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Session 1888.

TRANSACTIONS.

25th October, 1888.
JOHN KENNEDY, Member of Council, ia the chair.

Paper No, 21.

INCEPTION OP ELECTRICAL SCIENCE AND THE EVO-
LUTION OF TELEGEAPHY.

By F. N. Gisborne, M.Can.Soc.C.E.,
F.U.S.C, &c., &c.

Six hundred years B.C., Thales of Milete noted the electrical pheno-
mena developed by friction upon Amber; two hundred years later Plato
theorized upon Electricity ; and A.D. 1522, Martinigo (a Venetian),
the engineer in defence of Rhodes, applied one end of a drum head at
the end of his counter mine, to discover the vicinity and direction of
the enemy's underground galleries, and thus, by utiliTiing the molecular
disturbance of the earth in sound waves, conceived the basis of tele-
phony. It was not, however, until A.D. 1690, that Von Guerick made
the first machine for generating frictional electricity, nor until A.D.
1726, that Wood recorded the fact that frictional electricity would pass
through a considerable length of wire, and could therefore be utilized
for the transmission of signals. To Wood of England is therefore due
the honor of first suggesting tjie feasibility of electric telegraphy.

A.D. 1745. Murschenbrok, Germany, invented the Leyden jar, by
which neans frictional electricity could be stored for experimental pur-
poses, A.D. 1747, Dr. Watson, England, erected the first telegraph
line between Shooters Hill and London ; and A.D. 1753, CM. (believed
to be the initials of Charles Mathews) published the manner in which
he had indicated the letters of the alphabet through a system of 26 wires,
by frictional electricity. During the latter half of the eighteenth century
inventors of all nations endeavored, by means of two or more wires and
frictional electricity, to transmit intelligence between distant places ;
but it was not until A.D. 1800, when Volta proclaimed his own and
Galvani's prior experiments in the production of chemical electricity,
that electric telegraphy, as now developed, became practicable.

A.D. 1819. Oersted (Denmark) dipcovered that a freely suspended
magnetized needle would move to the right or left, in accordance with
the polarity of a current of electricity through an adjacent wire.

A.D. 1820. Arago (France) discovered that when a bar

4 Oishorne on Evolution of Telegraphy.

of soft iron was wound with a copper or insulated iron wire, it
became a magnet whenever a current of electricity traversed the wire,
and was immediately demagnetized (or nearly so) whe& the wires were
disconnected from the source of the current.

A.D. 1832. Faraday (England) discovered that when a coil of
insulated wire was placed adjacent to, but not connected with, another
coil of wire, through which an intermittent current of electricity was
passed, induced currents of increased intensity and alternating polarity
were developed in the unattached coil. Also that the movement of a per-
manent bar magnet within a coil of wire, or the movement of an ehictro-
magnet near the poles of a permanent magnet, would develop currents of
electricity.

To the foregoing rudimental discoveries of Galvani and Volta, Oersted,
Arago and Faraday, is the world indebted for the numerous subsequent
inventions which have developed electric telegraphy, plating, illumina-
tion, transmisssion of power, and other valuable results attained during
the 19th century.

The purport of the present paper is, however, necessarily limited to the
Evolution of Telegraphy, in its several branches oi Material, Construc-
tion and Apparatus, for the transmission of intelligence between dis-
tant places, and to the ** Survival oj the Fittest. "

First in order under the heading of Material are the Poles; under-
ground wires being commented upon in conjunction with submarine
cables.

Throughout Canada and the Northern United States, the red and
white cedar (Thuya Occidentalis) poles are the most durable of all
woods. Standard poles, say 25 feet in length, 6 inches diameter at top
and averaging 10 inches diameter at butt, if cut during the winter
months before the sap rises, or in summer and dried with the aap in, will
continue serviceable for 25 years, and if placed near the sea coast 5
years longer. Hacmatac, i. e., Juniper or Larch (Larix Americana)
will last 14 years; black spruce (Abies Nigra) 10 years, and pt>plar
(populus tremuloides) barely 3 years.

In tropical climates, where white ants and other fibre-devouring in-
sects .re prevalent, even chemically prepared wood is rapidly destroyed
and iron posts or tubes have been substituted with economical advantage.
Upon the treeless prairies of the North West Territory where fires,
rage, and where travellers and teamsters are apt to utilize telegraph poles
for fuel, the " Gisborne " tubular iron poles have been erected, with
economy in cost of maintenance. It may here be stated that the "G"
iron tube is of wrought iron, galvanized, 18 to 20 feet in length, IJin.
diameter inside at top, 2i at bottom, and weighs complete 80 to 85 lbs.,

-'^■•— '"

~:i:^'-

Giaborne on Evolution of Telegraphy. 5

the special merit of such poles being their bed and gf?^ plates, which
render tliem immediately and permanently stable, although planted but
three feet deep in the ground, versus the five feet necessary for wooden
poles.

The next item for consideration is the Wire. Galvanized iron and
copper are the metals in general upe. In order to convey a clear un-
derstanding of the experimental and practical results obtained during the
last decade or two, it is essential that the values of the definite units for
electrical measurements, as adopted at the International Congress of
Electricians, A. D. 1881, should first be explained.

Electricity by whatever means generatod is the result of the expen-
diture of energy ; and, as the measurement of energy involves space,
matter, :ind time, the three fundamental units adopted were the cen-
timetre for length, the gramme for mass, and the second for time ; tech-
nically known as the "C.G.S." system ; and upon these fundamental units
all practical electrical units are based, viz. : —

1st. The Volt Teltresenta the VLnit of electro-mo tive-force or potential.
It is about 8 per cent, less than the E.M. F. of a staudard Daniell cell, and
is analogous to the head or pressure of water in a cistern.

2nd. The Ohm represents the unit of electrical resistance. It is
about equal to that met with in a length of 232 feet of No. 18 guage
pure copper wire (=100 standard at 60 Tab.), aiid is analogous to
the frictional resist&noe to water as it passes through a pipe.

3rd. The Ampere represents the unit of current. It is equal to a
Volt of E.M.F. p«j!sing through an ohm of resistance, and is analogous
to the Jioto ofViter through a pipe.

4th. JSie Coiifwmf represents the nnit of quantify. It is the quantify
given by an Ampere of current in a second, and is analogous to the

volume of vrater pass^g through a pipe.

6th. The Farad refftsents the unit of capacity. A condenser has
a capacity of one Farad, when a difference of E.M.F. of one Volt
between its two sets of plates charges each of titem with one Coulomb,
and is analogous to the capacity of a cistern. ^ '

6th. The Watt represents the unit of power. J.t is equal to the
power developed by an Ampere of current, in a circuit whose ends differ
in E.M.F. by a Volt, and is analogous to the ^oioer of water, estimated
at 10 ergs or j\^ part of one horse power.

Each one of the foregoing established units represents) approxim^ly
10 C.G.S. units, viz.,lOi, 10^, 10^ 10^ lO^i and 10' pectively.

Beverting to the item of TTiV^, a careful selection of ores and admixture
of metals has resulted in greatly increased tensile strength with dimin-
shed resistance; the standard for the No. G galvanized iron wire

Gishorne on Evolution of Telegraphy.

adopted by the Canadian liovornment bein^ 570 lbs. weight per statute
mile, 1700 lbs. breaking straiD, 18 twists within 6 inclies of length,
withoutbreukorsplitof fibre, and 8 ohms maximum resistance per mile,
Phosphor bronze, silicute and hard drawn copper wires have the advan-
tage of less electrical resistunoe, but the cost is much greater, tensile
Strength less, and resistance increases after use. Steel wire coated with
pure copper combines strength with minimum resistitnce, but from tho
unequal expansion and contraction of the two metals under varying
temperatures and other causes, its conductivity rapidly deteriorates.
As an experiment the Baltimore and Ohio Tele<;raph Co. erected
several hundred miles of 200 Ibs.-to-the-mile hard drawn copper wire,
at a primary cost of $44 per mile, the resistance being 4^^^ olims, and
tensile strength 572 lbs., but within 3 or 4 years such wire elongated
1.28 per cent., and the strength was reduced to 530 lbs. The subject
of copper wire will be further commented upon under the item of
underground and submarine conductors.

Insulation : The difficulties attending all attempts to convey intelli*
gence by electricity during the 18th century were greatly increased by
the higli intensity of frictional currents, but the Galvani-Volta discovery
of chemically produced electricity of low intensity rendered insulation,
either by an external coating of the wire or by its suspension from non-
conducting subptances, both inexpensive and practical. Wood, veget-
able gums, glass or porcelain have all been uti ized in various forms and
patterns tor aerial wires, the latter material being preferable.

The " Gil-borne " white porcelain insulator, as adopted by the Cana-
dian Government and by the Canadian Pacifio li. E. Co., has been de-
signed for strength, facility for clearing, freedom from insects, and
maximum insulation during wet and foggy weather. The nominal
standard for the resistance or non-conductivity of any insulator when dry
is 100,000 megohms, — a megohm being J, 000,000 ohms, and for pole
suspended wire, during dry weather one megohm ; but in wet weather
the insulation drops to ^tia. of a megohm, and during storms and fogs it
becomes so low as to require that messages shall be repeated over short
sections of line, and hence the importance of the "G" standard insulator,
which costs but 7 cents, versus glass at 5 cents each.

The resistance of insulating substances used in submarine and
underground circuits diminishes with elevation of temperature, and
they vary materially; for instance, at 24*^ centegrade, a cubic cen-
timetre of gutta peroha has a resistance of 84 x lO^^ ohms,
vulcanized rubber 15,000 x lO^^ ohms, while at 46° centegrade ebonite
tests 28,000 x 10^2 ohms, and Paraffin wax 34,000 x 10^=^ ohms.

Perfection of resistance is however only one of the qualifications re-

Oishome on Evolution of Telegraphy, 7

quired for the insulation of underground and 8ubroer;];ed conduotora;
freedom from absorption of moisture, cracks, etc., being yital elements.
Outta percha and all vegetable gums part with their essential oils, and be-
come brittle when exposed for some time to the atmosphere; and, unless
protected by an ini'usion of sulphur, India rubber liquifies when in direct
contact with copper, which metal should for this reason be coated with
tin.

To the invention of submarine telegraph cables we are indebted for
much practical knowledge, both in conductive and non-oonductive
materials, for instance, placing the standard of pure chemically
precipitated copper nt 100 units.

Lake Superior ingots grade 98.8 units.

Australian " Burra-BuiTa" 88.7 "

British " best selected " 81.3 "

BusHian 59.3 "

Spanish only 14.2 "

or little better than iron.
And whereas the copper conductor in the first Atlantic cable proved
to be 40 units standard only, the following cable tested 89, and the last
one laid 98 units. Purity of metal lessens resistance, and upon long
lines a reduction of one ohm per mile signifies fewer battery cells and
less perfect insulation required for the tranf^mission of signals.

Perfect insulation is, however, essential for underground and sub-
marine wires and cables, as exemplified by the great number of dead
{i.e., useless from imperfections) lines throughout the world.

The disadvantages attending long distance underground wires are^first
cost, reduced rate of speed in signals, and difficulty and expense of repairs,
which are materially increased where a multiplicity of wires are required.
A sample of underground cable manufactured in Germany, and placed
experimentally in a trench, through alkali grounds, in the North West
Territory of Canada,became defective after two years ; but even though im-
perishable in material, the cost, difficulty and delay attendant upon re-
pairing damage (from frost heaving the soil, or by animals or lightning,)
when the ground is frozen and covered with snow, would greatly counter-
balance any other advantages over serial wires ; but in towns, where a
multiplicity of poles and wires are a source of danger, annoyance and
disfigurement, there can be no question as to the practicability, imme-
diate necessity and ultimate advantage to shareholders, of all elec-
tric wires, gas and water pipes, being placed in traversable under-
ground conduits, or in troughs in the sidewalks, and that the corporations
should charge companies a sufficient rental to cover interest upon cost
of construction and maintenance expenditure.

■IM

Oishome on Evolution of Telegraphy.

With perfection of material and manufacture, experience in laying,
and improved transmitting apparatus, tubmarine cables are now safe
and profitable investments, the localization of breaks or faults and the
making of repairs being subject to scientific skill.

To the uninitiated^ the localization of a fault or break in a mid
Atlantic cable is incomprehensible, but the following brief explanation
of the main feature or orii^inal basis of the method may be interesting,
although but one of the muny items of scientific and professional attain-
ments necessary for detecting the exact locality of either a break or
fault.

Suppose the copper conductor of a coble has a resistance of 10 ohms
to 1 mile, and a boboin containing 1 foot of fine drawn platina wire,
which is a bad conductor, to have a resistance of 10 ohms.

The above resistances being equal, if a battery current is passed
through both conductors separately and simultaneously, it will
divide or split evenly as to quantity, and when connected with a differ-
ential galvanometer, the needle will remain steady at zero.

Now,8upposing the cable to be broken 10 miles seaward, its conductor
to that point will have 100 olims resistance, and it will require 10 bob-
binii of platina wire to balance the needle of the galvanometer at zero.
JBy adding up the number of the bobbins you thus note the distance to
the break.

The foregoing explnnation maybe misleading in its simplicity, unless it
be added that the true internal resistance of the cable core depends upon
its contact with rock, mud, or water only, and that much more delicate
tests are required to localize a fault, based upon diaiectric resistance,
inductive capacity, percentage of electrical discharge, etcetra.

Galvanic cells or batteries, the source of current, must next be consi-
dered, the standard for comparative efficiency being tlie Daniell cell
= 1.104 E.M.F. and 0.33 ohm int<ernal resistance : —

tne £.M.F. of a Grove cell being 1.93 Besistance 0.15
Bichromate 2.00 " 0.25

LeClanche 1.47 « 1.50

Gravity 1.05 " 2.00

The efficiency of all batteries in great measure depends upon their
E.M.F., constancy, and low internal resistance. Hitherto the high
resistance in dry cells has militated ngainst their utility ; but a new
form knov^n as the "Gassner, " with an E.M.F. of 1.44, has an in*
temal resistance of 0.32 only, and is admirably adapted for open cir-
cuit requirements.

Oiahome on Evolution of Telegraphy. $

DyDamio and mngneto onrrents are also applicable, and uniersome
conditions eoonomiually utilized for the transmission of signals.

From Woods' first conception of an electro-telegraph, A.D. 1726,
more than a century elapsed before Cooke and Wheatstone, (England,) A.
D. 1837, adapted Oersted'a discovery of A.D. 1819, to the/irat practical
and commerciaVy successful system of what may be termed visual electric
telegraphy; and some months later Morse and Vail, United States, adap-
ted Arago's discovery of A.D. 1820, to the first system of recording
electric tolegrjiphy, Yail being the inventor of the dot and dash alphabet.

A.D. 1833. Steinhill, Germany, adapted Oersted's discovery to the
first reoorded system of sound or aural telegraphy, and first utilized the
earth in lieu of a second wire or all metallic circuit. It is by no means
certain, that there is any electric current flowing through a wire, or that
a wave of electricity like the waves of sound traverses it. It is simply
a customary expression to indicate a difierenoe in and around a wire to
the conditions in which said wire was when no electricity was present
in it.

A.D. 1839. Wheatstone invented the step by step alphabetical in-
dicating telegraph ; and A.D. 1848, House, Enghmd, invented the alpha-
betical type printing telegraph, which wad subsequently improved upon
by Hughes, England.

A.D. 1846. Bain, England, invented the chemical dot and dash re-
cording telegraph, which, combined with Wheatstone's automatic trans-
mitter, hereinafter explained, is the most rapid method of conveying
intelligence in present operation.

Finally, A.D. 1876, Bell, United States, invented the telephone, and
by accomplishing the electrical transmission of speech, thus attained
possibly the highest degree of perfection in intercommunication of in-
telligence.

And now as to the " Survival of the Fittest" regarding which the
writer ventures to express his opinion, with a view to inviting dis-
cussion for the benefit of the members and students of the Canadian
Society of Civil Engineers, viz.: —

That timber poles, preferably of Cedar, duly provided with lightning
conductors at every 5th or 10th pole, are best adapted for telegraph
lines throughout Canada,excepting through prairie lands, subject to fires,
where iron posts are desirable.

That No. 6 galvanized iron wire, per specification herein before
cited, is preferable to copper or composite wires, for aerial lines of
considerable length and in exposed localities.

rihliii'-i'-'-i'-'rfla

Oiahorne on Evolution of Telegraphy,

That poroelain insulators are the most economical aod efficient, under
similar conditions.

That gravity batteries are the most reliable for closed circuits, and
GUssner's dry cells for open circuits.

That in towns and populous districts all electric wires, gas and water
pipes should be plaoed in traversable underground conduits, or the
wires in sidewalk troughs.

That the Morse and Vail system, with sounding apparatus operated
by dot and dash signals, is the most effective in the hands of skilled
operators, for general purposes.

That the Wheatstone automatic transmitter, by a paper tape or strip
previously perforated with dot and dash or all dot lettering, drawn rapidly
between oontuct makers, and reproduced mechanically upon plain, or
ohemioally upon prepared, receiving paper, at the possible rate of 1000,
and practical tsl\^ of 400 or 500 words per minute, is the best combi-
nation for the rapid transmission of intelligence.

That the most successful and profitable telegraph companies of the
future will abandon the present system of a multiplicity of wires for
the transmission of intelligence; and at business centres, and important
stations, will employ female labor for perforating, and comparing with
the original manuscript, despatches to be forwarded by automatio
transmitters; an additional wire or two being operated by Morse sounders
for the correction, when needed, of automatically transmitted messages,
and als*^ for the requirements of intermediate local business, such
additional wire or wires being available for duplex, quadruplex, or
multiplex instruments.

Discussion on Evolution of Telegraphy. 11

DISCUSSION.

The only objection to Mr. Gieborne's paper is, that the subject being Mr, Lawson.
one on which experience only can provide material for discussion, the
author has gone into it so fully as to preclude criticism.

The placing of telegraph wires underground is an important one.
Those of the Telegraph Department of the General Post Office, London,
are now nearly a« underground in that city, and the service has bene-
fited by this to a great extent; breakages and consequent delays in
transmission were frequent on the aerial lines, but now are a minimum.
Gutta percha insulated wires " drawn in " to iron pipe conduits are
the rule j and these conduits are laid as Mr. Gisborne sug^'csts under
the curb stones in the streets.

In submarine, cables, gutta percha is supposed to be the best all round
insulator and is the one most used. An objection to it is that in shallow
and warm waters the teredo which does not touch India Rubber cores,
attacks it, and destroys the insulation of the line ; but this has been
provided against by Clifford and by Siemens, who have put a muntz-metal
sheathing over the core before closing, and all cables recently laid in
shallow waters in the Mediterranean, Hed Sea and Indian Archipelago
are thus protected.

It would be interesting to know if Mr. Gisborne has found any
trouble caused by the teredo on the Pacific Coast Canadian cabiep, as
the speaker has observed its ravages on wood piles in the wharves at
Vancouver and Victoria ; and having in view the proposed Pacific

cable (Vide Mr. Gisborne's Appendix No. 1), it is a subject of peculiar
interest.

As to conductivity, Mathiessen's standard for copper is too low, and
for proof, it may be stated that some lengths of Atlantic cable supplied
by Siemens Bros., and laid by the «' Faraday," tested about 10025 the
conductivity of pure copper according to Mathiessen's standard.

One thing which might interest members of the Society would be a
table of depths of water in which cables have been " hooked," as it would
give some idea of the perfection to which submarine telegraph laying
has attained. For example it may be mentioned that in the repairs
of the Brazilian cable, — Lisbon-Madeira section— by the " Seine," the
depth was 2f miles, of the Atlantic cables, by the "Great Eastern" and
"Scotia", 2 to 2| miles, and of the West India and Panama cables by the
"Dacin" 3 miles.

A.S a pample of fine testing an experiment by F. A. Hamilton,

Diacfiiadon on Evolution of Telegraphy.

Mr Kimball

Electrician of the Anglo-American Telegraph Co., ma;y be mentioned.
By his tests of a fault — not a total break, — Captain Trott placed the
" Minia " in position, and grappled for and hooked the cable at less than
half a mile from the fault, which was distant from the Nova Scotia
shore about 800 miles.

It is of importance that the transactions of our Society should con-
tain a full discussion or further papers on "Phonoplex" working,
" Long Distance Telephony," and other kindred subjects.

An omission from the list of batteries is Be la Rue's chloride of
silver battery now much used for cable testing.

For electric lighting no diflSculty really prevents the placing of all
wires underground except first cost.

Many stations in large cities have the conductors for incandescent
lights underground, and in Europe, notably in Rome and Milan, no
trouble has been experienced with cables made by Siemens Bros. &
Siemens & Halske, which carry alternating currents of 2,000 volts.
It is simply a question of proper insulation and chiefly a question of
paying for it.

Mr. Gisborne's paper is so complete and comprehensive a disquisition
upon the telegraphic industry of the present day, and covers the ground
in so practical a manner, that we are forced to accept his conclusions
without question.

The rise and progress of the science of Electricity — for it surely has
risen to the dignity of a science, — may be compared to a tiny stream
which originated in the discovery of the properties of Amber and the
Leyden jar, and which as it trickled along was increased and strength-
ened by the revelation of that mysterious connection between magnet-
ism and electricity, discovered and applied by Oersted, Arago, Faraday
and others, until the little stream has grown to such dimensions, that
men have embarked upon its surface and risked their fortunes in such
enterprises as the Telephone and Telegraph and the Electric Light,
and the volume of this on-flowing river is constantly increasing, and its
banks widening, and already we can see it opening into an ocean that
is boundless.

The undergrounding of conductors for the purposes of electrical dis-
tribution has probably taken up as much of the attention of electricians
as any one problem connected with their vocation.

The recent exhaustive report of Mr. S. S. Wheeler, of the New York
Board of Electric Control, while stating that considerable progress has
been effected in the burying of telephone and telegraph wires, the placing
underground of electric light wires has been carried out successfully in
but a few places, so far as the arc lighting systems are concerned.

Lisauaaion on Evolution of Telegraphy. 13

The Edison system of underground oonduotors is one of the most
complete, but the history of many of the stations using this underground
system, will be found to be a chapter of accidents, as great care must be
taken in the construction and maintenance of these tubes, to :iyoid
trouble.

Although electrical apparatus which is simply perfect in action,
has been invented and constructed, the first cost and expense of main-
tenance are still as great as can be borne by the user, and any increase
in the expense of maintenance or first cost must revert back upon the
consumer.

Any practical system of underground conductors, to take in the elec-
tric light wires, must at present be expensive.

There are some companies, however, which would go to the necessary
expense could they be assured that such a system would be reliable, but
experience has shown that it is a doubtful undertaking, and that where
some have succeeded more have failed from an economical point of view,
and that the best insulator is that fluid which surrounds the globe, and
which, acording to Dr. Otto A. Moses, of New York, we have only to
" open our mouths and breathe in. "

Mr. Thornberry said, that if it would be interesting to the Society, he
would explain the underground system in use in New York. He had
been there recently, and also in Boston, and had carefully studied the
subject. In Boston their original system is still adhered to, and is Mr.ThombeifF.
thought the best. In New York, a pitch and asphaltum concrete ccmduit
pressed into form, is used, as many ducts being made as are required
for the lines. They are laid in sections of 4 or 5 ft. in length, and are
cemented together with tar. They are found to be successful but not
so favorable for the purpose as an iron pipe.

Manholes are inserted every 300 to 400 feet, — the interval de-
pending on street intersections — for use in drawing in or repairing
cables.

The least expensive material of all would be oreosoted wood conduits
laid with as many ducts as are required, in lengths of from 10 to 15 feet,
the length being governed by the lumber and the weight of the ducts.
The creosoted wood is largely adopted by the companies which could not
go to the expense of laying iron tubes and by companies doing their
own work. Creosoted wood has been found to last 15 to 20 years. It
would probably last longer, but we cannot say from experience, as we
do not know the quality of the wood nor how the creosoting has been
done. The creosoted wood ducts present greater advantages for draw-
ing in cables than any other after they are laid, and perhaps for this

Discuaaion on Evolution of Telegraphy.

reason they are more in fuvor. First cost is the primary object. He
also stated, in relation to a non-conducting metal, that Major Williams
of Boston had been directing his attention, for three or four years
back, to the manufacture of a wire which shall have a covering of
non-conducting metal. He had combined manganese with steel, with
some remarkable results. The iron being compounded with manganese
is almost wholly diamagnetic ; it can not be magnetized. Should his
experiments turn out successfully it would be a great advance in
electrical science.

With regard to batteries,' he had tested the Gassner and LaClanch^,
and was not in favor of the former for heavy work as it would not last.
The fluid battery gave better results. He had put all the batteries under
a test by running them constantly through 20 ohms resistance. The
Giissner battery was a failure, and the Law battery he found much worse.
The LaClunchd battery depends upon the material put into it. If first
class material is used in its manufacture, a first class battery is the
result. Referring to the writing telegraph, he remarked that when
he happened to be in Rochester about two years ago, the telephone
people had formed a combination, and many schemes were introduced
to eflFect communication outside the telephone, — among others the
writing telegraph. He tried to write with the machine, but could not
recognize his own hand writing. He had diflSculty in forming some of
the letters. The writing was done with a style on a piece of moving
paper. A moving tape makes it very awkward to form letters with
loops in them. The man exhibiting the arrangement was quite
expert and wrote very nicely. A great many people purchased the
machines, but they have never been used to any great extent.
Mr. St. George jyjj. g^ George having been asked, in connection with Mr. F. N.
Gisborne's paper on Telegraphy, to describe the underground system
now in use in the United States, submitted the following account of a
visit to the cities of Boston, New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Chicago
and Detroit, where the underground systems have been adopted.

The successful work of underground conductors for Telephone and
Telegraph service appears to be decided ; the electric light under-
ground system is still somewhat in doubt, although so far, it is working
in Philadelphia successfully. The experience gained in the practical
working of underground systems in the cities visited points to the
probable development of no serious difficulties, at least within thelimitB
of an ordinary Telephone line.

The conduits or subways, of whatever kind or construction, merelj
protect the enclosed cables or conductors from injury.

The character and mode of construction of the subways or conduits

Discussion on Evolution of Telegraphy.

should be determined by the local conditions in which they may be
placed.

The principjil systems of electrical subways may be classified : First,
as to their material composition, and second, as to their meciianical
construction and the manner in which the wires are laid in them.

The msiterial composition of subways is : —

1st. Insulating material, such as wood, glass, asphalt, concrete, etc.

2nd. Conducting material, as iron.

The different subway systems are : —

Ist. Tunnel system.

2nd. Drawing-in system.

3rd. Solid system.

In the tunnel system sufficient space is provided underground, irres-
pective of the cost of construction, to allow of the passage of men to and
fro, to place wires therein.

In cities Lke Paris, where large sewers exist in most of the streets,
such a plan is practicable, but is not to be considered in such cities
as Toronto and Montreal.

The drawing-in si/stem^ or that in which manholes are provided in
the streets aud are connected by tubes or pipes, through which the
wires or cables can be drawn, are next to the tunnel system in con-
venience.

In Boston, at first, wrought iron pipes, 2f inches in diameter, were laid
in concrete, and then creosoted wooden boxes with from 12 to 6 ducts
in them. Also in New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Chicago and
Detroit, iron and wooden pipes were used, and also the wooden box con-
duits, — the latter system being the most general.

The solid system is that in which the wires are permanently em-
bedded in insulating material and are incapable of being reached,
except by tearing up the streets and the insulation. It is, or was, in use
to a certain extent in Chicago and Washington, and about half a mile
of it was laid in Montreal three years ago.

This system has not been extensively adopted, and the mere statement
of its character appears to indicate inherent defects, and a lack of
flexibility as compared with the drawing-in system.

The report of the Board of Commissioners of Electrical subways for
the city of New York states that : — " Leaving out of consideration all
*' tunnel systems as too expensive, we must also discard any system
" which culls for the simple laying of insulated cables in the earth.

" They would not stand the chemical action of the gases and acids ;
" the streets would be continually torn up for new connections and re-

DisciLsaion on Evolution of Telegraphy.

" pars. We are thus confined to the question of clectMcal subways or
"conduits in which the wires or cables, insulated or otherwise, must be
" placed, and which, once laid down, shall meet all the requirements of
" tlie present and near future. Of conduits, it may be safely predicted
" that, so far as the experience of this (New York) and other cities is a
" test, some form or other of a drawing-in system is most convenient.
" The life of tlie best cable is by no means satisfactorily decided, and of
" any particular cable, to predict how long it would last would be purely
" speculation. Of wires not contained in cables, it may be said they are
" more uncertain in their length of life and usefulness. At all events,
** for purpos"s of distribution, it is desirable that the wires should
" be easily approached at frequent intervals, and the commission cannot
"countenance any plan that looks to the disturbance of pavements more
"than is absolutely necessary. It may be, that through lines of wires would
"be better protected if laid in permanent beds of insulating material ; but
" a drawing-in conduit system allows space to be provided for new wires
" without the frequent tearing up of pavements. The commission can,
"therefore, give their approval to a drawing-in system with frequent
•' manholes, as the general form of subways best adapted to meet the
" requirements of the electrical service of the present,"

Tlie question is narrowed down to the consideration of the material
and form of the drawing-in system.

Conduits of the drawing-in system have been constructed and are in
use in various cities, formed of a variety of materials, including
asphalt, cement, glass, iron and cement, tiling and wood. Regarding
cement, glass or tile conduit«, the laborer's pick has been one of the
great objections to these, and they are now nowhere Beriou8ly considered ;
consequently, asphalt, iron and wood, as materials, remain to be consi-
dered.

The New York commissioners' report above referred to, has adopted
asphalt for certain reasons. The report says :

*' While it appears that any kind of conduit which will protect the
" insulated wires will answer ; and on the other hand, that no conduit
"has yet been found which works perfectly, or is' an ideal one;
" it may bo said with confidence, that the weight of evidence before
" the commission is towards the use of an insulating material for con-
" duits ; and of insulating materials, asphalt or bituminous concrete has
"certain advantages over all others, viz.:

" 1st. It is cheap.

" 2nd. It is durable.

" 3rd. It is capable of standing harsh treatment.

" 4th. It can be easily and closely jointed.

Discussion on Evolution of Telegraphy. 17

" 5tli. It cpn be made absolutely free from moisture, and free from
" contraction and expansion.

" 6th. It is a bad f oi ductor of heat as well as electricity."
In reply to the above points, we may say that in Montreal :
1st. All such conduits would have to be imported and would
obviously cost more than wood.

2nd. Its durability is unquestioned, but being of a composite
character, we are of the opinion that it is open to the pick axe
objection, which therefore rJiises a question of harsh treatment.
3rd. The joinings of wooden or iron conduits can be made tightly.
4th. It could bo hardly kept free from the deposition of moisture in
this extreme climate, any more than wood or iron j its freedom from
expansion and contraction is no doubt perfect as compared to iron.

5th. Wood is also a bad conductor of beat and also of electricity.
"With reference to the employment of iron as a material, it may be
stated that in the cities of New York, Philadelphia, Cliicago and
Detroit, iron pipes are principally used.

In Brooklyn, wood alone is used. In Boston, in 1882, iron was used
at first, and afterwards wooden boxes. Mr. Joseph P. Davis, vice-presi-
dent of tlie Metropolitan Telephone Co. and Telegraph Co., says : " As
*' regards an iron conduit, I had three years experience with one in
"Boston. The longest line was about l&OO feet, and the moment
"the wires were put in use, the subscribers complained and pro-
" tested that they could not hear. This was caused by retardation.
" They could not get their voices through. A greater conductivity in
" the wires could not remedy this. You could use a much longer line
" in a conduit that is an insulator than in one that is a conductor. No
" amount of insulating material around the wire could make it work as
" well in an iron as in an insulated conduit."

The question of retardation is a very serious one, and the use of
the iron is undoubtedly a great disadvantage. The durability of iron
pipes, of such a thickness as could be conveniently used for conduits,
would not compare favourably with creosoted wooden conduits, unless
thoroughly coated with asphalt, varnish or some similar substance, and
in no instance should they be laid without being enclosed in a creo-
soted wooden box filled with asphalt or cement. Necessarily iron must
cost more than wood.

Wood is therefore cheaper than iron and equally durable and better
as an electrical non-conductor.

Mr. Starr said that it gave him much pleasure to be pre- 8i&. Starr,
sent and listen to Mr. Gisborne's most interesting paper. It was

Discusaion on Evolution of Telegraphy.

Mr. Glsborno.

not generally known that the world waa under great obligations
to Mr, Gisborne. He had been personally acquainted with him for a
number of years and knew something of his history. To Mr. Gisborne
he knew we were indebted for the Atlantic cable. What gave Mr.
Gi8!x)rne his original idea was the success of the first cable laid between
England and France — but he had publicly advocated an Atlantic cable
before, the news from England was landed in despatches at Cape Race,
and by a line (constructed by himself) transferred via Cape Eay, by
cable, to Cape Breton and thence to New York. Other people had
received the credit of the institution of the Atlantic cable, but he
believed that it wiis reidly due to Mr. Gisborne. (See Appendix
No. 3.) He was pleased to hear that there was some hope of an
independent cable for Canada before long. He himself had been
residing on the other side of the Atlantic for two or three years,
and a few weeks ago read an article in the London Standard,
telegraphed from New York, purporting to be the result of a meeting
of the Dominion Cabinet. It reported that Mr. Thompson, Sir H.
Langevin, and others were intent upon war with the United States,
but that Sir John MacDonald pronounced the matter all moonshine.
Now, when the press people sent such arrant nonsense as that across
the water, it was quite time that we had an independent cable and
an independent press association of our own.

It might be interesting to the members of the Society to know that
there were many new inventions coming out on the other side, connected
with electrical and metallurgical matters. It came under his notice
a few months ago that a new composite metal had been discovered in
France. It was a combination of nickel and iron, and possessed some
extraordinary merits. It was said that wire made with a certain pro-
portion of nickel was one of the best conductors for electricity known,
better even than copper, and that a different proportion of nickel made
the iron a perfect non-conductor and perfectly inoxidizable. Some
of the wire had recently been sent to Mr. Preece, the Engineer of the
Post Office and Telegraph in England, for a practical test, and before
long the public would know the result, if it proved to be all that was
claimed for it,it would answer the purpose which Mr. Gisborne thought so
desirable, — of having one metal that was a perfect non-conductor to cover
one that was a good conductor.

Mr. Gisborne stated in reply to Mr. Thornberry, that for
a large Telegraph company, where they were working the whole
time, and practically upon a closed circuit, the gravity cell wouiu of
course be preferable ; but for home use, telephones, electric bells, etc.,
where the current was taken off for a few minutes, and then had time

Discussion on Evolution of Telegraphy, 19

to recuperate before again being used, he thought the onen circuit
ce'l was better. There was a vast difFurence between the uses of an
Ofien circuit and a closed circuit battery. The question was whether
the Gasaner dry cell was the best form for open circuits, where the
lieolaMche cell was now in use, and from very careful experiments
made at his oflSce, ho was prepared to adopt the dry cell improvement.-

In the course of his paper, Mr. Gisbonie also made the following
supplementary and explanatory remarks :

He wa3 not sure that a pole, cut with the sap in and dried before it
was put up, was not bi'tter than a polo cut in the winter.

When in Prince Edward Island, about four years ago, he noticed the
stumps of some juniper and black spruce poles wiiich he had planted
along the coast, near Souri, thirty-six years ago, but there were no
remains of those erected further inland.

From exporience in the North West, where there is no cedar, the
polar poles had to bo renewed every two or three years, so that it wase
decided to experiment with some iron ones. The expense of transport
pation was greater tlian the original cost of the poles themselves, but he
had put up 100 miles of iron poles across the Prairie between Battle-
ford and Fort Pitt, where tliey had withstood heavy gales of wind and
blizzards, and of course had not been burnt down and utilized by team-
sters for fuel. Between Moose Jaw and Wood Mountain, where 90
miles of cedar poles obtained from Rat Portage liad been erected, he
had this year to put in 30 new ones to replace those stolen by teamsters,
aod 25 or 30 to replace others destroyed by lightning.

The iron poles were not affected by lightning. It would therefore
be understood that although the first cost of iron poles were double
those of wood, they would probably last some 25 years, besides being
free from the dangers referred to ; he believed therefore that it would
be economical to adopt iron throughout the North West, and had re-
commended the government to give them a fair trial for two or three
years, in order to ascertain what would be the effect of the alkali ground
upon the galvanized iron, and if it did not act upon them injuriously, »
then undoubtedly the iron poles would be used in future.

Respecting the iron poles now upon trial, Mr. Gisborne stated that
they were wrought iron galvanized tubes, tapering from If inches at
top to 2| inches at bottom, 16 feet in length and weighing 42 lbs. only;
and that by adding 3 feet to their length and a little more weight of
metal, he would be able to use fewer poles and have an improved line^
The light weight of the poles erected proved, howerer, that if they would
stand the test of sleet and gale, an 86 pound pole would assuredly be a •<
perfect success.

Discussion on Evolution of Telegraphy.

If a heavy man were eent up a wooden pole when first planted, pay, B
feet in the ground, tlie pull, wlien stringing tho wire, would move it
several inches from tho perpondieular, and it would have to ho re-
tamped, and again the following year, before it was firmly settled; where-
as the iron pole, although pluntod but 3 feet in the ground was at onco
perfectly fixed, so that it would break off at the surface rather thaa
move, and under strain would bend like a fishing rod, but come up
Straight again when the wire was finally adjusted. The patented pecu-
liarity and merit of the Gi^borne iron pole waw in the underground
fastening device. The bed plate was umde of galvanized boiler plate
8 inches square and ^ inch thick, with its four corners turned up and
its centre punched up for a tongue, with a ^ inch hole throu<:h it.

Q^hc iron tube rested upon this bed plate with the tongue on the innido
of it, and a piece of No. 6 wire, pat<sed through loth tube and tongue
held it loosely in place. It did not signify, therefore, whether this bed
plate was put into a perfectly flat-bottomed hole, which would be neccs
Bary if the tube was firmly fixed to ite bed plate by a eoUur and screws,
for otherwise if the pole was not perpendicular, the collar would
be carried away, or the pole bent, upon endeavouring to plumb itj
whereas, after the earth was put upon the lied plate described, tho pole
could be righted at pleasure and without injury to it ; the ends were
turned up, so that under pressure, the bed plate would not cut sideways
into the ground.

Two feet of earth was then tamped over the bed plate. The grip
plate, also of ^ iron and 8 ins. square, with turned up corners, had
a 2^ inch hole in its centre, and was slipped corners down over the.
top of the pole, another foot deep of earth placed upon the top of the
grip plate conjpleted the setting,and the pole was then a permanent fix-
ture. It was al?o a cheap plan of erecting poles, because to dig
the last two feet of a hole costs much more, proportionately, than to
dig the first three feet of a five foot hole. In this there was an
economy to balance in part the first cost of iron poles. Where there
was a sharp angle, a flat ring, pierced with four side holes for wire stays,
was slipped over the top of the pole, and its tapering causes it to lodge
3 feet from the top. No. 6 wires were then attached to the ring and to
small square iron plates sunk into the ground, and thus a light pole
would withstand a very considerable side strain.

Explanatory of the more essential electrical units mentioned in the
paper read, he had introduced their comparative analogies to water, so
that engineers who were not thoroughly posted in electrical matters
would understand their relative value.

Diacuadon on Evolution of Telegraphy. 21

There were pcveral olher units which electricians had, from time to
time, endeavoured to introduce, but if the six he had mentioned wero
borne in mind, they would bo suffioient to understand the subject. Tiicy
would also notice that tlie units were all taken from men prominent in
electrical engineering science, the " Watt " for instance being chosen
to express power.

Just before leaving Ottawa, he had received the following valuable
statement from Mr. Carson, M. Can. Soc. C.Fl., engineer of the White-
cross Alanufg. Co., of England, — from whose works the government
wire was purchased — to the effect thut by a direful selection of ores,
etc., they had during the last 20 years, decreased the electrical resistance
and increased the tensile strength of iron wire to a remarkable extent.

^o*

Wahrinoton, September 29th, 1888.
F. N. GisBORNE, Esq., Ottawa.
Mf Dear Sir,

But that I have been absent in Spain, the information as to wire
which I undertook to supply you with for your paper, would long ago
hiive reached you. I now make such notes as will perhaps afford you
a ground for your observations.

The necessities of the telegraphist have been the direct cause of tlie
great improvement in the manufacture of wire which has taken place
within the last twenty years. At first commercial wire was used ;
experience was required to teach the telegraphist the importance of
long continuous pieces and low resistances. So, during the twenty
years the single piece of 20 lbs., equal to say 80-90 yards of the
standard size of 400 lbs. to u mile, has become 112-150 lbs. equal to
500-600 yards, or 3 to a mile.

As every joint is not only a source of weakness, but of loss, and
also a possible point of contact during gales, and of collection during
snow storms, the importance of this advance cannot be overrated.

This improvement in length has been accompanied by an equal
improvement in the character of the material employed, and hence in
the conductivity of the line. The theoretical value of wire as a con-
ductor was not even approximated to in the first linos, such a value being
obtained as the result of experiments upon material obtained by elec-
trolysis. WitI) the ruder methods of manufacture then practised this
was a perfectly illusive standard, but the electricians did not allow the
manufacturer to sleep ; steady pressure was kept up to improve quality,
and the result has been that the Engineer can to day lay down condi-
tions which were considered impossible of fulfilment even a few years
ago.

Discuseion on Evolution of Telegraphy,

The resigtaoce of an iron \virc being in the direct ratio of the pro-
portion of metallic iron contuiucd therein, the difficulty which niunu-
facturers have met with ia to reduce the ibreign mutter au low U8 is
coDHistent with sound material. It may bo Kaid to be like liunian
nature in this respect, that witliout infirmities, iron is of no u^e as a
practical material. It may be tlieoretically pure, but unfortunately it
will not hold together for any useful purpose. From this arise the
difficulties of tlie manufacturer; impurities, i. c., carbon, silicon (na
little of this as may be), manganese, and Kulphur, with some phosphorus,
must firm the constituents, but only so much as will be sufficient to
make a malleable material. To balance these ingredients is the business
of a successful maker nowadays, and he is successful or otherwise,
according to the percentage of conductivity he can provide for the
service of the Kngineer.

Then much will depend upor) the purpose for which the wire is
demanded ; in England where heavy gales with continuous snow storms
are not common, the Engineer can dispense with the condition of great
tensile strength, in favour of better conductivity. Thus the British
Postal requirement is only some 30 tons per square inch of strain, but
what with long circuits and quadruplex instruments, the highest noted
conductivity.

The India government, on the contrary, have to build in ice and
snow, in all climates, and with sudden variations of temperature, and
they are willing to forego somewhat of conductivity in favour of a
stronger wire, equal perhaps to 45 tons strain per square inch of sec-
tion. And these are the conditions which obtain in Canada, where the
latter specification has been very widely adopted.

The running sizes, with tests required of the specifications, are sub-
joined, and it will be seen at once where the differences come in.

Recently, owing to the extreme price of J-oppir, the British authori-
ties have been on the look-out for a material possessing; a higher con-
ductivity with greater mechanical strength, and though it cannot be
said that thia has bsen generally reached, yet from one firm an approx
imation has been attained to a more perfect result. A considerable
quantity, some hundreds of tons of the standard size of No. 8 (.171 in.
diameter, 400 lbs. to a mile), has been erected, having a breaking strain
equal to the India Government requirements, with a resistance elec-
trically of only \\\ ohms per mile as a maximum; much of
this material showing as little as lOf ohms resistance per mile
This is represented in the specification as being from 4,300 to 4,500
constant (constant being (W. x R.) where W represents weight p§r,
mile in lbs., and R resistance in ohms per mile).

Discuaaion on Evolution of Telegraphy. 23

But this is by no means tho bent that is to bo looked for, as the
manufacturers of this material assaro nie that they have now a mate-
rial on the stocks which shall not exceed a constant of 4,000, with
equal mechanical tests to those of tho India Qovernment, such as we
ourselves insist upon for Canadian work.

But it must be noted that all the onre of the manufacturer is thrown
away, if tlio testa which tho Engineer lays down, in re<^ard to qmility,
are not carefully carried out when the material is presented for inspec-
tion. When it is stated that a difference of ^ an ohm per mile in the
resistance makes a diff( mce in value of something like £2 a ton in
the cost of tlie material, it will be seen at once that if the systematic
testing of the material, electrically as well as mechanically, is not cons-
cientiously done before the reception of the wire, the Kngineer may not
only be paying more for his material than it could be purchased for
from the honest maker, but he may be paying tho utmost price for
what the honest maker would refuse altogetlier to supply for telegra-
phic purposes, with conditions of conductivity attached.

In this way tlie conscientious maker is discouraged, and honesty is
no longer the best policy.

If the Engineer wants a cheap line, irrespective of electrical results,
let him ask for ordinary fence wire in long lengths ; but if his line will
warrant him in paying for a lower resistance material, let him above
all things, by careful testing, see that he gets what the maker professes
to sell him.

This is not difficult when it is remembered that in tho works of the
three or four leading telegraph wire makers, all the necessary appliances
are provided with a competent staff who are at the disposal of the ins-
pecting officer during the inspection.

The percentage for inspection varies according to circumstances, but
if all goes well 10 per cent, is usually the lowest proportion. But here
the value of a competent man is shewn ; a slight falling off in the days
work is at once counteracted by an increased percentage of t«sts, so that
a variation is at once traced to an accidental circumstance, or to some-
thing more serious, to which the Engineer's attention may be called.

It will be evident that it is of no use to spend money on a line to
avoid leakages, to ensure quick and continuous working, and to resist
all conditions of weather, unless the Vital Factor, the conductor,
is also as good as can be made. And, further, it is of no use to

accept the lowest bid of inexperienced makers, when the necessary
check of consistent testing is not carried out completely. One cons-
tantly hears of Engineers being appealed to against the inspectors

Discussion on Evolution of Telegraphy.

result, that the difference is " only half an ohm, wh^t is h:ilf an ohm
in resistance ? " But >»hen it is remembered that this ^ ohm is worth
£2 a ton, and th.it the determination of the skilled manufacturer,
^hen he tendered at a hi<iher price, was to give the specified resis-
tance, not more, iind as much less, as possible, and fuither that if
this half ohm had been stated as the specified resistance, the skilled
manufacturer in all probability would have supplied at a lower price ;
it will be evident of what importance proper inspection is, in the erec-
tion of a line which shall give the very results which the Engineer
designed it should give.

It may be added that the material of which the British Postal wire
is obtained has the i'oUowing percentages of metallic iron :

4,300 to 4,500 constant 99.85

4,800 " 99.65

and for thelndia Government wire, 5,400 " 99.50

The accurncy of manipulation which the manufacture of resilly high
class material requires is well shewn in these fijiures, where not only so
near an approach to pure iron is obtained, but also where so gmall a
variation in the perceutai^e of metallic iron causes so great a falling
off in conductivity.

I hope you will be able to draw from these remarks so much as will
be important in giving your hearers the latest news as to what can be
got out of iron wire.

(Signed) Wm. Carson, M. Can. Soc. C. E.

The Canadian Pacific Ry. Co., he believed, had purchased some
No. 6 wire from Germany, presumably of the same quality as the
Government's wire, but he found that the resistance of such wire was
an ohm or more greater than that of the Whitecross wire, thus making
a difference in actual value of (as explained by Mr. Carson) £2 or
more pounds sterling per ton. It was only of late years that electri-
cians realized that it was essential that wire should be of low resistance,
less perfect insulation and less battery power being required with
superior conductivity. Electric current, have a natural tendency to
escape, and more especially where the insulation is defective.

The ordinary test for wire, the tenacity of which is also a very
important /actor in line maintenance, is readily made by taking a piece
of iron wire and drawing an ink mark along the top of it, then by
holding it fast between two vices, 6 inches apart, and twisting it
around, the ink will show every twist in symmetrical lines which can
be counted. The Government test requires that every coil of wire

Discussion on Evolution of Telegraphy. 26

shuuld show at each end, 18 twists within the 6 inch length, without
break or division of fibre, and any faulty coil was rejected.

In repairing telegraph lines, you may have to travel some 50 miles
to find the break. During that time business is delayed, and horses
and men have to be employed at considerable cost, while the stoppage of
messages often results in a permanent loss of business to the line,
because people would not trust to the telegraph unless it was perfectly
reliable. The mere additional cost of £2 or £3 per ton for wire
was not therefore to be considered in view of other advantages gained.

With regard to phosphor bronze and silicate metals, he had obtained
the best wire made of such material directly from the manufactory
in France, and of the same gauge as the iron wire, and strung it
across from Gabriola to Valdes Islands in British Columbia, a stretch
of abr it 1000 ft., and each wire from different poles. At the end
of the first season the ordinary iron wire was standing, while the com-
posite copper wire had broken.

A great deal had been said in ftivor of hard drawn copper wire, and
of the steel wire coated with copper put up between New York and
Chicago ; but for the reasons mentioned in his paper, he thus far pre-
ferred iron for long distance lines in North America. For small
resistance pure copper was advocated by Mr. Preece in England ; but
our climate is different from that of England. There they were not
subject to Puch iieavy falls of sleet and snow and gales of wind, as we
were in Canada, Jmd their distances being so much shorter, with
railway facilities for repairs, the wires were easily and quickly
maintained. The primary cost of even the smaller gauge hard
drawn copper wire was at least 4 times greater than that of iron, and
irrespective of first cost, copper had to be tightened up every spring,
and it would have to undergo the same process every year at the
end of three years. It would elongate to the detriment of both its
strength and conductivity. This was practical experience against
using hard drawn copper wire in our northern climate. He had had
a large experience with the different kinds of pole insulators, and when
he erected the first line in Prince Edward Island in 1852, experimented
with gutta-perch insulators ; but they now knew that after a very short
time gutta-percha would part with its essential oil (unless placed
under water), and the insulators would become like so much old putty,
would crack, and were not of the slightest value. He then tried iroa
insulators. These insulator cups were globular, so as to prevent
moisture from internal condensation. The wire was insulated with
porcelain, precisely the same as the iron saucepans of the present

Discussion on Evolution of Telegraphy.

day. Then the iron pin was coated with porcelain, and fastened
within the cup with porcelain ; but they had only been in use one winter
when the diflFerence in temperatures, acting precisely tiie same as he
had shown in the case of the steel coated with copper wire, caused
the porcelain to crack, almost imperceptibly to the naked eye, but quite
sufficiently for the moisture to get to the iron and thus allow the electric
current to escape. Other materials had also been tried, but from the
experiments he had made he concluded that solid porcelain cups set upon
oak pins were the best insulators in this climate. Referring to the white
porcelain insulators on the Canadian Pacific Ry. lines, they had probably
noticed a number of glass insulatorn, which had previously been utilized*
but across tlie continent they had one wire suspended from the G
insulators, and, if they inquired from their manager, they would be
informed that this insulation could be worked through in wet weather
over long distances, whereas they had difficulty in working much shorter
circuitsprovided with the glass ones. This again was pr.-ictical experi-
ence. The Canadian Pacific had purchased over 250,000 of them at
a primary cost of 7 cents each ; this porcelain insulator was open to
the light, and did not tempt spiders and other insects to make their
nests in it, as was the case with insulators of darker material and more
sheltered form.

Referring to the large insulator upon the table, he said it was very
much upon the same principle as the smaller ones in general use, but
it took a large pin, and before the pole was put up this pin was strapped
to the pole by wire. The pole having been raised, the man with
the wire on his shoulder mounted it, and readily tilted it over into the
Blot wher eit was secure until it was drawn tight from below, when he
could put the tie wire through the hole which ran parallel with the
slot, without risk or exertion.

In the cables that he had laid in the gulf for the government and
in British Columbia, he had abandoned gutta-percha in favor of what was
called ozokerited rubber insulation. The copper conducting wires
were first tinned, then covered with a sticky compound known as
Chatterton's, and served with a tape or strip of pure rubber, then
eerved with a tape of partly vulcanized rubber, and again with a
rubber tape differently treated with sulphur. It was again the 4th
time served with a tape saturated with a rubber compound, and finally
immersed in a hot solution of ozokerite, — a natural mineral wax mined
in Hungary — by which all the rubber servings are amalgamated into
a compact mass, when the insulation is found to be much higher,
than the best gutta-percha cores now manufactured.

Discussion on Evolution of Telegraphy.

If gutta percha was not kept wet or cool, it would become plastic like
putty, and the result would be that in a bent cable the wire would
press through the gutta percha, and come in contact with the fibrous
matter serving, placed between the gutta percha and the outside armour
wires ; and if it was exposed to the heat of the sun, the result would
be the same.

In certain cases, the government cables in outlying places arc some-
times accidentally exposed to the sun for some days or weeks, and yet
the ozokerite rubber insulation remained unaffected.

The great cable manufacturing companies of England were associated
either with the original gutta percha company, or had costly manufac-
tories of their own, and they would naturally recommend gutta percha,
and impress upon the shareholders of new cables the danger of adopting
a new insulating substance, when gutta percha had been proved success-
ful. The Henley and the Hooper companies were the two exceptions.

From his experience, the rubber cable was the best ; he hoped we would
Boon have an opportunity of proving it, as he was satisfied that they
were on the eve of having a special cable belonging to Canada, aud
worked for Canadian interests, when the rubber cable manuiacturers
would have an opportunity to tender for its construction.

licferring to copper, his friend and associate, the late T. B. Baker,
E.N. C.B., chief engineer Chatham Dock Yard, and inspector of
machinery for the Admiralty, was, with other engineers and scientists,
puzzled by finding that the copper sheathing on vessels did not remain
serviceable as long as in former years. Many eminent chemists were called
upon to analyse the copper mass, but could not discover what was wrong.
Mr. Baker, however, visited the works at Swansea, where the copper
was being smelted from the ore, and he noticed the men skimming off
the dross from the top of the copper and putting it with some of the
surface metal into a separate cauldron. He asked the manufacturers
why this was done, and was told that the copper thus skimmed made
the best copper tubes ; they were, in fact, taking off the cream of tho
metal, and when it was returned to the copper the sheathing lusted as
long as formerly was the case. For this and other good services, Mr.
Baker received a special pension.

If two metals were smelted together each of a given resistance, say,
copper at 100 and lead at 8, instead of the alloy beinsj; of" proportionate
resistance, say 54 ohms or units, it would probably shew less than half
that measurement. It was a curious fact that if you amalgamated any
two metals, the resistance of the alloy would almost invariably be
greater than that of the pure metals. He had been experimenting with

Discussion on Evolution of Telegraphy

a view to obtaining an unoxidizable alloy of such inferior conductivity,
that it might answer as an insulator to cover a copper or other wire of
greater conductivity. Such an invention would be of great value, and he
would recommend those interested in electrical matters to well consider
this subject, because he was sure that iu time it would be accomplished.
To be able to coat a metal with a metal, so that it would be practically
useful for underground purposes, was one of the coming events of the age.

He did not recommend underground wires in all cases. It would be
impossible in the Northwest to maintain underground cables. The
power of the frost heuving the ground was well known, and if it took
hold of a cable, it would be sure to injure it. Then, whenever you come
to a brook or river crossing, you had to take it out and carry it across
stream and again into the ground. Owing to the cost and difl&culty
connected with repairs, it would not pay. It might be profitably accom-
plished if you had a business through a populous country like England,
where a great number of wires were required, and you could afford to
run the risk of 6 out of 20 being dead, but it would not answer in the
Northwest, where one wire is more than suflBioient for the whole business
of the country, and it would be absurd to lay a wire under long
stretches of prairie, where a fault would probably stop tho whole busi-
ness of the country until the return of Spring enabled you to dig it up
for repairs.

He exhibited two models of an underground conduit. He was sorry
Mr. St. George, the city engineer, was not present, as he had made a
report a short time ago upon the different forms of conduits, with their
advantiiges and disadvantages. He had showed Mr. St. George the
conduit now before them, which he approved of, on account of its cheap-
ness and effectiveness. It was the same section which was now on the
table. The conduit was made of red cedar, and to give them an idea of
the great durability of cedar, he might say that a year or two ago
a very large tree of Douglass pine was blown down on Vancouver Island,
the rings, though not always a safe criterion as to the age of a tree, num_
bering six or seven hundred, and this tree in going over brought up
firmly grasped by its central roots, a very large log of cedar in a per.
fectly sound condition. The G conduit was supposed to be made of sound
cedar boards ; the first outside pieces being 1 inch thick and 12 inohes>
broad ; the next 2", IJ'', IJ" and 1" of reduced breadths and with ^ in.
boards between them. They were all then treenailed together, the
result being that you have a trough with four grooves or recesses of dif-
ferent depths say for two Telephone Cos., a Telegraph Co, 'and an Electric.
Light Co., etc., so that each groove could be got into without disturbing

Discussion on Evolution of Telegraphy.

the wires in the adjacent grooves. A connection with any house for any
purpose could thus be made without interfering with another company's
wires. They could have as many grooves as they liked, and, being
placed at the edge of the sidewalk, the distance between the conduit
and the house would be only 7 or 8 feet, so that the expense would be
very small if a piece of connecting cable, containing more wires than were
required, was laid into the building, thus obviating the necessity of
taking up the sidewalk for future requirements. India rubber and good
copper would stand exposure to heat or cold. Messrs. Henley & Co.
were now making him some samples of wire for conduit purposes.
These wires would be numbered upon their outside covering, and any
one could thus be selected without cutting other wires for electrical test-
ing and identification. 'I'his sample form of conduits was cheap,
costing about 50c a foot. He was not advocating his own invention,
but simply gave it as an idea which may or may not be adopted.

It was thought at one time that the life of an Atlantic cable was 10
years. They had been in use 20. Our gulf cables had been down 9
years, and when raised for repairs last summer, no wear at all had been
discovered, and they would probably last 10 or 15 years longer with
repairs after damaged by ice or anchorage.

The Groves cell was the most powerful battery known to them, — then
the Bichromate, but the former gave off unhealthy nitrous fumes and
required daily attention, and the latter speedily lost its electro motive
force, when in closed circuit. He would now show an improvement in
that most useful of all batteries, the ordinary gravity cell used in
telegrapli offices. Instead of a clamp which held the crow foot form of
zinc on the edge of the glass and often broke it, or a tripod resting on the
glass, from which the zinc was suspended, this new form (stamped
with his name) rests upon two knife edges of zinc, and as every contact
with the glass allowed the escape of more or less electric current, and
caused more or less creepage of the mineral salts in solution, the
improvement was obvious, and had been adopted on the Government and
Canadian Pacific Ry. lines.

The Gassner cell, which he also exhibited, had no water in it and no
glass to break, the outside case being zinc, and although they had been
in use two years, there was very little wearing of the zinc. One wire
was fastened to the zinc case and the other to a hollow cylinder of carbon,
within the case,which was filled in only between the outer surface of the
carbon and the case with a mixture of moist Plaster of Paris, manga-
nese and salammoniao, which is the existing element of the mixture ;
finally a little wax was run upon the top of the plaster to prevent creepage.

•do

Discussion on Evolution of Telegraphy.

The Electric motive 'force was greater and the Intern'kl resistance leSs
than that of the ordinary LeClanche cell, and after being placed upon
short circuit for 3 days, the remaining electro-motive force of the dry
cell was greater than that of the wet cell, and he had substituted Gassner
for LeClanche cells on the Government lines.

The Sampson battery now exhibited had given good results. The
formation of this battery was an outer glass cell, within there was a
rod of zinc and a larger central rod of carbon, and just enough of water
was introduced minus salammoniac to wet the mineral wool packing.
According to the pfeper he had read the electro-motive force and
internsil resistance were just about the same as the LeClanche, but he
intended to test the cell as to its relative value with the dry battery,
and would report result at some future meeting of the Society.

The W. U. Telegraph Co. in New York, had adopted dynamic
currents in some df their lines, and with satisfactory economic results.
They might answer on Western Union and possibly on the Great North
Western main lines, but for lines conveying a moderate amount of
business it would be i'ound an expensive substitute for chemical
Ibatteries.

Morse was credited with being the inventor of the Morse alphabet,
"but such was not the case. In a late number of the Century there was
an interesting nrticle on the subject, where Vail was clearly proved to
be the inventor of the dot and dash alphabet which was the principal
merit of the Morse system.

It was not generally known that Steinhill used the needle as a
sounder, listening to the ticking of the needle. He found this fact in
an old German work. In 1847, and for several years afterwards,
operators upon the Morse system were not permitted to take messages
by sound, but were ordered to transcribe them from recorded marks on
paper, but it wis found in practice that fewer errors occurred when
fiound superseded visual signs in telegraphy.

Steinhill also first used the earth to complete'an electric circuit, not that
a return circuit by the earth was an established fact or that the current
'was known to flow through a wire, he was inclined to believe that
^electricity was difiused through a conductor as rays of light were.

Instead of using the earth to complete circuits, if our telephone
companies were coinpelled to take their currents bick through a twisted
metallic circuit, v^e should not have all the annoyance we now have
from induced currents and soundis in our telephone lines.

The Whefttstone perforatbr was simply a long strip of paper passing
through a stamping machine, by Vrhich the ddt and dash or all dot

Discussion on Evolution of Telegraphy. 81

characters were punctured through the paper. The paper being a non-
conductor. It was then passed between metal rollers over which ran a ,
metal style, and the style dropped into the holes, made contact with the
metal roller through which the current passed, and thus automatically
reproduced the dots and dashes at the other end of the line, and no
matter how rapidly the paper was drawn between the rollers, the style
would impress upon the paper at the other end an exact counterpart
of the original puncturing.

Thus one hundred words could bo transmitted in the course of »
few seconds, and as the punctured strips could be used over and over
again through a series of rollers connected by different wires to
different cities, you will understand how long speeches in parliament
and press news generally is so rapidly transmitted to all parts of the
world.

Mr. Gisbome concluded his remarks by saying that he had already,
trespassed too long upon their time and patience, and would, therefore,
defer all further reference to cable enterprises (Vide Appendices Nos. 1
3 and 4) and to the different modes of telegraphy until he had again the,
pleasing gratification of meeting the members, probably about the 30th
November, when he would be enabled by colored diagrams and in
non-technical terms to explain even to the uninitiated the working of ■
various forms of instruments in general use.

Appendix.

APPENDIX NO. 2.

THE ORiaiNATOB OF TRAN8-ATI,ANTI0 CABT,E8.

In an article upon Submarine Cables, of March 30, 1883, we invited Mr.
Frederick Newton Qisbobne to eiibtnitany additional evidence at hie com-
mand in support of our declaration, that to himself belonged the Hole credit
of having originated trane-Atlantic submarine telegraphy. That gentleman
has responded by forwarding to us the annexed copies of certain letters in
his possession, and we may add that the public records and leading articles
which appeared in the newspapers of the day, 1850-51, coincide exactly with
them, i he comniunications in question were addressed to Mr. Gisborne
respectively by the late Hon. Joseph Howe, then Colonial Secretary for
Nova Scotia, afterwards Secretary of State for Canada and Lieutenant-Gov-
ernor of Nova Scotia ; and by Mr. John W. Brett — the latter being the
eubmergerof the first European submarine cable between Dover and Calais
in 1951, while Mr. Gisborne himself submerged the first American submar-
ine cable between Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick, in 1852. Such
evidence appears to be complete and unassailable, not a link in the chain
being wanting. We therefore now leave ail question as to the originality of
conception and the practical initiation of the most important enterprise of its
day to the inipartial judgment of the world at large : —
From iheRoa Joseph Howe, Colonial Secretary of Nova Scotia, in 1S48,
and afterwards Secretary of State Jor Canada, and Lieutenant-
Oovernor oj Nova Scotia, to Frederick Newton Gisborne,
F.R.S.C, Engineer and Electrician, and at present (1888) Govern-
ment Superintendent of the Telegraph and Signal Service, Dominion
of Canada.
My dear Gisborne, —

Without desiring in the slightest degree to undervalue the services
rendered to civilization, by the body of eminent men who have just been
rewarded for laying the Atlantic cable, I own to some feeling of disappoint-
ment in not seeing any mention made of your name, as I have reason to
believe you were the first pioneer of the enterprise, as well as the original
promoter of electric telegraphy in the Maritime Provinces.

In the wmter of 1848 you can\e to Halifax and interested the Government,
of which I was a member, in the subject of telegraphic communication. A
bill was introduced, and X4,000 was expended by the Government for con-
struction of lines to connect Halifax with New Brunswick, Canada, and the
United States. Wlien that line was completed, you were employed to man-
age it, under a Commission, of which I was the Chairman, the Hon. George
Young and William Murdoch, Esq., being the other members. This line
was subsequently purchased from the Government by a Company, which
has since extended branch lines to every shire, town and seaport in the
Provmce. In 1850 you discussed with me, and subsequently laid before
the Commissioners, a plan for connecting Newfoundland with the Conti-
nent of America, and obtained leave of absence to enable you to go to
that Island and secure support to the project. My brother commissioners

Appendix.

are botli dead. On your retiirn yon asked leave of absence to go to
Now York to promote an extension of i\w line to England, and H^ioke
confidently of being able to extend it across the Atlantic and connect
Eur()|>e with America. Up to this time I never heard the idea suggested,
and though reading the English and American papers, never saw any
allusion to the practicability of such an enterprise. As no capital could
be got in Halifax, you naturally sought in London and New York for
co-operation and assistance. I do not, of course, know what took place
abroad, but of this I have no doubt, that until you went to New York
nobody had suggested or taken any step towards promoting an Atlantic
telegraph. As the original pioneer and projector of this great work, it
appears to me, that you ought to place yourself in your true position, and
that, if not included among those who are to be honored and rewarded, you
should at least endeavor to obtain from your countrymen, and from the
world at large, who are to be benefited, the recognition which you deserve
as the originator and practical pinme mover of the great enterprise now so
happily brought, by a combmation of public-spirited and able men, to a for*
tunate consummation. It ought not to be forgotten that the very line across
Newfoundland now used by the Anglo-American Co. was originally, at great
pecuniary sacrifice and risk of health, explored by you, and constructed by
yourself as Chief Engineer of the New York, Newfoundland, and London
Telegraph Company.

Believe me.

Very sincerely yours,

(Signed), Joseph Howe.

Ionc?on, 25 Savilc Row, Feb. 12, 1867.
Extracts from Ma. John W. Brett's published letters to Mr. Gisborne.

London, July 12, 1852. — " Major Carmichael Smith, a friend of your Hon.
Mr, Howe, has iust called and given me your plan."

London, May 26,1853. — " Are you now prepared to co-operate in opening
up telegraphic communication between Newfoundland and Ireland ?"

London, July 8, 1853. — *' On my return from Paris I found your satisfac-
tory letter of 4th June. Let me recommend you to secure in our joint names
an exclusive privilege for establishing a submarine telegraph between New-
foiindland and Ireland for 60 years."

London, April 21, 1854.— I should be glad, therefore, of a line from you,
stating clearly whether, as agreed, this is to be carried out between us as
Brett & Gisborne's Atlantic Telegraph here, and vice versa in America."

From the above it is manifest that Mr. Cyrus W. Field and his aoso-
ciates could not have become interested in Mr. Gisborne's enterprise before
the spring of 1854. This sustains us in our recent view that the pretention
of Mr. C. W, Field to be the originator of this great project is simply prepos-
terous.— /SAarcAoZcier,if<m<rcai.

Ai^pemllx.

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