iort on k Recent l»l, t In, New Brtinswick geolnvy, bv R. W. EUh. 1SH7. CarbonifcrouH »\~tom, bv !.. W. Bailcv *""" ' CarbonifcroUH »\~tom, bv !.. W. Bailcv. 1900. / (;oal prospectd in, by H,\S. Poole. iSoo. \ Bound togetlier. Mineral reiources, by R. W. ElU. Map No. 969, scale 16 m. -1 In Mineral resources, by R. W. F.ll<. (French). Map .No. 9(V9. scale 1 1 IB. 16 m.- -NOVA SCOTIA. 243. Guyilmrougii, Antigoni^h, Pictiiu, Coli-lie.iter, and Halifax countic-i, b. Hugh Fletcher and E. R. Faribault. 1886. S.'tl. Pli'tnu and Colchester counticM, bv II. Fletcher. 1890-1. 358. Southwestern Nova Scotia (preliminary), bv I,. W. Bailey, 1802-3. .MaD No. 362, scale 8 m. - 1 in. 628. Soutliwestern .Nova Scoti.'«, bv J,. W. Bailev. 1S96. Map No. 641 scale 8 m. — 1 In. 685. Sydney coal-field, by H. Flet-lier. Maps Nos. 652, 053, 654, s<'ale 1 m -1 in. 707. ('ambrian rocks of Caj)e Breton, bv Ct. F. Matthew. 1900 S71. PIctuu coal-field, by H. .S. Poole. "lOdi". Map -No. H.J3. waleS.ich. -1 In MAI'S. 1012. Dominion of (';xnr. -la. Mineral.. .S. ale I(){) ni. -1 in. YUKON. •S'J,"). Kxpldriitioii- iin .\Ia. lailliiii. Upper IVilv, and .Stewart river-, scale 8 m. — 1 in. SOI. Portion iif i )uni an Crcc k Mining dii-tri.t, Kcalc ti m. -»1 in. 804. Sketcii Map Kiuaue Mining di-triit, scale 6 m. — 1 in. •OK). Windy .Vrm Mining di-tri t, Skctcli Gcologiial Map, scale 2 m. — 1 In. 900. Conrad and Wliitnliorse Mininjr districts, s> ale 2 m. =- 1 in. 091. 'i'antaliis and Five Finger^ (oal mines, si ale 1 m. -1 in. 1011. Bonanza and Hunker creeks, .\uriferous gravel-. S( ale 40 chaina — 1 in. 1033. Lower I.ako l.aberge and vicinity, scale 1 m. -l in. 1041. Whitehorse Copper belt, scale 1 m. ■- 1 in. 1D26. 1044-1049. Whiteliorse Copper belt. Detail. lliOO. Pelly. Uoss. ami '" U.— Hedley MininL dlltS'... °J?"«™P''™ "*••«*• Scale 1 m. - 1 In ALBERTA. ll.U. .A.-Hlghomroal-fiel.l. Srale2m.-lin .i7H, •104, •771. 7«7. •791. •792. MS"*. H9f), 941. 987. 980. 9B7. 1001. 1002. 1003. 1004. lOflS. 1074. 109S. 1006. 1105. 1106. 1125. -1 In. S<-ale *'ale 4 m. -1 In 15 m. — 1 in. 8A.SKATCHEVV.W. 1010. Alberta. Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Coal Area,. .Scale ,, m.-x ,^ MANITOBA. NOKTH WEST IKKniT. .lUKS. !S S5«^jS.;itts-S:.r',re^E:. £;|,;.l;; -1 in. .Scale 227. •2S.3. •342. 34.1. •373. SCO. 570. ONTARIi). Take of tl.e VVood, sheet, s.-ale !• n, . 1 Kainy Lake Mheet. scale 4 m - lui Hunter Island sheet, .<•. 77(1. 77:., •7M». K.'4 K'.2. SfVt. fXK). !)44. OM. Kffi*. H»7C. JO»l. Pembroke -he*t . ih»1» •• m- - 1 In. Inwre ulieet. Male *•"■"' *"•, , Manltou Lake »l.c»-t , wiile <">;-' ">■ OrenvlUe Miwt, miJc * "> " J '"• Hwrroft -hret, i.v:tr.o 1'"-. .n. Lake Mepmtlc and ^•5»''">-'j:"',' 1 m 11 In I.Bke Tlin|.-kanilng r.(rion. ft-alo I m. - 1 In. NEW DRI'NSWICK. NOVA SCOTIA. .,,2 P,ellmln..rv Map of Sprin.MlI coaUa.Id. =c„Ie .-iO ol.. - 1 In. ..17 Leiwlgale 6<.ld .l^trict. «»>'\5^^' "_", 'j '"• I ^^■r-=S'M:n. k;;;; ...be .....ea ... . ... .. Departmenl of Mines, .wa. "•rublicatioM marked tbu. art out of print. \