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Un dee symboles suivants apparaftra sur la derniAre image do cheque microfiche, selon ie cas: le symbols -^ signifie "A SUIVRE", io symbols V signifie 'FIN". Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc.. peuvent dtre filmte A des taux de rMuction diffirents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seui clich*. il 9st filmd A partir de Tangle supArieur gauche, de gauche A droite. et de haut en bas. en prenant le nombre d'images nAcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mithode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tj ICTE J( SKETCH or THE CIVIL ENGINEERING OF NORTH AMERICA, BY DAVID STEVENSON, F.RSE ^ ..r.r^'''^^ ""^ "^^ INSTITUTION OP CIVI. BNOXKBBRS. AUTHOR OF > "TKEATr<»p nw ^..^ ' CANAI, AND EIVKB KNOINEBBINO," AaTa"^"" "'' x}^-^ w ^~. £,*.!. ")• LlBr^ARY . J SECOND EDITI0lJSi1^jf^^^^^^^l|^ ""^"iiiiii""".::.. " " "-"'*^ LONDON: JOHN WBALE, 59 HIGH HOLBOEN. MDUCCLIX. In is .\^rk on public, ] its appli where, d will sooi (which I: of Nortt and may eering I this belie to republ pressing do so. PRINTED BT NEILL AND COilPAKT, KDINBUBOII. NOTE. In issuing a Second Edition of Mr David Stevenson's ..rkon American Engineering to the profession and the public, Mr Weale begs to state that he has had chiefly in view its application to new countries, and particularly to India, where, doubtless, engineering works on an extensive scale will soon be in full operation. Mr Weale believes the work (which has been styled a " Sketch of the Civil Engineering of Nortt America") may be regarded in a more general view, and may with equal propriety be styled a "Sketch of Engin-' eering Prac.tice, applicable in New Countries;" and it was this belief that led him to urge Mr Stevenson to allow him to republish it, and Mr Weale takes this opportunity of ex- pressing his thanks to Mr Stevenson for his permission to do so. At the i consentei of a " Sk A wor] tions ma( to be reg viction vi full inqu conclusio to the pi thing hai than usef and I do request ol the work, The g( sheltered tains, and works whi the count now. Th have, sine ciples of e PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. At the urgent and repeated request of Mr Weale, I have consented to accede to his desire to publish a Second Edition of a " Sketch of the Civil Engineering of North America." A work on American engineering, founded on observa- tions made by me twenty-two years ago, will be apt, I fear, to be regarded as worthless. Such, indeed, was my own con- viction when Mr Weale first made the proposal. But after full inquiry and consideration, I have come to a diiFerent conclusion. If my observations were calculated to be useful to the profession at the time they were first published, no- thing has taken place that should render them otherwise than useful to the younger members of the profession now, and I do not feel justified in withholding my assent to the request of the publisher and proprietor of the first edition of the work, which is now out of print. The geological features of America, comprehending its sheltered harbours, mighty rivers and lakes, wooded moun- tains, and boundless prairies, of course remain unchanged, and works which were found applicable to the physical state of the country twenty years ago are obviously applicable to it now. The fact is, that although public works in America have, since my visit, been enormously extended, the prin- ciples of engineering construction, with slight modifications, <■ IV PREFACK TO THE SECOND EDITIOW. remain the same. Labour in the United States is Btill ex- pensive, timber is still plentiful, and lines of communication have yet to be formed at as small a cost as possible through almost unexplored regions. So long, then, as engineering practice has, from the necessities of the case, to be adapted to such circumstances, no very gieat or radical change in mechanical construction, or in management, is likely to be introduced. It is no doubt true that individual works of great extent, and perhaps originality, may from time to time be erected, such, for example, as the bridge across the Niagara connecting the United States with Canada, which is a recent triumph of American engineering, or the bridge across the St Laurence on the line of the Grand Trunk Eail- way, which will be another exponent of the engineering skill of the British, but these maybe regarded as excep- tional works. They are proofs of engineering skill applied to overcome special difficulties, but they do not alter what may be regarded as the characteristics or peculiarities of American engineering, a sketch of which was all that my treatise was ever intended to give. The works alluded to are not indeed specimens of what may be termed indigenous American engineering, or, in other words, designs applicable to a country in its infancy, but rather examples of the engineer- ing of an older school for the first time applied in America. In proof of my statement as to the unaltered condition of American engineering practice, I shall refer to one class of works which has been more extended in America during the last twenty years than in any other country, and in which there has consequently been greater scope for im- provement—I mean railways. When I visited the United States in 1837, there were 1600 miles of railway open for traffic, and 2800 in the course of constraction. In 1856 there were upwards cf 26,000 miles of railway in full opera- PBEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. V tion. Now, it is a cingular and significant fact, tliat, notwith- standing the formation of so many new lines, and the experi- ence that must have been gained during their construction, the American railway system, if we except its enormous ex- tension, appears to have undergone little or no change dur- ing the last twenty years. In the interesting and valuable report by Captain Galton, E.E., made to the Board of Trade in 1857, the same features which I found to be peculiar to American railways in 1837 seem to be regarded as their pe- culiarities still ; showing that there is in the people a con- servative principle, if we may so express it, which leads them to cling to what they fancy best suited to their people and climate. We find, for example, in Captain G-alton's enumer- ation of American engineering peculiarities, detailed descrip- tions of the locomotives with their long connecting rods suitable for steep gradients, and their four-wheeled trucks moving on a centre pivot, to enable them to pass quick curves, which were the distinguishing characteristics of Ame- rican locomotives in 1837; while the cage for catching sparks still occupies the top of the funnel, and the guard or " cow- catcher," forwarding ofi" stray cattle, runs in front of the en- gine. The passenger " cars," as they are called, are still the same long-bodied carriages, resting on four-wheeled trucks at either end, with seats at either side, and a passage down the centre. The railways in the neighbourhood of towns are as imperfectly fenced as ever, and a large bell on the engine is still rung at all the level crossings, which are generally without gates or gate-keepers, while the rails are in gome cases still carried to the station through the principal streets, "the public being," as Captain Galton expresses it, " left to take care of themselves." Nor have I been able to discover that any material pro- gress has been made in the harbour, river, or canal en- VI PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. gineering. The fact, indeed, of the rapid extension of rail- ways to which I have referred renders it, I should say, im- possible that canal and river engineering should receive the same attention which it did in that country previous to the introduction of the new system of communication. I have therefore thought it best to republish the original sketch- very much in its original form, the only alteration introduced being the corrections of anachronisms, and a notice of whatever I have been able to ascertain to be new in design or construction. I must advert to one exception— the lighthouse system— T.tiich was most imperfect when I visited the country, but has since been remodelled, and instead of repeating the for- mer article on that subject, I have cr ven a sketch of the new arrangements, taken chiefly from the Keport of the American Lighthouse Board. ' To these explanations I only add, that, as my observa- •tions, made upwards of twenty years ago, are still applica- ble, we may reasonably infer that the practice they de- scribe has been found well-suited to the country, climate, and people, and, therefore, we may confidently express the hope that the information they contain may prove useful and instructive, particularly to young engineers practising their profession in newly settled countries, for whom, chiefly, they have been published in their present form. CONTENTS. CHAP. I. — Haebours, Page Natural facilities for the formation of Harbours on the American Coast — Tides— Construction of Quays, and Jetties— Cranes— Graving Docks— Screw Docks— Hydiaulic Docks— Landing Slips, &c. — New York— Boston— Philadelphia — B-^ltimore — Charleston— New Orleans — Quebec — Montreal — Halifax, . . . 1 22 CHAP. n. — Lake Navioation. Great Western Lakes — Ontario— Erie— Huron— Michigan — Superior — Welland Canal— Lake Harbours — Construction of Piers, Break- waters, &c. — Buffalo— Erie — Oswego— Toronto — Kingston — Vessels employed in Lake Navigation — Violent Effects of Storms on the Lakes — Ice on the Lakes— Effects of Ice on the Climate — Lake Champlain, ....... 23-39 CHAP. HI. — River Navigation. The sizes and courses of the North American Rivers influenced by the Alleghany and Rocky Mountains — Rivers flowing into the Pacific Ocean— Rivers flowing into the Gulf of St Lawrence— River St Lawrence — Lakes, Rapids, and Islands on the River — Lachine Canal — St Lawrence Canal — The Ottowa— Rideau Canal — Towing ' vessels on the St Lawrence— Tides — Freshets— Pilots, &c.— Rivers rising on the east of the Alleghany Mountains, and flowing into the Atlantic Ocean, and north-east corner of the Gulf of Mexico— The Connecticut — Hudson — Delaware — Susquehanna — Patapsco — Potomac, &o., — Mississippi and its tributaries — The Yazoo— Ohio — Red River — Arkansas —White River — St Francis — Missouri — Illinois, &c.— State of the Navigation— « Snags," "Planters," «' Sawyers," and " Rafts "—Construction of Vessel for removing " Snags," &c., , , , , , . 40 68 Vlll CONTENTS. Page CHAP. IV.-Steam Navigation. Mississippi Staamers-ThASn "® Engines— -Lake Steamer 7tT ^^^^^^ '''' " ^"«^°«« " toilers Steam-BoS^'Tabrof trr' «.*«*"«-- -''Pl-ions of Steamers, *' Dimensions of several American . 69 103 CHAP. iV.— Fuel and Mateeials. Fuel used in Steam-Erxnnes anil fnr t»«™. *• t> Rif..»,t ^ , ^"a'ueB ana tor Domestic Purposes— Wnml iine- bhmglos -Dimens-oas of American Forest Trees, 104-U4 CHAP. VI.~Canals. '"*'a«H ^'^?;'"'*'^«'"«"'« Of ^^^--th America-Great extent of the Canals and Railways- -Introduction of Canals into the United States and Canada-threat length of the American Canals-Smal ar^llf thdr Cross Sections-North Holland Ship Canal-Diffemee between Wooden Canal-Locks, Aqueducts, &c.-Artificial Navigation of *he country .topped by Ice-Tolls levied, and mode of tZ^Z on the American Canals-Means used in America for forcing l^te^ **':r^r*!^^"'^t>«'^ '^^ x)am8, Canals-Locks-Erie Can.l_L.„ ^-^.u a. aioaio-xviorris Canal-Inclined Planes for Canal' lift;, '*■''•'••.. 116-130 CONTENTS, IX Page 96 le la iS 16 a f n 3 103 CHAP. VII-RoADa. ^"'lLr;;t*''^r '^'*«'*'^^^°""''^°'^««° J- Amenca-Condi/"" tion of the Amencan Roads-" Corduroy Roada"-Road from Th?« M* ^^"«-f r ^"^''^"'^ Hoad«-The "National RoJ^ in. J^-Tp'"''''* Road -City Roada-Causewaying or Rtch- ing-Bnck Pavements-Macadamizing, . , ^ 131-135 CHAP. YHI.-Bridgeb. Great Extent of many of the American Bridges-Different Construe Cs t ',11, '" t'"'""*-^"'«^« ''^«'- *^« Delaware at Trettl the Schuylk.ll at Philadelphia, the Susquehanna at ColumbTa the' Rap,ds at the Falls of Niagara. &c.-Towa's "PatenTL^Uc Bridge -Long's "Patent Truss Bridge," . . . 136-146 -114 30 CHAP. IX. — Railways. ^"ThrEurlTr"'"!'"'"'"^" '' ^•'""'^^^ '-'' *h« United States- Jikely to be affected by frost-Constructions of the Boston and casTi: ; r7"\'"' '''^*"^^"' «-**««'^ -"<' Schenectady. New' castle and Frenchtown. Philadelphia and Columbia. Bosfon aTd bT, !; S"'*''^^'''^ *"^ Norristown. New York Id Haerlem and't^e ChariT"' "S?'^" ^"'^ ^"^^^' ^-"'^^^^ andfama ca! and the Charieston and Augusta Railroads-Rails. Chairs Blocks ■c!;»''«^P'^--Construction of the Dam Z_!iL^ w!:.?i"^l^'"-7^TP» '^^^ Water-wheels-Reserroirs. Montr;a"i-ci:;i;T:rATbaiy^^^^^^^ w ,^r»--^'"«b-«- York .ndBoston-Croton ^Tw^ToTtt^Zl^r^ ^,^.^3 X, CONTENTS. CHAP. XI. iiouse-moving, . Note on the Manitfactories at Lowell, Paob 204-209 210-213 CHAP. Xn.— Lighthouses. Parts of the United States in which Lighthouses have been er«.f.^ D.^cr,p«„„ Of _..e pre.. Do., of U^^^.^CZ^ZX: 2U-218 DIRECTIONS FOR PLACING THE PLATES. ^0. 1. Plate I. Hydraulic Dock, . To face Page 11 „ 2. „ II. River Boat, 78 „ 3. „ III. Sea Boat, 78 „ 4. IV. Steamboat " Swallow," 79 „ 6. V. "Western Water Steamboat, . 98 „ 6. VI. Boat Car, 128 „ 7. , VII. Trenton Bridge, 137 „ 8. , VIII. Bridge over the Schuylkill, . 139 „ 9. , IX, Town's Lattice Bridge, 142 „ 10. , , X. Long's Frame Bridge, 144 „ 11. , , *XIII. Water Works of Philadelphia, 188 „ 12. , , *XIV. Elevation of Dam, do. 190 12 Plates and 40 Woodcut v. * The references in the text, pp. 188, 19(», to Plates XIII. and XIV., have been made, instead of XI. and XII., in error. \ SKETCH ^(,^41 llUrar^ or AMEEICAN ENGINEERING. CHAPTER I. HARBOURS. Natural facilities for the formation of Harbours on the American Coast— ^ Tides— Construction of Quays and Jetties— Cranes— Graving Docks- Screw Dockc- Hydraulic Docks— Landing Slips, &c.— New York— Boston— Philadelphia— Baltimore— Charleston— New Orleans— Quebec — Montreal — Halifax. The eastern and soutliern coasts of North America are in- dented by numerous bays and sheltered sounds, which afford natural facilities for the formation of harbours more com- modious than any which works of art alone, however costly, could possibly supply, and to an extent of which, perhaps, no other quarter of the globe can boast. The noble rivers with which that country abounds, and its inland lakes, which, for expanse, deserve the name of seas, are subjects of great interest to the general traveller ; but to the civil- engineer, who is more alive to the importance of deep water and good shelter in the formation of harbours, and who, at every step in the exercise of his profession, feels the diflfi- culty, and is made aware of the expense, of attaining these qu J H3S by artificial means, the natural harbours of the con- tincuk/ of North America are particularly interetitiiig. The original founders of the American seaports appear to V A ^ HARBOURS. ha^v^ been very judicious in their selection of situations, llio towns, if not placed at the mouths of fine navigable rivers, possess, in most cases, the advantages of sheltered anchorages, with deep water, and other accommodation for all classes of vessels. Tlie great object, indeed, in founding most of the towns in the United States seems to have been eitlier the formation of a port for shipping, or the cultivatio^ 0/ a valuable adjacent tract of country watered by a navigable nver In some cases where agriculture was the primary consideration, the harbours do not possess the natural ad- vantages to which we have adverted as peculiar to American liarbours, but stand in need of works for tl;pir improvement which would involve a greater expenditure of capital, and occupy more time in their execution, than a country, as yet new in the arts, has been disposed to bestow upon them \ lewing the harbours of America generally, however, no one can fail to be struck witli their importance, and convinced ol their mighty eflfect in advancing the prosperity of that enterprising country, especially when viewed in connection With its inland navigation. The largest ports of North America are Quebec, Halifax and Montreal, in the British dominions, and Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and New Orleans in the United States. Besides these, there are many towns on the coast, of later or:gin, having less trade and import- ance, but nevertheless possessing fine natural facilities for the formation of harbours. I was fortunate enough to visit many of the American ports and m most of them, I found that accommodation for vessels of great burden had been obtained in so satisfactory a manner, and at so small an expense, as could not fail to strike with astonishment all who have seen the enormously costly docks of London and Liverpool, and the stupendous asylum harbours of Plymouth, Kingstown, and Cherbourg. 1 have little hesitation in saying, that the smallest of the post-office packet stations in the Irish Sea has required a much larffftr fiMlpnilifiiriS r>f or»,^U«1 *l.__il. _ a . c X •■ ^x v«|jxic»i, iiimi tiiu iimencans Uavo invested in the formation of harbour accommodation for UARBOURS. g trading vessels along a line of coast of no less than 4000 miles, extending from the Gulf of St Lawrence to the Mis- sissipi. The American Packet-ships trading between New York and the ports of London, Liverpool, and Havre, are generally allowed to be the finest class of merchant-vessels at present afloat; and, for their accommodation, we find in England the splendid docks of London and Liverpool, and in France the docks of Havre. An European naturally concludes that a berthage no less commodious and costly awaits their arrival m the ports where they were built and launched, and to which they sail ; but great will be his astonishment when on reaching New York, the same fine vessel which lately graced the solid stone-docks of Europe, is moored by bow and stern to a wooden quay ; and, on leaving the vessel, he will not fail to miss the shade of a covered verandah enclosed withm high walls, the characteristic of a Britisli dockyard and will have any thing but pleasant sensations when ho is ushered forth upon a hastily constructed wooden jetty, which m certain states of the weather, is deeply covered with mud' and at any time afi^ords a footpath which is not very agree' able. This state of things strikes a foreigner, on first landing in America, in a very forcible manner. The high, and in some cases superfluous, finish, which the Americans bestow on many of their vessels employed in trading with this country lead those who do not know the contrary to expect a cor- responding degree of comfort, and an equal display of work- manship, m the works of art connected with their ports • and It appears at first sight a strange inconsistency, that aU the works connected with the formation of the harbours in America should be of so rude and temporary a description, that, but for the sheltered situations in which they are placed, and other circumstances of a no less favourable nature, the structures would be unfit to serve the ends for which thev were inffin'1*^r1 TTn"'^-"-r h~~^ i • '- ..'jTrtTcr, iitir.iy cuuciusiorrs on all such matters are dangerous ; and when we come to in.mire into the reasons for this diflferenco between the construction \ * HARBOURS. of the European and American harbours, they soon become apparent and satisfactory. The difficulties and expense en- countered in the formation of most European harbours, have arisen chiefly either from the necessity of constructing 'works of a sufficient strength to withstand the violence of a raging sea to which they are exposed, or in obtaining a sufficient depth of water, by the construction of docks or other means, to enable the vessels frequenting them to lie afloat at all times of tide. In Britain, these difficulties in a great measure arise from the narrowness of our country, which necessarily contains but a small extent of inland waters, whose quantity and currents, when compared with the bays and rivers on the American coast, are agents too unimportant and feeble to produce, without recourse to artificial means, the depth or shelter required in a good harbour. The Americans, on the contrary, among the numerous large bays and sounds by which their coasts are indented, have been enabled to select as situations for their harbours, places which are perfectly defended from the surge of the ocean, and which require no works, like the breakwaters of Plymouth and Cherbourg, for their protection ; and the basins formed and scoured by their large navigable rivers afford, without resorting to the con- struction of docks like those of Liverpool, London, Leith, or Dundee, natural havens, where their largest vessels lie afloat at all times of tide within a few paces of their warehouse doors. The kind of workmanship which has been adopted in the formation of the American harbours is almost the same in every situation ; and the harbours generally bear a strong resemblance to each other in the arrangements of the quays, and even in their physical characteristics, being generally formed along the margin of projecting tongues of land or projecting coast lines, which are protected from the direct action of the sea by islands or outlying stretches of coast. This renders a detailed description of the works of more than one harbour unnecessary ; and for the purpose of giving an idea of an Ampripnn r\o->-i- T onla/i*- +i^«f ^f xr ■vr_-.i_ i . _ 1. ^,!,.„j t ,-ti^vu iiiai ui xTicw xuiK, uecause it undoubtedly ranks as the first harbour in America, and is, HARBOURS. at all in fact, the second commercial city in the world, the aggre- gate tonnage of the vessels belonging to it being exceeded only by that of London. The island of Manhattan, in the state of New York, is about fifteen miles in length, and from one to three miles in breadth. The city of New York is situate on the southern extremity of this island, in north latitude 40° 42', and west longitude 74° 2' from Greenwich. It was founded by the Dutch in the year 1612, and it now contains a population of about 500,000 inhabitants,* and measures about ten miles in circumferance. On the east, the shore of Manhattan Island 18 washed by the sound which separates it from Long Island, and on the west by the estuary of the Kiver Hudson, which' as far up as Albany, is more properly an arm of the sea than a nver, the stream itself being comparatively small. These waters, which have received from the Americans the appel- lation of the East and North Rivers, meet at the southern extremity of the island of Manhattan, and at their junction form the spacious bay and harbour of New York, that great emporium of the western hemisphere. The Bay of New York, which extends about nine miles in length and five miles in breadth, has a communication with the Atlantic Ocean through a strait of about two miles in breadth, between Staten Island and Long Island This strait is called " The Narrows ;" and on either shore stands a fort for protecting the entrance to the harbour. This magnificent bay, which is completely sheltered from the stormy Atlantic by Long Island, forms a grand deep-water basin, and offers to almost any extent, a spacious and safe anchorage for shipping, while the quays which compass the town on Its eastern, western, and southern sides, afford the necessary facilities for loading and discharging cargoes The shipping in the harbour of New York, therefore, without the erection of breakwaters or covering-piers, is, in all states of the wind, protected from the roll of the Atlantic. Without the aid of docks, or even dredging, vessels of the largest * The population of towns have been corrected up to the present time. \ HARBOURS. class lie afloat during low water of spring-tides, moored to the quays which bound the seaward%id!s of he dty are enabled at a very small expenditure, to enlarge the «e^cornmodat.on of their port, and adapt it to' their trfasin; The situation of New York is peculiarly favourable for the extensive trade of which it has become the seat, by he near- ness of Its harbour to the ocean-the quays bei,^g only aCut eighteen miles from the shore of Sandy Hook, which is washed by the waters of the Atlantic. This naturdly make, the communication both direct and easy, as a very shoruTme e apses between making land and mooring at the qury Ind all the anxiety which is experienced after falling ilwiti. the European land, m a coasting navigation of sfveral days before the mariner terminates his cares by docking his vessel in LiveT,ool or London, or in any other port^f fea Bntain is thus avoided. I may mention, in illustration, S I left the quays of New York at half-past eleven on the fore noon of the 8th of July 1837, in the " Franfois Premie^" packet-ship. Captain Pell, for Havre, with a ve^ light bTeeze from the north-west; and, at seven o'clock on'^thf e^niW with noT ^^■' °" ITt^ ™' «"'""« through the Atlantif with nothing ,n sight but sky and water. This case is Btrongly contrasted with what took place on my oXard passage, on which occasion I left Liverpool, under no lels advantageous circumstances, on the 12th of March of the ^ame year, in the " Sheffield" packet-ship. Captain Allen leaviTg pi"' "' *'' ""' ""' *'" "™ ''y' ««- °" The perpendicular rise of tide in the harbour of New York IS only about five feet. The tidal wave, however, increases n Its progress northwards along the coast, till at length, in ^\J 1 r''^'." '' '*'•* '° "'*"° 'he maximum height of 90 fee Towards the south, on the contrary, its rise is very small ; and, in the Gulf of Mexico, it is reduced to eighteen inches; while on the shores of some of the We«t India Islands it is said to be quite imperceptible. ' ' '" »>» our HARBOURS. 7 A bar extends from Sandy Hook to the shore of Long Island, across the entrance to the harbour. Over this there is a depth of about twenty-one feet at low water. The wharfs erected for the accommodation of the shipping of New York are formed entirely of timber and earth, in a very rude and simple manner. A row of wooden piles driven close to each other into the bottom, forms the face- work of the quay, which is projected from the shore as far as 18 necessary to obtain a depth of water sufficient to float the largest class of vessels at all times of the tide. The situa- tion of New York, in this respect, is very favourable, as deep water is generally obtained at the distance of from xorty to fifty feet from the margin of the water. The piles of which the face-work of the piers is composed, are driven perpendicularly into the ground, and are secured in their places by horizontal wale-pieces or stretchers, bolted on the tace of the quay, and running throughout its whole extent. l>iagonal braces are also bolted on the inside of the piles and beams of wood are connected to the face-work, and extend behind it to the shore, in which they are firmly embedded. These beams act both as struts and ties, serving to counteract the tendency of lateral pressure, whether act- rog externally or internally, to derange the line of quay. The void between the perpendicular piles, which form the face-work and th. sloping bank rising from the margin of the water, is generally filled up with earth, obtained in the operation of levelling sites and excavatingfoundations for the dwellings and warehouses of the city. This hearting of earth is carried to the height of about five feet above high water of spring-tides, at which level the heads of the piles forming the face-work, are cut off, and the whole roadwa^ or surface of the quay is then planked over. The planking used in forming the roadway of the quay is, in some cases^ eft qui.e exposed; but, in general, where there is a great thoroughfare, the surface is pitched with round water-worn stones, and corresponds, in appearance and level, with the adjuceac sireets. The accompanying cross section of one of 8 irARBOURS. the wharfs, will show more clearly the are constructed. manner in which they A contmitous line of wooden quay-wali, constructed in this manner surrounds the city of New York on its eastern west- ern, and southern sides ; and the inhabitants are still rapidly extending their harbour accommodation to meet the wants of increasing trade which has now become so great, that these wooden wharf-walls have attained a length of ni less than seven mifes. Numerous jetties, of the same construction as the continuous quay-wall already described, project into the harbour at distances of from three to four hundred feet apart -Ihe jetties are generally from two to three hundred feet in length, and from fifty to sixty feet in breadth. The vessels frequenting the harbour are moored in the bays formed be- tween these projecting jetties, where they lie closely penned wharfs''' ^^'^'"'^ *^''' *''''' *"" ^'^ ^ ^''*^ alongside the The wood-work in the quays and jetties is of a very rough description. The timbers employed in their construction are seldom squared, and n..,:, I. any case, protected by paint or coal-tar from the .k^.l^oy..g effects of the atmosphere. Wood IS so plentiful in America, that to repair, or even to conscnict works in which timber is the only material em- ployed, is generally regai^ded as a very light matter. 1 be fixed crane for raising great weights, which is so generally used in the quays of Europe, is not emnlovprl i^ HARBOURS. ' New Fork, nor. in fact, in any of the A inerican ports. There vessels discharge and take in cargo with a purchase hung from the yard-arm. Tackling, attached to moveable sheer- poles or derricks, is also pretty much used in some of the ports ; but this apparatus proves a very poor substitute lor fixed quay-cranes, which are certainly of great convenience and utility in a shipphjg-port. The want of proper accommodation for vessels requiring re- pair is much felt by the shipping frequenting the American ports. The construction of an eflective graving dock, is un- der any circumstances, an operation of considerable expense ; but, in situations where the rise of tide is small, the difficul- ties encountered in its construction, and the inconvenience and expense attending the use of it when completed, prove a great bar to the introduction of this useful appendage to a dock-yard. It is, in a great measure, owing to thesu circum- stances that graving docks, for the repair of trading vessels are not used in the American ports ; in the most important ot which, the perpendicular rise of tide is so small, as to lessen, m a great degree, the advantages which, uixler more favourable circumstances, would be derived from their intro- duction. The only graving docks existing in North America, at the time of my visit, were those which have been erected for the use of the Navy by the Government of the United States in the navy-yards of Boston in Massachusetts, and Norfolk' in V-irginia. These docks have been formed of such a size as to admit, with ease, the largest class of government vessels belonging to the American Navy. The dock of Boston measures 306 feet in length, and 86 feet in breadth, and has a depth of water of 30 feet. But, although the depth of water in the dock is 30 feet at high water of spring tides, the fall of the tide is only 13 feet, which leaves 17 feet of water to be pumped out, by means .of a steam-engine every time a vessel is admitted for repair, an operation both tedious and expensive. The stone used in their construction is a grey^coxGured granite from Quincy in Massachusetts, and as .ar as regards workmanship and general execution, they are a2 10 HARBOURS. inferior to no marine works which I have ever seen. These graving docks are believed to have cost about L. 152,000 each. They are the finest specimens of masonry which I'met with in America, and are equally creditable to the government of the United States, and to Mr Baldwin, the engineer under whose direction they were constructed.* In the American harbours, the method of careening or laying vessels on their sides to get at their lower timbers, is still often resorted to. I, however, met with three different mechanical arrangements for raising vessels from the water, when decay or damage renders this operation necessary. In one of these arrangements, the requisite object is attained by the use of an inclined plane (on the well known principle of Morton's patent slip, but of a very rude description), on which vessels are drawn ashore by means of a system of wheel- work driven by a steam-engine. The secqnd method, which savours more of originality, is called the Screw-dock, the operation of which I witnessed on one occasion in the harbour of New York. The vessel to be raised by this apparatus was floated over a platform of wood, sunk to the depth of about ten feet below the surface of the water, and suspended from a strongly buih woo len frame-work by sixteen iron screws four and a half inches in diameter. This platform has several sliores on its surface which were brought to bear equally on the vessel's bottom' to prevent her from hanting over on being raised out of the water. About thirty men were employed in working this apparatus, who, by the combined action of the lever, wheel » A large graving dock has also been constructed in the Navy-yard at Now York. It measures 350 foot in length within the caisaon-groove, and the main chamber is 98 feet in breadth at the top. The width of entrance is G8 feet, and the depth of water 26 feet. It was commenced in 1841, and com- pleted in 1851. Great difficulty was experienced in its execution, occasioned mainly by the softness of the foundations— upwards of 8000 piles, varjitig from 25 to 40 feet in length, having been employed in the work, which ia stated to have cost the very large sum of L.400,000. It is built of granite, and is furnished with iron gates, and an iron cassion or floating gate. An ^— ■ — "a "••• "' ^' ^"'-- "lucicnt QouKs in I.IC i\avy-yards 01 the Uuited States will be found in Stuart's Naval Dry-docks of the United States. C. Norton, New York, and J. Weale, London, 1862, . These )00 each, met with iment of Br under sning or nbers, is different le water, iry. In lined by iciple of >n which 3el-work ality, is itnessed e vessel ;form of surface woo Ten ches in surface, bottom, i of the ag this , wheel d at Now and the uce id G8 >nd com- casioned varjitig fvhich is granite, ite. An i Uuited xtes, C. < / UM HPl. W ■< ■^ ■' ' ' / «. jy r— •' PlIhT HARBOURS. 11 J- 41=1 -.1 J '■i atid pinion, and screw, succeeded, in the course of half an hour, in raising the platform, loaded with a vessel of 200 tons burden, to the surface of the water, where she remained high and dry, suspended between the wooden frames. At Baltimore, I saw a large screw-dock, constructed on the same principles, on which the platform for supporting the vessel was suspended by forty screws of about five inches in diameter. The third of those methods to which I have alluded, is an apparatus called the Hydraulic-dock, a beautiful application of the principle of Bramah's press, to raise vessels of 800 tons burden. In this apparatus, as in the screw-dock, the vessel is raised on a platform sjvung between two frames. In the hydraulic-dock, however, the platform is suspended by forty chains, twenty on each side, which pass over cast- iron pullies, supported on the top of the wooden frame-work. The lower ends of the chains are fixed to the platform, and the upper ends to a horizontal beam of wood, which is attached by means of a crosshead to the ram of a hydraulic engine. When the ram, therefore, which is placed in a horizontal position, is moved, by the injection of water into the cast- iron cylinder in which it works, the motion is communicated to the horizontal beam, and thence, by the suspending chains to the platform bearing the vessel, which is thus slowly raised to the surface. Plate I. is a sketch illustrative of the principles on which this apparatus is constructed. Fig. 1 is a longitudinal view and Fig. 2 an end view, of the platform and vessel. In both of these views, a represents the platform ; 6, the suspending chains ; c, the pullies on which they run ; d, the horizontal beam to which the chains are attached ; e, the hydraulic engine ; and /, the injection-pipe by which the water is forced into the ram I. The cylinder and ram of the particular apparatus, which I saw, were made in England, at the works of Messrs Bolton and Watt. The fixtures of the cylinder are embedded in a large mass of masonry, so as to render it quite immovpablp Tlie perfect stability of this part of the apparatus is obviously of the highest importance, as the safety of the suspended 12 HARBOURS. vessel depends in a great, measure on this being secured The external diameter of the water-cylinder is twenty-eight inches, and its internal diameter is twelve inches The ram which works in it is eleven inches in diameter and ten leet in length. TJiere are several racks attached to the ap- paratus, for supporting the platform, and taking part of the weight off the ram after the vessel is suspended. When she IS ready to be lowered, these racks are unshipped, and the water being permitted to escape through a small aperture provided in the cylinder for that purpose, the vessel slowly descends into the water. The water is injected into the cylinder by a high-pressure steam-engine, of six horses' power, and the attendance of four persons is all that is ne- cessary to raise a vessel of 800 tons register. The perpen- dicular lift of these docks is ten feet, which is found to be sufficient : the rise of tide in New York harbour being only five feet at spring tides, renders a greater height unnecessary. The Screw and Hydraulic docks belong to a party of pri- vate individuals, called the " New York Screw-Dock Com- pany who derive a considerable revenue from raising ves • terms^-l '''^^"'''''' Waratus. The following are their For vessels under 75 tons, £3 per day. Single-deoked vessels of 75 tons and upwards. lOd. per ton per day Doublo-deoked vessels of 75 tons and upwards. Is. Ojd. per tCpeTiay, After the first day the charge is For vessels under 170 tons, £3 per day For all vesseTs of 170 tons and upwards, 4Jd. per ton per day Cargo or ballast is charged at the rate of Is. OJd. per ton.* The wharfs in the harbour of New York, are in general he property qf private individuals, possessing the iLd on the margin of the river. Some of them aIso1.elong to the by Mr Hyde Clarke. C.E.. in AVeale" ngTuee^ pa^^^^^^ It" '^-f of a series of caissons connected with a nlatform wM^i •' • , \ '*"''''*' HARBOURS. 18 Coloration of New York. The wharfage dues are collected by the owners of the respective quays, and vary in their rates according to the local advantages which the sites possess, and the pleasure of the persons to whom they belong. Vessels have, occasionally, been damaged while lying at the quays of New York, by the vast masses of floating ioe which upon the breaking up of the frost, are brought down l^om the interior of the country by the waters of the Hudson. a or the protection of shipping against the recurrence of such accidents, which, however, are liable to affect only the vessels lying on the western side of the town, the erection of a break- water in the river above New York harbour, has been for some time contemplated. The trade of this great port is generally more or less in- terrupted by ice for about a month every winter, and the lliver Hudson at New York has, once or twice, been covered by a coating of ice so thick as to afford a safe road for carriages. This however, happens very rarely ; but such is the severity of the New York winter, that the omnibuses, and other wheel-carriages employed in running in the city, are always laid up for the space of five or six weeks during the depth of winter, and their places supplied by sledges which run on the hardened snow. The large suburb called Brooklyn occupies the shore of Long Island, directly opposite to New York. It is separated from the town by Long Island Sound, which at this point is about one-th,rd of a mile in breadth, and forms part of the harbour of New York. One of the United States' Navy-yards ha^ been established at Brooklyn, which is also in other re- spects a place of considerable trade and importance. A con- stant communication is kept up between it and New York by means of numerous steamboats, which cross every five minutes adding greatly to the bustle and confusion of this busy and crowded part of the harbour. The stoppage and inconvenience which a bridge across the sound in this situation wnnlrl nnnoc,^^v, ^^ +u„ ^i,-. • prevented .ts erection, but the spirited inhabitants have had designs under their consideration for connecting the opposite 14 HARBOURS. shores by means of such a work, and also by the formation of a tunnel passing under the bed of the river, similar to that under the Thames at London. The steam ferry-boats, how- ever, are so well managed, that the want of a more constant means of communication is not much felt. They are twin boats with the paddle-wheel placed in the centre, and in their general construction resemble those at one time used on the ferries of the Tay at Dundee, and the Mersey at Liverpool. The landing slips between which they ply are very con- venient and suitable for situations where the rise of tide is not great. The slip consists of a large platform of wood, the landward extremity of which is attached to the edge of the quay by moveable hinge-joints, admitting of its free motion. The seaward extremity of this platform rests on a floating tank, and has the same elevation above the surface of the water as the deck of the ferry-boat. The outer extremity of the platform which rests on the floating tank, is thus ele- vated or depressed with the rise and fall of the tide, but always remains on a level with the steamboat's deck| and affords during high-water a level road, and during low- water an inclined plane, for the passage of carriages and passengers between the vessel and the land.* Before quitting the subject of Harbours, I shall make a few general remarks on some of the other American ports of consequence. Boston, in Massachusetts, is generally supposed to rank next in importance to New York and New Orleans. The town is situated at the head of Massachusetts Bay, wMch extends over about fifty miles of coast between Cape Ann and Cape Cod, and contains within its limits many excellent anchorages. Boston Bay, in which the harbour has been formed, is a sheltered inlet of about seventy-five square miles in extent, enclosed by two necks of land, which so ^: • This arrangement has, since the date of my visit to America. b«on «nrr5ed out on a large scale by Sir William Cubitt, in the steamboat landing-stages constructed hy him on the Mersey at Liverpool. A bein£ HARBOURS. 16 A nearly approach each other as to leave only a very narrow entrance communicating directly with the Atlantic. The exports from Boston are of a varied nature, consisting chiefly of the produce and manufactures of that part of the United States called New England. The population of the town is about 93,000. Its situation is curious. Placed on a penin- sula having deep water close in-shore, and almost entirely sur- rounding It, It is connected with the adjoining country by means of a dam and seven wooden bridges, of which the most extensive is about a mile and a half in length. The dam consists of an embankment of earth 8000 feet in leno-th enclosed between two stone retaining-walls. It serves "the double purpose of affording a means of communication, and of forming a large basin, in which the tide-water being col- lected, a water-power is created for driving machinery. The quays af Boston are constructed in the same style, and of the same materials, as those of New York, but more atten- tion has been paid by the builders to the durability of the work. Some of the wharfs extend about a quarter of a mile into the harbour, and are of sufficient breadth to have a row of wareliouses built on them. The rise of tide in Boston harbour is thi^rteen feet in spring, and nine feet in neap, tides. In the suburb called Charlestown, which is connected with Boston by means of three wooden bridges, is situate the Navy-yard of the United States, and the graving-dock al- ready noticed. Philadelphia is a town of about 400,000 inhabitants, and stands on a peninsula between the rivers Delaware and Schuyl- kill, in the state of Pennsylvania. Its harbour is at'the head of the ship navigation of Delaware Bay, a vast arm of the sea which IS navigable for vessels of the largest class as far as Philadelphia, a distance of about a hundred miles from tJie Atlantic Ocean. In the Bay of Delaware the tide has gene- rally a rise of only three feet, but it is sometimes much in- creased by the state of the winds-the highest known tide being 9 feet=* ♦ in 1829 a commiasion, composed of Commodoro Rogers, United States ^avy, Bngadier-Gcneral Bernard, United States Engineer., and William 16 HARBOURS. The town of Baltimore contains a population of about 100,000 inhabitants, and lies on the north side of the Eiver Patapsco, about fourteen miles from its mouth. The basin forming the harbour is a splendid sheet of water, in which it is said 2000 vessels could ride at anchor with ease. Chesapeake Bay, which receives the Eiver Patapsco, on which Baltimore stands, is navigable for 200 miles from the ocean, and forms an outlet for the trade of the ports of Balti- more, Annapolis, Washington, Fredericksburgh, Richmond, and Norfolk, and receives the waters of the Susquehanna, Pat- apsco, Potomac, and James rivers. The rise of tide at Bal- timore is about five feet, but is much influenced by the state of the wind, which has a great e£fect upon the waters of Chesapeake Bay. Charleston, in North Carolina, is a port of considerable size, built on a tongue of land formed by the Eivers Ashley and Cooper. There is a bar at the entrance of the harbour, with only twelve feet of water on it at low tides, but within the bar there is a good anchorage. The rise of tide in this har- bour is about six feet. As T was unable to visit New Orleans, T cannot speak of it from personal knowledge ; but as it is by far the most important place in the Southern States, I felt unwilling to Strickland, Esq., architect, after fully considering the works o i Plymouth and Cherbourg, reported to Congress in favour of the consf-uction of a break- water in Delaware Bay at Cape Henlopen. The rey ' -'"tes that the objects to be gained by the proposed breakwater are, to she'; ^ , -u the action of the waves caused by the winds blowing from east t, „ n round by north, and llso to protect them from injuries arising fr,, , r ice de- scending from the north-west. That the harbour will se. . . . .i be used by vessels descending the river and bound to sea, its chief purpose being, to provide a safe refuge for vessels from sea designing to ascend the river. Twelve hundred yards was estimated as the length of ^hat portion of it which was destined for a breakwater, and 500 yards for the part designed more particularly to act as an ice-breaker, making the whole length of the two 1700 yards. In 1837, when I visited the country, I could not learn that any- thing had been accomplished to justify the hope of the work being carried to a successful issue. I am happy to observe that in 1840 Mr Strickland writes " that the work may be considered now so far finished as tc have accomplished materially the purposes for which it was projected." {Public Works in the United States. London : John Weale. 1841.) HARBOURS. 17 omit all mention of it in this sketr^h, and therefore applied to my friend Captain Basil Hall, now, alas, no more, who kindly sent me the following notice on the subject :— . " You are quite right," says Captain Hall, " to include New Orleans in your list of American harbours ; for, though It 18 not strictly a seaport, it answers all the purposes of one in a remarkable degree. New Orleans lies at the distance of about a hundred miles from the Gulf of Mexico, and the ebb and flow of the tide do not reach so high as the city. The level of the river is, however, subject to fluctuations, in con- sequence of the changes in the supply of water from the iipper countries through which it flows. It rises from January to May, remains full all June and a part of July after which it begins to fall, and goes on decreasing in height till September and October, when it is lowest. The perpendicular difference in height of the surface of the Mis- sissippi at New Orleans, is about thirteen or fourteen feet and when at its lowest, it is nearly on a level with the sea at the mouth of the river, so that the flow is then scarcely perceptible. ^ " In former times, before steam-navigation was known there was great delay, and considerable difficulty as well as danger, in getting from the sea to New Orleans, in conse- quence of the opposing stream, the numerous shoals, and the very tortuous nature of the course, which rendered it scarcely possible to sail up all the way with the same wind. To these annoyances may be added the very bad nature of the anchor- ing ground everywhere, and the difficulty as well as risk of lashing large vessels to the banks of such a river. All these things rendered New Orleans a harbour highly objectionable in a nautical point of view. " Now, however, that steam has got command of ' time and space,' New Orleans may be considered an excellent sea-port, safe, and as easy of access as of egress. I need not mention that there are at all times any number of steam-tugs ready to take ships down the river, or to bring them up When 1 was there in April 1827, eleven years ago, several steamboats left the city every evening about sunset, each 18 HARBOURS. having m tow one or more vessels astern, besides one two or three lashed on each side, so that the boat was often quite hid by the cluster round her. In this way they proceeded down and at daylight came to the bar which lies across the mouth of the river opening into the Gulf of Mexico. On reaching the sea, or rather before they reached it, the steam- boats cast off their companions, and left them to be taken in charge by their respective pilots, unless in cases of calm or contrary wind, when, of course, they got a tow into the offing. ^ 1 he most important service of these steamboats, however, IS to tow ships up the river; for, although it is always trouble- some, and often very dangerous, to drop down with the current trom New Orleans to the sea, it can bo and is done, even with- out the help of steam. But to make way upwards against the Mississippi is a most heart-breaking work without such aid, and now-a-days the attempt would be considered absurd Accordingly, the steam-vessels which have carried down the ships during the liight, and have launched them in safety over the bar into the salt sea, look about them for others which having made the land, are ready to enter the river' These they seize upon, and either take in tow, or lash along- side of them, and tow up to New Orleans. Of course they cannot, as in the downward case, carry along with them such a cluster as they brought down, nor is it likely that they will often be called upon to exert their strength so far, for the ships arrive off the entrance of the river by one or two at a time, and are not prepared, as within the port, to start in bodies at a given time. " In this way, it may be fairly stated, that New Orleans though a hundred miles from the sea, is virtually one of the best and most accessible ports in the Union. It may be added, that, as all the ships lie alongside of the levee or em- bankment which separates the river from the city, and which serves the purpose of a perfectly commodious wharf, and as the water is always smooth, nothing can be more easy and secure than the communication, both for loading and unload- ing goods. The ships lie alongside of each other, in tiers, and 1 have seldom seen, in any country, such a forest of masts. HARBOURS. 19 * Abreast of the upper part of the city may be seen, in like manner, numerous tiers of steamboats of gigantic dimensions just arrived from, or preparing to start for, the upper countries' through which the Mississippi and its innumerable tributaries pass. And farther up in this most extraordinary of harbours be crowds of huge rafts, or arks, as they are called,— rude vessels without masts, which have dropped down the river and are loaded with that portion of the produce of the in- terior which will not bear the expense of steam carriage. " At every hour,— I had almost said at every minute,— of the day, the magnificent steamboats which convey passengers from New Orleans into the heart of the western country, fire off their signal guns, and dash away at a rate which makes me giddy even to think of. "I must now conclude this brief notice by regretting, that the limitation in your time did not allow you to visit, and to describe in detail, this most remarkable of all the wonderful commercial phenomena,— as it may be called,— which the great western confedoracy of states presents to the traveller namely, a mighty city built in the midst of one of the most unhealthy swamps on earth, and a port, 100 miles from the sea, which rivals, in all essential respects, that of New York or London ; possessing, moroever, an uninterrupted and ready communication with the interior parts of a vast continent, to the distance of thousands upon thousands of miles every- where rife with civilization, though, but a few years ago, the whole was one vast wilderness, the exclusive abode either of alligators, wild beasts, or savages !" These are the most considerable ports in the United States ; but, m addition, it may not be amiss to notice shortly the fol- lowing bays and sounds, which deserve attention, as many of them afford good anchorage and sheltered lines of navigation Passamaquoddy Bay is situate at the boundarybetween the British dominions and the United 3i«mT^mi^^^ the waters of the River St Croix, the l^ml^y finete^^efn"^^ the two countries. The tide in it rises twei^t.),-^^ fe«iv PenobscuL Bay, into which the Biver Pen^sH'oi Hows, has a rise of tide of ten feet. \\.9. _-. ^ \ L*-' O' U.tm 'r'a'»^ /'•.• 20 HARBOURS. Narrapansott Bay is navi^mldo for vessels drawing sixteen feet of water to tlio town of rrovidonco, wliich is about tliirty- five miles from the sea. The town of Newport in this bay, though a place of little importance, has ono of the finest natural harbours in America. Long Island Sound lies between the mainland and Long Island, and extends in a north-easterly direction from New York harbour. It affords a sheltered line of navigation of about IL'O miles in extent. Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, in North Carolina, are more remarkable for their curious geological formation than for any advantages held out by them for navigation, for which the difHculties of their entrance, and shallow water, wholly unfit them. The narrow strips of land, by which these Sounds are separated from the Atlantic Ocean, stretch along the coast for a distance of about 200 miles, and extend about 40 miles south of Pamlico Sound. Chatham, Appalachce, and Mobile ]kys, in the Gulf of Mexico, are not reported as possessing, in any extraordinary degree, the qualifications of good havens, and, as already noticed, there is very little rise of tide on this coast. It may also be mentioned, that the hot and unhealthful climate of all the southern ports of the United States, from Charleston to New Orleans inclusive, as well as the nature of the slavo population of the southern states, renders them very unsuit- able for the growth of that hardy race of seamen, of which the northern ports of the country are the true and only nurseries. The naval-yards belonging to the Government of the United States are established at Boston, Portsmouth in New Hampshire, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk in Virginia, and Pensacola in the Gulf of Mexico; and those of them which I had an opportunity of visiting seemed to be very well regulated. Considering the natural advantages held out by that country, and the abundance of fine timber produced in it, it is not surprising that the Americans have bestowed so much attention upon naval aflairs, or that their efforts should have been crowned by so HARBOURS. 21 great Buccess in the improvement both of inland and mari- time navigation. The genius of the people for naval affairs iH doubtJOHH tho birthright of their HritiHh origin, and their patrimony has been improved by tho energy which charac- terises all their effortH. Quebec is tlio seat of government of Lower Canada, and, in a commercial point of view, is tho first port in the British dominions in America. It is situate at tho junction of the River St Charles with tho St Lawrence ; and, though distant fully 700 miles from the Atlantic Oiican, tho spacious and beautiful Bay of Quebec, formed by the junction of the two rivers, affords a noble deep-water anchorage for vessels of all sizes, and almost in any numbers. Tho bay measures about three miles and three quarters in length, and two miles in breadth, and the water in some parts of it is twenty-eight fathoms in depth. Tho population of tho town is about 40,000, and its trade consists in tho export o^f wood, potash, and furs, the produce of Upper and Lower Canada. Tho rise of tide at Quebec is twenty-three feet in spring-tides, and tho (piays and wharfs there, as well as in the harbours of the United States, are constructed entirely of wood. ^ The ferry-boats at Quebec, plying between the opposite sides of tho river, which is about a quarter of a mile in breadth, are propelled by horses and oxen. Tho^o animals are secured in small houses on the decks of tho vessels ; and the effort they make in the act of walking on a circuiur'plat- form, fixed on the circumference of a large horizontal wheel, produces a power which is applied to drive the paddle-wheels of the ferry-boat, in the same manner as the motion of the wheel in the tread-mill is applied to the performance of dif- ferent descriptions of work. I have seen horse ferry-boats in Holland, and, I believe, they have also been used in America, in which the power was more advantageously ap- plied by means of an apparatus like the gin of a thrashing- mill, in which case the horses are not stationary, but are made to walk in a circle, and the motion communicated by them to an upright shaft, is conveyed, by means of wheel- 22 HARBOURS. work, to the paddle-wheels of the vessel. A boat of this kind was used for some time ''n England, between Norwich and Yarmouth. Montreal, which is 180 miles to the westward of Quebec, and 880 miles from the ocean, is a town of about 60,000 in- habitants, at the head of the ship navigation of the St Law- rence, and considerably above the influence of the tide. The town is built on the island whose name it bears, which is situate at the junction of the Ottowa or Grand Kiver with the St Lawrence. The quays and landing-slips at Montreal are built of stone ; and in this respect it differs from the other American ports which I have noticed. The material used in their construction is a blue limestone, which is very abundant throughout the greater part of Canada, and is much used in all building operations in that country. The trade of Mon- treal is of the same description as that of Quebec, though not so extensive. Halifax harbour is considered one of the finest in the world, and is calculated to afford anchorage for upwards of a thousand vessels of the largest class. It is a place of very considerable importance ; for through it comes much of the trade of Nova, Scotia j an^i it is the British post-packet sta- tion for Canada. Such is a brief sketch of the construction and capabilities of some of the principal harbours of America, in the forma- tion of which nature has done so much, that little has been left for the labour of man, and works of an extensive and massive description, and operations such as are found to be indispensable in rendering European harbours accessible or commodious, have there been found to be unnecessary. By erections of a temporary description, constructed of the wood produced in the operation of clearing their lands, the inhabi- tants have been enabled, along the whole line of coast, to afford, at a very small cost, accommodation for an extent and class of shipping, to obtain which, in any other quarter of the globe, would have involved an enormous investment of capital, and a much greater consumption of time. LAKE NAVIGATION. 23 CHAPTER II. LAKE NAVIGATION. Buffalo "^n'^T^""^''""""" °^ ^^^"' Breakwaters. &c. -Buffalo-Ene-Oswego_Toronto-Kingston-Vo3sel3 employed in Lake Nav,gat,on-Violent Effects of Storms on the Lakes-I e oa the Lakes-Effects of Ice on the Climate-Lake Champlain. The great chain of inland lakes, whose vast expanse might justly entitle them to the name of seas, are the largest bodies of fresh water in the known world, and constitute an impor- tant feature m the physical geography of North America. When viewed m connection with the River and Gulf of St Lawrence by which their surplus waters are discharged into the Atlantic Ocean, ideas of magnitude and wonder are ex- erted in the mind which it is impossible to describe. But the effects which they produce on the commercial and do- mestic economy of the country are considerations far more important ana striking. With the aid of some short lines of canal, formed to overcome the natural obstacles presented to navigation by the Falls of Niagara and the Rapids of the bt Lawrence, these great lakes are converted into a continu- 200o'^V •?^7."'"'"'"'"'^*^'"' penetrating upwards of 2000 miles into the remote regions of North America, and affording an outlet for the produce of a large portion of that must, in all probability have remained for ever inaccessible The great western lakes of America are five in number :- ZT:: Si' ^^l^^^^ -^ ^"P-- The extent abiy , but the dimensions which I shall quote are taken 24 LAKE NATIGATION. partly from the work of Mr Bouchette, the Surveyor-General of Canada, and partly from the charts constructed by Cap- tain Bayfield of the Koyal Navy. Lake Ontario, the most eastern of the chain, lies nearest to the Atlantic. The Eiver St Lawrence, which has a course of about a thousand miles before reaching the ocean, is its outlet, and flows from its eastern extremity. This lake is ] 72 statute miles in length, 59| miles in extreme breadth, and about 483 miles in circumference. It is navigable throughout its whole extent for vessels of the largest size. Its surface is elevated 220 feet above the medium level of the sea ; and it is said to be, in some places, upwards of 600 feet in depth. The trade of Lake Ontario, from the great extent of inhabited country surrounding it, is very con- siderable. Many sailing vessels and splendid steamers are employed on its waters. Owing to its great depth, it never freezes, except at the sides, where the water is shallow ; so that its navigation is not so effectually interrupted as that of the comparatively shallow Lake Erie. The most important places on the Canadian or British side of Lake Ontario, are the city of Toronto, which is the capi- tal of Upper Canada, and the towns of Kingston and Niagara, and, on the American shore, the towns of Oswego, Genesee, and Sackett's Harbour. Lake Ontario has a direct commu- nication with the Atlantic Ocean, in a northerly direction by the St Lawrence, and in a southerly direction by the River Hudson and the Erie Canal, with which it is connected by a branch canal, leading from Oswego to a small town on the line of the Erie Canal, called Syracuse. Lake Erie is about 265 miles in length, from thirty to sixty miles in breadth, and about 529 miles in circumference. The greatest depth which has been obtained in sounding this lake is 270 feet, and its surface is elevated 565 feet above the level of the Hudson at Albany. Its bottom is composed chiefly of rock. Lake Erie is said to be the only one of the chain in which there is any perceptible current, a circum- stance whicii may, perhaps, be occasioned by its smaller depth of water. This current, which runs always in the same di- LAKE NAVIGATION. 25 rection, and the prevailing westerly winds, are rather against its navigation. The shallowness of the water also, which varies from 100 to 270 feet in depth, renders it more easily and more permanently affected by frost— its navigation being generally obstructed by ice for some weeks every spring, after that of all the other lakes is open and unimpeded. The principle towns on Lake Erie are Buffalo, Dunkirk Ashtabula, Erie, Cleveland, Sandusky, Portland, and Detroit! Between forty and fifty splendid steamboats, and many sail- ing vessels, were in 1857 employed in its trade, which was even then very extensive ; and several harbours with stone- piers have been erected on its shores for their accommoda- tion. The surface of Lake Erie is elevated 322 feet above Lake Ontario, into which its water is discharged by the River Ni- agara. In the course of this river, which is only thirty-seven miles in length, the accumulated surplus waters of the four upper lakes descend over a perpendicular precipice of 152 feet in height, and form the far-famed " Falls of Niagara." These falls, with the rapids which extend for some distance both above and below them, render seven miles of the river's course unfit for navigation. The unfavourable nature of the bed of the River Niagara,— the connecting link between Lakes Erie and Ontario,— for the purposes of navigation, in- duced a company of private individuals, assisted by 'the British Government, to construct the Welland Canal, by which a free passage from the one lake to the other is. afforded for vessels of 125 tons burden. This undertaking was commenced in the year 1824 and completed in 1829, five years having been occupied in its execution. The expense of the works connected with it ip, said to have been about L. 270,000. The canal extends from Port Maitland on Lake Erie to a place called Twelve-Mile Creek on Lake Ontario. Its length is about forty-two miles : its brfiaHth ai fVin a„^f«.,^ ^f ^i,^ • water is fifty-six feet, and at the bottom twenty-six feet, and iJie depth of water is eight feet six inches. The whole per- B 20 LAKE NAVIGATION. peiidicular rise and fall from the surface of Lake Ontario to the summit level, and thence to Lake Erie, is 334 feet, which is overcome by means of thirty-seven locks of various lifts, measuring ono hundred feet in length and twenty-two feet in breadth, mos of which are formed of wood. The most considerable worK occurring on the Welland Canal is an ex- tensive excav; tion of forty-five feet in depth, from which 1,477,700 cubic yards of earth, and 1,890,000 cubic yards of rock, are said to have been removed. Lake Erie is connected by the Erie Canal with the Eiver Hudson and the Atlantic Ocean, and again by the Ohio Canal with the Eiver Ohio and the Gulf of Mexico. The Erie Canal is 363, and the Ohio Canal 334, miles in length. I shall advert more particularly, however, to the construction and details of the canal worl s in North America in another (Section. Lake Huron is about 240 miles in length, from 186 to 220 miles in breadth, and 1000 miles in circumference. The outline of this lake is very irregular, and Mr Bouchette saya of its shores, that they consist of " clay cliffs, rolled stones, abrupt rocks, and wooded steeps." Its connection with Lake Erie is formed by the River St Clair, which conveys its water over a space of > lirty-fivc miles into a small lake of the same name, of a circular form, and about thirty miles in dia- meter, from whence the Eiver Detroit, having a course of twenty-nine miles, flows into Lake Erie. The communica- tion between the two lakes is navigable for vessels of all sizes. Lake Michigan is connected with Lake Huron by the navigable strait Michillimackinac, in which is situate the island of Mackinaw, now the seat of a custom-house estab- lishment, and a place of considerable trade. Lake Michigan is about 300 miles in length, seventy-five miles in breadth, and 920 miles in circumference, having a superficies of 16,200 square miles. It is navigated by many steamers 'throughout its whole extent. The principal towns on the lake, the southern shore of which has now become the seat of many prosperous settlements, are Michigan, Milwawkie, LAKE NAVIGATION. 27 and Chicago * The Illinois Eiver takes its rise near the shores of Lake Michigan, and flows into the Mississippi ; and a canal, for the purpose of connecting their waters, is now in progress ; an improvement which, when completed, will form a second water-communication, extending from the Gulf of St Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of upwards of 3000 miles,— the other communication being that already alluded to between Lake Erie and the Ohio*" by a canal from Cleveland to Portsmouth. Lake Superior is connected with Lake Huron by the River St Mary. This river, which is about forty miles in length, has a fall of twenty-three feet on the whole length of its course, and is navigable only for small boats. As yet the march of improvement has rot penetrated to this remote region ; but ere long Lakes Superior and Huron, like Erie and Ontario, will probably be connected by a canal. Lake buperior is about 360 miles in length, 140 miles in breadth and 1116 miles in circumference ; the depth is in some places said to be 1200 feet, and its surface is 627 feet above the mu f ^ *^^ '^^- •^*' ^°**^°"' ^°"'^'<^^ «f «l^.y and small shells. This ake IS the largest body of fiesh water known to exist • and although surrounded by a comparatively desert and un- cultivated country, at a distance of nearly 2000 miles from the ocean, an.] at an elevation of 627 feet above its surface It is navigated by steamboats and sailing vessels of great burden, which are reported to be not inferior to the craft navigating the lower lakes. From what has been said regarding the great western lakes, 10 will easily be believed that, notwithstanding the secluded position which Ihey occupy in the centre of North America far removed from the ocean and from intercourse with the wor d at large, their waters are no longer the undisturbed haunt of the eagle, nor their coasts the dwelling of the Indian. Civilization and British habits have extended their * Chicago, of which I sne^lc rnrther In ihn -,1- -t r- -, creased with great rapidity It" hnnvv \l !f K °" ^''''^»>'y^> has in- lays, its populatbn b r g'^ipLl oTso^JO^r f •.* T "'t"^'"'^ "' "''''- Kew York of the Western StaleB ' ' ^^ '' '^'""' '^' "'^^ ""^ '^' 28 LAKE NAVIQATION. influenco ovon to that romoto ro^ion, and their Hhorcw can now boast of numerous aettlomonts, inhabited by a busy population, actively engaged in commercial i)ursuits. The wiiito sails of lleets of vessels, and the smoking chimneys of numerous steamers, now thickly stud their wide expanse ; and boacon-lighfs, illuminating their rocky shores with their cheering rays, guide the benighted navigator on his course. Every idea connected with a frrsh-water lake, must bo laid nsit inland shoots of water, which, in fact, in their gen • appearance, and in the chara(^teriHtios of their navi- gation, bear a much closer resemblance to the ocean than the sheUored bays and sounds in which the harbours of the eastern coast of North America are situated, although these estuaries have a direct and short communication with the Atlantic Ocean. The whole line of coast formed by the margins of the several lakes above enumerated extends to upwards of 4000 statute miles. There are several islands in I^ako Superior, and also at the northern end of liako Michigan, but the others are, generally speaking, free from obstructions. They have all, however, deep water throughout their whole extent, and present every facility for the purposes of navigation. It was not till the year 1818, that the navigation of the lakes had become so extensive, and assumed so important a character, as to render the erection of lighthouses necessary and e pedient for insuring the safety of the numerous ship- ping employed on them. Since that period the number of lighthouses has been gradually increasing, and, on the Ame- rican side of the lakes they, at the time of my visit in 1837, amounted to about twenty-five in number, besides about thirty beacons and buoys, which have been found of the greatest service. About the same period at which the introduction of light- liouses was considered necessary, some attention was also bestowed on the subject of lake harbours. Many which for- merly existed were then improved and enlarged, and others wore projected. I visited several of those ports on Lakes LAKE NAVIGATION. 29 jRrio and Ontario, which have good Bholtercd anchorages, with a sufiioiont depth of water at their entrances for tho chisH of vessels frequenting tliern. ]hit good harbour accom- modation is by no means ho easily ol)taincd on tho shores of tho lakes, as, goiicrally speaking, on tho sea-coast of tho United States. Most of the lake harbours arc formed in ex- jmsed situations, and as regards tho expense and durability of tho several works executed in their formation, are much bettor calculated to resist tho fury of tho winds and waves than tho wooden wharfs of the sea-ports on tho eastern coast of the country of which .1 have given a description. In con- nection with what has already been said on tlio subject of the harbours of the American coast, I shall give a brief skefch of some of those which camo immediately under my notice on tho shores of tho lakes. The town of Bullalo stands at the eastern corner of Lako Erie in the state of New York, and contains a population of about 30,000. As regards the number of its inhabitants and the extent of its commercial transactions, it is tho most im- portant place on the lakes. From the month of June till the month of December inclusive, during which period the navigation of tho lakes is generally open and unimpeded by ice, I found in 1837 that between forty and lifty steamboats, varying from 200 to 700 tons register, wore constantly plying between Buffalo and tho several ports on the shores of tho lakes. Some of those steamers made regular voyages once a month to Chicago in Lake Michigan, a distance of no less than 965 miles ; and one left the harbour of Buffalo twico every day, during summer, for Detriot, a distance of 325 miles. The New York and Erie Canal, the earliest, and perhaps the most important public work executed in tho United States, which enters the lakes at Buffalo, has a great effect in increasing its trade and importance. Buffalo is built at the mouth of a creek communicating with tho lake, in which the harbour is formed. The wharfs in the interior of the harbour are made of wood, but the covering pier, and other works exposed to the wash of the lakes, are built of stone, and cost about L.40,000. The 80 LAKE NAVIGATION. (lopth of water in tlio liarbour is nine feet when the lake is in its lowest or siunnior-water state. TIio following liagram represents a cross seetion of the covering i»ior, w.iicli has been erected for the ])nrposo of protecting the shipping and tran(piillizing the waler within tho liarbour during heavy gales. It measures 1452 feet in length, and its form and construction are so very substantial, that one may fancy him- self in some sea-port, forgetting altogether that ho is on the nnirgin of a fresh-water lake, at an elevation of more than aOO feet above tho level of the ocean. ^i^£r" The top of tlie pier onwhicli tho roadway is formed measures eighteen feet in breadth, and is elevated about five feet above tho level of the water in tho harbour. On tho side of tho roadway which is exposed to the lake, a parapet-wall, five feet in height, extends along the whole length of the pier, from tho top of which a talus wall, battering at tho rate of one perpendicular to three horizontal, slopes towards the lake. This slo})ingwall is formcdof a description of masonry, which is technically termed coursed pitching. Its foundations are secured by a double row of strong sheeting piles driven into the bed of the lake, and a moss of rubble pierres perdues, resting on tho too of the sh)pe. Tlio (piay or inner side of the pier is perpendicular, and is sheathed with a row of sheeting piles, driven at intervals of about iivo feet apart from centre to centre, to prevent the wall from being damaged by vessels coming alongside of it. The entrance to the harbour is marked by a double light, exhibited from two towers of good masonry built on the pier. The workmanship and materials employed in erecting many of the other lake harbours are of a much less sub- grantiai description than that adopted at Bull'alo. The breakwater for the protection of Dunkirk Harbour on Lake LAKE NAVIQATION. 31 Erie, for example, was formed in a most ingenious manner, by sinking a strong wooden frame-work filled with stones. The frame or crib was erected during winter on tho ice over the site which it was intended to occupy. Tho ice was then broken, and tho crib being filled with Hmall stones, sunk to its resting-place in tho bottom of the lake. Presque-Isle Bay, in wliich the town of Erie stands, is formed by the jjeniuHula of l^resque-Islo on the shore of Lake Erie. This bay measures about one mile in breadth, and three miles in length, and affords a 8i)lendid anchorage for vessels of the largest size. It opens toward tlie north- west, and is sheltered from tho waves of tho lakes by two covering breakwaters, measuring respectively 3000 and 4000 feet in length, projecting from the shore, and leaving a space between their outer extremities of 300 feet in breadth, for the ingress and egress of vessels. Some other works of consider- able extent are contemplated, to render this harbour still more safe and convenient. Oswego, situate at tho mouth of the Senoca River, on the southern shore of Lake Ontario, is a town of 12,000 inhabi- tants, having a good harbour. It stands at tho commencement of the branch canal, which connects the groat New York and Erie Canal with Lake Ontario, and is the seat of several manufactories and mills driven by the Seneca River, on which tliere are some very valuable falls. • The pier, which has been built at this place for the protection of the harbour is a very good specimen of masonry, finished somewhat in the same style as that at Buffalo, and cost about L.20,000. The depth of water in the harbour is twenty feet, and it has a good harbonr-light placed in a substantial tower of masonry at the extremity of the pier. The works required in the construction of Buffalo, Erie, and Oswego harbours wore done at the expense, and under the direction, of tho Government of the UnJted States, who have also executed harbour-works of great extent, varying according to the nature of their situations, at the towns of Chicago, Michigan, Milwawkie, and Green Bay, in Lake Michigan; Detroit, Sandusky, Ashtabula, Portland, and Dun- 32 LAKE NAVIQATrON. kirk, on Lake Erie ; and at Genesee and Sackett's Harbour on Lake Ontario. Sackett's Harbour is remarkable as having been the United States' Navy-yard during the war. The harbours on the Canadian or British shores of the lakes, are, as yet, not so numerous. The principal ones are those of Toronto, Port Dalhousie, Burlington, Hungry Bay, and Kingston, on Lake Ontario ; and Amherstburgh, and Put-in Bay on Lake Erie. . Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada, lies in a bay which is nearly circular, and measures about a mile and a-half in diameter. It is sheltered from the lake by a projecting neck of land called Gibraltar Point, on which the harbour light is erected. This bay has a considerable depth of water, and affords an extensive and safe anchorage. Port Dalhousie is at the entrance of the Welland Canal, and has two piers, measuring respectively 200 and 250 feet in length, and also some pretty extensive works, connected with a basin for re- ceiving timber. Kingston, situate at the eastern end of Lake Ontario, just at the point where the river St Lawrence flows out of the lakes, is the British Government Naval Yard. Navy Bay, in which it stands, is a good anchorage for vessels drawing eighteen feet of water, but is exposed to south and Routh-west winds. The British Government have also exe- cuted works in some of the other harbours on the Canadian side of the lakes.* The tonnage of most of the craft employed in the lake navigation is regulated by the size of the canals which have been constructed for the purpose of connecting the lakes, and facilitating the navigation of the St Lawrence. The locks of these canals are formed of such dimensions as to admit vessels of 125 tons burden, and consequently the lake craft, with a few exceptions, do not exceed this size. The steam- boats, however, and all the vessels which are employed ex- clusively in the navigation of one lake, are never required to enter the canals, and many of these are of great size ; some of the new steamers, at the time I visited the country, being no less than vOO tons burden. The art of ship-building, which is practised to a considerable extent in almost every LAKE NAVIGATION. 88 port, derives a great stimulus from the abundance of fine timber i)roduced in the neighbourhood of the lakes ; and to so great an extent has it been carried on, that during the war a vessel called the St Lawrence, of 102 guns, was launched by the British at Kingston, and another by the Americans at Sackett's Harbour, which measured 210 feet in length on her lower gun-deck. The vessels used in the lake navigation, and more especi- ally the steam-boats, which I had frequent opportunities of examining, possess in a much greater degree the character of sea-boats than the same class of vessels employed in the sounds and bays on the shores of the Atlantic ; and the sub- stantial masonry of which the piers and breakwaters on the lakes are composed renders these works also, as before noticed, much more capable of resisting the fury of the winds and waves than the wooden wharfs of the eastern coast of the country. The strength and durability of material which both the piers and the vessels present are, at first sight, apt to appear superfluous in works connected with lake navigation. I was certainly impressed with this conviction when I first saw the stone-piers of Buffalo, which I have already described; and the sight of fhe steamer " James Madison," u strongly built vessel of 700 tons burden, drawing about ten feet of water, which plied between Buffalo on Lake Erie and Chi- cago on Lake '^tichigan, was in no way calculated to lessen the impression which the harbour had left ; an impression which was heightened by the circumstance of my having a short time before examined the harbours on the eastern coast, and seen many of the slender fabrics, drawing from three to five feet of water, which navigate the bays and sounds in that part of the country. But, on inquiring more particularly into this subject, I was informed that these lakes are often visited by severe gales of wind, which greatly disturb the surface of their waters, and give rise to phenomena which one hardly expects to find in a fresh-water lake. In the opinion of many rtf tlip nnnfm'na of -tha c!f/inrr>f>v" »i'ifl> -...l-."-.^ T , — ,-,--■» - __ — ^ , ,,i 1,1,,, ,-i^aiiiL'ic tVitix niluiii X i;uiiV(;iSuu oil this subject, the undulations created during some of these gales are no less formidable enemies to navigation than the b2 34 LAKE NAVIGATION. waves of the ocean, so that great strength in the hydraulic works and naval architecture of the lakes is absolutely neces- sary to insure their stability. I had no opportunity, while in America, of witnessing the effects produced on the lakes by a gale of wind ; but in many situotior«» where their shores were exposed to a large expanse of watcv, and consequently with an in-shore wind, to the action of waves having a long fetch and ample scope to develop themselves, I found many interesting indications of their occasional violence when under the action of a hurricane. In the harbour of Buffalo, for example, which is situated in the north-east corner of Lake Erie, and has an unobstructed expanse of water extend- ing before it for a distance of about 180 miles, the eii cts of the waves are very remarkable. The pier at this place, as already noticed, is built of blue limestone. The materials are small, and no mortar is used in its construction ; but the stones are hammer-dressed, well jointed, and carefully as- sembled in the walls ; and the structure, as before remarked, both as regards the materials of which it is built, and its general design, is calculated to stand a good deal of fatigue. On examining this pier, however, I was a good deal surprised to find that it was in some places very much shaken, and, more particularly, that several stones in different parts of the work had actually been raised from their beds ; and I was told that this pier, as well as most of the harbours on the lakes, has annually to undergo some repair of damage occa- sioned by the violence of the waves. I measured several of the stones which had been moved, and one of the largest of them, weighing upwards of half a ton, had been completely turned over, and lay with its bed or lower side uppermost. I met with another striking example of the violence of the lake-waves on the road leading from Cattaraugus to Buffalo, which winds along the side of Lake Erie, in some places close to the water, and in others removed several hundred feet from its margin. Although the surface of this road is ele- vated several feet above the level of the lake ; many of the fine large trees, with which the whole country is thickly covered, have been rooted up and drifted across it by the vio- LAKE NAVIGATION. 35^ lence of the wind and waves, and now lie along its whole line piled up in the adjoining fields. Every winter's storm adds to these heaps of drifted timber, and they will doubtless con- tinue to be enlarged till the increasing value of the lands on the margin of the lake, which, in their present state, are wholly useless for agriculture, renders the erection of works for their protection a matter of pecuniary interest to the pro- prietors. The following extract also, from the Annual Report of the Board of the New York State Canals for 1835 shows the severity of lake storms : — " The method of towing barges by means of steamboats has been very successfully practised on the Hudson River ; but on the lakes, though a great many steamboats have been in use for several years, the plan has not been adopted, because the steamboats cannot manage barges in a storm. We have been informed of a proposition made to the proprietors of a steamboat to take some canal boats from Buffalo to Cleveland ; and it was accepted only on the condition, that, in the event of a storm, they should be at liberty to cut them loose at the risk of the owners. " An intelligent gentleman, of several years' experience in navigating steamboats, and the two last seasons on Lake Ontario, informs us, that he considered it impracticable, as a regular business, for steamboats on the lakes to tow vessels with safety, unless the vessels were fitted with masts and rigging, and sufficiently manned, so as to be conducted by sails in a storm ; that storms often rise very suddenly on these lakes, and with such violence as would compel a steam- boat to cut loose vessels in tow in order to sustain herself." The great area of the lakes prevents any material varia- tion from taking place in the level of their surfaces, a result which, in small bodies of water, would no doubt be caused by the torrents annually poured into them from the melting snow. It is stated that a periodical rise of about two feet on the level of the lakes occurs every seven years ; but the facts connected with this singular phenomenon do not appear to be very satisfactorily established. The water of the lakes and the River St Lawrence is remarkably pure and clear. Mr '•■I 36 LAKE NAVIGATION. m M'Taggart mentions, in his work on Canada, that a white object, measuring a foot square, may be seen at the depth of forty feet below the surface. Prom my own observation, how- ever, I cannot say that the American lakes are, in this respect,, more remarkable than the Lake of Geneva, the waters of which are certainly very transparent. The rigour of a Canadian winter, covering the face of the country with snow, and congealing every river, lake, and harbour, produces a stagnation in trade, which cannot fail to have d bad eflfect on the commerce of the, country and the habits of the people, who are compelled to complete their whole business transactions during the summer and autumn months, and remain in a state of comparative indolence dur- ing the remainder of the year. When this unfortunate state of things is kept in view, it is astonishing, and in the highest degree creditable, particularly to the inhabitants of the British colonies, who are situated on the least favourable side of the lakes, as far as climate is concerned, that they have made such rapid advances in agriculture and public works. Considering the lakes in a commercial point of view, it is impossible not to regret that their navigation is open for so very limited a period. For the space of at least five months in the year the greater part of their surface is covered with a thick coating of ice ; and the same sheet of water which, in summer, floats the vessel of 700 tons, and devastates the shores with its waves, becomes, in winter, a Mghwaij for the Canadian sledge. The centre of the lakes, where the water attains a considerable depth, is not frozen every season ; but a vast sheet of ice is annually formed round their margins, which almost entirely puts a stop to navigation. Mr M'Taggart mentions that, in the year 1826, the ice at the margin of Lake Ontario was within half an inch of being two feet in thickness ; and that, during the winter of the same year, Lake Chaudi^re was covered with a coating which measured no less than three feet six inches in thickness. He also made several experiments to ascertain ' "■• '^ ^^ ^^^^" ""^ ^i^uf ico, irom whicii it appeared that the volumes of six cubic feet of lake, and eight cubic LAKE NAVIGATION. 37 feet of river ice, were each equal, when melted, to five cubic feet of water. The ice on the rivers and lakes does not long retain a level surface. Large flaws make their appearance soon after it is formed, and the whole sheet gradually splits into pieces, which, being united together in great masses or hummocks, resist the action of the sun long after the disap- pearance of frost. The period at which the lake navigation closes is gener- ally about the end of November or beginning of December, and this interruption is never removed before the first week of May. In 1837, the year in which I visited America, the navigation was not wholly open till the last week of May. On the 20th of that month, I passed down Lake Erie, on my way to Bufi'alo, in the steamboat "Sandusky," on which occasion, even at that late period in summer, we encountered a large field of floating ice, extending as far as the eye could reach. Our vessel entered the ice about seven o'clock in the morning, and at twelve in the forenoon she had got nearly halfway through it, when a breeze of wind sprung up, which, from its direction, had the effect of consolidating the field into a mass so compact, that our vessel being no longer able to penetrate it, was detained a prisoner, at the distance of about ten miles from Buffalo, the port for which she was bound. During the two following days, the efforts of our crew to free the vessel were unavailing, and so thick was the field of ice by which we were surrounded, that several of our less patient and perhaps more adventurous fellow-passengers, made many fruitless attempts to reach the shore, which was only two or three miles distant, by walking over its surface. On the morning of the 23d, a breeze of wind fortunately loosened the ice, and our captain, after having seriously damaged his vessel in attempting to extricate her, succeeded in making his escape, and landed his unfortunate passengers, during a torrent of rain, on the shores of the lake, far from any house, and ten miles from Builalo, the place of our des- tination. The circumstance of there being upwards of two hundred passengers on board, and a great scarcity of provi- sions, together with the coldness of the weather, rendered 38 LAKE NAVIGATION. fl our situation during the forty-eight hours of our imprison- ment tar from agreeable. The country through which I travelled for some days be- fore reaching the shores of the lakes, on my way from the Ohio River to Lake Erie, and also that part of it through which I afterwards passed on my route from the lakes to Quebec, presented all the indications of summer, every tree and shrub being in full foliage. In the immediate neighbourhood of Lake Erie, however, no signs of the approach of spring or returning vegetation were visible, though it was towards the end of May. The country surrounding the margin of the lake was bleak, and the trees were leafless, while the at- mosphere was exceedingly damp, and the temperature indi- cated by the thermometer ranged from 32° to 35° of Fahren- heit. Such was the effect produced on the cliinate by this huge cake of floating ice, that it was almost impossible, from the state of the lake atmosphere, and the appearance of the surrounding country, to divest oneself of the idea that winter wqb not yet gone, although, in truth, the first month in summer was drawing to a close. This fact affords a strik- ing example of the degree in which climate maybe influenced by local circumstances ; for, while the shores of Lake Erie presented this sterile appearance, and were still plunged in the depths of winter, the country in the neighbourhood of Quebec, although lying three degrees farther north, was richly clothed with vegetation. The transition from winter to summer in the northern parts of North America is very sudden. There is no season in that country corresponding to our spring. The vast heaps of hardened snow and ice which have accumulated during the winter remain on the ground long after the sun has at- tained a scorching heat, but it is not until his rays have melted and removed them that the climate becomes really warm, and then the foliage, being no longer checked by the cold produced by these masses of snow and ice, instantly bursts forth, and at that particular time it is stated that a singiu day msr'es a marrreu uiuQicnce on tuc xaco of tho country. LAKE NAVIGATION. 39 The only other body of fresh water in North America demanding attention, is Lake Champlain, which lies nearly north and south, dividing the States of Vermont and New York. It is about 150 miles in length, and measures four- teen miles at the point whore it attains its greatest breadth. The banks of the lake are in general low and marshy, and for about twenty miles at its southern extremity it assumes the appearance of a river, hardly affording sufficient space to permit a vessel to turn. This lake is navigable throughout its whole extent for vessels drawing five feet of water, and several fine steamboats ply on it while the navigation is open. The principal towns on its shores are St John's, PlattsburgjTicondcroga, Whitehall, and Burlington, at which last place the steamboats for its navigation are built. It is connected with the River Hudson by the Champlain Canal, but it discharges its surplus water into the St Lawrence by the River Richlieu, called also the SorcU, on which the towns of St Dennis, St Charles, and Sorell, are situated. The chief trade of Lake Champlain consists in exporting iron-ore and timber ; the iron is sent to New York by tlie canal, and the timber to the St Lawrence by the River Richlieu. Its waters are exceedingly pure, and are subject, during the wet seasons of the year, to groat augmentation. The captain of the steamer by which I travelled informed me that, in the spring of 181G, when the snow was leaving the ground^ the surface of the lake rose to the height of nine feet above its summer water level. Its navigation, like that of the other lakes, is suspended for five months in the year by ice, and transport is carried on during that period by sledges, which run on its surface. 40 RIVER NAVIGATION. I I CHAPTEK III. i RIVER NAVIGATION. The sizes and courses of the North American Rivers influenced by the Alle- . . «''*"y »"^ Rocky Mountains.—Rivers flowing into the Pacific Ocean.— i i -R^^®" flo^""g into the Gulf of St Lawrence.-River St Lawrence - Lakes, Rapids, and Islands on the River.— Lachine Canal.-St Lawrence r, ; Canal.— The Ottowa.— Rideau Canal.— Towing vessels on the St Law- fl I rence.-Tides.-Freshets, Pilots, &c.,-Rivers rising on the east of the , I Alleghany Mountains, and flowing into the Atlantic Ocean, and north- : ^ east corner of the Gulf of Mexico.-The Connecticut.-Hudson.-Dela- ware.-Susquehanna.—Patapsco.— Potomac, &c.— Mississippi and its tributaries.-The Yazoo.-Ohio.-Red River.-Arkansas.-White River. —St Francis.— Missouri.— Illinois, &o.— State of the Navigation — "Snags," "Planters," 'Sawyers," and " Raft3."-Construction of Vessel for removing " Snags," &c. The rivers of North America are no less interesting features in the hydrography of that country than her inland sounds and lakes ; and the great lines of navigable communication M which so many of them afford, extending in all directions from the shores of the ocean to the very heart of the country, and forming great public liighways for the easy and quick transport of the most bulky produce of the interior, as well as the sea-borne manufactures and luxuries of foreign lands, entitle them, in a commercial point of view, to an equal share of attention. It is impossible to convey to the reader an adequate idea of those vast bodies of moving water, or to describe t'le feel- ings of the traveller, when, for instance, after crossing the Alleghany Mountains, and completing a fatiguing land jour- ney from the eastern coast of several hundred miles into the interior of the country, he first comes in sight of the Ohio River at Pittsburg. Here, in the very heart of the conti- nent of North America, the appearance of a large shipping RIVER NAVIGATION. 41 port, containing a fleet of thirty or forty steamers moored in the river, cannot fail to surprise him ; and his astonishment is not a little increased if he chances to witness the arrival of one of those steamers, whose approach is announced long before it makes its appearance by the roaring of its steam, and the volumes of smoke and fire which are vomited from the funnels ; but his wonder only attains its height when he is told that this same vessel has come direct from New Orleans in the Gulf of Mexico, and that fifteen days and nights have been occupied in making this inland voyage, of no less than two thousand miles, among the meanderings of the Mississippi and Ohio. The continent of North America may be said to be divided into four distinct portions by the ranges of the Alleghany and the Eocky Mountains, which run from north to south, in di- rections nearly parallel to each other, and regulate the lengths of the various rivers by which the country is drained, and, as it were, assign to each the quantity of water which is due to it, and the direction it must follow in its progress to the ocean. I shall consider the rivers, therefore, under four dis- tinct heads — First, Those which rise on the west of the Rocky Mountains, and flow into the Pacific Ocean ; second, Those which take their rise to the north of the mountain ranges and discharge themselves into the Atlantic Ocean by the River and Gulf of St Lawrence ; third, Those which have their sources on the east of the Alleghany Mountains, and discharge themselves into the Atlantic and the north-eastern part of the Gulf of Mexico ; and, fourtUy, The rivers compre- bended under the head of the Mississippi and its tributaries, which have their rise in the great valley stretching between the Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains. Our information respecting the rivers comprising the first of these divisions, or those which discliarge themselves into the Pacific Ocean, is very limited, owing to the comparatively unexplored state of the country lying to the westward of the Rocky Mountains, through which they flow. It is certain, howevcf, that their courses are short, as the base of the Rocky Mountains, which are said to be abrupt and lofty, extends to 42 EIVER NAVIGATION. within a few hundred miles of tlie shore, which renders it not unlikely also that the declivity of their beds is consider- able, and their currents in general too rapid to admit of easy navigation. The rivers which flow into the great western lakes, and those joining the St Lawrence in its course from Lake On- tario to the sea, form the second division. Although the St Lawrence does not assume its name until it issues from Lake Ontario, it nevertheless takes its rise to the westward of Lake Superior. Between Lakes Superior and Huron, it is called St Mary's Eiver. From Lake Huron it flows under the name of the St Clair into the lake of that name, from whence to Lake Erie it is called the Detroit Eiver, and between Lakes Erie and Ontario the Niagara ; but still it is essentially the same stream, in the same way as the Rhone, both above and below the Lake of Greneva, is considered the same river, and, indeed, ictains the same name. When viewed in this light, the St Lawrence may be said to have a course of upwards of two thousand miles, and to receive the waters of about thirty rivers of considerable size. After leaving Lake Ontario, it assumes the name of the St Law- rence, and receives, in its progress to the ocean, by the river Richlieu or Sorell, the water of Lake Champlain, and is also augmented by the streams of the Ottowa, St Francis, St Maurice, Chaudiere, and Charles Rivers. Receiving the whole surplus waters of the North American lakes, and the drainage of a great tract of country traversed by the numerous streams which join it in its course to the ocean, the St Lawrence, as regards the quantity of its dis- charge, presents abundant advantages for safe and easy navi- gation. The stream of the upper part of the river, however, is much distorted by num. -us expansions and contractions of its banks, and also by declivities or falls in its bed, and clusters of small islands, which render its navigation exceed- ingly dangerous, and in some places wholly impractible for all sorts of vessels excepting tlie Canadian batteaux, which are strong flat-bottomed boats, built expressly for its navi- gation. In several parts of its course the river expands into RIVER NAVIGATION. 4d and extensive lakes ; and in those places numerous shoals occur, among which the ship-channel is generally tortuous and nar- row, and only navigable by daylight. In some places, again, the St Lawrence forces its way between high banks which encroach on its bed, and leave a comparatively narrow gullet for its passage, and in others it flows over a steep and rugged bottom. These sudden contractions and declivities interrupt the peaceful flow of the stream, and produce chutes, as they are there called, or rapids, some of which are wholly impass- able for vessels of large size, and others can be navigated only in certain states of the tide. The islands, which occui chiefly in the upper part of the river between Montreal and Lake Ontario, also distort the channel, and give rise to rapids which are no less obstructive to shipping, although they impart to the river scenery a variety and beauty, and, in some places, a grandeur, which I certainly have never seen equalled. Notwithstanding the numerous impediments to navigation, occasioned by the form of its bed, the River St Lawrence, between Montreal and Quebec, presents a scene of constant animation and bustle, until the approach of winter causes a suspension of its trade. On its stream the whole exports of Upper and Lower Canada were, when 1 visited the country, borne to the ocean, and by its current the valuable timber from the interior was floated from its native forests to Que- bec, where it was shipped for exportation.* After passing the island of Orleans (on which the great timber ship Colum- bus was built), is the city of Quebec, the first place of impor- tance that occurs in ascending the St Lawrence. The banks of the river at this place are high and precipitous. The fort of Quebec, built on Cape Diamond, is elevated 350 feet above the surface of the water, and commands a view of the river ♦ In how far the construction of the Grand Trunk Railway, which is in- tended to extend from Halifax in Nova Scotia, to Quebec and Montreal, and thence to Chicago and the Western States, and which I shall notice in the chapter on Railways, may affect the traflSo on the Sfc Lawrence, is difficult to eay ; the probability is, that the " lumber" or timber trade will still be con- ducted, as formerly, by means of rafts, as being the cheapest mode of trans- port for that bulky description of merchandise. n 44 RITER NAViaATION. i , :|« and surrounding country, which, for extent and grandeur, ia perhaps unequalled in any part of the world. The Kiver St Charles joins the St Lawrence close to the town, and the Chaudiere flows into it a few miles farther up. The first obstacle to navigation are the Kichlieu Eapids, about eighty miles above Quebec, where the banks approach each other, and leave a narrow channel of only about half a mile in breadth, which contracts the vast body of water, and produces a current of such strength that vessels, unless aided by steam, have great difficulty in stemming it. The rapids extend over several miles, and sometimes, it is said, run with a velocity of six miles per hour, and, notwithstanding this, the water, owing to its great depth, presents a smooth and unbroken surface. From the Eichlieu Eapids to Montreal, the banks are low, and the country, for some distance on each side, is flat and monotonous; and were it not for many beautiful villages, with their churches and polished tin spires which meet the eye in close succession, and tend to diversify and enliven the scenery, the sail from Quebec to Montreal would not prove very inviting. About mid-way between those places the bed of the river expands, and at last attains the breadth of nine miles, forming the large sheet of water called Lake St Peter, which is twenty-one miles in length. In this lake there is very little current, and but a small depth of water, the na- tural consequence of so great an expansion of the river's width. A deep channel winds through the middle of the flat, affording an intricate passage for vessels, which, in their progress through it, are compelled to cast anchor after sunset. The course of this narrow channel is marked by buoys ; and lights are exhibited at its two extremities, for guiding vessels out of it which happen in the course of their voyage to reach either termination immediately after night has set in, in which case they are enabled to proceed on their course with- out requiring to anchor all night in the lake. lif vTi i-juiicix, liuw III to Lake St Peter. At the mouth of the St Maurice stands the town of Trois Eivieres, which contains about 3000 inhabi- KIVER NAVIGATION. 45 tants, and ranks as the third town in Lower Canada. The Eirhlieu enters the lake at its southern extremity, and at its mouth stands the town of "William Henry or Sorell. The Eichlieu, as formerly noticed, flows from Lake Champlain, from which a great deal of timber is annually floated by its current to the St Lawrence. About a mile below Montreal, the navigation encounters a great impediment in the rapids of St Mary, caused by St Helen's Island, which lies in the middle of the river. Here the current, it is said, runs with a velocity of six miles an hour ; and before the powerful and well-constructed steam vessels which now navigate the St Lawrence were built, a relay of oxen was kept at this place for assisting the steamers to ascend the rapids. It is unfortunate for Montreal, nauti- cally or commercially speaking, that it is situate above in- stead of below these rapids, as it renders the port difficult of access to all classes of vessels. Montreal, as before noticed, is 180 miles from Quebec, and 580 miles from the Gulf of St Lawrence. It is at the head of the ship navigation ; and although upwards of 880 miles distant from the Atlantic Ocean, vessels of 600 tons ascend the river, and lie afloat at the quays. The Lachine Eapids, extending over about seven miles of the river's course, lie immediately above Montreal. As the velocity with which the water runs at this place renders na- vigation impracticable, the Lachine Canal has been executed, at an expense of L.115,000, in order to avoid this obstruction to the navigation. This canal was completed in the year 1824, and was the first work of the kind formed in Canada. It extends from Montreal to a place called Lachine, a dis- tance of nine miles, and measures forty-eight feet in breadth at the water line, twenty-eight feet at the bottom, and five feet in depth. The rise is forty-eight feet, which is overcome by means of six locks of eight feet lift each. The locks and other works on the line of the canal, which are subject rn mnn Vl +OQ1 Tiro a r one reouire more than ordinary strength and durability, are constructed of red sandstone, iu a well-finished and substantial manner. 46 RIVER NAVIGATION. ThG St Li wrence is navigable from Lachine to the '' Cas- of five and a half miles. The town of Be; (s stands at its northern extremity, and is inhabited by part ,f a Ce tibe of Indians, who have a settlement here on a traet ff land granted to them by the British Government X^ Lake St Irancs arc the Longne Saut Rapids. These art nin! tte othe T'^V""' """ '""' ^--"^ velooit; tLrany "f the others whieh have been mentioned. At their head standi the tow^n of Cornwall, from which the river is na;?!^! to Kingston, at «,e entrance to Lake Ontario. The tfwns If ba^H ffT ^''T' ""' ^'•°*^"'«' -^ situate oT the banks of the nver between Cornwall and Lake Ontario A few miles below Kingston is the celebrated " Lake of he Thousand Isles." At this part of its cours L St Law Tdd r"r ^^'" >'«'"»'■. »n^ i" ">■= St Lawrence, though in- jurious to Its character as a navigable river impart to tL IZTV'T'' "" ''^'^ "' S-n-leur and variety wh eh of Te J P r V"« '" *' *'"'^^''- I" P^««"g over some of the rapids which have been mentioned, the water is T lenly agitated and tossed into the air, c^veringtie whl urface w-ith a sheet of white foam, and formi'g^ finetot trast to the clear blue of the untroubled part Vthe river * ^ '-tv..^, noucvor, ttauy descend these imnA tuous streams with their iatteau. and rafts of timber, wiZu" RIV£R NAVIGATION. 47 encountering the least accident or inconvenience The bat teaux are strong flat-bottomed boats, well suited to the navi- gation of the rapids, and are generally manned by skilful navigators Tliey descend from Ogdensburg to Montreal a chBtance of mnety-five miles, heavily laden with the produce of the country, and gene;ally occupy about three days in rTarts'l^f t ^''^'f.J'T^^^'^ 1% ro^^larly on 'those parts of tli^ nver which L between the rapids ; but the bat- teaux as formerly observed, are the only description of ves- rapids '^"' ""'"' ""^ '^'^'^' ""^ '^^'*^' ^' *^^'" ^^^^- *'^« The province of Upper Canada has executed a gigantic work, to supply those deficiencies in the navi^.tion of t e nver, called the St Lawrence Canal. The first^compartmeit of this work, extending from Cornwall, on the left bank of the St Lawrence, to a place called Dickinson's Landing is liapids This work was in a very advanced state when I visited the country. Two additional short canals, and an alteration in the dimensions of the Lachine Canal, complete the whole line of communication between the lower part of the St Lawrence and the lakes. The St Lawrence Canal has a breadth of 100 feet throughout its whole extent, and i believed to be capable of admitting the passage of al vessels under 100 feet in length, which do not draw more than e gh feet of water. The locks are built of limestone, which is obtained in fine blocks, and great abundance, in the surround- ing country. ^^uuuu The Ottowa, after a course of about 500 miles, joins the St Lawrence immediately above the island of Montreal It IS navigable to By town, 120 miles from its mouth ; and the arenville Canal, the locks and works connected with wh ch have been formed on the same scale as those of the Lachine Canal, was constructed to obviate some of the rapids which occur on the river. ^ The Eideau Canal, leadino- from Ti,rf^.T. xi. . ^,. Kingston on lake Ontario, was constructed by the British Government, chiefly with the view of providing a sheltered m RIVER NAVIGATION. pa88ago, at a secure distance from the frontier, for the trans- the United States ; and, notwithstanding the establishment of ho easy communication it affords, a great deal of trade is BtiU carried on by the batteaux which continue to navigate the rapids of the St Lawrence. "avigate About seventy miles of the Kidcau Canal consist of what I. technically called .W.mfernavigation, which is formed by damming up the waters of the Rideau River and Lake and increasing their depth, so as to lit them for steamers 'of a 283 fee below Rideau Lake, which is the summit level, and 129 feet below Lake Ontario. There are several bold and arduous works on the line of this canal, the execution of which in so rough and unfavourable a country confers great credit on Colonel By, the principal, and Mr M'Taggart! the assistant, e.igmeers, under whose directions they were con- ducted. The length of the canal is 135 miles ; seventy miles of this, as before noticed, are slackwater navigation, and its cost is said to have been about L.600,000. The works are constructed on a scale sufficient to admit vessels of 125 tons burden. The Lachine Canal, the Rideau Canal, and the Welland Canal, constructed by the British subjects, together with the Uhio Canal, constructed by the inhabitants of the United States, amount in all to four hundred and fifty-one miles in extent. These interesting works connect the Gulfs of St Lawrence and Mexico by a water communication, forming with Lakes Ontario and Erie, and the rivers St Lawrence Ohio, and Mississipi, a gigantic line of inland navigation up- wards of no less than three thousand miles in length Vessels bound for Montreal were in 1837 generally towed up the river from Quebec by large and powerful steamboats, belonging to the " St Lawrence Steamboat Tow Company '' The company's charge for towing a vessel of 20 feet beam t\. « of ^"^ 'I ^f '^^^^'^ fro^ Quebec to Montreal, was i^.oa, bs. «d., and for a vessel of 9S fopf K^o«, ^^j it, j>... di-aught of w^ter (the largest size that ever penetrates so high BITER NAVIGATION. 49 iu as Montreal), the charge was L.83, 48. Vessels of interme- cliate sizes were charged proportionally. The towing of vessels by steam-tugs is practised very ex- tensively, and has been brought to great perfection on the Mississippi, as formerly noticed, and on tlio St Lawrence. On both of these rivers, the narrowness of the navigable channels, the currents of the streams, and the great distance at which the ports are removed from the sea, render some other means than sails, for propelling the vessels navigating them, absolutely necessary. The most powerful tow-boat on t^ie bt Lawrence when I visited the country was the « John ±Juli. By this vessel I passed from Quebec to Montreal, a distance of 180 miles, in forty hours, being at the rate of lour and a half miles an hour, against a current averaging about three miles an hour. Upon this occasion she had no lewer than five vessels in tow ; one of these drew twelve and a half another ten and a half, two of them drew nine, and the fifth about seven, feet of water. The vessels were all towed by separate warps, and were ranged astern of each other in two lines, three of them being made fast to the lar- board, and two to the starboard side of our vessel. The ma- nagement of a steamer with so great a fleet of vessels in tow in the intricate navigation and strong current of the St Law- rence requires no small degree of caution and skill on the part of the captain, who on this occasion had his whole charge most perfectly under command : when it was necessary to stop the steamer's progress for the purpose of taking in fuel or goods, he dropped the vessels astern, and picked them up again, on resuming his course, with the greatest dexterity Laptain Vaughan, who commanded the "John Bull" in formed me that it was by no means uncommon, at certain 1200^ 1.0^ ^""'' '' ^'^' "^ '''''^' ^^ *^^' -«d from 1200 to 1500 passengers on board of his vessel at the same time. He tows every vessel by a separate line, and generally keeps them all astern, in preference to taking any of them alongside of the steamer, an arrangement which, in the St Lawrence, wnere the navigable channel is in many places very contracted, and often impeded by large rafts of timber §n 50 RIVEK NAVIOATION. !■ li M i! sf II it :l on their downward voyage from the upper country, would be very apt to occasion accidents. There is a rise of twenty feet at spring tides at the ouavs of Quebec; and when there is not much flood-wa er Mthe nver .t ra said to be affected by high tides to the disTanc! of fifty miles above the city, or about 750 miles from th* Atlantic Ocean at the entrance of the Gulf of St LaZnce The floods or freshets which occur at the breaking up of ^vinter are chiefly caused by the melting snow, and Lasion a penodical rise in the surface of the 5ver, which Tsome times from this cause raised as much as ten feet above its »mmer water-level. When I visited the St LawrenZ t May 1837, the river was under the influence of a freshet produced by the melting of the snow; and it was said to have risen to a greater height than usual, the water beinsat ha! mie several feet above the level ;f some of th quayst Montroa, Mr M'Taggart, ,vho had a good opportune tlr'star^r'TtT '" f T"'"- "' --"^-/-urafHserv : t ons, states, that the whole quantity of water annually dis- IttI; u T", °^ *'""• *"'' "''"' *** *''^ V^ntity of melrfH^ '"'""■=""' '■"'""'^ S' Lawrence from the tons A,. b rr Tl"^"""* '° 2,112,120 millions of Wn tl \ "^"^^ "^ ">'' «'■'"'* ^^y "f water is poured 11 v"!fX '" : ''"" ^•''"'^ "' '''"^' " --"--"y affects the le«l of he water, causing it to overflow the banks and cov-er every low lying tract of ground in the vicinity of the the^trr "".^ '"■'"™"'''' '""''=' "f «'"""J»' ^° '""Stile to the interes s and prosperity of the country, puts a stop to nd S " If '™'^ "' '"" «' I^— e'for at lea stTo « P id th f °""'V"r""^' ""' '"™S Sroat part of that peuod the ice at Quebec often forms a spacious and safe bridge across the river. i^^'ouo ana sale tbe^rlir^f °" °^ "'" '^"'f °f S' ^""™^e. through which n adi t ott'o t7T "*"'"*'' '"' ^"'"'''"' "^ ™^l>a-rdous. „^„ ^ 4. i.1 . , ""' 5 '^vxix Liic miioHus 01 ice Winch are constantly to be met with floating on its surface for nearly RIVER NAVIGATION. 51 one-half of the year, it is subject to dense fogs, and its rocky shores and desolate islands aflford neither comfort nor shelter to the shipwrecked mariner. One of the most desolate and dangerous of the islands in the Gulf is Anticosti, which lies exactly opposite the mouth of the St Lawrence, and is sur- rounded by reefs of rocks and shoal water. Two lighthouses have been erected on it, and also four houses of shelter con- taming large stores of provisions for the use of those who shTes '^''^^'^''''^ ^"^ ^^ shipwrecked on its inhospitable The lighthouses, buoys, and pilots, belonging to the St trnlTrr T '•'' r^T ^ "'''''"^ '^'' ^"""*^^' ""^^^ *he con- trol of the Trinity House of Quebec. The lights were by no means so numerous or efficient as the dangerous and crowded navigation <. the river required. There were at that time ten l^hthouses between Montreal and Anticosti, a distance ot 580 miles, and these were nightly illuminated while the navigation of the river is open. The number of the licensed pilots was about 250, who are compelled to serve an apprenticeship, and to make at least one trip across the Atlantic previously to obtaining a licence to act in this capacity. ^^ The rivers belonging to the third division, which take ^eir rise on the east of the Alleghany Mountains, and flow into the Atlantic Ocean and the north-east corner of the J^ult of Mexico, are upwards of one hundred in number Ihey are distributed over the whole eastern part of tlio country ; and notwithstanding the shortness of theiv courses extending only from the sea-coast to the base of th. Alle' ^r'ZT"T''f *) -'^ '^"'^ an aggregate amountof upwards of 3000 miles of ship and boat navigation. The following, are the most important of these streams :— ^ The St Croix is a short river, having a course of about jiixty miles, and is remarkable only as being the boundarv The Penobscot has a course of about 300 miles, and flows into the sea at Penobscot Bay in the State of Maine. It is t 52 RIVER NAVIGATION. I f ! I navigable for vessels of large burden to the town of Bangor, which is situate fifty miles froin the sea at the head of tide- water. Large quantities of valuable timber are annually exported from the towns on this river and bay. Kennebeck River is the outlet of a small sheet of water called Moosehead Lake ; it flows into the sea at Augusta in the State of Maine, after a course of about 230 miles'^ and is navigable for a distance of forty miles from the sea. The Merrimac, flowing into the sea at Newburgh Port in Massachusetts, has a course of upwards of 200 miles; but, in consequence of several falls which occur in its bed, 'is navi- gable only for a distance of twenty miles from the sea. It aff-ords very valuable water-power, and on its banks is situate the large manufacturing town of Lowell. The Thames falls into Long Island Sound at New London, and is navigable to the town of Norwich, fifteen miles from its mouth. The Connecticut, after a course of 450 miles through a highly cultivated and fertile country, discharges itself °into Long Island Sound. It is navigable for steamers and vessels of large burden to Hartford, a distance of forty miles, and, by means of some short canals, for steamers of a small size,' to Barnet in Vermont, which is upwards of 250 miles from the sea. The Hudson rises in the neighbourhood of Lake Champlain, and pursuing an almost straight course of about 250 miles in a southerly direction, flows into the sea at the city of New York. Although that portion of the Hudson which is strictly a river, or in which the tide does not act, is by no means so remarkable for its size as many others in the United States, yet it is very interesting to the traveller, as well on account of the beauty of its scenery, as the importance and extent of its trade ; and in this respect it holds a very high rank among the American rivers. It passes through a beautiful and shel- tered tract of country, and the populous towns of Newburgh, Hudson, Albany, and Troy, and the military college of West Point, stand on its banks. The produce of the large State of New York and the great western lakes, as well as the im- RIVER NAVIGATION. 53 ports for the supply of an extensive and populous district of the United States, are borne to and from the harbour of New York by the Hudson ; and a large fleet of vessels is constantly engaged in its navigation. This river is navigable, for ships of large burden, to tlie town of Hudson, about 120 miles from New York, and for vessels of smaller draught of water to Troy, about forty-fr miles farther. By means of the Erie, Oswego, and Cham^ tin canals, it is connected with Lakes Erie, Ontario, and C lam- plain. A large part of the trade of the Eiver Hudson is carried on by sailing vessels of about 150 tons burden, having a great breadth of beam, and carrying masts of from 90 to 100 feet in height. These vessels, being dependent on the state of the winds, make tedious and uncertain voyages ; but many of them, notwithstanding the introduction of steam- navigation, still enliven the river scenery with their white sails. The transport of goods, however, at the time of my visit, was more ge .erally carried on in large barges, towed by steamers which are exclusively devoted to this trade, as passengers go only by the larger and swifter boats built ex- pressly for the purpose. The current of tlie Hudson is said to average about two and a half miles an hour, and the in- fluence of the tide extends as far as Albany, 150 miles above New York. The only obstacle to navigation occurs a little below Albany, where there is a considerable shoal, called the Overslaugh, caused by several small islands lying in the fair- way of the river. It is, however, at present passable for ves- sels drawing five or six feet of water, and is still capable of being much improved. The Delaware has a course of about 310 miles, and falls into Delaware Bay near Newcastle ; it is navigable, for ves- sels of the largest class, for forty miles, to Philadephia. From Philadelphia it is navigated by sloops, for a distance of thirty-five miles, to Trenton, which is at the head of tide- water, and above this it is navigable for boats of nine tons, "Which ascend the river about one hundred miles farther into the interior. The Susquehanna flows into Chesapeake Bay. It is the 54 RIVER NAVIGATION. largest nver in the productive State of Pennsylvania, but is more celebrated for the beauties of its scenery than the facili- ties it affords for communication. Excepting for about five miles from its month, the navigation is completely stopped by the rugged and shelving formation of the rocky bed in which It flows. The course of this river is about 460 miles, and works were in progress, at the time of my visit, for the improvement of Its navigation, by the formation of short canals, and the construction of dams, so as to form an extensive line of slack- water navigation. _ The Patapsco discharges itself into Chesapeake Bay, and IS navigable, for vessels drawing eighteen feet of water to Baltimore, which is at the head of tide-water, and is about fourteen miles from Chesapeake Bay. The whole course of the Patapsco is only about one hundred miles. The Patuxent rises to the west of Baltimore, and flows into Chesapeake Bay. It has a course of about one hundred miles in length, and is navigable to the distance of sixty miles from its mouth. The Potomac has its source in the Alleghany Mountains, and is 335 miles in length. It is seven and a half miles in breadth at its entrance into Chesapeake Bay, and is navigated, by vessels of the largest class, as far as Washington, the seat of government of the United States, which is situate about 103 miles from its mouth. The tide flows three miles above Washington, but beyond this point the river is obstructed by shoals, and several short canals have been constructed f -^r the improvement of its navigation. The Rappahannock has a course of 176 miles, and is navi- gable to the town of Fredericksburg, about 110 miles from its junction with Chesapeake Bay. York River also flows into Chesapeake Bay, and has a course of one hundred miles, thirty miles of which are navi- gable for largo vessels. ^ The James River has a course of upwards of 400 miles, and discharges itself into the Atlantic, at the southern extremity 01 Chesapeake Bay. It is navigable, for vessels of 125 tons burden, to the town of Richmond, situate 122 miles from its KIVER NAVIGATION. 55 mouth, where the navigation is obstructed by falls in the river. By means of a canal which has been formed to over- come this obstacle, batteaux are now enabled to ascend the river to a distance of 352 miles from the sea. The Roanoke flows into Albemarle Sound in North Caro- lina, after a course of 370 mile? It is navigable, for vessels of forty-five tons, to Halifax, seventy miles. Batteaux ascend the river to the distance of 300 miles from its mouth. The Pamlico falls into Pamlico Sound. It has a course of 200 miles, and is navigable for forty miles. The River Neuse has a course of 271 miles ; Cape Fear, 288; Pee Dee, 415; Santee, 370; and Edisto, 161 miles. These rivers are in North and South Carolina, and are said to be capable of affording, by means of some small improve- ments, about 630 miles of boat-navigation. The Rivers Ashley and Cooper, in South Carolina, have courses of forty-three and forty-four miles, and, at their junction, form the harbour of Charleston. The Savannah River flows between the States of South Carolina and Georgia. It has a course of 340 miles, and is navigable, for vessels of the largest size, to the town of Savannah, situate eighteen miles from the sea. Above this, steam-navigation extends as far as Augusta, 140 miles. The great Ogeetchee is navigated by small vessels for 300 miles, the Alatamaha for 220, the Santilla for 180, and the St Mary for 150 miles from the sea. The Rivers St John and Suwanee, in Florida, are said to have courses of about 250 miles. Many of the streams in the southern part of the United States, however, and more particularly in Florida, have never been fully explored. The Appalachicola has a course of 425 miles. It is formed by the junction of the Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers, and discharges its waters into the Gulf of Mexico. It is navi- gated by steamers to the town of Columbus, 100 miles from its mouth. The Mobile River is formed by the junction of the Alabama and Tombeckbce. The Alabama has a course of 500, ao'l the Tombeckbee of 350 miles. The Alabama affords ship- 5G RIVER NAVIGATION. navigation to Clairbone inn r«-7 to Fort-Jackson, 200 lile! Tfaf'T . t'f'''^''-^"'"' by ships as far 'as Sti ephenf :on 'l'"'''''' '^ ""■'^'"^J the falls of the Black Warr !r «^n '",''/"'' ''^ ''"^'^ *» Mexico. ^"'°'^' 2«0 miles from the Gulf of The part of North America which extenr7« r south between the ereat ,.n.fl!l t f * from north to Mexico, and from eaf fto w„ . w ^"^'^ »"<' '^e Gulf of glmny and Rory MountaTn ' ^f" ""^ ''^^'^ "' ^lle- valleys of the Mississbni M ' "'"' ''"'>'" "^ '™i'« the able for the extrerZn!!r°T;' ""■ <^'""' ""'' '« '«"'"'<. after being bro,.4un to ^u T ""'"^ "^ "' "»»' "'"ich, a very ab^dant h rvtt Thtr^^ "'*" li We labour of the United States ofAm!rie: »d" ™"r '"^"""^ "'- now in a high state of otu T' ^^"^ P""^ "^ them is the state of Lomsa„a tt™ "' ""'' ^'^'^'^ -"P'^d- In and tobacco; ZT^i.^UnZ flT "" ^"»^'' -«»'' duced in gr'eat abundanennd „f « '""r^ ''°"''" '^ P™" aifords cotton and tobacco' !"'''! ^"^ I'-al'ty. Tennessee tobacco, wheat,an:!;::;rc'o:.'^rst.t^j^^^^^^^^^ ?"'rr tf rLr '-- '- ~' Se^S bitants confin all tldr' "f;."'- '*''-=™. ""<• their inha- Koographical str^ Ir ^ trth rmf-™^'."^ ^'''"- ^"o mense tract of land from ,„ , "" "'"'*« "P this im- seas which wash "te t^ '"^ *r ~'°™'">'««on w,th the trace upwards, in their co^se of '^^t"/""^'^ ' '"' '^ ™ the eastern s ates tl ose T "' """^ '"""J""' miles through which discharge them.eTvesr':r iT "^"S*'"^ "™" holding the charact"r"f"r vuTel t: T' "" """ *"- even to the verge of the«P flT> n^ '"''^"'''' '^^ Penetrate coast of the country the' n/'*^'^' ""^ "" *'"' '^^«'"» tending along the Ih L^ of fL P '"fl'''"'^^ ^°""*'"- - mountable barrier toTnv r ! "' P'"'™'^ "^ '"sur- that ocean, ""^ ''™"' ^''"^'^ communication with tH^utSr; J:::;!;;" "^ — "->«« corners of' these .taf:.'^ The 1"? """■*" "'« --»test -«• iiie pruuuce wuich annually de- RIVER navigation; kj scends the river was, in 1837, valued at the enormous sum of fourteen millions of pounds sterling, and its foriuZ pour into the Gulf of Mexico the drtinage-watt of a ^ 1,226,600 square miles in extent. The source of the Missis- sippi IS said to hove been discovered in the year 1832 I ns situate to the westward of the ^reat lake. If^A f I unworrlQ nf 'mr\r> ^-i x- ! ^ ^^ ' ^^ a distance of elevation of 1500 feet above its surface. Tlie river flows from .tsBourceasa ™all stream, and, gradnallygathTrLstTenT precpj ates itself over the Falls of St A^fhony, after Xh It swells in importance at every step of its course LTnlt accessions of strength from the numerous small r^fwhich pourinthcr tributary streams from all directions untiU t at length joined by the great Missouri. The charad of Eed Jtivlv .„.! eirrei t. Ihe Ohio, the Arkansas, the i^ed Eiver, and many other h.rge streams, fall into this eiant of rivers which, swelled by the waters of its variou tfb" anes whose aggregate length is upwards of 44 000 mie" ot last pours itself into the Gfulf of Mexico ' f-ew Orleans, the most important town on the river has already been noticed. The town of Natchez, whicl iTabou 380 miles from its mouth, stands on the left bank it isl place of considerable importance, and is th highest point visi ed by sailing vessels ; abo™ this the Sfslni I navjgated only by steamboats. St Louis on tfe r g Ink Mis oTh'atr' ?""; """ ""'"'^ "^ junction'witl the misbouri, is also a place of great trade. rence wS'f ^r f""" V'"^^"-^ ''''''''' '' «^- St Law- bed nJ' n ' ^''" ^^''""^^ '^''''''^^ fl«^^« in a rocky S' :Z^fi:^:^''''' ^"*^ ^^*-^-^ «^H or contract navigation rrf . T'f ^'^"^ ^'''' impediments to sofrflluvinl f . '"^ ""^''^ '^'' Mississippi flows is of a soit alluvial formation. maintaJninn. « ^^^^j.],..,-;^.. , throughout its whole course, and affording, at every point below the Falls of St Anthony, a sufficient dipth of wate'r for c2 58 11! i; F m 15 1 Hi Iff ■ f i I' f i RIVER NAVIGATION. ^-essels of large size. The principal whirl, th. ^ * ., "7"" ""'""' "'' "'« Mississippi Tir . ' ™"^" '"^ depth of water in 1799 „„ j- Malte Bmn,w,as twentv-five in i ?f 7 I ' ' """''^"'S *» sixteen, feet Cantain H.n ' ^ , ™"'y> ='"'' '" 182G fifteen feet. The v Tt^A t oTn It "' '/" '''' " ""' ""'^ tins river, estimated at 40 OOO -f "' "'" '»™"' "^ rfoposition of the earthv ml ^''"^ "?''"'' '"'™'^'' ''>' ">^ is 'gradually etrd n J "stits"": tZ f^ "^'=■'"™'' .nirifhiiti? " »'--'«"■ i\:t':Lr; r r res CO ; -edT the'r^' "" ^^""'^ """'' ^' «-'-' allu'vial depo ts and beeote TLTT, '™ '"f ? '^^' «'^- tension of Ihe Mississipir ''''"° ™'''^'' ''y '"> ^'^- In enumerating the tributaries of the Missis^inni T ^ ,i ghanyBivers T eMonl l1 Mynongahela and Alio- very Z ZZt The n •'^T'' ''. '"^^^ ""'""'^-J. «"<• «w fo«;t:ths?v r;;r tict ' ^r '^ ^'t^ ^°^ on the Ohio are Tn„;Jin n-- . " Pfmeipal towns manufacturing own of P ;?"''""?"', ^'''^""S' «"<• "«> of the navigltin on a n! t 7f j'i'"'' '"""^^ "' "'« ^ead Of the Kive^ MorgSi:^ itiz;" "^ *"^^-"-«- ,tea"""''^ -,'^™^- ''"""'^' ^^'>^° ""Ohio i» s^M,„n """""" 01 large class, drawing from eight to ten feetrf RIVER NAVIGATION. 59 water, ascend from the Gulf of Mexico to Pittsburdi a dis tance of nearly 2000 miles. But when the watef is low steamers cannot ascend higher than Louisville, in Kentucky which IS situate on the left bank of the river, 560 mHes be low Pittsburgh Here the river has a fall, occas L" by at rregular h.dge of limestone rock, of twenty-two feet six inches in two miles, which produces rapids that can only be passed when the river is high. The Louisville and PortLd Canal constructed with a view to remove the obstnaction to naviga- lon occasioned by this fall, is rather more than two miles in length, and is excavated in rock nearly throughout its whole fn tl f «^^ty-eight feet in breadth, and sixteen feet m depth affords a passage for all steamboats under 180 feet in length and IS used by them when the low state of the water m the river renders the rapids impassable. and fiffvf '\^'' 1^'''. ^l^''^''^'' ^"^^'^""^^ 1^3 feet in length, and fifty feet in breadth, and one guard-lock, measuring 190 of stone ' ^^^ ^''* '"^ ^'''^*^'' '" '^ ^^^^^ ^'^^^^^ Several shoals occur in the upper part of the river, which are also very inconvenient, as the current on many of them runs with considerable velocity. In ascending the Ohio, the wri'^ t"' ' 'Tf'^ ''-'' ^'^y deeply loaded, ani we were detained se. d hours in attempting to pass one of hese shoals called the " White Eipple.'' Slany'unsuccess- ful efforts were made, but the power of the en,c;i„es could not surmount the obstacle, until some of the crevv ascended the rn?r.ri,\ ""*' ^""^ "^'^^'P'^^ ^" ^"^hor with a strong cable attached to it, in the middle of the channel ; the othe! end of the cable was made fast to the capstan of the steam- boat and the vessel was at length, after much labour and detention, warped through the rapid. The principal tributaries flowing into the Ohio from the north, are the Muskingum, which is navigable for 120 miles the Miami navigable for seventy-five miles, the Scioto, which IS navigable for 120 miles, and the Wabash. The Tenness^ Pviver flows mto the Ohio from the south. It is 850 milesin length, and is navigable to Florence, a distance of 250 miles I V . •I 'I I ii - /^iSk 60 i li I RIVER NAVIGATION. tiilx Attljis place (here is „„ expansion in tl,o be,1 of ,1,. Hver • an 1 a collection of stones rnlln,! «n tut ,0., "•'' ^^^^r , and the navigation ThoTol > • ? '' ^'""'''" "''■"""ntes fron. tl,„\ouV; are , or"' TYTi:- """'"'^ '"'" "'» Ohio mile. an. LicHn.'K;: t' ^.^^riilt^ S:: '" ^f lo-^th „ the Ohio and its tribntariel ," !^„t 7 ^S"'" the' o, '::rrr :rrT t" "« '"■""^- miles. navigable for steamboats for about 200 »4;^:i;::ft,:!'E™,:!'r,T "■"^^ '- «■« distance. ' ""^ ''""' "a^igable for some flo3!'inr,to m'"'"''" "^""' "' ""y ™P°rtanee which ThL rivo T ^':f "^f'P' '■■">» tl'» west is the lied River "nri.:" 0' !:■,"::« '.''t't-r °' ":^ ^"^"^^ ^^»-'-" hy a h«.vo Pile of w I " ' ', "' ""'S««"n is obsti-ucted been fnmV tmf H C'^reirT'^^" 'n *'"^-" """"^ down tho stream bavoLn i ' r 7 '" ""''*' ""'^ """'t'^'l bedofther ier alT't^^^^^^ " '■"^""S-l''«» i" «'e Thisobstrncti::;:2:it:rr.t;r^ «tver::::tf i[:i -r , /' --ncraZttoLit: Measures hi; to a pt'ed f^r": •"r""'"" '"'"'' ■»"-• should this arduous uSSif: l^: h "f ^'irr' """^ gross of execution, be successfu? .11 „ "'.P'^^' '» P'"- will be extended 500 nTi es a tl, iXT 7' "'' '"'' country. The Washitn „L f*, ^ ^ ^'^ '"'"""■ "^ "'<> is sTid tt"l "? 25*00 'm", *^ r '\''°"""""^' -" tributaries 4500 mile, stel?" "'«^''' ""'' ™"' «"* 640 miles from t^e Sississ' ^ """ "^^'^'"' ""'^ ^^ ^^^ . ?'''f. ^^'"'."o I^'voi', after a course of upwards of 1 90(1 ,„ -i •ncluclmg its tributaries, flows into ,,3™'.''^''"200 mdes, miles above the Arkansas L il 1 "'^f 'f ^*"PP>. twenty The .St Fr-.--" H ' ' "■"■■gable for 400 miles. - - r„,.... ba» a course ol 450 miles, but its entrance \ BITKB NATIOATION. 61 18 Choked by a largo stationary raft of drift timber which pute an effectual stop to the navigation of the river ' llio McrrimeK is navigable for 200 miles town"of StT"^"'"' tl,e Mississippi eighteen miles above the M lo T ""' ""'' "'■"'" ^'^'"^ ■"''"" f"'" tlio Gulf of but r M '"' •" '™^y.'-'^-t"='=^ "■• Sronter of the two rivers, but the M.ssiss.pp, having been first discoverc ,1, the ori^ina name has been retained. The source, of the Missouri a" Tn the Rocky Mountains, its whole course is 3217, and in con- nection mth all its tributaries upwards of 10,000 miles Its nav,gat,on is uninterrnptcd for 2532 miles from its mouth, an .St, ore broken by the falls of the Missouri, which are said to v,e ,n grandeur witli those of Niagara; but the river IS navigable above the falls for .TOO miles ™7''° l^f ;"""' ™ "" "'™'' M'-'^o"" »■•« of very great ■ mtr- , 'Y"'\ '" ^''"'''' ""> '"''' '«^"" '« "'-"t scanty miles in length and forty-five miles in breadth. The govern and ,n the state of Missouri as government property. This mines '"tr '"'' *" '''"'""' "''" '""lertake to open the nuan i V if ^, "7 "°^ ™'^ extensively worked, and a largo quantity of lead is prepared on the spot, and brought down the Missouri for the market. .„HeV"i'rn''".T "^ ',''" ™''°"' "« *''^ Gasconade, navi- mts I r, ■"! '' V"'" "^"S^' ""^ *° ^' ""-'sable f^r 500 miles Uie Chariton for 300 miles; ,he Tauzaslor 200; and tlie Yellowstone for 800 miles Milstif ^'n"d '""' '"'".""'. Mi«='«»iPPi. 130 miles above the M.S80U11 and is supposed, wit h its tributaries, to be navigable for a distance of 1500 miles. "viganie tarie^s, has a course of 500 miles, and is navigable only for With the exception of the falls at Louisville, and the White R.PP e on the upper part of the Ohio Eiver, he MissisTDoi :t*^lT'P''? *"^"'-- w>-h have been enrrZ; c,re^„jccuy iree liom all obstructions caused by irregularities in the beds or banks of the stream. In some'places, aTl;:: ' if i if 62 RIVEE NAVIGATION. Iii 11 if been already noticed, shoals or rapids occur, but these do not , , aflect the passage of steamers to a greate, extent than by re f1 tarding the.r progress a little in ascending the river Some ' • ^'-'f^"^. however, exist, which are peculiaf to the „a;iga ion dreackd than currents and rapids produced by permanent ob so tlfat thi "'"' l^r- ""'' 'P""^'"S up afresh every day! so that they cannot be guarded against by any previous knowledge of the navigation of the river. These Zgers wlTb! th' '"'" '"?• "'''"''' '^^-= P-'P''»'^^ intoTh vater, by the river undermining its banks, are borne away on the current and occasionally get entangled, and even a braTch :; f, ?''' •" *'" '"' "' *" '''^'^^- Sometime^ a branch of the tree is seen projecting from the water, but often no part of .t ,s visible, the only indication of its exisl ence be.ng a slight ripple on the surface of the water Thev have received from the boatmen of the Mississippi the names nL Tf^' 7'.''"'"^' ^"d " Sawyers"-beari„g one or other of these designations, according to their positkns and the manner ,n which they are fixed in the river The term snag ,s applied to a tree firmly imbedded in the bottom arid lying at a considerable angle, with its top inclined down the stream A " planter" is a tree firmly fixed in a neariy peirendicular position; and a "sawyer" is the name apS the bed'o^jr ■°''" °' l'™''"''''^ h»™ become entangled in the bed of the nver, and, whose trunk being loose, is kept constantly swinging up and down by the eurr^ent, altematX showing Its head, and plunging it under the surflce. Some^ times several of these trees collect together in the same place, and form a small islet, which, after maintaining its position it^rrtt"-""'' ""' «™'"'^"^ '"^^"''^"S its cUmensions at length attains an enormous magnitude, and often becomes an impassable barrier, extending along the river's course for many miles. This is what the boatmen call a " raft " It generally occurs in the tributaries of the Mississippi, and not in the river itself. One instance of this is afl-old by the l.ea „i,or, already mentioned, and another by the Atcha- (< >"*» RIVER NAVIGATION. 63 ^ >■■««* falaya a river flowing out of the Mississippi, at a point about 2o0 miles from the sea. The Atchafalaya raft, which is par- ticularly noticed in Captain Hall's work on North America extends over a space of twenty miles ; but the river's bed' for the whole of this distance, is not filled up with drift tim- m'lis Tf^rl ^rf!" "'•^''''^' itself being only about ten miles. I he Atchafalaya is 220 yards in width, and the raft extends fi-om bank to bank, and is supposed to be about eight leet in thickness. ^ All these obstructions are most injurious to the navigation 01 the Mississippi and its tributaries, and have, on manv occasions caused great loss, both of lives and property bV TvJth T"- w'' •"^^^" ^""°^^ dangerous'than any of the other obstructions. They are generally encoun- ered by vessels on their upward passage. Vessels descendin ^ the nver keep in the middle of the stream, where the water IS deep and the current is strongest, while those ascendinc the river keep as close to the shore as possible, where the^ have a more gentle current and shoaler water, and of course are more apt to be injured by impediments in the bottom. 33esides, as the " snags" are always inclined down the stream vessels going in the direction of the current, slide easily ove; them, If they happen to come in contact with them ; but their inclined position renders them exceedingly dangerous for vessels ascending the river, which obviousfy'encountrthem n their most destructive position. The strongest vessels in the western waters are unable to withstand the shock occa- sioned by running against a " snag." It almost invariably pierces their bows, when they generally fill with water and go down Several steamers are built with false bows, called snag-chambers," as a palliative of the danger arising from accidents o this kind. In the event of the bow bdng sto " n, the small compartment called the " snag-chamber " in the fore part of the vessel, is all that is filled with water' and her buoyancy is thus very little affected-a contrivknce which has more recently been carried out on a larger scale •1 6i RIVER NAViaATION. at fhTn ^;"'!,f '^°"™''y have been voted by the Government of the United btates for the improvement of the western water navigation. The money has been expended in removing, from different parts of the Mississippi and its tributaries the st^ obstructed For this purpose, an apparatus called a " snag- boat, has been used with much success. The machine oon- sists of two hulls, firmly secured to each other, at a distance h thrnjA "-^ ' """^ °™' ""= '"te-^^ning space a deck .s thrown, having an aperture left in the centre. A power- ful crab IS placed over this aperture, from which strong chains llLrKl^\f'^ suspended in the space between the two nth with th '"?"''?'" " P'"f'^"^^ •'^ paddle-wheels, which, with the gearing for raising the snags, are worked bv a steam-engine placed on its deck. In using the apparatus, the vessel is brought to an anchor over the snag or obstacle to be removed, and the grapplings are made fast to the pieces which are to be raised. The paddle-wheels being thrown out 01 gear, the engine is applied to work the crab, by which the snag ,s torn from its hold in the bottom of the'^river, atid! stream""Th '" '^"''j'"'''' '« allowed to float down the the Ed P "'l^e-ioaV has been extensively used on the Bed Eiver m the partial removal of the large stationary raft formerly noticed, which at present obstructs the navi- gation ot the stream. The Mississippi and Ohio Rivers are perfectly pure and j.mp.d ; but after being mingled with \he waler of the suspension they assume a red and muddy appearance. A quantity of water, taken from the lower part of the Missis- sippi and allowed to settle for fifteen or twenty minutes, deposits a thick cake of mud on the bottom of the vesse containing it; but, notwithstanding this, the water is sup- posed by many persons to bo healthful, and, after undergoing plosTb" : '^rr' ^^ '''' ^^"^^^^^^ -^^ ^- ^--\i! purposes by the inhabitants of all the towns on its banks.* J f" ^!!!''l'}r'''.'^' sedimentary matter transported by the Mis«U«in..- - ?u7Tr F«»v ut ino Tomme Uisoharged by the river. ' -rr- KIVER NAVIGATION. 65 The average height of the annual rise in the waters of the Ohio 18 fifty feet, the lowest state of the river occurring in September, and the highest in March ; but I was informed that the waters of the Mississippi and Missouri are not sub- ject to so remarkable a change of level. The level of the land on the banks of the Mississipi, for some distance before it discharges itself into the sea, is con- siderably below that of the surface of the river. Extensive emoankments, similar to those of Holland and Belgium have been erected for its protection, and form a continuous line on both sides of the river from New Orleans to St Francis- vihe. Above this, and all the way to Natchez, which is about 380 miles from the sea, ;;hey occur only at intervals, where the flatness of the land has rendered their erection necessary, Captain Hall, in his work on North America says — '' The swollen river looked so like a bowl filled up to the brim, that it seemed as if the smallest shake, or the least addition would send it over the edge, and thus submer,,re the city. The footpath on the ^-^n of the levee or embr- kment was just nine inches above the level of the strean. The colour of the water was a dirty, muddy, reddish sort of wh^te and the surface everywhere strongly marked with a series of curimg eddies or swirls, indicative, I believe, of great depth " These embankments, or levees, as they are termed are composed entirely of earth. They are from five to fifteen leet m height, and are made of sufficient breadth at the top to allow of a footpath being formed on them. Thoy occa- sionally yield to the pressure of the river when in a flooded state, and give vent to its water, which on such occasions never fails to overflow and lay waste a large portion of the adjacent country. The most recent information which we possess regarding the Mississippi is contained in an elaborate work by Mr Charles Ellet on the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, of which we give the following digest taker, from the article " Inland Navigation" in the eighth edition of the "Edinburgh En- cyclopasdia :"* — ^ * The Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, by Charles Ellet, New York. Canal 66 RIVER NATIQATION. wort 'thTtho Mr "'^"'f<'.™''««° given in Mr Elle«s orK, mat the Mississippi varies from 2200 to 5000 feet in Thra;r:f\rrrosrs s ?:,:rs ?sr^ ^-*- Gulf of Mexico ,; ms ''^J"'"^"°".^""' «'« Ohio to the f«U waters 3+ in.I ,"' ""^ "' "^^S^ ''^«'=«°t «* rlnr;r * ' P" "''^' "'«' "' ^bsMce of floods for pTttshurlh h?/"' f ™ f J»'"="-<'" ^vith the Mississippi to 'i,„ ™ ' ""1 ''" ''^'•''go inclination is about Sf inches ner 1,^ 1 "^ ctntie ot the river was five milPRnnr houi^ and occasionally the speed reached seven mils 2 lour of 'a^iT'"^ ""d-o„rreut floats, he found that the Zed of velocity bein.. 2 per cen o 7 t*~*^'' ^^'^^^ ^^^^'^^se -nts maL, le^i irtHoVei tt ^ 'iSf V'=loc,iy , 4tt, In coming to this conclusion, no ac- RITER NAVIGATION. 07 count is taken of such observations as show remarkable under- currents, the velocity of which were io some places found to be 17 per cent., and 20^ per cent, greater than the surface velocities ; 5th, While the mass of water which the channel of the Mississippi bears is running downwards with a central velocity, the current next the shore is sometimes found to be running upwards, or in the opposite direction, at the rate of one to two miles per hour; 6th, While the water is running downwards in the one side of the river, it is often found with an appreciable slope, and visible current running upwards on the other side of the river ; 7th, The surface of the river is therefore not a plane, but a peculiarly complicated warped surface, varying from point to point, and inclining alternately from side to side. " The chief object of the investigations made by Mr Ellet was the prevention of floods, which have recently increased both in number and extent. This he attributes— "First, To extended cultivation, by which evaporation is supposed to be diminished, the drainage increased, and the floods hurried forward more rapidly into the country below. " Secondly, To the extension of the embankments along the banks of the Mississippi and its tributaries, by which water that was formerly allowed to spread is now confined to the channel of the river. " Thirdly, To what are termed cut-oifs, or straight cuts, by which the distance is shortened, and the slope and velo- city increased, so that the water is brought down more rapid- ly from the country above. " Fourthly, To the gradual extension of the delta into the sea, so as to lengthen the lower course of the river, to dimi- nish the slope and velocity, and thus to throw back the water on the land above. " The works suggested for protecting the country against floods are — " First, More sufficient embankments. "Second, The prevention of further cut-OS's, or works for straightening the upper parts of the tributaries of the river. «8 RIVER NAVIGATION. uL S ^'" '"'"«^'"™' "' *' — d channel, or out- " -^o"^*, The creation of laru-A nrt;fi„i,i placing dams across the outTet of the It! 7T°'"' ^^ taries, so as to compensate for the it „f the if T* '"""- of the water, which is che.v!Vr It , "*'"'™' "''c'flow tecti,.«. the country n it f ^ ' fbankments for pro- is luv country in the lower part of the rirer." I BTEAM NAYiaATION. 69 CHAPTER IV. STEAM NAVIGATION. latroduction of Steam Navigation into the United States— Difference be- tween the Steam Navigation of America and that of Europe— Throe classes of Steamers employed in America— Eastern Water, West- ern Water, and Lake Steamers— Characteristics of these different classes —Steamers on the Hudson— Dimensioua of the « Rochester'—Construc- tion of the Hulls of the American Vessels— Arrangement of the Cabins . —Engine Framing— Engines-Beams— Mode of Steering— Rudder— Sea-Boats — Dimensions of the "Naragansett"— Cabins — Engines- Paddle Wheels— Boilers— Maximum speed of the " Rochester"— Power of the Engines— Mississippi Steamers— Their arrangement— Engines- Boilers— Lake Steamers— St Lawrence Steamer. -Explosions of Steam- Boilers— Table of the Dimensionu of several American Steamers. Since the fonoAving chapter was written, avast revolution has taken place in the art of sieam navigation. The prac- ticability cf performing long ocean voyages in steamers is now no longer a problem to be solved, while the invention of screw propulsion has rendered steam-power applicable, and even advantageous, for our colliers and other vessels used for carrying heavy goods. No doubt the same revolution has, to a greater or less degree, affected steam navigation in America, in so far as its extension to sea-going vessels is concerned ; but the remarks contained in the following pages refer entirely to the river and lake navigation and seem to me to possess an interest from the fact, that since the date at which they were written, we have in this country intro- duced fast-sailing river steamers, in which the high speed is attained by means of the same arrangements which were originally introduced in the United States, viz.,— a light build of hull, fine lines, a long stroke, large paddle-wheels, aiid powerful engines. 1 think it best, therefore, to give 70 STEAM NAVIGATION. .t^an^e. and that it .efe. to the tl ItT^XTf 1837, the general management and arrangement oflhich I ' have no doubt, » pretty much the same at the pre elt time J^7'^2'"^fr ■"''^-'«' -toT-rs luvtnnon ot the steamboat, there is no donhf fl,of .+ navigation was iirst fully a'nd suecess ^ijTn otld X Tt vT^.tth''"^ ' '*^'? "' ^-"^^^^ -<> that Futon native of J,orth Amenca, launched a steam-vessel at N^w 1 ork m the year 1807 ; while the first successful experiment m Europe was made on the Clyde in the year 18lf Se whrch penod steam had been, during four years generallv v.sed^ as a propelling power in the Lsels LviX7t"o The steam navigation of the United Slates is one of the most .nterestmg subjects connected with the hWory of North Amer^a, and it is strange that hitherto we should have received so little information regarding it, especTally as here rs no class of works, in that comparatively /ew and strll rising country, which bear stronger marks of long co„ mued exerfon, successfully directed to the perfectfon of Its object, than are presented by many of the steamboat which now navigate its rivers, bays, and lakes. ""'""'°''*' It would be improper to compare the present state of tea-n navigation in America with that of this country for he nature of things has established a very importanM s tmction between them. By far the greatef number of the American steamboats ply on the smooth surfaces of rL^ sheltered bays, or arms of the sea, exposed neither to wives nor to wind; whereas most of the steamboats in this colnlrv go out tc, sea, where they encounter as bad weather a"d Is heavy waves as ordinary sailing vessels. The conseqience IS that ,n America a much more slender luilt, and a To e delicate mould, give the requisite strength to their vesTI and thus a much greater speed, whioh°essentially drpend' pon these two qualities, is generally obtained. In America the position of the machinery and of th» .«K,-„. „.t" *' - — — ..^ix^oj TT uiuu are BTEAM NAVIQATiON. 71 raised above the deck of the vessels, admits of powerful engines, with an enormous length of stroke being employed to propel them ; but this arrangement would be wholly in- applicable to the vessels on our sea-coasts, at least to the extent to which it has been carried in America. But perhaps the strongest proof that the American vessels are very differently circumstanced from those of Europe, and therefore admit of a construction more favourable for the at- tainment of great speed, is the fact that they are not g.^nerally, as in Europe, commanded by persons possessed of a know- ledge of seamanship. In this country steam navigation produces hardy seamen; and British steamers, being exposed to the open sea in all weathers, are furnished with masts and sails, and must be worked by persons who, in the event of any accident happening to the machinery, are capable of sailing the vessel, and who must therefore be experienced seamen. The case is very different in America, where, with the exception of the vessels navigating the Lakes, and one or two of those which ply on the eastern coast, there is not a steamer in the country which has either masts or sails, or is commanded by a professional seaman. These facts forcibly show the different state of steam navigation in America a state very favourable for the attainment of great speed, and a high degree of perfection in the locomotive art. The early introduction of steam navigation into the country, and the lapid increase which has since taken place in the number of steamboats, have afforded an extensive field for the prosecution of valuable inquiries on this interesting sub- ject ; and the builders of steamboats, by availing themselves of the opportunities held out to them, have been enabled to make constant accessions to their practical knowledge, which have gradually produced important improvements 'in the construction and action of their vessels. But on minutely examining the most approved American steamers, I found It impoRsible to trace any general principles which seem to have served as guides for their construction. Every Ameri- can steamboat-builder holds opinions of his own, which are gcneraiiy foundea, not on theoretical principles, but on de- 72 STEAM NAVIGATION. s auctions drawn from a close examination of the practical effectsof the different arrangements and proportions'ad p^^^^^^^ Ler^f^t t"'"'^-''"^"* steamboats,and these opinLs never fail to influence, m a greater or less degree, the built of his vessel, and the proportions which her several parts are made to bear to each other. ^ h.li ^^^f^ about thirty hours were occupied by the steam- Yorkto'l^h 'T." "^'"^ *^^^^ passages from Kew York to Albany, a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles, which is at the rate of only five miles per hour. Pas- sengers were then conveyed in barges, towed by steamboats, to avoid the danger which, according to the following extrac from an advertisement of the sailing of the vessels, seems at that time o have attended the steam navigation of the b^^th ''1 ^;'''''^''! «" b^a^d tl^^ safety barges will not be in the least exposed to any accident which may happen TheT'1*!!''"^^-^^^^" ^^ ^^^^^ ^' *^^ "oats The noise of the machinery, the trembling of the boat, the heat from the furnace, boilers, and kitchen, and everything which may be considered as unpleasant or dangerous of board of a steamboat, are entirely avoided." These "safety barges, however have been entirely laid aside, and the voyage be ween Albany and New York was, in 1837, when I visited the country, generally performed in ten hours, ex- rate of fifteen miles per hour. They have effected this great increase of speed by constantly making experiments on the form and proportions of their engines and ves- sels-in short, by a persevering system of trial and error which IS still going forward ; and the natural consequence IS that no two steamboats are alike, and few of them have attained the age of six months without undergoing some material alterations. ^ ^g bome These observations apply more particularly to the steamers navigating the Eastern waters of the United States, where the great number of steamboat-builders, and the rapid in- crease of trade, have produced a competition which has led to the construction of a class of vessels unequalled in noint - i. — - e practical >ns adopted se opinions 3, the built i^eral parts ;he steam- from Kew 1 and fifty our. Pas- ;eamboats, iig extract , seems at m of the } will not ly happen eamboats. boat, the i^erything ^erous on e "safety and the 37, when ours, ex- g at the 3ted this eriments and ves- ^d error, sequence em have tig some steamers 8, where apid in- has led in noini; i» 5 .1 l5 STEAM NAVIGATION. 73 H^ Of speed by th...e of any other quarter of the globe. The onginal construction of most of these vessels has, as already stated, been materially changed. The breadth of beam and he ength of keel L .ve in som vessels be. a increased, and mothers they have been diminished. This mode of pro- cedure may seem rather paradoxical ; but in America it is no ..ncommon thing to alter steamboats by cutting them through the middle, and eitaer increasing or diminishing their dimensions as the occasion may require. It is only a short time since many of the steamboats were furnished with false boNvs, by which the length of the deck and the rake of the cutwaters were greatly increased. On some vessels hese bows still remain ; from others they have been removed subsequent .-xperiments having led to the conclu- Tpiot TT If P?^.^'"^ ^'^ ^^^^^«^* ^"y ^^ke, as shown m.n T •'. f i' TT ^''* '^'P*'^^ ^"' ^ f^«* «^il»"g boat. When I visited the United States in 1837, the " Swallow " held the reputation of being one of the two swiftest steamers which ad ever navigated the American waters, and this vessel had received an addition of twenty-four Lt to her original length, besides having been otherwise considerably changed. Before these alterations were made on her she was considered, as regards speed, to be an inferior vessel. The inferences which I was led to draw from these facts are, that the great experiment for the improvement of steam navigation, in which the Americans had been engaged for thirty years was not completed, and the speed at which they had succeeded in propelling their steam-vessels was likely to be still further increased; and also that, in the construe- timi of their vessels, they had been governed by experience and practice alone, without attempting to introduce theoreti- cal principles, m the application of which, to the practice of propelling vessels, by the action of paddle-wheels on the "^ T^^rT'T^f^^'"''"^ ^^"^ ""'''''''' ^^^- experienced nnt^ 7 local circumstances connected with the nature of he trade in which the steamboats are engaged and the waters which they are intended to navigate, thaf h;ve .ivt ri.. lo ine employment of three distinct classes of vessels ia D !l IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A O k //A. m. ^ *!<° ^^. < 5r ^/^ 1.0 I.I ,3£ i^ m 22 t %z 12.0 IL25 II u 1.6 Photographic Sciences Corporaticn 2Z WEST MAIN STREET WESSTER.N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4503 "^CN* ^ % ^^. ^ '1j^^^ 4^ 74 STEAM NAVIGATION. M'l Airerican steam navigation, all of which I had an oppor- tunity of sailing in and particularly examining. These steamboats may be ranged under the following classification -.—First, Those navigating the Eastern waters. Tins class includes all the vessels plying on the River Hud- son, Long Island Sound, Chesapeake and Delaware Ba>8, and all those which run to and from Boston, New York' Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, Norfolk, and the other ports on the eastern coast of the country, or what the Ameri- cans call the Sea-board. Second, Those navigating on the Western waters, including all the steamers employed on tlie River Mississippi and its numerous tributaries, including the Missouri and Ohio. Third, The steamers engaged in the Lake navigation. These classes of vessels vary very much in their construction, which has been modified to suit the respective services for which they are intended. The general characteristics by which the Eastern water boats arP distinguished, are, a small draught of water, great speed, and the use of condensing engines of large dimensions, having a great length of stroke. On the Western waters' on t)ie other hand, the vessels have a greater draught of water and less speed, and are propelled by high-pressure en- gines of small size, worked by steam of great elasticity. The steamers on the Lakes, again, have a very strong built and a large draught of water, possessing in a greater degree the character of sea-boats than any of those belonging to the other two classes. They also differ in having masts and sails, with which the others are not provided. The steamboats employed on the Hr.dson River are the first belonging to the class of vessels navigating the Eastern waters of which I shall make particular mention. The shoals m tiie upper part of the river, produced by the Overslaugh which I formerly mentioned, have rendered it necessary that the steamboats employed on it should have a small draught of water. The great trade of the river, and the numerous passengers who are constantly travelling between New York and Alba8, 3W York, the other e Ameri- ? on the loyed on ncluding ed in the ry much suit the rn water er, great lensions, waters, lught of sure en- ;y. The luilt and ^•ree the he other ils, with are the Eastern [ by the lered it Id have e river, I veiling I towns, its, one for towing barges loaded with goods, and another devoted exclusively to the conveyance of passengers. The attain- ment of great speed naturally became an important desider- atum in the construction of the vessels employed in carrying passengers; and the success which has attended the efforts of the steamboat-builders to produce vessels, combining swiftness with efficiency and perfection of workmanship is truly wonderful, and in the highest degree creditable. ' A table will be found at the end of this chapter, containing the dimensions of several of the steamboats running in Ame- rica, which I had an opportunity of examining when I visited the country in 1837. Among these the dimensions of several of the Hudson boats are given ; but in order to explain more clearly the general arrangement of their parts and mode of operation, I shall give in detail the dimensions of the steam- boat "Rochester," plying between New York and Albany Ihe elevation, plan, and water-lines of this vessel are shown m Plate II.* The most satisfactory observations which I was able to make relative to the m.oximum speed at which the American steamboats are capable of being propelled were made during a passage in the " Eochester," which serves as a further motive for particularly describing her construe- tion. The " Rochester" measures 209 feet ten inches in length on her deck This measurement applies also to the length of her keel, her stern-post and cut-water being perpendicular as shown in Plate II. The maximum breadth of beam is 24 feet. The projection of that part of the deck called tlio wheel-guards, shown in dotted lines in fig. 2, beyond the hull of the vessel, is 13 feet on each side. The maximum breadth of the vessel, measured to the outside of the paddle- wheels, IS 47 feet. The depth of hold is 8 feet 6 inches. The draught of water, with an average number of passengers, IS four feet. The diameter of the paddle-wheels is 24 feet J. he length of the float-boards, which are twenty-four in number, is 10 feet, and their dip is 2 feet 6 inches. This * '^^^ "f ^f the steamers in Plates If. and III. were laid down by tny friend Mr Andrew Murray, from models winch I brought from New York^. 76 STEAM NAVIGATION. Vessel is propelled by one engine, having a cylinder of 43 inches in diameter^ and the length of stroke 10 feet. The engine condenses the steam which works expansively, and is cut oif at half stroke. The great competition tliat exists in the navigation of the Hudson produces constant racing between boats belonging to different companies; and this is not unfrequently attended with serious accidents. When the " Kochester" is pitched against another vessel, and at her full speed, the steam is often carried as high as forty-five pounds on the square inch of the boiler ; and the piston makes twenty-seven double strokes, or, in other words, moves through a space of 540 feet per minute, or 6-13 mile? per hour. In this case the circumference of the paddle-wheels moves at the rate of 23-13 miles per hour. In ordinary circumstances, however, the engine is worked by steam of from twenty-five to thirty pounds pressure on the square inch ; and in this case the piston makes about twenty-five double strokes per minute, moving through a space of 500 feet per minute, or 5-68 miles per hour; and the circumference of the paddle-wheel moves at the rate of 21-42 miles per hour. The rate at which the pistons of marine engines in this country (1837) move, seldom exceeds 210 feet per minute. The pistons of locomotive engines generally move at the rate of about 300 feet per minute ; but both of their speeds are very far short of the velocity of the " Kochester's" piston. The hulls of almost all the American steamboats, espe- cially those which ply on the rivers, carrying no freio-ht ■excepting the luggage belonging to passengers, are con- structed in a very light and superficial manner. They are built perfectly flat in the bottom, and perpendicular in the sides ; a cross section in the middle of the vessel, havino- the form of a parallelogram, with its lower corners rounded off, as shown by the cross sections in Plate II. This con- struction of hull is well adapted to a navigation where the depth of water is small, and the attainment of great speed is an object of importance, as it insures a smaller draught of water, and consequently* affords less resistance to the • STEAM NAVIGATION. 77 • motion of the vessel than any other mould which has an equal area of cross section below the water-line ; but vessels built in this way, without a deep keel, having no hold of the water, are not well adapted for making sea-voyages, as they cannot resist the effect of the wind, which causes them to make lee-way. It is only the great breadth of the paddle- wheels and power of the engines which enables the Ameri- can boats to move steadily through the water. The breadth of the paddle-wheels is, in fact, so much additional breadth added to the beam of the vessel ; for the reaction of the float-boards striking the water tends, in some measure to counteract any tendency that the vessel may have to roll which would otherwise be very apt to take place in the American steamers, where the machinery and boilers are placed above the level of the deck. There is no rolling motion felt in these fast boats. The rectilinear moti-^n however, is by no means regular. Every stroi-.- of the engine produces a momentary acceleration in the speed giving rise to a see-saw motion, resembling that of a row- boat, m which the impulse produced by every stroke of the oars is distinctly felt. In the American steamers the keel generally projects from two to six inches from the bottom of the hull, and is level from stem to stern. Its principal service, when the pro- jection IS so small, consists in strengthening the hull. The deck-lines of the hull, in general, begin to^fall in at a dis- tance of a few feet from the middle of the vessel. Thev approach each other with a gentle curve, as shown in Plate 11^ hg. 2, towards the stern and bow, where they meet and are connected by the stern-post and cutwater of the TpTnf I '""^T'^f '' ^"""'^"y perpendicular, and the sides of the vessel, diverging from it, present a very acute angle to meet the resistance offered by the water The angle termed by the sides of the "Eochester" is* about vventy degrees at the level of the water, and decreases to about ten degrees at the level of the keel ^oTnr^'7 ."""^ Pfddle-wheels are placed in a frame- work of wood, to which they are attached by strong fixtures 78 STEAM NAVIGATION. This frame-work is generally a specimen of substantial and excellent workmanship. The timbers of which it is com- posed are arranged so as to form the frustum of a pyramid I he apex of the framing is elevated above the deck and paddle-wheels, and supports the beam of the engine while Its base rests on the flooring timbers of the hull In this way the weight of the machinery is distributed over a large surface of the bottom, the weak construction of that part of the vessel rendering such an arrangement absolutely mdispensaole to her safety. Iron rods, fastened to the timbers of the vessel, extend fore and aft from the upper part of the beams forming the engine framing. These iron ties give support to the bow and stern, which, if not braced up m the manner described, invariably sink or settle down m the course of a few months, owing to the slim built and great length of the hull. Screws and nuts are generally pro- vided, by which the ties can be tightened up, should any yielding take place in the wood-work of the vessel. At the height of about five feet above the surface of the water, the hull is covered with a deck. It is made some- what in the form of an ellipse, as shown by the dotted lines m Plate II. Its vertices rest on the stern-post and cu*- water of the vesr^l, while its sides, expaut^'ng beyond the hull, overhang the water, and the bulwarks of the vessel are erected on its circumference. The part of the deck over- hanging the water is called the " wheel-guards," and in some vessels it has a projection of 18 or 20 feet from the sides. In the "Rochester," the projection, as I have already said, is 13 feet. The wheel-guards are formed so as to enclose the paddle-wheels, which work in spaces left in them for that purpose, marked h in Plates II. and III. The inner plumber-blocks and paddle-wheel axles rest on the timbers of the vessel, and the exterior ones on the outer edges of the guards. A large cabin, serving the double purpose of the gentle- men's sleeping apartment and the public dining-room, is formed in the hull of the vessel. It is entered by a stair leading from the first deck. It generally extends nearly I < s' i» HTK.-WI l!<»ATS\\AI,L,,u-,,,,,y \(; ().\ ■I'll,.. i'i..\Th: /r '■'■"^^■■'■'■"■--'.vniK.,™. „,„,,„, BTEAM NAVIGATION. 79 from stem to stern, and is eleg. ■ cly fitted up. The ladies' cabin 18 on a level with the first deck, from which it enters. Ihis deck IS covered with a roof extending from the paddle- jvheels to the stem of the vessel, the top of which forms a Higher deck, raised about sixteen feet above the level of the water, called the promenade-deck. The general arrangement of these vessels will be best understood by referring to Plate m'7 '^ ^ perspective view of the steamboat " Swallow " I he vessels propelled by two engines carry two boilers and four funnels, and have a very extraordinary appearance, llie vessels of modern construction, however, have generally only one engine, with two boilers and two funnels, as shown m the Plate of the " Swallow." The boilers are on a level with the lower deck, and rest on the wheel-guards, one oeing placed on either side of the vessel. The cylinder which also stands on a level with the first deck, is placed in the centre of the vessel, between the two boilers. The con- denser and pumps are situate in the hull of the vessel, in the middle of the large cabin, from which they are separated by a partition. ^ Engines working with side-rods, connected by a cross- head, whica is attached to the end of the piston-rod, and moves m vertical slides, are occasionally employed in the steamboats which navigate the Eastern waters. The beam- engme is, however, much oftener used. The length of stroke adopted by the Americans for their marine engines 18 very much greater than I have ever found in Europe. This renders it necessary that the main centres of the engine, or the pivots on which the beam performs its motion, should be placed at a considerable elevation above the promenade-deck. The working-beam, therefore, is quite exposed, and is elevated above every other part of the vessel excepting the tops of the funnels, as is shown in Plate IV ' forming one of the most prominent and striking parts of an American steamboat, and presenting, as may naturally be supposed, a strange eflPect to those accustomed to see Euro- pean steamboats only, in which no part of the machinery is visible even from the deck of the veseel. The beaus are 80 8TIAM NaVIOATtON. |. i,r constacted wholly of malleable iron, in the manner shown the following diagram-in which a is the main cent™ toLZ'h. ^rV'^^"'^ *«P'^*°" «"d connecting ^^ T I, 'f ^^" c™"*™""™ combines lightness ^vith strength and rigidity, and is found to act very lell Ihe arrangement of the decks and machinery which I have just descnbed, and which is represented in Plates IV. n ;ff» ' '"^fr,""' ''^"^"''^ »""e, when she is under weigh qute invisible from her stern, and consequently it is imws- o> which the rudder is moved is placed in a wheel-house ereo ed for the pilot on the fore p Jof thonromenade dec"' Md in some inst_ances at a distance of ne„,ly 200 feet from •he stern of the boat. The steersman, by this arrangemenT tion,that he cannot easily discover when the vessel swerres from her course, without the assistance of a tall perpendicu- arpole, placed at the bow,in the manner shown in'tlie plate". On this he keeps his eye, and by narrowly observing its po..tionin relation to some fixed object at a distancf he readily detects the smallest deviation from the cour"e ' I lie motion produced by moving the wheel is communi- cat«l to the rudder by ropes working in a series of grooved J) ■■lleys. The application cf ropes for this purpose has, on «veral occasions, in cas« of fire, been attended with most unhappy resuls. Duri.g my stay in America, a steamboat on he Mississippi, called the "Ben Sherod," tU fire, and tlie vessel s becommg unmanageable, owing to the rudder ropes nemg burned. Iron rods and chains have lately been ( 1 t I 1 V V ii P C] STEAM NAVIGATION. ler shown in centre. 81 nnecting ightness well, which I ates IV. r weigh, 3 impos- le wheel 1-house, le-deck, et from ?ement, a situa- swerv^es Bndicu- plates. ing its ice, he le. imuni- rooved las, on i most .mboat B, and nee of •udder r been introduced instead of ropes, and will doubtless soon come mto general use. The rudder in general measures about 6 feet in depth, and 8 feet in length It moves on pivots, which work in gud- geonB fixed to the stern of the vessel, and thus far resembles the rudder used in all sea-vessels. The ropes, however, by which it is put in mo- tion, are made fast to the outer extremity of the rudder, in the manner shown in the annexer diagram ; and in this way the tiller, which takes up much room, is altogether dispensed with. This mode offteering in an elevated sitoZTme bow of the vessel, ,s peculiarly well adapted for stealers navt gaUng narrow overs, such as the Thames, on which, indeed, IS now sornefmes employed, but on the whole, it seems strange that ,ts adoption iu this country is not mor^ general The foregomg remarks regarding the construction of the steamers refer particularly to those vessels which ply on the rivers on the eastern coast of the United Statl^ Those used on the bays and sounds, called sea-boats by the Amer cans, are somewhat different in their construction, their hX and machinery being more strongly made, and their drlugh of water considerably greater. The river-boats draw from four to SIX feet of water, and the sea-boats from five t^et sS inches to n.ae feet ; but stiU the machine.7 and boi ers Is wel as a great part of the cabin accommodalion in that las of steamers, is elevated above the level of the deck • an ar rangement which seems very ill adapted for vessels expoTedjo the heavy gales and rough seas of the ocean. The best sped mens of the American sea-boats are those which ply between The fin Tf .^ ""''' "' ^'""■^<""'« -<> Charleston Xhe finest of these sea-boats, and indeed the finest steamer which I saw m the United States, is the "Narragrnsett ■• f 'plftem""/'",''"' ""i'^ I'-idenee, which fsXl m i-late III. F.g. 1 ,3 ^„ <,i,^^ji^^ ^^ ^j^^ j^^^j ^ ^^ ^ ^ p.u.1 ; ana ng. a shows her water-lines. It could hardly'be credited, from . mc^^e examination of the drawings, that this d2 £12 STRAM NAVIQATION. f^ "s .oa.ng tl,„ „,„,,, ,t will l„, „co„ that, .lurinR the fift^ «„ J'"fi 7;"™'""""" " "'•"'""•"^ 210 foot in Ie„Btl, of keel niul 2G fool, ,„ maxim,,,,, b,o«,UI, of l,c„m The ZuTlr 1- 1.1,1 ,. ,0 foot 7 i„ohos, ,.„., 1,0,. .„.„,„"; of :;: " 4 U.ou si 1„« l,or ..vora^o loa,l on board. She m buHt on ot iron wliioli oonncot hor timl,o,'8. Tlio vossd i„ ,ro„„ll,„l h- -mo oon.lo„„i„,, o„,.-„o, wbiol, wo,fc oxl »iv y o£ " 1 H, Btoan, at half ,troko. T|,o con,lo„« tic I tt s »m "' Ihm ongmo, aa woll a« i„ ,„„,t „,■ j,,^ Amorioa marZ i,:'to";? " ''?'""'' '-^ *'"•■ '"•'•-""" "f -^ i.n irCe nto 11,0 o„„.lo„«or. Sho oarrio. two l,oilo«, in which an WCRuto a„„,„„t of 3000 .quaro foot of ».,rlU ia oTlrf to the hro a„. ,vorks with etoam of a j,ro«suro ^Itr^. <»rd."K to e,rc„„,»ta„co., f,.om tw,!nty to twlm'-Z ]mm,h on tho «,„a,o inch. Tho cylinder is .,1011 donWoli ™' "'"' "'" '''"'»" •™''™ twonty.four t llo i artl,rrT'''f ■ ™,""" ''" "'■■™''"' ■""«"» ^' "'« 'n r . T ? '" °' "" '"'' """' «-27 miles nor hour ihodnunotorof tho ,,addlo-wl,ool« is 25 foot, and as hev l>or orm twonty-fonr rovoh.tions in tho „,i„„t , tl,; ZolZ ot the i,or,i,hcry ,s at tho rate of 21'4 miles nor ho,,r T^ Inondth of the " Narragansott's " ,,a,Wre:; e' Til f ot' and l,o,r d,p 2 foot 2 inehes. Tho diameter of tl „ paddk wlu,el axlo o„ which the, are keyed is 13 inches ' Iho cabins of the sea-stoamors aro of croat si?o «nH f^ • accommodation for ,.,«o„sers is ex^ C I J ,„os^^:f them abont four hundred berths aro u,„vid„d Tl oabin in the " Massachusetts ■■ r^^^T^.inJ'r/tir;,':' "' .na.umuiu uroaatn, and 12 feet in height j nco. By the fifty i«lon and Atlantic passages I of keel, ilepth of ter is 4 ^le keel, uilt on- * or ties fopollod cutting B steam marine [ water lich an xposed ng, ac- ty-fivo [ hori- of the y-foiir in the hour. 3 they lotion The feet, iddle- their it of cipal line )gth, ghtj STEAM NAYIOATION. 83 .1 oii.l, what a,l,l« Rreatly to its convcnionco and capacity, it i» entirely «nbroi<„„ by pillars or any other ot«trnction thr.,n..h- out ,ts whole area. I have dined with 175 pcrnrmK in thi« cabin ; and notwithstanding this immerons assembly, (ho tables, which were arranged in two parallel rows exto'iding rora one end of the cabin to tho other, wore far from boin?; Inlly occupied; tho attendance was good, and evcryll,i„« w,« conducted with perfect regularity and order. There are n^ fixed berths ranged round this cabin, and about 100 emporary berths can bo erectcl in the middle of the floor Jlesides these, there are 60 fixed berths in the ladies' cabin ami several temporary sleeping-places can be erected in it als,.' .^Hrr^ ,'o! "»"««''<=!'"««"''" i- I'y ■■" moans the largest n the United States; some steamers have cabins upwards of m feet m length. Those large saloons are lightcl by the ar- w ™ b,T TT" "f 'r' "'"""'""«• "'"' tl-'>aPI.o«rance, when br ban ly bgbte.l „,, and mied with company, is very Pa2s t th '" '""™"«°™ f "°™"y '"™"«" "'--Ives ii art.es at the numerous small tables (into which the large tables are converted after dinner), and engage in different amusements. The scene resembles much fnL the coflbo. room of some great hotel than tho cabin of a floating vessel of .l,r Tff "° I"?"'^ '" ""' ""'"''"•'"'on of tho paddle-wheels of the different American steamboats. They a o all made in the manner represented in the folloWng diagram The spokes are made of wood, and bolted into cast-iron flai.Jes which are keyed to the axle of thepad.Ile-wheel; Hieirorte ends aro connected together by bands of iron en ir , ! tc bv bolts T, T' 'i,"" ,""""'"'' '" "'" ^i'""- «™i"y ui>le I ,n 1°"^-^"'^" ''o "»' extend across ho ca in r "'. "'" •"''•'""-^I'^'^I, «« i» always the case n this conntry. They are divided into two and sometimes three compartments, and the wheel is fiunish with three and sometimes four sots of spokes a ra g Lt!'! ^T^' ,:'7™ »-'™'^"»n w- introduced bvM -.......= u. «uw iork, and may bo described," says Ur'llen wick, '■ by supposing a common pocblle-wheel 'to be sawntto 1;.! ii [if; 84 STEAM NATIOATIOK. :i~-T.^?:rE"-!:::isir:i;L- back, TOtil their paddles divide the interval nf fl. u, on _the original wheel into three e.ua" "' '"" ^''"^ are separated ^X:tZ^^:7\^i:^'t:,:t''' ""T more nearly to a constant resistanceTwwl e thl^ddfT, lowing the wake of those belonWnir to H. "'""'/''<''''«. f"'" upon water that ha. been but";^;:^ Itrbid T''^' ''"''' dee;i;Tde°/ Z Iddt" TT' ''~'^' ""''"'^ "^ °«- very able%'^aM'\rtt^^ ■"^^^■l'''^ "T''"''^ """ -""v^^ nished to suit IZl'^U^ tlTllt ft" ""'^ ''™'- in most cas"s to et^'t le'lr^^'l'. "'"'* '^ -«"'-' ing this, the padd eXrS'r'* ? '"^"'^'^^' ""'' '"'•- come good generator,!?^! ' 7 ""' ''"'S'' diameter, be- Even in' thre ve it ,1"!'"*,^ """"'"""^ ""='' """'- their connecting-rods ::'::: ^h Jr^rsarr.' • Treatise on the Steam-Enirinfi h„ t„. r. . ' 1830. ^'"°' ^'y •^'^»es Ren wick, LL.D., Ne^r York, *.V' ich of the 3n moved paddles islied to el; they pproach die, fol- strikes en very I move- r dimi- uction, )untry. mgine, , is in entres. 3 for a ficient d fail- ir, be- e way otion. toyed, axle : V I- - via, STEAM NAVIGATION. gg »vl« I, , ? engines are attached to the samn axle, by cranks placed at right angles to each other so that tZ T"" '' '"''""« "^ '■"" Po^-^* «' the very moment when theteed The 71 f r'"*^'"^ "'»■"'' for keeping 1 f.r nf !t Ti, ""^ "'°'''<' """l comparatively small diame on necessary to enable engines to pass their centres men? ofthrfl,r"'";f '"" "' "-^ •'""-'' -" «- "-go. r^semblV ' '" *' «t<"™bo* on the Eastern waters resemble ,n a great measure those of European stelmers into the funne T^ 1 "^"' "''* "■■' """''"'''^ <"«"harged manner bv mean, ^f • ? "' strengthened in the usual form I / °' "°° '"■""^s "' «es, arranged so as to uT rtndrrTh::" r "°" '^'rr *"^ -■>'^"- -^^-« force of the stel :? -T^f ' "' ''^^'^""S the e.pa^ive asunder Co/per "'as "t 7, ,' '^""''""^ *" '^"^ t"^" ed in America fLT' ""''' '"'^'y- """7 generally employ- going ve"se : tt^, the construction of the boilers of sea- be afted on L *";'"« ''^'^^ ''""o 'han iron to coppeli^ the? ' ,', '"" """^ ''"<"' "•'opted instead of u edT,; Americal'orcr I" '","" "™' ''°"'^- ^'"' ">-- in boiLt f om the r '" '■'^P"''' "'""i^ takes place generaUy emlv d Tt, '"""™'" " "" ^"""^ «« that off " r„ ^'"P'^J^'^'J "> this country, namely, by " blowina P-gr^ss. Avatt Ir^hZr^f ^""'b"', ^T^^^''^" "- ed,^part of the water is pe^Ut^tVescLflJir^.?^- tairn'^rcel^^rtXt'"'; ™^ deposit* that-may-L;: f «ue on irs bottom, and carries it off. i| 1 86 STEAM NAVIGATION. Iliij Tho Gpecd of tl.0 Amer'ican steamlicats has excited rnn s.derabIo wonder in tl.is coantry; and some pe™ L imve" have froyiently been made regarding the extraordinary feats performed by them. Fast sailing is a property hTw but that a few of those :iav,gating the Iliver Hudson and Ia.Iy, at « peed wh.eh far surpasses that of any European steamer lutherto built (1837), every impartial person" who has had an opportun.ty of seeing the performances of the vessels in both countries, must be ready to admit home difficulties at present exist, which preclude the at ai^ent of more than an approximation in'ascerta njg the maximum rate at which the steamboats on the Hudson are propelled in still water. One of these is caused by he currents of the flowing and ebbing tide, which a e Mt as far as Albany, and whose velocity has newr been accurately «scerto,ned, and the other by the doubt that exists as to the actual distance of the route between New York and Albany which has been variously stated at from 145 to 160 mHes' Ihe road between these towns runs nearly parallel to the river, and is said to be 1(;2 miles in length.^ In the Ameri! can Almanac for 1837, the town-house of New Yoa", stated to be in north latitude 40° 42' 40", and west longi- tude (from Gfreenwich) 74° 1' 8', and that of Albany in north latitude 42° 39' 3", and west longitude 73° 44 49" which makes the distance between the two places as the crow flies, 134-5 statute miles. The navigable cliannel of the Hudson, however, is by no means straight; its direction ranges over fifteen points of the compa'ss.'from W t^ N^r' v' ', ', f *■; ""S'" °^ ''"° 30'- Mr Eedfield of New York, who has bestowed much attention on the sub- ject of steam navigation, is of opinion that the length of he steamboat route is 150 miles, being 15-5 miles greater than the distance measured by a straight line drawn between the two places.* This may be regarded as a near anp^x" • rrofessor SiUiman's Journal, vol. xxiii. d. 31 2. cited con- 'ple have ents that aordinary rty, how- imboats ; ison and nd regn- Suropean son, who s of the ude the rtaining Hudson i by the 5 felt as 3urately s to the A.lbany, ) miles. to the Ameri- fork is longi- any in t4' 49", as the inel of rection W. to ield of e sub- gth of :reater tween [Toxi- STEAM NAVIGATION. g« mation to the truth. The samA rliffl^, u- the length of the JeaiXm d™l tlT": ''""f"^ ^^^'^rSZ.^^Z^]:]^^ -«• '■;- ^«ot» a.e experiments made Joly with ?h ' objelf n'tieVrV' »ubjoct, in .hfeh'Ta:; p" l^ZZTtr '"'' of information concur that thn P"f7'"g '""^ b"** means pelled at the rate of^gMeen m It? ^"'^ "'",,''•' P"" a feat which it is said has of ^^1,.,? '" f" *"*"' cannot vouch for the accuracv of tl f !" f«'*™«'- I The ' Rochester" and the " Swallow" were said in h. fi p/.S';ca:S:::fth;i^^ them, the number of mhuL w af.^ t 1"'"' '""^'''' ml^ The t"''""."' •*""'• '^"^^^ *™ hours a"d „„f oce^:dit;sri-;t-;?i-ir"^ the distance between those places to be "^n *.;. Ir"'"-^ P nour, but even if we assume the distance to be only 145 88 8TEAM NAVIGATION. Ill ( m * I miles (the shortest distance I have ever heard stated) which 18 BtiU 14 47 miles per hour, the difference of five miles in the length of the route, producing a diminutTon „ the V sol s average rate of sailing of but half a mile per hour Tl current was .n the '■ Eochester's" favour during the fi"t part of the voyage, out the Overslaugh shoals, and the con rac ed and narrow state of the channel of the river for about thirty mUes below Albany, checked her progress very much was only 12 36 miles per hour. This was her averao-e rate of sailing during the part of her course when her speed Z slowest. After the first thirty miles the river explnd^d aifording a better navigable channel, when her spced^adu aly increased, and before the flowing tide checked he! pro- gress the vessel attained the maximum velocity indicated by my obsen-ations, which, between two of the stuping places ZsMetr^V ''""': ^"™ S^'-'S "' tin' spfedTtU possible that she was influenced by some slight decree of current in her favour, although it was quite impe ceplue to the eye, as the flow of the tide appeared to produce a s toa tion in the water of the river At WB»t pj^* ™gna- 0,1 tv,„ a J i- , ^^ -t^oint we encounter- ed the flood tide as was very distinctly proved by the swin,.- ng of the vessels which lay at anchor in the river Ttfr this we had an adverse current all fhe way to New York a thi T:, of r '"^ "■'"' "■"* «"« ™^«''« «l>-d d^tg tills pait of the voyage averaged 14'22 miles an hm.f About one-half of the voyage was thus perT med wUh a favourable current, and the other half was performed under unfavourable circumstances, owing partly to'the shallowne s of the water and the narrowness of the channel in the uZ part of the river, and partly to an adverse tide in the lower part of it When the Eochester is pitclied against another vessel, ,„d going at her full speed, her piston, as form rly stated, makes twenty-seven double strokes per minute On he voyage above alluded to, however, the piston natav^r" age, made about twenty-five double strokes ner n,i„.,.!™ .hat the speed of 14-97 miles per hour, which ehllt^abel ed), which erage rate i miles in 5n in the per hour. g the first 1 the con- ■ for about !ry much ; her speed rage rate >peed was xpanded, id. gradu- her pro- icated by g places, >eed it is legree of ptible to I stagna- counter- e swing- . After York, a during n hour. with a i under lowness e upper e lower another )rmerly e. On n aver- info 0/-W , ,^0 ttained STEAM NAVIGATION. 89 on that occasion, cannot be taken as her greatest rate of sail- 16 55 miles per hour her piston was making twenty-seven double strokes per minute, and at that time the vessel could not be far from having attained the maximum speed at which Her engines are capable of propelling her through the water. I he rate of sixteen and a half miles an hour is very great but perhaps not more than is due to the form of the vessels' and the power of the engines by which they are propelled! The Eochester" draws only four feet of water, but the country (18u7) The construction of the American marine i^fc^ZrT.t "'"''' ^'''^'^'^' ^'^^l^''^'^^ Europe, that it IS doubtful If the same rule for calculating the pow;r is ap- phcab e in both cases. In the following calculations, the deductions for the friction and for the difference between the pressure exerted by the steam in the boiler and in the cylinder, as well as the advantage that is derived from the Z.ii^T '''' "'" ^" accordance with what has been stated by American engineers, who are best able to judge of the power of their own engines.* The diameter of the Rochester s piston is 43 inches, and its area is 1452-2 square nches. The pressure of the steam in the boiler is 451b. on the square inch ; and the engine works expansively, and cuts off the steam at half stroke. The half of that prLsure, or 22 51b, IS assumed as the pressure acting on the square inch of the piston To this, 101b. is added as the pressure of the a mosphere obtained by the use of the condenser, making the whole effective pressure on every square inch of the piston's area 32-51b. The length of the stroke is 10 feet and when going at full speed, the piston makes 27 double strokes, or, in other words, moves through the space of 540 feet every minute. Estimating the power of a horse as equal to that exerted in raising 33,000lb. 1 foot per minute, the power of the engine is obtained by the following expression: 1452-2 X 32-5 x540_ 25486110 _ 33000 ~ "33000"'"^'^'^ rom this it appears, that a force is exerted upon the engine * Professor Siliiman's Journal, vol. xxiii U5 90 STEAM NAVIGATION. coming the IvLTonottt'" T'"^ ""' P"™?^ *"'' o™'" Lorses remain 11 r? """•""o^y- »»<• " Power of 5148 vessel, ne "C« lr,o«™;''r''=' 'i" '"""^"'"^ '"« five feet of water andtt.' . ,''™'"^^ """'=«<'' d™™ the same plnoi^CJ^" Tl "^ ''" ""«'"''' ""'""'"'^d <>» to that otTsl^^rjt VT!- ^°^'"'«'""'' '« <«1«»' in this country we^rapnle.toTh''" ^™^™"^ "''''P'^'' fourth of the pole deducted wT '"*"""'' ""'' ""'^ o"^" allovvance for enrine« nf f K / "'' *"*■"•' *" l-^ » »">?'« "Bochester" won M ^ , ■=™^'""^"»»- the power of the can^sttatrtrr: jrjale^r ^''«^d°' f ^"* ^"'«''- water, at the distant oflwXi ^st fST"' J""' America XCl ""•":! '^'°'^"^'"' "^ '»« '^-'" 's .^" fa^^I^„ud^^d™^ rm^;7hf„"7''^^ i;f '■""'■' - marks of the vLSl ^"'^^ •f"^*"<'' i '">'' the distance tLX are ouL™""' ""i '""-^ "^ ""^ «'-' of some of Mr r!,!!» I' ' accordance with the result eoncJel^^f:Co::x^p:o^eLr:t^^^^^ vr-trrt;f;t;7rf.?- of the water) '^than , '.t P™P»'«°»<"1 to the depth it „, ™*'"^' than at velocities which are greater than ««ie.;«;ss,;vL^7^-ti»r.i^:a!^rcE;"' °' '" "^°' STEAM NAVIGATION. lis power is and over- ir of 514-8 •elling the ced, draws Iculated on 8, is equal ly adopted only one- an ample vei of the he "Nar- st Ameri- all. The leir bows, A thin ter, from iter, rises le height as much de of the rn ; and imers in ith. con- 3oats in and, as and the 'y great e result is led to a \ essel tian the • depth T than e Royal 91 Steamboats were first introduced on the Mississippi in the year 1811 and in 1831 no less than 348 steamers had been bunt tor the Western water navigation, 198 of which were thenin actual operation. Since that time their number has rapidly increased, with the increasing population and trade ^f the country, and in 1837 was said to be between 350 and 1 .xr ' "'' ^^' ^' -^ ^"'''^' "^ ^'^^^^l statement regarding the Western water navigation has appeared since the publi! cation of the following table, which is taken from the Ame- rican Almanac for 1832, and contains a list of steamers up to that date, specifying those which have been worn out or have been lost to the service. WHOLE NUMBEK OF STEAMBOATS BUILT ON THE WESTERN WATERS. When Built. Whole Number. Now Running. 1811 1 1814 4 1815 3 1816 2 1817 9 1818 23 1819 27 1820 7 1821 6 1822 7 1823 13 1824 13 1825 31 1826 52 1827 25 1828 31 1829 53 1830 30 1831 9 1 1 • • • 1 1 10 36 19 28 53 30 9 Lost or Worn Out. 1 4 3 2 9 23 27 6 5 7 12 12 12 16 6 3 X>*s^ 92 ii Of the 198 boat, now running- ^ were built at Cincinnati. Pittaburg. Louisville. New Albany. Marietta. Zanesville. Fredericsburg. Westport. Silver Creek. Brush Creek. Wheeling. Nashville. Frankfort. STEAM NAVIGATION. 68 2 12 7 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 was built 1 198 ni?sin]m'' """'"' ''' "°^« ''-It at Cincinnati, Of the 150 lost or worn out, there were- VVornout, . Lost by snags, . . * ' Burned, . . ' * * Lost by collision, ', By other accidents not ascertained. at Smithland. iJconomy. Brownsville. Portsmouth. Steubenville. Beaver. St Louis. New York. Philadelphia. (Not known where.) 68 Oi' which were run- 63 36 14 3 34 TUT . n , ^"**'' • 150 formed of the St ofti T /' ', '"^ ^"""^ "'^^ """y ''^ counted no less tha„ L ! ' ' ^ '"" *" ^ ''"^ ^ite the townt^K ;S'r:ftrh "'°°^^'' "^'^ >n plying to and from the port ''^'' '"«^*S«'' The vast number of vessels nn ti,^ tir ^ peculiarity of their constActln an m "'T '""^"' ""« the navigation ii. , I •,.),«' ^^ ^'"«"''"' ""'"ro of ohjects of conoid: .ir.ilttftrth:?'"'^,'' "^'^^ '"- not exne,.* to fin" h •», ,? traveller. We must ' -■ "n., h„^ever, m that class of vessels, the same Qtthland. lonoinj. ownsville. rtsmouth. 'ubenville. iver. Louis. ff York. ladelphia. t known where.) (^hioh were run- 63 36 14 3 34 150 been built Jis, on the the above le greatest 1 the Ohio, e Gulf of I is 30,000 * construc- ea may be lat I have )red op,.' } engaged aters, the mature of ke them ^e must the same ^ ■J) CO 1 f 1 1 In! if j 1 j k 1 11 1 W'nUi!': "S IIP '■■•' i r.imll mM'^' limm lilllll '! Ill mm m ";;il:H I'',' ;:-m ■"wmiA STEAM NAVIGATION. nrt western nav « Paddle- three feet in breadth Thi! T ' ll" "PP'^'' Sa'leiy about of the vessel, and is he p "men dHf* ''' T'T'" ""^^'P"' second deck. Several doors load fr„ ^f ""'""'"ants of the great cabin, which exterX ,-1 IheT ", ^"^^"^ ^"'° «>« thirty or forty feet of tie stem ot "'f *" ""'"■" '"'™' ^Paee is separated fro™ 1 "at 1^1" ' *'" .^""'"-' « occupied by the ladies Th. i? ^V' P""«°». and gentlemen's sleeping berths TJ^ T " '^""'"'"^ the saloon. This pa t of the w' t" ? '" "'"^ "^ *" '"ning- in a gorgeous styleft b«Ihl " t""''^ " <"''^" ««^d >U> wineIo^v them. B„t no o°„e "vTol It S, ' '""^^'^ "''-■'' ■'« ^team-engine, can examine I^telleTT''' ^'''^ "'« vessels, and the manner in whiT -^ ""' "^ ''">^« shuddering at the idea of the «" f,; t J' T'S"*^' ^"'""■" are at every moment exposed ""'"''' "" "^ ^'"'"^ «xle, placed at righ a "le to 1 Tif "" ""= l""ldlo.wheel ■nost of the steanrcrs in t ' 'c„rnt w'l " " \'" "''^'^ '» g-ne is used, which is more geTerS; thi ""'f"^ ^"- wheel, from ten to fifteen teotT v '""' * '"''S^ %" paddle-wheel shaft, ancfL Ts t ' reguT^f tt'^ '?" °" "^ engme and enable it to turn its ce, X" T e"° ■""J "^ ""' Jnvanably placed horizontally an he en '^ ''"■' "^ constructed on the high-pressuk " ndl^'"" "« «'™3- . Tl"-; engines are generally vew small !', \- mze of the vessel which ti.ev L , . P^Portion to the their deficiency in voile tZ*^ '',*'"'' *" ""''"' «P for elasticity. Tlfe "Eut 1^ I"T^' Y ^'"^" "^ «'■-' vessel, drawing six feet of ato v^drn? ,' "'^'■^"^ ^"'-S" burg on the Ohio and St to„t^n ht MK— '" ^'"^■ pelled by a single engine havin ° , ,• .''^'"■'^'Pl". is pro- meter, and 5 feel C incC in tnl ,"^'"f" ^' "«=''^« ''»- is worked by steam of n^?f '*™''"'' ''"'""'« engine Thecaptain^ef trvl r,:™:^~^8-t ^'-"'ity. circumstances, the safetv vol, ? '' """''"' ordinary cq-ial to 138 lb on tt X;in oT"f "'T' '"""'l-c-ure steam was occasionally rS" '"f '"'t"™' ^"' "'«« the t'.evesseItopassparts'o;: , r f^hi^h^l'^ current; and he added bv w,„ f "'""'' ""^'c « a strong amount of pressure was 'ne''erZeedr:t::°"' "f ""' '-heron the first :;-lV;iiXr;te5^S^^^^^^ \ 96 ■H STEAM NAVIGAf ION. is having a pissare of L Th ^^ "™'''' *'"''^<"' l-^ ^te""" the cheapness of !„„), r Western waters, but finish^,, and r fiH ''f ''^ comparatively little fine ferrinsr rtem * . ?^' ""■'*"'■'" "ff"''" '''^^'^ons for pre- ve^ great. It mnZ " e„Il cted^Tl,:' a "^'f '"^ '^ or low-pressure Pn^ of an of greater stren: h"" t^-t " "".f ™^-'- °' """^"'^ internal ties, and is ca cuhte T' '^f "«""'"-"l by numerous , ana 18 calculated to sustain a pressure of 100 lb. the Mississippi, •eadth of beam, out 1000 tons, nders 30 inches )rked by steam 1 of the boiler, re of very fre- Ji'e this evilj n made to in- ti waters, but le great sim- ■ely little fine isons for pre- )od workmen materials is I condensing re space than e. I do not nts would be sure boilers, ations; and igh-pressure aps quite as for engines ery obvious the Missis- 'W that the perhaps 50 and have f the flame Louis are er, and 24 tneter pass er coating ^ths of an materials numerous of 100 lb. STEAM NAVIGATION. on the square inch of surface Ti,^ i boilers have from the atm^L ""'? Po'^ction which the they are in all c^^ZTTZrl " ITu °''''"^' ^i'" ''"ioh The steamers make mlv 7 ' *^^ ™<"»*''"' "^ teat passengers, and aTso supplied TrTr'" ^'^' '" ^"""^ »d which they take with'?he" ves" s '^ r' ^'^ ''""''y somewhat amusing, and not a Wh T '" occasions is good example of th son boa d of ? ^""''^'""- ^ ^ad a "Ontario." She was sheered i '^u ™^^"^' <""'«<• 'he and stumps of trees, where ^fe W "'*°'\ """""g atones goods. The addit onal weth C; '"T ^"^ ""-■'"« '" water, and caused her toTefi 1 IT. ,''" ''™"S'" "' engines were put in motion sh„ ^ f n'"'' *"'' "^"^ her -ieep water on Lr padd"e whl Is Zl "™T''' '"'° «>« «P to an enormous nressur/t! ,., , '*^*°' ""^'^ heen got volumes of steam dXl C ! " '" ^'' "''' ""' "" every half stroke of thelwl/^ escapement pipe at liiethe discharge of flCm,\r '"'"? ^"""d almost vessel seemed to^rembt and thi f T"^ '''^'^' ^ ^he groaned under the shocks'. '°'' '"•"'^*"« actually During these stopnaffe.. it ;„ per supply of waterTp ; „;:"!r'''^ '", ^''^ "P ^ P^"" which this is effected on Si,S'°"°".' "'^<' «>« -manner in paddle-wheel axle is so c tt™ TdlLr ,T"^ ^'"P'"' ^'>« projecting over the hull ofT^l' ^ "'t P"'""™ of it are fixed can be thrown ou' of !»! ° """''^ «■« wheels a clutch on each side of the"vess!l whl? r]"' ""^ '"^""^ °f mediate part of the axle andTl i f"^"' "" "'^ '"'er- the vessel is stopped tiieltm f ? ^^ " ''^^^■•- "'l''hen out of gear, and the engine^ cotr' ''' ^'-^P'^ thrown «ary supply of water is fhu numn 7- I ™*- ^'"' "eces- the whole time that the vL, "f^ '" " ""^ holier during is required to get under ;i' Tf .""^ »V'^'' -"d when sh! 'nto gear, and revolve witT he'rldd I ^ ' fl ^^"^ '^"""^ wheel, formerly noticed is u J,f f f ''"'f'- ^''^ %- o 'j»' A '' ill I' ! fi 98 STEAM NAVIGATION. the paddle-wheels into and out of gear. The water for the supply of the engine is first pumped into a heater, in which Its temperature is raised, and is then injected into the boiler I saw several vessels on the Ohio which had only one large paddle-wheel, placed at the stern ; but it is doubtful whether this arrangement is advantageous, as the action of the paddle-wheel, when placed in that situation, must be impeded by the floatboards impinging on water which has been disturbed by the passage of the vessel through it The Mississippi steamers carry a captain, a clerk two engineers, and two pilots, one of whom is always at the helm. The firemen and the crew are people of colour, and generally slaves. The passage from New Orleans to Pittsburg, against the current of ^he river, is generally performed in fro;n fifteen to twenty da^^s, and from Pittsburg to New Orleans in about ten days. The distance is rather more than 2000 miles and the cabin-passage, including all expenses, is about L.io! Ihe third class of vessels to which I have alluded are those which navigate the Lakes and the River St Lawrence. They differ very materially from those I have already de- scribed, being more like the steamers of this country, both in their construction and appearance. Steamboats were firs used on the St Lawrence in 1812, and it is probable that they were also introduced on the Lakes about the same time ihe Lake steamers are strongly-built vessels, fur- oished with masts and sails, and propelled by powerful en- gines, some of which act on the high-pressure and some on the low-pressure principle. The lai^est steamer on the Lakes in 1837 was the « James Madison. She measures 181 feet in length on the deck, 30 feet in breadth of beam, and 12 feet 6 inches in depth of hold. She carries about 700 tons of goods, and draws about 10 feet of water. This vessel plies between Buffalo on Lake Lrie and Chicago on Lake Michigan, a distance of 950 miles. 1 lie hulls of the vessels are built in the ports on the shores of tne i.akes, and the engines are generally made at Pittsburo- It IS somewhat curious to find such vessels engaged in inland navigation ; but their dimensions and strength °are rendered STEAM NAVIGATION. gg powerful vessel J tL maS^ f„" ro^Tt '" 'r at Montreal. The " John B-dl" \ T > " """•" vessels, and measures 210 fee? n lenlfl f ^'T' "' '^''' her performance in tL 2 T ^ ?'""S ™'''^'^ 5 ""d «f Piping water into the 'oiirlltte'v X^^t'"' The vapour contained in the boiler of „ J hahle to have its volume increLd rdfmL seTrfT " gerous extent by sudden variations of temneratl , 1"" is absolu'^dyTndtJSe to t7'f "" '°?™'"^^ '"?*«- The want of the o^dinarv r,l ? "P"'"""" °^ '^' ^^^''■ safety, or the ineffilTmC: in XrS"^ '" '"™™S together with the very higrpressl of .h f "' '^^^''"^' many of the AmenvL If P"^"*"® «f *he steam used in theengineertemriovedon "■ '■■ ""' "'" '^^"•^^^ness of many fisast ous aSts 1^*7^"^'"™^' ''"^^ °^-^-"«d of steam-boilers Thl *'"'" """""-y '^^""^ '^e explosion happily in a Jreat ™„ ' ""'f' "' "^'""^y ^'^'^-J' are now onTheX e^wate r TCt"' '"> '"^ ™"^'^ ^"-P'"^-' accidents, and thrmeknchot co ^ "ocmyenc, of these induced the Goverrmer of ^r 7T'2.?r? ""^"'"'"g t'><^°>. institute an in„„Tv"nto " H ^""^^ States in 1832, to sions, and the best 'en " °™'''' "^ ^"'*"'"'^' ^''P'o- period a list of tt ZT- P?™""''^ them." At that ma^e up b^M: Zis:7^::^:!i !:t.*t:;. ?.'- ™ -arri^s^ir^-^-'-i^^^^^^^^^ 100 STEAM NAVIGATION. Ill I List of Steamboat Explosions which have occurred in the United States, by W. C. Redfield. to CO H w o When exploded. 1817 1824 1828 1830 Names. Previous to 1825 { g 09 I 1824 1825 1826 1827 1830 1831 Constitution, General Robinson, Yankee, Heriot, Etna, . Grampus, . Barnet, Helen Macgregor, Caledonia, . Carr of Commerce, Huntress, . Fair Star, , , Porpoise, . Place of Explosion. Mississippi, Do. Do. Do. New York Bay, Mississippi, Long Island Sound Mississippi, . Do. Ohio River, Mississippi, Alabama, , Mississippi, Killed. 13 9 4 1 13 unknown 1 33 11 28 unknown 2 unknown Wounded. Enterprise, cop- ) per boiler, . J Paragon, do. Alabama, . Feliciana, , Arkansas, . Fidelity, copper ) boiler, . . ] Patent, da. . Atalanta, do. Bellona, do. Maid of Orleans, do, Raritan, unknown. Eagle, do. Bristol, Powhatan, copper ) boiler, . . J Jersey, do. . Tesch, . . Constitution, Legislator, . Hudson, , Franklin, . Ramapo,in Jan., Do. in March, Oliver Ellsworth, Carolina, . C. J. Marshal, ) copper boiler, j United States, . General Jackson, Charleston, S. C, Hudson River, Mississippi, Do. Red River, . New York Harbour, Do. Do. Do. Savannah River Raritan, Chesapeake, Delaware River, Norfolk, . Jersey City, Mississippi, Hudson River, . New York Harbour, East River, Hudson River, New Orleans, Do. Long Island Sound, New York Harbour, Hudson River, . Long Island Sound, Hudson River, 115 1 4 2 4 6 2 2 6 1 2 2 several 3 5 1 5 1 3 1 11 9 12 (supposed) 90 14 11 29 54 1 2 several 1 2 1 2 1 2 ).3 29 STEAM NAVIGATION. HO IN THE 101 ^'^7h^V went" '""■^"""" '''''''''^'' ^- -- copper-boners, from 8 iron-boilers. * " * ' ^'"^^ ^''J. mounded 7 9 boilers, metal u-aoown (probably iron). do* I's' T* ,n Character of Engines not When exploded. SPECIFIED. Names. Cotton Plant, Washington (high-p.), Macon, . Hornet (low-pres.), " Susquehannah, Union (high-pres.), W. Peacock, . . Tallyho (high-pres.), Kenhawa (low-pres.). Atlas, . Andrew Jackson, Tricolor (low-pres.), I Place of E.vplosion Mobile, Ohio River, ', South Carolina, . Alabama, . Susquehannah, .' Ohio River, Buflfalo, Cumberland River, Ohio River, Mississippi, Savannah River, Ohio River, Recapitulation. 13 High-pressure accidents, . . ^"jt*^' 27 Low-pressure do. . ' q 12 Character of engines unknown, suppo'sed to be ^ chiefly high-pressure, • . . 46 62 " la SOI Totfll, 256 Wounded. 54 29 21 104 goinfe '^ principal accidents comprised in the fore- cover from L ''/ ^f'^ ''''^''^'' "" ^^^^ did not re- lTLZe!t\r ' ^" ''^'' '''''' '^' ^^^^^^ killed Tolt Ls be ' 'f ''?' i^''' ^" ^°™^ f-^ -stances li?e curred^ T^^^^^^^ P^"^'^^^ ^" -^^ - loss of A :l"t f;f *'; ^y '^''' ^^^idents, I should fix it at 300." gua;r:raLst t'""^''' '"^^P^^ '' ^'''' ^« *^^ only safe- guard against the occurrence of such explosions, which I' 41 102 '! t i I , Si V : -1: ' ^i i I STEAM NATIQATIOX. pun,p« for the supply of watotl^dToXr/IIe" :?'"" cock ,8 under the eoatrol of the en^ineetl^ t ^ "' or shutting it, regulates the supply^ T^k'ttt'' T"'"^ ^trsii::!^ -"xf;: :- ~t i ■"- '" ^^^^^^^^^ the w,er.p„.p shouM L:1 ItnTe^ tHTXir thflT ■;%«/?'• ^''^ ^f^^'^boats on the ea.. rn "art of .o.e«, I fo , it et ir rprnt:^::^ au accdent which has been of very freq^„?ootr net I'd hason someoccas,onsbeen attended with seriousconsequences whlh If ^^ ?"""'" '" ^^'^™'"8 «- chances ofTeTdent wh, h I found m use in the American steamboats wer the Tnd* n !t'^-™'™' '^ «team-gauge, and the wate~ and in a few vessels the apparatus for continuing the sS of water while the vessel is at rest '^^^ It appears from Mr Kedfleld's list of accidents that th»« IccidL s Of ZTT "' "' *"^"'y-°°^ ''™« f~» «-3e occiaents. Of the forty cases regarding which definite in format.cn had been obtained, twenty-sevfn were low„re" engmes, and only thirteen high-pressure. The averageT s of hves by each low-pressure accident is only three Tnd a eacn occabion. This may be accounted for by the great elasti c^^y of the steam in all the high-pressure engines fnlmerta nf f ''Y°' °y">g t*W«. containing the dimensions of several of the best steamers plying in America in IRW Z ■ ] novtiv fmm •„* 1 °™''"™"i-l°^', was compiled paitly fiom actual measuiement of the vessels, and nartlv from the report of the engineers in charge of th^m Tolr Al red S illnaan of New York, I am indebted for much as sistance m obtaining the information contained i, iT _ .1 low-pressure ' self-acting e injection- by opening tfci clan is f the AiT.-- luence that k while the rn part of the steam- fts formerly- tan t object. 1 the Ame- to collapse, 'rence, and sequences. )f accident 3 were the ter-gauge, the supply that there last four- rom these 'finite in- ^-pressure 3rage loss ee and a s nine on ?at elasti- America, ischief. f several compiled d partly To Mr luch as- STEAM NAVIGATION. 103 CO oo Js M >l OS Eh ■91 O Eh 12; o O 09 IZi O M 03 a bo « S a> V ta ^ ^ -fcj , ;^"Ej a a> •.J bo rt. C O C " fK " •^ tc « 2 L ** --« 1?5 fe.S o bo tcx: o- o d .S c S'^r-'P r .— te o '^ ^ J > a* o fc C J c fe £ 5 g feis c-o^b • u (3 o ■ o . a • o O = d : . V • ja o , "O 'O T3 a .A 91 2 b o d B o a c oy C3 C cx: ccgns-ort'oHSOh ^ 05 S eS ^ (. t< fe & fc 0) V V .4 o t. O M <1> <<— I oo O _ww ^<50ts.O QSCD^) OJOJ CC -Oir^ •05QOO(M =cx>00t^ . *"* I— I I— I OO ~ •3109a JO q:)SuD7 OOOOOOOOOOOOO«3O00 ooooo"coc o o" =^^=^-n^MME._^^MMMM^^M «9 .. a .. S i^ -o .N O) ." l« O) OJ O Ct»34J»»rt ■H te ^' « o " faTJd eS o *- fe C .2 jj r^ «r» fe o.S £mk2&^^ II ; .i 104 ■ I; 1 ll ■ ji ji fe' ii 1 ■1^ ' ]• I FUEL AND MATIRULS. ,!ii CHAPTER V. FUEL AND MATERIALS. Pud used ID Steam-Eneines an«1 f«,. ^ Coal-Anthracito Coal-Pen! ^ n ^"'•P^^^^-Wood-BUnminous Alarble-quarries of New Ent 7^" .'"^^ Materials-Brick-Marble- St Lawrence and on the Rhin! W J^^^^ "" B«'oms"-Rafts on the Oak-White Oak-Cedir Lo jr P '^'1^ ""''^ '" America-Lire American Forest Trees ^^^'"'~" ^^'''^^'' "-Dimensions of A»,erica4 a" CO d ■' B va" ' •" """"" .".""'"' ^^ *« of the country In 1837 T r Vl',,''.™' '" -^iff^^t Parts r.r ,, J ! ■ '' ^ '""""J ">a* "> new York a cnM ll tlirv "' '°"i '" ^""""y' 1*^-; - lake Cham; Jam, the average price is 9s, ; on the St Lawrence 7« \T and on Lake Ontario, 5s.; its value gradua^T/d" ll W a^ Ohio'thtLrT" 'r ^"P"'""^- 0" «"= MississT; !n" e«:;itrw:C„'^!r.^™"'^^- '«.«- ^ oord/Van' ^e.x xo^auu 111 America to ascertain the PCEL AND MATKEIAIS. 106 relative values of wood and coal as fuel for steam-enrines • the result o which i.,, that ahout two and three-f^rth cord^ of wood, and one ton of coal, generate, in well-oon true ted .o.etB,anequalquantityofBteam. Pine timber is con deed . be the best fuel ,■ its texture is more open, and." co™ mstjon .s more perfect than hardwood, the I,eart or 'tel llumed "' '"' '''■"'^'' "^ "'<' "-'- '^ °«™ '"ft "- Plate t^tT 'Tt "i ''"'■ ""• '•"" " "'P'^'"-^ fi'e- place are the great objects to be attained in furnaces in ttt , , ''?''"::'"'^'"'" "' ^^^O- To i"-- the fir t of iNo ash-pit ,s placed below the fire-grate; and the ashes and charcoal which come from the fire 111 directly nto the water wh, e a copious stream of fresh air, constantly ascend ing through the fire-bars, affords a large supply of " for the combustion of the fiisl t;,. . j o-^ygen denth nt tu^ e . ■^'■^ ™°^' advantageous depth of the fire-grate, or the space left between the fire bars and the bottom of the boiler for the re eptlrof the wood has been found in practice to be about thr'e feet sid!?f « "7r°?' "'"''' '" '"«^ 1™»ti««« on the western uld In I'tru t urtn of 'This"tr ^T '? T^ other parts of the United Cs, plrtTcX ^f N r^" W ScotL" °'' 1^'^°'; '" ^'^^ ^"t'^^ domilns ff JNovabcotia, a vein has a so been onenPfl «f fKo ait,- coal-mines, which is said to be fi% fcT n th kne s Th^ s eamboats on the Ohio, and also on the St Lawrele oc ttn rf^-otd '' "' ^''° "°"^''™'^'» ^- a^ ^o^buB- mu1i;tot'! ™'' n"' '^'™ """^ extensively worked, and is purposr birr " ""' " '\' ^''"^'' ^""^^ f- "«--« •thri;..•t^;J;fi",^""''""™^»o«'• The most extensive an- n 2 '! i ' ;! k I I J ;i! ! il 4\ 106 FUEL AND MATERIALS. are situate about 100^n^slit\^lZ l^Tfr"' *■"> port from which the cl s 1^",!; °' ^""''f "'-■ ">e workiiiffs nw «f P„** 11 '*'"Pl»d. Tlie most extensive CI,u„kf n the LeS " At ^^tt '%''';7"'"'' ^"^ ^''™'' from N E to S W f' ^°"7'"''. "'e strata of coal dip Chunf tW ^iZ; Ct„t^''°^iLf ■ ^"' ^' "^""' worked by level drifts norlT f .1 I "^ ^'^ '"^ ^^"^^^^ »inr 'io sin? r/;:h:"j--^'™r tlian 096,526 tons. ^ ^' ™^ "° ^^^a to^W f'T'""^^'"'"' ^""""^ ''"« " ^tong resemblance temperature for'^its combu'stion td oXrroblfn T roin^r-%rj.£:7z— '- was found fl,of fi , *^'^ common construction it has bestowed much kS. fnrf ' "" "^ ^^' ^"^ some oft Vr^r;^^^^^^^^^^ Jn'letufmT' "-.t^ ^'-"^^ '" «,e Jomotivel^^Ies -alt,m„r» .,iu asmngtou Kaihvay ; but its applies- FUEL AND MATERIALS. to facilitate sea for ship- e Merrimac, rjen a moun- Jhanria, and lelphia, the t extensive md Maiich of coal dip i at Mauch in general long range le vast bed isylvanian as no less semblance 1 Ireland, stre, and, ty of fine I America ^erj high 'tain this, 3d should has been in steam- uction it 3 contact ric being anguidly ew York a boiJor v: been larly in y York, engines applica- 107 tionto the purpose of generating steam cannot yet be said In XXT ! ""^ ''''^''''''' ^^^-^^^^ ^^- ^^^* ^f .tIcL^t"'i" "V^''"^ '^'' '"'^^^^^^^ b^^l--^ ^^e con- structed IS sufficiently simple. The combustion of the fuel s carried on in a chamber lined with a non-conducting sub tance which is quite detached from the boiler, and the leated air only is allowed to pass through the flues, so tlu he disadvantages arising from the rapid extraction of ca- onc from the fuel, which takes place in fire-places construct ed for bituminous coal or wood, are in this boiler com- pktely obviated The coal is also broken into small pieces about the size of a hen's egg, and in this way a great sur- face IS exposed to the atmospheric air, and a thorough com- bustion of the fuel is produced. The anthracite coal is much used for domestic purposes m New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington It 18 burned sometimes in stoves, and sometimes in an open fire-place The heat given out by it, when burned in either way, produces great dryness of the air, to remedy which evaporating pans are generally used to secure a healthful amount of moisture in the apartments.* . ♦ These remarks as to the important subject of fuel, the result of obser- vat ons made several years ago. seem to be still applicable to M,.e present sta e of the country, as Captain Galton in his Report to the Board of Tmde on the railways of the United States. says._« NoUvithstanding that the oal fieds of the United States occupy an area of 130.000 square miles a^d extend into Pennsylvania, Ohio. Indiana, Illinois. K;ntucky. V r^' and c r Svr l;"J rt'' ""' :"^ "'^ '"^' invariab.y'^sed ^n Ameri' can rai ways. Wood has. however, risen very much in price lately, and on the prairje l.nes wood is not to be had. but coal is found in their vicinty on other hues which pass through coal-meas,ire., coal is a cheaper fuel' hence its use is gradually being extended on railways, and it will problb y ZmTT' r^'"''^ "^'''•" ^'^P*'^^" ^'^^^^ -1- «ays that' several bTadd':?,':? "^'^ '' '"^" ^'^-»"-- --1 in engines' vithout cokTng i suits ott " ''"""' «"■' ""^ ^'''^'^ "P'"'"" ^« to the satisfactory on he Pen^^^^^^^^^^^^ ""' '"^^^^'- '"^'''' '"^^^ anthracite coal is useJ ,, ""'!"*"'^ ? the Philadelphia and Reading Railway " is stated .,. JJly ^inrh^rroad'andtwl"? •'''';;" " ^'^''e*' ^''^te^.rea. the bars areof casVir^on «-nch broad, and with J-moh space., betwc,^ them, and a row of air-holes 108 FUEL AND MATERIALS. h 1; ! i wluoh wooden sSuI '" f' ^"'''^ ^""^'^ ■» ^"stll which is found in ieltT',' ^'"''''"y "•"'" »f ""fWe, countiy* ^"*' '"''"«'»<=« ■» different parts of the a.d irvtrnlTe'r: T '"" "''"'' - Massachusetts building pCos The'' C trnSr atT't 't' ""^'""'^ State House at Alh».v 1 ^r^ , ^""^ York, and the dueedbytres:\taS''T™is'rar r;''h°' "'V^'°"^ ^"'■ with blue streal^s but t= , ''"' * *'"'« S"-""-"! and its effect intbuHdi g fZlZ "'Th:^""^ t' >8 found in the neighbourhood of Pbt^ ^ . • ""'''^ ral quarries have been » and fro t ' '"l ''^'"■'' "'™- worked. This ston» iZ j ' ""*'*"'»* P^^ent extensively from 4s. to 7 pt eubt fo„r "' ^'''""^^'l''"» (1837), costi Bank of the UnUed S^lf «' %Tf'.^^ '° "^ ''"^'"y- The the Exchange aid ml»v"t" ^'" l^-^'P'"" ^'^^^ 'he Mint, phia, are bunt'fromTlZ '■'"""V" "^'^''^ '» -PhiladeU marble of ve y goTd ua, tv" TlT' "^'-r^^^" P"" white delphia, most of wh.ch Ire d ? ," ^'"'"«» '" P'"'*" architect in that citj pts't "v If t. fi' ^'' ''"''"''"''' architectural design wSaefo vJ ! finest specimens of States, and the eSrere.;„T ,^, '"^' '""' '" *''« United are b« It adds Latlv to tbl^ ^ *'f T ""^ °^ *'"«h they College at PhSita 'ZiirrtMrlva^^ "^^ f ""^ was, when I saw it in L „ i , Walter, architect, promised, when completed ^^ ""*' "^ P™»^^«^' »d The marble of the U„te1i sL ' "T''^^"' ^"""'"S- «-n. and not very s^H^lltrinSe^:;^^^^^^^^^^ anthracite coal is spread even y over 1 ^T.""''' '^' *"^^-P'«*"' ^he -(Hrport to the BoLl o/ZaJe Z tt f" ' ''*''' '" "^ '«y«-'^ '»«''°« thick. Captain Douglas Galton, RE .London 1^5^""' '^ ''" '''"'^'' ''"''^' ^^ fo^rLZ':^^,^,!!^^:^:!^^^ -0 interesting in. ^ ..-seawi wio unitea stales. )r dwelling- I in most of be erected. of marble, arts of the ssachusetts )r ordinary t, and the stone pro- te ground r patches, st marble here seve- ctensively 37), costs ity. The the Mint, Philadel- Jre white in Phila- rickland, imens of s United ich they w Girard rchitect, ess, and uilding. in the vrought pleasure, is also a.n U. The les thick. Uates, by sting in- FUEL AND MATERIALS. jqq fore brought from Italy ^ Ph'ladelph.a were there- tons, are raised to the trfaoTof t, / "^ ."f*"'^' *^'^'™ and some others, are formed of it ' "" *^'"''' ang e of 45 ; but is ux>* nt for buihiing purposes Thf. fnr ployed hralUhn''"' "" """'"•^ P™''''-^ '« --h em- ^luyea in all the American enffinecrino- wnvVu „ ^ no •i ! 11 fii FUEL AND MATERIALS. say, the trade in wood -is carried on to ilmnsf nil fk ' A "" '" "" '" ** gJ'eater or less ex- almost all the American rivers • hnt nn fT,« -r/t- • s.ppi and the St Lawrence it ^Sori:2£ZZ^'Zl Dumber of pemons. The ehief raftsmen, under whole dilec tK,n, the timber expeditions are conducted, are geL t" wealtli. bometimes these men, for the purpose of obtai, in» wood, purchase a piece of land, which the/sell after ! Z been cleared, but more frequently they p'u c" n y ^he The hi r^' P™P"«'°«°f««> land on which it grows The ch.ef rafteman, and his detachment of workmen Tenl^ to the forest about the month of November, and are .^cTed dunng the whole of the winter months in falling tr! dress ng them into logs, and dragging them by teams of oxen to" the nearest stream, over the hardened snow, with which the country ,s then covered. Ti.ey live during this pe ^d in huts formed of logs. Throughout the whole of the ew " rough log , winch are arranged so as ( form the four sides of the hut, and the.r ends are half-checked into each other in such a manner as to allcw of their comin7^„r ! I nearly throughout their whole lenS and "-' ->'" - stices which remain are filled up w th clav Th \ Tu jnonth of May, when the ice leaClh rill thX'of imber that have been prepared, and hauled down during wmter, are launched into the numerous small strellt K^ ne gbbuurhood of whkh tl,„„ k„ . stieams m the a.™ to the larger r^ttlfe,? '" ""*' ""'' '" """'^d what is called a -rom' ^''Tl, l'" """'"''' " ^'"^P^^ "^ logs, extending across the whofre:^ThTrri:e? tL"' are connected by iron links, and attached to stone ;;./br at suitable distances in the bed of the str. im The boom is erected for the purpose of stopping the down- ward progress of the wood, which must remain within itTm all the timber has left the forest. After this, every raftlan searches out his own timber, which he recognises by the La" he puts on It and, having formed it into a raft, flo Jts it down the river to its dpsf n^firm ' " UIX. r or less ex- the Missis- t to a vast ^liose direc- 3 genera 'ly onsiderable f obtaij.ing fter it has B only the I it grows, len, repair e occupied ■ees, dress- jf oxen to which the period in :he newly e built of 'our sides ich other 3 contact all inter- bout the 3 logs of 1 during as in the e floated )pped by a line of These •^^s built e down- in it till aftsman le mark it down The boom FUEL AND MATERIALS. Ill generally owned by private individuals, who Penobsco"t Riv;r i aUhelaltft' '" ''- ^'^ *°" ^" *^- of the timber '^ ^^''' ^'' ''^*- ^" *^« ^^^^e them wl/ T- *"""'' '™-''^<=* '" ''™" "^ ^^11 "« behind of SLtf the ™t"7"'' f ."" '•""•"^^"''^ •'™'"^«^ - that "I unng ng the rafts of wood down tlie large rivers Tf r,«t iTw "ofe kboTnf' '' ' ■"" •'"f^'"J'"=»% i'Wens, that uie wBoie labour of one, and sometimes two years is in tl,;» way lost .„ a moment. An old raftsman, wit'h whom I had some conversation on board of one of the steameT on tie ^t Lawrence, informed me that each of the raft br.gt down that nver contains from L.3000 to L.5000 worth of t mblr and that he, on one occasion, lost 1.2500 by one raft rhth size lor a raft, he said, was fro, 40,000 to 50,000 square feet of surface; and when of that size the.v require atou five men to manage them. Some are macV, however, wn/Tha™ an area of no less than 300,000 sc,,..re fee- These unwie?!! craft are brought to Quo ,ec in great numbers from distances varying from o.,e to twelve hundred miles ; and it often h.pons that SIX months are occupied in making the passaee They are broken up at Quebec, where the timber is cTt I!,' for exportation into planks, deals, or battens, at the n„L> studdeTfT ""' "',"''• "'« •^'"'"'^ "' "-^ si Lawrence are W, .T? ?■'"'' '" *^' "oigbbourhood of the town. So^metimes the timber is shipped in the form of logs. Me ^...oci-raus oi the Khine are, perhaps, the only^ones in Europe that can be compared to those of tlie American I 'J t ' » 112 FUEL AND MATERIALS. rivers; but none of those which I have seen on fh. v^ ' foot; white pine (Pinus strobus), Ud - red mnTr'p (w'nJ' ^ ' ^^'''''' Americana), m. ; and whitr ash {Fraxinvs acuminata), lOd. These, accord-: '. •^eInfor^. tion I received, are the average nricps of xv>.-^ ''emforma- at Quebec in 1837. ^ ''^^^' ''^ ^^^^ ^^^^ livItkTotrr' '" ship-building in the United States are vellowninP^P/^., .,.<'. ,^"'^'^ K-tiobima pseud-acacia), ^.outh of the Mississippi 1"'''''.^'""°'^"'' '«y°>"l the existence, for it is r.^i^^^^ ^^::c7::::T:t' '" "' land, and never more tlian fifteen or twem ^^ ^ """"■ but It is sometimes much larger."* aiameter, * The Sylva Americana. Ey J. D. Browne, Boston, 1832. n the Rhine ice, although r of hands, a lore intricate re white oak I5d, a cubic e (Pinus re- id whitr ash ' ''le informa- le wood sold d States are ilha), white 3ud-acacia), nne (Pinus reen, grows 3 too heavy- its specific 3 generally icipal tim- its growth s less mul- n latitude, listance of jyond the itial to its the main- from the te fertile 'eral hun- 3nly forty diameter, 32. FUEL AND MATERIALS. j.g of forty-five or fiftyfee „J^ '™ ^""''^ *° ''"^ ^oight feetincircumferefee tLI''/""''™^^ """^ ">"" ten odorou. It i/ru/h used r?e " '"''f' """ ^""'"-hat sleepers. It does not eltt ' ""'' "'^o f"' """"y but the arbor^K wh eh i h^'c^n'r'.^'''*^ '" ^""^"^^ ^ av. those purpo'ses towLhThi e ! , "' "f"""' "^ P"' United States. T,oc»st hlV^ \ , ' " ''Pl'"^'' 'n the "sed for treenails. Tg^Zt:^'^^ f ''f "^ "-''er, and is States; but it is pretr::„T,:f,'^""f"*yi''tho Southern whole country, if sonfetfme e'Lt f /'"°"^''™' *''« and seventy feet in height Tt/f T" ^^ ' '" "'■"'"-'■^t, ^ew trees fhat are plf„t:d ^'l^TZ::! "^Th^ "'^ often seen forming hedo-. mL • ^,^^^^^^^- They are Pennsylvania. Tlfe ye kw "L i^t' fl'"™'^' """^ "^ western countries and^he raCe rf ltlu''f'''\"' '''' tains; and the long-leaved pTnf is e! f "^^""ry """"■ Southern States. These nine 1 '^ ^ """'^''"^ '° the masts and spars of vessels ^ """^ "^"'P'^^^'' ''"^ the roofing of houses, and, in short f^r ever? ' '""'S'^' it can possibly be applied. 4 .oirus'Zr*"/''*'.'' formed into pieces called shingles XrhZ "^ " inches in length four inche^^-f t V^u """'"^ «'S''teen inch in thiekfes Tl ev^ „ T^^' ""'' '""^''^"'^ "^ an house, and arra:;;d iX^Cr^I^JlLtr '' 1'' this country. Six inches of each Tin 1 ''"'"'^^od m weather, and as each piece of wood "ft-'irP"'''''" "■« length, every part of the roof 1 as thr J H f " ""^"^ '" or, in other wo'rds, is one inch" "01.*: ^ 1^'' are generally made of white pine, cedatrhorvU:.^' T^; in the United States and clnadl ' '° "'^'"'^''"^ ^"''''"^^^ t^^^ "I 'ii 'I ' = 114 FUEL AND MATEaULS. P 1] fJl^n "^""li"? ''"'''' "" Pof'^l^rfy interesting to the ^aveller ,„ tha country. According to Mr Browne, whose woik I have already quoted, there are no less th™ 140 ^pecies of forest-trees indigenous to the United States, which exceed 30 feet m height. In Prance there are about ..WrJ^, and m (^reat Britain nearly the same nuoJer. One may travel a great way in America witl.«it finding a single tree of very, large dimensions, uut the average size of the trees is "■^-■^ above what is to be.net with in this country. The largest which I measured was a buttonwood-tree (Plutanus occiden- <«?«) on the banks of Lake Erie, which I found to be 21 feet in circumference ; but I measured very many vary- .ngfrom 15 to 20 feet. M. Michaux mentions, that on a the Muskingum, ^there was a buttonwood-tree, which, at five feet from the ground, measured 40 feet 4 inches in circum- ference, giving a diameter of about 13 feet. He mentions another on the right bank of the Ohio, thirty-six miles above Marietta, whose base was swollen in an extraordiW manner; at four feet from the ground it was 47 feet in eir! cumference. This tree ramified at the height of 20 feet from the ground. Another of equal size is mentioned as ex- istmg in Genesse. M. Michaux also measured two trunks of white pme on the River Kennebec, one of which was 154 feet ong, and 54 inches in diameter, and the other was 142 feet long, and 44 inches in diameter at three feet from the fr^T 1 He also measured one which was 6 feet in diameter, and had reached the greatest height attained by the species Its top bemgaboutlSOfeet from the ground d afterwards spoke-shave. sting to the 'owne, whose ss than 140 Jtates, which ibout till t'y, One may single tree the trees is Tlie largest lus occiden- bund to be nany vary- I, that on a 3 mouth of lich, at five in circum- e mentions ^-six miles traordinary feet in cir- of 20 feet 'ned as ex- two trunks ih was 154 3r was 142 t from the I diameter, le species, CANALS. 115 CHAPTEE VI. CANALS. Internal Improvements of North Art,.. • Railways-Introduction of C.^.U^^^r^l^l'^' of the Canals and Great length of the American Canals-S. n ^ *^'' *"*^ Canada- tions-North Holland Ship Canal-T)iff.r»*« T? ''^ ^^""^ ^'•««« •*«- British works-Use of wood very lln! ! • I '''•'''"" ''•°«"°»° *»d Locks. Aqueducts, &cT^JllLZi \ ^"'^"''^Wooden Canal- ice-Tolls' levied, 'and mfd ' of t SXlhe T""^^^ ^'^^^^^ "^^ Means used in America for formin?l»/^ American Canals- navigation on the Ri erthS^c T^r""*"^"--^'*^'^'^*^- iz ffie^. rr^h^ ofWeTzr i^£r:r' to no modern works I h«v« ^^^cution, I can compare t =;L''S - = sr IKS works L nnTf 1 ^^ P^''"'' ^^^^^d a« engineering f!v!, !r':u"'.rJ""';"°° °f -iifferent tracks of natural tion of W ^f !; '"""'''^.'"'\ "*■ i^'g^ towns, and the forma-" t.on of hnes of communication from the Atlantic Ocean to iha i Bll lit , ,11 i 116 CANALS. Iml oil Th? t '""r" "' *■>« '^'-■-W'-. Missouri, Xoh tv , """'''«^»'«' «'«»' of canals and railways jects sufficiently prove that their exertions, during the time they have been so engaged, have been neither smfllnor ni! oeen as 1 shall afterwards explain, vastly ext»n^..-; but there ,s reason to suppose that the follow^.,g account of the canals, although written sor"-"*i.e ago, will be found to con- tnT;.s.!:': ''""'""^ "' ^^ ^'^'^ °f '•'-^ ^^t^ «' vessels IXd'to^r^V';'* '"™ ^^^" --™'^'' »«"« w"r"to'''r'Vf ""''' ^"'"^ '° Q-b-on t^rsl e^coursngttt;r:f-;e^^^^^^^^^^^^ Buffalo to Cleveland by Lake Erie, Cleveland to Portsmouth by the Ohio Canal » Miles 150 3C3 210 309 ---..„.,„.„ X V. tsiDouin by the Ohio Canal, . Zra Portsmouth to New Orleans bvH,»ni,- 1^1 . ' -309 uneans by the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, 1670 Total distance, 2702 ^,T.!''r*T'''T^ '"■'""' J""™"? of no less than 2702 miles, IS performed entirely by means of w»t«r .„ • tion ; 672 miles of the joufne^ ZvXZlVlZ^'Z .. , ^ ^"^F^oviug ine river nired states about the end of the last ippi, Missouri, and railways important ob- iring the time small nor ill- y system has xtpnrJcj-j but count of the found to con- ese works at 3uted enable » country, to of Mexico, Bc on the St ppi, without • But, that e extent of •ive in detail ch in 1837 ;ween those Miles e is, . 150 3C3 210 309 i Rivers, 1670 than 2702 )mmunica- ianals, and and lake f the river f the last CANALS. 117 century ; but the first work of any impo^anPA in +1, f try was the Santee Canal, in thi iXlTZVn^ 'T' which was opened in the' yea 802 and the fi ^'T British dominions in America was^'he Lachte CanaV Lower Canada, opened in the year 1821 The /reatTn l^ anything of the ^^^^rt^:::;:r:z^i^^ --^z when canals were introduced into America he trJ.jT country was small, and did not warrant the expend^^^^^^^^^^ oroutlavnf ^T'"''"'''*^'^ ^^*^ '' little loss of time or outlay of capital, as was consistent with a due re Jrd to Hive scale, should have been originallv constmrtpH in +i ZL J ''""'""*""'-« °f ""^y of the canals in the United States were consequently found to be inconveniently sm 11 for the increased traffic which they have to sTnot^ „ i the great Erie Canal, as well as some otherirwhcn I which Its breadth was to be increased from 40 to 70 fcet and Its depth from 4 to 7 feet. ' English and American engineers are guided by the same ojrtV" >r' '"^'^ """'^ ■ •'""'"^ diifeJ^^t nZ of the materials employed in their construction, and the cli! mates and circumstances of the two countries, naturally pro- duce a considerable dissimilarity in the practice of cWl- engineers in England and America. At the iirst view one s^stnick with the temporary and apparently unfinished Ltate Ox u.»..y 01 the American works, and is very apt, before in- quiring into the subject, to impute to want'^of'aklity what 1 ' 1'^ 118 CANALS. turns out, on investigation, to bo a judicious and ingeniou, arrangemen to suit the circumstances of a new counZTf which the climate is severe.-a country where stone is scarce and wood IS plentiful, and where manual labour is vere"! pensive^ It ,s vain to look to the American works fo^ tho finish that characterizes those of France, or the stability for which those of Britain are famed. Und^ssed slopes of'cu " tings and embankments, roughly built rubble arches, stone structed of that material, everywhere offend the eye [ecus- tomed to view European workmanship. But it must not be supposed that this arises from want of knowledge of the principles of engineering, or of skill to do them justice in the execution The use of wood, for example, wMch may be considered by many as inapplicable to the construction of canal-locks, where it must not only encounter the tear and wear occasioned by the lockage of vessels, but must be sub- ject to the destructive consequences of alternate immersion in wa er and exposure to the atmosphere, is yet the result of deliberate judgment. The Americans have, in many cases been induced to use the material of the country iU adapted though it be in some respects to the purposi to which It s applied, in order to meet the wants of a rising TZr^: by-'Peedilyand perhaps superficially completing a work of importance, which would otherwise be delayed from a want of the means to execute it in a more subsfan tial manner ; and although the works are wanting in finish and even m solidity, they do not fail for many years to se^e the purposes for which they were constructed, as efficiently as works of a more lasting description. When the wooden locks on any of the canals begin to show symptoms of decay, stone structures can be substituted and materials suitable for their erection are with ease and expedition conveyed from the part of the country where they are most abundant, by means of the canal itself to which they are to be applied ; and thus the less substantial work ulti- mately becomes the means of facilitating its own imnrove- ment, uy aflbrding a more easy, cheap, and speedy transport CANALS. 119 Of those durable ami expensive materials, without the use of which, perfection is unattainable. in tLl '^"'"'" '"'™""'8« '" •>« derived from the use of wood Innt """"'"'' "' '^'""'<^''' " ""y be stated that n or hercb" ""P™^^'"«"' •^-•^^^"^ »d greater dimensions little CO ,7'!k'"'' 't"^""'^' '""^y "O" •'« '"foduced at I.ttle cost, and without the mortification of destroying expen- sive and substantial works of masonry. Some of th!1o,t« on the great Erie Canal are formed of stone b had they al been made of wood, it would probably have been converted into a ship-canal long ago. i^onvertea But the locks are ot the only parts of the American canals m which wood is used. Aqueducts over ra"ne "r nvers are generally formed of large wooden troughs eLe on stone pillars, and even mere temporary expedients hav! been chosen the ingenuity of which can hardly fa , to pltale those who view them as the means of carrying „n imp ov ! tTe wanlo, ?' , " ""' -"'^vances, frouldbe sto^'d by ,7t^ n, '^""''^ "'"'essary to complete them ^ MrM Taggait, the resident engineer for the Bideau Canal in Canada gave a good example of the extraordTnai; ex for rar^itThirr k '"■ "' "r^""^ " ^"^y -™"-^-e lor carrying that work across a thickly wooded ravine sit,i«fA m a part of the country where materials for forming an em bankment, or stone for building the niers nf Zl / J could not be obtained but at a grfat expC 'mp C^on ' sisted of cutting across the large trees in the lil^l AT' tr^;/^'^™'"^.*''^*'*-'^ 'heTan^i, tsTo^:'nt 'rpfa flrr'"f » P'^'^^™ » thelr'tmnks, and on this platform the trough containing the water of the canal c"Lte«- rf ; .'■'"" ""* ""^^ ^''^^'■'" this ^an wt carried into effect, but it is not more extraordinary than many strictir.t?e" '":'"'' "," ^"^"^"^ have resorted in con"^ bv manf 1?X P"W'= works ; and the great traffic sustained by many of them, notwithstanding the temporary and hur- "t "^^Hr '::7''.-'' '^^y -e finished, is Lily'wonderf". no less tlten 3167, and the average number of lockages 118 120 CANALS. i| y t,ij necessary, as the intense frost with whioh fha Pm,« mittM ^r '■ ^ expansion of the water, which if ner- m.tted to remain in them, is speedily converted into'a m'as, n.on, mi, '^ "^ "''eh passena-er conveved in them. The passenger-boats vary from twelve Jfiff ^ ^ . in breadth, and are eighty feet in iZJ^V f "" ^''' boats weigh about twtty ol and' ost L 250 ^""1 when loaded with a full complement of „ '"\'°^ twelve inches of water Thev „r!.T i f^sengers, draw horses, which run t^n^X" X elToTthir^ img IS Horn four to four and a half miles per hour. to render it a very objfctionlble conveyance 'ZTm' "' mand of the captains of the canal-boafs, who oft„n Z li'." di^creuon or civility ,„ giving their orders; and stang";: CANALS. 121 ranged ia three tiers, oJ above altheT/t^.tTTr'^ T company is ordered hplow «rV, """'''^^^- ^^ nine, the whole of i p-e4:: fr'iTL t:u rratt":!'' '"^ '""-^^ ossigns to each his bed v2;.u !' *' "*" '*™« ''">« possession of by ts riJhTfi.f '°""«diately be taken obliged to occupyaVaetrthXrThoTthf '"^ ^''f r^^oi^r^rrttr^'^"^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ spont several sreTve nfghtL rhis":"™-'*"'- J ''''™ 40 feet long bv 11 fllf k j . ^y- '" * ""I'''' only passengers \Me/!l»f' ^'t "° ''*'' *'"'" ^"^'^ oroakifg of the numberi:rb«fl fZ^^r" ">■ «>^ Amerieanswampsw^s^irL. :«"**.' '^^'^I"''"' "« to make one's-felf Telrd Tn ™"'''"' " ""'"' '''«<='"' nearly impossiMe ^X Thrdirr;- ™'''/ -«-• appears .> be generally re^nlaS by ^ s^ Hf 1 ""^ •""" gers ; those that are heaviest bein., nl / .f ^ P*'^"" the floor. The object of tl^ '^"^ '° ""^ ''"'"'^ »«' o clock m the morn in o- all iZ^^ . ^ ^^* ^"^ "ve abrupt and discouZu; s^e atd^fl !,":' ""' '" ">« «»'»'' in the cold morning aTr whik the b ' '"/'"""" "" ^^'^ and breakfast is in prlTa ton Th r''^ r ''^"""""l in the duties of the? fe Thich^t nj" rf 'l '^'""'^^ part of the arrangement 4 7 , *"* '"»'* amusing of the boat, wMch e^rvonfw r'' i' ^'^""'^ "* *'"'«*'"-° from the witer of the cLT, ,"th f " f "' '" '"^ "^ "^ fi . , ** canal, with a ffisrantm snnnn f . j /• t"c nauiu metal • a i-nwol n l l ' ", " -r-— •! iviiucu ui - general serv;c:,5:tr^Clo:T.t> I^ f 122 CANALS. 3 i however, is fortunately quite optional. The breakfn«t is served between six and seven /clock, dinner at eleven, and tea at five. The American canal travelling certainly forms a great contrast to that of Holland and Belgium. The boat in which I was conveyed on the canal between Ghent and Bruges, for example, was coramodiously fitted up with sepa- rate state rooms, containing one berth in each, and was, in other respects, a most comfortable and agreeable conveyance. But I trust the reader will not form an estimate of American travelling from what has just been said, nor take this single specimen of it as a criterion of the whole. In the eastern and earlier settled districts of the country no such griev- ances have to be suffered, and there are many hundreds of persons in that part of the United States who hardly believe in their existence. So long as the traveller keeps on the east of the Alleghany Mountains, all goes on smoothly, but if he attempts to cross their summits, and to penetrate into the " far west," lie must look for treatment such as I have described. There is indeed as great a difference in this re- spect between the seaward and interior States of North America as there is between the counties of Kent and Caithness. But I return from these petty troubles to the consideration of a subject of more importance, namely, the works which have been employed in forming the inland lines of water communication in America. These are of two kinds, called " Slackwater" or " Stillwater" navigation and Canals. The slackwater navigation is the more simple of these operations, and can generally be executed at less expense. It consists in improving a river by the erection of dams or mounds built in the stream, by which the water is dammed back, and its depth is increased. If there be not a great fall in the bed of the river, a single dam often produces a stagna- tion in the run of the water, extending for many miles up the river, and forming a spacious navigable canal. The tow-path is formed along the margin of the river, and is elevated above the reach of flood-water. The dams are passed by mean* of locks, such as are used in canals. Thit 4 i CANALS. 123 n method of forming water communication has been eit™ lively and successfully iniroduced in America wl,ere hm Ih" cable. One of the most extensive works on this principle n the country wcs constructed by the Schuylkill n" vSo^ Company, m the State of Pennsylvania, and consisted t^ damming up the water of the river Schuvlkill Z , ^ from Philadelphia to Beading, and is sitn'ate "n the h" rt of a county abound,ng in coal, from the transport of wWch the Company derives its chief revenue It i. ma i eugth and its construction cosIXt L. 00 000 Th^ Ime of navigation is formed by thirtv-four d„'!, ^^ across the stream, with twenty-nlne oiks whfch "^ a fflll nf flin fr^^i. Tx . . iocKs, wiiich overcome sixtwl >? ^ ^i" ""^'Sated by boats from fifty to B« y tons burden These dams are constructed somewhat on the same pnnciple as that erected on the SchryttiU at ^~"of Th rr"'^' """ ^''"-'^'Ph-. A deti leTde J::rtht'^^^^^^^^^ o7ffiiit:r -ctn r^ ^^ ao-flinsf h^r ,v,„i • . 1. . ^^^^'' measure euarded against by making a judicious selection of situations fnT+r b'eTX'-riv^; taftr "'^"/■' ™'"' atrrttt direction^rdetl'ntlTlh ir^sTab^^^^^^^ 'Thrnlt-oft Trr ---S^tii ts which amounted to L 14 043 TJ,/!, ' ! , ^ *''' »P the .ver during ^^^ ^j:7Z;^:^ \ 124 CANALS. r i: K4 111 foo^.^T^" '"^"•'^ *« »»» "0,094 tons, of which' Slackwater navigation ako occurs at intervals on manv of the great lines of canal. About 78 mile, t tL^/ Canal, in Canada, are, as formerly notTced fo™/. fn tv" way, and in the United States it is met withTl V ' Oswego, Pennsylvania, Frankston Comtg and Lehr.h mr ':f th?^ r'^ "''"'' •'"^^ l-- '.ecutfd -n ftmfg most of the water communications in America hn»„„ not generally of the slackwater kind bXre Imble T^ ' T w.th locks to enable vessels to pass from one level to anothe ' The locks are furnished with boom-Kates which ,1 J mtre posts. The sluices by which the water is admitted mto the ocfcs are placed in the lower part of tl« ^1^7 They are >n general common hinge-sluices^opened bv me»s irhVndir'"^ '° *^ "" "' ""^ ^^'-' »^ -''™ The canals of this construction in the United e and a-half mi esto ^o "w "7^^!' »'»^i»g-ven by means of five ockeexcLL V^ ^'"""'^' ^'^*y f^*" proceeds on a unTfom ell f ''^•'' ™'=''' ""^ ''"^^"ds miles to G.,.,.s:etv:r, vt ^"41 t^^T ^' ^-'^-^--^ duct having nine arches of fiftw. "''' °" ""^'i''*- a half milef from this noint f ^ '" '^'"' ""'^- ^'S^t and on an embankZ* r^l^ ^Zr 'd^ '''^"^^ ""*' seventy feet in height Ttti ^ ' """^ '" '""^ ?'«<=«». and s/rac„se, anS ^f L place he'%n" if T?' "-''''""^ which extends for a di»t«„ ? , ^ ''™' commences, half miles to r^nkfo t ^h ."" ''w ''^" ''^'^-"""^ »" «- leaving Frankforthec'^"' an intervening lock. After an aqueduct of 748 ftt L 1 "7"" " "™' ^°^'^^' ^'^^ V elevated twel five feVt 'r^ Z^'*^^^^ ™ ^'^'^^ P'«'^. afterwards b;!nl?a:e;;V^V8"!:r•"V'^f"'''"'* last reaches the town of Albany '" "^*' "'"' "' Albany is the capital of the State of New ToA . a tains a population of about SO nnn t/ • T ' *'"' <^'"'- or right bank of the Hndl '." l.^^' ''^'.'"**«"""'^*^«'. navigation of the rivBr."w"' " "'" "^^^ "'' *'"' natural •nade. which enab.rv-ll^rall ETarntt: 126 OANAIS. Waterford, thirteen miles above Albany. One of these im- provements has been effected by the erection of adamaero"s the Hudson 1100 feet in length and 9 feet in heightTt a co of upwards of L.18,000. The loolc connected with th s dam measures 114 feet in length and 30 feet in breadth A^banT .nT^"''."?!^^ *" '*''' '° ""onopolize the trade of the river' and in addition to the interest it possesses as a place of let of the Erie Canal, and has a large basin or depfit for the accommodafon of the boats or vessels. This b<^in, wh ch has an area of thirty-two acres, is formed by an enor- mous mound, placed parallel to 'the stream of the W Hudson, and encbsing a part of its surface. The mound IS composed chiefly of earth, and is 4300 feet in length and 80 feet m breadth, and being completely covered with large warehouses, .t now forms a part of the town of Albany, wfh Th "nl^T"""'' ' '^ "^""^ "' ■""»-»- drawbrid^s rhe place has, in consequence, very much the same appL- ance as many of the Dutch towns. The lower extrem^r„f being left for the ingress and egress of vessels, but its upper end s separated from the bank of the river by a smaUet opening which is closed, when necessary, to prtv r ic" from injuring the craft lying in the basin. A steeam of water is generally allowed to enter at the upper end wLh flowing hrough the basin, acts as a scour, and pre^nt it from silting up. The mound is surrounded by a wooden wharf like those of New York and Boston, at which vessels discharge and load their cargoes. This' admiraMe bast L.2T0OO.'"' "' *'" ^"^ °'""'' ^'"^'- -" -^t «bo^ MatTmT !^ ""' T'' It^" "^"""^ Commissioners, dated trol S. !ffl ' """"'" "^ ^^*' ''S'^'«'«'J i" the Comp- iTs,- "' navigating the Erie Canal and its branches, In 1834, . 258S ■. 1835, . 2914 Inoreiue,329 ^ oa. iiilii :f63 these im- 1am across t, at a cost ■ this dam Albany, the river, place of fc the out- ot for the in, which an eiior- he River mound tigth and ith large my, with i^bridges. appear- emity of passage ts upper smaller i^ent ice ream of , which, i^ents it wooden vessels 3 basin t about '> dated Comp- uiches, CANALS. 127 . Je ;':' w^!!"^' "' *«-- - t"P» -ade during the In 1834, » 1835, „ 1836, 64,794 69,767 67,270 ^Tke average „u.>W of lockages per day at each lock In 1834, ,, 1835, » 1836, 95| 112 118 to 6r,6«,34rdoU^;„TLT3 26%!^ t?"^' '''"'"'""' tween the weight f,f f,^- i.* ' ' ^''^ proportion be- the intenorof th, 1 /^ T"*'^"* ^""^ «''« Hudson to terioroT hecountrvTot^ ff^""" "^"'"^'^ ^""" *« i- to five. The SToUecLd I ml' r!^ '"' """ °^ -« .00^ and passengers "a«d'to' L 3 86r7heTt°' branches in reStg /sse waT4fo 23LT' "" V'^ t.82,047, which, taking L .hluS^tf^'y "^"^ an average of L.151 per mile tV„ ° '"'' ^''^^ for «>e Si. preceding^: amount driTaCLr" men rttToU'c::ar':h' t'^- ^ ■-"-" «» I visited in cZ™ y : th M'^n***^, "^ ^'T J^-^. 'hich that work, .owhL ^ ^.2^^^-^-^ st^in IZr ThifcanV,r f ^ "'" ^"^'^ "^ J- am canal leads from Jersey on the Hud- 128 CANALS. 1 i! come by locks, and the rema ninri334 flf "^ """■ twenty-three inclined nlJ.TL -^ *" ''^ "^»'" "^ feet each Th« ^ f '^ t ,' ""^ an average lift of 58 leet each The boats which navigate this canS ar» Rl w m breadth of beam from 60 h, an t .'"f*"'' "« H feet twenty-five to thirty tons burden The '" ?f '"' *\^ '""" drawn up the plan'es is^Cmy'LTX^T'^'' drawmg of one of the boat-cars used on his J^nal Fil' l' ^d^r/irii^^hf^^^^^^^ made wooden crib' or cradle, marked aon whtch the^bfal ^sts supported on two iron waggons ru^nrngt^fon'^eeTs When the car ,s wholly supported on the inclined pllne 1; IS resting on a level, the four axles of the Zgon Tarl all m the same plane, as shown by the dotted ZT.L'Z when one of the waggons rests on the inclined plane' and he other on the level surface, their axles n longl'emain m the same plane, and their change of nosition fL tendency to rack the cradle, and tfe l^S ifiports" but th,s has been guarded against in the construction rf he boat-cars on the Morris Canal by introducing two «Ie, Bhown at ., on which the whole weight of the cribTnd Wt' are supported, and on which the wagons tuL I'lfentrf The cars run on plate-rails laid on the inclined planes and are raised and lowered by means of machinery driven hv water-wheels. I examined several of the nlals ^ rt^ oana, near Newark, which appeared to $:rfte remaTk^MT tie ho J 7}r^' "" "^'"^ *« «"' ™»«. extends along X rem tv ofth T*' '"i" ''""' n of the axles, md boat 1 centre, aes, and iven by on this arkably s along e lower f]. over it, 1 Ftu. I Fiq. 2. Boat air usrd on t/u^ uiJm^d plmies cU Ft a. 1. fLATh: \i. Fin. 2. thf uu/mM p/ajms cU llie Mo?ns (hn<,l. CANALS. 129 is made fast to the part of the framework which projects above the gunwale, as shown in the drawing at d. The ma- chinery is then put in motion ; and the car bearing the boat, is drawn by a chain to the top of the inclined plane, at which there is a lock for its reception. The lock is furnished with gates at both extremities ; after the car has entered it, the gates next the top of the inclined plane are closed, and, those next the canal being opened, the water flows in and floats the boat off the car, when she proceeds on her way. Her place is supplied by a boat travelling in the opposite direction, which enters the look, and the gates next the canal being closed, and the water run off, she grounds on the car. The gates next the plane are then opened, the car is gently lowered to the bottom when it enters the water, and the boat is again floated. The principal objection which has been urged against the use of inclined planes for moving boats from different levels is founded on the injury which they are apt to sustain in supporting great weights while resting on the cradle during its passage over the planes. It can hardly be supposed that a slimly built canal boat, measuring from sixty to eighty feet in length, and loaded with a weight of twenty or thirty tons, can be grounded, even on a smooth surface, without straining and injuring her timbers ; but this has been overcome on the Monkland Canal, when Mr Leslie formed upon the carriage a caisson of boiler-plate containing two feet of water, so that the boats are water-borne.* ♦ Inclined planes were used on the Retting Canal in Shropshire in 1789 and afterwards on the Duke of Bridgewater's Canal. Mr Green introduced' **" !r/?I!n^ Western Canal, a perpendicular lift of 46 feet, and more re- cently (1850) Mr Leslie of Edinburgh, and Mr Bateinan of Manchester, con- structed an inclined plane on the Monkland Canal, wrought by two high- pressure steam-engines of 25 horse power each. The height, from surface to surface, IS 96 feet, and the gradient is one in ten. The boats are not Wholly grounded on the carriage, but are transported in a caisson of boiler- plate, containing two feet of water. The maximum weight raised is from 70 to 80 tons, and the whole transit is accomplished in about ten minutes. *or the five years previous to the end of 1856, the averaee number of bo..f. tu»t passed over the incline each year was 7600. Sir Wm. Cubitt hw also introduced three inclined planes, having gradients of one and eight, on F 2 130 CANALS. But notwithstanding this objection, the twenty-three in- chned planes on the Morris Canal a^e in full operation, and act exceedingly well. No pains have been spared to render the machinery connected with them as perfect as possible and the greatest credit is due to the engineer for theVcces; which has attended their operation. .nJfK ^r^T°^' *^^ ^^^'^"' *^^ Grenville, the Welland, Intl^ St I^awrence Canals, are the only artificial water- communications in British America; but as I have already NaW- ''. "'""^" ^° *^' '^^P*^^ °" ^i^«^ ^«d Lake Navigation, it is unnecessary again to allude to them. Sefeet'^lsZ"^' So™e„3,3b.,, One of these inclines oyercomes a rise of »6 feet. (Steventon s Can^ and River Engineering ) 111 hree in- OD, and ) render (ossible, success B0AOS» 131 'elland, water- already i Lake a rise of CHAPTER VII. ROADS. Boads not suitable as a means of communication in Aroerica—Copdition of the American Roads—" Corduroy Roads"— Roads from Pittsburg to Erie —New England Roads— The " National Road"— The " Macadamized Road"— City Roads— Causewaying or Pitching— Brick Pavements— Macadamiiing— Tesselated wooden Pavements used in New York and in St Petersburg. Eoad-making is a branch of engineering which has been very little cultivated in America, and it was not until the introduction of railways that the Americans entertained the idea of transporting heavy goods by any other means than those afforded by canals and slackwater navigation. They object to macadamized roads, in consequence of the hurtful eflfectsof their severe and protracted wintera in all such works as more particularly noticed in the chapter on railways, and also on account of the difficulty and expense of obtaining materials suitable for their construction, and for keeping them in a state of proper repair. Stone fitted for the purposes of road-making is by no means plentiful in America ; and as the number of workmen is small in proportion to the quantity of work which is generally going forward in the country, manual labour is very expensive. Under these circumstances, it is evident that roads would have been a very costly means of communication, and as they are not suitable for the transport of heavy goods, the Americans, in commencing their internal improvements, directed their whole attention to the construction of canals, as being much better adapted to supply their wants. THa rrtarla fVnTiiio-Vi/Mif +V.^ TT»>;+y^J 0*»i.^_ «„J r\ j_ 132 ROADS. whfch I L , r°' ™'^ '"""'™"^' »■"» "">«' of those by I'^t T"^** ''"•^ '" «o neglected and wretched a condition as hardly to deserve the name of highlavrbein^ qmte unfit f„, any vehicle but an American s^nd any pilot but an American driver In m.n,, „„ * <• i ^ :!';nS"t "^ r^K^^^ a^o^s c.ent width to allow vehicles to pass each other is all that has been done towards the formation of a road ' Th"r„„*s wh!?. M *■•-;.«- often not removed, and in mar hel cut n tLfrf I '!' ""^ ^°«' "^« '-- themsel "s are cut in lengths of about ten or twelve feet, and laid close to manner in wln/w?' •^^^^^"^^^"g diagram represents the manner m which these roads are formed, fig. 1 being a nlan and fig. 2 a v^ew of the ends of the logs! ^ ' JTt-^. J. :2i=;''=:5i:'i-.,„ir5= ^»>.-^. On the road leading from Pittsburg on the Ohio to the town of Erie on the lake of that name, I saw all the varieties of fo est road-making in great perfection. Sometimes our way lay for miles through extensive marshes, which we crossed hy corduroy roads, formed in the manner shown above ; at otliers the coach stuck fast in mud, from which It could be extricated only by the combined efforts of the • KOAKS. 133 coachman and passengers ; and at one place we travelled for upwards of a quarter of a mile through a forest flood dwHh water, wh.ch stood to the height of several feet on many of ri28'„,iT tr °^ "" '■""'^ '■'■"■" ^'"^''"fe' to Erie IS 128 miles, which was accomplished in forty-six hours being at the very slow rate of about two miles and thrS Td" " '." tr- "f '"'^'' *« """^y^^^ by »hich I travel Ind f w i' °""'' ""^ ^'"PP""' °"'y f"' breakfast, dinne and tea, but there was considerable delay caused by the coach being once upset and several times " mired " vZu ^'\'°^'. '"the United States are those of New England, where, in the year 1796, the first American turn pike act was granted. These roads are made of «avel tL surface of the New England roads is very smooth as no at ten ion has been paid to forming or draining hem ^is only for a few months during summer that they possess any superiority, or are, in fact, tolerable. I„ C T ^d all he States lying to the south, as well as throughout tte tteta7"^b!r '"^ ^'''^''' "^ "'^ ^"^^bany itLt de orTpttoLas ft'™' T' f ""'""y ^P^"'''"^' of ae same and Erir»ff 5 ""' 'v'*^ mentioned between Pittsburg and Erie, affording very little comfort or facilitv to thni Bu on the construction of one or two lines of road the Americans have bestowed a little more attention. The most remarkable of them is that called the " National Eo^" s retching across the country from Baltimore to the Statt^if Illinois, a distance of no less than 700 miles, an arduous and extensive work, which was constructed at the expense of the government of the United States. The narrow t'ract of a„d from which It was necessaiy to remove the timber and brush wood for he passage of the road measures eighty feefn breadth , but the breadth of the road itself is^on^^ h r W feet Commencaig at Baltimore, it passes through part of the State of Maiyland, and entering that of Penn !t.''".'?:..f r- ^e range of the Alleghany Mountain «». wiuch, It passes through the States of Virginia, Ohio 134 ROADS. and Indiana, to Illinois. It is in contemplation to produce this line of road to the Mississippi at St Louis, where, the river being crossed by a ferry-boat stationed at that place, the road is ultimately to be extended into the State of Mis- souri, which lies to the west of the Mississippi. The " Macadamized road," as it is called, leading from Albany to Troy, is another line which has been formed at some cost, and with some degree of care. This road, as its name implies, is constructed with stone broken, according to Macadam's principle. It is six miles in length, and has been formed of a sufficient breadth to allow three carriages to stand abreast on it at once. It belongs to an incorporated company, who are said to have expended about L.20,000 in constructing and upholding it. Some interesting experiments have lately been set on foot at New York, for the purpose of obtaining a permanent and durable City Road, for streets over which there is a great thoroughfare. The place chosen for the trial was the Broad- way, in which ihe traffic is constant and extensive. The specimen of road-making first put to the test was a species of causewaying or pitching ; but the materials em- ployed are round water- worn stones, of small size ; and their only recommendation for such a work appeaTs to be their great aVundance in the neighbourhood of the town. The most of the streets in New York, and indeed in all the American towns, are paved with stones of this description ; but, owing to their small size and round form, they easily yield to the pressure of carriages passing over them, and pro- duce the large ruts and holes for which American thorough- fares are famed. The footpaths in most of the towns are paved with bricks set on edge, and bedded in sand, similar to the " clinkers," or small hard-burned bricks so generally used for road-making in Holland. The second specimen was formed with broken stones, but the materials, owing chiefly, no doubt, to the high rate of wages, are not broken sufficiently small to entitle it to the name of a " macadamized road." It is, however, a wonder- f..1 : ^■^^^■^^■^^^rxt- i\n fVia rvrrlinortr nifpVlfid nftVATKieTlt Of tuQ JIOADS. 135 jroduce le, the ; place, if Mis- g from med at i, as its ding to md has irriages porated ',000 in on foot ent and a great ' Broad- it was a als em- ad their be their 3. The all the ription ; y easily md pro- loroTigh- wns are , similar enerally ines, but . rate of t to the wonder- it of the country and the only objections to its general introduction as already noticed, are the prejudicial effects produced on it by the very intense frost with which the country is visited and the expense of keeping it in repair. ' n Ji' *t''/ '^'ff^ '''''''''^'^ °^ ^ «P^^^^« of tesselated pavement, formed of hexagonal billets of pine wood measur- ing SIX inches on each side, and twelve inches in depth arranged as shown in the following cut, in which fig. 3 is a J'X^.cr. ^iff- 4. of the b. lets of wood of which it is composed, shf™ on a arge scale From the manner in whih the tZer is whtlfl' ll P'T"' '■""^ "° " P"^"^l t° 'he directio" in small The blocks are coated with pitch or tar, and are set m sand, formmg a smooth surface for carriages which pe easily and ncselessly over it. Since the date of my tour th B plan has been fully tried in London and Paris, and in 136 BRIDGES. CHAPTER VIII. BRIDGES. Great Extent of many of the American Bridges-DiflFerent Construction, adopted in America-Bridges over the Delaware at Trenton, the Schuylkill at Philadelphia, the Susquehanna at Columbia, the Rapids at the Falls of Niagara, &c.-Town's " Patent Lattice Bridge"- Lonjr's " Pateiii Truss Bridge." ^ '^ The vast rivers, lakes, and arms of the sea in America which have been spanned by bridges, are on a scale which far surpasses the comparatively insignificant streams of this country, and, but for the facilities afforded for bridge-building by the great abundance of timber, the only communication across most of the American waters must have been by means of a ferry or a ford. The bridge over the Eiver Sus- quehanna at Columbia, and that over the Potomac at Wash- ington, for example, are each one mile and a quarter in length ; and in the neighbourhood of Boston there are no less than sewn bridges, varying from 1500 feet to one mile and a half in length. The bridge over Lake Cayuga is one mile, and those at Kingston on Lake Ontario, and at St John's on Lake Champlain, are each more than one-third of a mile in length. The American bridges are in general constructed entirely of wood. Although good building materials had been plen- tiful in every part of the country, the consumption of time and money attending the construction of stone bridges of so great extent must, if not in all, at least in most cases, have proved too considerable to warrant their erection. Many of those recently built, however, consist o" \VOndfln tan nor. ■ — r — DonstructioQS Trenton, the I, the Rapida ige"— Long's Q America 3ale which ms of this e-building lunication I been by Eliver Sus- at Wash- juarter in )re are no > one mile iga is one ind at St one-third i entirely een plen- Q of time Iges of so ises, have Many of ^n (annar- — — ^ — firi^h/r nwr ///>' Wvfr Ddaware, tit Tnvh Fuj. I /■u^.-. :H the Wdtt'r 'ilver Ddaware.. at Trenton. Fuj. 1. PL ATI-: VI I. I-I.I.3. Ilu' Wia^r. Jf ^ 1f l-u,. J. :r=:^=IT t-JT^ — ._■■.■ Ji. a ffi nU [1 4' I MWIM r I BRIDGES. 137 I iJ structure resting on stone -piers, and in general exhibit spe- cimens of good carpentry, and not unfrequently of good engineering. In those bridges which are of considerable extent and importance, the roadway, and the timbers by which it is supported, are protected by a roof or covering to preserve the wood from decay, in the manner shown in Plate VJII., in which, in order to show the timbers, one-half of the bridge is represented as covered in, and the other half as left exposed. The roadway is lighted by windows, formed at convenient distances in the roof, as shown in the drawings. The wooden bridges in Switzerland and Germany are often covered in the same manner as those in America ; and by adopting this plan, the objections to wood as a building ma- terial, arising from its tendency to decay by exposure to the atmosphere, are in some degree palliated. The planking or flooring of the American bridges is never covered with any composition, as is done in this country. The simplest method of constructing wooden bridges is to form the roadway on horizon uil beams, supported on a series of piles driven into the ground, and where the nature of the situation admits of this construction, it is very generally adopted in America. But in spanning rivers, where it is of consequence to preserve a large water way for the passage of ice, or on railways, where it is often necessary that the sur- face of the rails should have a considerable elevation above the level of the water or ravine over which they are to pass, the use of horizontal beams supported on piles is of en wholly impracticable, and in such situations other constructions have been resorted to for forming communications, some of which I shvll briefly notice. Plate VII. is t) e bridge over the Eiver Delaware at Trenton, about thirty miles from Philadelphia. This bridge consists of five wooden arches, three of 200, one of 180, and one of 160 feet span, supported on four stone piers.* Fig. 1 is an elevation of the bridge, fig. 2 is a plan of one of the * The dimensinna nf fliia Vri^^^a ara nnf ' =„ - - = -»'» on.--g are not uuuj luciisaroiDenis laaae by myself. ^ 188 BRIDGES. arches and fig. 3 is a cross section ; fig. 4 is an enlarged view, showing one of the piers, and a part of two of the arches. The roadway of each span or opening, is suspended by iron rods, irom five wooden arcs, a in figs. 3 and 4 on the same principle as the iron bridge over the River Aire at Leeds m Yorkshire. The wooden arcs in the three largest openings are 200 feet in span, and have a versed sine of 27 teet. Ihe arcs and suspending rods divide the roadway into tour compartments, as shown in fig. 3, forming two carriage- ways in the middle of the bridge, each of which is nine feet ten inches in the clear, and a footpath at each side four feet ten inches in the clear. The entire breadth of the bridge measured over the outer suspending arcs, is thirty-three feet eight inches. The whole is covered with a roof, in the man- ner shown in the drawing. The suspending arcs, a, fig. 4, abutt against strong oak planks aa^ shown at x, which extend throughout the whole breadth of the stone piers. They are supported at each pier by struts c in figs. 2 and 3, and are connected at the top by a series of diagonal beams, represented by the dotted lines m fig. 2. These extend only about half-way down the arcs on each side of the crown, so that they do not interfere with the height of the roadway. The suspending arcs are com- posed of eight thicknesses of pine plank, and measure two leet eight inches in depth, and one foot one inch in breadth Ihe planks of which they are made measure one foot one inch m breadth, four inches in thickness, and from thirty to fatty feet m length, and are arranged so as to break joint Ihe wooden braces, c, fig. 4, are for the purpose of stiflfening .uc roadway. They are fixed at the points, e, to the sus- pending avcs, and at / to the longitudinal bearing beams of the roadway by straps of iron. The suspending rods, d, are tormed of malleable iron, and occur at every sixteen feet in the two exterior arcs, and at every eight feet in the three inner ones, which support the carriage-way. The bridge over the Susquehanna at Columbia is con- stnic-ted somewhat on the same principle as the one at Tren- ton vvkich i have just described. The wooden suspending a enlarged wo of the suspended and 4, on ^er Aire at ■ee largest sine of 27 idway into ) carriage- I nine feet 3 four feet le bridge, •three feet the man- trong oak the whole each pier he top by ;ted lines 1 the arcs rfere with are com- isure two breadth. foot one thirty to ak joint. itiflfening the sus- beams of is, c?, are n feet in he three is con- at Tren- ipending I)nd>^r o\rrrJuSohuv//cia.iU P Fi^ .1 Ulifjr ^?=iri^| vfTtJu Sc//m-//c,/M >u P/uh,l-/ij],w. Pl.ATh: Till /v^. 1 '^^'^.w ^Mm^^.^,, Srair ■•f H;'t «li.-»^j svS'c*' .aer^v^ .HIPl^^-: //// :' 'a <, -Jv :^^^^'<^.-3 PLATE nU. i' ■ ljfc% in. BRIDOXS. 139 1 arcs, however, do not spring from the level of the roadway, but from a point about eight feet below it. In each span of the bridge, therefore, that part of the roadway which is next the springings is supported upon the arcs ; and the centre part of it is suspended from them by a framing of wood. This bridge, which was begun in 1832, and completed in 1834, is perhaps the most extensive arched bridge in the world. It is certainly a magnificent work, and its architec- tural effect is particularly striking. It consists of no fewer than twenty-nine arches of 200 feet span, supported on two abutments, and twenty-eight piers of masonry, which are founded on rock, at an average depth of six feet below the surface of the water. The water-way of the bridge is 5800 feet ; and its whole length, including piers and abutments, is about one mile and a quarter. The bridge is supported by three wooden arcs, forming d double roadway, which is adapted for the passage both of road and railway carriages. There are also two footpaths ; which make the whole breadth of the bridge thirty feet. The arcs are formed in two pieces, each measuring seven inches broad by fourteen inches in depth. These are placed nine inches asunder ; and the beams composing the wooden framing, by which the roadway is suspended, are placed between them, and fixed by iron bolts passing through the whole. Plate VIII. is the "Market Street Bridge," over the Schuylkill at Philadelphia. Fig. 1 is an elevation, fig. 2 a plan, and fig. 3 a cross section. It consists of three arches. The span of the centre arch is 194 feet ten inches, and the versed sine is twelve ie^^X The other two arches are 150 feet in span, and have versed sines of ten feet. The breadth of the roadway is 35 feet. The piers were built with coffer- dams, one of them at the depth of 41, and the other at the depth of 21 feet below the surface of the river at high water. The work was commenced in 1801, and completed in 1805 ; and the expense, which amounted to L. 60,000, was defrayed by a company of private individuals. There is another bridge over the Schuylkill at Philadelphia, consisting of a single arch Oi no less than 320 fcot span, having a versed giiie of 140 WteCDGtM. about 38 feet. This bridge has a breadth of roadway of about 30 feet. It has been erected for several years, and m still in good repair and constant use. I regret, however that I was unable to procure drawings of the wooden ribs or frames of which it s composed, sufficiently detailed and ac- curate to enable me to lay them before the p^iblic ;* but the accompanying cut is from a sketch taken by me on the spot The bridge across the rapids of the River Niagara is placed only two or three hundred yards from the edge of the great falls. It extends from the American bank of the iiver to Goat Island, which separates what is called the " American" from the •' British fall." The superstructure of the bridge is formed of timber. It is 396 feet in length, and is sup- ported on six piers, formed partly of stone and partly of wood. When I visited the Falls of Niagara in the month of May, the ice carried down from Lake Erie by the rapids of the river, was rushing past the piers of this bridge with a degree of violence that was quite terrific, and seemed every moment to threaten their destruction. The following very interesting account of this work is given by Captain Hall :t— - '' The erection of such a bridge at such a place is a won- * This remnrkable bridge has been burnt down. t Forty Etchings, from sltetohos made in North America, with the Camera Lucida, by Captain Basil H-^ll. Edinburgh, 1830. BRIDGES. 141 IS derful effort of boldness and skill, and does the projector and architect Judge Porter, the highest honour as an engineer. Ihis 18 the second bridge of the kind; but the firsi". being built m the still water at the top of the rap.Js, the enor- mous sheets of ice, drifted from Lake Erie, soon demolished the work, and carried it over the falls. Judge Porter how- ever, having observed that the ice in passing along the rarids was speedily broken into small pieces, fixed his second bridge much lower down, at a situation never reached by the larL masses of ice. ° " The essential difficulty was to establish a foundation for his piers on the bed of a river covered with huge blocks of stone, and over which a torrent was dashing at the rate of SIX or seven miles an hour. He first placed two long beams, extending from the shore horizontally forty or fifty feet ove^ the rapids, at the height of six or eight feet, and counter- balanced by a load at the inner ends. These were about two yards asunder ; but light planks being laid across, men were enabled to waik along them in safety. Their extremities were next supported by upright bars passed through holes m the ends, and resting on the ground. A strong open frame-work of timber, not unlike a wild beast's cage, but open at top and bottom, was then placed in the water imme- diately under the ends of the beams. This being loaded With stones, was gradually sunk till some one part of it-no matter which-touched the rocks lying on the bottom. As soon as it was ascertained that this had taken place, the smking operation was arrested, and a series of strong planks three inches in thickness, were placed, one after the other, in the river, in an upright position, and touching the inner sides ox the frame-work. These planks, or upright posts, were now thrust downwards till they obtained a firm lodgment among the stones at the bottom of ti,. river ; and, being then secured bolted to the upper part ^vf t],a frame-work, might be conJ. dered parts of it. As each plank reached to the ground, it acted as a leg, and gave the whole considerable stability, while the water flowed fre.ly through openings about a foo wide, left between the planks= 142 BRIDGES. " This great frame or box, being then filled with large stones tumbled in from above, served the purpose of a nucleus to a larger pier built round it, of much stronger timbers firmly bolted together, and bo arranged as to form an outer case, distant from the first pier about three feet on all its four sides. The intermediate space between the two frames was then filled up by large masses of rock. This constituted the first pier. " A second pier was easily built in the same way, by pro- jecting beams from the first one, as had been previously done from the shore ; and so on, step by step, till the bridge reached Goat Island. Such is the solidity of these structures, that none of them has ever moved since it was first erected, seve- ral years before we saw it." Plate IX. is a drav.ing of " Town's Patent Lattice Bridge," which is much employed on the American railways. This construction is sotnetiiiies used for bridges of so large a span as 150 feet, and it exerts jjo lateral thrust tending to over- turn the piers on which it rests. A small quantity of ma- terials of very small scantling, arranged in the manner shown in the plate, possesses a great degree of strength and rigidity. For this drawing I am indebted to Mr Eobinson of Phila- delphia, who is constructing many large bridges on this principle on the Philadelphia and Eeading railway, several of which I examined both in their finished and unfinished state. Fig. 1 is an elevation, and fig. 2 a cross section on an en- larged scale of the frame-work of the bridge, In which a is the surface of the railway ; the lattice framing or ribs 6 of which the bridge is formed are composed entirely of pine planks, measuring twelve inches in breadth, and three inches in thickness. The planks are arranged at right angles to each other, so as to form a fabric roitembling lattice-work, as shown in the drawing ; and from this circumstance the bridge derives its name. They are fixed at the points of their intersection by oak treenails, one inch and a half in diameter, passing through them. The horizontal runners, PLATE JX. Townls .Pat&il Luttice Fu). I §^' r 7 » -Tt^V- r f / a } \ ^ \ ! i / 1 1 :^=:5 L 1 L Town's Pate/il Lidtice Bridge. Fi^. I. PLATE JX. , Spa/t 78 Feet. I BRID0E8. 143 fixed at th" points where they intel/t .? I t ^.T *''° portioue,'t the%a„ of e bll '^! ''«--7* '" P- i would be made of .Llr'CTJ T' '^T' "'^ P'^'"'^ diamond added to ttlattioe l^^lf ' "' "'"'"'" ^''""^ » of ,?T- r'' ""'^ ■■" "''^ °' f""'-'' of lattice-work in »I1 are connected oX "at' te ' ft l'"'"' ''• ^''^ "''' Fig. 3 is a piL of thet '/o^rd ;e:tlt~th* '" 'Z' '■ In this figure the beams d, are those on'wMehth: Tn^' of the roadway is spiked, and the diagonaU ace I » ? .n horizontal planes ar^ introduced to" tderthr s7T'' ngul. For the same reason the braces rartiltl ,"' shown in flg. 4, which i, a ,,l«n nf 7 f introduced, as the lower I'rt'of t^e I tU^ L^; ''^r' "Tr""^ are all fi«d in the same manneT One of theTf ^T' rests in a seat cut for it in the beam a^wh c^tlCr and wedges of hard wood are inserted ^ttZT . , ' rnS'u:i'ortr'^r'^.^'^^^"^^^^ ened up should the vibration of passing trains, or the efects ome atmosphere, cause any yielding of the timber t^tke The lattice-frames have a rest of about five feet ;„ .l,.„i, i rtd^ir r„^\:r r r ''''- '-^^"' - ^'- imes in the elevation fig. 1 and in fig. 5, which is ^Hi %. % A^^\^^ % ^i IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) % :/_ f/j 'm- 1.0 Ji !l.25 ^1^ i££ 111 2.2 2.0 lu mil 1.6 ^ /i >W^ ^a ^ 0/% Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SB0 (716) 8712-4503 iV ^Q •1>' :\ Ci^ C^, yS^.\ ^^\ *. ^j* .^^ «^"' ) V4b A^ t/u % 44 BBIDQES. a plan of one of the abutments. If the bridge is or greater extent than can be included in one span, it is simply rested on a thin pier, in the manner shown in the elevation, without any other support. A covering of light boarding, extending from the level of the roadway to the bottom of the ribs, is spiked on the outside of the lattice-work to preserve the timber. The largest lattice-bridge which I met with, was construc- ted by Mr Eobinson on the Philadelphia and Eeading Eail- road. It measures 1100 feet in length. The lattice-frames of which it is formed extend throughout the whole distance between the two abutments without a break, and are supported on ten stone piers, in the manner shown in the plate. On the New York and Haerlem Kailway, there is a lattice-bridge 736 feet in length, supported in the same manner on four stone piers. Plate X. is a drawing of " Long's patent frame bridge," which is also much employed on the different lines of rail- way in the United States.* Fig. 1 is an elevation ; fig. 2 a plan ; and fig. 3 a cross section of this bridge, which contains a small quantity of materials, and exerts no lateral thrust. Bridges constructed on this principle, having spans of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet, are very commonly met with. That shown in the drawing is 110 feet in span, and the depth of the truss-frame is 15 feet. In the accompanying plate, a is the level of the railway ; h the " string-pieces," as they are called in America ; c the " posts ;" d the " main-braces ;" and r the " counter-braces." Tjie string-pieces are formed of three beams, in the manner ■ shown in the plan and cross section. The post and main- braces are in two pieces, and the counter-braces are formed of a single beam. Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7, illustrate the manner in which the joining is formed, at the points where the posts and braces are attached to the string-pieces. This joining is effected without the use of bolts or spikes, a construction ♦ A description of Long's Bridge. Concord, 1836. "I Ige is or greater is simply rested jvation, without ding, extending a of the ribs, is to preserve the h, was construc- l Eeading Eail- e lattice-frames whole distance nd are supported the plate. On 5 a lattice-bridge manner on four frame bridge," jnt lines of rail- id fig. 3 a cross aall quantity of iges constructed ! hundred to one net with. That Lud the depth of nying plate, a is ;es," as they are " main-braces ;" IS, in the manner post and main- races are formed :rate the manner } where the posts 9. This joining s, a construction id, 1836. f'luiTA' X Lortff'.s Patent TiYarnr Brief ge J"'!/ ^ Plati of Top ofl'rione. 10 Jt Plan nC Bothmi u/'j'hime. Sralf olFc't foFiffurcx 1,2 k 3. 10 to' Patcnl tWirnf Bridge . I'LATK X 1 — — M^ f '' Bottom o/'J'htme . ffpct foFiffurrs //^ Sc3. 10 io~ -J 30 ::EUKi(i\LiTm'^ ■•-•AflTif; f- a ■',:•; .en. BRIDGES. 145 is effected without the use of bolts or spikes, a construction which admits of the bridge being very easily repaired, when decay of the materials or other causes renders it necessary. Figs. 4 and 5 are enlarged diagrams, showing the manner in which the posts are fixed to the strings. Jn fig. 4 the strings are shown in section at letter b, and the posts passing between them at c. In fig. 5 the posts are shown in section at c, and the strings at b. Fig. 6 shows the manner of fixing the main and counter braces to the upper string-piece. In this diagram b is the string, c the post, d the main-brace, e the counter-brace, and gr is a wedge of hardwood, by which the whole wood-work is tightened up. Fig. 7 shows the mannc a fixing employed at the lower string. In this diagram b is the string, c the post, d the main-brace, e the counter-brace, g a wedge of hard wood, and/a block on which the counter-brace rests. The frames are connected at the top by cross beams, x, and at the bottom by the beams marked letter y, which support the planking of the roadway. I met with Long's Bridge in many parts of the country, but the best specimens I saw were those erected on some of the railways in the neighbourhood of Boston under the direc- tion of Mr Fessenden the engineer. The timbers of which Town's and Long'g bridges are com- posed, are fitted together on the ground previous to their erection on the piers. They are again taken asui ler, and each beam is put up separately in the piece which it is to occupy, by means of a scaffolding or centering of timber. Mr Gaiton in his report on railways, made to the Board of Trade, so recently as 1857, says :— " The bridges are ordi- narily of timber. The designs of many of the bridges for large spans, and also of the roofs of stations in which timber alone, or timber in connection with iron, is used, exhibit [great engineering skill, and are very instructive. The rail- Iway bridge of largest span is the suspension bridge over the iNiagara Eiver, connecting the United States with Canada, phe span of the bridge is 800 feet, and the level of the rails *8 250 feet above the water. The particulars of this bridge lave been already published in this country. On many G 146 BftlDQES. railways iron and stone are being adopted to replace timber structures which have decayed. I have appended a sketch of one iron, and one wooden bridge, of recent construction, which deserve consideration." The example of the wooden bridge given by Captain Galton closely resembles Long's bridge, which I have described at page 144. In the iron bridge the roadway is suspended by radiating iron rods, attached to either end of a cast-iron stretcher. It ap- pears to me, however, thut it is in timber work that the Americans excel, and that it is their timber structures which are most interesting to British engineers, who have ample opportunity of studying stone and iron bridges at home. To any engineer about to practise in a new country, the study of the American timber bridges is invaluable, as showing what gigantic and useful works may be constructed with that material, which, to a greater or less extent, every new country produces. RAILWAYS. H7 CHAPTER IX. RAILWAYS. European Railways-Tntroduction of Railways into the United States-Tho European construction of Raihvays unsuitable for America-Attempts ofT ./v',"°*° Engineers to construct a Railway not likely to be affected by frost-Constructions of the Boston and Lowell, New York PHI ^l^'v'-*'"' ^^IT^'' ^"^ Schenectady, Newcastle and Frenchtown, Philadelphia and Columbia, Boston and Providence, Phiiadelnhia and Amboy, Brooklyn and Jamaica, and the Charleston aftd Augusta Rail- roads-Rails, Chairs, Blocks, and Sleepers used in the United States- Unginal Cost of American Railways-Expense of upholding them- Power employed on the American Railways-Horse-power-Locmotive S S r i'"" ^"^^°' '^''''^' ^" ^^' United States-Construction of he Engines-Guard used in America-Fuel-Engine for burning EnitT / ^l^^^rf:^^-"*'-^ Engines-Description of the Stationarf Engines, Inclined Planes, and other works on the Alleghany Railway -Railway from Lake Champlain to the St Lawrence in Canada. • Too/"'* '^'^"^^y constructed in America was completed m 1827, and was intended for the conveyance of stone from the Quincy-granite quarries to a shipping port on the River ^eponsett in Massachusetts, a distance of about four miles In 1837, after a lapse of 10 years, I found that there were 67 railways completed and in full operation, whose aggregate length was 1600 miles, while the works in an rnfinished state amounted to about 2800 miles. In 1857, after a lapse ot ^0 years, it appears from the report by Captain Galton already quoted, that the American railway system has been greatly extended, and that about " 26,000 miles of railway were in operation at that date, of which, however, not more Jthan one sixth is double line." Now it is a singular and significant fact, as already stated r if 148 RAILWAYS. in the preface, that, notwithstanding tins enormous ex^en- sL of railways, and the experience whLch must have been IZci during the course of their construction the American fXay system appears to have undergone little or no change du rg the last 20 years, excepting in its extent. Throughout the interesting report of Captain Galton, RE made to .he Board of Trade inl857, the same features which I found to be peouUarto that system in 1837, seem to be regarded as its pe- culiarities still; and as these peculiarities of eoustruct.on, to- g he with others due to climate, which, of course, cannot fhange, formed the substance of my original remarks on American railways, I have no hesitation in repeating here the iX" gtally witten ; and at its close I shall avail myself of Cap ain Galton's valuable report, to give some description o the American railway legislation, and particularly of the „eat Prairie lines which have been constructed since my visit to the country, and which he has minutely examined. ■ The early American railroads consisted of iron ra.ls and chairs resting on stone blocks, and were instructed on - same principles as those in this country. Bat the American engfne s soon discovered that this construction of road al- Z TXit bad been to a certain extent successfully applied ' Engl and^vas n"ot at all capable of withstanding the r. lurs of an American winter. The intense frost, wih which fhe nor l>ern part of the country is visited, was found o spW the stone blocks and to affect the ground rn which they lere imbedded, to such a degree, that their positions were ZteZny alteiU, and the rails were in many cases so much materially ai, ^^^^^ ^^^ ^j^^ ^^^^^^ of i;!! The onse^ence wis, that most of the railroads, instructed in the United States after the English system h factually to be relaid at the close of every winter, and during ?t continuance of the frost could only be traveled . . ^»^reased Speed. The Americans have put numerous i: o^h t Hctual experiment, in their endeavoius to f"rm a structure for supporting the rails, adapted to the cUmTe and circumstances of the country. There are hard y r X-s in the United States (1837) which are made i jnormous exten- must have been n, the American tie or no change nt. Throughout ,E., made to the lich I found to be 3garded as its pe- construction, to- )f course, cannot inal remarks on epeating here the shall avail myself 1 some description articularly of the itructed since my ;ely examined. of iron rails and onstnicted on the But the American dction of road, al- iccessfully applied ithstanding the ri- 3 frost, with which , was found to split nd in which they leir positions were lany cases so much for the passage of ost of the railroads, he English system, F every winter, and d only be travelled 1 have put numerous in their endeavours lils, adapted to the r. There are hardly 7) which are made 1 RAILWAYS. 149 exactly in the same way ; but although great improvements have been effected, it is doubtful whether a structure per- fectly proof against the detrimental effects of frost has yet been produced. An enumeration of the various schemes which have been proposed for the construction of railways in America, would not be very useful, even if it were possible. I shall, therefore, only mention those constructions which came under my own observation, some of whi(ih are found to be very suitable. The Boston and Lowell Railway in Massachusetts is twenty-six miles in length, and is laid with a double line of rails. The breadth between the rails, which is four feet eight and a half inches, is the same in all the American rail- roads, and the breadth between the tracks is six feet.* Fig. 1 is a transverse section, and fig. 2 a side view, of one of the tracks, in which a are granite blocks, six feet in Pig. 1. Pig. 3. I length, and about eighteen inches square. These are placed I transversely, at distances of three feet apart from centre to I centre, each block giving support to both of the rails. This I construction! was first introduced in the Dublin and Kings- I town Railway, in Ireland, but was found to produce so rigid a road, that great difficulty was experienced in securing the fixtures of the chairs. From the difficulty, also, of procur- ing a solid bed for stones of so great dimensions, most of ^ * Captain Galton (in 1856), says, that « the general gauge in the United |State3 is four feet eight and a-half inches; that the New Vnjk and Erie, land one or two lines in connection with it, have a six feet gauge ; and that |the gauge of the Canadian lines is five feet three inches." 4 t Transactions of the Society of Arts for Scotland ; Edinburgh New Philo- pophical Journal for April 1835 and April 1836. I '^ ! r 150 RAILWAYS. them, after being subjected for a short time to the traffic of the railway, were found to have split. The blocks on the Boston and Lowell Railway were affected in the same manner, and are besides found to be very troublesome during frost. Fig. 3 is an enlarged view of the rail and chair used on this line. The rails are fish-bellied, weigh 40 lb. per lineal yard, and rest in cast-iron chairs, weighing 16 lb. each. The form of the rails and chairs resembles that at first used on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Figs. 4 and 5 represent another construction which has been tried on this line. In these views a are longitudinal trenches, two feet six inches square, and four feet eight and Fiff.^. Fig.O. :^*r=j^:P'- a half inches apart from centre to centre, formed in the ground, and filled with broken stone, hard punned down with a wooden beater, as a foundation for the stone blocks h on which the rails rest. These blocks measure two feet square, and a foot in thickness, and c is a transverse sleeper of wood, two feet eight inches and a half in length, one foot in breadth, and eight inches in thickness, which is placed be- tween the blocks to prevent them from moving. The plan of resting the railway on a foundation of broken stone, shown in the last and some of the following figures, was adopted in the expectation that it might be sunk to a sufficient depth below the surface of the ground, to prevent the frost from affecting it ; but it has failed to produce the desired effect, as subsequent experience has shown that many of those railways whose construction was more superficial have resisted the effects of frost much better. The New York and Paterson Railway is sixteen and a half miles in length, and extends along a marshy tract of ( t * S s lb time to the traffic of The blocks on the ected in the same ■ troublesome during i and chair used on gh 40 lb. per lineal ng 16 lb. each. The that at first used on struction which has s a are longitudinal [ four feet eight and itre, formed in the 1 punned down with le stone blocks h on ure two feet square, rse sleeper of wood, ength, one foot in which is placed be- loving. mndation of broken 3 following figures, might be sunk to a ground, to prevent iled to produce the as shown that many as more superficial tter. y is sixteen and a ^ a marshy tract of RAILWAYS. 151 ground Its construction is shown in figs. 6 and 7 Tl,« ran, eighteen inches square, and three feet in depth. They ^'ff.e. ^9.7. \ are placed three feet apart from centre to centre, and filled sTeeperT^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^" '^'- 'T'^^^^ *— ^ -'dt leX A f 1 T^.r^.^^ '"'^^^ ^^^^^^' ^"d «^^en feet in eeter^Zv T^ ^'^'''' '" "^^^^ -«^ ^ longitudinal S rairo?' J; T"""^ "^'^ '"^^^^ ^y «-• To these, half an n. f.r ' f "°' *^" ""^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^'-^^ ^i^le, and Figs. 8 and 9 are a cross section and side view of the Fig. 8. mrtirf ^^^Z'^'-^ «-lway. The parallel t^relches" throughout the whole line of fl,/ i , ^ ^"^^^"^^ punned full of ^^\ ! '''''^'^^^' ^nd are firmly wood marted , - '*'"''' ^^^g^^udinal sleepers of wuoa, marliod 6, measuring e ffht bv fivp innl^^. ^ \ on these trenches, which sunnort f b! ' ^'' ^^^''^ sleepers markp^ . rv^o • ^? ^ transverse wooden 152 RAILWAYS. The Newcastle ind i'lenchtown Eailway, which is sixteen miles in leii^'th, and forms part of the route from Philadel- phia to i^altimore, is constructed in the same way as that between Schenectady and Saratoga, excepting that the plate- rail is two and a half inches broad, and five-eighths of aa inch tliick, and weighs nearly 16 lb. per lineal yard. The Balti- more and Washington Railway is also constructed in the same way as regards the foundation and arrangement of the timbers, but edge-rails are employed on that line three and a half inches in breadth at the base, and two inches in height. Several exneriments have been made on the Columbia Eailroad, in Pennsylvania, which is eighty-two miles in length, and is under the management of the State. Part of the road is constructed in accordance with figs. 10 and 11, Fig. 10. Fig. 11. ^^^Ti .-..• «. ;: . i:- - z^~^M^\ which are a transverse section and side view of one of the tracks. The trenches marked a, measuring two feet six inches in breadth, and two feet in depth, are excavated in the ground, and filled with broken metal; in these, the stone- blocks, 6, two feet square, and a foot in thickness, are im- bedded at distances of three feet apart, to which :;he chairs end rails are spiked in the ordinary manner. The rails on each side of the track are connected together by an iron bar, marked c in fig. 10. This attachment is rendered absolutely necessary on many parts of the Columbia Eailroad, by the sharpness of the curves, which, at the time when the work was laid out, were not considered so prejudicial on a railway as experience has shown them to be. Another plan tried on this line is shown in figs. 12 and 13, which are a transverse section and sidevicAv. In this arrangement a continuous line of stone curb, one foot square, marked a, resting on a stratum of broken stone, is substi- tuted for the isolated stone blocks shown in figs. 10 and 11. A plate-rail, half an inch thick, and two ana a half i I rails The a cross s« general ij and Nor Bufi'alo a introduce tudinai \\ h is sixteen a Philadel- ff&y as that it the plate- 3 of aa inch The Balti- ited in the aent of the 3 three and s ill height. ! Columhia o miles in e. Part of 10 and 11, one of the TO feet six cavated in , the stone- 5S, are im- the chairs le rails on m iron bar, absolutely )ad, by the , the work 1 a railway gs. 12 and . In this bot square, , is substi- js. 10 and ma a half RAILWAYS. 153 inches broad, is spiked down to treenails of oak, or locust wood, driven into jumper-holes bored in the stone curb Fitf.lS. Fig. 13. anrTfc^-V'''^ l^ -fP''''"* *^' construction of the Boston and Providence Railway, which is forty-one miles in len<.th. Fiy. IL. Mg.l5. ^-="ya5 -^?!SL]jj;.-;i;i —.----^^5= depth, maiked a, are excavated under each line of rail at ntervals of four feet. They are filled with broken stone and form a foundation for the transverse sleepers, ma^Ted rails are fixed m the usual manner The construction shown in flgs. 16 and 17, which are Fig. 16. Fig.r/. Fig.lB. >^^- ^^:LSzi^KifeJ;kr'j3=S£S-z;:i g™ertl"fin"rnf "'' "7 "' '"" "^ ""^ *-^"'«. - - very B*Jo and NiaWralCadl'andth^LtTt hlf het^ ueii runners, maiked a, measuring one foot in o2 154 RAILWAYS. breadth, and from three to four inches in thickness, bedded on broken stone or gravel. On these runners, transverse sleepers, h, are placed, formed of round timber with the bark left on, measuring about six inches in diameter, and squared at the ends, to give them a proper rest. Longitudinal sleep- ers, c, for supporting the rails, are notched into the trans- verse sleepers, as shown in the diagram. Fig. 18 is an en- larged view of the plate-rail and longitudinal sleeper used for railways of this construction. The rail is made of wrought-iron, and varies in weight from 10 to 15 lb. per lineal yard. Tt is fixed down to the sleepers at every fifteen or eighteen inches, by spikes four or five inches in length, the heads of which are countersunk in the rail. Figs. 19 and 20 are the rails used on the Camden and Fig.l9. Fig. 20. imboy Kailway, which is sixty-one miles in length. They are parallel edge-rails, and are spiked to transverse sleepers of wood, and, in some places, to wood treenails driven into stone blocks. Their breadth is three ami a half inches at the base, and two and a half at the top, and their height four inches. They are formed in lengths of fifteen feet, and secured at the joints by an iron plate on each side, with two screw-bolts passing through the plates and rails, as shown in the diagram. On the Philadelphia and Beading Railroad, rails of the same form have been adopted. Figs. 21 and 22 show another construction, which I ob- served on several of the railroads. It was proposed with a view to counteract the eiBfects of irost. Eound piles of tim- ber, marked a, about twelve inches in diameter, are driven into the ground as far as they will go, at the distance of three feet apart from centre to centre. The tops are cross-cut, and the rails are spiked to them in the same way as in the BAILWAYS. less, bedded , transverse ith the bark md squared dinal sleep- ) the trans- 8 is an en- leeper used is made of 15 lb. per v^ery fifteen in length, amden and 155 ?th. They :se sleepers Iriven into ches at the leight four feet, and J, with two ,s shown in l Railroad, hich I ob- sed with a les of tim- are driven ce of three ss-cut, and as in the Camden and Amboy Railway, which is shown in figs. 19 and 20. The_heads of the piles are furnished with anfonjtrrp, to prevent them from splitting;"and the rails treco^ected together at every five feet by an iron bar ^^^^^cted Figs. 23 and 24 are a transverse section and side view of Fig. 24. Fig. 26. the Presentstroeture of the Brooklyn and Jamaica Railroad on which Mr Douglass, the engineer for that wort has made several experiments. The road, represented "n the c^ is exceedingly smooth, and is said to resist the efreot7of ft™? Terr bv""^- '' r"'^'' "^ '™"^™- sleoperl la^: .' pavemfn tiT T''^'^' '""'^"'^ "' ^PP^^^d »■>»)*« of pavement, two feet square, and six inches thick, marked h The wooden runner, marked c,is spiked on the inside of the tZu sr'^-" '™- "" -'-«^^ ^'- °^ ^^ others' fftl"^ ''ir™ f''"'''''™ ""^ ^"S-'^t". "d many materia^^ !r f " ^'f ''' ''^'" '^'"' '= " ^»'city o^f materials for forming embankments, are carried over low lyng tracts of marshy ground, elev'ated on structur , oT rftam'r;!t^^"^^-^'^.^''°''" '•■ «=- ^« -^ ^r! ^ 1^ ng. ^, ia uyed m situations where the level 156 RAILWAYS. liii of the rails does not require to be raised more than ten or twelve feet above the surface of the ground. Piles from ten Fig.2e. Fig. 27. a to fifteen inches in diameter, marked a, are driven into the ground by a piling engine, and, in places where the soil is soft; their extremities are not pointed but are left square, which makes them less liable to sink under the pressure of the carriages. The struts marked h are attached to the tops of the piles, and are also fixed to dwarf piles driven into the ground. Their effect is to prevent lateral motion. Fig. 26 is a truss-work which is used for greater elevations, and is sometimes carried even to the height of fifteen or twenty feet. Piles marked a are driven into the ground, and con- nected by the transverse beam c. Above these the super- structure formed of the beams d is raised, and upon it, the rails are placed. It is evident, however, that these struc- tures are by no means suitable or safe for bearing the weight of locomotive engines or carriages, and, as may naturally be expected, very serious accidents have occasionally occurred on them. They are besides generally left quite exposed, and in some situations, where they are even so much as twenty feet high, no provision is made for pedestrians, who, if overtaken by the engine, can save themselves only by scrambling to the ground. These varieties of construction were all in use when I visited the United States in 1837, but the American engineers had not at that time come to any definite conclusion as to Wiliuu oi mum cuueiii-uiuu ■ tl lu uuEJt runway. It seemed to he g( were of st( Struc of St( suppc are m rigid blocks locom surfac of the in this remarl The countr theUr the dui which ^ quays c ports oi road, ii lineal y York w cast-iroi about 1^ dance of neighboi worked ; economy made at \ down at iron-worl rails, whi It foreign • Sleepers ifiiuoe the ren appea i than ten or les from ten RAILWAYS. 157 '^en into the the soil is left square, pressure of to the tops 'en into the a. Fig. 26 ions, and is or twenty I, and con- the super- ipon it, the hese struc- the weight aturally be ly occurred ;e exposed, 50 much as rians, who, es only by ise when I 1 engineers usion as to r seemed to be generally admitted, however ih^^ fi, were in most situations mZ' ^ ^ '^''^^'" structures of stone, and ^TZ iZliZ^^^^^^ *^^«^ ^--^ Structures of wood also no 1 ^^''^'^ ^^ *^^ f^^«t- of stone, from the rnuch Trp? ^'''*' '^^'"*^^^ '''' ^^ose are more elastic, and bend unlf^ 1 '''^^" railroads rigid and unyie ding nature of . ^''' ^y^'"' ^^^^' *^^ blocks causes\heimpules;oLceyh'r^ '"' ^" ^*^°^ locomotive carriagesf or heav^tvTo^^. ^^^^^ ^«*i«° of surface, to be much more sterlye^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ *^^ of the engine and by the rails he J" ^f "^^^r ? Te2rr'^-' in America, haslXn tfeXtn t^fs^ which were often taken ontll . . "^ •""'' ""'^ *'"' ^'^ quays of New York nearlv at th '' ^"' '"'^ '»°™ ™ ^e Lorts of Great Britain thoeof thT^" t,"' '" ""^ "^ '"« road, in lengths of fifteen W j°°'''^" ""'' J*'"«'<='' lineal yard were of BHr K ' T** '"'8'"''>S ^9 lb. per York l^^^ZZtfXsz'Tm' If ""' '' ^- cast-iron chairs also of ZtrL ? ' ^'^ P^' *■>" ; the about 15 ,b. each tr L^/' I'toT thtr- ""' ""'^'""^ dance of iron-ore in Am^ ..•;. j ' '^ " S^at abun- ..eighbourhoodrf PittiTriV ;r.' "^ *''« ^^'"^ '° *he worked; but the Ameri'f r"*^ *"'''' '"'''"y ^^*<'»«ively econom; to attempt to Zf ^"^ """ " ^^'^ ^e bad made JueMyXZinZ T '"'■,'' '° '""^ as those ' down at their Crtrt'lsZlVrosrir """•": '"'^ iron-works which I visited th! , " ^"""= "^ the rails, which was the only kinStr"™ ^^'^ ''""'''« plate- It appears ..owever fr^^ n 5 '™' ?"^"'Pt^'l to make. foreign iron isTow' taxed to S '^'"""'^ ''^P"*' '^at uow taxed to the amount of 30 per cent _ • Sleepers ha».; i„ this oonnir, h..„ , ,, P *^'^°t. »i™. the remarks in the le« 'we're wrUten"'^ ^ '"Mluled Ibr Mooe-Moek,, 158 RAILWAYS. The Railway Companies are obliged to economize iron to the utmost ; and the rails used, which are made in America, are still as light as possible, the usual weight being from 50 to 65 lb. ? per lineal yard. The stone blocks in use on the railways were made of granite, which, as already noticed, is found in several parts of the United States. Yellow pine is generally employed for the longitudinal sleepers, and cedar, locust, or white-oak, for the transverse sleepers on which the rails rest ; cedar, however, if it can be obtained, is generally preferred for the transverse sleepers, because it is not liable to be split by the heat of the sun, and is less affected than perhaps any other timber, by dampness and exposure to the atmosphere. The cedar sleepers used on the Brooklyn and Jamaica Railway, measuring six inches by five, and seven feet in length, notch- ed, and in readiness to receive the rails, cost 2s. 3|d. each, laid down at Brooklyn. It is a costly timber, and is not very plentiful in the United States ; it has also risen greatly in value since the introduction of railways, for the construction of which it is peculiarly applicable. For all treenails, locust-wood is universally employed. The American railroads are much more cheaply construct- ed than those in this country, which is owing chiefly to three causes ; first, they are exempted from the heavy ex- penses often incurred in the construction of English railways, by the purchase of land and compensation for damages; second, the works are not executed in so substantial and costly a style; and, third, wood, which is the principal material used in their construction, is got at a very small cost. The first six miles of the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- road, which is formed " in an expensive manner, on a very difficult route," has cost, on an average, about L.12,000 per mile. The railroads in Pennsylvania cost about L.5000 per mile; the Albany and Schenectady Railroad upwards of L.6000 per mile; the Schenectady and Saratoga Railway] Jj.1800 per mile* ; and the Charleston and Augusta Railroad • Facts and suggestions relative to the New York and Albany Railway. New York, 1833. about to th( first t( ed for Jlaid, ( Hones laid V portio] machi] cost of United with tl which mile. The Bobins( with wl "The the sup€ " Silh and tw€ inches, t feet apa these sil by nine nches a idges of >y half a •lates of nd a h rought be tri] 'ontact M he iron t * The avei It the end ( firds of the rniicd Siaten lize iron to in America, ing from 50 )re made of everal parts ly employed r white-oak, rest; cedar, jrred for the split by the »s any other ahere. The ca Railway, ngth, notch- 3. 3|d. each, d is not very n greatly in construction 11 treenails, ly constnict- g chiefly to e heavy ex- ish railways, 3r damages; stantial and he principal a very small L Ohio Eail- er, on a very L.12,000 per t L.5000 per upwards of oga Railway ista Railroad dbany Railway.^ RAILWAYS. 159 about the same. Mr Mnnn«,.« -d i • to the Philipsburg LdTuIt tT'i''*'«l'«''^J''«™ first ten miles of the Danvmn,p'"/r.'^' '""^^> ">at the ed for a double track hTon 1 ^""'""f ^''^'"^ f"™" l"id, cost on an average L Joo " ''"^ " ''^^ ""'^ ""« Honesdale and Carbonfl rT f ^.T'"' *"<" t*"" '^e laid with a single traT« >'^' ^^^ "''"^ '" '^gth, portion of itsTength t; tf/^^'^f'' "" "^ -n-derrble machinery, to haveC^ed "16^ ' " T"'"""''' "'"> cost of these railwaysrcfnstruct ^1 H-^ '' . ^^' "^"'^e' United States, is hlmZlZTt '"J'.^^'^'^'^ P^rts of the with the cost of the r!f,r ""'' "'"'"' '='""'''^t« strongly which perhlmav ,.»?'" "°°'*™'="''' '" 'h'^ <'<'"ntr/ ^,^^ perhaps may be taken on an average at 1.35,000 pe^ Eob^lXrtm ' ""'"'''"'' "" '^^'■"""<' fr°m Mr with which mZyoniel^Lr" 'f' "' "'^ "''-?-- " The followinrplan -'tys Mr IT ' "'' """^tructed .- thesnperstructurfofth^Phn n^ ".T' '^P™Po«ed for "Sills of white Lnost'T"^'' '^''''''''''^*"'™^^- and twelv. in^s .^ll ?Slf/„ "^ ^%''"'' 'nches, are to be laid acm«= 7, """"^ *» » width of nine feet apart from cent T cent "fn "' tf '^""^ "' «™ these sills, rails of white oak "heart ninTfl' • 'T'^ '" by nine inches in denth „„ .„ ^ P'"^ A™ "ches wide inches apart, meastd''rhi^^ t^Zf' t' T '''"' ■edges of these rails T.l«tp= ^r i\ i • ^^ *^^ ^^ner .y half an inch h ct "i^estiL at 'f '""' *"° '"^'>^^ "'"e 'lates of sheet iron one (wfin^fl""""" "'^ J^ction on 'nd a half inches 10?^! * °l '" '"'^ "''"'^' '">'• f°" ™ught iron spik s iLe n' ^; '^'^"'^ '^'"' fi^-i-^ch :o ^« trimmedTlStly'bt rriurji^ r^" 'fl contact with the iron rail and M vl ? j V^ P°'"* °^ *e iron to pass off rain-wlr '''''* ^'^^ ™'«'<'« T'""" •="'"'. I'y Caplota Dougla. Gallon; R.eV •'"•"»*. »/ li< 160 i; I lllli ' iiii BAILWAYS. 'Such a superstructure as that above described would be entirely adequate to the use of locomotive engines of from fitteen to twenty horses power, constructed without surplus weight, or similar to those now in use on the little Schuylkill Railroad in this state (Pennsylvania), or the Petersburg Railroad in Virginia; and it will be observed that only the sills, which constitute but a very slight item m Its cost are much exposed to the action of those causes which induce decay in timber. It is particularly recom- mended for the Philipsburg and Juniata Railroad, by the great abundance of good materials along the line of the improvement for its construction, and the consequent economy with which it may be made. " T\^ following may be deemed an average estimate of the cost of a mile of superstructure as above described. :— 1056 trencher 8 feet long. 12 inches wide, and 14 inches deep, filled with broken stone, at 25 cents each. Same jumber of sills, hewn, notched, and imbedded, at si cents' ^^' ^Ji'^'^ r''* ,1 "^'^' ^""'^"'"^ ^"^ P^^' ««"t- f^"- ^ast'e), at 4* cents per lineal foot, delivered, . . 2112keys, at2^cents each, . ' ' * ' ' 10,560 lineal feet of plate rails. 2 inches b/j inch," weight' 3J lb.' per foot, 15/^V tons, delivered at 50 dollars (L.lo7per 15091b. of 5-inch spikes, at 9 cents per pound, [ Sheet iron under ends of rails, . • • . Placing and dressing wood, and spiking down iron r^ils, .' Filling between sills with stone, or horse-path, . . * 2692 dollars, or about L.540." On some of the American Railways, where the line is short or the traffic small, horse power is employed, but loco- motive engines for transporting goods and passengers are in much more general use. In New York, Brooklyn, Phila- delphia, Baltimore, and other places which have lines of railway leading from them, the depot or station for the loco- . motive engines is generally placed at the outskirts, but the | rails are contmued through the streets to the hea ^ Dollars. 264 528 436-48 5280 2692-80 RAILWAYS. 161 i^bA^trs:" ''''''■' "™' '"'^ P-' »f 'he ing the pasige of ilToU::™'"" ^'■'. ''"^" "«»<>- thoroughfares. I tavelledwt ^"'' """"«'' ""^^ed and Hudson Eailwa7fn>m s^.^'^", P?*" o" the Mohawk tanoe of sixteen S/»^ Schenectady to Albany, a dis- -xty-fivo minutes S;"t teiT'^V "''''"'''' ■» miles an hoar. The car bv wV . 7""^'"^ '^'^ "^ fi^een twelve passengers, ndwLdr!,K rV'™™^^'' <=»™ed stages of five miles m fe , ^ '™ ''"'''^^' ^'"'='> «" lines, is often ve^y defec^t "T^', '™\"' ""^ '"^"-"^ti-e which is rune at tt,» „ ' ," ''"'«^^ ''"" "" '""e engine -ning whil Id"" a~- :lr^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ■■' '"^ ^^ eases, near tow! buTl ar'/b t'^'l'' '"''P' '" ^P^eial ing with the wo^ls " rinted^% /'' '!, t'""^ °^" ">« "»««- and 4 feet 6 inches wide caUeT;»tH"^"'"'"''=<'P across the railway on eith ; of t "let-eTf ' "' ™' prevent cattle from stravino- Z\l , crossings to carried past the^ w ^ ^ *' '""'' ""'' *<=« rails are across threLX'sp::'" "" "'""^ "^^ ^'-'""^'"K BrSl mfnutre"rut''''^''T ""'' *" ^"^^ -ere of lately heenTJtltuIL tTe^Xr th"'^'°^^ ''*™ of these machines whiob ..! ^ **' construction numbers. The lamlst IZ T '"*""f''^'"ed in great of Mr Baldwin, MflrisM'T ™«""7"'^^ "'' "'»- and Eastrick al in P^, [ ?> , ^' """* ^''^"'' Gfant work at iow'ell wSn T vt "^l"' '''' '^°"'^" ^"K'»- to -e X am inl^rd ^fr^elf aVe^^f ^ ^^ XentXts^ S^r a^a? TTf™ ^-'^riL" workmanship. ThosTnll of '. '"*""" ™'' 8°°^ 162 RAILWAYS. m! ; but the external parts, such as the connecting rods, cranks, framing, and wheels, were left in a much coarser state than in engines of British manufacture. The American engines, with their boilers filled, weigh from twelve to fifteen tons, and cost about L.1400 or L.1500, including the tender. This is not much more than the cost of an engine of the same weight in this country. They have six wheels. These are arranged in the following manner, so as to allow the engine to travel on rails having a great curvature ; the driving wheels, which are five feet in diameter, are placed in the posterior part of the engine close to the fire-box, and the fore part of the engine rests on a truck running on four wheels of about two feet six inches in diameter : a series of friction-rollers, arranged in a circular form, is placed on the top of the truck, and in the centre stands a vertical pivot, which works in a socket in the framing of the engine. The whole weight of the cylinders and the fore part of the boiler rests on the friction-rollers, and the truck turning on the pivot as a centre, has freedom to describe a small arc of a circle ; so that when the engine is not running upon a per- fectly straight road, its wheels adapt themselves to the cur- vature of the rails, while the relative positions which the body of the engine, the connecting rods, and other parts of the machinery bear to each other, remain unaltered.* The object of this arrangement w ill be apparent when it is stated that some of the curves on the American Kailways have so small a radius as 350 feet. From the unprotected state of most of the railways, which are seldom effectually fenced, cattle often stray upon the line, *I believe an attempt was made to apply Avery's Rotatory Engine to propel a locomotive carriage, on one of the American railways, but I could not obtain satisfactory information either as to the particulars of the experi- ment, or the part of the country in which it was made. Avery's engines, are, I believe, a good deal used in the northern parts of the United States, for driving small mills. They are generally of from 6 to 12 horses power. In New York I saw three of them at work, one in the Astor Hotel, which was employed to pump water, grind coffee, &c., one in a saw-mill in Attor- ney Street, and the third working a printing press ; these were the only engines constructed on the rotatory principle, which I saw in actual use in the country. Is, cranks, state than n engines, teen tons, le tender, ne of the Is. These allow the ,ture ; the ire placed 3-box, and ig on four a series of !ed on the ;ical pivot, ;ine. The the boiler ng on the ill arc of a )on a per- to the cur- which the }r parts of ed.* The it is stated fs have so ays, which )n the line, ry Engine to I, but I could of the experi- ery's engines, Jnited States, horses power. Hotel, which Dili in Attor- vere the only actua.! u3c in RAILWAYS. 163 and are run down by the engines, which are in some cases thrown off the rails by the concussion, producing very serious consequences. To obviate this, and render railway travel- ling more safe, an apparatus called a "guard" is employed; those I saw consisted of a strong framework of wood, fixed to the fore-axle of the locomotive carriage, and supported on two small wheels, about two feet in diameter, which run on the rails about three feet in advance of the engine. The outer extremity of the framework is shod with iron slightly bent up, and comes to within an ijich of the top of the°ails. The upper part of the surface of the guard is covered with wood, and the lower part with an iron grating. The appa- ratus affords a complete protection to the wheels of the en- gine. I experienced the good effects of it upon one occasion on the Camden and Amboy Kailway. The train in which I travelled, while moving with considerable rapidity, came in contact with a large waggon loaded with firewood, which was literally shivered to atoms by the concussion. The fragments of the broken waggon, and the wood with which it was loaded, were distributed on each side of the rail- way, but the guard prevented any part of them from fall- ing before the engine-wheels, and thus obviated what might in that case have proved a very se-ious accident. The guards now in use are of the form shown in the cut, which is taken from the drawing given by Captain Galton in his Keport. The fuel used on most of the railways is wood, but the sparks vomited out by the chimney when it is not covered with a cap or grating, are a source of constant annoyance to the passengers, and occasionally set fire to the wooden 164 RAILWAYS. bridges on the line, and the houses in the neighbourhood. Anthracite and bituminous coal, as formerly noticed in the chapter on fuel and materials, are now coming to be more generally used. In situations where the summit level of a railway cannot be attained by an ascent sufficiently gentle for the employ- ment of locomotive engines, or where the formation of such inclinations, though perfectly practicable, would be attended with an unreasonably large outlay, transit is generally eliec- ted by means of inclined planes, worked by stationary engines. This system has been introduced on the Portage Railway, over the Alleghany ^Mountains, on ;i more exten- sive scale than in any other part of the world. The Portage, or Alleghany Railway, forms one of the links of the great Pennsylvania Canal and railroad communication from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, — a work of so difficult and vast a nature, and so peculiar, both as regards its situation and details, that it cannot fail to be interesting to every engineer, and 1 sliall, therefore, state at some length the facts which I have been able to collect regarding it.* This communication consists of four great divisions, the Columbia Railroad, the Eastern Division of the Pennsylvania Canal, the Portage or Alleghany Railroad, and the Western Division of the Pennsylvania Canal. These works form a continuous line of communication from Philadelphia on the Schuylkill to Pittsburg on the Ohio, a distance of no less than 395 miles. Commencing at Philadelphia, the first Division of this stupendous work is the Pbiladelphia and Columbia Railroad, which was opened in the yeny 1 &-J4. It h e'ghty-two miles in length, and was exe( :; f at o cost of about L. 666,025, being at the rate of L.8122 per mile. There are several viaducts of considerable extent on this railway, and two in- * I understand that a tunnel has now been made to avoid the steep in- clines on this line, but its original construction is a lasting monument to American enterprize, and a proof of what may be overcome by boldness of design and perseverance, and the details of its constrrction must ever be worthy of a place in the records of Engineering, so that I offer no apology for repeating the sketch of the work as originally executed. Ilow, nAILTV'AYS. 165 raid the steep in- dined planes worked by stationary engines On. „f fh Te'Tttlfe' T '\ "' "" ^'"Weilhia'erd -of t , t ^I bia, rises at the rate of one in 2 2 C % ' "'"' "" and overcomes an elevatil of ft" A ve";:r"'"'^^.'' incurred in upholdinn- thp in.i- I , ^"^^ ^"^""^^ ^""^ '^ .ateiy been r^'t^rtvr:!^ M ^^l^^ T'^^ T, ma.ntaining the stationary power and tZl^, J , "" °5 the Philadelphia incli„e/is\aTd\o be about L'stoo" °' r nciinedTC'r ^hflf "" ,""' ^'*''^" ">^ '"P-f t..e line is afrj':? 11^^ 'bt IL'f ''"" °^ numerous, and many of them very s'harn the "- "™ .■adius being so email as 350 feet. Th s Ze If T'"""""' Totro' rarr^- tdr-^^^^^^^^ rt::-:bdfdS£~=- raih^aye a. experience has sinor^Zri': t'o^ "^^^^ "' ind'etl/oTIlirrranTnt ^rlT.^Tr' ^''^' upright in fhervvmo^ io tfnle t^'ir^r- "^^ ^'^^ four-wheeled trufJ f, Tf^' '".'' '' ^"PP°"^<' »" t^o m 168 RAILWAYS. I ^ At the t4»mination of the railway at Columbia, is the com- mencement of the Eastern Division of the Pennsylvania Canal, Which extends to HoUidaysburg, a town situate at the foot oi the Alleghany Mountains. This canal is rather more than 172 miles in length, and was executed at an expense of L.918,829, being at the rate of L.5342 per mile. There are 33 aqueducts, and 111 locks on the line, and the whole height of lockage is S^'^-S feet. A considerable part of this canal is slackwater navigation, formed by damming the streams of the Juniata and Susquehanna. The canal crosses the Sus- quehanna at its junction wiih the Juniata, at which point it attains a considerable breadth. A dam has been erected in the Susquehanna at this place, and the boats are dragged across the river by horses, which walk on a tow path attach- ed to the outside of a wooden bridge, at a level of about thirty feet* above the surface of the water. I regret that 1 passed through this part of the canal after sunset, and had only a very superficial view of the works at this place, which are of an extensive and curious nature. HoUidaysburg is the western termination of the Eastern Division of the Pennsylvania Canal. The town stands at the base of the Alleghany Mountains, which extend in a south-westerly direction, from New Brunswick, to the State of Alabama, a distance of upwards of 1100 ;niles, presenting a formidable barrier to communication between the eastern and western parts of the United States. The breadth of the Alleghany range varies from a hundred to a hundred and fifty miles, but the peaks of the mountains do not attain a greater height than 4000 feet above the level of the sea. They rise with a gentle slope, and are thickly wooded to their summits. " The Alleghany Mountains present what must be considered their scarp or steepest side to the east. where granite, gneiss, and other primitive rocks are seen. Upon these repose first, a thin formation of transition rocks dipping to the westward, and next a series of secondary rocks, including a very extensive coal formation."* The National • Encyclopaedia Britannlca, article America. Road comn and i Easte by m( which same • ■ and ti ber 1^ tracks tion. The Gap," 2326 f Kobins( River V Mounta level of 292 feet Thep sage of feet i:i j the mou ties wer( grubbing, this cour in their ^ JL.SOperj to be ren: American much too J liany Kail large grow ilth of Jk vith folia^ vhich con fountry du jive view is the com- snnsylvania tuate at the rather more expense of There are hole height ^ this canal i streams of es the Sus- ich point it L erected in ire dragged )ath attach- 3I of about sgret that X Bt, and had dace, which ;he Eastern Q stands at sxtend in a o the State , presenting the eastern jadth of the undred and Lot attain a of the sea. J wooded to resent what to the east, cs are seen, sition rocks tidary rocks, he National RAILTTATS. 167 i^:Sti^,o?ircr rr - -- "^^ «- "•- ^f »d in the year 1831 iLT '^'"^™''"« »™f this range • Eastern and wl^l^ K^lZt^rV"' -"-cting fhe by mean, of a railroad Thia ml? f ^-^^y'^""'* Canal whioh cost about L.526 871 75 *"^ *''''«'™ ^o'k. «ame year in which the Act for r,/""!!""""^ ''"'>'° *•=« and the first train pasaed ove" on T'T;/."; "^ ^'^'^'' ter 1833, but it was not till *i ^^^ day of Novem- ^ were oo.,eted:ir XStrfu^- el^! «?SS:t~f,e^^r7''*'' "^''''''^ Snsrsut;:dl1intf ?- -^^^^^^ River Juniata/:hi:h is iL^ndTf "^ ^'"''P^^^ '» *e Mountains by the pass c , d ?'1 ^ °;™- „">« Aileghany level of this line is stated in » -^"'^f ,' "^^P- Tlie summit 292 feet lower than tha of tl pT' ^^^^' '^''^«'««. *« be The preliminary o»n oiVl". "?' ^""""y- sage of the railway from a hunf^?^ * *™"'' <■"' 'he pas- feet i . breadth, thro„Tthe^hf.f *.° V'>">"'^^'! ""d fifty the mountains 're clad was onet ^T^"'''^ with which ties were encountered This „„7?-""' "° ™''" d'^^oJ- .™«n., is little inown inte SreV'''"' '^ "''"^^ this country, and is estimated br^e A ° '"«'"'''"''» ■■" ■n their various railway and cltT American engineers, L.80permile,accordinTto"he "" T^'^' "' ''™'» ^.40 to to be removed, an estfm « wh rflmT'" ""''^ '™^- American forests, I should think must T' W^^^^ee of much too low. The timber removed f' .,, ?^ '"stances, be any Bailway was ehieS "iHelr "r""''^^"'^^- *arge growth. I passed over Se An k f" P'"«' «<' very '1th of May, at which time the '/'''"'y*^''"""""^ on the ■'ith foliage, and formed a In „„'/*:'/ *'"^'y <=overed ;hich completely inte^rcCtlf t it Ttkl "" """7^' ;Ountry during th^ o-rnnf^t „__. „ .V^^. ^* *^e surroundino- r ^'- --^-^ ^taTneTfC:^ / Ii>ili 168 BAILWAYS. -t. U»e . laid .U. a ^^tr^tr 'Z 1t^^ at^r r =?!: Hi StSoSU eloping ground, »»?"-* "[^^J^tng^^^^^^^^^^ by cutting elay, P-* """^/^^^jf "'^^ protected by into the hill and part by a.»i g .^ consequently jr :o\:tC:rprn entire^s.^^^^^^^^^^^ tain torrents, and the thorough d« "J^ "^^^ J" ^^„ ,,. -sscr ri3 Pet:' r. one-half to one, or six inches b";^~;„ ';^,,^ „„ the perpendicular. There are no P-* f « f^^J^^ .^ ^e tops HoUidaysDurg Alleehanv Mountains, a distance oi western base ol the Aiiegnauj^ x , the wliol( . „i:.i. .^fopd Wween these planes. Ihe distance riUd^^^u^rg- to the summit-level is about ten miles, u the he to the I 1172-8J way abi The overcon placed ( Na of Plane The fo: the railwj overcome The mac^ insists of I heels placi rnished w circumfei RAILWAYS. 169 rest was ye could 3 lines of siderable >ng stt p \ coal and )y cutting >tected by sequently by moun- irface has The re- ported, are Lgbt; tliey r of about ilve inches ills on the at the tops athin three , feet high, ines below, I fifty-three en built on River Cone- lc surface of 900 feet in it in height. ; remarkable Bxtends froiii town on the I distance ol on the wholf light, 2OO7-0; es, and564:'r ts of the rail 1172-88 feet, ne ht^^rht J^^'" ""'''f' ""^ '^' "^^'g'" placed on each side of the summit-leveh- ' 1607-74 1760-43 1480-25 219594 2628-60 2713-85 2655-01 3116 92 272080 2295-61 One in 10-71 ... 1329 ... 11-34 ... 11-68 ... 13-03 ... 10-18 ... 1019 ... 10-13 ... 14-35 ... 12-71 150 feet. 132-40 ... 130 50 187-86 ..." 201-64 ... 266 50 ... 260-50 ... 307-60 ... 189-50 ... 180-52 ... I , ^^® following table shows the leno-th nf ^ -u the railway between the inclined Z s and tt T"f- '' overcome on it :— Planes, and the elevation 1 in 214 92 — 363-73 ~ 477-87 ~ 633-61 — 523-90 — 449-24 level — 696-44 — 519-20 — 303-44 ~ 133 68 101-46 189 58 15-80 18-80 25-80 19-04 6-40 12-00 2958 146 71 distance frof-OfiTf ^.P-"^"' b- "f» ^tll'X^^tZ: en miles, an -- "^xng. me ^yp^g were priffinallv m^^'L 71 ."':"' -u.fe,ence, hut the, have Utel.arsC.. iL^ 170 RAILWAYS. ly'j ■Hf to 8 inches, to prevent a tendency which they formerly had to slip in the grooved wheels, occasioned hy their circumfer- ence being too small for the size of the groove or hollow in the wheel. Two stationary engines of twenty-five horse power each are placed at the head of the inclined planes, one of which is in constant use in giving motion to the horizontal wheels round which the rope moves while the trains are passing the inclined planes. Two engines have been placed at each station, that the traffic of the railway may not be stopped should any accident occur to the machinery of the one which is in operation ; and they are used alternately for a week at a time. Water for supplying the boilers has been conveyed to many of the stations at a great expense. The planes are laid with a double track of rails, and an ascending and a descending train are always attached to the rope at the same time. Many experiments have been made to procui^ an efficient safety-car to prevent the trains from running to the foot of the inclined plane, in the event of the fixtures by which they are attached to the endless rope giving way. Several of these safety-cars are in use, and are found to be a great security. The trains are attached to the endless rope simply by two ropes of smaller size made fast to the couplings of the first and last waggons of the train, and to the endless rope by a hitch or knot, formed so as to prevent it from slipping. Locomotive engines are used on the parts of the road be- tween the inclined planes. The following extract, from the Eeport 6f the Pennsylvania Canal Commissioners for 1836, affords the best proof of the traffic which the road is capable of carrying on ; — " The Portage Kailway, however complicated in its opera- tions, and limited in capacity by inclined planes, as canals are by locks, is nevertheless adequate to the transaction of a vast amount of business. Occupying, as it does, a nearly central position on the main line between Columbia and Pitts- burg, the capacity of the planes ought to be equal to that of the canal locks on those Divisions. Many suppose the planes fall very far short of that limit, and that their full rapacity is nearly reached. RAILWAYS. 171 plane is about 3000 fe^t ■ *!,„ t- °. '"^ longest or down it is five linutl; • the Z?""^"' '" ""^'"g "P two and a-half min, t^ . ' , oocupie'd in attacliing is or eight drafts pehtmoTth"^ T?". *"" ""'''"f '"-"fes, tons each, makfng twenty iL"l '="'' ^"^'■'^ *'''^« hour. * twenty.four cars, or seventy-two tons per t^:; thet i:':!ct SetKr ^"''>*»^-. ported from east to wesTfrnm A^ . '"''"«^' *»dtrans- U,300, making a tralft ' f \^ ^" '" °'=*"''<" ^I't, is dred p^r day tuVins e„,f ) ?."""' ""' '^""'^^''S " •>«». demands it, twenty-four 1 I' ""'"^''' ^^""^ '^' ''"^e number doWn the 10^^ °'" ^' P"'""^ "?> ""-J ">^ «™e hundred and d^S P'^l ""i^t '°r' ■"*"« *™ or five hundred »d seventy LTn ot ."'' °f- '"''™ '"'"^' four hours- this c»ntl ,'^ ^ ''"'*'=*"'" '» twenty- and night by means o^lTt"'''^ ''^ "^'"8 the road dly Af^To fh! 7: o7olherTh7:= ''^'^ ^""' "'"' ^^' "^ railway was open i„ the yea 'I'/e iririr ' '""" '"^ conveyed along the line- and th.lu ' H'^'^S^" were in pounds weight of tw'm V /'°™« '' « statement scies at Holt ys^ rgrWtb^a""''"'"■^'r''^'''''8'•- to 37,081 tons, con'veye! in l^looVag^Lr^'' '""''""""« Months. Merchand ise. Iron. April, Alay, June, July, -'lUgUSt, Sept., Ootobev, 7,192,310 13,262,218 6,146,415 4,724,830 8,124,370 7.132,345 6,899,050 1,863.170 1,654,495 3,389.160 1,843.700 2,076.820 2,063,645 1.938,710 Coal. 673,060 2,3.35,390 2,384.735 1,019,070 2,094,300 3,645,660 2,899,730 Lumber. P"int)erof Cars. ' 315,435 258,940 367.045 63,310 347,950 86,620 260,140 172 EAILWAYS. iU The travelling on this railway is very slow. The train by which I was conveyed left Hollidaysburg at nine in the morning, reached the summit at twelve, and arrived at Johnstown at five in the evening, seven hours having been occupied in travelling thirty-six miles, being only at the rate of about five miles an hour. Much time is lost in ascending and descending the inclined planes, and an hour is generally spent for dinner at an inn on the summit, which is the only house unconnected with the works which is met with on the whole journey. The fourth division of this grand work is the Western Division of the Pennsylvania Canal, which extends from the termination of the Portage Eailway at Johnstown to Pitts- burg. It has 64 locks, 16 aqueducts, 64 culverts, 152 bridges, and a tunnel upwards of 1000 feet in length. This canal traverses the valleys of the Conemaugh, Kiskiminetas, and Alleghany Eiversj measures 105 miles in length, and cost L.560,000, being at the rate of L.5333 per mile. The whole distance of the Pennsylvania canal and railroad communication, extending from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, is 395 miles. I travelled this distance in ninety-one hours, exclusively of the time lost in stopping at Columbia, Harris- burg, and other places of interest on the route. The average rate of travelling was therefore 4.34 miles per hour. One hundred and eighteen miles of this extraordinary journey were performed on railroads, and the remaining 277 miles on canals. The charge made for each passenger conveyed the whole distance was L.3, being at the rate of nearly 2d. per mile. Since these remarks were written the American railways have, as already noticed, been greatly extended ; and I gladly avail myself of the valuable Eeport of Captain Galton, made to the Board of Trade in 1857, from which the following ex- tracts as to the routes of the great prairie and other lines are taken ; which, together with the observations I have laid before the reader, will, it is believed, aff'ord a pretty accurate idea of the American railway system at the present date : — " The railways of the United States," says Captain Galton, RAILWAYS. „ b«t the r;n,.e of th» A n V ** '^"^"^ lands i„ the west • north near uLl^^/i'^f^y^^o^tains rising in t ' , coast, intersects every hne of ZTl T'^ P^™"«' *« «'« oommercial sea-board etLsandT ^'^'™ "'<' ™P°''»t " The direct easier^ / ^ ^^'*'''" <"»'"cts- this range pal^ tl;" ^^ ^ " '^'''"'' *™--- " 1»^, The New TorkTent " ,T , ''''"*^ """""• ^'^- ■— the communication f^^L'^CntrrV"'' '^ " ''"'' ''^ nected with New Ycri bv thfw i the West; this is con- connected with wes rn inta^'^t" ^^-'^ ^f^"-^. and is i'no passes up the valley of theifor^? ""'. ^""'^'°- ^hi^ gradients along its whole lenjth''' """^ ""^ ''''™"™''"« thrit JXi^:jt:LTif ;tr r ''''^''' "-•"« q-ehanna and Delaware fori ' ^^'' ^'^'^ "^ the Sus- lines at Niagara andX'/Z, r^r^^tion with western " 3■? "" '"'i- »ay, but tU are. „t the Stale of TuLoi 'I M 000 .„ °^ "V"" °'""- stated upon j„„d »„n„i ,„^, per center !L'T? ■°"'"- '"" " " 44,000 square mile,, „, 28,260,000 J^JZ^l lf7 ! f ""'-"I"'! '» very similar ta what U .Ire.d, 1„ cultivati°r It .llTfTu "''*'^' '^''^' cr„p „f „Lcat in Illinois is fr„n, "S toSO h,',.h ■"" "■ """6' quenti, it roaches 40 bushel, per acre I wtth'^Je^rb ""' """'■ '"' are. were devoted to the eultare of wheat and ifTkl . '"'■""=-'»™"»"'"l per aere bo taken at 25 bu-hels the vi n t """' """•"8° P™"""" of bushels auuua,,,. A'Thlt;. Hef ZllrZCZT '''':'^-'^' sary.and the land need onh\« „l„,r,,i,,7.j ' """'""""e '""««..- absence of limber, however los r ™ f """' '" "'"'"" ' ""P- l'b» Ibe houses are ahiosl nvarfab v a Tr ","",,"7'"°"' """"'' '»■• '"-"bcr, a. of U,e principal rai w.^t d Ve .taut"' ^ "''■, ™« ^ '^-J'-' "f «n. first year or two .Her .raillv° „,"!*. 1°°"°"' '» "'""« how, in ll„ transported alonir it but how r.',-'" '"■"•"• ""= "ccessanea of life alone are =.*.sand ha-:rrrzrsTc:;:rs::::c-^^^^^^ 176 RAHiWATB. "In 1849 the population was 23,047; in 1855 it was 83,509. In 1851 the number of miles of railway centering in Chicago were 40, and the annual receipts from traffic about L.8000; in 1855 the miles of railway centering in Chicago amounted to 2933, and the receipts from traffic to L.2,659,640. In 1849 the amount of lumber received at Chicago amounted to 73,259,553 feet ; in 1855 to 326,553,467 feet. Twenty years n^ > Chicago and the surrounding dis- trict imported grain for food ; in 1853 the amount of grain exported was 6,500,000 bushels, and in 1855 the export of grain amounted to 16,633,813 bushels, — the total amount received into the city in 1855 being 20,487,953 bushels. The value of beef packed in Chicago in 1851 was about L.130,000 ; in 1855 about L.230,000. The value of real estate in Chicago, which is stated to have been L. 360,000 in 1840, and L.1,600,000 in 1850, was estimated at L.8,200,000 at the end of 1855." " Eailways in the United States appear to have been con- structed under four different arrangements : — Ist, By the State. 2d, By a company to whose share capital, or mortgage debt, the State has contributed, retaining an inte- rest in the line and some power of interference. 3c?, By a company to whom lands have been granted, but which otherwise has not been interfered with. 4th, By a company unassisted, and therefore no^- inter- fered with. " 1st, The railways made by the State do not appear to have been successful. State railways have consequently not proved remunerative, and they have generally been trans- ferred to private companies." " 2d, The States and municipal corporations have in several instances given assistance to railway companies. In most cases the State or the corporation of the town has reserved to itself the right of appointing directors in propor- tion to the amount contributed; but as these directors are generally elected by universal suffrage for short periods, BAILWATS. 177 1/7 tliey often desire to reeulatfl tl,„ „ ™y more with rekrenT^'^Sj^TT' "' ""> -■'- .nterestsas . oo.:„ercial »p3„'""' '"'''"'• *''-*° "« merciai speculation The mZl' * f ™'''"'y '« « <=<""- company^ if, on the eontraHl tT" ''^'^'' '« "=« political object, the commer^M , '"' '''""''^'J with a «f view, and the ine be whoTl '■"''"' '•'''"''* ">« '^W out *o construct a railwa^ by „t,ts of' l" .""" " """^'^y deserves attention as bein/« ,, ''"'^' '" »»« ^h'ch our colonial possessions ^ ''"''''' "1*''^""^ ^ "'"'y of — llT^etTstesr It ""r- ''^'- -"" ^ of the soil canfot be m de Tvailab, '"«!: f ' "' '""'"^ munication, and any amount "'7'^/ *'"'"' means of com- »ill induce'a compa"^: rdstrucT '' T" "''^''^-^ *'>'«'' territories the land is survey d in iV "'{• ^° *" "^- square mile. The railwav T ' """'' """taining a ;« allowed to ta.e:ira'd™S7, ^^'^ '-d is ,ra/ed the hne, a specified quantity in alte.^ate 't '"^"""^ ^"^ w.thm a certain distance from tte line T °" ""''' '"« those lots which would naturaZ f!n I fC " "*'" "^ "f Lave been previously bourt L j" ''j" TP'^'-y. ^ho^'d company selects other lots ^ "">.v.duals, the railway ment of the country he"?!,'''',"' '",'"''""'' '''^ «^«'«- "f land which are ZlinTiZiVt: "' "'^ """""'^ '»'« " The St,*. • '""^ "y the State is increased , As he progress of this railway affordfJ h^ . -.. ^^^on ux the advantages of this method it ^; "'"^'^'"o /"^S" ~- a brief account of it. ' ^^'^'' desirable h2 trati to 178 RAILWAYS. :!i! " The company was formed for the purpose of making a railway through Illinois from Cairo, at the oonfluence of the Ohio and Mississippi, to Dubuque on the Mississippi, with a branch line to Chicago. Its course lay chiefly through prairie land, only inhabited at a few points. On the 20th September 1850, Congress granted to the State of Illinois 2,595,000 acres of land to aid in the construction of the Illinois Central Kailroad. The vacant lands, in alternate sections within 6 miles of the road, were conveyed by direct terms in the grant, and, in lieu of such portions as had been previously sold, selections were authorized to be made be- tween 6 and 15 miles on each side of the road. The com- pany was incorporated by the Legislature of the State of Illinois in 1851, and the grant conferred upon it. The company created a capital stock of 17,000,000 dollars, on which 25 per cent, has been paid; and for the additional money required for the construction of the railway, they have raised 20,000,000 dollars by mortgage on the security of 2,345,000 acres of the land granted to them, and they have reserved 250,000 acres, the proceeds from which are to assist in paying the interest on this mortgage. " The ordinary price of new land in the States is one dollar per acre ; the company are selling the land at prices varying from 5 to 25 dollars per acre, which is paid for in five annual instalments, with 3 per cent, interest. When the last instalment has been paid, commissioners appointed by the State grant a title to the purchasers of the land upon the railway company producing to them such a number of mortgage bonds cancelled as amount to the price they have received for the land. " This line runs for the greater part of its course through prairie land without trees — land which, with a small expen- diture of labour, produces most luxuriant crops. " When the line was first opened the country was nearly uninhabited ; stations were placed at every 8 or 10 miles, round which villages, and in some cases towns, have sprung up, and fields of corn and herda of cattle are now to be seen on every side. If well managed, this railway should prove RAILWAYS. 179 most lucrative to the shareholders If ha. ^ ^ , developed the resources o the State and tf'''^ ^"^^^>' the intended route C ''^'™"™ """'""y' ^^^ "otice of ^round« nf P'^^J^'*^^ '^^^^oad IS sometimes opposed on grounds of public inconvenience- hnf T ,, • „^^ '''^^ <^» opposition by individuals on priWte i nd,' """t' *""" and would not be tolerated. ^ "''' " ''"''°™''' " The company receives powers bv its chnrt.r t„ . i n missioners to make awards. ^ """^'^ "°°^* i'he decisions are not in all cases final- on ^ sometimes be carried into son.e Co'rt of the StateT ""' CONSTITUTION OF RAILWAY COMPANIES. boa'rd^Sor''''"' '^ ^°"™^' "^ " !''-'''»* -d » ... .„u„aj.». He devotes his whole time to the affair» of the company. I„ him is vested the whole execu^Tve I 180 RAILWAYS. power, and he is responsible for the efficient and economical working of the line. The directors are generally good men of business, but unpaid, excepting when they are required to attend continuously on occasional committees; they would appear generally to have the position of a consulta- tive body, to assist and watch over the 'president, and to be responsible for the financial position of the coiipany, and for the proper management of the accounts. " These officers are elected annually by a majority of votes, present, or represented by proxy, at a general meeting." Captain Galton gives the following view of the financial position of the American Kailways: — " The cost per mile of railway open averages from L. 10,000 to L. 12,000 on the New York and Massachusetts railways as compared with Jj.35,000 on British railways. "The earnings per mile run by the trains average 77-28 dol. for Massachusetts railways, 88 dol. for New York railways, and 91 dol. for the other railways mentioned, as against 68*45 dol. for England; the expenditure per train per mile being 47-52 dol., 50 dol., and 52 dol., compared with 38-22 dol. forEngland. The receipts per mile of railway are L.1397 in Massachu- setts, and L.1576 in New York, compared with L.3013 in English railways ; the working expenses per mile of railway in those States being L.857-65., and L.892-66., compared with L. 1504-39 for English railways. " It appears, from the figures I have obtained, that the number of trains are fewer in proportion to the traffic; and that those trains are better filled than ours. " The charge for maintenance of way is high as compared with that on English railways, and the proportion which the working expenses bear to the receipts from traffic is higher than in England, being fifty-sij: and sixty per cent, of the receipts as compared with forty-eight per cent, on English railways. The high cost of maintenance of way is probably in part due to the necessity for removing snow in winter; but the generally large proportion which the working expenses bear to the receipts, as compared with English railways, is due, partly to the less perfect conditioR of the lines, and I RAILWAYS. 181 I W I partly to the higher valu^ r>f i v >, gives a table wh4 shit Ve ';. ^*'""''' ^'"""' >« -.Iways in the United sSteTT Zm V'l ^"''"'P'" Ba'lway. From this it appears tLt ^ ^°* *""* ^"« oeives on an average betweeTn r,?«'"^*'™' '«- "•ages ofa fireman and a plrt"»! ""V^"' ^' ^'^T, the P« day; and a platelayerea ' . 7 J! ^''''""' ^- ""-i *• Captain Galton remarks Z''.. *'■ ^' '^"y- number of trains is better arf»n i .1' "'""' '"""^ 'hat the traffic than is the case t th ^.^^ *" "j^ requirements of the railwayshas been much smaller 'if^. lu! f'^'""' ""^^ °f 'he that the cost of working™ prono^io "?«' "^ ^^"g"«h railways; average larger than inth^connt ■> '^ "'''^''' '" '""'" 'vhich the profits bear to the ea„i?'' ' ' ""' P^^"'""" and six per cent, in New Yorkl^ m"™''"*^ '^ ^''^""^ five in the Western States as comnr/*!'*""""^"'' »<» ""re a-half per cent, on British "T ''"n *^"" "' ">ree and in mind that the ordtfrv ' r^!' . ^'■* " -nnst be borne Stotes, on the best s cu" ties t at ""*?'* '" '''' ^"'t*" eight per cent., and th^ T' """'' *' "■^. ^^en, or »aysintheeast'e»St tes'doToTb""^' ""^ P'""'^ - rail- the ordinary rate of int rest than Z " ^"^ '^''^'''''' ™tio to With reference to th! I '" """ '"^'> '» this country " Prairie 1^^^:^::^^^:^;^ '' ">^ «- We^Sn 'he pralrSri t f:^;:^ ^^««'»' =" ^rst. On trom very considerable dTsUncl T""''' ''''"*^'> ««ept hnes, a ditch is dug on each sid!;*- /." '=™f "»««? 'hose hanked up, so as ?o 00^1^1 /^' ""^' ^^ 'he soil sloped ofi- on each side leaving « V''" ^'^^P"«- t"' e=cposed, in order to all'; rlin tf d "L'"' "' ""^ ^'^^Pers " The elasticity of tl e soH m t T "^ ^P^'^- agreeable to travel ove whl " v'V T"""^^ ^'"^™'» "«- frost, the absence of ba list "s a » "I *'' *'"'"'^' "'"' enoe and danger. This ml \ ';°.'' "^ ^'""^ inconveni- placing a good drainl "!^u'! ""^"--J- '» -me extent, bv "'■"■« -•«^hutnothTng;areo:;::;::rt'i:\s-fes lil'l 182 RAILWAYS. m li'l! I ballast, which, in a severe climate like that of America, should be of broken stone, not less than two feet in depth under the sleepers, with good drainage; it is sometimes customary to slope the top of the ballast on each side, so as to cause the snow melted on the surface to drain off. " The dust caused by the friable nature of the soil is the great inconvenience of summer travelling in the United States. " Several plans have been tried to avoid it. On some railways windows have been constructed, so that the sides should slant outwards and throw it off. " On the Michigan Central Eailway a screen of tarred canvas is fixed, so as to reach from the lower framing of the cars to within abojt 2 inches of the rails outside the wheels. The screen terminates in a framework, which is arranged to abut agaihst a similar framework on the next car, so that from one end of the train to the other a tunnel is formed under the cars, in which the dubt is confined, and can only escape at the end of the train. This plan prevents dust in the cars, but is said to cause heated axles. " On the New York and Erie Eailway, the following plan secures freedom from dust, and good ventilation : — A funnel, placed at the top of the car, faces the direction in which the train is proceeding, and the movement of the train causes the air to pass down this funnel into a chamber, where it is purified. A cistern of water is fixed under the car, and a pump, worked by the rotation of the axles of the car, forces the water into the chamber through jets arranged to fill the chamber with spray. The air, in passing through this spray, is freed from dust. In cold weather a stove is placed so as to warm the water. The air then passes through flues under the floor into the interior of the car. The windows must be kept closed. As this arrangement is in practical use on several cars on the New York and Erie Railway, it would be well worthy of a trial upon English railways; especially in large saloon carriages." * • The dust and high temperature will, in all probability, be found to occasion considerable difficulty on the groat Indian lines now in course of construction. RAILWAYS. For m '^^ reader to Captain GaTonlC l^'' ^.'^""^ '° '^f^'- the chapter by giving at length hk"^^', "f '''^" "'°«^ th« contain a recapLla on^ of Ws "h '"f- ^'"'"''^' '^''-l' enees.-— "' "'^ obsemtions and infer- ^Zt^rretiotttSiif'n °^ '"^ ^■"-- with the system in operat on h^ tl ' '"' '•'"'^^^' ^"""gly " J^««, That the pnbl ie J Jef T'""^' ^'' ^- care of themselves in trltsat stal ""'/"'"^'^ '" '"''« ■ig^, the only warning of dan 't' '"^ "* '«™' "°^«- or the sound of the engine bell '"^ * '''"="'^^'' ""'i^^. are"frnd'e7t:'„X Tlutr 7' "°"'^-* ^ '^e ca. ™te of fare; by which the t?'. Passengera at a low moted. •^ ^ ""^ tendency to travelling is pro- toZ'ra;itrof:hr;e;T/Vnd"''H'" ^---^ --"- "- mind, that the Americatri^h ' " '' '" ^' >>««« in by the standard tC "e hlv "!?{ f", ""^^ not be judged " In this country where the "'' '" ^"^'^-x^- good roads and cani'atd^S '! '""''^'^' ""^ -"- as a means of annihilatin.. dtoar ' ^ T ?^' ''"■' '<»>8'>t centralizing business in?o on! f ^^ '"«'' "f"'^'' and of scarcely considered as a mean, of CO?' '"' ""^ "'«'■«' classes. """^ °' conveyance for the lower " In a new country, where tim,. • speeds are not required w'? """ '" ""'""o, high locomotion for allXses and ott"" ""' '^''^'" "^^^ "^ of the country to a ma ket ?, „ « ?"'P"^""«; *^» Produce ■» the best instrumentfor 'atLti, l"'^"^"y- ^ ™i'«y '" the cost per mile of „ '"'■''>'"'? ""« *ant. Any saving aWe for extension and w"™r'"^ '" '""e means avaU^ capital is dear, -enc'e a r2'. ^ /^'"P'"^' ""'^ '"""try, «W.ough it entar uT eased e ft rt^'f' """^ "'""'^ able to a more finished .„d - ' '"'"."'™''"<^^' ''« Prefer. — We inaueneed"th7:::i;:;-; ^z:^ 184 RAILWAYS. railways, and the system which has grown up under them is well adapted to the wants of the country. " But this system has not yet attained a fixed position. " As the population, and tLe consequent traflBc, increases, new capital must be expend ad in stations, sidings, and addi- tional lines of rails, by which the cost per mile, which now averages from L.7000 to L.9000, will be increased ; the several railways will become more interlaced; a freer inter- change of working stock will probably be necessary, possibly involving a resort to an establishment similar to the railway clearing-house. " Independently of the conveniences afforded equally to all ranks of passengers already mentiono'l, there are many points in the system which are worthy ol consideration. " ist, The general system upon which the railway com- panies are organized is one which appears to afford a good guarantee for efficient management. A railway is managed by a well-paid president, in whom the whole executive power is vested ; he is responsible for the efficient and econo- mical working of the line. A body of directors, generally good men of business, unpaid excepting on peculiar occa- sions, are appointed to watch over the interests of the share- holders, and to see that the president does his duty; and also to take care that the accounts are kept in such a form, and with such checks, that malversation cannot take place. The shareholders have the privilege of electing the presi- dent and the directors annually, instead of being compelled to elect them for three years, as is the case in England. They therefore possess a direct control over the manage- ment of thair affairs. " 2d, There are several matters connected with the con- struction of railways which are worthy of notice, viz.: — " The encouragement of the use of rails on roads and streets, to facilitate the distribution of goods traffic, as well as to accommodate local passenger traffic, would prove very useful in many towns where the streets are broad, instead of ipcdimoi tirovviiii jf thus ex. ton ( the advantages of railways. RAILTTAYS. (iDcIined planes) wo«d afford I^ °'" " '"" "^^ ^'g-^^gs ■neans of crossing a steep ilr^^""*"'"^ -expensi™ terminates in a level sn».„..". P"''' ^''<'1> "^g-^ag >»0Ted forward a ont Z ' '""^ ""^ *""» l>»^i«g beef backed up the J^iZ oT'"« °" '" ''" '-«' «'-, is" *wo ina:^i%ird:^r"ar t-"V^"'^^- - diameterof the wheels 01.!^^"°"! '^"^ small but the cars run safeltand^rf ^/"""^^^ *">« «=««■', "otion; it enables very lont tdtd '"""^ ^^""^ ^^ accommodate more pafs n"frs I't, T !° "^^ "'^''' '^''i'"' « usnally the case in E„S 1 7 ^"^ ^^'g" '^an J"-- The absence of dots IdT^ 'th ^'a" "T^ ^'^^ ance on passengers more easy Tb» ""* '"' *'"'"''- use on English " The protection afforded t„ *v, • "an against the inclemenev 'f ,^ '"S;"^''''''™' and fire- of imitation, and would nroml %?','■''''■' '^ ^^" ''"^hy *o keep a better look ou An/t ^ "^ '"""■"^ ""^ "»^" engine, in lieu of the continual lerf Z 1 " '^" ™ ''"^ g've notice of the approach of a a „ t„ t!;'™" '!.'"»"^' '» c-ngs, presents many advanta^", i^l:;;;;:! :'„:-' f«rd .„''rr"!f:i?».LP"'"''.iP'« ""•> '- "" for . sl,„« ,i„. „, ... V • " ivainvaj. -- ■" -'-"con tuc Vvater- 186 RAILWAYS. " 3J, Economy and increased efficiency results from the use of the electric telegraph to transmit information of the movements of all the trains on a railway, and to enable a. responsible officer, placed in a central position, to control them when they become irregular, as well as to learn each day the positions of all cars on the railway, and the quantity of goods, &c., at each station which requires to be accommo- dated, and to gi' ' ^*»rs for the cars to be moved to meet the wants of the " 4:th, The detaned organisation on the New York and Erie Kail way deserves attentive consideration; its main fea- tures being a high degree of centralization, and the syste- matic arrangement of the duties of the officers and servants, so as to enforce a rigid system of personal accountability through every grade of the service. "5th, Those general legislative provisions for securing the public interests, which appear principally to deserve no- tice, are, that railway companies shall keep their lines in repair, and open for public use, and that they shall supply sufficient accommodation, and transport merchandise and property without partiality, favour, or aflfection, and with all practicable dispatch. That a railway company is pro- hibited from exercising the calling of a banker, broker, or dealer in any article whatever. That in some States a government depart^ lent is empowered to inquire minutely into the causes of railway accidents, to examine witnesses on oath, and to call for all necessary books, papers, &c., and to publish their reports. " Qth, But it is with reference to the construction of rail- ways in our own colonies that the American system deserves especial notice. The considerations which led to the adop- tion of, and the necessities which fostered that system, apply with equal force to railways in the colonies. It appears therefore desirable to call attention to some of the deductions which may be drawn from the consideration of this system. " a. A railway would appear to be the beBt road for arterial lines of communication in a new country. rom the n of the mable ft I control irn each quantity ;commo- to meet ork and (lain fea- le syste- servants, atability securing erve no- lines in I supply iise and nd with r is pro- oker, or States a Qinutely witnesses &c., and RAILWAYS. 187 outlay for construction si ouTd be L ,? commands, the f tent with safety and ecolmv „f "" ■'" P"''""'^' ^°°- v.y s.id urix!^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^- - -W c. Railways made by the Sf.t.o » . proved successful, in conseau!n ! A,'" '^""'''* '"'™ ""t ■manage them bei ,g choseTfrl °if'r'""" ^"'^^'^^ to "d- The encour^o-eme't 1 ^^ '""' '^"''^"^■•''tions. the eonstruction"t aTL? '° P"™'« ^^P^^^ for grants of land, has ZlX " "'"^ ''f^^' ^^ "^^"^ "f tated the rapid settlement of the c""?'"'' " '""^ ^"-'i- ment of its resources It 11 , T"^ '""^ ""^ develop- by enhancing theTrice of tS, 7"^ ^"'"^'"^ the Stafe well ax bv *l?o "^ '""'' reta med by the «!taf„ wen as by the permanent reduction r.e tu ■* "***' "^ occasioned by the contrib>,H„„ 7 ^ S^"''™' taxation receipts of tie railway esyVd r^h P^^rf"'; «" 'he gross tion of the grant of ifnd B,!f /,, ^""^ '" considera- this system%re lim ted tolocaW; '"T'''"' '"^""'^^ "f -perior quality, and t^erarfXlbr- '"' '' '' " of rail- deserves le adop- system, ies. It e of the ration of 188 WATER-WORKS. CHAPTER X. WATER^WORKS. Fairtnount Water-works at Philadelphia-Construotion of theDam over the River SchuylkiU-Pumps and Water-wheels-Reservoirs, &c.-The Water-works of Richmond in Virginia-Pittsburg-Montreal-Cincm- natti-Albany-Troy-Wells for supplying New York and Boston- Plans for improving the supply of Water for New York and Washington. The Fairmount Water-works are situate on the east bank of the River Schuylkill, about one mile and a-half from the town of Philadelphia. They are remarkable for their effi- ciency and simplicity, as well as their great extent. They were commenced in 1819, and were in a working stale in 1822. According to the Water Company's Report for the year 1838, the whole sum expended in their execution, up to that date, was L.276,206.* The water of the River Schuylkill, with which the town ot Philadelphia is supplied, is raised by water power into four large reservoirs, placed on a rocky eminence near the bank of the river; and after passing through gravel filter-beds, it is conveyed in two large mains to the outskirts of the town, and thence led into the various streets by smaller mains and branch-pipes. • i j Plate XIII. is a ground plan of the water-works, includ- ing part of the River Schuylkill and the adjoining country. Letters a, h, c represent a dam which has been thrown across tlie river in order to obtain a fall of water for driving the water-wheels. Letter d is the mill-race, e, e the buildings in which the water-wheels and force-pumps are placed, and ♦ Annual Reports of the Watering Committee to the Select and Common Councils of the City of Philadelphia. wn over the , &c.— The al — Cincin- id Boston— Washington. east bank from the their effi- it. They y stale in rt for the ution, up le town of • into four • the bank er-beds, it the town, mains and 58, includ- g country. )wn across riving the J buildings laced, and and Common I i PJuATE XIII. wate T] inost hund stage six a line c feet, ) torn mud I entire side oj the pli degree large ( rise ab state, i placed section creased tion of versely, dam am The J is found consists earth thj 150 feet its upper river, is The tern cut-stone feet, whic eight feet The pa -'•-•Mice bottom, Mi WATEB-WORKS. 189 JjA/^iq the filters and rPHArvr.;,.., t i.i. water. reservoirs for the reception of the Jt :r i7i :r^r;:r i^^r ' - ^ «- »" hundred feet in \^„Jh t v , °"*''™«8 about sixteen stagnation L theflfw ofT/r' '° 'f''' ""'' "»*- « «i^ miles up the river Th« ^'?7' "^ich extends about line of the dam at low wlttrT ^'^'^ "^ ™'" '" *« feet, and the "«: of lid? sU 17%'"" '^ '"^"'^-^"« torn of the river conlt! f , ■^™" " '" ' ^^^ bot- mud about U feet i^d nth ""''', r'"" *'"' " "^P-* "f entirely comnoled of h '■ " "" * *° " ""^ '"'«"°' « side of'^theTef ° e^nos^d ^ ^"' "f *'""''■ ^' «>« ^-'e™ the plate. The line of 2 i 7*^ '"" ^=""' "^ ^"-o™ '" degrees with the'^ct on^ 'ZuZZ'^f fv '""' *^ large overfall is formed for thl „ ! ^■. ^" ""' ^^ » rise above the top o7tXTZTl '"!* "' Pe'Pendicular state, ie not so gfeat as it Z'n K V "™'" '' '" * "^ded placed at right fngles to The It " ''T '^^'^ *••« ^'^^ ^"^ action the ftrength of the si r""- ^^ *"°'""'e this di- creased, for the mass of fhf r " "'" '='«'«i<'erably in- tion of the stream ^ L^l T "T""^ '° '"^ 8'™" -ec- versely, as the s^e of T 1'T*'^ "' ""^ '"'^'"e. »' in- dam a^d th^dirlt o o'thrSamr ' ''• ''"' ''"" °^ ">« <« "Xr :t: ^d t£- f = -- -eh e:xr.:iX9^-™-:-.^^ 150 feet in breadth tTeJe Td me'f f,t " ''^''««'' 'ts upper slope or face, which is exnol? f. "" ^^' '"'* river, is cased with roul^ f I '^Z '" '''^ *"»'' »f the The terminattrof tte li^: 17 '"fr" ""-«« ^'enes. eut-stone pier, measuX':!: I^'hU et b 7'"^'^* feet, which is founded on rock and h,.^! ^ *»»'y-'l»-e6 eight feet in depth. ' '" "" ^'^^ '^enty. .art o/'thedn/n ^^m-JaJ i/i ih,' Hivt^r Sa Fi^.l. '^^^m^^^^msmi PLATE J/^: Fi,,. ?. L.evt'l or'lfu^h w,ih>j: \ ^^mjCoIIars. 67,080.50 1,048.50 13,674.25 10,517.50 20,009.37 1,9.56.00 2,146.25 Amounting in all to about 106 432 ^nll ""'"'t \ ''^''^'^' to about L.21,286. ' "^"^''^ ^^^^^ »s equal 31, 1831, ^^ steam-worJis were, December Add the ex^penses for res'ervoir;, iron p^ s.i, in ,S32, .' Do. ^l- in 1833, . Do. 7^' in 1834, . last five year., . ^^,000.00 dollars per annum for the Leaves the expenditure fr,^ *i,„ December 1836 ^' Permanent works, up to 31st Dollars. 1,138,323.54 65,195.58 37,354.06 fi5,163.36 73,288.38 71,706.51 1,451,031.43 70,000.00 to 58rc^rdX':s:ran ^^-^^-^'^^oZ . The supply of waler f 'h ZnfmT ^f 'f '• .s procured from the James River i/tt'""' '" ^''S'"'"' Philadelphia; but the work, »t ' """'^ '"^""" «« at The water is raised 160 feft by two" " T"", ™''"''' ^»^'«- reservoirs, measuriu. 194 feet in ZT'^'"^' '»'» "v" and ten feet eight inch!, tLZ^ f\^^* ^"'^ '" breadth, taining upwards of two Lniiorof '/f' "' ""P^Wo of eon-' leaving the reservoirsy^hrw^e "/ri T^ °' ™"'^- ^''"'^ t™ gravel lilters. ke wa !wf '"yP'''^«"g"'«"«h diameter, and ten feetl "^ ' ;? "'''''''" ''"" '" The barrels of the two force-Bumn/ •" ""' "' ""' ^''^■ »-er. and Si. feet in length o7ZCnTLt,tt^ll;-^ 196 TATEB-WORKS. state of working, when only one wheel is in operation, raise about 400,000 gallons of water in twenty-four hours. The cast-iron main which leads from the pumps to the reservoir is eight inches in diameter, and about 2400 i ■'et in length. Mr Stein was engineer for the work, which is said to have cost about L. 20,000. Pittsburg, on the Ohio, in the State of Pennsylvania, is supplied with water from the Eiver Alleghany. It is raised by a steam-engine of eighty-four horse power into a reservoir capable of containing 1,000,000 gallons of water, and elevated 116 feet above the level of the river. The main leading from the pumps to the reservoir is fifteen inches in diameter, and the pump raises 1,500,000 gallons in twenty-four hours. Montreal also is supplied in the same manner from the water of the St Lawrence, which is raised by steam power to an elevated reservoir, and then distributed through the town. The following account of the water-works, which have lately been established at Cincinnati, on the Ohio, in the State of Ohio, is given by Mr Davies the superintendent: — " The Cincinnati Water- works were constructed in 1820. The water was taken from the Ohio Eiver by a common force- pump, worked by horse-power, placed upon the bank of the river, sufficiently near low-water mark to be within the usual atmospheric pressure, and thrown from that point to the re- servoir, 160 feet above low water-mark, from which it was conveyed to the town in wooden pipes. The town at that time afforded no inducement for a larger supply of water than could be brought through wooden pipes of three inches and a-half in diameter, consequently the works at the river were only calculated to supply a pipe of that size. Only a short time, however, was necessary, to prove the necessity of an increase, and a change from horse-power to steam. " The works now consist of two engines, one propelling a double force-pump of ten inches in diameter, and four feet stroke, throwing into the reservoir about 1000 gallons in a minute ; the other propelling a pump of twenty inches in diameter, eight feet stroke, and discharging about 1200 gal- lons per minute. The reservoirs are built of common lime- WATER-WORKS. ition, raise irs. nps to the iOO i^et in lich is said ylvania, is [t is raised a reservoir id elevated ading from meter, and hours, sr from the n power to 1 the town, ^hich have lio, in the endent: — d in 1820. mon force- ank of the 1 the usual : to the re- ich it was wn at that y of water iree inches it the river 3. Only a i necessity steam, repelling a d four feet aliens in a { inches in 1 1200 gai- mon lime- 197 permitted to stand „ ™ton ' '°"^'' '"''°''* ''^'"g diameter convey it twt;!, l f"' " ^'»'>* '"''hes in and a half inches in Tm" /Z^^^t^t""' '° ''''' into private d-^ellinffs in Un^^ • ^ ^ ^* ^^ conveyed inhabitants, who pa^f^i^hVir^', "r,?™" "' '''« num, according to the nrn!! <■ 7 ' ''""'"^* P" «»- family, of cours^e, use anrqrntTty « f " " ''''■ ^-^ communicating keIyl'ittrhr^;;£°'^'^^!'''^^d-'3 are made in lengths of nine feet .»„T ? ^ """ P'P«s •.y the spigot a^d faucr/oit rt'i;" eT'f"'. ""''''' a space round the niae of ti, . ^' *'"'='^ occupies thickness." '^ ^ '^ three-eighths or half an inch in protltdr :hf hight::;!,^ lIT^^'^/r^y-'^ -th water veyed in a six-inch pfne for „,; "''«''''°"*°°d, and con- to a reservoir near th?tov™. " "' *'""" *''-^ »"- Troy, on the eastern or left bant ^f ti, tr , fourteen miles above Albany is al«!i , , ^"''™"' «'""'' good water collected in Z h t .""''^ '"PP''^'^ ^'th >.ood. The reservot ta d a fut ^^e"^ ■"; 1' "^'«''^°"- the town, and is seventy ftttb e tt lt1.°/f r": 'T It IS capable of containing 1 900 000 lln . ^''■''^'^• is conveyed from it to th» /„ ' ^ °''^' *"'' "'e water diameter The „ork Ire ZVV """" '"^'™ ■"^•'- '" nnua.expenseofco^rc:inT?hltl760'"^'°°"- ''^ voi^-^-rrroirvtrratd'tf'^ r -^ ^- «npply of the to™ in 1 \ T"*' " '"™^ ^"-^ Pl» f°' the ^'•o^LetsrtttijSoX^^ ^'"'"^"^^^^ At present the town is supplied chiefly from .ells. Ac Bald * From about L.l, 123. to L.2,8.« itroducinp win, C.E. Boston. 1835. Water into the city of Boston. By Loammi iil 198 WATER-WORKS. cording to Mr Baldwin's report, there are no less than 2767 wells in Boston, thirty-three of which are Artesian. Only seven, however, out of the whole number, produce soft water; and of these, two are Artesian. Great difficulty has been experienced in forming many of the wells on the peninsula of Boston, in some of which, on tapping the lower strata, the water is said to have risen to seventy-five, or eighty feet above the level of the sea.* The following very interesting remarks regarding two of these wells, are quoted by Mr Storrow in his Treatise on Water- works : — "Dr Lathrop gives the following history of a well dug near Boston Neck.f ' Where the ground was opened, the eleva- tion is not more than one foot, or one foot and a half above the sea at high water. The well was made very large. After digging about 22 feet in a body of clay, the workmen pre- pared for boring. At the depth of 108 or 110 feet the augur was impeded by a hard substance ; this was no sooner broken through and the augur taken out, than the water was forced up with a loud noise, and rose to the top of the well. After the first effort of the long confined elastic air was expended, the water subsided about six feet from the surface, and there remains at all seasons, ebbing and flowing a little with the tides.' " Dr Lathrop observes, that the proprietors of this well were led to exercise great caution in carrying on the work, by an accident which had happened in their immediate neigh- bourhood. ' A few years before, an attempt was made to dig a well a few rods (161 feet) to the east near the sea. Having dug about 60 feet in a body of clay without 'finding water, preparation was made in the usual way for boring ; and after passing about 40 feet in the same body of clay, the augur was impeded by stone. A few strokes with a drill broke through the slate covering, and the water gushed out with such rapidity and force, that the workmen with diffi- • A Treatise on Water-u'orks. By Charles S. Storrow, Boston. 1835. t Memoirs of the AmeHcan Academe/ of Arts and Sciences. Vol. 3. WATKB-WOKKS. 199 cnlty were saved from death. The water rose to the top of I to b n:!"""/"" '" ""^ '■■"^- ^"^ f-- -"-"'' ,, "I,,"? * '"Se quantity of fine sand, by which the well was filled up many feet. The workmen left Te Ind aU he,r tools which were buried in the sand and a the" abour was ost. The body of water which is constantly pa " ng under the immense body of clay, which is found in all he low parts of the peninsula, and which forms the bas' n o the harbour, must have its source in the interior, and l pushed on wth great force from ponds and lake fn the elevated parts of the country. Whenever vent is given to any of those subterranean currents, the water will rise if it have opportunity, to the level of its source ' " The only supply of water which the inhabitants of New York enjoyed m 1837 was obtained from wells sunk n dtf triilj ''^^"'-^''^V '^■«™'^<' '^'O^oirs, and thence dis- pell w^''"^ '1 *"^'^''""' P"''^ "f ">« *°"-- Some of the ^ells in New York belong to the Manhatten Water Com! pany, and some to the corporation. One well, belonging to the corporation, is 113 feet in depth. For the puis! of frl A"*^ wf' ""^"^ "" '""'^ ■'--""t^' P»«-ges leading wZ and r 5 '!:'= "^"' "'"'='' "--'« f«« feet if and the tb?- '' \" ''''^'" ' '*° of ""=™ ^'e seventy-five, about Li 500 ""' , »''' '''' '" '^"«"'- ^"'^ ^ell cost hoi Tk' ■ ' '"'"' ^^'''''» «""'"'« in twenty-four hours. There are many other wells in the town, some of which are said to produce 120,000 gallons in twOn'y four hours. The supply at New York is far from being adeouate to he wants of the inhabitants ; and the water in m^o'Th: piseT"^ "' '""'""' '^''"' -"^blefordomesti^ r/rA°* !' *""" °" " ''"' '^''^'"'' wWch is nearly sur- s rtedio ^ " 'r'"'' r ""' ^""^ '"^""'^ ">at has been re- Boited to for the supply of Philadelphia, and most other * owns in the United States, by pumping from the r ve , ^-„-.....,. !mi).a^acabio m tnat situation. Many plans have been proposed, and, among others, that of throwing a dam 200 WATER-WORKS. ! li across the Hudson, so as to exclude the salt water; but as a free passage, by means of locks, must be preserved for the numerous vessels which navigate the river, the success of s' ch a plan seems very doubtful. Many engineers in the United States of great reputation havemade surveys of the country in the neighbourhood of New York, in order to devise a plan for the supply of the city with water ; but the scheme which had been ultimately adopted at the time of my visit was that of conveying the water of the Kiver Croton in a tunnel, for a distance of about forty miles, to New York. I had the good fortune to meet with Mr Douglass, an engineer, who, I believe, may be said to have had the merit of originating this gigantic work, with whom I went over part of the ground to be traversed by it, and from whom I received much information relative to the water supply of New York, and other matters of engineering. The works have, since ray visit, been completed under the direction of Mr John B. Jervis as chief eng-neer, and the following short notice of them may prove interesting. Most of the details are from the works by Mr Tower and Mr Schrampe who were engaged in carrying out the work.* The Croton River flows into the Hudson, about forty miles above New York. It is supplied mainly by several springs and small lakes situated about twenty-five miles from its mouth. Its mean discharge was ascertained to be about fifty millions of gallons in twenty-four hours, equal to 5787 cubic feet per minute. Its minimum flow was found to be twenty- seven millions of gallons in twenty-four hours, or 3121 cubic feet per minute. The following are the works by which this water has been made available for the supply of New York :— A dam has been thrown across the Croton River at a point about five miles above its junction with the Hudson. The construction of this dam was attended first with failure, and afterwards with difiiculty, but it was ultimately completed * Illustrations of the Croton A^[ueduct. By F. B. Tower. New York and London. 1843. Description of the New York Croton Aqueduct. By T. Schrampe. In English, Gorman, and French. New York mid Berlin. Water-works. 201 ew York and sahsfactonly It consists of timber cribs filled with stones which form the nucleus of the dam. These are covered Tn deTI f • "^ '? ''"'"'" embankment, and on the lower water of the Croton is raised about thirty-eight feet and 400 acres and having a capacity of 600 millions of gallons above the level of the discharge sluices. The whole of the works connected with this dam and its off-lets appear to be executed ma very substantial manner. The water is con! veyed from the Store Reservoir to Kew York in an aqueduct In rr'^ vT^""! "' *" ""^"^e "f Harlem Eiier and Manhatten Valley, where two iron pipes, three feet in dia- meter, are used; but provis „ has been made for laying two additional pipes if necessary. These pipes are carried across fno r. r' °.u \^"'^^' "' ''^^""^ "'o'^^^' "* « •'eight of Tion Tn"™ " ''Z' "! ""• "™^' '" ="^"'" of " f^e« navi- gation. In crossrng Manhatten Valley they are laid on the bottom, and are depressed about 102 feet from the level of he aqueduct. On reaching New York the aqueduct dis- charges ,n to aEeceivingEeservoir at the outskirts of the citv wh»=h has an area of thirty-one acres, and contains 150 millions of ga Ions. From thence the water is led in iron pipes to he Distributing Reservoir, which is situated in the heart of the city. It has an area of four acres, and contains 20 milhons of gallons. From this point the water is con- veyed in service pipes to the different parts of the town 1 he construction of these works seems to be very similar to works of a kindred nature in this country. The aqueduct vanes in size and design according to the rale of inclination and the soil through which it passes. In order to counter- act the effects of frost and the contraction of impurities it ;s covered throughout its whole extent of thirty-ei'glit miks. .WO f?rV r.™™f '" "' "''"'•'' "« """'e"^ 'ess than 500 feet radius. To admit of repair, it is provided with six lfir,-r»TTa anil d-^-^ i.-_ mi . ►.' j» - „.... ,,..1 <,,^^-^^,^.«, xnere are also ventilktors for air at every mile, and intermediate manholes at every quarter of a mile to allow access to the tunnel, the general size of which i2 li ■,;! 202 WATER-WORKS. is about eight feet high and seven feet broad. The following particulars as to the levels are given by Mr Tower : " The bottom of the water-way of the aqueduct, where it leaves the gate chamber at the Croton Dam, is 11-4 feet below the surface of the Store Eeservoir, and 154-77 feet above the level of mean tide at the city of New York. The following table shows the length of the different planes of descent from the Store to the Keceiving Beservoir : Miles. Feet. Inches The 1st plane extends The 2d do. ... 28053 Length of pipes across Harlem River, 0*261 DiflF. of level between extremes of pipes, The 3d plane extends . . 2033 Length of pipes across Manhatten y&i^ay, 077 Liff. of level between extremes of pipei", The 4th plane extends . . 2-023 per Mile. 49-43 and the descent is 2-94 7J do. 30-69 13i do. do. do. do. 2-29 2-25 3'86 1-60 13i ^ 38090 43-63 " In crossing the Harlem River there is a fall of two feet, and at Manhatten Valley a fall of three feet ; more than that would have been had the aqueduct continued across these places with its regular inclination. This extra fall was allowed, to adjust the number and capacity of the pipes (which descend below the level of the aqueduct and rise again), to discharge the full quantity of water as freely as the aqueduct of masonry would have done had it been con- tinued across the valleys. There is therefore a loss of this extra head of water for the city reservoirs, but this small loss of head was not considered of such importance as to in- duce the building of structures across these valleys up to the plane of the aqueduct grade. " The surface of the Store Reservoir is 166 feet above the mean level of high water at New York; the difference of level between that and the surface of the Receiving Reservoir is forty-seven feet, leaving the surface of this reservoir 119 feet above high water. The fall from the Receiving Reservoir to the 7)isl:rihnfinfr Pooovjr,-..-,. in ^^ ^--i 'i- " i • _ .,..,,„ i ^^^^ !□ lOur lucL, us surrace being 115 feet above high Avater. This last is the height to which ::) WATER- WORKS. 203 the water may generally be made available in the city. The surface velocity of the water in the aqueduct when the water is two feet deep has been ascertained to be about 1| mile per hour, which, taking the width at seven feet gives a discharge of 1848 cubic feet per minufe; which, at 30 gallons to each person, would afford a supply to 532,226 persons. But the works are calculated to convey a quantity sufficient to fill the aqueduct to the depth of four feet, so that this will provide for an enormous population." The work was commenced in 1837, and opened in 1842. It is stated to have cost L.1,713,000; the service-pipes for the city are stated at L.362,000; making in all L.2,075,000 as the total expenditure. Mr Schrampe says, " that the in- terest payable on this sum, which ranges from five to seven per cent., is collected by a direct water tax, and some indirect taxes. By means of a sinking fund the capital will be re- deemed by degrees. The water tax amounts to L.2 for a house of middle size (the city has c/er 33,500 such houses); manufacturers, hotels, &c., pay according to their extent." ' For farther details regarding this truly useful and magni- ficent work, I must refer the reader to the interesting books from which 1 have quoted. The citizens of Washington have followed the example of their neighbours of New York, and are constructing an aque- duct to supply that city with water from the Eiver Potomac. Its length (as stated in the Report of the Council of Civil Engineers in 1858) is about twelve miles, and the height of the source about 150 feet above high water mark. The aque- duct is circular, nine feet in diameter, and is built chiefly of rubble masonry , fourteen inches in thickness, laid in hydraulic cement. The fall is nine inches in 5000 feet; a bridge, of 200 feet span of iron, crosses the creek between Washington and Georgetown. The iron pipes, forty-eight inches diameter, do duty as arched ribs to support the bridge, and also as mains to convey the water under pressure ; and they are lined with staves of wood as a protection against frost. It is expected that the work will be completed in August 1859. The esti- mated cost was L.510,000. J ? 204 UOUSE-MOTINU. I !iil ■; HI CHAPTER XII. HOUSE.MOVING. In consequence of the great value of labour, the Americans adopt, with a view to economy, many mechanical expedients which, in the eyes of British engineers, seem very extra- ordinary. Perhaps the most curious of these is the operation of moving houses, which is often practised in New York. Most of the old streets in that town are very narrow and tortuous, and in the course of improving them, many of the old houses were found to interfere with the new lines of street, but in- stead of taking down and rebuilding those tenements, the ingenious inhabitants have recourse to the more simple method of moving the whole en masse, to a new site. This was, at first, only attempted with houses formed of wooden framework, but now the same liberty is taken with those built of brick. I saw the operation put in practice on a brick house, at No. 130 Chatham Street, New York, and was so much interested in the success of this hazardous process, that I delayed my departure from New York for three days,' in order to see it completed. The house measured fifty feet in depth by twenty-five feet in breadth of front, and consisted of four storeys, two above the ground-floor, and a gp-.jt- storey at the top, the whole being surmounted by large chimney-stacks. This house, in order to make room for a new line of street, was moved back fourteen feet six inches from the line which the front wall of the house originally tJP.P.imiPn n.T».rl no fVio r\r»oro + ir>r> i"«»« r.-.-.~I^.-- - 1 -i • i ^ . 1., „.i., ..^.._!,ivi'^ii TTuo vuiiuuB ami uAceeuingiy interesting in an engineeiing point of view, I shall endeavour. lii^x/) it^.J.^.'. -.^.-^^^^n^.Y^ -"tJiiftW nouSE-MOYING. 205 B Americans I expedients very extra- operation of 'ork. Most id tortuous, 3 old houses eet, but in- ements, the ore simple site. This of wooden with those ictice on a rk, and was us procesa, three days, id fifty feet d consisted I a ge-.jt- l by large room for a six inches originally iceedingiy jndeavour, man'ner tlv '}"'.'"^''V^^y''>e diagrams, to describe the manner in which it was accomplished. Fig. 1 is an eleva- tion of the gable, and fig. 2 an elevation of fhe front of the The first step in the process is to prepare a fonndation for Ji'tff. J. occ„r"' Z ""."'" '"" ''^'"^ '^' ■'""^^ '« '■■"""ded to occupy. A trench is next cut round the outside of the house and the lower floor being removed, the earth is excavated 1,7 *''«;°'^"°'-. «» *« to expose the foundations of the side walls and gables, which are represented in the cuts by 7 Horizontal beams of wood, marked b, measuring about twelve nchea square, are then arranged at distances°of th ee f It apart from centre to centre, at right angles to the dnec ion « which the house is to be moved, their ends being allowed to project about three feet each beyond the building through holes drifted in the gables for their rp.»„i;„r, „,„,,,:_ °" ". », m hg. 2. A series of powerful screw-jacks, marked c amounting perhaps to fifty in number, are then plCed unde^ I ( i 206 HOUSE-MOVING. the projecting ends of the horizontal beams h. The screw- jacks, as shown in the diagrams, generally rest on a beam of wood bedded in the ground, but in some cases they are placed on a foundation of stone. They are carefully ranced or fixed, so as to prevent them from kanting or twisting on the ap- plication of pressure. Fiy.2. li! i! i i When the process has reached this stage, the screw-jacks are worked so as to bring the upper sides of the horizontal beams h, into close contact with the gables, through which they pass, and the intermediate portions of the walls, between the several points of support, being carefullj'' re- moved, the whole pressure of the gables is brought to bear on the horizontal beams 6, which rest on the screw-jacks c. Two strong beams d^ e are placed, one resting above the other, under each gable (a part of which is removed for ILeir reception), at riglit angles to the horizontal beams i; 41--. l«,^^~ U- A~ ,. i I ., ~.\A -P..,-— J- J---— -.f J-1- - 1 ;:xt7 iOwci wcaiii v i-CHiH i. i;ic OiU luUllUllUUli Ui lliU UUUKU, which is levelled for its re' rption, and the upper beam d is HOUSE-MOVING. 207 iiu uuuae, firmly fixed by means of cleats of wood and spikes, to the horizontal beams h, passing through the house. The lower beams form the road, as it were, on which the upper ones supporting the house, slide. The lower beams are accord- ingly extended, as shown at ., fig. 1, by means of similar beams, resting on a firm foundation, to the new site of the house. After the beams d, e have been securely placed close under the horizontal beams h, the screw-jacks are unscrewed and the whole weight of the gables is again made to bear on the foundations. Holes, at distances of about three feet apart from centre to centre, are next drifted m the front and back walls of the house, through which logs, marked / are inserted, in the same way as formerly described in the gables. The ends of these log. project about three feet beyond the faces of the walls, and are sup- ported by cross-beams, shown at g, g, fig. 1, the ends of winch rest upon the beams d, under the gables. The intermediate portions of the front and back walls, between the supporting beams, being removed in the same manner as the gables, the whole weight of the building rests on the lower beams, d and e, on which the motion is to take place A very powerful screw-jack, shown at h, fig. 1, is fixed, in a horizontal position, to each of the beams e, on which the house is to move. The end of the screw-jacks butt against the upper beams d- and when they are worked, the upper beams, bearing the whole weight of the house, slide smoothly along on the lower beams e. The two beams are well greased ; and a groove in the upper, and a corresponding feather on the surface of the lower one, insure a motion in the direction of their length. The length of the screws in the screw-jacks A, is about two feet ; so that if the house has to be removed to a greater distance than that included in their range, they are unfastened, and again fixed to the beam e, when the house is then propelled other two feet In this way, by prolonging the beams e, and removing the screw-jacks, the house may be moved to an indefinite QiStauco. When the house has been brought directly over the foun- i 208 HOUSE-MOVING. iiilii m I 'Mil hi dation which was prepared for it, and which we shall now suppose to be represented by a in the cuts, the spaces between the beams /and the foundation a, in the front and back walls of the house, are built up, and also the inter- mediate spaces between the several beams/. Screw-jacks, as shown at c and i, are then ranged all round the house under the ends of the projecting beams ; they are now, as formerly, placed on firm foundations, and properly braced, to prevent them from twisting or kantiiig. These screw- jacks are then all worked, and the weight of the house is transferred to them from the beams d, e, g, which are carefully removed. The space between a a, fig. 1, and the horizontal beams b, which was occupied by the beams d, e, is now built up, and also the intermediate spaces between the beams b. The screw-jacks c are then slackened one after another, and the beams b withdrawn, the space which each occupied being carefully built up before another screw- jack is removed. The same process is performed with the beams/ and the house then rests on its new foundation a, which, in the case I saw in New York, was fourteen feet six inches from the spot on which the house was built. The operation I have attempted to describe is attended with very great risk, and much caution is necessary to pre- vent accidents. Its success depends chiefly upon getting a solid and unyielding base for supporting the screw-jacks c, i, and for the prolongation of the beam e to the new site which the house is to occupy. It is further of the utmost import- ance that in working the screws their motion should be simultaneous, which, in a range of 40 or 50 screw-jacks, is not very easily attained. The operation of drifting the holes through the walls also requires caution, as well as that of removing the intermediate pieces between the beams b and / which pass through both walls. The space between the beams is only two feet, and the place of the materials removed, is, if necessary, supplied while the house is in the act of moving, by a block of wood which rests on the beams a. J. lie screw-jacks h, by which the motion is produced, require also to be worked with the greatest caution, as the ^' HOUSE-MOVING. 209 crackiDg of the walls would be the inevitable consequence ot their advancing unequally. Notwithstanding the great difficulty attending the suc- cessful performance of this operation, it is practised in New York without creating the least alarm in the inhabitants of the houses, who, in some cases, do not even remove their furniture while the process is going forward. The lower part of the house which I saw moved was occupied as a carver and gilder's shop ; and on Mr Brown, under whose directions the operation was proceeding, conducting me to the upper storey, that he might convince me that there were no rents m the walls or ceilings of the rooms, I was asto- nished to find one of them filled with picture frames and plates of mirror glass, which had never been removed from «ie house. The value of the mirror glass, according to Mr Brown, was not less than 1500 dollars, which is equal to about L.300 sterling; and so much confidence did the owner of the house place in the success and safety of the operation, that he did not take the trouble of removing his fragile property. I understood from Mr Brown that the whole operation of removing this house, from the time of its commencement till its completion, would occupy about five weeks, but the time employed in ac Uy moving the house lourteen feet and a half was seven aours. The sum for which he had contracted to complete the operation was 1000 dollars, which is equal to about L.200 sterling. Mr Brown mentioned that he and his father, who was the first person who attempted to perform the operation, had followed the business of " house-movers " for fourteen years, and had removed upwards of a hundred houses, without any accident many of which, as in the case of the one I saw, were made entirely of brick. I also visited a church in " Sixth " Street capable, I should think, of holding from 600 to 1000 persons' with galleries and a spire, which was moved 1100 feet but this building was composed entirely of wood, which rendered the operation much less hazardous. The only example of -i„ .,.,..,^.,,,^K,^ iiiOMugvi siruciures entire iii this country is that of the North Pier Lighthouse at Sunderland, a stone 210 NOTE ON THE MANUFACTORIES AT LOWELL. tower, 76 feet 2 inches in height, which was moved when the pier was extended in 1841, a distance of 475 feet 7 inches, by Mr John Murray, C.E.* (Hi: I 11 NOTE ON THE MANUFACTORIES AT LOWELL. The largest factories in the Tnited States are those of Lowell, un the banks of the Merrimac, in the State of Massachusetts. The following statistical table, relative to the works at that place, is published at the " Lowell Courier ' steam printing establishment, and may perhaps be useful to those interested in that subject. The machinery in all the mills which I had an opportunity of visiting at Lowell, was excellent. Np one can fail to be struck with the extent of water power on the Merrimac and other American rivers. A correspondent in writing on this subject says, — " The enormous amount of the water power of the Northern States of the American Union, and of Upper and Lower Canada, is really one of the most remarkable charac- teristics of this country ; no estimate, that I am aware of, has been made of the total amount, but it must be counted by millions of horse power. In New England, which com- prises the six North-Eastern States of the Union, this immense water power is mainly due to the c ological forma- tion ; the hard character of the primitive rock has enabled it to retain its original shape ; in later and softer formations the rocks become degraded 1 y the streams, which flow in deep valleys with a moderate slope ; in the primitive forma- tion the deep valleys are not formed, but the streams tumble over the rocks without sensibly affecting them. " This immense water power is the life and strength of the Northern States, in precisely the same way that coal is the strength of England. A hundredth part of this water power is not yet in use in the States, and in the Canadas • Transactions Institution Civil Engineers. Vol. 3, p. 342. not a th thing ca into use mulatio] "The are broi River, fc 2,000,0C neighbo sufficien feet lon| large cai 15 feet diminisl: mill sitei parallel for the upper a] conducts set, situ£ 20 to 4{ gether, ] furnish, pose 1 of moderat( an annu reserved "The turned o wants of ifferent with moi Theyha^ power, f places." NOTE ON THE MANUFACTORIES AT LOWELL. 211 . when the 7 inches, LL. 5 those of State of relative to . Courier ' ! useful to in all the Dwell, was extent of an rivers. er of the [Jpper and lie charac- aware of, )e counted hich com- nion, this cal forma- is enabled brmations :h flow in Lve forma- ms tumble trength of lat coal is this water e Canadas 42. not a thousandth ; we have it however in reserve, and no- thing can deprive us of it, and it will be gradually brought into use as the wants of the country require, and the accu- mulations of capital permit. '' There is a regular way in which the great water powers are brought into use— Take Holyoke, on the CoLnecticut River, for instance. A company is formed, with a capital of say 2,000,000 dollars; the first step is to buy up the land in the neighbourhood of the falls selected, say 1000 to 2000 acres, sufficient for a large tower ; a dam is built, in this case 1000 feet long and 30 feet high, of wood to begin with ; then a large canal or mill-race, at the upper end 140 feet wide and 15 feet deep; this is led off for a mile or two, gradually diminishing in size as the water is taken off at the different mill sites. About 20 feet below, another canal is constructed parallel to the first, and 200 or 300 feet distant, giving room for the mills between, the water being drawn from the upper and discharged into the lower. This second canal conducts the water from the upper set of mills to another set, situated on the banks of the river, where there is from 20 to 40 feet more fall, depending on the situation ; alto- gether, provision is made and the river will undoubtedly furnish, ordinarily, 20,000 horse power. This power is dis- pose d of from time to time, with the necessary land, at very moderate rates, say 100 dollars per horse power in cash, and an annual rent of 5 dollars per horse power ; the rent is reserved as a fund to maintaii the dam and other woias. " The particular investmeu I have described has not turned out profitably ; it was too much in advance of the wants of the country. Five or six similar operations, in fferent parts of the country, that preceded it, have met with more success ; one or two of them with great success. They have altogether put into the market 60 or 70,000 horse power, fully half of which is in daily use at those few places." 212 '' ■ It), ill iiii statistics of Lowell Manufactures, ptMltdfrom a\ COBPOUATIONS. Incorporated, Commenced Operations, Capital Stoclt, Number of Mills, Spindles, . Looms, . Merrimock Manufftcturing Company. • • Females employed, Males employed, . Yards made per week. Cotton consumed per week, pounds, Wool consumed per week, pounds. Yards Dyed and Printed, Kind of Goods made, 1822 1823 2,500,000 dol. 6, and Print- Works 82,720 2,336 1,650 750 »• 380,000 Hamilton Manufacturing Company. 85,000 Water-wheels, diameter, 340,000 Prints and Stieetings, No. 25 to 40 6 Turbines, 6 ft. ; 4 do. 8 ft. a in. 1825 1825 1,200,000 doL 4, and Print- works 48,512 1,382 850 400 235,000 Appleton Company. 1828 1828 600,000 doL 3 18,920 700 400 120 150,000 Lowell Manufacturing Company. 80,000 112,000 print- ed, 18,000 dyed Prints, Flan- nels, Ticks, andSiieetings, 14 to 30 9 Turbines, 3 Breast wheels 60,000 Sheetings and Shirtings, No. 14. 6 Turbines 1828 1828 2,000,000 dol. 1 Spinning, 1 Carpet, 1 Cotton 7016 Wool, 8060 Cotton 200 Power Carpet, 205 Cotton, 49 Fancy Check 800 600 25,000 yards Carpet, 14,000 P. Stulfs 78,000 yards Osnaburgs, 60 Rugs 65,000 Middleiti Kciuring Compan;, ■company. 66,000 1830 1830 1,000,000 doi 4, and 3 Dy houses 16,340 200 Broail.| cloth, 200 Narrow 730 675 24,000 Nar row, 6000 Broadcloth Carpets, Rugs, Cotton Cloth, and Pantaloon Stuffs 3 Turbines— 7 4-12ths feet diameter ; 1 do. 8 4-12ths feet do. 25,000 Broadcloth and Doeskin Cassimere Shawls 12 and 17 fei Average wages of Females, clear of board, per week, 2(10 dollars. Average wages of Males, clearof board, per day, 0'80 cents. Mediumj)roduce of a Loom, No. 14 yarn, 45 yards per day. Medium pro- vi . J > o_._j.- ... . -day. 1,385. Increase in uoara, per aay, irou cents. Medium produce of a Loom, No. 14 varn, 45 yards per da duce of a Loom, No. 30 yarn, 33 yards per day. Average per Spindle, 1 14 yards per d The Population of Lowell in 1>28 was 3532; In lb40, It was 20,796 : in 185U it was 33.3 ten jears, 12,5t9. In 1955, it was 37,553. If.m^^ .-. • „ . .. ' veeri biiiU Oil iiic-iiijjh ground in jseividere, east of the ciiv.rVr the purpose of furnishing a ready supply of water to any p.irt of the citv In cases of Are. The water Is conveyed into the Reservoir by forcu pumps from the Lowell Machine Shop. Vlpes are laid from the Regervanf. MiddUMi Coinpanj, folk Man lacluring Company. Tremont Mill. Lawrence Manufacturing Lowell Company, Bleachery. Boott Cotton Alillg Massachuxett* ,I''"T*" Cotton Mills. Maj-hlno Shop. - 28 1830 1830 1880 1830 1832 1836 1839 1846 - 28 1830 1833 1832 1833 and 1834 I 1832 1836 1840 1846 H OOdol. 1,000,000 do «,000 dol 600,000 dol. 1,600,000 doL 300,000 dol 1,200,000 dol 1,800,000 dol . 600,000 dol. H ning, -pet, tton 4, and 3 Dy houses 3 3 6 Bleachery and Dye- works 6 6 4 Shops, Smithy, and I Vool, otton 16,340 21,986 20,448 68,624 64,936 68,i/12 Foundry • •• I jwer 200 Broad. 800 760 1,862 i^l )et, cloth, ... 1,430 1,971 ^^H ton, 49 200 Narrow ^^H Check ^^1 730 633 650 1,300 40 870 1,300 ■ 675 160 130 300 860 262 Including mule tenders 400 COO i 1 yards 24,000 Nar 154,000 280,000 360,000 ^^H 14,000 row, 6000 «■» 300,000 607,000 i^^l iffs, Broadcloth ^^^H yards ^^H •na, 60 ^^H 19 ■ 30 ... 60,000 66,000 140,000 • •• 00,000 176,000 2000 tons wonght and 1 cast-iron per ^^^M 30 25,000 ... • §• • •• ... ... • •• annum • •• ■ ... ••• • •• ... 16,000.000 yards dyed per annum • •* «•• ■ ■• i Rugs, :ioth. Broadcloti and DoeskiD Irillings, Xo. 14 Sheetings, No. 14; Drillings, 8 Printing j, /loths; Sheet- ,000,000 lbs. 1 leached perl drillings, No. Sheetings, 13 Cotton Ma- ■ taloon Cassimere; Shirtings, C 4 ; Sheetings, Shirtings, Jeans, Print- ing Cloth, Na 80 Shirtings, 14 chinery, ^1 ra Shawls No. 14 i i ^gsandShirt- ngs, 14 to 30 annum Drillings, 14 Locomotives, Machinists' Tools, and MUl-work 1 ties — s feet 12 and 17 fe Farblnes ■ I Turbines, 8 feet 4 in. 6 Turbines, 9 feet • 6 8 t Tuibine,7ft. ] 12 Breast, 17 ; J Turbines, 6 'U ter; •12ths diameter 6 Breast, 17 ft. ia, «fe 2 Gen- re Vent, im- feet; 7Tur- f bines t. 10 in. diam. each • and 1 )■ io. P ] 4 roved by Mr '"rancis, 9 ft. in. diameter I I ireast-wheel, 13 ft, diam. y 13 ft. long. 1 1 of Hales, clear of day. Medium pro- r day. 3,385. Increase in I^„ '* durable. From one fo two mfllionH of f»o? * procew, by which timber is ren- -;Wp up a statf of engineer, for pur^.TJ 'r„\ctI.d'H^f,hThe' uK^d Xi^^Zi'or.tZ wl£ .m jast of the City, r.r Are. The water is ( are laid from tlie drants without de- * ■ 1 J 1 214 LIGHTHOUSES. iili! CHAPTEE XII. LIGHTHOUSES. Parts of the United States in which Lighthouses have been erected — Great extent of Coast under the superintendence of the Lighthouse Estab- li.shment — The uncultivated state of a great part of the country, and the attacks of Iiidians abar to the establishment of Lights on the Coast — Introduction of Sea Lights in America — Description of the present Board of Lights, and numbers of Lighthouses. The parts of" tho territory of the United States in which lights have been erected by the American Lighthouse Board, are, — first, The eastern coast of the country extending from the boundary between the American and British dominions to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of 3000 miles, exposed to the Atlantic Ocean ; second, The courses of the rivers and bays, including the Mississippi and Hudson Eivers, and the Bays of Chesapeake, Del-iware, &c. ; and, tidrd, the southern shores of Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Michigan, em- bracing a line of coast of not less than 1200 miles in extent. In addition to these great outlines, lights have also been placed on some of the smaller rivers and lakes. The western coast of the country, which is washed by the Pacific Ocean, is entirely cut off from any communication with the inhabitants of the United States by a great tract of uncultivated and unexplored land, stretching from the northern to the southern extremity, and flanked by the rugged ridges of the Rocky Mountains. The United States of America, therefore, are quite unapproachable from the Pa- cific. The western coast of the country (a great part of which has never been explored), is still far removed from the limits of civilization. fimtn.^ LIGHTHOUSES. 215 ected — Great house Estab- country, and on the Coast f the present 3 in which use Board, ding from dominions exposed to rivers and s, and the e southern ligan, em- in extent. I also been hed by the nunication great tract J from the ed by the ited States om the Pa- rt of which I the limits The whole extent of coast under the jurisdiction of the American Lighthouse Establishment embraces the three compartments which have been enumerated, and is not less than 5450 miles, while the coast of Great Britain and Ire- land may be stated at 2800 miles, and that of France at 1100 milcb. The uninhabited and desolate condition of a large part of the coast proves a great bar to the regular and efficient establishment of lighthouses. This fact has been strikingly exemplified, and its consequences severely felt, in the State of Florida, which is said to be the most dan- gerous coast in the United States of North America. The country in this State is still, in a great measure, unculti- vated. It was originally peopled only by remnants of Indian tribes, who showed their hostility to the introduction of any- thing like civilization, by opposing the erection of light- houses on the coast, and in some places burning the light- house towers, and even murdering the keepers. In one in- stance, a light-keeper on the coast of Florida, after defending himself for a considerable time against an attack made by a body of Indians, was at last forced to take refuge in the ba - cony of the lighthouse, where he was shot by the arrows of the assailants. The following extract, taken from a letter addressed by the Fifth Auditor to the Secretary of the Trea- sury of the United States, shows the difficulty that was en- countered in transacting the business of the lighthouse estab- lishment :— " A contract was made in the month of July last, for rebuilding the lighthouse at Cape Florida, and the contractor proceeded to that place with materials and men to execute the work ; but finding that hostile Indians were m the neighbourhood, he returned to Boston (a distance of about 1300 miles) without effecting his object, '^^'hen the contract was made, there was just reason to believe that the Indian war was at an end, and that the work could be done with safety." The fact of a lighthouse system having been extended to the remotest corners of so extensive a coast, under circum- stances so inauspicious and unfavourable, is what could liardly have been looked for. and is certainlv liio-liiTr ^.^d-"* 216 LIGHTHOUSES. df I able to the government of the United States, and to the offi- cers of the Lighthouse Establishment. Even the most su- perficial observer could not fail, at the time of my visit in 1857, to discover that there was a striking contrast between the regulation of that establishment and the efficient and admirable systems pursued by the Lighthouse Boards of Great Britain and France ; but I was xather disposed to ad- mire the activity and zeal which had extended the benefit of lighthouses to remote and unhospitable regions, of diffi- cult access, than to wonder at the defects of the system which had been established for the purpose of carrying that important object into efi'ect. The date at which the first sea light was exhibited on the coast of America is not exactly known ; but the management of the lighthouses appears to have been undertaken by the Government of the United States, and a system for conduct- ing them regularly organized in the year 1791, at which period they were only ten in number. These appear to have been erected in the States of Massachusetts, New York, and Virginia, which were the earliest settlements in the country. The whole number of lighthouses, including harbour lights (which are also under the control of the General Lighthouse Board), in 1837, was 202. Of these about 172 were situated on the sea coast, and the remaining 30 were on the great lakes and rivers. There were also 26 floating-light ships, moored in the vicinity of particular dangers on the coast, and vary- ing in size from 50 to 225 tons register, according to their position and importance. In addition to the duties con- nected with the management of the lights, the Board had also the charge of upwards of 600 buoys and beacons placed on different parts of the coast. Since 1837 considerable changes have been introduced irt the management of the American Lighthouses ; and their number and efficiency have been greatly increased. The management of the lighthouses is now intrusted to a Board, v/hich was organized in conformity to an Act of Con- gress approved in 1852. This act proceeded upon a report made in terms of the instructions of the Government of the United S lighthous terns pur made an ( adopted b of Northi land, and gested vi lights ; ai —The Be modified Thomas k for the 1 lights no"\ to be ren defective The dis 1. Fix eclipse or red flashe One re great inci to 490. The cla is as folio 1. Prin cla 2. Seco (cc lar 3. Ligh 4. Sour all est LIGHTHOUSES. 217 ;o the offi- ) most su- ly visit in 5t between Lcient and Boards of sed to ad- be benefit 3, of diffi- he system rying that ted on the jiagement en by the r conduct- at which lar to have York, and e country, our lights lighthouse e situated jreat lakes )s, moored and vary- g to their iities con- Joard had )n8 placed ■oduced irt and their usted to a ct of Con- n a report ent of the United States, by a Committee appointed to report upon the lighthouse system of the United States, and also the sys- tems pursued in England and France. That Committee made an elaborate report, in which they detailed the systems adopted by the Trinity House in England, the Commissioners of Northern Lights in Scotland, the Ballast Boafd in Ire- land, and the Commission des Phares in France. They sug- gested various improvements in the management of the lights ; and as regards the system of illumination, they state: —The Board recommend, " that the Fresnel or lens system, modified in special cases by the holophotal apparatus of Mr Thomas Stevenson be adopted as the illuminating apparatus for the lights of th.? United States, to embrace all new lights now or hereafter authorized, and all lights requiring to be renovated, either by reason of deficient power or of defective apparatus." The distinctions adopted are as follows : — 1. Fixed white; 2. Fixed red; 3. Flashing; 4. Short eclipse or fixed light, varied by flashes ; 5. Fixed white with red flashes ; 6. Eevolving, One result of the formation of this Board has been a great increase in the number of lights, which now amount to 490. The classification given by the Americans to their lights is as foUows : — 1. Primary sea-coast lights (corresponding to our first- class lights) the number of which is, . . 58 2. Secondary sea-coast lights, and lake-coast lights (corresponding to our second class lights and larger harbour lights), .... 85 3. Light vessels (chiefly moored in the bays), . 49 4. Sound, bay, river, and harbour lights (which are all of a character corresponding to our small- est harbour lights), 298 490 218 LIGHTHOUSES. The local management of this extensive range of lights is entrusted to 12 inspectors, who are appointed to the charge of the 12 districts i ito which the country is divided ; while the whole management is entrusted to the General Light- house Board of the United States. EDUCA1 COLLEC THE END. A LIST LIl • I PBINTED By NBllL AND COMPANY, KDINBURGH. jr>: CATALOGUE ' or RUDIMENTARY, EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC, AND CLASSICAL WORKS foa COLLEGES, HIGH AND ORDINARY SCHOOLS, AND SELF-INSTRUCTION; lOOKIHSR WITH A LIST OF WORKS ON PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 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Readings, hools, and for I, &c., Recita> 1, and English PRACTICAL MEN: BEINO A COMMON-PLACE BOOK OF PUKE AND fflXED MATHEMATICS, DESIOMSD OHIEFLT FOR THE USF OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, AND SURVEYORS. BY OLINTHUS GREGORY, LL.D., F.R.A.S. THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. BY HENRY LAW, OIVII. SKOIMKSB. MA'raEMATICS FOR PBACTICAL U&V CONTENTS. lilii PART I.— PURE MATHEMATICS. CHAPTER I.— Abithmbtio. Skt. 1. Definitions and Notation. 2. Addition of Whole Niunbera. S. Subtraction of Whole Numbers. 4. Multiplication of Whole Numbers. 5. Dirision of Whole Numbers. — Proof of the first Four Rules of Arithmetic. 6. ^ulgar Fractions.— Reduction of Vul- ipr Fractions. — Addition and Sub- traction of Vulgar Fractions. — Mul- tiplication and Division of Vulgar Fractions. 7. Decimal Fractions. — Reduction of Decimals. — Addition and Subtrac- tion of Decimals Multij>lication and Division of Decimals. 8. Complex Fractions used in the Arts and Commerce. — Reduction. — Addi- tion. — Subtraction and Multiplica- tion. — Division. — Duodecimals. 9. Powers and Roots. — Evolution. 10. Proportion. — Rule of Three.— i)eter- niination of Ratios. 11. Logarithmic Arithmetic. — Use of the Tables. — Multiplication and Division by Logarithms. — Proportion, or the Rule of Three, by Logarithms. — Evolution and Involution by Log- arithms. 12. Properties of Numbers. CHAPTER II.— Aloebra. I Definitions and Notation. Addition and Subtraction. Multiplication. Division. Involution. *>' Evolution. Surds. — Reduction. — Addition, Sub- traction, and Multiplication. — Di- vision, Involution, and Evolution. 8. Simple Equations. — Extermination. — Solutin" cf General Prob'.ems. Skct. 9. Quadratic Equations. 10. Equations in General. 11. Progreasion. — Arithmetical Progret sion. — Geometrical Progression. 12. Fractional and Negatite Exponents. 13. Logarithms. 14. Computation of Formulae. CHAPTER IIL— Gbomixbt, 1. Definitioni. 2. Of Angles, and Right Lines, and thefar Rectangles. 3. Of Triangles. 4. Of Quadrilaterals and Polygons. 6. Of the Circle, and Inscribed and Ch> cmascribed Figures. 6. Of IManes and SoKds. 7. Practical Geometry. CHAPTER IV Mknsitration. 1. Weights and Measures. — 1. Meas'ures of Length. — 2. Metunres of Surface. — 3. Measures of Solidity and Ca- pacity. — 4. Measures of Weight — 6. Angular Measure. — 6, Measure of Time. — Comparison of English and French Weights and Measures. 2. ^lensuration of Superficies. 3. Mensuration of Solids. CHAPTER v.— Triooitometrt. 1. Definitions and Trigonometrical For- mulae. 2. Trigonometrical Tables. 3. General Propositions. 4. Solution of the Cases of Plane Trian- gles. — Right-angled Plane Triangles, 5. On the application of Trigonometrj* to Measuring Heights and Distances. — Determination of Heights and Distances by Approximate Mechani cal Methods. \r> MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN. CHAPTSa YI.— CoMio SiOTiom. SiCT. 1. Definition*. 2. Fropertiei of the Ellipae. — Problems relating to the EUipie. 8. Properties of the Hyperbola. — Pro- blems lekting to the Hyperbola. 4. Properties of the Parabola. — Problems lolatiug to the Parabola. GHAPTEB. VII.— Pbo^bbiuu ov COKTES. Sbct. 1. Definition*. 2. The Conchoid. 8. The Gissoid. 4. The Cycloid and Epicycloid. 5. The Quadratrix. 6. The Catenary. — Tables of KelaLion of Catenarian Curvet. tical ProgTM igression. Exponents. PART II.— MIXED MATHEMATICS. nes, and thefar olygons. ibed and Ch> URATIOW. -1. Measures !S of Surface, dity and Ca- f Weight — 5. Measure of English and easures. OMETRT. netrical For- Plane Trian- ne Triangles. Prigonometrj- ]d Distances. Eeights and tte Mechani CHAPTER I.— Hkchanics in Gkneiul. CHAPTER II.— Statics. 1. Statical Equilibrium. 2. Center of Gravity. 3. General application of the Principles of Statics to the Equilibrium of Structures. — Equilibrium of Piers or Abutments. — Pressure of Earth against Walls.- Thicknesa of Walls. — Equilibrium of Polygons. — Sta- bility of Arches. — Equilibrium of Suspension Bridges. CHAPTER III.— Dtkamios. 1. General Definitions. 2. On the General Laws of Uniform and Variable Motion. — Motion uniformly Accelerated. — Motion of Bodies un- ! der the Action of Gravity. — Motion | over a fixed Pulley. — Motion on Inclined Planes. 3. Motions about a fixed Center, or Axis. — Centers of Oscillation and Per- cussion. — Simple and Compound Pendulums. — Center of Gyration, and the Principles of Rotation. — Central Forces. — Inquiries connected with Rotation and Central Forces. 4. percussion or Collision of Bodies in Motion. 5. On the Mechanical Powers. — Levers. —Wheel and Axle.— Pulley.— In- olined Plane. — Wedge and Screw. CHAPTER IV.— Htdrostatics. 1. General Definitions. 2. Pressure and Equilibrium of Non- elustic Fluids. 8. Floating Bodies. 4. Specific Gravities. 5. On Capillary Attraction. CHAPTER v.— HyDR0DTNAMic3. 1. Motion and Effluence of Liquids. 2. Motion of Water in Conduit Pipes and Open CaiiuU, over Weirs, &c. — Velocities of Rivers. 3. Contrivances to Measure the Velocity of Running Waters. CHAPTER VI.— Pkeumatics. 1. Weight and Equilibrium of Air and Elastic Fluids. 2. Machines for Raising Water by the Pressure of the Atmosphere. 3. Force of the Wind. CHAPTER VII.— Mecuanioal AaiiNTS. 1. Water as a Mechanical Agent. 2. Air as a Mechanical Agent. — Cou- lomb's Experiments. 8. Mechanical Agents depending upon Heat. The Steam Engine. — Table of Pressure and Temperatme of Steam. — General Description of the Mode of Action of the Steam Engine. — Theory of the Steam Engine. — Description of the variooa Icinds of MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN. If'' j ■*■ 1. a" * >SCT Engines, and the Formulae for calcu- lating their Power.— Practical appli- cation of the foregoing Formulae. 4. Animal Strength ai a Mechanical Agent. CHAPTER VIII. -Strength of Matkrials. EesulU of Experiments, and Principles upon which they should be practically applied. I Strength of Materials to Resiat Tensile and Crushing Strains.— Strength of Columns. 1. Sbct. 3. Elasticity and Elongation of Bodiea subjected to a Crushing or Tensile Strain. 4. On the Strength of Materials lubjecte to a Transverse Strain. — Longi tudinal form of Beam of uniform Strength. — Transverse Strength of other Materials than Cast Iron.— The Strength of Beams according to the manner in which the Load is distributed. 5. Elasticity of Bodies subjected to ,i Transverse Strain. 6. Strength of Materials to resist Torsion Ij I, II, III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII, IX. X. XL XIL XIIL XIV. XV. APPENDIX Table of Logarithmic Differences. Table of Logarithms of Numbers, from 1 to 100. Table of Logarithms of Numbers, from 100 to 10,000. Table of Logarithmic Sines, Tangents, Secants, &c. Table of Useful Factors, extending to several places of Decimals. lable of vanous Useful Numbers, with their Logarithms slt''o?yqtl''sq^^^^^^^^^^ ^""' ^"' Circumference, of Circle, and also the ^tatenaJ^' ^^*'°"' °^ *^' ^"' '^^"^"' ^'^"^^ *"^ Subnormal, in the Tables of the Length, and Vibrations of Tendulums. Table of Specific Gravities. Table of Weight of Materials frequently employed in Construction. rnnciples of Chronometers. Select Mechanical Expedients. Observations on the Effect of Old London Bride* on the Tide. &c Professor Parish on Isometriral Perspective. ' ' In I8mo., in boards, comprising 390 pages, price 5*. A SYNOPSIS OF PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY, id^Sef LmT/1^^ r°*'^"l"« ".«'*"* ^*"^*y °^ Theorems, Fomnte, ^MafhemaS Vn/S ",'Xf ' *"u^ ''"'"* authorities in various branclKa ot Mathematics and Natural Philosophy: with Tables of Logarithms. By the Rev. JOHN CARR, M.A., late Fellow of Trinity CoUege, Cambridge. r^i^u^"^-' j^t^'-T' '-^ *'* P^^ii<=<^tion» of Work, on Architecture Ctvtl, Meckamcal, Murtary, and Naval Engineering, gratit; ifbtpost^ld >n of Bod if! ig or Tensile ialt iTibjecte lin. — Longi a of uniform Strength of Cast Iron. — according to the Load ii bjected to ,i e«l9t Torsion, uid also the rmal, in the formula;, broncbos jubridge* Utecture, St, Id. HINTS to YOUNG ARCHITECTS i COMPRISU^a ADVICE TO THOSE WHO, WHILE YET AT SCHOOL ARE DESTINED TO THE PROFESSION; SUCH AS, HAYING PASSED THEIR PUPILAGE, ABE ABOUT TO TRAYIII. AND TO THOSE WHO, HAVING COMPLETED THEIR EDUCATION ARE ABOUT TO PRACTISE: TOOETHER WITH A MODEL SPECIFICATION: INVOLVING A GREAT VARIETY OP INSTRUCTIVE AND SUGGESTIVE MATTER CALCULATED TO FACILITATE THEIR PRACTICAL OPERATIONS; AND TO DIRECT THEM IN THEIR CONDUCT. AS THE RESPONSIBLE agents of their employers, and as the rightful judges of a contractor's duty. By GEOEGE wight wick, Aucuitect. COXTEX Preliminary Hints to Young Archi- tects OQ the Knowledge of Drawing. On Serving his Time. On Travelling. His Plate on the Door. Orders, Plan-drawing. On his Taste, Study of Interiors. Interior Arrangements. Warming and Ventilating. House Building, Stabling. Cottages and Villas. Model Specification : — General Clauses. Foundations. Well. Artificial Foundations. Brickwork. Rubble Masonry with Bi-ick Mingled. :ts : — Model Specification : Stone-cutting. — , Grecian or Italian only. — — , Gothic only. Miscellaneous. Slating. Tiling. Plaster and Cement-work. Carpenters' Work. Joiners' Work. Iron and Metal-Avork. Plumbers' Work. Draina:je. Well-digging. Artificial Levels, Concrete, Foundations, Piling anfl Planking, Paving, Vaulting. Bell-hanging, Plumbing, .inJ Building generally. I 11 In Ono Largo Volume OcUto, lleven Hundred Paget, with uumeroui EojnvTiu^^ price i:. 9t., A GENERAL TEXT BOOK, rOB TBI CONSTANT USB AND REFERENCE OF ARCHITECTS, ENGINEERS. SURVEYORS, SOLICITORS, AUCTIONEERS, LAND AGENTS, AND STEWARDS, XX ALL IHaiB 8KVBRAL AND TARIED PROrKSSTOWAL OOOUPATIOMS J un> roR TBI ASSISTANCE AND GUIDANCE OF COUNTRY GENTLEMEN AND OTHERS ■HOAOID nr TBI I TRANSFER, MANAGEMENT, OR IMPROVEME?TT OF LANDED PROPERTY: COMTAIMIMQ THEOREJVIS, FORMUL/E. RULES, AND TABLES a OBcaurrRY, mensuration, and trigonometry ; land mxasur:no, subtitino, AUD LETKUJNO ; RAILWAY AND HYDRAULIC ENGINEKRINO J TIMBER MIABUB- INO; THE VALUATION OF ARTIFICERS* WORK, ESTATES, LEASEHOLDS, LIFKHOLM^ ANNUITIES, TILLAGES, FARMING STOCK, AND TENANT RIGHT; THE ASSKSaMnTT OF PARISHES, RAILWAYS, GAS AND WATER WORKS; THE LAW OF DILAPIOA- TION8 AND NUISANCES, APPRAISEMENTS AND AUCTIONS, LANDLORD AKD TXNANT, AGREEMENTS AND LEASES. TOGETHER WITH EXAMPLES OP VILLAS AND COUNTRY HOUSES. BY EDWARD RYDE, Civil Engineer and Land Surveyor, Author of several ProfeBslonal Wovka. TO VrmCH ARK ADDED SEVERAL CHAPTERS ON AGRICULTURE AND LANDED PROPERTY. BY PROFESSOR DONALDSON, Author of •everal Worics on Agriculture. WORKS PUBLISHED BY MR WEALE. 19 umArotw CONTENTS ^K, CITORS, [U)S, ouFATiom; 1ERS [E?TT OF .ES , BCBTITINO, [BER MIABCB- S, UrCHOUM^ i AssKsshLnrr >r DILAPIDA- j^QLOBS Airo EOUSBS. a Woika. 2RTY. Chapter I— Ani- • etio. 1. Notation— 2. Proof of the First Pour Rules— 3. VulgarFractions— 4. Decimals— 5. Duodecimals- -6 Powers and Roots— 7. Properties of Kumber&— 8. Logaiithms and Mathe- matical Tables. -«•«»•- II-— P^ANB AND Solid Geometbt. 1. Definitions— 2. Of Anirles and Right Lines, and their Rectangles— 8. Of Triangles— 4. Of Quad- rilaterals and Polygons— 6. Of the Circle, and Inscribed and Circum- scnbiug Figures— G. Of Planes and Solids— 7. Practical Geometry. III.— Mensuration. 1. Comparison of English and French Weiirhta and Measures— 2. Mensuration of Superficies— 3. Mensuration of SoUda. IV.— Trigonometry. 1. Definitions and Trigonometrical Formulw-- 2. General Propositions— 3. Solution of the Cases of Plane Triangles. v.— CoNio Sections. ^^ VL— Land Measuring. Including Table of Decimals of an Acre- Table of Land Measure, by dimensions taken in yards. VII.— Land Surveying. 1. Parish and Estate Surveying— 2 Trigo- nometrical Surveying— 3. Traverse Surveying— 4. Field Instruments, the Pnamatic Compass; the Box Sextant ; the Theodolite. VIIL— Levelling. Levelling Instruments, the Spirit Level ; the Y Level; Trough ton's Level; Mr. Gravatt'a Level; LeveUing Staves- Examples in Levelling. IX.— Plotting Embracing the Circular Protractor^The T Squaw and Semicircular Protractor— Plotting Sections. X.— Computation of Areas. The Pediometer— The Computinjr Scale— Computing Tables. * XI.— Copying Maps. Including a description of the Pentagraph. XII.— Railway Surveying. 1. Exploration and Tidal Levels* Standing Orders.— 2. Proceedings subsequent to the Passing of the Act; lables for Setting out Curves ; Tables for Setting out Slopes ; Tables of Relative Gradients ; Specification of Works to be executed in the con- struction of a Railway ; Fonn of Tender. XIII. — Colonial Surveying. XIV.— Hydrauucs in connection -with Drainage, Sewerage AND Water Supply.— With Synopsis of Ryde's Hydraulic Tables-^ bpecifications, Iron Pipes and Castings; Stone- Ware Drain F-pes ; Pipe Laying; Resei*voir. "^ X V.--TIMBER Measuring. Including Timber Tables, Solid Meaaure. Unequal Sided Timber; Superficial Measure. _,^VI;— -A-RTiPicEBs' Work. 1. Bricklayers' and Excavators'— 2. blaters— 3. Carpenters' and Joiners'— 4. Sawyers'— 5. Stonemasons'— C. Plasterers'— 7. Ironmongers'— 8. Painters'— 9. Glaziers'— 10. Paper Hangers. *^ XyiL— Valuation op Estates. With Tables for the Purchasing of Freehold, Copyhold, or Leasehold Estates, Annuities, and Advowsona, and for Renewing Leases for Terms of Years certain and for Lives. „,^J^^J'—^^^'o^'^^oN OF Tillages and Tenant Right. With lables for Measuring and Valuing Hay Ricks. 20 WORKS PUBLISHED EY MR. WEALE. CONTENTS (c Longitudinal section through one of the large piers. 38. Details of Chepstow bridge. 39. Plan, elevation, and sections of the central arch of London bridge. 40. London and Croydon railway bridge on road from Croydon to Sydenham, plans, elevations, and sections. 41 . London and Croydon railway bridge on road from Norwood to Bromley, do. 42. London and Croydon railway bridge at Sydenham, do. 43. Elevation of the Victoria bridge over the valley of the river Wear, on the Durham junction railway. 44. Elevation of Chepstow bndge. 45. Piling and timber foundations of one of the large piers of Chepstow bridge. Plan of pier, elevation of do. Enlarged section of one of the-piera. Newcastle and Carlisle railway bridge, over the river Tyne at Scotswood, by John Blackmore, plan and elevation. 49, 50. Sections and details of do. m. Elevation and plan of bridge over the Eden at Carlisle, by Sir R. Smirke. S3. Elevation of one of the arches, with a pier, and the north abutment. 52a. The centering used for the arches of do. 63. Plan and elevation of the bridge erected over the Thames at Staines. Elevation and (tlans of the Wellesley bridge at Limerick. Elevation of pier and half- arch, with longitudinal section, plan and section of baluster, transverse section through the crown and spandril. Bridge of Jena, plan and elevation. Do., elevation 01 one of the land arches, with section of towing-path and re- taining wall, transverse section of the bridge at the springing of an arch, plan of do,, transverse section of the bridge through the centre of one of the land arches, plan of the abutments, retaining walls, Stc, Elevation of the Devil's bridge over the Serchio, near Lucca, Italy ; plan, elevation, and cross section. Bridge across the river Forth at Stirling, by R. Stevenson, elevation. Longitudinal section of the same. 61. lumber bridge on the Utica and Syra- cuse Railway, United States, span's of 40 and 30 feet. Do., span of 60 feet. Do., elevation, plan and cross section, span of 88 feet. 63rt. Do., isometrical projection. fi4. Do., plan, elevation, and cross section, span of 84 feet. 64rt, Timber bridge, span of 82 feet. 65. Abutment for a bridge of 82 feet span over the Oneida Creek. 66. Trestle bridge, Oneida Creek Valley, span of 2y teet. 8". Do., elevation of span of 100 feet. 54. 65. 56. «7. 68. 59. 62. 63. 670. Do., isometrical projection of truss, connection of floor beams, and cross section. 68. Trestle bridge, Onondago Creek Valley, span of 29 fer" 69. A ^reat variety i" details of joinery. 69a. Pii'-driving machine. 70. Isometrical projections. 70a. Isometrical projections of iron plate. 70A. Do. 70c. Do. 70d. Do. 70e. Do. 70/. Do., culverts. 70g. Viaduct under Erie canal. 71. Remains of the bridge over the Adda, at Trezzo, the Milanese. 72. Ely iron bridge, near cathedral. 73. Details of do. 74. Do. 75. Do. 76. Haddlesey bridge, over the Aire, York* shire, details of the iron- work. 77- Do. 78. Do. 79. Do. 80. Do,, sections of structure. 81. Do,, plan, iron balustrades, &e, 82. Do., details. 83. Do., elevation. 84. London and Blackwall Railway bridge over the Lea, elevation and plan. 85. Do., sections and details. 86. Do., sections, enlarged view of railing. 87. Isometrical projection of the suspensioa bridge at Balloch feny, constructed on Mr. Dredge's principi,^. 88. Perronet's design for the bridge over the Seine at Melun, sections, &c. 89. Brighton chfun pier, portions of con- structive detail. 90. Wreck of do. in Oct. 1833, 91. Do. 92. Longitudinal and transverse sections of cast-iron swing bridge. 93. Longitudinal section and transverse do,, plan of turning-plate, roller frame, and bed- plate of cast-iron swin^ bridge. 94. Elevation and plan of cast-iron swinp bridge, Plymouth. 95. Gerrard's Hostel bridge, Cambridge, erected by the Butterley Company, (W. C. Mylne,) elevation and plan, 96. Do., sections and details of do. 97. Do., transverse section of do. 98. Fribourg suspension bridge, general elevation, with a section of the valley of the Sarine and of the mooring shafts, &c. ; general plan, ends of main piers, with approaches enlarged, &c. 99. Do., sections and details of do. IOC, 100a. Do. do. 101. Professor Moseley's diagrams of the arch. 102. Do. 103. Do. 104. Robert Stevenson's elevation of a chun bridge upon the catenarian principle. GES. JOHN WEALE'S NEW LIST OF WOEKS 2S tion of truss, mi, and cross I Creek Valley, of joinery. >f iron plate. ver the Adda, ledral. le Aire, York< work. m, &Ci tailway bridge md plan. ew of railing. he siupensicu instructed on )ridge over the I, &c. •tions of con- I. rse sections of :ransverse do., [ler frame, and 'in^ bridge, ist-iron swing , Cambridge, iJompany, (W. 1 plan, ui do. do. idge, general 1 of the valley the mooring ilan, ends of :hes enlarged, of do. B^ams of the :ion of a chun ian principle. In 1 vol. 4to., with 74 plates, extra cloth boards and lettered, price £1. * THE CAEPENTER'S NEW GUIDE : * OB, THE BOOK OF LINES POR CABPENTEES GEOMETRICALLY EXPLAINED; ' OOMPMSINO ALL THB ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES ESSENTIAL TOB ACOTTlBWa A KNOWLEDOB OF THB THEORY AND PBAOTICB OF CARPENTRY. A NEW EDITION, FOUHDTO ON THAT OF THB LATE PETER NICHOLSOK'S STANDARD WORK; .«m».^„ HEVISED BY ARTHUR ASHPITEL, Abchiteot, RS.A., F.LB.A. _.__ , _, together with PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING By GEORGE PYNE, of Oxford, Artist. ' The Work is divided in Three Divisions, with Seventy-four Illustrative Plate^ m followB : Dlnmon A.— Practical Geometry, and of Carpentry, explaining the principles in aU Its parts, by the late Peter Nicholson. (Pages 1 to 80— Plates 1 to 60 ) Division B,— PracticalMathematics, Mensu- ration, &c., by Arthur AshpitoL Archi- tect. (Pages 1 to 82.) Division C— Practical Rules on Drawinp, for the Operative Builder and Youiip Student in Architecture. (Pairas 1 to 80 -Plates 1 to 14.) ^ »B«» i w ou With 72 Engravings new, improved, and extended edition, price 21. 12« M extra large 4to, extra cloth boards aci lettered THE PRACTICAL RAILWAY ENGINEER: HXAMPLEg OF THB MECHANICAL AND ENGINEERINa OPERATIONS AND STBDCTtrRRS COMBINED IN THE MAKING OP A RAILWAY. Section I.—Curres, gradients, gauge, and Secl^n II.— Survey and levels for a railway —parliamentary plan and section— Limits of deviation— Setting out the line— Work- ing plans and sections— Computing quan- tities—Opening the ground. Section III.-Earthworks, cuttings, em- bankments, and drains. By O. D, DEMPSEY, C.E. contents. -Retaining walls, bridgea, tnn- 1. Cuttings. 2, 3, 4. Earthworks, excavating. 5. Ditto, embanking. 6. Ditto, waggons. 7. Drains under bridges. 8. Brick and stone culverts. 9. Paved crossings. 10. Railway bridges, diagram. 11, 12, 13, 14. Bridges, brick and stone. 16, 16. Ditto, iron. 17, 18, 19, 20, 21. Ditto, timber. 22. Centers for bridges. 23, 24, 26, 26, 27. " Pont de Montlouis." 28. "Pont du Cher." 29. Suspension bridge. 30. Bor-girder bridf^e. 81. ^stle bridge and Chepstow bridga. 83. Details of Chepstow bridge. 83. Oreosoting, screw-piling, &o. 34. Permanent way and rails. 88. Ditto, chairs. 86. Ditto, flsh-jointa, Ac. 87. Ditto, fish-joint chairs. »°> 89. Ditto, oast-iron sleepers, &c. Macneill's, and Dockray's. ♦1. Ditto, crossings. psphensc-M's, Hruaei's, Hcraans's, Section IV. nels, &c. Section V. — Permanent way and conttmo- tion. Section VI.— Stations, Ac. Section VII. —• Rolling stock — Carria^a, trucks, wheels, and axles— Brakes, and details— Locomotive engines andtendens. SectionVIII.—Signalsand electric telegraph. LIST OF PLATES. 42. Ditto ditto, details, 43. Ditto, spring-crossings, ke. 44, Ditto, turn-table. 45, 46. Terminal station. 47, 48. 49. Stations, 60, Goods stations. 51. Polygonal engine-houaa. 52. Engine-houoe. 53. Watering apparatus.— (A). T.anfei. 64, Ditto, (B,) Details of pumps. 55. Ditto, (C.) Details of ungines. 66, Ditto, (D.) Cranes. 67, Hoisting machinery. 68. Ditto, details. 69. Traversing platform. 60. Ditto, details, 61. Station-roof at King's Croat, 62. Ditto, Liverpool. 63. Ditto, Birmingham. 64. 65. Railway carriag^a. 66. Ditto, details, 67, 68. Railwa y trucks and whealt. 69. Iron and' jove red waggons. 70. Details of brakes. 71. Wheels and delHila. 72. Portrait. 24 JOHN WEALE'S NEW LIST OF WOEKS. In 1 Tol. 4to, extra olotb, boards and lettered, 67 Eus^raTingi^ Hi., DESIGNS AND EXAMPLES OP COTTAGES, VILLAS, AND COUNTRY HOUSES ; BEING THE STUDIES OF SEVERAL EMINENT ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS. OOHSiaTINa OF PLAKS, KLETATIOSB, AMD PERSPKCTITI VIKWB, WITH APPROXIMATE ESTIMATES Or THE COST OF EACH. In imperial 8to., with 13 large folding Plates, extra cloth boards, price 12#, A PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL ESSAY ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES. By GEORGE WATSON BUCK, M.Inst. C.E. TOGETUEK WITH A DESCRIPTION TO DIAGRAMS FOR FACILI- TATING THE CONSTRUCTION OF OBLIQUE BRIDGES. By W. H. barlow, C.E., Second Edition, corrected and improved. In 1 vol. 4to., 50 plates, with dimensions, extra cloth boards, piico 21«., EXAMPLES FOE BUILDERS, CARPENTERS, AND JOINERS; BEINQ WKLL-SKLKCTBD ILLUSTRATIONS OP RECBNT MODERN ART AND CONSTBtJCTION. CONTENTS OF PLATES. 1. 2, 8. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8> 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 16. 16. ir. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 26. Geometrical Staircase. Conatruction of the Wooden Columns in King's College. Details of do. Flan and Elevation of the Athenseum *.'lub House. Do. do. Arthur's Club, St. James' Street. Do. do. details. Do. do, ,, Design for Verandah. Details of do. Desi^ for Vei-andab. Details of do. Design for Verandah. Details of do. Elevation of a Group of New Houses. Joinery of Doors. Base, Burbase, and Dado. Flan and Elevation of Dooi-s. Sections do. do. Section of the framing or frontispiece of an entablature of a Shop front. Roof at Charter House. „ Clerkcuwell Church. ( 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 30. a7. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. Elizabethan terminations of a Shop front entablature. Joinery at Windsor Castle. Gate at the town entrance to the | Royal Mews, Windsor. Joinery at the Duke of Sutherland's, at | Lilleshall. Mullious of Windows, do. Plan and Elevation of a Fublic-houae. Exeter Hall roof. Counti-y muuiiiou. Italian Designs. Longitudinal Section, do. AViudows, Doors, Sic. do. Windows, &c. do. Grand Staircase, do. An Elegant Italian facade. Penton Meusey Church, Bell Turret. Plan and South Elevation of do. West Elevation of do. Elevations, with horizontal and vertical j sections of the Bell Turret, do. Transverse section of do. 3EKS. raringa^ iU., COTTAGES, )USES ; ;ts and builders. TIKWB, WITH LCH. >oards, price 12«^ )AL ESSAY E. OR FACILI- ON OF firds, piice 21«., JOINERS ; ,T AND CONSTBtJCTIOK. i'luinations of a Shop ;ure. isor Castle. own entrance to the Windsor. >uke of Sutherland's, at | idowa, do. ;iou of a Public-house. f. u. ction, do, I, tic. do. do. , do. ian fa<;ade. Church, Bell Turret. Elevation of do. of do. I horizontal and vertical | Bell Turret, do. ion of do.