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 ^ ||f PVISVA^CB OF AN Q|t0tt OP THB 
 * ^iKttiGlMlilBtE SOCIETY OF LlII|;OLN*S INN. 
 
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 DISCOURSE, 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
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 ■■-..M ■•■ 
 
 J^EFORE I begin a courfe of le£tures on a fcience 
 of great extent and importance, I think it my 
 duty to lay before the Public the reafons which have 
 induced me to undertake fuch a labour, as well as a 
 ihort account of the nature and obje£isof the courfe 
 which I propofe to deliver. I have always been un- 
 willing to wafte in unprofitable inadivity that leifure 
 which the firft years of my profeflion ufually allow, 
 and which diligent men, even with moderate talents, 
 might often employ in a manner neither difcreditable 
 to themfelves nor wholly ufelefs to others. Defirous 
 that my own leifure (hould not be confumed in floth, 
 1 anxioufly looked about for feme way of filling it 
 up, which might enable me, according to the mca- 
 fure of my humble abilities, to contribute fomewhat 
 to the flock of general ufefulnefs. I had long been 
 convinced that public lectures, which have bcenufed 
 in mofl ages and countries to teach the elements of 
 almoft every part of learning, were the moft conve-- 
 nient mode in which thefe elements could be taught ; 
 
 that 
 A 2 
 
. . . . ( 4 ) ' , 
 
 that thqr were the beft adapted for the important pur- 
 pofes of awakening the attention of the iludent, of 
 abridging his labours, of guiding his enquiries, of 
 relieving the tedioufnefi of private ftudy, and of im- 
 prefling on his recolledion the principles of fcience. 
 I faw no reafon why the law of England (hould be 
 lefs adapted to this mode of inftru^ioR, or lefs like« 
 ly to benefit by it, than any other part of knowledge. 
 A learned gentleman, however, had already occupi- 
 ed that ground*, and will I doubt not, perfeverein 
 the ufeml labour which he has undertaken. On 
 his province it was far from my wifh to intrude. It 
 appeared to me that a courfe of leftures on another 
 fcience clofdy connedted with all liberal profeifional 
 iludies, and which had long been the fubjed of my 
 own reading and refledion, might not only prove a 
 mod ufeful introdudion to the law of England, but 
 might alfo become an interefting part of general ftu- 
 dy, and an important branch of the education of 
 thofe who were not deftined for the profeflion of the 
 law. I was confirmed in my opinion by the afTent 
 and approbation of men, whofe names, if it were be- 
 coming to mention them on fo flight an occasion, 
 would add authority to truth, and furnifh fome ex- 
 cufe even for error. Encouraged by their approba- 
 tion, I refolved without delay, to commence the un- 
 dertaking, of which I fhall now proceed to give fome 
 account ; without interrupting the progrefs of my 
 difcourfe by anticipating or anfv ering the remarks 
 of thofe who may, perhaps, fneer at me for a depar- 
 ture from the ufual courfe of my profeflion; be- 
 caufe I am defirous of employing in a rational and 
 ufeful puifuit that leifure, ot which the fame men 
 would have required no account, if it had been wall- 
 ed on trifies, or even abufed in cifiipation. 
 
 ; -.Z. - The 
 
 C-- « ■- . - ■ • i 
 
 • See *• A Sy'Iabis ofLc£lu:eson t! c law of England, " to 
 be dellvctcU in Lincoln s Inn Hall, t y M .J>»oliia, l-f^ ' Londun, 
 
 4i 
 
 I 
 
. ( 5 ) 
 
 iportant pur- 
 e lludent, of 
 enquiries, of 
 r, and of im- 
 ;s of fcience. 
 nd (hould be 
 , or lefs like> 
 f knowledge, 
 ready occupi- 
 
 perfevere in 
 Ttaken. On 
 > intrude. It 
 ;s ou another 
 il profeffional 
 'ubjeft of my 
 only prove a 
 England, but 
 f general flu- 
 education of 
 >fe{non of the 
 , by the alTent 
 if it were bc- 
 t an occafion, 
 nilh feme ex- 
 heir approba- 
 nence theun- 
 1 to give feme 
 ogrefs of my 
 
 the remarks 
 e for a depar- 
 rofeffion; be- 
 i rational and 
 he fame men 
 lad been waft- 
 
 ion. 
 
 The 
 
 f England, " to 
 , Lft^ ' London, 
 
 The fcience which teaches the rights and duties of 
 men and offlates, has in modern times, been called 
 the Law of Nature and Nations. Under this compre- 
 henfive title are included the rules of morality, at 
 they prefcribe the condudi of private men towards 
 each other in all the various relations of human life ; 
 as they regulate both the obedience of citizens to the 
 laws, and the authority of the magiftrate in framing 
 laws and adminiftering government ; asr they modify 
 the intercourfe of independent commonwealths in 
 peace, and prefcribe limits to their hoflility in war. 
 This important fcience comprehends only that part 
 of private ethics which is capable of being reduced to 
 fixed and general rules. It confiders only thofe gc- 
 ncral principles oi jurif prudence bhA politics which the 
 wifdom of the lawgiver adapts to the peculiar fitua- 
 tion of his own country, and which the fkill of the 
 ftatefman applies to the more fluduating and infinite- 
 ly varying circumftances which affed its immediate 
 welfare and fafety. " For there arc in nature cer- 
 tain fountains of jufl:ice whence all civil laws arc 
 derived; butasftreams, and like as waters do take 
 tindtures and taftes from the foils through which 
 they run, fo do civil laws vary according to the re- 
 gions and governments where they are planted, 
 though they proceed from the i:ime fountains *.*' 
 BacorCs Dig. and Adv. of Learn. — Works, vol. i. 
 . p. 101. 
 
 On the great qneftions of morality, of politics, 
 
 i and of municipal law, it is the object of this fcience 
 
 to deliver only thofe fundamental truths of which the 
 
 particular application is as extenfive as the whole pri- 
 
 r^ , vale 
 
 ^ I have not been deterred by fomc pe'ty incongruity of rre- 
 taphoi from quoting this nob e fcntcncc. Mr; Hume had, perhap* 
 tliis fcultnee in his rccolledtion, when he wrote a remarkable pal- 
 I'a^e of his woks. See Hume's cflays, vol. ii. p, 352. cd. 
 Lond 17S8, 
 
 (C 
 
 <c 
 
 «c 
 
 (I 
 
 <( 
 
rflf 
 
 ( « ) 
 
 vate and public condutSl of men ', to difcover thofo 
 *" fountains of juftice, " without purfuing the*' ilreams 
 through the endiefs variety of their courfe. But a- 
 nother part of the fubjedk U treated with greater ful- 
 nefs and minutdhefs of applicauou ; namely, that 
 important branchof it which profeiTes to regulate the 
 relations and intercourfe of (hites, and more ofpeci- 
 ally, both on account of their greater perfection and 
 their more immediate reference to ufe, the regulati« 
 ons of that intercourfe as they are modified iy the 
 uiages of the civilized nations of Chriftendo% 
 Here this fcience no longer reds in general principles. 
 That province of it which we now call the law of na- 
 tions, has, in many of its parts, acquired among our 
 European nations much of the precilion and certain- 
 ty of pofitive law, and the particulars of that law 
 aie chiefly to be found in the works of thofe writers 
 who have treated the fcience of which I now fpeak. 
 It is becaufc they have claffed (in a manner which 
 ft^ems peculiar to modern times) the duties of indi- 
 viduals with thole of Nations, and eilablilhed their 
 obligation on fnnilar grounds, that the whole 
 fcience has been called, " The Lawof Nature an4 
 Kations." 
 
 \i 
 
 it 
 
 U 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ( 
 
 Whether this appellation be the happieft that could 
 have been chofen for the fcience, and by what ftcps 
 it came to be adopted among our modern motalills 
 and lawyers *, are inquiries, perhaps of morecuriofity 
 
 than 
 
 * The learned reader is aware that the " jus naturae" and 
 *' jus gentium" of the Ronn.in lawyers are phrales of very ditfe- 
 rent impoit from the modern phrafes, "• law of .nature and law 
 " of nation«." *' Jus naturale, " fays Ulpian, '* eft quod na- 
 *' tura omnia aniinalia docuit." D. i. i. i. 3. Quod natura- 
 *' lis ratio inter omnes homines conilituic, jdque apud omnes 
 " pri«eqiie cuftodiiur vocaturque jus oentium." D. i. i. 9. 
 J.'i.t they fomenmes negleft this fubtle diflin£tion — " Jure natu- 
 * rail, quod appellatur jus gentium." I. a. i. 11. Jui fcciale 
 
 wa| 
 
I 
 
 r thofe 
 Ireams 
 Buta- 
 tcr ful- 
 y, that 
 late the 
 1 efpeci- 
 on and 
 egulau- 
 
 by the 
 :endoii^ 
 inciples. 
 w 01 na^ 
 long oxxv 
 , ccrtaia- 
 thatlaw 
 e writers 
 w fpeak. 
 [er which 
 
 of indi- 
 hed their 
 le whole 
 iture and 
 
 lat could 
 irhat ftcps 
 moialifts 
 curiofity 
 than 
 
 aturae" and 
 very ditte* 
 ture and law 
 ert quod na- 
 uod ijaiura- 
 apud omnes 
 
 D. 1. I- 9- 
 
 * jure natu- 
 
 'Jus fccicxle 
 
 wa# 
 
 ( 7 ) ' 
 
 than ufcy and which if they deferve any where 
 to be deeply purfued, will be purfued with more 
 propriety in a full exatnination of the fubjed than 
 within the fhort limits of an introdudory difcourfe. 
 Names are however in a great meafure arbitrary ; but 
 the diftribution of knowledge into its parts, though 
 it may often perhaps be varied with little difadvan- 
 tage, yet certainly depends upon fome fixed princi- 
 ples. The modern method of confidering individual 
 and national morality as tb'efubje£ts of the fametci- 
 Mce, feems to me as convenient and reafonable an 
 arrangement as can be adopted. The fame rules of 
 morality which hold together men in families, and 
 which rorm families into coifimonwealths, alfo link 
 together thefe commonwealths as members of the 
 great fociety of mankind. Commonwealths, as well 
 as private men, are liable to injury, and capable of 
 benefit from each other j it is, therefore, their inte- 
 refl as well as their duty to reverence, to pradiife, 
 and to enforce thofe rules of juflice which control 
 and reflrain injury, which regulate and augment be- 
 nefit, which, even in their prefent impertcft obfer- 
 vance, preferve civilized flates in a tolerable condi- 
 tion of fecurity from wrong, and which, if they 
 could be generally obeyed, would eftablilh and per- 
 manently maintain, the well being of the univerfal 
 
 ^ commonwealth 
 
 was the Roman term for our law of nations. Belli quidem aequl- 
 tas fanftiffimepopuli Rom. fecial! jure praefcripta ett." Off. i. 
 XI. Our learned civilian Zouch, has accordingly entitled his 
 work, " De Jure Feciali, five de Jure iniet Gentes." The 
 Chancellor D'Aguefleau, probably without knowing the 
 workof Zouch, fuggefled that this law fliould becalled, ♦♦ Droit 
 *' entre les Gens.*' (Oeuvres, tom. ii. p. 337.) in which be has 
 been followed by a late ingenious writer, Mr. Bentham, Princ. 
 of Morals and Pol. p. 324. Perhaps thefe learned writers do 
 employ a phrafe which exprefles the fubjeft of this Jaw with 
 more accuracy than our common language; but I doubt, whe- 
 ther innovations in the terms of fcience always repay us by 
 their fuperiour dccifion for the uncertainty and confufion 
 which the change occafions. 
 
% 
 
 commonwealth of the human race. It it therefore 
 with juftice that one part ofthllfcience has been called 
 •* ihe natural law of individuals*' and the othcr^ " ih$ 
 riatural law of Jiaies ; " and it is too obvious to re- 
 quire obfcrvation *, that the applick So of both tbefe 
 laws, of the former as much as 6i tue latter^ is mo- 
 dified and varied by cufloms, conventiont, charader» 
 and fituation. With a view to thefe principles, (he 
 writers on general jurifprudence have confidered 
 Itates as moral perfons ; a mode of expreflion wtiicl^ 
 has been called a fi£tion of law, but which mav be 
 regarded with more propriety as a bold metaphor, 
 ufed to convey the important truth, that nations 
 though they acknowledge no common fupcrior, and 
 neither can nor ought to be fubje£ted to human pu* 
 niihnient, are yet under the fame obligations mutu- 
 ally to prav^ife honefty and humanity, which would 
 have bound individuals, even if they could be con- 
 ceived ever to have fubfifled without the protecting 
 reftraints of government ; if they were not compel- 
 led to the difcharge of their duty by the juft autho- 
 rity of magiftrates, and by thewholefome terrors of 
 the laws. With the fame views this law has been 
 ftyled, and (notwiihftanding the objedtions of fome 
 writers to the vaguenefs of the language) appears to 
 hav2 been ftyled with great projiriety, " the law of 
 nature." It niay with fufficient corredlnefs, or at 
 leaft by an eafy metaphor, be called a " law" inaf- 
 much asitis afupreme, invariable, and uncontrolla- 
 ble rule of conduft to all men, of which the viola- 
 tion is avenged by natural puniftiments, which ne- 
 celfarily flow from the conftitution of things, and are 
 as fixed and inevitable as the order of nature. It 
 is** the law of nature** becaufeiis general precepts 
 nre eflentially adapted to promote the happincfs of 
 
 man. 
 
 * This remark is fiiggefted by an objeflion of ^aZ/J, whick 
 i?nnore fpetlous than folid —bee his Pieliin, § 6. 
 
 i! 
 
lereforc 
 uncalled 
 cr, «• th$ 
 
 to re- 
 »th thefe 
 
 ismo- 
 (arader» 
 >le8, th^ 
 nfidered 
 
 1 maybe 
 etapnor^ 
 t nations 
 ior, and 
 man pu* 
 18 mutu* 
 :h would 
 1 be con* 
 roteding 
 compei- 
 ift autho- 
 errors of 
 [las been 
 of fome 
 ppears to 
 ^e law of 
 :fs, or at 
 w" inaf- 
 ontroUa- 
 he viola- 
 irhicb ne- 
 , and are 
 ture. It 
 precepts 
 pinefs of 
 man» 
 
 //;/, which 
 
 n'* 
 
 ^t^:f 
 
 %f 
 
 *> .*' 
 
 ( 9 ) 
 
 mat, M long as he remtini a being of the fame na* 
 ture with which he is at preient endowed, or, in 
 other wordi* as long as he continues to bOTian, in 
 all tbefariawof timet, places, and circumOances, 
 in which he a$M been Enown, or can be imagined to 
 ex^ ; becaufe it is difcover:*'^ by natural reafon, 
 anMiitabie to our natural conftititutiou ; becaufe its 
 Mxsmjuud wifdom are founded on the genetal nature 
 t^.Auman beings, and not onanvofthofe temporary 
 ftD<liccidental ntuations in whicn they may be placed. 
 Itii wftb ftill more propriety, and indeed with the 
 higheft ftrifinefs, and the molt perfect accuracy, conli- 
 dered as a law, when according to thofe iuft and 
 magnificent views which philofophy and religion open 
 tous of the government oi the world, it is received and 
 reverenced as the facred code, promulgated by the 
 great Legiflator of the univerfe for the guitece of his 
 creatures to happinefs, guarded and enforced, as our 
 own experience m^uKinformus, by the penal fan^lions 
 offhame, ofremorlc, of infamy, and of mifery ; and 
 ftill fartL' r enforced by the reafonable expectation of 
 yet more awful penalties in a future and more perma- 
 nent ftate of exiftence. It is the contemplation of 
 the law of nature under this full, mature, and per- 
 fedl idea of its high origin and tranfcendeut dignity, 
 that called forth the enthufiafm of the greatefl men, 
 and thegreateft writers of ancient and modern times, 
 in thofe fublime defcriptions, where they have ex- 
 haufted all the powers of language, and furpalfed all 
 the other exertions, even of their own eloquence in 
 I the difplay of the beauty and maiefty of this fovereign 
 " and immutable law. It is of this law that Cicero 
 has fpoken in fo many parts of his writings, not only 
 with all the fplendour and copioufnefs of eloquence, 
 but with the fenfibility of a man of virtue ; and with 
 the gravity and comprehenfion of a philofopher *. 
 
 B It 
 
 * Eftquidcm vera lex, fcfla ratio, natura congruent^ ditfafa in 
 
 ornne> 
 

 ( ^0 ) 
 
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 4< 
 
 {< 
 
 it 
 
 It is oi' this law that Hooker fpeaks in fo fublinie a 
 
 firain : ^' 0( law no left tan be faid, than that her 
 fea^ the bofom of God, her voice the haraiony 
 of tHe world ; all things in heaven and 6arth do 
 her homage, the Very leaftas feeling hei' tift, the 
 greated as not exempted from her power *, both 
 angels and inen, and creatures of what condition 
 foever, though each in different fort and magnet/ 
 3^t all with uniform confent admiring her as the 
 
 ** mother of their peace and joy." — Eccief, FoL bidkj. 
 
 in the tonduftorii ... « 
 
 Let not ^o(t^ who, to ufe the language of the 
 fame Hooker, «' talk of truth, " without '* ev^r 
 *• founding the depth from whence it f|»rin^h,** 
 hailily take it for granted, thatthefe great Uiaflef 8 of 
 eloquence and reafonswereledailrayby tlicfpecious 
 delufion of myilicifm, from the fober confiderdtions 
 of the true grounds of morality, in the nature, ne- 
 ceflities, and interefts of man. They fludied and 
 taught the principles of morals ; but they thought 
 it ftill more neceflary, and more wife, a much nobler 
 
 talk,' 
 
 '^' 
 
 m 
 
 ».'-r 
 
 
 0. 
 
 if 
 
 n 
 
 niiines, couftans, ft-mpitefna, qua voc6t adofficiutn jubendo, w. 
 tando a iiaiuie deterrcat, quz tamen neque probos fruftra jubet 
 atit vetat, ne^ue improbos jubendo aut vctando movet. Huic 
 Jcgi ntt|i)e obrogaii fas ifti neque derogari ex hac aliquid licit 
 neque tota obiognri potell. Nee vero aut per fenarnoi aut per 
 populum folvi liac lege polTumus. Neque eft quaerendus eicpla- 
 laror aut iiuerprts ejus alius. Nee erit alia lex Komx, alia A> 
 Tiicnis, aha nunc, alia pofthac, fed et omnes gentes et omni 
 tempoieuna lex ct fempitein*, ct inimorialis continebit, unuf- 
 que erit comiiMUiis quafi magiftcr ct impcrator omnium Deus. 
 llle le;;is bujus inventor, difccptator, laror, cui qui non pare- 
 h\l ip/'ejefugiet ft naturnm homiuis ajpernnbitur^ atque hoc ipfo 
 hict nrjaximaspanaa etiaijili c;eteia (upplicia qua: putantur effu- 
 jerit. 
 
 Ftagm. lib. Hi. CUrr. dc RepuU. apuJ Laiiant. 
 
 Tt is impoffible to read fuch precious fiajjments without de- 
 ploring the lofs of a vfork which, tor the benefit of allgenerarions 
 
 f/i-ulfi hnve httn itninortal. 
 
 % 
 
( »■ ) 
 
 fublinie a 
 m that her 
 te haroiony 
 fid tarth do 
 tttsa^t, the 
 wet *y boCh 
 t condkion 
 id miiinet,'' 
 r her as th'e 
 
 «» 
 
 age of the 
 tUt ** evifr 
 fpringeth; 
 tmafielf^of 
 Im fpecioiis 
 ifiderdtioDS 
 nature, ne- 
 tudied and 
 ey thought 
 uch nobler 
 talk; 
 
 jubendo, ve^ 
 fruftra jubet 
 novet. Huic 
 aliquid licit 
 latum aut per 
 eiidus eipla- 
 ornx, alia A* 
 ntes ec omni 
 inebit, nnuf- 
 mnium Deiis. 
 qui non pare- 
 ue hoc ipfo 
 iiiantur etfu- 
 
 apuJ Laiiant. 
 
 without dc- 
 ! generations 
 
 
 tafk, and more becoming a true philofopher, to 
 infpire men with a love and reverence for virtue *. 
 They were not contented with elementary fpecula- 
 fions, I'hey examined the foundations of oiw'duty, 
 but they felt and cherifhpd a moil natural, a mod 
 feemlvy a mod rational enfhuiiafni, when they con- 
 templated the maieftic edifice "which is reared on 
 tbcfe folid foundations. They devoted the higheft 
 exertions of (heir mind to fpread that beneficent enr 
 tbufiafm among men. They confecrated as a hbmr 
 ace to virtue the moft perfeft fruits of their genius, 
 if thefe grand fentiments of " the good and fair,'* 
 have fometimes prevented them from delivering the 
 principles of ethics with the nakednefs and drynefs 
 of fcienee, at leaft, we muft own that ihey have cho- 
 fcn tjic bf^ter part ; that they have preferred virtuous 
 feel|f!ig to mor^l theoty ; and prai5lical benefit to fpe- 
 culative exai^nefs. Perhaps thefe wife men pay have 
 fuppofed that the minute difleOion and anatomy of 
 Virtue might, to the ill-judging eye, weaken tl^e 
 pfearm of her beauty,. 
 
 It is not for me to attempt a theme which has per- 
 haps been exhaufted by thefe great writers. I am in- 
 deed much lefs called upon to difplay the worth and 
 ufcfulnefs of the law of nations, than to vindicate 
 myfelf from .prefumption in attempting a fubjed 
 which has been already handled J^y fo many mailers^ 
 For the purpofe of that vindication it will be necef- 
 fary to iketch % very Ihort and flight account ( for, 
 fuch in this place it mufl unavoidably be) of the pro^ 
 greis and prefent flat^ of the fcienee, and of tha( 
 r fucceflion 
 
 * Age vero urbibus conllftutis ut fidcm co'ere et juftitiam 
 retinne difccrent ct aliis parere fud voluntate confuefccrertt, ac 
 non modo laboiesexcipiendos communis commodi caufa fcdeti- 
 siJTJ vitam amittfndam exiftimarcnt ; oy\- tiindein fieri poiuil nifi 
 homilies ea qua: ratione inveniiTtnt eloqucntia pcrfuaderc poiu- 
 illlnt — Ct. </f .Hiv. ^ict- lib. i. in protiu. 
 
( " ) 
 
 < ":' 
 
 ':.ij 
 
 %^- 
 
 faccefTionSf «Me writers who have graduallflfought 
 H to its preftlifitjaerfieafcon*' * ^ ** 
 
 *i. 
 
 We have no Greek X|ir Itoman treaf^ ripibii^ 
 -on the law of INaiioM. ' From the filk of oilM the 
 loft%ork8 <yf Ariftotld^ it appears tWhl^mpored 
 aiteatife 6n the law6 of IMiir, i)»m^ilf|ipl the 
 good fortune to pofTefs ir, wiilldlSouh^lersltt^^li^ly 
 fatisfied out curiofity, and would havg taii^lNli^^th 
 the pra6iice of the ancient ^ilations and the c^ ' 
 of their moralifts, with that depth and preci6dti^ 
 diftitrguifh the other works m that great p^ik ~ 
 We can now only imperfectly colle£k ml ! 
 aiid thofe opinions from various paflagil^i 
 fcattered over the writingil of philofophertf fait 
 poets, and orators. '\^^|i^ time ihd||^ 
 a more fuU conriderati<^^*-the (&te dP W^^^nt* 
 xntnrzxxdk manners of W^ctint wor| d^|^|| tt he 
 <£^lei perhaps, to offer fatisfadory reafl||plll||^l8^ 
 enlightened Dat!<9ns did not feparate^roiii^tii%eheral 
 {province of ethics that part^f7t(iora1i^'whic& regu- 
 lates the intercourfe of ftates, 1^ er|£i it Intb' an in- 
 dependent fcien^e. It would require along difciiflion 
 td unfold the various caiifes #IM united the modern 
 nations of Europe tntoa cl(Sf|^'t)ciety ; which Iftikea 
 (hem together by the firmed bipdsoi mutual depen^ 
 ddiSce, and which thi^i^, in ^ocefs of time, ^vc td 
 the law that regulated^ their mtercou«fe greater im- 
 portance, higher ^||}rovement, ^an^ more binding 
 ^feite.' Among thde cairibs w^feay ^n^erate a 
 Wmm(M'e^raaion,'.^INsmm%n feiy^i^^ fgilstman. 
 n€t% ittftttutions an J languages ; 'In ifeflirfea^ th^ 
 authoritylof the See of Romej and the esttlVlgant 
 clafens of the imperial crown ; in lalfer times the 
 connexions of trade, the jeajoofy of power, the re- 
 fi^tXiiint of civilfssation, the cuhiya^^ii of fcience, 
 and abpve ali> that general mildncfs of chara6teT and 
 
 , 
 
 w* 
 
 
 1 f 
 
 manners 
 
 ' 
 
 ■%'ts* 
 
 ■.•«--♦, J- '. ^ 
 
 
 
 
Df oilM the 
 hl'toin|)ored 
 if 9N»%d the 
 
 lu^iil^th 
 
 eciten^^jlch 
 
 rSi hiikmifs, 
 lalliktive kr 
 
 Fib' 
 
 ii^lMi%eheral 
 t»whictrcgu- 
 irintb' an in- 
 »iig (Kfctiifion 
 d the modern 
 MrhtebHhkeci 
 utual depen^ 
 ime, ^v6 td 
 e greater im- 
 nore bmding 
 en^iA^ate a 
 
 rlnira^the 
 eztfiV^nt 
 fer times the 
 wer, the re- 
 ? of fcience, 
 :Kara6!er and 
 , manners 
 
 V : C '3 ) 
 
 pr' '^»whicl| #f«>|yrcmi) the «Qm|iaed and prow 
 P '^^M^i^'^^sofJIivalty, ofcoM^rce,of (lOira* 
 '^"^i;i!$tlllif rel?giotl* Nor mi^ we omit the fimi« 
 d^thofe potlieipnfUtutig^ which, in every 
 !»th^|)ad l?eepr¥t^-run l^i^he Go^s con, 
 oueri^, '|l(|re difceriJI^iB q^cks (yrhkh tbf reyolui 
 tioiii«f Mp!diii|^^^ Had obfcured^but not^btiter. 
 fm^d^Mm rudllMpold and noble outlipe of liberty 
 ^^ " was o-rigioaity ip^^tchedby the band of thefe gene- 
 barbarians. ,^ ^hefe and many other caufes con- 
 id to unite the nations of Earopein anibrejnti- 
 ^te^nne^ion and a.niore con^ftant intecc9urfe> an4 
 |lieqce made the regulation of tbeirkitercourfe 
 le^ary, ^nd the law ^hai was to goyern it 
 jortant. InpK»portion as they approa^cbed 
 -Conditipn «|#^^ce8 of the fame empife, it 
 almoft as eif^^ta that Europe (hoiild t^ve a 
 and comi^^l^five code of tb^ lajW of 
 ;as that edcb country ihould bavc:.^ fyf? 
 ^nwcipal law. The.4jiboursof the learned 
 ^^^^^ it^iy be^pi. to be direded to this fubjed i^ the; 
 nxte^nth cenytu^ foon after the revival of learning. 
 9nd a^er tifat regular didribution 0/ power and territO' 
 r^ which has IpM^^eci, with little^varla^ioB, untU our 
 tinieSf The ctt||^l examioAtion oif thefe .early 
 writers would perhaps. not be very interefling irr an 
 ^ttenlive work, afd u wpuld be unpardonable in a 
 (hort difcourfe. ft is fufl|:^t to obferve that they 
 were^U mor^ or lefsfbacll^ by the barbarous phi^ 
 ll|p||^hy of ^e fchoolsy.aod that they were, ijppeded 
 i«i&|ir pieo|rej^ ^^j^||a|i|pus defc^ tpe in* 
 
 ferjor and technical partsQi the Roman )aw, ^t^ithoitt 
 If^^ their views to the comprehenftve principles 
 Which will for ever infpire mankind wit|| yen cra- 
 nio n for that grand monument of huqiaa ^^ijSiom. It 
 was only indeed in the fifteenth ccrit|irY that 
 jth<|. Roman la'.v was firft fludied and uno^r<Aood 
 «| a fcience connetSled with Roman liiflory and liter- 
 ature, and iliuftrated by men whom Ulpian and 
 
 Papinian 
 
 ■ Vfe--^ 
 
( H ) 
 
 ^iti 
 
 «« 
 
 Papinian would t^ havejpdifd^ncd to ackoow 
 as their faccefliafs *. Among tDie writers 
 we may perceive the iqe^%Mit atteDapCipt 
 tial atdvknces, the occafioiJAilfeaks of ;||l 
 always precede sreat dtfcoveirles, and w^ks tbit aJN^ 
 toirtftrU^pofterity. * ^b^i^l 
 
 Thi redu^lion of the law oi^^nt^tb it j^fte 
 
 was referved for Grotius. It wasiiy the ddvfb^ ^ 
 
 Lord Bacon and Peirefc that he unaertook tbisl 
 
 duous t^lk. He produced a v^rovk which w^ 
 
 indeed juftly deem imperfe£(» but wbich is perlia' 
 
 the moil complete that the world has yet <^yf^ ' 
 
 fo early a ftage in the progrefb of any fcien^i^M^ 
 
 genius and learning of one roan. So grekiw^^, 
 
 certainty of pofthumous re 
 
 the fame even of the great 
 
 ihofe new fafhions of th 
 
 fnccced*eacli other fo rapidly' 
 
 tioris, that Grotius, who filled fo large iOpi 
 
 eye of his contemporaries, is now perlkaiM k^wa 
 
 tofotne of my readers only byniille. Y^t it Wi 
 
 fairly eilimate both his endowments^ ail4 Ms vittties^' 
 
 we may juftlyconfider him as xsqc? of the mpft me* 
 
 morable men who have done llQKOilt to modern 
 
 times. He combined the dH€hargjp6f this mdtt |pi- 
 
 pottant duties of aftive and pubp. life iiihli thi |tt 
 
 tainment of that exad a^it vfn^'S learning whilllP' 
 
 is generally the porti(^||py9f the reclufe ftudent.' 
 
 He was diittnguiftied alliih lidvocate itnd a MMn^t' 
 
 irate, and he compofed lh» WiO^ valutiftlc wbrM^ 
 
 the law of his own couQy||||' lii|^tf s^lMl 9^^^ 
 
 celebrated a«an hidorian, a fchotar, apoet, aif^ll^ 
 
 andib li^ls 
 id \k obfcuif^ b] 
 d Writing 
 lig poiif 
 
 "* 
 
 s?' 
 
 
 y}l- 
 
 r 
 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 *■ Cujtcions, Bri|[roniouS|,Hortornannps, fee. ice. — F'iJe Gra- 
 r'\m Orig. Jur. Civil, p. 132 — 158. rA't. L»pf. 1737. 
 
 L(tbnit%)i great mathematician as well as philofopher, de- 
 < litcMJ^fl^ fctft knows nothing wWch approaches fo near to the 
 inettiolandprecifioaofgcamcitry as the Roman law, — Op. totti. 
 iv.,;p. 254. 
 

 ( II ) 
 
 
 
 Jit 
 
 r 
 
 advfe? <ll 
 
 {Miic^ll^wii 
 
 m if w« 
 
 • "!•, 
 
 s 
 
 m^ft me* 
 modcrni 
 
 £ fiudent.' 
 a fiiijgir- 
 
 let, ai^1|- 
 
 -nje Gra- 
 
 bpher, de- 
 tear to thp 
 — Op. td^. 
 
 m 
 
 "-%' 
 
 his 
 
 I difintereft^iyUitefTnan, a phiIo(b];^al 
 
 )t wb<3^c||tcd moderation wjij^ Jrm^ 
 ^ijp|d^ii<aogiaqpio was )||iiht candicitlt by 
 learptiit. tliMrfpd exile did not danq;»his 
 
 fs of controverfy did riot ex- 
 chari^. The fagadty of his numerous 
 iC||^ idverfia-ies could not difcover a blot on 
 jiiafler ; andlfl the mfdft of all the hard trials 
 galling pr6?ocation^ of a turbulent politi^l 
 W9 never once deferted bis friends wjien ib^ 
 unate, nor infulted bis enemies when they 
 In times of the mOft furious civil and 
 i^^ion, be^ J^^'^ed his name unfpotted, 
 new -)io\#iMiiB|ncile fidelity to his own 
 ith moc^rati|n||firds his opponen^^Sucb 
 an whc^MpSp^ned to give a new form to 
 nations^ or rather to create a fcience, of 
 whidr oily rude (ketches and fridigefted materials 
 were vbaCfered qvir the writings of thofe who had 
 gol^e before J4°i. By tracing the laws of his coun? 
 try to their principlei^ lie was led to the contempla^^ 
 tion^the lawol J|i^ which4ie justly confidered 
 as t|i parent of d|jB^imcipal law*. Few works 
 werfi'mofe celebmted than that of Grotius in his 
 oiRTfi days, and in tn^ age ^ich fucceeded. it has, 
 however, been the fafhbn ^l|ie laft half-century to . 
 depriiStite his irork as a Im^lefs compilatiop, in 
 wm^f reafon li^ burii^d^der a mafs of ^^thorities 
 aflf ^|0ii^jpli^ 'li^'^M^Q ori^ihated an>Qng 
 Flp^b |Vj|s and declaimers, and u has been, I 
 know not for what reaibn, adopted, though with 
 far greater moderation and decency, by fome ref^, 
 pediable writers asaoBg ourfelyes. As to tbbte who 
 firil ufed tMs language, the iqq^ candid fuppG^ion 
 that we can make with refpe^ totbeokis, tiiair||i|^ 
 ne^er lead the work ; for, if they had not been <fe« 
 
 terred 
 
 t 
 
 * Proavia juris civilU. — De Jur. Bell, ac Pae. Proleg §16, 
 
>1 .«.: 
 
 fr 
 
 i 
 
 temdrfrpm the- peruft^t «f: || bv fucli a- 
 (j^tfj^of Greek cbaraAsn^ they mm 
 di^^ered that Qrotius nf \%r quot^i o%0O^yi 
 till be has lirit appealed to Ibme princi|||ea|^||y'of« 
 ten, in my humble Qphiion, tboiig|i.noC 4|^|^^ lo 
 the foundeft and qnoft rational principles. 
 
 But another fort of anfwer is ^Mf to fome of ^ 
 who have criticized Grotius, an4 thit anfwei 
 btigiven in the words of Grotius bimfelff. 
 iHit fuch a fhipid and fervile caft of mil 
 quote the opinions of poets or oratorf|^|i|j 
 mns^and philofopheri, su» tbofd of iiidjf^*: 
 whofe dectfion there wn^isi^appeal* lie <{|iote8 
 thein, at hie tells us himn^P^ witnefles wbofe 
 fpiringteibimony, mighti))^B||(tWcd and 
 ed by their difcordatice on milift every otl 
 i^^ conclufive proo/of the unanimity of 
 human raceon the great rules of duty jind^^ ,^ _„ 
 mental principles of morals. Oriiick .matterg,, poetji^^ 
 and orators are the moft uncxeeption*bleOf all mf^ 
 nefles; for they addre/s themf^Inef to the general 
 feelings and fym >i. ^ies of manwil $ they are neithe It 
 warped by fyftem,^j|pr perverted by fopbiftryj ibey 
 Can^ttain none of their obje^ir tbejr can nekb^l 
 pleafe nor perfuaderf they dwell on moral fentiments 
 not in unifon with th#t of their readers. No fyftem 
 of moral philofophy can futely difregard tb^ genera) 
 fee^sgs of human nature Ji?d the accor4iiipjitd|me^t 
 df^liegesand natidni. Botwh^reirethmmiogtjw 
 rhat ji^ment recorded and preferved? Mp|^ip^ 
 wtitiogs which Grotius is gravely bliimedHbr h|i^«g 
 ^quoted. The nfages^ a^d fo wsrot na^oa, the events 
 of hfftoryr the opinions ol p4rilofophers, tbe^^enti- 
 n^Htf^f or^toys a^ pbets, as well as the obferva- 
 ^ cl' common life, are, in truth, the manmt^ 
 
 * Dr. Paley, Princ. of Mor. and Polit, Pliijof, Vtcf. p.«^» 
 
 and yv... . ■ ■, • 
 
 t Grot. Jur. Bel. et Pac. Pro!«g. § 40, 
 
 n 
 
',4 
 
 f- .. 
 
 tcrt,poct8 
 df all wiu 
 le general 
 ireneitbet 
 
 an nekh^i 
 fentinMots 
 Nofyftcm 
 \xt gencr^} 
 
 m 
 
 for hlfiag 
 
 the events 
 tbe^ -fenti' 
 e ot^Terva- 
 
 * out 
 
 I», cf. p. XJfifp 
 
 ih 
 
 19 ) 
 
 itioiv ii^ikely co4vpcl many readeia 
 iintii^fted, anil'wlib migbt perhapi H^if- 
 i^tre fdme hnowledgeof rheprmafiles 
 
 ^ #rh6r*ctlc«!mftances might be mentioned, 
 'confpire fto,,prdve that neither of the great 
 of whidiliilliyc fpoken, has fuperf'eded the 
 |ty of iijiiMr attempf to lay before the Public Ja 
 of the law of Nations. The languag<$«0f 
 ,11; fo completely changed fioce both tfaiTe 
 ,,(|ff»K^ Written, that .whoever wasnowlo em- 
 J^lpY iM^^erms In hit ij^onal reafonings would be 
 ;i\^a^iiamte\\^\f^^vM hearers or. readers ; 
 
 totw ipipaf wij|||06 w bo are nettbei ill qua- 
 iU,d$i^Ura^dy fuchfubjeasiirtlhcon- 
 pdvantagetc^emftlves, The lettimdt m- 
 *know bow little noviflly or vaiiety is to be 
 ^ien^fjf^dirpiitiei. The fame truths and the 
 ^f^niejCimcsbii^rbeen repeated from age to age, 
 with. Iillleilfin,ati09 but i» the language; and no* 
 .J[^hy of ejfprej^i^ often g^iftefceorby ibei|noraot 
 3^^ fttbl^antUf ^^^ Pivbrpa^eoo very nearly 
 
 t%;fafpe jpNprri^Q if genius imfii^dgment has been 
 liiftted fii m<^ <3^the various forms undei; which 
 icience has bieen ciiltivate#at dii^ent periods of Mf- 
 torv. . Thf Jiperiority gf fsjple wriiera who cQ^ttinue 
 e4^,'M^ap«^#en o^nfiil chiefly btfti^ in 
 
 ^^atet lai\gN#gc|ior in other adydjitag^s 
 
 ^miim aoeidviitiil, or are the rcfiik rather 
 
 of tke iecon^nry than of tht^bigheft £aciddi» of the 
 
 imiid^f^Btirthiiiih^cifieaion^ While tlusy-«iiiil!rate 
 
 ^b#pride ^f invemion, a^ntr difpel the e«ii)M^ht 
 iiWSjiit of Ittp^^ *IHunifftation, yjit iisrve tp |^e 
 
 l^e life, fmdih^^ea the ncce^tiy, orcbmpoiing, from 
 lime to time, ooewfyftem? of fcicnce adapted to the 
 opinions and language of each fucceeding period. 
 £vcry age muft be taught in its own language. If a 
 
 to 
 
 
:t 
 
 Iff 
 
 ! il 
 
 'Ml 
 
 \H 
 
 
 *s/ 
 
 
 f*it' 
 
 man were now td'b^gin a difcourfe on ewm w 
 
 former writers into modern ladgUi|e (hif k 
 ,tem of public law feenn Hkej^ llFbib iifefifti 
 age in which we^ live poffem ttiafty KdtaA^i 
 which are p^cvMix\f {iv^tt\A^ k>^IMy adr 
 king. Since the con^pdfltian bt (h# ^eitt iK^dil^d^ 
 %otiusandPuCendorff; a ikibiie ttftknift, liM]^li^» if^ 
 #telligible philofopliy ha$ be^n inittbdi^efl t<> tl 
 fcho6l8; which has ierdted beta gtofsly |bilfy I 
 fophifts^ but which, 'fttMl^ f1^ diriJe 6f Lttd^ h/t 
 bein euhivared and imprdf#%i by m fucc<4&)^ ^ dif* 
 ciplbs worthy of their litiftHtfiH mptfiitt. "^e'^"^ 
 thuseiiabled todifctifitwit&|^4»eifi6Hi andtr 
 w itii clearoefs, tht prkliciplds tJf ti* '^fe**'^*^^^ 
 tiature, which ar« m th^ettil^lviis dn & l^||mi^ & 
 ca|f>acity of levery mak of fcM)d ieiire, ^t)d#i^ai belty 
 appeared to be abftriJif« fnim the illfpr6fiti|ble fttl^k* 
 ties with which lh«^ Hrhit loi^y ohd tli6 biirW 
 rotis jargon In 4yih (hey Welfe %xjpr6fled, ll^t 
 deepeft do^ritiei «(f hnora)k/tiiite iSnce that ti 
 be^n treated in tH«r )>£rfpitfioufi dhd pbptiliar^ft^ 
 and withfome d^r^stioftheb^llfyaiidelbqti^^ . 
 the ancient mbralfefc. * Ifbat pfeilofophV on 'which' afe 
 fc^migii tbft prihciph^r^f 6i!ir 6Mt% %k ^s not be^ 
 >i:e certain (fiSH* fifdrarlity aid1i^t^%^^^ 
 m leait kfs " lldrlOi^lMi i^rlSliliir Ws 6b. 
 ^^r^ml haughty in Its lSdgtii)%6, Ml^l^te 
 indti^ail^g in its ^^mthce, ^flkklhWM^^^bf 
 
 t IB tpijih ancitrAt fyitenm, to fhifidfo{^iWinteoSI)uMi^ ii^bib- 
 kte and uninielligiblc. > 
 
 m 
 
 'f^r,. 
 
 •vSA 
 
 M 
 
 UitJ 
 
"* 
 
 ^\- .1 
 
 i^^ die* 
 
 r. "We' "^ 
 
 btbdt t^ 
 tesnotlDe- 
 
 (inc •wng||Hi| 
 
 '^4 
 
 
 ( «7 ) 
 
 «;»-wWfWM?^ pHywf'^f '%^tlS^5V^ 
 
 leld to the tafte of otoers than fpeak froj;n;i;ny 9^ 
 
 l%ii* -,Iftwn-tha,t)fMJi.^h^^,-and fi^Jcj^jkpr of 
 ri|ii^f<^Jka.ve a,|i«wfrfjj^ ,^^1 fpr me. Tbey, j|N 
 i my i^t^d with ^n,^i|fj)^vajjc^y of ,4eUgbtfp| rjpc^l- 
 **'^# an4 a fr <giiif i A . . - They jcljcve l^l|^ UAdcf- 
 — -• - in .H« ^i^yjpidii^rgja^ .,vaft fcicnc^, 
 pp ..^^.flic^y.orgrieat m£,n ,aild,.9f 
 inte^^iPQIg i9v^tis. -J^y^, tb^s imea^s we fee the trMjths 
 ^^(l^fpi^wW^ ,<;^A^^ >yMt> 9'^ ,t,h^ elQ(]|uence (not, t^^t 
 . cof4(4lMe pro^j^^ed fxy the powers pt one nian, buf) 
 ^iit co^^ 1^,|pelWfV^^ them by. the colled^ive ge- 
 ,m\|s oC i^ ^prjd. .^ Jiven Yir|.ue .»nc(,Wifd,qn^ tliqai- 
 Mv^ Hpqji^e , nc^jaaiefty ii^.tf^ ^y^s, >irHen I ijjus 
 fte.fiU i,t^e|(i:(:at,m^ers ottb^kij^.jmd.wming c^|l- 
 ,ffl,t(t^ether,v^f'it,Vt|Rc|^ipp^^ 
 tp-dP tbera; l^qipf^ge, i^pd tp appe^;i,n their it^in, 
 
 iput this If , np plape for dj^iifiions of tal^ 
 afp 3«cry;pa<te to pwfn jtbat; c^k^oe may be c 
 /5Jie'§?pr%f/^iRrotiB ;6,%Wc tp,a nipre Hj 
 if^iffti^ , ^m^ I,^9;,pptrfC9llea that it 
 .be^%|Ma^.,B^ ine^J^qd If m{:(^ 
 tific. K^^Minyerted.^bcttatiiral order. Jf 
 tural pr«fer.ujidpubtp4ly4i4^?tes,, th^t w 
 f|?arjKb ifpr |be ongiR^l pri^i? of 1^^ 
 ;biifliifin oaMirei, -t«J?n ^pplji jhf m M>,tbe r^ 
 .^,tf^e^on4^a of yii^Hdy^, ^nd jaftly,:, 
 fllfinior the <le$iuon'of tboki difii2:Qlt aodl»|ppi: 
 
 ■ G 'catcd 
 
 % 
 
'I ; 
 
 I, 
 
 I ■ 
 
 eirlea «iMioiit*ibtt atffe with mh^ito Hat 
 tdmfe of nadei)^.* Biit GilMplMMMoim 
 verfe of fdis ihettiod. - Ht (Mis with (H • 
 riHi^ of the fVatea of oMe^iod war, aff«l 
 !<j|^brSginal prindptei oiilf ocdifioua:Ily aiM llicl- 
 dait^lly aa they grow oulEof the^u^ftioof Whkhlie 
 is cilled upon to decide. H lii' i neemrv confe- 
 quence of this diforderly method, %bicb txbroid the 
 elements of the fcience in the for fa of fcatt^NNl 4^ 
 gfeflions, that be feldopi employa ftifiicient difcufltob 
 Off thefe fimdamental truths, atkNit^er in the* plate, 
 ^ere fuch a difcuffion would lii&nft inftra£ttve itt[ 
 tie reader. ' ' ' '^| 
 
 ^ This defea \h the p1at» of Chx3tiu8 watp«re«iv«# 
 and fupplied, by Puffendorff, who reftdm natufif 
 law to that fttpetiority iMiidb belonged to it, and 
 with* great propriety treiti^fhe law of liitioDtw 
 only bne Mam branch of t]lll^r«ot libck. WitboSP 
 thi^enius of his mafl»r and witb very inferWiiBini^ 
 ing, he has yef treated thisfdbjeA with fo«ttJllbni<^s 
 with clear method, with exteiffi?e and accnrsK^Woow* 
 Tedge, and with a copbufnefseif detail fometiiMs in? 
 deed tedious, bat always inftruAive and fatisfa'iSorf i 
 His work will be always fHidTed by tbof<s wm> 
 fpare no labour t<fa)!quirea dtejvltnowledge of ^ 
 fubje£i ; but it wiTI, rn our times, I fear, b^ oftener 
 found on the ikelf than on M deft of the general 
 ftudent. In tfjle Unite' of Mr. Locke it was cotifi- 
 dered as the manual^ thofe who werif intended for 
 3€^t life ; but in tHe prefent age X beliete it wHl 
 H^ k^nd that men of bufinefs are tooino^ili ot^picd, 
 nieii of tietters arc too faftidlbus, and^ ^H' of the 
 Wovtotobifhdolent, for the ftudy or d^en thcfp^i^al 
 6f f^th works. Fat be it from me to d^trogate fram 
 t^^^rfti^eat.niertt of foofeful a wrtter as PUff- 
 fe^fiiJ^*^'Hi8 tfetttifeisamibe*^tn Vhich all his fuc- 
 ^^MnTmuft dfgi ' l^biily prefume to fugg^, that a 
 ' lMyit%'prc^t«t atid foftittetl/void of ail the attrat- 
 "' tiohs 
 
 ■■■# 
 
 % 
 
« 
 
 kfWhkhlie 
 mtf confe- 
 tzbroin the 
 
 at difciitflMi 
 in tbe'plaiM[ 
 iftruAive 
 
 11^ aaturif 
 d to4t, and 
 f liitionMS 
 
 L. Wittoii 
 
 ometiaitis in? 
 fattsfaaoTfi 
 
 tbofti t(r& 
 ledge of ^« 
 , softener 
 
 the general 
 lit was cotifi- 
 intended for 
 flieteitwHl 
 
 ^m of the 
 ti tb<£'peA>fai 
 KrcM^atefrdtti 
 mterasPtlf- 
 alL bis fu€- 
 g«ft, that a 
 I the attri- 
 tions 
 
 *. 
 
 ( «3 ) 
 
 rachilltappareol ltl (H l) f»t l » If w« cquld tpifit wipk 
 fchraktt thlt MghrAMlwhkh w^outht to farrty 
 ^ W * W>i^^* thift «t^doM would altogether 
 ymIPi the brutality fffliandful of favaget w^ipld 
 difamar in the immenfe proTped of huonui Dalyiii> 
 and toe munauri of ,a few licendoui rophjfts woiikt 
 not afceaii to hreaM 0ie general harmony. This 
 GOQfeiit of Biankiid in firft principles, and this end- 
 left fiariety in their application, which is one among 
 mM valuable truths which we may colle£^ from our 
 prcsesi eztenfiva acquaintance with the hiftory cf^ 
 
 tiHUi* is itfelf of ?aft importance. Much of the n|M| 
 f^y and authority of virtue is derived from thm 
 fMi aftd almoit the whole of pra^ical wifdom it 
 tided eA their variety. 
 ^ Whal former age jeould have fupptied fai6U f^r 
 mtikk a iidrk as that of Momefquieu ? He indeed lias 
 lm» perhaps jvftly, jAav^ed with abufing this ad- 
 vaatage* t>y the uiutiftinguifliiiiig adoption of the aar- 
 ratiyestoC traveliers of very different deerees of accu- 
 racy and- veracity. But if we reludantfy confefs the 
 juftnefs of this obje^ion ; if we are compelled to 
 own that he exaggerates the influence of climate, 
 that he afcribes too much to tl\e foreiieht and form- 
 ing {kill of legi^oi8» audiarCo^ little to time and 
 circumftaoces, in the growth of political conflitu- 
 tions I that the fulHftanttal charaoi^r and eflential 
 differences of governments are oft^ toil and con^ 
 founded in Ms technical langnKge and arrangement ; 
 that he oftep bends the free aaid irregular outline of 
 ^atuiei'to Ae impofiiMi; hot fallacious geomqtric^il ife- 
 gularitv 0I f^m ; tj^at he has chofen, a ftyle gf af- 
 fededabruptoefs, fententioufnefs.and vivacity >illiitfit- 
 ed«o thej^vity of his fubjed : after all thi^ ^tm- 
 dn^, (for^isfamf is la^-ge enough to %ai^np;iy ^> 
 QeffioHs) the Spirit of |.aw8 will 0111 rettmihmmik 
 one of the moil folid and durable nMpumen^of <t|ie 
 power of the human mind, but a ilriuog evidimcf of 
 
 '■'■ • me 
 
I 
 
 !!)• 
 
 ti 
 
 ( ^4 j 
 
 fhe iiie<!iinable s^^^MM^^fOClAUb pojltiod 
 )Hiy may rooeive froiii a Wwf funrey of # 
 4pW^ooDditioni of baimtii llbMty. '*^' 
 ilm the prefen^ cflDtuif)f i ^w and 'Ue^.t. 1 
 ^^atidal mitigation Haitaken^acui thci, 
 oCivar $ and in proportion aa that wt\j0^SpiAict 
 has received the fandion of tiipc,t'iK isnti^ftcipit^e 
 rank of mere uf^ge, and becomes jpart of tlj<fl&w^t 
 Nations. Whoever will oomfiare bur piaident^ilt^m 
 «^ .warfare with the fyfteni orOrot^s* will^iBa t^ 
 Sifcernthe imiuenfe improvemenB Which have^'^' ~ 
 pUice in that reiped) fmce (he jM^Uication o^ 
 viork> during a period, perhaps in c^efV'^ 
 view, the happieft to be found in thehUi «*/^fi< 
 world. In ine fame period n^iny iuiportant jjpnti 
 olf pubik law have been the kii>]idL of coQIeft 
 by ar^ment and by arm|»<of which we iiail e,_ 
 no mention, er very oblcure liaoe8,'.)li'Che ib3lo|^ 
 preceding times. 
 
 There are other circumdances to whichtt' iUud^ 
 with hefitatron and relu^ance, thoush icrnwitNbc 
 owned thar they afiferd ro a writl*r of tbis^age foiQ^ 
 degree ot unfortunate and dipp|#i;9b|e advantage b^r 
 hisi prede^eflbrs* Et^^ evenMilaYe accoiiiiilat# 
 more terrible pna^al inftru^ion on every fubjl^ 
 of ppHtics than1>6f»Ud have baen . in qthjisr times ac- 
 quired by the #|lerience of ages. Men's wif, ihar- 
 pcned by their, paSons, has penetratgl,to theltot- 
 t^Qt of al mpft all pd^Hcal^qaeilions. Even the lili^ 
 damehtal rules of'moralitr 'hf-mfrtyes^baye* for^e 
 firft tln^e, imfortunately W ri ; r,Mnd^if •""^mc ti|C 
 fubpf): of doubt and ul. -n, ^ ^)^l cpn^ 
 
 fkTp it as my flj^i^ to aljj^ain frb^all njan- 
 
 t|p^ij^^p|j1j4fe of ftiiefe fsaal 
 
 cQ|i;tq)^eifi68. ^pm <he mti^d o( that man muft in- 
 
 •V' 
 
 '■phfamifituiiii ctn* CaptivtSi iiC 8cc. 
 
 
 
M^ 
 
 ttcid 
 
 aiion 9^ 
 
 ortant pfiats 
 i coQE^ft botl 
 re fino eiundr 
 Che jbiS^i^ ot 
 
 .■■4 
 
 1 icrmuit'bc 
 
 tbis^^ge fon^ 
 
 dVahtsgecMjirr 
 
 accoiiiiilaU# 
 
 hjer tiipea aci- 
 
 sd's wit, (bar- 
 
 ^ ,to the bot- 
 
 lyen the fjn^ 
 
 biiye, for ^c 
 
 ;tliefe faial 
 man rouft in- 
 
 **#'* 
 
 »i- 
 
 I 
 
 of Iflaroing tc>waf49 
 
 it muft be owiied (Imi 
 
 hi iDd moft Ml 
 
 fore iwift comt from % 
 
 it IW m nittUtfiAe o/ 
 
 dki^tir M^H(b,^ to ^ _ 
 
 fiitae diMt W^r|!^e difcaft* Popufw fciibn m 
 
 -.!?!&? ''^"'*'^ **"*?' •^^^^^^'^K* "^^^^ a writer of 
 ifpnt age poM poUkk dVer ihc celebrated uj- 
 fhc faift e#itti^. Siin<e that time vaft ad4il^ 
 l^eb^n Hifltt to t^e ftock of our Icnowledtf 
 i«itor». * Many dailt periods of bfliorj 
 _^- ,.^jirtn explored. Mi^'ny hitherto unknoi 
 ^*ejjl«il'cfl^e globe WVe ln^n vifited and d^riN 
 trit<aip tad nai^^^ot kft tnteMig<;QC thL 
 idi'^ Wii^.be faSLto ft and at the c6c*ucncp 
 If^ftNp^f ^Wcaniis of knowledge f!aw- 
 j,, /*% '*',^ W nlOR dllhfl^ that ever met^t 
 
 i ^'^J^^' ^* Jifc not confined, as the learned of 
 
 ?li??L'lf J?^<!?t -^^'^^ ^*^ ^^"^ hiftor)r,6f thofp re- 
 
 *^~ i-i» f^s .. ; A ^fe/'Ur kriifftm iti literature. 
 
 l^iA'n jiua lo\^'<r-^iid nj'>re il;)- 
 
 of 
 
 ..able ani^arity. 'Wt ciluji,^ "h*«w * 
 in i«vMyrbbfo^ our l|iti4^oni iJmj fcfiJt^ 
 
 ^Iwibieatb br^ 
 tecb 
 
 iht WjU eVjpir befpii 
 
 iferp i^e be|ii^ 
 
 "^l^i^rsofaji^^ 
 
 )W9)aa foot 
 
 I CM 
 
 tfiw 
 
 4» (i^if^fli^ijlv^VjM^ 
 
 
 -thvi.UUittri|>«s friwii ; ami -vvlm HiasbWaHrfd'Hijs flearh io'.a 
 traw of gantiiRcinid bmuiiful ^poetry, aot-uriv^Hhyof h»o- 
 -cr |)crioci* of our Engl^ft liternuie. 
 
'^^ 
 
 '■• '.»_ 
 
 A 'I 
 
 r 
 
 If," 
 
 Jii 
 
 ti^l^lefs barbarifm of Terra del Fuego, and t! _ 
 and voluptuous favages of Otaheite, to thejtalne, 
 but' ancient and immoveable civilization of China, 
 which beftows its own arts on every rucceffive race 
 of conquerors ; to the meek aiid fervile natives of 
 •Hindoftan, who preferve their ingenuity, thejt .S^i^^ 
 and their fcience, through a long feries of ages, un* 
 der the yoke of foreign tyrants ; tp the grofs and in- 
 eoriigible rudenefs of the Ottomans, incapablj of 
 "improvement, and extinguiihing the rem^ns^f ct^ili- 
 ""zation among their unhappy fubjed^s, once th^ inoft 
 ingenious nations of the earth. We can examine 
 almoft every imaginable yaricty in the jjharafter, 
 'i^aiinefs, opinions, feeHhjj^, prejudices aii^ in^UU" 
 tions of mankind, into Dmich tlie);. can be thrown, 
 either by the riidenefs of barbarifm^ or by, th^ capri- 
 cious corruptions of refinement, or by thole, innumer 
 rable combinations of circumilances, whi<^, )?oth in 
 thefeoppofite conditions and 2l|,ftil ^h^ intermediate 
 ilages betwieen them, influence or di|^|^ |I}e,;90|ii|'fe 
 of human affairs. Hiftory, If j. inay t>e allowi^the 
 expreffion, is now a vafl mtiunim, in which j^cl- 
 merts of every variety of human, nature may bfrjfti;- 
 died. From thefe great acceSbns to; Jehowledg^* 
 lawgivers an^ flbtefmen, but, above all, rno$|li{ts 
 and political phitblbphers, may reap themofl impoi(- 
 'atrit inftrOftion, They riiay plainly difcover in, all 
 the-ufefiil and beautiful variety of governments and 
 inftitutid&s, and under all the fantaftic multitude of 
 ^fages and rites which have prevailed among pen, 
 the fame fundamental, comprehenfiye truths, the 
 isL^ttd mafter-principles which are the guardians o^ 
 htiii^n focit^, recognifed and revered (with few 
 an^i^gHt dcetptkUl) by every nation upon earth, 
 and uniforniiy taught (with ftill fewer Exceptions) 
 by 'a fucceflion of wife men from tJ^e firft dawn ot 
 fpeculation to the prefent moment. The exceptions, 
 tew as they are, will on more reflection, be found 
 
 rather 
 
 
ind t%#ld 
 to .the tame, 
 on of China, 
 ucceffive race 
 irile natives of 
 ty, thcit Ml 
 !S of ages, un» 
 5 grofs and in- 
 > inc;y>ablf of 
 tngiiWrpfcl^Ui- 
 oncc th^ njoft 
 ) can. examine 
 the charafter, 
 es an4 inftitu> 
 can be thrown, 
 )rbyitli^capri- 
 thofe,innnmer 
 which, )?oth in 
 \t intermediate 
 
 1>e a^low.^thp 
 in whjichf^ct- 
 iire may be^fta- 
 to. .knowledge, 
 3 ail, rno|^|Uits 
 ic jiaoft impoit- 
 difcover ii\ all 
 jvcrnments and 
 ticvioultitude of 
 :d among pen, 
 truths, the 
 ^ guardians of 
 ;red (with few 
 ... upon earth, 
 ef exceptions) 
 le firft dawn of 
 _'he exceptions, 
 aion, be found 
 rather 
 
 k>* 
 
 ■m 
 
 !d be incurious andinddtile, who has either over- 
 d all thefe things, or reaped. Dp i|i%H|i|lon 
 the contemplation of them. 
 
 iom thefe reflefkions it appears, that^ iincgthe 
 compofition 6f.0iofeitWo^reat works ^n the iiSw of 
 Nature and N|tions> which continue to be the clafli- 
 cal .and flandard works on tlut fubjed, we have 
 saiiied both more convenient inllraiients of reafon- 
 mg aiid more extenfive materials for fcience ;ij^at 
 th« cc>de of war has been enlarged aud improii^; 
 th^t new queftlohs have been pradlically dypcic^di ; 
 wid tl%t new controverfies bave^arifen regardin»the 
 Ihtc^rconrfe of independent ilatefy^and the firft princi- 
 ples of morality and ^ivil government. ;| nr 
 
 So^ rtj^ers ma)^ however, think th|t in tifefe 
 pbrei¥il[tion| which l^fi^*^^ excuife the prefumption 
 bf inf own at^ii^pt,f We omitted the mention of 
 latet" Writers, to whom fome paj^t of the remarks is 
 not juAly applicable. But perhaps^ farther confide- 
 ration 'will acqi^^e in the judgment of fuch rea> 
 dcrs. Writers^? particular queftions of public law 
 j|% hot \(rithiliihjyKOpe of my obferyations. They 
 'l^^^' furnifhedffl|^\mo(l v^u^li^ materials ; but I 
 fptik only of a lyftcm. Jto .the Jarge work of 
 Wolffius, the obfervatioiis wHc^ I have made on 
 TiiffendorfF as a book for g^ni;ufw#Ce, will furely ap- 
 ptf with tcp-fold force. HJ^v midger,. V 
 ferves, in|(^ed, confiderable praife. He U a vmf in- 
 gf pious, ^1«ar, elegant, and nfeful writer^ But he 
 
 nibe fcience, he has adopted fome do|ibt|Mvaild dan- 
 gerous principles^ not to ment|i»n h^i^^on]^9|g d0([ici- 
 ency in that fulnefs of ex||l^#tii^^ ;il||ptation, 
 which fo much embeUiihes and i(h|^n|^hens f^j^fon* 
 It is hardl^necefiary to take any notice pf thir^text- 
 book of H^ecGius, the beft writar of elem^tary 
 
 £ books 
 
■■# 
 
 
 i ^ y 
 
 &00&9; Willi whbnptf a«ii fltitt^aiqtcd oirany^i] 
 Burltmnqui 18,^ auUkov of fiimti<tr merk; b| 
 confines Kimfcll too nmch to we gscaeriil prim 
 ef morality «Q4^po^il»» tb* r^isire niqeb obfttrvfttion 
 from Dae in tbit pkioe. The lame reaTon wtH excufe 
 4nefor paf&ng ofer in iiHence thettdrks of many phi- 
 fbfophers and morakfts, to wh6m, in the cou|$iie «»^ 
 my propofed l^dkirea, | JhaU owe ftad confefs tbe 
 :gxeite(l obHgatxbns^ a^ it might perhaps diilirer 
 Bie from the ne^ei%p of^lpeakiiig df 4ie vrork oif Dr^ 
 ||iky, if I were not defirous of that publk opportu*- 
 tiilfi]!^ pt ofeifmg my^gfstitude for the inftru^bn an«t 
 piearare uhieh I bate teceived from that eaceelle»l' 
 writer, vtho poffeiles, ni fQ||mibeiit a degree, thofe 
 nitaiuable (qualities of a mcMt^fiygooiliesfey'tjftation, 
 Ibbrietyy and iwrpetual refemce 4io conyeniet^ an^ 
 practice} and wWcertaiiil|^||i thought Ms ^igl4»^ 
 than be really ii, Jos^ely bfeoau^ Ijic tafte ^d1fk>- 
 ■dtCty have 1<|4 ^i|n u» difda^in the f>iltti»atii^^ 
 vdty, and becaoie hejpiMierally e^g^^sy^^ i^me^vmkt) 
 
 opinions, fo as. tiMt they &-m jhusif^pht ^}|lgiii^ 
 «d, than other ina^^i^t^evlturi^if^ a tranfient |o^ 
 pularity, have <6xertc4.^& di^nife tfie moli tniffr^Te 
 .commoa-placesi%t^ 4itpe of |>aradox. 
 
 N u ri tex fiitdeJ|H^ime of Grothid, of l^uifendorff^ 
 
 and of Wolf, Itiat^minbined an inveftigp^on of tlve 
 
 -prin^ples of natm:|] ^d pi^ie latw^ wid^ a ftdl ap- 
 
 •.pii«afii^ of chefe ip)^i]M|i|Af|.ti>.particular ciMi Ij^ 
 
 hi thefeeriiliiinibne^ ) ti^^.it wHl not be tteajned 
 
 :f>xefav^gat^^fo{U{Hi#ii^i]f mt to hope th^t I :%iil 
 
 be able tsexhibrr aei^^^f thi« leience, whkh %|11, 
 
 at ?e»itiibCMn<iire ii»H!)Hgibte Jin^ aKti a^ive to fto^Hts, 
 
 tbeAwti^ie«»a^|£trefttf&s of thiyfe celebrated men. I 
 
 . ih«tf ^p^ipili!^ip|^4e 4^ the general pJ^ii andiub- 
 
 .^e^s of tire lii|^|u:es ki which f «m to mali^ this at- 
 
 
 ''4^'H'^ i4 
 
 hWe^ 
 
 .,M^ 
 
 I * 
 
..■* • ' '- 
 nt ; 
 
 I pm( 
 
 obfttnfktion 
 
 mil €%eu£t 
 
 f many pht- 
 
 le cottife vof 
 
 confe& tbe 
 
 tops dt^iir^ir 
 
 work €if Dr^ 
 
 Ik opponii- V 
 
 lat excellent^ 
 tegfee, thbffr 
 
 Bfe,.t:ftation, 
 
 fiMiieetfc to 
 I oif r9e«mMl 
 
 $^on of tlie 
 itlt; s fttll 1H>- 
 
 Wfakh Ml, 
 to ftttdents, 
 tted men. i 
 iftii and itib- 
 »ate thw »t- 
 
 ■*k| 
 
 ( n ^ 
 
 ^1f 1%e being whofc aj^ioRS the'Uw of iil^raTf f«< 
 itiflyf to regulate, is maoi It is on 4^ knoti4tfdge of 
 iiU nature that the fciehce of biff^^Kuty mult bo 
 Ibunded *. lxn:impa^\M towpptoatk thie threihold 
 of monal pbiloliiptify, without a previoos eKatniaation 
 of iKc' facultirf JLiid habits of (he hum^n miiid. Let 
 no Mader be flailed froni this extniinatioii, by the 
 odious and tfnrible name ciitieMplij^ct ; for it is^ ia 
 trutb, nothifl^^ inofffl thia^^li^ empioyniene of fOiod 
 lenfe, in oyievi^tig ottr own th^ghtfr, feelihgsi lad 
 anions} and >iihea thefad^sit^eh are thus obfemid* 
 are caspreiTed^a^ tbcy ougtkt fo ht^ih plain laogpniip, 
 it is; perhaps, above ^otl^sf fences, rnoll Ona k- 
 v«il with the cf fMty |nd mfbrniation of the geiiert- 
 Itty o£thiiikl()|f meii^ f Wheri k\ is thus expfeflcik»it 
 tequtrea w^Mdr^q^iMii^^^ but a found ya^- 
 
 iMiU$) peffell^ Ao ««ipreherid it \ and tboiid wb^ 
 ^rapJt up iti a ilec^ntcal and my (klridus jargon, al" 
 ways give u« llrong iieafon to fUlpa^ that jthey are 
 «6I pbikfopbiil but iiipJiftoriV Whoeawr tho- 
 ' tdughif liDfkrfiaiids iuch a feie^or, fnuft be ^ble lo 
 ' :ieacH it plaialf air tU me^ M jOomniQ^ fenfe. The 
 Ipropofed courfe will tli^el<Utt' «ipeA ^ith 2L very 
 ^bart, and, I hope, a very' finale 4fiA in teliigibk ac- 
 ^eount oi the powers ili^'ied/K^^v^i ai the human 
 inind. By this plain ftatemiiit^'^a^fi, it will not 
 be bifficullto decide oaany €<llebrated, thoughiriva- 
 lons» aitd merely vcrb|ji leiiqliMiverrieS', wkS^have 
 Idtig -aflniftd the leiiitli' fjf ^ {choojs, and which 
 mit bi»th tMr ^me A^ exigence to the imhiguous 
 :^ci2vity of {qholaftic laninage. It t#i, fef eacam- 
 jHe, only recjmro art applal^o every inan5#iifiliperi- 
 iHftcfc, to prove ttat We bftisn aft ptireiy toin a re- 
 gard to tlbir happinef»t)f others, iifi^are ^tilefers fo- 
 jEtai beings j a:^ Ui^ ii^t^ikc^fai^jHo bf actfitfum• 
 •• '^ ■ mate 
 
 * Nattirn e«im j»r»» explicanda <ft nofeis. fa^i' »h h^mlnii re- 
 iftemU nature. — Cic. dc Leg. lib, i. c 5. 
 

 ( 2& # 1 
 
 matb jiMtoe of the decepliovi of language, tiSl^|d^^ 
 the fojpipical inflep, who tells us, that, bedbll^Wcl^ 
 exp^miKc ajiratification in our benevolent adi<^fi$; 
 ve iir« thererorf exclufively arid unifirtrnily felfifti. A 
 corre^- exaitanaition of fads will lead us to difcOver 
 that quality which is common to«all virtuous anions, 
 and which diftinguifhes them from.thofe which aiM 
 vicious aod cnniinal. iBttt we ihall feothat it ii^ ne» ' 
 ce^Hry for tnan to be governed not by b^^wn tVan* 
 fiefiilli^and haOy opinion upon the tendiMey of every *' 
 pal^ular adion, but'^by thofe fixed and^inalterabKl ^ 
 TuMlitwhieh are the joint vefult of the impartial ^^'^^ 
 judgm^t, the natural teelings, and the embodied eit- 
 perfente of mankind. ' The aothority of thefe rules 
 is, l^eed, founded only on th^eir tehdencyid pro. 
 mote private and public welfare ; but t)ie morality *' 
 of a&tons will appear folely to oonfift iii their <9orf^ 
 pondence with the rule. By the help of this obvious 
 diflin&ion we Jiall vint^cate a jqll theory, which, far 
 from being ino^rn, iflyitliifefa£t, as incient as philo* * 
 fophy» both fromplaniibleobjedions, and from th6\l 
 odious imputation of fapportihgihofe abfur^ an«^ 
 monftrous fyflems whick Jiave been built upon it* *^ 
 Beneficial tendency it«tb« foundation of rules, and n^ 
 the criterion by whioh^tiiibits and fentimerits are (e 
 be tried. But lrlt neither the immediate (landard, 
 nor can it ever b^ the principal motiviofadion. 
 An action, to be completely virtuous, mufl accord 
 with^' moral" rules^^ and ibuid^bw from our natural 
 feelings and affe&ions, miielated, matumd, and 
 improved into flea^y habits of right conduct *<, 
 Without however, dwelling longer on lubjefts 
 whidi OMOI be clearly ftated, unlefs they are fully 
 unfolded,?* content myfelf with obfeiving, that it 
 ihallibe my nbie^^yin this preliminary, hm mod im- 
 
 portant 
 
 
 ■wm' 
 
 * £ft auttim virtiM^ nih»l>aUud qiiam in fe perfect atquc ad 
 fummum peiduila natura.— Cic. de i*eg. lib. i. c. fi. 
 
'SjWSu 
 
 ent adi)dfi»; 
 y felfiOi. A 
 to difcdver 
 lus adions, 
 i which a^ 
 lat it ii nt» 
 #«wn tr&n* 
 ty of every ' 
 cinaltcraWi % 
 e impartial ^ i^v 
 
 ibodied est- 
 
 f tbefe rules 
 icy'ld pfo« 
 hemoi'ality *' 
 their <3orre£> 
 :his obvious 
 , which, far 
 It as phildi- ' 
 »d from the t 
 abfurd fln«^|ij| 
 ilt uponiti '* 
 ' rules, and ^^ 
 lents are (a 
 e (landard, 
 of adtion. 
 luft accord 
 ur naturM 
 ui^d^ and 
 conduct \ 
 \n iubje£^s 
 y are fully 
 ig, that it 
 ri mod im-. 
 portant 
 
 rftt atquc ad 
 
 1pa0l$pm of the courfe, li^y the founda^^>^' 
 mfliraUijrIb deeply in human nature, as may 
 the coldefl inquirer ; and, at the fame titiili, tOf.yh 
 eate the paramount auchorityof the im^s of'ouf 
 duty, at all times, and in all places, overall op2|tion8 
 of in^reli and fpeculations of benefit, fo exteniively, 
 fo upiverfally, and.fo in^iolably,;iM m^ay well juftify 
 ti^e grandeft iind moft apparently exfenvagaot effu. 
 £ons of moral enthuiiafm. • ^fnotwitbilaoding all 
 tndeavoul»t^td deliver thefe doflrines vfith the utt^^ 
 i|fimpUcity#\any of my auditors (hould ftill rei 
 •ach me for introducing fuch abftrufe ii|atter««#i 
 uft ihelter myfelf behind the authority of the wife9 
 pf men, " If tn«y (the ancient moralifts), before thei 
 '* had ccMpne iQ^the popp^ir and received notions op 
 virtue and vice, had ftaid a little longer upon tixKr 
 miliiiryir concerning the f9dts of good and evil^ th^r 
 <' had given, in my opinion, a great light x& 
 <* that which followed ; and . dTpecially if they had 
 *^ i»ilifulted with a^ure, they^lid made their doc- 
 |riil9 lefs prolix, and more pFofottad."-^/}<2f«;r, 
 iiml^dv. ofimrn, bwkHt- What Ix>rd BacoU • 
 led for the mere gratificttioif 6iF fcientific curi6^ 
 y,, the welfare of mankincl iiQ«r imperiouily de« 
 mauds. Shallow fyftems of nflti^phylics have given 
 birth to 9, brood of abominable' |H>d peililentid 
 paradoxus, which nothing but a 'more profound 
 phtMophy i;an deftroy. ' However we «Day, 
 rlfip8« lamenJt the ^ipeefity of dtfcuffions 
 which mi|f &aiL« th* hsiitual reverence of fame 
 jy men for thofe «ules which it is the chief interdft 
 of aft men to pra^tife, we halve now no choice ledi. 
 We muft either difpute, or abandon; >^(Mounid. 
 Undidinguilhing and unmerited insili^il^s sj^aiAft 
 philofophy, will onfy harden £[^MfUttttd their dU^ 
 ciples in au infolent conceit, that iWf are in pof- 
 feffion of an undirputed fuperiority of reafon ; and 
 Miat their antagonifts hav? no arms to employ againft 
 
V 
 
 ( 3t > 
 
 }m thd« of pafiili» declftiiiation>* 1^ tss 
 % fSaomeRC evdii ippcar to fuppofc^ltbti ilhi- 
 Mfivuth and buiiiAn happiocK areibifre- 
 Icrii^abkr^t varitnce. I omiiot espreft my opinion 
 ^bT thSIl fit^f^ fo well as in tbf motihi of a moft va- 
 UM^, thoi^b genei ally negliP^d Writer t " The (ci« 
 ^eace of abftnile jeamirigl when complet^ya«^ 
 'f taiuRd, W Wm 4f«MU«»'» fpMr^ that be«icd thd 
 ^ woiii) ii had iilllrl^efbre; f» thlt knbiivMge 
 ^ (erv«« ^ rejpialr Ib^liiniagt iftUI htd occafuMNl^ 
 l«^«nd<i|M pcrfa;^ it all it if good^fdr; it eafts ip. 
 #ilP^«t Hg%t opon 4lii? patha of fife, but <# 
 "^ Mms the clouds with which it bad overi^^kl 
 #tliem before; itiiivancts nottbenavelter oae ftc^ 
 il tiirliii»urDey» but OMMbi^ bim back ags^ to 
 ^i|#» fpcft from whence Ha waadered. Tmit'tbfe 
 Mi^tnd of Fhilofopby coififts paiily in an open obsm- 
 f» pai^<:o^fttr|^ft paffiibk by every conmi^fi ^tfncfer 
 «' ftM)dingi «am p9i)f|||y][t' a range of woodaillavcrf 
 <(abfte only by ii^i|kci)UtitWi and wbtv^ibey 
 '« loo ftequently dPtpt lo aimile themfftlvcsa^^liiee 
 ^'tbeo weOiall ktolmgni K> ^pke tmSfiiteaL %||( 
 •^^bis Utief HuMf 4td ftiall >robabl)^ lil*' f% 
 <* region of.^bMviJ^ danger, and difhcukyj it 
 *' bebove9 mU^^*mi^ utowft cndeanpitrs fotr ebr 
 ** lightentBgaiil^^bittdotbingtbe way beM>rc us */''^c 
 "fluU* howeveti remain in ibc foreil oiilrkin| ettotigh 
 tnvilfit (lie fountii»t<if tbgft ftretma wbich WMir. 
 k, llxiM^Mk>^m¥M4J$^mae the cultivate lb- 
 'gboiC^liira^ to biMiif#cq|uaiM^ %ith ih^ 
 iKidea of npii^are pra^ifedlirita favagd|^abitants, 
 and- fi^ lea#ii tbe nmwt ttTgiMidii^ ^ fal«^ana 
 Mftiin|la«d ;^Mibetrdelblating in^urfiioia. IMU 
 bai^ froaH^^lcQlatioas, to wbich I- amnaturaHy, 
 pnrbifiltliWtlfbdi prona^ and proceed totbetoore 
 ^fO^itble^0»iidnratiott' of our pra^icial dnty. 
 
 •*t.-' 
 
 T- 
 
 » Seirch's Lijjfht of Nature, by AbrabftnTiickrr, Efq vol; i. 
 
 n. p'^c xxxiii. 
 

 pofc^tbtl pihi- 
 k are (b ifre- 
 «r« myofyinion 
 t of a mod va- 
 ter ! " The fci- 
 completely a^ 
 at beiled^ tht 
 
 ad occfficiilcli^ 
 r; it eafts A 
 f Hfa, but m 
 »ad m«rfi^MI 
 velter ose fte^ 
 back agaiki to 
 d. Thtiftbte 
 an (^pKAolnifQ- 
 
 ^ooidfl^averf- 
 d u^hM 4|ie^ 
 
 ^Bmkyi it 
 ll^itrs fof eVir 
 ©re us */^l/Vc 
 rk»n|<itotigh 
 lichAow^liib 
 cultivate ib- 
 lid with fhf 
 {djll^abitants, 
 ^ fair and 
 
 am naturally, 
 I to |he more 
 dai duty. 
 
 " II. 
 
 icker, Efq vol;!. 
 
 1 SI ) 
 
 ]p« T^Krft and moil^4Mli| part of «thi<^ t| M||i 
 tUfi|lQ^ard8 the dtftiei of private men t^liHpIr 
 ei##h(|iv when they wk confidered tfiaiSllJI^ 
 the faodUon <)( pofiifve Itwb. I fav, af0tt I^|i^j4g|| 
 fanaiotH not Antpimt to it ) for tlioiijrif||[|^Ji^^ar 
 tvate frompol^ei^iiillities for the fake Of glrtaMf 
 ileill^efs and order m fffiScmh^^ yet we are not to 
 feibdj^lUdcdby thii ine«j|,ii|i»ge«l(^of <^ 
 ^e^mmi» tofuppofe ^9S^ H^^^mi^^ 
 
 , or ever CouW Jlibfift^ >wtl«?«t:IN5nni P«>teAed 
 loi^^mme«*.a6d bgondtogefWby U^v AU 
 le relative dutaen of i^^atellfe mvt ^^^iiilMS0^- 
 jloiifl^ a^d beautifully treated by the nkitlWH ^ 
 aDtiqviity, that few meQwill mrichoofe to-^i%. 
 ithepi wbc^re not a6iijti|iy^ the wild aig^bpop p 
 eqiiflUog Aiitole in p^l^iv or rivalling (Soiiifriii 
 eligi^iueiice* They lutve lifen fo admirably treaHH 
 ]i»| iupdefn moraliil$, among whom |t would be grdS^ 
 ' * ***^ oot to nuaoiber ^anydf ihf prii^berirof the 
 iinain religion, irbofe ipHfeN^ raiarai^er ia that 
 t^pf iiiiMrerf^l ^rity, mSm is tlie livitig prin- 
 \^<LMmt hm\4^^ fiiii^ was long ago 
 
 ncyar was any pbijofophyi 
 *# cipline, wbich di^^ pl^obr^isd bigbly.exak that 
 ^ glfDd whic|i is con]niUQicat(ve>^^^|4 ,^preis the 
 ^t^^food wl^i|4s private and p8rti^3|ir^ as the Chi^f- 
 
 tlipi/attb*.^ "Vofi, v^^^mg^^ ofjth^r«H. 
 
 lii^pis not fo mueh.. ^i^E iMiii^^iili^ '^l|^. #ties. 
 
 «it!^t',iit..j||(^^ r-l^ml^ atid|pr|^,:b^ii^^o^iit 
 fpiKit ovj|pBe wbolej|teflrt of vamm^. 
 
 Oft ajy^^^yiWbefti^^^^ 
 ftalttra^bave coi^ttnlcd ^ylelf iitb the moft^^t 
 :tnd general fkrvey, i| fome fbndati||ptaf prini^i^es 
 biidMof hite been brot^ uit«»^M 
 in all f0tmer times, liavetSeitdeflffiEi^iiiib*^^ 
 , recpire the fupport of argument, and aliai^ toofsKnred 
 toadroit tbelibertfof difcu^on. IfhatilMSjNilQdeaTOUr 
 
 to 
 
 . -* 
 
 ^ Bacon Dign. and Adr. of Learn, book U. 
 
( 3» J 
 
 • 
 
 t 
 
 
 4 
 
 jhcn fome p^ru of the fortifications oCjno- 
 
 ich have hit6ei;|||fjbeen neglea:ed, ^dwfe 
 
 Jflfver been hardy enough to aUacUZ,,.., 
 
 Illtfe. relative duties of buniian life wir"bc 
 
 .. , ^^. immediately, or mqre remotely, to arife 
 
 o#^ Ihp' two great inftit,i^)tioi|ifof property and 
 
 marriage. They, conftitut^WtSferve, and improve 
 
 ^<^9Wy\ ^IPP. ^^^^!Jt^"^' hnprpvcmentihfpimds 
 <^« ^ref ^ S»v||%^ of mankuid ; iit^ ihcm 
 refts^ whole o^derU civil life. , We are tolfeby 
 Horac^^ ihat : tlie %{[ jeffons of lawgivers -<tolhri- 
 ■^^*^'^*'j^*>nfift^d in jft^ and r^jgiilatirtg 
 
 itutions, and fencing them round withri- 
 jW»!^ip|. penal law»»^ 
 
 ^ caepei-unt inu9t|9|J|(|^ne re leges 
 
 ut^is tur e^er^ iMi qiijl^ria, neu quis adult^. 
 
 I Seiriii. iii. xpe. 
 
 <^ ■ - ■ ■" . :Iu ^ 
 
 :^ 4 <^%tccU^gt orator, of Ivhoft^pipips i^ 
 have but few PVpHl ^(naming, has wal def- 
 crib^d Mi p|c^rePJ^pfl(g in^which hun»»nfo<!Sity 
 
 fis gradually te§ f^|%^NM|r l^^rove^^ %l#r 
 i^guardian(KipJ?5>f tWI^HI %ilr(^S**W^^ 
 
 . and regMUte plW''^- 
 
 Et leges (a 
 Corpdrf 
 
 ; et.clMl'a jugavi _ 
 et niagifas condidwjitrbes. 
 
 [3 convert the fe! 
 namve into^^tt 
 br^pfj^terdltife; 
 
 ife^mitd..|pfinblj|^ 
 or qui^i t|6^ imspm^f ^"^Bg^; WOT unfovemable, 
 th€| 0m^ ■ f^§oSe(i, ^ ' l^ey ^il| i^he moft 
 
 foMlii j|cpip)6^mf^^ become |h^ pwpc- 
 
 , tuaV^UQtam 4f all ^a^t ftrengtDcns, and pifelerves, 
 
 ^llscy p#!£^^P^,^the race. Around i|^(e inflit^ns 
 
 ■^^•-'- ■■- * ' - * ' ;.....'..■ '■.-'*^a11 
 
 '^..' 
 
l& 
 
 icatioas.oyiio- 
 
 to attacHpni, 
 fan life wiif l)e 
 notely« to arife 
 property and 
 I, and improye 
 rementfH^peinds 
 *>d ; % J^cm 
 Ve are toli 
 
 givers <|oliyt< 
 md ' i:c^iilatir(g 
 round with ri- 
 
 is zdulikit, 
 I 
 
 111. i^c. 
 
 has W8tl Hef- 
 1 buoanfodlety 
 
 e«ttc< 
 
 is<9', 
 
 It lirbes. 
 G. ItiqilU Cslti. 
 
 SAS 
 
 ft the lei^»f^ 
 
 |^i!!iter<»iliife; 
 
 itd^lpdnb^to 
 
 tibf^rnable, 
 
 eaiHilhe. moft 
 
 Jioie th^ porpc- 
 
 and p^eierves, 
 
 nclijItcfualLand 
 
 ns 
 
 uinftiti 
 
 ( 33 ) 
 
 |S dur Tocial duties w^II be found at varioUi • 4iT- 
 Ipe^s to rangiB themfejves ; fome more near, ooVi* 
 oufiy effcntial to the good order of human tife, 
 others more remote, ^nd ox which ti)e h^e<^&y is 
 notat^rft vi^w to apparent, and fdme fo jStanc> 
 that their iiiiportid^t has been fometimes doubted, 
 tbough upon more mature c^fideration they will, 
 b^ round to be outpojtf f n^ adi^anced guards of 
 t]hefe fundamental ptincip^^, that man mould fe- 
 cureiy enjoy the fruits of his I i hour, an4 that the 
 uxiety of tne fexes fhouTd be fo wifely ordered Jit to 
 make it a fchool of the kind a&^ions, and^i Bt nut 
 lery for the commonwealth. ,,,- 
 
 The fubjed of ^ro^^r/v !« of ^reat extetit.' tt Srill 
 be neceifary to eHiabllm the foundation di^lllrighti 
 of ac(|uifition, alienation, and tranfmifllon, iiot in 
 ]|naginiry contrails or a pretended ftate of nature, 
 out ta their fubferviency to the fubfiften<je and iirell- 
 beiog of mankind. It Wi^^t^oly be curious, but 
 ufeful, to trace the hiftory;^ property from the 
 it^rft loofe and tranfi^l occupancy of the favage, 
 through all the modi^lfttioAs which it has at different 
 times received, to that com|f(|iiei^ve, fubtle, and 
 anxiously minute code of property which is the lafl 
 riflilt of the moH refined c^Mteition. 
 
 I fliall obferve the fame order in confidering the 
 fociety of the fexes as it is regulated by the inftitu- 
 ti^h of marriage*. IJ^all <^^|||(||iP|^<^^ Uy op^Q 
 tl^fe unalterable jg^ruiciples cOniral |{||f^reil on 
 which that i||l(itutiOn reits : a|^<^P|piitert£in a hope 
 tfaatotthiil^j^ I ilitjr be i|ble |o ipd fpmethi^g to 
 what our niJlfters itiwtaHty have: taught u«, I t^eft, 
 that the reader will^ir in mmd, as m istcofe for 
 
 F my 
 
 * See on this fubJefE an inctiinparrsble frajurient of the firft 
 book of Cicero's Economic*, whicfa ii tob Tdi|ffbr tnftrtion 
 here, but whidH if It tie tlofeiy exumined^ mre perhaps: (itfpei 
 tbfe iHuflon of thtfie gdotlemcA, who hare fo ftraDgelj^ taken it 
 for granted, that Cicero was^incapable of exa£t reafoniog. 
 
i: vi 
 
 '-. » ,■ 
 
 
 in^pfffuinption, that li&#y wcr^pot likely toem^fbv 
 iftueh irgariient where thiiilid ia«t forefee the jgpii^ 
 bilit^ 6f doubt. I mall'lllbcoDrideir th|billonr| 
 of iD^ilaglt, ^nd trsfce it thioiigh all the forms which 
 it hit affumcidv to that deceiit add happy perma- 
 nency of uiibn, which has,p6dkm41^^ all other 
 caufedl, cohtiibuted to the quMffw fociety, and the.- 
 tefihement of mannei^ In modcirn timea. Aipqng 
 many other inquiries %h^ this fubjedi wiU fiiggeft, 
 I (hall be led mote, parfk^pl^ty to examitie the na^ 
 i^al ilation and duties of tile female 'lbc,.their con- 
 dition among diffeteiit tiatibb^, its Improvement itt 
 Mlt>f»fri, atid the bounds which NitUre herfelf has 
 prefcribed to the progrtfs of that impi;i»veoMnt ; be- 
 yt>nd ^bi£h, every jsiretendtd aflvahc^ will be a real 
 d«gradi[ti6H. 
 
 in. Having edabtiih^d the prititciples of private 
 duty, I (hall ^loceedto confider hian under the im- 
 portant relation of (ubneift knd fovereign^ or, ih 
 Other words, of citi^W -Sd magiftrate^ TTie du- . 
 tios Which atife fronl^<!^relatioti I (hall endeavour 
 tcteOablifh. notMponfuppofedooitipads, whidiVe- 
 altogether cbimerilc^l, whic)i muft be admitted! to W 
 falfein faft, whi^ wthey are to be con(iderCd as 
 fictions, will be' found to fervf no purpofe of juft 
 
 reafoning, 
 
 r ■ Ih ^ 
 
 f. This pr&gr^ (t is Iric^d with ^reat iccur«cy in ibme be3tt« 
 tifui Jin«||}f Lucietitts: ^ • ■ . ' 
 
 -HuRet conjuiil^avtro conceit in unu^^^. .^ 
 
 Cogjiita fuiitf proleinqQ«cxic viedre coortami . ^ 
 
 TuM aKKUS MVMANUM PKiMUM l*0|.l^|MGBRCQaaPIT. 
 
 ■ ; " - y j r ' 'puerifqw; parenUina 
 
 Blanditils facile ingenium fregere iuperbum. 
 
 Tune et amichiam f^rperunt Juagt^t h«K)eiMci 
 
 Piniljmill i|iter,6r, nee kedfie n^c violare. 
 
 £t da£roscomj99^t^ftfuBtWtIicbr«^ue ibclum • - 
 
 Vggfius et gcll||bmbdi)i1igjii%a^gnt 
 
 'M 
 
y tocmftbtf 
 ee the ^m 
 ,h|biftorr| 
 brms wbiGD 
 
 ppy P*"***- 
 ivt all other 
 ;ty, ind the.' 
 -a. Aip^ng 
 wiH itiggeft, 
 nit&e the m* 
 Kyvtheir con* 
 movement irt 
 t herfelf has 
 vcmcnt; be* 
 nrill be a real 
 
 • ■*■ 
 :s of private 
 indcr the im» 
 reign* or, ih 
 The du-| 
 endeavour 
 c, >whidi'«re.'^ 
 ItoittedttoM ' 
 >nfider<*d as 
 |pofc of juft 
 reafoning, 
 
 in feme be?«i-. 
 
 nr. 
 
 ■'*&.' 
 
 lOlO— 10|2« 
 
 
 ( ;?5 ) 
 
 n^afoning, and tQ be equally the foundation 
 rl# Mm of univeit&l 'd^tifm in Hobbei, a 
 '" aniveifaii^arcby i|i Rdufifeau.; but ^ tnf.|(^ 
 ii9 of general convenience. Men canniil futjj^ 
 out foc^ety and imitual aidj they cap lieith^ niain 
 tain fecial ipterjIuRb nor receive aid from eacb 
 "other without the pitf^'edtiQa ,.of j^ovcrnuiciit; and 
 thejTiiannot enjoy that prot^cl^n without fubmitting 
 tk> the reflraintA which aju^ , government impofes. 
 This plain argument eftaDlfUj^s the duty of q}^ 
 dience on the part of cipzens, and the duty of p|Of 
 te£tion on that of magiftrates, on the fa(Qe foit04lH 
 0pn with that gtf eyery qthei moral duty i,.an4 i|^ 
 (hews, wit)^ ftifHcient evidence, that the^ d^iei^ 
 fireTedprocaVl th^ bhly rational end for which tbr; 
 ^ion of a ^n^ra^ pould bavc; been invented, t 
 fh^W not encudihii^tny reafonh^g by {\py fpeculatioqii 
 p# the origin of governmer]yU^^|i gueftion Oft which 
 fomuch rieaibn has been ^|ll^;Jp inodern timeout 
 hut wi\ichthe ^nciet^ts ^ inj^^t^er fpirij of philocv 
 fophv havf never qnce iQOOtelP )f,our pvinc^l<:;a.b^ 
 pj^llrthe origin of gof%fnn?epl i^yft b?^y^ b^en cq- 
 ^lj|l>vitti that of mapkifi^ aitfl^Mo tribe has ever 
 yet been difcbve^ed fq briitij|||^t^ l^ without fome 
 government/ ^nd yet fo epUp^^gl m$ to edabliih 
 a gbvernli^nt by common coDfeatt |t is furely un'> 
 
 ^>)eceffary to employ fc^ ferious |||^ment JQjthecoQ 
 ifi|$tion of a dodrioe twlKiii^^o^%^ 
 ^and 'uniupported by 
 
 eafon> 
 J though all i(^- 
 
 ^uides into tbf origin 0f govei^-I^^M^ 9^!^^^'^^ 
 
 nee.. 
 
 render ma" necciTarily a foeial ^ii^g; ll j^fi|y '^l^jiy^U^Ni^ 
 
 tfe fame ft|tC(Qe of jihitetophy-fe a(!(nMlr»Bly pui^fiiw iB the 
 -ort, but valuabie.fr^gmcntof thefixth book of Poly bins, which 
 efciibes the hiftory and reyolHtipni of goverqivent. 
 
J 
 
 I 
 
 ih 
 
 'is 
 
 » 
 
 Hiftorr of it« p^roiitra^lbrious and (ilrfbl. 
 DMt ftiget Uiripugli \9hi(ik it paVcd from f 4- 
 
 
 mini's *^ 
 
 xili liQicjpwiaeDce, wmcn imfyii^a tj|ry mim's 
 |iovic^r ^fl* inji^ing his neighbAur, t&nfUVibtnyf 
 ivbiidb con{i|f jn every man^s fecunty againft wrong ,* 
 the manneriin which a family c|l||i9ds into a tribe, 
 and tribes coalefce into a Aj^omf in which public 
 juftice is gradually engrafted oh private reven|e*iDd 
 lemporaiv fobmiifioj^ ripened into habltuin ' Xihp, 
 dkioce^ mm n jacii Af^^ttMi jtnld extepf^ve fu6- 
 jfj^ of enquiry,^ i^)iiQ|i comprehends all the improve* 
 ^n^tifif mankiii<l in policy, in judicattire, and in 
 
 I b^^c already given the rcadef ^^gjli^erftand- 1 
 tbtd|f(j|9i^ption of liberty which feema t6 m^ the|noft 
 l^mpmeniive, is thkt of ffcurify n^aitf/i vfrrnii. . H^ 
 icrty is therefore the l^jcft of iUjQycrnmcnt. JWen 
 ift more free under efery governmwt Cirfb th^iQoft 
 
 ^r'^fcnperfeiV, than t^0 |rot4d be if it i^er<ep60iblefor 
 themtQexiif witbQ|^,;4fi!governixient at all ; they 
 «re more fecure fr^Mfp^g, more undtfturb$4 m Wf 
 
 ,; txercifi oftbfir naiuf^u^^^ aiid ibfrefm fMr$ Jrie^ 
 evtn in the nuJ^Mufijs anil^Jptfi fenfi ^ the imtd, 
 than if they w<^pi|%^het unprote^ied^ a^^ainft ini 
 jury from eadii;^^ But as general ibcunty is en^ 
 joyed in ven^ (pHent degrees uQder <f|^erent go, 
 vera ments, tBQ£||Wbich guard it: mod perfedlly, are 
 by ^|P^ of emiMi^e eaU^^ftf. Such govcrnloittjts 
 •attain- iQiifti|^^^j|j^^^ which Js cooimon ' to 
 fiU go^|ii|i|p,f^^j^^pift^^^ government 
 
 'iind ia iodd yiftHiilion (^ govcmni^ ar<? thetc, 
 ^diSerent cxpreflions for thefani*^|p, 
 
 A|iotber mateiial diftin£lion, how^e^ %oo pre* 
 fej|tf iti^lf. 1^ nio^l civilj^c^ ftates the fuWesft is to- 
 ' ^' A^ffij^ctkd againft grpfs injuftice fro his 
 Wf impartial laws, which is the llianifcft 
 
 ^^,£.fntlM§ # tjbe fpvCre^n to enforce. But foiie com- 
 mon weaiHSI are fp happy sis to be {pUnded on a 
 
 priaciple 
 
 .p 
 
paWed from fii- 
 
 t^t^Jl liberty, 
 igainft wrong ; 
 is into a tri^, 
 which public 
 te reven|c>aocl 
 
 extepf^ve fu6- 
 (1 the improve* 
 cattire, aod in 
 
 mderftandthiat 
 tb ov^ the |noft 
 
 ^erhmenc. JMen 
 t, evfb themoft 
 ^er<ep60iblefor 
 it at all ; they 
 %difturb$4m ipf 
 
 iff of the mfd, 
 
 i fe^unty is eiu 
 5r (liferent go, 
 I perfedlly, are 
 ch govcrnlni^ts 
 I is cbinmon to 
 Off govern ment 
 »eiJi^ar<? theic. 
 
 , ^^^v" pre, 
 
 the fubjeft is to- 
 
 rftice from his 
 
 [8 the «lanife(l 
 
 But fottie com- 
 
 fpUoded on a 
 
 pnaciple 
 
 .'AT 
 
 lW\ 
 
 * 
 
 %: 
 
 
 C %$7- ) 
 
 otfecr extraordtouy if^mpl^ pf p<ib% #rim»e ejR- 
 Ce!lei)cp »q(J nl^t^Xs; are thfely (cJlller^ Over tfee 
 ^{ffip^l^at agei ^ntrmhtr^tof the woi^ldt IP |hem the 
 
 wjR^f the (pv(?reigaj|jprftf<l wftl) f^ «i»^ ? mtfi^ 
 Air», J^at % prpt?i^^|j«ttopijt7l»»f?t we^k^ 
 
 i^fi a fi^ipu^itio p.qpj 4nd fertw?c 19 pprpftcp 
 
 to be expefltcd, ?p4 iA*^ |»i:^r cjp ^rff 
 from the ^Wtftapt A^^k ^rldii^l ^unygj^f 
 dqaji ^^^mii^tp improve a Ipog fu^ofiPb 
 fj^vQ!Mtfnpte 4t9>mftanf e9f ' « 
 
 3j<?rf y ipdked fc*i.ee |iHy fociety iig%MN})^ 1^ 
 tp be defJitwtepf fcmiP fprtpf wcajf prpvillfajiibirift 
 the inivift!c« <jf j$i\f gpyerp^if" Kelj|*ou8 ioftity. 
 
 •»9|i8, favpprjtf pre^naiceA jutipngl iw^nacrt, Jiayp 
 daftrent ?9V|ntnef, #p||e^u4^de^fee9 Qf Iprce, 
 jec|ced pr jwitigated;* ' 
 pKiyllege* pf 
 
 m^^^ 
 
 cifeoffiipieoj^pp^er. 
 .... ^^^ . i npbiUty, Qf ppiieot 
 ijjwcantile pwowNftti^^ itf Jir?»t7y<3ici*l cor 
 pipr^ttoiis, hfyf ip^ fpoJif '" " 
 
 nipre Hi a^: Iq a ^^tfwl |H5 , . _ 
 
 have ^^ 4cv.if^d>kn if^P'rc ^IbTs mUiom toftaoj. 
 
 per ^ defgPMfaj of aj3i ariitpjiriiiijy over tbfir f^h- 
 
 ^0^, and in de^raciei tilM^ the minority 
 
 agalQft the oaajp^l^^^ ^f IEH!^ pdHpe i^ainft 
 
 if v^^ i^fMie individual dr Iflne otim^ li4« ob, 
 W»» Wybc legMtewp jpower may fl^uiSdl tljp 
 ;ipi(rabt»^^icti thel^wmveimpofi^pailii AUrych 
 4|0ii«rQm«nt8, iherefi^iie, tend t«|pil^[piitifni, and 
 ^e fecurities which di«^ admi^i|ii| la^orern- 
 ment are extremely feeble and ptecskH^lii^ ^^c befl 
 jie^jil^ Wfeicb bwmafl wS3fe«i <:a«||eiia, ^ms to 
 
 be 
 
% 
 
 (■3« )j 
 
 b0^h| diftrlbiitioQ of political authority among dif^ 
 tMi^a#yicliii^ls>nd oodij^s, wifh.feparate intereftt 
 ad#'^iai^Me^ characters, ^ t%,the vim^ 
 
 rfcty#'i^affc» of which civirfocicty is coii|po(^^ 
 each u|terli^lRi6d t^ guard their own order from op- 
 preflidi^t^thKf r^^ ; each alfo inter^^f ci to prevent any 
 of the otfi<^rsfro'm fei^ing on eii:c|t|tfiy^, ^nd therefore 
 defpoti^ po#er / and all h|iying.a common intfre^ 
 to co-operate lit cafiriaga^^^ ordins^ry and fici- 
 ceifary admi&i^rs^tiinSt^ ia^gdVernme^ If there 
 wereiipt an intejreit Ip tieiSft^each other in eztraQrdf- 
 |iai||jl||i^;ther^'«i^t|lil^^ If there were 
 
 ^not |aN^lf|eil to co-operate in tti^^ioary cburfe 
 i)f a£&i|8^ there could be no govern th^i]^ The ob-. 
 je^0f fuch wife inftitutiphs which make tile li^lji^i^ 
 neffitf ^v^iliors a iecurity againft their injuilice, ^ ^ 
 to prcteS men againft urroqg both from their ruleni 
 and their fellows. Such governments are,/with ju{^ 
 tic^^'t^uUafly andem|;i^a|i^lycalled/rf^^ jiod in 
 afcribing that Iftyerty^g^ the;|kiirul combination o£ 
 mutual 'dependence at^r*i^uiual checH> I feel- my 
 ow^i convi£iioQ greatly ftretigtbened by calling !» ' 
 mind, that in this ^oion I agree with all the wife 
 men who have ever .d^ply confidered the prin- 
 ciples of politics; 'Wtk' Ariftotle and Polibius, 
 virith Cicero and Tacitus, with Bacon and Macfaiavel^ 
 with ]VIont<^r(}uieu ap4 Hume ^. It is impofiible it| 
 
 fucli 
 
 ■ '"CW" 
 
 * 1*0 i\\e weight .)||^y(^ gf^ )jMi||^ add the opitir6a 
 
 of two HlaOri4Mi Qi^^l^e pmiM^tr m both their opinions 
 are cqinbined W one 4n^4Heili^^^^ ps^ffii^i ** He 
 
 /^ (Mr. Fox) always fliiDugbt any of th!frlfirtiple uhblmtfte^ go. 
 ** vernments bad; fimple moaarcHjrr^iiil^leViftacracyf finij^e 
 *< democracy; he held them ail imperibft or vicious, lili were 
 ** bad by t^ni^^a^ the compofititfiii ftlone was good.*' Thefe 
 « had l)ceii illiil hit principles. In which he had agreed With 
 ^ .._ -/^ "" ~ /^f " ' " 
 
 9th Feb, 1790. 
 
 ♦' his friend, lEI^Bttrke. 'VMr. Fox on theArhiy JEftiitiart|j, 
 
 in ({faking of' bolhflKreiiiiiilriotfsmen, whofe nahi^jiiTheat' 
 jvjju, as they ¥^ill be joined in &me by pofteriiy, which will for. 
 
 h i->i 
 
 ■^' 
 
among dif^ 
 ate intereftf 
 
 t%thc vjfa^ 
 I compofed, 
 r froiii op- 
 preveotaiiy 
 nd therefore 
 aon intend 
 ry apd fie- 
 ff ^here 
 % cxtraprdx- 
 • there were 
 0ary cburfe, 
 t The ob« . 
 
 iDJuilice, ^ * 
 their ruler^ 
 [Cj/withjuf. 
 ee4 JMsd iQ 
 )ination of 
 
 I feel- my 
 callitig ib ' 
 
 II the wife 
 the prin- 
 
 Polibius, 
 Vlacbiavel^ 
 e iti 
 
 1 the opT(if6a 
 keir opinions 
 W: ** Me 
 
 |nicy« fim^e 
 
 18, jUi wece 
 
 W Thefe 
 
 igreed wUh 
 
 ^aiQes 1 hear 
 :h will foi-<P 
 
 ( 39 ) 
 
 fttch a curfory iketeh as the prefent, ^ven to aUii|||, 
 t^ a very fmallpart of thoib philofophical pi^|[|«d||^. 
 I^itical ^fonrngs, and hiilorical fa^» lii|^|ar4^ 
 n^ceifsii^ fbi^the illuftration of this moineiitoi|i fub^ 
 je£l. Ih a full difoiffion of it I (hall be obliged to 
 examine, the geWm frame of the mq:^ celebrated 
 governments of aiitmit and modern times, and ef- 
 peclatliy of thofe which hpe i>een mod renowned 
 for their freedom. Tlif" fsfwt of fuch an examina- 
 tion Ijnllb^ that no inftif^tfbnipjkteftable asan^ab- 
 folutely unBalanced povernpiii^y^ ^cfhaps cy^^^gj^i-^ 
 ed ; that the fit^|||f go^reinmclhts are mere cr^|i|roi o(^ 
 the imaginatliiiFdf theorifts, who have trani^p#edv 
 names qfed &t the convenient of arrangeinent%|flQ . 
 lea] poHtics ; that as conftitutions of governi^l^i^ 
 proach more nibarly to that ^njnixed and undiitM^- 
 led fimplicity they become defpqitic, and as theyrf^ 
 cede farther from that fimpUdty they become ft^. 
 ^y the conftitution of ajp^^onean *' theb^ypf, 
 '* ibofi written and unwr^$^0^aiunentai.laws whfSl 
 " regulate the mq/t importMti^l^s of the hiiher magif" 
 ** trates^ afidthe moji eJfemMlprivifeget*o]f'tbefubJe6ls** . 
 Such a body of political law:s muiit in all countries , 
 arife out of the character and filiation of a people ; 
 
 they 
 
 •-*■- 
 
 get their tempcKrary differences in the recolfeeltion of their geni- 
 us t^d their friendihip. I cb'^t entertaiii|h.> vain inclination 
 that I call add to their gji«^^^y any t|tt|^il^^ I can fay. But 
 it is aerification t||i«i« It ppirt^^ to 
 
 expreis the profound veneration wixh yrhbtJiladfi ^d for the 
 menior^ i^fdie one, and the warm affctiS^iba^hichl cherifli for 
 the otlw^|(|^oni no opif fver heard m p^biwk without adihira^' 
 tipn, '^Meffyt in private Itfe.without loving. 
 
 * B'lX'i^jp^t in Ronian jurifprudencc, mesas the «ArM|l^i«i of 
 one ii^(i|yidual from ihe operation of a law. Politieal privile- 
 ges, in.t]he Cenfe in which I employ: IlieternnSt m'ean|iii>re riifcits 
 of the fubjedaof a free ftate, which are deemed JQ) elKHouHM to 
 the well beinftof thecommonweaUhi t^tl^»ii^i(^(«</ff<E^ 
 the ordinary difcretioft of the ifiagi0ratef iiKl^^iai4l||^ the 
 fame ttjn4i'mentai laws which fecure his authority. 
 
'** 
 
 ( 40 ) 
 tB^ fflud^fOW ^2th Its pfbgrefs. Be a^apM id its 
 
 porated iiito it* habit*. Hu man ^'tfdom cannot Ibrm 
 fuCh a <:6nflitutioii by one afi, for biinian ^dpn^ 
 csihffb&cf^ate the iflnateiials of which it is compored. 
 The a'ttcmpf, alwiyi iheffeduar, .to change By yio- 
 1enc<^ the'atiCieht habits of men, and the eftamiflled 
 otder df fbci^ty, fo as td fit theoi for an abfoTulely 
 new f<^eniedf Cd^ei^niant, iSows frdi«4^e ihou 
 pi^efufKttj^uous igfidifance, requires the iw^ptaOM the 
 
 inttfi^ ilrocibuS ^t^^°T' ^"^ ^^^^ ^^ confeqiiea* 
 d^ Di^hteh irs aititndi'* can iieveir ferei^} gcaeralYy^ 
 lAde)^, t6 iniiitutions the liioR oppbfitefb tBo^ 
 of ^M^ they i^rofefs to feek th^'^abliiiiRieDt ^. 
 Bd^iMftfatl wifdbm indefajigabtj eiiipl^id fof re- 
 itxdfitig abuf''''., and in fazingfavourame opportu- 
 nftiel of improving that 6tdeY df kcUtj wtilch ariies 
 fjtolh c^ufe^ over Which- ^ have little control after 
 the F^f6rnisand afllilleli^i^wnits of a feries of ages, has 
 fottietlmes, though f 61^ iar^ty f, (howq itfelf capa- 
 ble of building up k ittt c^cNSliltution, wl»c^ is *^ the 
 " gfrov^th of time and tiaf Ure, rather than the Work <tf 
 *^ human invention."' Sdch a conflitytion can on^bd 
 
 * Sccjin adiniraUc pafTagc on this fuhje6^ '\n Dr. Smith's 
 Theory of Moral Sentiments, vol ii. p, i6i-^t li, in Wh»fft the 
 tru^ do£lrtne of reformatioo islatddblrA «rtth fil^nter ability^ 
 that eloquent and pbitofophical «^}llrt-^See»tlt>M(-. Iui1c6'^ 
 fpcech oh etOntfmJeat r^orih ; alii ir*^lii* HlfWh theioitnld- 
 inent 6f laws, in thef coikaion of My Xtik^ and lAoft ^tM^H 
 friend, Mr. HargraVj6, p. 148. ^^ 
 
 •i^ 
 
 f Pourf6rmer un gobVe^fteltitHt (rtbdwl, il fa'uf c6rijbililf 
 les puilTances, les regler, les temperer, les faire.agir,. dooncr 
 poUr ainfi dirte nn led ic I'untf pditr la nnettre en ^at de rtffi^er s 
 ime autre, c'efturt chef d'dtuv rede legiflation que \e hiMxA^faM 
 laiCfiidot, tx mi rarenrkfchl on 6irfe ^ire i la prudence. Urt 
 giSUvertteitjrfnf Wp6tie(ij<f ah cdntralfe fautrfpbut rfitffi dire atirf 
 yei^^ il eft tlttlfbi-rti* fiArtbulf; tbix\tt\t W He Wirt qu* des pdlidntr 
 poiif VrAMvr tout Ifc niortdif m Bon poOf ^^la. 
 
 Moiiirfqtfiett, ^' t*tfpTir tft5 Lo;«, liv. v. c. 14. 
 
 
lapM id Its 
 mdbe inco^> 
 cannot Ibrtn 
 [nan i/iwdpn^ 
 is coropored. 
 ahge Jy yio- 
 le eftamifted 
 D abfoTOIvlv 
 poKtfie moft 
 ifjfidffef the 
 confeqnen* 
 } gciierally^ 
 >fite(6 tBo& 
 iblifiiaieiit ^. 
 Idii^id fo^ re- 
 Me pppdrtu- 
 wtiicDariies 
 ontrol) after 
 of ages, baa. 
 Mtfelf capa- 
 Bc]^ is *^ the 
 tbe tvork oi 
 canon^bd 
 ed 
 
 w 
 
 Dr/,Smiib'5 
 rater abUftylf 
 
 fa'iit C6tj 
 .ajir,.donncr 
 tit cTe r^fi^er i 
 
 ^u^crice. Vti 
 
 stivffidireatii^ 
 
 iu<idesp^dn9 
 
 liv. V. c. 14^ 
 
 iS 
 
 ^ ( 41 ) 
 
 rmed by the w ife imitation of *' M^ f^eat intim^mk 
 m%^[ *' whicl^j kictecd* iftnovateth greatly/ §W 
 ^^H^ji a nd bj degr^te fca rce vb be perceived { ." 
 ' ithQiH dercending to |hc puerile oHentation of pa- 
 negyrtC| pn th$t ^> %hich all mankind ccinfe(« the 
 B, lm3Ly00evt^ with truth and fobemefs, 
 hat A friie government not Q|||y eftablifhcs an univer- 
 a| fci^ity againft wron^ #^ that it alfo cheriihes 
 no^ijl powers of tbe bliman mind; that it 
 ends t^ banifh both the mean, and tbe ferocioMs vi- 
 es ; that: h improves |ii^ natioiml jcb»ra£ter to )iirhick 
 t is adaptil, lig oii0f ^bich it gi^ws; (iiiiw 
 bple admiiillttJkAi iit a praaical fchool of honefty 
 nd hiHiii^^ • '^^ that there the fbcial afie^imi^ 
 xpandtd tii^^publiG rpiit, ^siti^a wider fphefi^lliiitl 
 mor^ a^v^^fing*-^-?^. 'y-.y ^: ^ 
 
 I fiiall Qoaici^Mbl ^llt I I^Ye to ofier on gove»ii<' 
 ent, by an account of the>^n^yption of England, 
 {hall endeavour to trace t}^^i&p!9k»cif that confii- 
 ution by the light of hiflorYpil^^S) and^&f records^ 
 m the ^r^e(t times fP^e prj^fent age ; and to 
 w liow the general pjrinciples of liberty, originally 
 to it, wi^ th^ Gthetf jQothic monarchies 
 p^ but in other countries loft or obfcured, 
 ere in (his more fortunate ifliand preferved, matured 
 and adapted^to t)|e progrefs of civilii^ion. I (hall 
 to e^ibit this moft complicated machine^ 
 ijiftpry^^d pc^ Ji^ga ftiow It ift ai^ion ;^ and 
 as lomp ||ttebr3^Nrdii#6rs ^aise moft imperfectly 
 ~ iie4 it^ whi^^ b^v« torn out ai^bf its more 
 f^iQU^Ismdv putting them tether, niiicall 
 ^e Briti(k coollicution. So p^riftvalent, indeed* 
 have tbefe imperfeft reprefentations, iikMerto been^ 
 that I will venture to affirm, there is fcarcely any fub- 
 je£l which has been lefs treated as it deferved than 
 the government of England. Pbilofopbtis: of gr^at 
 
 Q an4 
 
 M 
 
 4 Lord Bacan, EfTay xnjv. Of Innovatiofnif 
 
 #W' 
 
■-■■ i 
 
 ;^ 
 
 k V. 
 
 ( 42 ) 
 
 Ihd merited reputation * have told us that it conCfted 
 of^^«ertain vpontohs of monarchy, ariftocracy, and de- 
 moCmcy I names which ate, m truth vety little ap- 
 plicable, and which^ if they were, would as tittle 
 give an idea of this government^ as an account of the 
 weight of bone, of flefh, and of blood in a homan 
 body, would be a pidure of aiilitig man* Nothing 
 but a patient and minute inveftigation of thepradHce 
 of the governmeut in all its parts, and through its 
 whole hillory, call give us juft notions on thi^ impor- 
 tant fubjed. If a lawyerj without a philofophical 
 fpirity be unequal to the examination of this great 
 workvdf liberty andwrifdom, ftill more unequal is a 
 philofajpher without practical, legal, and hiftorical 
 keiowledge; for the firft may want (kill, but the fe* 
 cosfd -Wants matciiaUa The obfervatloris of Lord 
 
 Bacon on poUtical writers, in genera^v a^^ "'^^ ^P* 
 plicable to thofe who have givetf Us fyftemattc de- 
 fcriptions of th© Eng^Wb coriftitution. *• all thofe 
 " who have'writtentif governments hdV€ writteh as 
 pbilofopbcrs, or at lawyers, and none as Jiatefmen. 
 As for the phi! ofophel*,'they make imaginary laws 
 for imaginary common wealths, and their difcourfes 
 areas the liars, which give littki light becaiifd they 
 aie fo high^"— -•* Hac cdgmtio ad vims cii)iles propfih 
 pertinety'* as he tells us in another part of his wri- 
 tings ; but unfortunately no experienced philofpphi- 
 cat^^riti{h Itatefman has yet devoted-Ms leifute to a 
 delineation of the conftitution^ whfeh fuch a f^atef^ 
 man aione ckn practically tffid per fe6Hy know. 
 
 In tlie djfcuflion of this great fubjed, af)d in all 
 reafonings on the principles ©f politicks, I fhall la- 
 bour, abo\c all things, to avoid that which ap^ars 
 to me to have been the cOnftant foin<!e of political 
 
 <t 
 
 {( 
 
 «t 
 
 <( 
 
 error 
 
 ^ 
 
 * The f«0$r will pcioeive that I al'ude to MdNTEscijriEu, 
 whom 1 nevQr name without r^yerencc, though I fhall pref<ime 
 with humilifV, to critirize hi» account ft a goverumeiu which 
 he only f«w at a diftancc< 
 
 
lat it confifled 
 :racy, anddd- 
 vety little ao- 
 Bvould as little 
 accotiiit of the 
 >d in a human 
 tan* Nothing 
 of the pradHce 
 fid through its 
 onthi^impor- 
 philolbphical 
 n of this great 
 re unequal is a 
 , and hiftorical 
 till, but the fe* 
 atibhs of Lord 
 I, are moft ap* 
 fyftematic de- 
 all thofe 
 
 
 
 
 7f 
 
 ( 43 i 
 
 • 
 I 
 
 «c 
 
 1. 
 
 liV^ writteh as 
 one as Jiatefmen. 
 imaginary laws 
 their difcourfes 
 tbecaufethcy 
 \bs cii)iies proprte 
 art of his wri- 
 ;ed philofophi- 
 feis leifufre toa 
 fuch aflfatcf* 
 y know, 
 lea, aftdirt all 
 :k8, I (hall la- 
 which ap^ars 
 e of political 
 
 14* 
 
 erroi t 
 
 "MdNTESCijriEV, 
 
 |h I (hall prefiime 
 )veriiment which 
 
 nor: I mean the attepipt to give an#ir of fyfte»ii« 
 f fiinplicity, and^Qf rigorous demonftratioo, toiub^ 
 fts which do not admit jt. The only means by. 
 Vhich tFiis could be done, lyas by referring to a few 
 iiniple caufes, >nth^t, in truth, arofe frqm immerife 
 dintricatecombifii^QQS, and r^cceifionsofcauies. 
 he confequefice wa^very.p^bvious. The fyftem of* 
 c theoriit, djfenpumbered from all regard to the 
 1 nature of things,, eafily affumed an air oi fpe- 
 ^Ijoufnefs. It required little dexterity to make his ar- 
 ument appear conclu&ve- But all men agreed that 
 was utterly inapplicable to human aflairs* - The 
 eorifl railed at the folly of the world, inftcad of 
 lonfelfing hif own ; and the men of pradlice unjuftly 
 lamed pluldfopby inftead of condemning thefophilt. 
 ^he caufes whiph the politician has toconfider, arc 
 bove all others, multiplied, mutable, minute, fubtile, 
 nd if I may fofpeak, evancfc^pnt ; f»erpetually cbang^ 
 ng their fprm, and varying, tlfeir cooabinations ; iof- 
 g their nature while they ktse'p their name ; exhi- 
 ling the mol^ different confequences in the endlefs 
 riety of men and nations on whom they operate ; 
 one deg]-ee of ilrengih- prodqcing the mo iignal 
 nelits ; and under a (light variation of circunii^ances, 
 ^be moll tremendous mifchiefs,. T^^y admit indeed 
 pf being reduced totheqry; bat to a theory formed 
 the moft ^xt^nlive view§, of the rnoll comprehen.T 
 e and flexible principles to embrace all their varic- 
 es, and lo fit all their rapid tranfmigrations; a theory 
 which the moft fundamental maximis, diftruft in 
 felf, and deference for pradlical prudence. Only 
 wo writers of former times, have as far as I know, 
 bferved this general defedl of political reafoners ; 
 4)ut thefe two are the greateft philofophers who have 
 ever appeared in the world. The firft of them is 
 Aiiftotle, who, in a palTageof his ppliticklijto whi'ch 
 I cannot at this mpinent turn, pla inly cogiiemns the 
 i>inruit of a delulive geometrical accuracy in moral 
 
 reafoningS 
 
( 44 ; 
 
 reaforiingSas the fonftant fourcc of thcgroflTclrcfror. 
 Tbff fecond ii^Ciord Bacon, who tellft us, with that 
 aruthcrityorconfcious wifdom which belong! to him, 
 and with that power of rtchlv adorning ttuth^om 
 the wardrobe of genius which he pofleficd above 
 almo/izW in^, ** Civil knowledge is converfant about 
 ** a fubje^ whichV above all others is moftimmerfec) 
 *' in matter, and hsrdUeft reduced to axiom*.* 
 
 IV. I ihall next endeavour to lay open the ifeneral 
 principles of <iki\ and criminal laws* ' On this fub. 
 je6l I may with fome confidence hope that I ihall be 
 enabled to philofophi;;e with iietter materials by my 
 acc|irii^rance with the laws of my own country, 
 which it is the bufinefs of my life to pradlice, and of 
 which the {ludy has by habit become my favourite 
 purfuit. 
 
 The firft principles of jurifprudence are iimple 
 maxims of reafon, of which the obfervance isitnroe* 
 diaicly difcovered by experience tobceflential to the 
 fecurity of men's rights^ and which pervade the laws 
 of all countries. An account of the gradual applica-r 
 tion of thefe original principles, firil, to more hmple 
 and afterwards to more complicated cafes, forms 
 both the hiftory and the theory of law. Sueh an 
 hiftorical account of the progrels of men, in reduc- 
 ing juftice to an applicable and pra^ical fyftem, 
 will enable us to trace that chain iri which fo many 
 breaks and interruptions s^re perccive4 ^y ftipi^r^cia( 
 
 pbferverSj, 
 
 * This principle is expreffed bjr a writer of a very differcnc 
 chareAer from thefe two great phitofopberi j a writer, ** tu*on 
 '* n'opfdUra plus piilofofhey mats quUff appelltta It flut alo(pt0it da 
 fophifles^** with great iforcr, and, as Imk manner ii, witbfome ex- 
 aggeration. 
 
 ^^ II n^y a point de principea aodraits dans ta politique. C'eft 
 ^ une fciencr des calqa|t 4et comb! oat fon» et dci rxi^cpttons, 
 •* ielojn Us li^tfx, les tcsM et lei cucna^n^ti^^Lettre de Rovf- 
 fcau au M^jiuisde MirtiSe4u» 
 
 The fecoUd profofitioo ^ trve ; but the fir^ ii 90t a jiiO infe^ 
 rcncc fromiv 
 
 W 
 
 il#< 
 
c groffeft *'f ror. 
 I U8, with that 
 )elongi to him, 
 ling tiutb^om 
 pofleffed above 
 •nverfaqt about 
 moftimmerfed 
 • axiom*.* 
 pen the general 
 
 '■' On this fub- 
 I that I (hall be 
 laterialf by my 
 
 own country, 
 )ra£^ice, and of 
 5 my favourite 
 
 nee are iimple 
 rvance is itpmet 
 ; eifential to the 
 ervade the laws 
 radual applica> 
 to more iimple 
 d cafes, forms 
 law. Such an 
 ifen, in rcduc- 
 ra^ical fyilen:, 
 which fo many 
 4 by fupieriicia^ 
 pbfiprveiSj, 
 
 >f a very different 
 
 s writer, ** fw*«» 
 
 it ptut tlogU(kt da 
 
 • ii, witbfomeex- 
 
 politique. C'ed 
 et def rxfcpttons, 
 **^LeUie de Rouf- 
 
 it pot a jiiil infC' 
 
 '■*t^ 
 
 •''1- 
 /«-. 
 
 •■» » 
 
 A 45 ) 
 
 ob^vers, but vbicb \^ truth. iniep^rifely, though 
 with many dark and hidden windip||s, li|\,^s tq^etber 
 the fecurity of life apd property with t^e P?oft mi- 
 nute apd apparently frivolous formalitie8of|egal pro- 
 ceeding. We {hall perceive that no hun^aa lorelight 
 is fu^cient to eftablifti fuch a fyftern a( once> and 
 that, if it were (9 .e(l^blilhed, the occurrence of un- 
 forefeen cafes would ^rtly altogether change it ; 
 that there is but one way of fprming a civil code, 
 either coniiftent with common fei^fe, or that has ever 
 been pradifed in any couiitry, namely, that of 
 gradually building up the l^w Ip propoi^ipn as the 
 fa£ts arife which it is to regulate. We ^U learn 
 tp appreciate the merit of vulgar obje6ions ^gainft 
 the fubtlety and complexity qf laws. We fliall efti- 
 m^te the good fenfe and the gratitude of ihofe who 
 reproach lawyers for employing all the powers of 
 t{ieir mir^d to difcover fubtle diftindions for the 
 prevention of injuftice* j and. we fhall at once per- 
 ceive that laws ought to lie neither moxtJimpU nor 
 more complex than theftateof fociety which tdey are 
 to govern, but that they ought exadUy toporrcfpond 
 to it. Of the two faufts, however, theexcefsof fim- 
 I^icity would certainly be the greatefl j for laws more 
 complex th#n arcneceflary, would opjy produce eni- 
 barraCfment} wliereaalaws moie firnple than the af- 
 fairs whi^thej? regulate would occafion a defe£l of 
 jljmpe. Itore underftanding f has perhaps been ia 
 |)il| iiiaQqe? e?certed to &^ tl^e rules of life than in any 
 
 other 
 
 . ♦ '* The cafuiftlcal fubtlctles are not perhps greater than 
 W the fobtletks of lawyers; kut ike latter are innoetntf and even 
 neceffary*^ — Hume's Eflays, vol. ii. p. 458. 
 
 t " Law,"faid Dr. Johtifoi*, «* is' the fciene* ift i»hich the 
 " greateft powers of underftaodioyare applied to tbe greateft 
 4' number of faias." Nobody* who is aeqaainted 'with the va- 
 riety and multiplicity of thefubie<Jis of jurifprudencc, and with 
 the prodig^oiia {H^Mers «r difiqrimi^atioir fimployed upon thcna, 
 cat) doubt the truth of thi$ ob^sTvation. 
 
-e 
 
 :*£ 
 
 ( 46 ) 
 
 other fcienob; and it is certainly the mod honourabJi 
 occupation of tt^ underftanding» becaufe it is the 
 moft inMoediately fubfervient to the general fafisty 
 and conifoit* There is ndt, in my opinion, in the 
 whole cothpafa of human affairs, fo noble a fpe£lacle 
 as that whic||)i.l8 difplayed in the progrefs of iurifprup 
 dence; whe?<ei we liiay contemplate the cautidos and 
 unwearied' exertions of a fucceflion df wife men 
 through a long courfe of ages ; withdrawing evsry 
 cafeasit arifes from the dangerous power of difctetion, 
 and fubje^ing it to inflexible rule's; extending the do-* 
 minion ofjuftioe and reafon, and gradually tontra^Qng 
 within the narrowed polTible limits, the domain 
 of briuKal force and of arbitrary will. This fubje^: 
 has beien treated with foch dignity by a writer who 
 is admired by all mankit|d for his eloquence, but 
 who i^, if poBible, dill more admired by all (lompe? 
 tent judges for his philofophy ; a writer, of Whom 1 
 may judly fay, that i»l> was *• graviffim s et dicendi et 
 ** intelligendi auSfor et magi/ier ;** that I cannot re- 
 fufe myfelf the gratiHcatiori of quoting his words : 
 — " The fcience of jurifpf udence, the pride of the 
 " human intelle£^, which, wifh all its defeats, redun- 
 " dancies, and errors, is the colleded reafon or 
 '' ages combining the principles of original judice 
 ** with the infinite variety of humap concerns *.** 
 
 I ftiall exemplify the progrefs of jaw, and illudratC 
 thofe principles of univerfal judice on which it iS 
 founded, by a comparative review of thetWb greatisft' 
 civil codes that have been hitherto formed — thofe of 
 Rome and of England f ; of their agreements and 
 difagreements, both in general provifipns, and in> 
 
 .i .^ :^(bme 
 
 * Burke's Works, vol- iii. p. 134. -;.'*• 
 
 f On ihe infimate connexion of thefe two codes, let us hear 
 tilt words of Lord Holt, whofe name never can be pronounced 
 without veneration, rs longas wifdom and integrity are revered 
 «'iiong n'lCn : — .** In^fmuch Af*Mf lanos of all nations art doubthfs 
 " iaijcd out of the rtiins of tie eitjil law^ as all governments are 
 
 ** fprune 
 
 <• ^ .,-.' 
 
 ■■^■: 
 
 ■ %'»'■ 
 
nourabl^ 
 it is the 
 al fafiety 
 1, in the 
 fpe£tacle 
 jurifprq- 
 tioifis and 
 wife met! 
 ng every 
 ifctction, 
 ig the do- ^ 
 tntra^ng 
 I dbmaiii** 
 lis fubje^^ 
 titer who' 
 e^ce, but 
 iU(tompe<p 
 f Whom I 
 dicendi et 
 :annot re- 
 s words : 
 idc of the 
 s, redun- 
 eafon o* 
 lal juftice, 
 rns •." 
 iUdftraM|, 
 iich it i| 
 b grea^ft' 
 — thdfe of 
 lents" and 
 and in> 
 fome 
 
 , let us hear 
 )ronouncc(l 
 are revered 
 art (iouitlfft 
 rnments are 
 " fprun^ 
 
 
 -w- 
 
 :# 
 
 m 
 
 Pi. 
 
 i 47 ) 
 
 fome of the mod important parti of their mipute 
 pra^rce: In t^ ^ part of the couHb, which I mean 
 to purfue with fuch .detail as to give a yitw of bbth 
 codes, that may perhaps be fumcieht fo|r the pur^ 
 pofes of the general ftudent, I hppe ta cipnvince him 
 that the laws of civilized nations, paiMeularly thofe 
 of his own, are a fubjedl moil worthy or fcientiBc cu- 
 riofity ; that principle and fyftem rtin through theni 
 even to the minuted particular, aa really, though not 
 fo apparently, as in other fpences, and applied to 
 purpsfes more important than in any othei* fci«nce. 
 Wil^At be prefumptuous to exprefs a bi!»|i!ie^^bat fuch 
 an mquiry may not be altogether aa ufelefs intro- 
 du£lion to that larger and more d;etailed ftudy of the 
 law of £ngland, which is the d&ty of tbofe wli^ are^ 
 to prof^fa and pra^ife that law? 
 
 In ccmfidering the important fubjeft of critninal 
 law it will be my duty to found, pn a regard to tbe 
 general fafety, the right of tl|e nagiftrate to iQfli(Slpu<» 
 nifhnients, even the moft fevere^ if that fafety caniiot 
 be effectually proteded by the example of inferior 
 punifhnients. It will be a more agreeable part of 
 my office to explain the kemperanicnts which Wif- 
 dom» as wcii as Humanity, prefcribes in the exercife 
 of that har(h right, umfoi^nately fo eflential to the 
 prefervation of human foisifty. I (hall collate ^he 
 pnal. cf}ie^ of di^erent natfbtis, aiid gather together 
 mt moft accurate ftatement of the refult of experi- 
 ence with tiefpe£t to the efficacy of lenient and fevere 
 puniihrnents } aad I (hall endeavour to afcertain the 
 principles on which muft be founded both the pro« 
 portion and the appropriation of penalties to crimes. 
 
 As to the law of criminal proceeding, my labour 
 will be very eafy ; for on that fubjcft an finglilh 
 
 lawyer, 
 
 *' fprune out of the ruins of the Roman empire, it muft be 
 
 *' owned fiat tie principles of our law are iorrowed/rom the civil 
 
 " latv^ therefore grounded upon the fame reafon in raanjr 
 
 *« things "—.12 Mod. 48a. 
 

 
 ( 48 ) 
 
 lawyer^ if he wole to delineate the modelof pcrfe^- 
 tion^ iVould find' that, with ftt|w except rans^faie IumI 
 trartrcribed'theinftitutionsof hisowDcpuntry, |i%e 
 wiidle fubjed of my ledVures, of i^hich. I have n^w 
 given the olKline, ms^y be fummed up mt^ words 
 of Cicero :— *** Katuia enim juris expicaflxlt^ft no- 
 *"* bis, eaque abhominis repetenda natur& ;' confidic- 
 U rands6 leges quibus civitatcs regi de^Ant ; tum 
 ^* hsec tra£|ttida quae compofita fupt et defcnpta, 
 ^* jura ef julTa populormn ; in quibus nk nqStri 
 
 ** (^UIIHKKI POPULI l^f RRUN r qilJB VOCAN'i'ER JURA 
 
 ** civi)bi<*^ Cic.delLeg. lib. i. C.5. 
 
 y. The next grela^t diyiiion of the fulje^ ii the law 
 of nations, ftridlyand properly fo called^ lliav^ al- 
 ready-hinted at the generd prmeiples oo^^hii^ 4^is 
 law is founded. They; tike all ihe princ^tl^ of na<- 
 tural jurifprudenee^^^ave been tpore happily culti- 
 vated, aud more gtneraUy obeyed, ip fonie ages and 
 countries than in others ; and, like them, are fufcep- 
 tible of great variety in their ap{)lication,^ from tne 
 chara^er and ufages of nations. I /hall confider 
 thefe principles in the gradation of thofq. whicVf re 
 necelTaTy to any tolerable intercourfe between nati- 
 ons ; thofe which are efiential to all well-regulated 
 and mutually advantageous intercourfe f and thofe 
 which are highly conducive to the prefervation ofja 
 mild and friendly intercourfe bet weeu civilised, ftates. 
 Of the firft clafs, every underftanding acknowledges 
 the neceffity, and Ibme traces of a famt reverence for 
 them are difcovered even among the moft barbarous 
 tribes ; ot the fecond, every well-informed roan per- 
 ceives the important ufe, and they have generally 
 beeti refpcded by all polilhed nations ; of the third, 
 the great benefit may be read in the hiftory of mo- 
 dern Europe, where alone they have been carried to 
 their full perfeftion. In unfolding the firft and fe- 
 coftd clafs of principles, I (hall naturally be led to 
 
 'give 
 
 
 . • r 
 
 *^-. 
 
< 49 ) 
 
 elof pQric(> 
 !onsy iiie h^d 
 
 intry. #tie 
 I have xi^wr 
 
 a|Aii»^ft no* 
 ra r confide- 
 be^m ; tum 
 ?t (iefcripta, 
 
 NR MpSTRl 
 kN'i'£RJUIlA 
 
 s£t is the law 
 . t have; al- 
 ii li^biph l^is 
 Q^pl^ of na^- 
 lappUy culti- 
 me ages and 
 1, are fufcep- 
 m, from the 
 hall confider 
 >fe. which >re 
 selween nati- 
 rell-»regulated 
 ;f and thofe 
 fervatioA of ja 
 irilized-ftates. 
 ^knowledges 
 reverence for 
 oft barbarous 
 ned roan per- 
 ave generally 
 of the third, 
 iftoiy of mo- 
 :en carried to 
 le firft and fe- 
 lly be led to 
 give 
 
 
 ay 
 
 s»« 
 
 ^we an account of that law of nations, which, in 
 Slater or lefs perfefHon, reguUtfid the intercQA;»ift of 
 ttiyptes, of the Aiiittic empires, ann of the ancl^t re- 
 imbucf. The third brings me to the con^defation 
 #f the law of nations, as it || now acknowledged in 
 ChrtftpiQQi. From the great cxtent.of the fubje^, 
 and OTf^'particularity to which, fer r^fons already 
 'givent 1 muft here defc<;nd, it is iotpoffible for roe, 
 within atur moderate compafs, ^ give even an oi|t- 
 liojc Qf ihis part of the courfc. It coinprehends, as 
 evefy reader will perceiv^, |)^ principles of national 
 independence, theintercouife 0|f nations i||j|pace, the 
 privileges o/ eqibafladors ai^ inferior mMters, the 
 commerce of private fubje^|, the groups of juft 
 war, the mutual duttet c^ljb^ligcrent and neutral 
 pow«#^ ^ limits of l4lt^ hpftliity, the^||hts of 
 >)n<)}^^ the fsijIK to b^ obfeped in warlare, the 
 force ^n 0v^§lc€, of M^ copdu^s ind paiTpprts, 
 the nature and obtigation; of .>ji|)]^aqces, the mcsMsof 
 negotiation, and th0 aath;|9ri|l|^^»nd iaterpretation of 
 treaties of peace, All thefe, and many other mok 
 , important and complicated fubjeds,with all the va- 
 riety of moral r<Kifoning, and hiftorical examples, 
 which is necefiary to ilTuftrate then>, muft be tuily 
 examined in this partof thele^ures, in which I (hall 
 endeavour to put together a tolerably complete prac- 
 tical fyftem of the law of nations, as it has for the 
 laft two centuries been recognifed in Europe. 
 
 Le droit des gem eft natureUement fonde fur cc 
 ** priDo^}e ; <jue les diverfes nations doivent fe faire, 
 *' dans la paix, le plus de bien, etdans la gqerrelc 
 *' moins de mal, qu'il eft poiBble, fans nuire a leurs 
 " veritables intercts. 
 
 " L'objet de la guerre c'eft U viftoire ; celui de 
 " la Tidoire la conquete ; celui de laOonqcute la 
 " confervarion. De ce principe ^ du precedent, 
 « doivent deriver toutes les loij^ q^i foriu^nt ie droit 
 ** desgenf, 
 
 H " Toute? 
 
 ^'^' 
 
( 5° ) 
 
 *< Toutes les nations ont un droit des gens ; let 
 *' Irtpioii meme^i mangent leur piifonniers eft ont 
 '' un. Us envoicnt& re<.oi vent des en^bniTades ; ill 
 '* conrfoilTent les droits de la guerre et de la pai;t: 
 *' le mal eft que ce droit des gens n*e(l pas fond^ 
 "fur les vrais principcs.**— D^ l*E/prit dtr Lmx^ 
 ** liv. i. c. 3." 
 
 VI. As an important fupplement to the practical 
 fyfteiM of oQI: modern law of nations, or ralber as a 
 necelfary part of it, I (^11 conclude with a furvey of 
 the diplomatic and conventiinai law of Eur opt \ of the 
 treaties which have qMietially klRp^^ed the diftribu* 
 tion of pbwer and tenltor/ among the £uropean 
 ilatet ; the circumfta^ces which give rife to tnem« 
 the chinges which l£et effe£led, and the principles 
 which they introducea into the, public code of the 
 Chriftian common- wealth. ' In ancient tlines the 
 knowledge of this conventional Uw was thought one 
 of the greateft praiilifi that coi^ld be beftowed on a 
 name, loaded with all the honours that eminence in 
 the arts of peace and of war can confer : 
 
 ** Equidem exiftimo, judices, cum in omni genere 
 ^' ac varietate artium, etiam illarum, ause iinc 
 ^' fummo otio non facile difcuntur, Cn. Pompeius 
 '' excellat, fingularem quandam laudem ejus et 
 praeftabilem elTe fcienliam, in fader ibus.pa^ionibust 
 condiiionibus, populorum^ regum, exterarum nationurn : 
 in univerfo denique belli jure ac pacis.** Cic, Orat^ 
 pro. L. Corn, Balboy c. 6. 
 Information on this (libjed is fcattered over an iip^ 
 menfe variety of voluminous compilations ; not ac<* 
 ceilible to every one, and of which the perufal can 
 be agreeable only to very few. Yet fo much of 
 thefe treaties has been embodied into the general 
 law of Europe, than no man can be matter of it who 
 is not acquainted with [hem. The knowledge of 
 them is neceflary to negociators and (latefmen ; it 
 may fometimes be important to private nien in vari- 
 ous iituations in which th^ may be placed ; it is 
 
 ufeful 
 
 tt 
 
 tc 
 
 «t 
 
 4C 
 
 '*' ■ 
 
 (.4 
 
gens ; let 
 lierse^ont 
 ftiTadeii ; lU 
 de U pai^ : 
 I pas fond4 
 t dtr Lmx^ 
 
 be practical 
 raibcr as a 
 a furfcy of 
 opt\ of the 
 he diftribu* 
 s European 
 ife to tnemt 
 le principles 
 code of the 
 t times the 
 thought one 
 lowed on a 
 eminence in 
 
 3mni genere 
 Gua^ fine 
 . Pompeius 
 em ejus et 
 pa^ionibus, 
 71 nationum : 
 * Cic. OraU 
 
 over an im^ 
 IS ; not aCf 
 perufal can 
 [o much of 
 [he general 
 ;r of it who 
 lowledge of 
 Itefmen ; it 
 len in vari- 
 iced \ it is 
 ufeful 
 
 ( s« ) 
 
 ufeful to all men who wifli either to be a«qii|iinted 
 with modern hidory, or to form a found |udgment 
 on pdKtical meafurcs. I (hall endeavour to give 
 fuch an abftra^ of it as may be fufficient for fome, 
 gftda conTenient ^uide for others in thefilrther pro- 
 grefs of their ftudies. The treaties, which I mall 
 more particularly confider, will be thqfe of Wcl^- 
 pbalia, of OliVa, of the Pyrenees, of Oreda, of Nime- 
 guen, of RyiVick, of Utrecht, of Aix-Ia-C(iapeHe, of 
 Paris (1763), and of VerfaiHc* (178^). l (hall 
 ihortly explain the ot^er treaties, <pf which the ftlpu- 
 latiohsare eltl^r alluded to, cohnrm^d* or subrogated 
 in thbfe which I conifider at length. I fhall fubjoin 
 an account of the diplomatic intereouife of the.l^uroi- 
 pean powers with the Ottomam Porte, and with 
 other princes and Hates wLo are without the pale of 
 our ordinary federal law ; together with a view of 
 the mod important treaties of commerce, their prin-. 
 ciples, and their confe(|uence8. 
 
 As an ufeful appendix to a practical treatife on 
 the law of nations, fome account will be siven of 
 f^'thofe tribunals which in diiferent countries of Europe 
 decide controverfles ariGng out of that law ; df 
 their conftitution, of the extent of their authority, 
 and of their modes of proceeding ; more efpecialfy 
 of thofe courts which are peculiarly appointed for 
 that purpofe by the laws of Great Britain. 
 
 Though the courfe, of which 1 have iketched the 
 outline, may feem to comprehend fo great a variety 
 of mifcellaneous fubjec^s, yet they are all in truth 
 '^clofely and infeparably interwoven. The duties o? 
 ' men, of fubjeds, of princes, of lawgivers, of magif- 
 trates, and of flates, are ^\\ parts of one coi^^ent 
 fyftem of univerfal moralitV. Between the moft ab« 
 ilrad and elementary mai{\im of moral pbilofophy, 
 and the molt complicated \controverfies of civil or 
 I public law, there fubdfts a Vfonnexion which it will 
 main objedt of thefe iedtures to trace. The 
 of juihce, deeply roojted in the nature and 
 
 intereft 
 
, 'y 
 
 !■•■ i 
 
 
 :.^* 
 
 
 JL w1k» cciMXilw tfiat I lili^liubiQMcrH 
 tf^|:MW%il^tl M as^<^?i i!0iirdra#iiii the 
 
 in*l||«^& lie Qe«^|§oit, th*t:J^dii5^lti*fe^ 
 
 j^iio bj wliich tj^jtcitkpr collie u|SVi^l|f hmd 
 together tbe hap^j^i^ aiid tl^ dlltT ofllk <SNpi^ 
 
 ever crpw^ tifeisptt elg|u|ft| feppE [^ . ' . 
 
 1 iftalFeiCwcl^e this ipEbiiile i| Bte iiip6J^ lai* 
 
 Iguage of two gmi oratc^s «n4 j^iPb|^8y who 
 
 have, in a few wor4ai ftated the fol^ftance^ |Ke qI^«9, 
 
 and the reliult i^f all Joiorality, smd |K)]kW^4I^ 
 
 « Njhileft^^od adhuc ^e repiibfel^pttte^^^^ 
 
 Tpa^pp. Qon m^do faTfuqa;^ inu4 liie^^^^ 
 
 J '**^ IIQli poAe, fed hoc VeVifimimi3»>€ funioi44iMMti«» 
 
 , M' ||inj»^blicaiix r^^; pba pofTc "— C*(f. ,^5l^v iSfe ^' 
 
 Ci 
 
 kMsi^^ 
 
 "* ■ 
 
 ) 
 
 ufike 
 
 focie 
 
 cat fta^% p4J<i «f «Wl 
 
 It departure Wi» IV tfggf/ 
 arcumfiaQcesTlJi^S mider ihe ril$t^||^^Q|]%- 
 
 \ji% m,. policy 
 
 W-f',^"^- 
 
 <. :?' 
 
 > .. 
 
 
 *,'oid .V i - , 
 
 
 ',R^ 
 
 * 
 
 * ( 
 
 'A*|£. 
 
 I,**.. ^» ■*■* 
 
 % 4H 
 
yji\; 
 
 M9l»^# tbe 
 
 
 
 
 qi It, mikt 
 
 Wi^ W^ 
 
 
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