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Mapa, platas, charta, ate, may ba filmad at diffarant raduction ratios. Thoaa too larga to ba antlraly includad in ona axpoaura ara filmad baginning In tha uppar laft hand cornar, laft to right and top to bottom, as many framas aa raquirad. Tha following diagrama illustrata tha mathod: Laa cartaa, planchas, tablaaux, ate, pauvant Atre fiimte A daa taux da reduction diff Arants. Lorsqua la documant aat trop grand pour Atra raproduit 9n un saui cllchA, 11 aat film* A partir da I'angla aupAriaur gaucha, da gaucha A droita, at da haut an bas, an pranant la nombra d'imagaa nAcassaira. Las diagrammea suivants iilustrant la mAthoda. 12 3 32X 1 2 3 !■'*.: ::#,■.,: 6 ./^ V. ./- X ,y / % \ \ k A SHORT HISTORY . ^*^ OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE r.Y r>- .T. M. I). ALEIKLKJOHX, M\. PKOFKHsdlt iiK llli: lllKnltV, IllsrollV, A\l> I'UArrirK uf KDI'lATloX IN TIIK rSIVKll ■'TV cir ST. ANllHKWS SIXTH ):i)ITI()N J'' ^^ > 7 LIBFiA^^V > ' ' f *■ ,VTf y ,. » » TORONTO W. J. GAUE AND CO. 1891 7Viix short .ut it was not then called English ; it was more probably called Teutish, or Teutsch, or Deutsch — all words connected with a generic word which covers many families and languages — Teutonic. It was a rough guttural speech of one or two thousand words; and it was brought over to this country by tho Jutes, Angles, and Saxons in the year 449. These INTItODlCTION. iiit'U loft tlu'ir lioiuo on tlw Cnntiiu'iit to timl luro farni.H to till and I10U.HC8 U) live in ; un tlu> inliuliitantM of tin) island — till) Britons — rver farther and fartlwr west, initil they nt length left them in \n'iU'Ai in the more nioiintainoUK parts of the island — in the southern and western comers, in Cornwall and in Wales. 6. The British Language. — What lanj,Mm^'o did the Teutonic, con([Uerors, who wrested the lands from the poor JJritons, find spoken in this island when they lirst set foot on if? Not a 'i'eiitonic speech at all. They found a lanj,'uage not one wonl of which thoy could nndei-stand. The, island itself Avas then called Britain; and the tongue spoken in it l)el(»nged to the Keltic group of languages. Languages belonging to the Keltic group are still spoken in Wales, in Jlrittany (in Franc* ), in the High- lands of Scotland, in the Avest of Ireland, ami in the Islo of Man. A few words — very few — from the speech of the IJritons, have come into our own English language ; and what these aro wo shall so(! hy-and-hy. 7. The Family to which English belongs. — Our Englisli tongue belongs to the Aryan or Indo-European Family of languages. That is to say, the main part or slibstancc of it can bo traced" back fo the race which inhabited the high table-lands that lie to the back of the western end of the great range of the Himalaya, or "Abode of Snow." This Aryan race gi'cw and increased, and spread to the south and west ; and from it have sprung languages which aro now spoken in India, in~ Persia, in Greece and Italy, in France and Germany, in Scandinavia, and in Russia. From this Aryan famil y we are sprung ; o ut of tlio oldest Aryan speech our own langiiago has grown. 8. The Group to which English belongs. — The Indo- European family of languages consists of several groups. One of these is called the Teutonic Group, because it is spoken by the Teuts (or the Teutonic race), who are found in Germany, in England and Scotland, in Holland, in parts of Belgium, in Denmark, in Norway and Sweden, in Iceland, and the Faroe Islands. The Teutonic group consists of three branches — High Qerman, Low Oerman, and Scandinavian. High IIISTOUY OF TIIK F.NfSUSH LANOUAOK. (Jcrmnn is tlio nanio given to the kind (tf (Jmnan H|vikon in UjUMT (itTiuimy — that is, in tho taMi'-land wliirh licH Houth of thn river Main, ami wliirli riscH ^'radually till it nuiH into tlio Alps. New High Oerman is the ( Merman of books — tl>« literary lan},'iiage — the (lerinan that i« tauglit and learned in scliools. Low Oerman in tlje nanio given to tho Clennan dialects spoken in thn lowlands — in tho Clerninn part of tho (Ireat IMaiii of l'!uropo, and round tlie months of those Gorman rivers that How into the llaltic and the North Sea. Scan- dinavian is the name given to tho langnages spoken in Denmark and in the great Scandinavian Peninsula. Of these \]\\VA) languages, Danish and Norwegian are practically tlic sanio — their literary or hookdanguage is one ; while Swedish is very dillercnt, Icelandic is the oldest and purest form of Scandina- vian. The following is a tabic of the OUOUP OP TEUTONIC LANGUAGEa TKl'TONIO. I LoWfJKIiMAX. I Ill'ill CKIIMAN. I : I I III Diilrli. Fli'iiiiHii. Kriiiaii. KiikII:*!!. OIiI. Miilillc. Num-. St ANIH.NAVIAN. |__ I \ r 1 Ivi'litnilic. DiiiiHk Fcrrolc SvciihIc (or Nuruk). (Swi'dibli). It M'ill be observed, on looking at the above table, that High rierman is subdivided according to time, but that the other groups are subdivided according to space. 9. English a Low-German Speech. — Our English tongue is th(! lowest of all Low-Qerman dialects. Low German is tho German spokcMi in tho lowlands of Germany. As wo descend tho rivers, we come to the lowest level of all — tho level of tho sea. Our English speech, once a mere dialect, camo down to that, crossed tho German Ocean, and settled in Britain, to which it gave in time the name of Angla-land or England. The Low German spoken in tho Netherlands is called Dutch; tho Low German spoken in Friesland — a prosperous province of Holland — is called Frisian; and the Low German spoken in Great Britain is called English. These three langnages are extremely like one another; but the Continental language that is likest I INTIlODriTION. I tlio En;,'lish is tho Dutch or Ilullundish (liulcrt rallrd Fn'finu. We ('Vt'ii poMHotw a couitlct, i'Vory Wi»nl of which is Iwith Kii^- hsh and rrisiiin. It runs thus — (1()[>o ; but its recovery was already past praying for. This period is remark- able for tho'~irSi'oduction'''of aji— eoiomiovis nujiiber of Latin "Words, and this was due to tho new interest taken jn the litera- ture of the lionia'Ws — 'Snititcrest i^rodiicodjb^jvjj^^ called^tlio ''^^^Wftl nf LPLtf^v^. ' But the most striking, as it is also tho most important fact relating to this period, is the appearance of a group of dramatic writers, the greatest the world has ever seen. Chief among these was William Shakespeare. Of pure poetry perhaps the greatest -writer was Edmund Spenser. Tho greatest prose-writer was Richard Hooker, and the pithiest Francis Bacon. 8. Modem English, 1603-1900. — The grammar of the language was fixed before this period, most of tho accidence having en- tirely vanished. The vocabulary of tho language, however, has gone on increasing, and is still increasing ; for the English language, like tho English people, is always ready to offer hospitality to all peaceful foreigners — words or human beings — that will land and settle within her coasts. And the tendency at the present time is not only to give a hearty welcome to new- comers from other lands, but to call back old words and old phrases that had been allowed to drop out of existence. Tenny- son has been one of the chief agents in this happy restoration. 10 CHAPTER II. THE HISTORY OP THE VOCABULARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1. The English Nation. — Tlie English peoi)le have for many centuries been the greatest travellers in the world. It was an Englisliman — Fraueis Drake — wlio first went round the globe ; and the English liavo colonised more foreign lands in every part of the world than any other people that ever existed. The English in this Avay have been influenced by the world with- out, liut they have also been subjected to manifold influences from witliin — they liavo been exposed to greater political changes, and profounder though quieter political revolutions, than any other nation. In 1066 they were conquered by the Norman - French ; and for several centuries they liad French kings. Seeing and talking with many difFerent peoples, they learned to adopt foreign words with ease, and to give them a home among tlie native-born words of the language. Trade is always a kindly and useful influence ; and the trade of Great Ihitain has for many centuries been larger than that of any other nation. It has spread into every part of the world; it gives and receives from all tribes and nations, from every speech and tongue. 2. The English Element in English.— When the English came to this island in the fifth century, the number of words in the language they spoke was probably not over two thousand. Now, however, wo possess a vocabulary of perhaps more than one hundred thousand words. And so eager and willing vor.\iir'i.Ai:v of thk enolism lanctaok. 11 liavn \\r Itceii t<» wclconic foroi^'ii worils, that it may ho saiil with truth that : The majority of words in tho English Tongue are not English. In fact, if wo takn tlio Latin hiiif^nia^'o ])y itself, there ans in our laiij,'ua^'e nioro Latin words than English. lUit the ^'raminar is distimtly Knglisli, and not Latin at all. 3. The Spoken Language and the Written Language — a Caution. — W'u must not forget what has been said al)out a ' language, — that it is not a printed tiling — not a set of hlack marks upon paper, hut that it is in truest truth a tongue or a speech. Hence we must he can^^ul to distinguish between tho spoken langnagc and the written or printed language ; be- tween the language of the ear and the language of the eye ; between the language of the mouth and tho language of tho dictionary; between the moving vocabulary of tho market and tho street, and tho fixed vocabulary that has boon catalogued and imprisoned in our dictionaries. If we can only keep this in view, we shall find that, though there are more Latin words in our vocabulary than English, the English words we possess aro used in speaking a hundred times, or even a thousand times, oftoner than the Latin words. It is tho genuine English words that have life and movement ; it is they that fly about in houses, in streets, and in markets ; it is thoy that express with greatest force our truest and most usual sentiments — our inmost thoughts and our deepest feelings. Latin words aro found often enough in books ; but, when an English man or woman is deeply moved, he speaks pure English and nothing else. Words are the coin of human intercourse; and it is the native coin of pure English with the native stamp that is in daily circulation. 4. A Diagram of English. — If wo were to try to represent to the eye the proportions of tho different elements in our vocab- ulary, as it is found in the dictionary, the diagram would take something like tho following form :— ! t i : i i I 13 ^^UfVJUM OK T/fP pv .,. ; I I ( n '-"^''. ^^In.h are aW, Latin). t'KKKK Moiios. 't«llan,.s,,„nw,, |.„r,„^,,„^ — — ——-__: ""• '•'<•■ I'tc. """' vo„, „„,„,, ,,,, ,_ .« "« ,v,th eo„Wb„u„„,, to r ■"""W.r „f Keltic ,vor.k ,■„' ""' ' "'"^ ''""ee wc ]„,„ ."■•,:r' '■"• --' '.x;;:::.t '?- '''~^^^^^^ *l"ch wo l,,„o iiiheritoil I„ ,i ""■""' ""^ I-"tiu word, "■■Ser ..u,nl,e,. of L,,ti,. '"" ^'°"° ''ro„.-ht over to „, ° ^°>-W ,-„troducea ever I ',,;';' "'« ".urch w,ie,. t „; k. Banes be,.,.,, to eo,„o over to u" " .""""^ ^™" I'o,„o' «»'u,y; wo l'.-.cl for «o„,„ ti„,' ° 1^ ? *'"' "' «'o ei-htl, iho Nor„,a„-Fro„ol, invasio,, ^t T "'""^ ^»'»'^'' words •:"-'' of tho Lati,, t„,«t '^:'V. '°' ^--'' is Jroab y ;' -Arab,c words fro,,, A,,,bia t^r^^^T^^^^illSSOiii^, 1^.*.., Persia,, words fro,, p .^:'^',::'' "■-'-'-» w^^^jf ° ™' evo„ Malay words fro,,, tbo n ?" ^™'''^ &»>» Cbi,,, '0* " little „,oro closely "t ,, T'"""^" "^ «"'•■'=«"• lot,: «• ''•e Keltic He^U t "w'f *-"- m a«lisl.,_rhis olc„.c„t is of VOCABL'LAKY OF THE EXOLlsH LANnrAGE. 13 "Indiistanl, l)ulary.— . cos witli ilts— one i.s to our Jiave a ms JieJd had to words, gustino o us a h they liomo. I'OIU ilia, t us of tlirop kinds : (i) Those M-nrds which wc rocoivod direct from tho nni'ifiit JJritoiis whom we fouml in the island ; (ii) tljosc^ wliicli the Xonnan-rrcneh hrotiL,dit with thorn from Ciaul ; (iii) those whicli liavo hitely come into th(^ langua^'o from the IIii,di- laiids of Scothmd, or from Ireland, or from the writing's of .Sir Walter 8eott. 7. The First Keltic Element. — 'i'his first contrihntion con- tains the followin*,' Avords : BiU'irht'x, chmt, ci-nf/,; rru'l/i', '>^' It is worthy of noto that tho first eight ill tho list are the names of domestic — some even of kitchen — things and utensils. It may, perhaps, he permitted us to conjecture that in many cases tho Saxon invader married a British wife, who spoke her own language, taught lier children to speak their mother tongue, and whose words took firm root in tho kitchen of tho new English liouse- hold. Tho names of most rivers, mountains, lakes, and hills are, of course, Keltic ; for these names would not bo likely to "be changed l)y the English new-comers. There are two names for rivers which are found — in one form or another — in every part of Great Britain. These are the names Avon and Ex. Tho word Avon means simply water. "VVo can conceive tho children on a farm near a river speaking of it simply as " the water " ; and hence we find fourteen Avons in this island. Ex also means water; and there are perhaps more than twenty streams in Groat Britain with this name. The word appears as Ex in Exeter (tho older and fuller form being Exanceastcr — the camp on tho Exo) ; as Ax in Axminster ; as Ox in Oxford ; as Ux in Uxbridge ; and as Ousa in Yorkshire and other eastern counties. In "Wales and .Scotland, the hidden k changes its place and comes at tho end. Thus in "Wales we find Usk ; and in Scotland, Esk. There are at least eight Esks in tho kingdom of Scotland alone. The commonest Keltic name for a mountain is Pen or Ben (in "Wales it is Pen ; in Scotland tho flatter form Den is used). "We find this word in England also under the form of Pennine ; and, in Italy, as Apennine. 8. The Second Keltic Element. — Tho Xormans came from B 14 J"^ ENGLISH LAXfifAOE. i ! k".« of tl,o ].•,,,„„,, ■!■,,/ ""'■'"■^ ""' «i".I.I.v .1,0 tl„.„ '""""A /«//„„, rii,,„.„; ...,, ,,'.; ,'""'■ '"'■"'. '"'■*./, l,„-h;,. '-™ '-M tl,at ,,1,.„.„ ,.v,. .■„';■ " '"'" "'"■"• "»■■' '-«"«.'.■. a„,l 9 The Third g^jy _ -land has given „, .;„„„, *' tT^'^S""" "■"'^■^• ""= ^'orth, eallcl .\orthn o„ Y„ ^""' !*'-"'" '■"•"■tons of -..men,, k„o™ „3 D ;i: ;:V'^°^^^"'— '«"»oro oas em coast of Groat Brita, , ^^JT^T'''""' ™ "'o -.cl ,,„iet sottlcnents of tl, E^! 1"""; "' "'^ P^-"^"' 'owns fe'l<.ent, a,ul ti.eir occurrence'; ,'"; ''"'"''■""'™""' ■"> I'rayor ,vas inscrtea a.-ni„ri * """^'' '''•'=°<'«'. that a "Fronuhe incursions „f o\! " '" ' "^ "' "'" «"'°- In mto of the resistance o th F T', ^"f ^'™'' ''^'""f "« ■' " "- -c, of the ninth een r "su!:! r'',' "'°,"-™™ ''^ '»foro nont footing in Enghn,,,. a 'irt, t • "''°" " P™'"' Jy..a.ty sat n,,on the En.'l^h III f ™'"' '°"""^' » I^"feh ^-m the tin.e of KingA w" 1 rr''" ^'"f '"'« '° '««• '>-oro a settled part of the ,1, . '™ °* *''" lJ.™ela.-h - f.."!, especialV on h ear:':!"" ,"' ''"«'""'" ' »•«' '-- names still i„ ,J °"'' ™''-'^'' » ^^'S" nnniber of Danish '^"3 Teutons; and they spoke a dialect VOCAnrLAHY OF THE KNf;Llsn LANGl'AnK. 15 '•'1 tho xnllvy Vh the then lie jM.rjpIe f,f '"•■'» is iinu' '■"'"'••I many 'I'll an! tho ■"'. lui'ht; '''", hlothlj; -'I'O hr(.II;L,'llt 'y took an ^'"••>^'<', and conipara- \ philahcg ^\ phmi; rogue- -\\\ ^'ards tlio futons of but moro on tho III towns 't^anie so that a time — er us ! " » before perma- Danish ) 1042. nelagli hence )anish S^orth- iialect of tho jjroat Teutonic (or (Jcrnian) hm^'un^'f*. 'Ilu' sotinds nf the Danish dialect — or hin<,'ua;,'t', as it nmst now he calhul — arc hanh'f tliau those of thti (leruian. "NVe lind a k instead of a ch ; a p preferred to an f. The same is the ease in Siotlaml, where the liard form kirk is preferred to the softer church. Where tlje (lermans say Dorf — our Knglisli word Thorpe, a vilhi^'e — tlio Danes say Drup. 12. Scandinavian Words (i). — The words contributed to our hingua;^'e hy the Scandinavians are of two kimls : (i) Xames of phices ; and (ii) ordinary words, (i) 'J"he most striking instance of a Danish place-name is the noun by, a town. Mr Isaac Taylor^ tolls us that there are in the oast of England more than six hundred names of towns ending in by. Almost all of these are found in the Danelagli, within the limits of the great highway made hy the Komans to the north-west, and well-known as Watling Street "We find, for example, "Whitby, or the town on the ichUe. cliirs; Grimsby, or the town of (I rim, a great sea-rover, who ohtained for Ids countrymen the riglit that all ships from tho ]]altic should come into the port of Grims})y free of duty; Tenby, that is Danchy; by-law, a law for a special town; and a vast number of others. The following Danish Avords also exist in our times — cither as separate and individual words, or in composition — beck, a stream ; fell, a hill or table-land ; firth or fiord, an arnx of tho sea — tho same as tho Danish fiord ; force, a waterfall ; garth, a yard or en- closure ; holm, an island in a river ; kirk, a church ; oe, an island; thorpe, a village; thwaite, a forest clearing; and vik or -wick, a station for ships, or a creek. 13. Scandinavian Words (ii). — The most useful and the most froipiently employed word that wo have received from tlio Danes is the word are. The pure English word for this is booth or sindon. The Danes gave us also the habit of using to before an infinitive. Their word for to was at ; and at still survives and is in use in Lincolnshire. AVe find also the fol- lowing Danish words in our language : bltmt, bole (of a tree), bound (on a journey — properly boun), busk (to dress), cake, 1 Words aiul Places, p. I.'i8. 5W" ! 10 m u I in.vroijv OK t/ip iv,,. oa", crop (to ,„t^, curl out ^ , «;t. for, Ware,:' JlC il T^'T' '*"' ^-''' ^^"ow. Plough, root. scCd. Sky. t'rn ; 'n'^^'' '^"'^^«' 1°«. odd "BiJ'. Jt is jji \,„.fl.,,, 1 , , '"ii.llM JaKc), urnnlr ;■"'"• ^"''■■>K a,„l eC '';;'""'■ '""■' ^-k»).ir.-, .t •'^'■■•"I'inmvi,,,, „-,„-,l,. ""' "'" '"W«t n,l„,ixt„r,. „f 14. Influence of fha. a ''"'■H">' <.f il„. 7, *»>««navian Bement-n • . ' "1 Uio Klines and ti,„ i).,. • i . ™'- '"li mint '•"'«"^W, "".1 (In,, of ,,„,,,,,■„'""'"« "'« ■■'"••xion, of on, "-"■» tl,at n.„.,I ,„ „„,,,„ „, '"""« Wan,o „n„,il,.,, , "■"'•" »"il,io„. Tl,„ «,„" , ' '"•""««' '" a r,nit„ di,r„, ;«•. an,l oth„„a,ts of .,"'-, '"'''"■■'"' '" '"'Jc-Civ.-, ''•'• ''■"S'.ag»; ll,„ „,„,,3 „°j ti;;;: """ •<» «« aconmto „, „„•(. -;f-W-ron.„ch for gran ... tf, "n' ''"'"' ""•--'-' ^ ■■'". or take care of tl.on,.' 3"' i'™'' '""' '^^ "- inflexion, 1 anes n.i„a ,vith oacl. otl.e.. tl „ of '"? "'" ^"«''''*'' ""I I'^ccs of stripping on _ i! ' "'°'° "P"'/ "o"'-! tin, ';*" of t>.e «™"™:tLi:;fle ,.:: i7:r ^™'"" ''°'" p™"'" tlien, ,„to tl.i, country "'' "'"y '"•<■ brought witl. -^'?:o^::!;„inf i^f*--'^" '- - "■« - w of -.tribntio,. i, y,y ,,^ ti.e "oj^T ": T""""' "^ I-""" «"aKO. Latin ,va.tl,o]a,,g,,„ro;fcr"''' ™""' '" °"^ '-- " ""° "me were master, of ttw ll 7'"'" ' "'"' "'» ^""'""'x ' ;''■■•' ""■". "'.^t tI.oy in,I„„noe , .tv "I ™''''- ^'^ "•»"■ •' "yuago f„„„,, it, ,, ° ""■ y people,, „,.,, ,,,„t j,, """ "'most „I, the con .tn^of P ' "'"' '"""' •■"'-' ""'•«-- -n, n,„« Latin tl.an 1 " L.'^tr' "'"" ""' »^ ^ ''"™ ""ische.acop, fellow, . loft, odd, 'J^'), weak, ^^^lirc, Lin. I'llixflMV of ''»! intro- )ii.s of our 'l'^*'*' (lis. ms("(tJ,.,i ; took 111,) 'to diffcr- s are not ' as writ- 'er cared c'onver- 10 word, flexions 'sli and cliurcJi, lid tliis aeopJcs it with ber of Latin r Jan- 'Hians M'on- tlicir th-, liavo and the clmmrter and the use-s of iho I^iitin oU-nu'iit— an rhment m) imiHutant — in Kn;,'li?*li.' Not «'idy Imvo the ItoniunH n»a»hi rontrilmtinns of lar^i- numbers I'f wumIh to the I',n^'Ii>h liin^'uaj^'e, hut they hiivr addi-vritin^'s of ShakesjM-arc! wert' impossilile, thf |H>ctry of the sixteenth and seventeentli eenturies could not have conie into existence. 'I'his is true of .Shakespeare ; ami it is still more true of Milton. His most powerful poetical thouj^dits are written in lines, the most telling words in which are almost always Latin. 'J'his may ho ilhiistruted by the following lines from "J.ycida.s": — " It wtw that ftitul and ptrjidioun Imrk, Built iu the eclipse, and rigged with cumcH dark, That Hunk ho low that mtcral heud of thine I " 16. The Latin Contributions and their Dates. — The first contribution of Latin words was made by the Komans — not, however, to the English, but to the Ihitons. The Komans hehl this island from a.d. 43 to a.d. 410. They left behind them — when they were obliged to go — a small contribution of six words — six only, but all of them important. "J'he s<'cond contribution — to a large extent ecclesiastical — was made liy Augustine and his missionary monks from l{(jme, and their visit took i)lace in the year 596. The third contrilnition was made throngh the medium of the Xorman-French, who .seized and subdued this island in the year 1066 and following years. I'lie fourth contriVmtion came to us by the aid of the iJevival of Learning — rather a process than an event, the dates of which are vague, hut which may be said to have taken place in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Latin left for us by the liomans is called Iiatin of the First Period; that brought over by the missionaries from liome, Iiatin of the ^ 111 the last half of this seiiteuce, all the essential words — necessary, ac- quainted, character, uses, element, important, are Latin (except character, which is Greek). 1« (i JUhToUY OF TUF t'V/f. ., oeoond Period- tJ ♦ I" /irst ''•'■ "•"■•, of ,. ,,,..,. ,.,„,„„,, ;''^" '•"'«""«.> l.y tl,„ „u„Z ^ .^7. Latin of the First kn^J. ' ?'* "' '^' t""'- "'\ .'"^ ^"-'y /our Inndn r^"^^'^ '"''" ^'•""-'- J-Id J^h. •^'■^' ^^•"r.lH, most of ,yLii "^ ^'^^ ^"'^''"'I thon, M-aT 7 ot tJio nanios of ,,],„,., .,., "y "'« Pi'o/ixos or the cast of r''^''^'^ ^oil it stnu-k roof t '"""» ^^ ""^• '2^ of J-.n.^Iand it i, sounded . ^" ^^'^ "«^'"i and master, as in Lancaster Do "''' '"'^ ^^»^'^« tI,o form ^"t'', It takes tlio stiJI sofforV "'^ ^^^^^eino west an,l ords endin. ,n m./.r. Thou^,^ VOCAHILAKY (>V TIIF. KX«;IJ>II I,AXlJl'A«.K, 19 ■"'"•'•, Latin " (»-..>„ (|,„ '•" ^'ritoiiH ; "• lli(.nk.s; nouth nii.I ^^hich Mo now ]o(,Jc J'f'Id JJn- 'fwlod ill 'ntoiis to ♦^'i Jaws, ^'■. ca,,..,, ^„: „^ ^•';- =0 JJcrson s,.„f . ,,■ " "' "'» words, poatnl f. "■ombor of '," "'!''■ <"««. /.-on, ^ ? ' "" °™'-»«''; ^- '"*„:: 'x:-. ^■-. ...%.„, rtr: :r"'»"' stimulus in ^'^^ovknicc of v, ,- / <-<'ntmoiifc TiT"''' °''°*«''aWe; r'tr*""'' °Wter. trout ^^- Latin of the ThiVj t, . """""«; mint. '10 Tiii,.,? 1. • , ™ Period 6) Ti, t . '' '-y; ami in ^'^'"^ iiJiIookcI- '"o' of Kont, 'a^i catiic'cJi-al ^'^Ji-s mission, ^'Ji»s tJjat in ^nvcd in its ^yonh, most >bservaiices. ostol from 1 overseer; 1 ordaiju-d '■^ •'^•^litaiy aelmesse, preacli ; throuf,--!! ''« intro- ^vitli it '"itiiiout rl-'ive a 1(1 jion- 'i"o on. lUit linth of tlir>e dialects (and every dialfct of Krcncli) arc simply forms of Latin ■ — not c>f the Latin written and printed in Ixioks, In: of the Latin spoken in the camp, the fields, the streets, the villa;4e, and the cottage. 'J'he liomans con([uered (!anl, wheri! a Keltie tongue was spoken; and the Gauls gradually adoj^ed Latin as their mother tongue, and — with the excei)tion of the Drttons of ]>rittany — left off their Keltic speech almost entirely. In adopting the Latin tongue, they had — as in similar eases — taken firm hold of the root of the word, hut changed the ])ronunciation of it, and liad, at the same time, compressed very much or entirely dropped many of the Latin inllexions. The French i»eople, an intermixture of Gauls and other trihes (some of them, like the Franks, German), ceased, in fact, to speak their own language, and learned the; Latin tongue. The Norsemen, led by I^uke Rolf or Iiollo or llou, marched south in large numlieis; and, in the year 912, wrested from King Charles tl.e 8im])le the fair valley of the Seine, settled in it, and gave to it the name of Xorinandy. These Xorsemen, now Xormans, were Teutcms, and spoke a Teutonic dialect ; hut, when tliey settled in France, they learned in course of time to speak French. The kind of In'eiich they spoke is called Xorman-French, and it Avas this kind of French that they hrought over with them in 100(5. lUit Xorman-French had made its appearance in Fngland before the famous year of 'GO ; for Edward the Confessor, who suc- ceeded to the English throne in 1042, had been educated at the Xormau Court ; and he not only spoke the language himself, but insisted on its being spoken by the nobles who lived with him in his Court. 23. Latin of the Third Period (ii). Chief Dates.— The Xcji- mans, having utterly beaten down the resistance of the F.nglish, seized the land and all the political power of this countiy, and filled all kinds of oflices — both si)iritual and temporal — with their Xorman brethren. X'orman-French became the language of the Court and the nobility, the language of Parliament and the law courts, of the universities and the schools, of the Church 22 III.STOKY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (1 and of literaturo. Tlio English poople held fast to their own tuiij^Mic ; l»ut Ihcy iticked up many French words in the markets and other phiccs " wlierc men most do congregate." But French, heing the hniguago of tlic upper and ruling classes, was liere and there learned l»y the English or Saxon country-people who had the ambition to Ix; in the fashion, and were eager "to sp('k(! Frensch, for to he more y-told of," — to he more highly considered than their neighhours. It took ahout three hundred years f(»r French words and plirases to soak thoroughly into J'jiglisli ; and it was not until Fhigland was saturated with I'rench words and French rhythms that the great poet Chaucer appeared to proilucc poetic narratives that were read with delight both 1)y Xorman haron and hy Saxon yeoman. In the course of these three hundred years this intermixture of French with English liad heen slowly and silently going on. Let us look at a few of the chief land-marks in the long process. In 1042 Edward the Confessor introduces Xorman-F'rench into his Coui't. In 1066 Duke AVilliam introduces Xorman-Fiench into the whole country, and even into parts of Scotland. The oldest English, or Anglo-Saxon, ceases to he written, anywhere in the island, in public documents, in the year 1154. In 1204 wo lost Xormandy, a loss that had the ellect of bringing the Eng- lish and the Xormans closer together. IJobcrt of Gloucester writes his chronicle in 1272, and uses a large number of French words. Ihit, as eaily as the reign of Henry the Third, in the year 1258, the reformed and reforming Government of the day issued a proclamation in Fhiglish, as well as in F'rench and Latin. In 1303, iJobert of Drunn introduces a large number of French words. The F'rench wars in Edward the Third's reign brought about a still closer iniion of the Xorman and the Saxon elements of the nation. lUit, aljout the middle of the fourteenth century a reaction set in, and it seemed as if the genius of the English language refused to take in any more French words. The English silent stubbornness seemed to have prevailed, and ICnglishmen had made up their minds to be English in speech, as they Avere l\nglish to the backbone in everything else. Xorman-French had, in fact, hecome provincial, and was spoken VOCAKULAKY OF THE ENGLISH LANGl'AGK. 23 only here ami thcro. Ecforc tho great Plague — corniiionly 8|.oktu (.f as "The J!hu;k Death"— of 1349, Imth high aiul li)\v seemed to be alike hent on learning Fn-neh, hut tin* reaetion may 1x3 said to date from this y(.'ar. The tulniinating point of this reaetion may perhaps he soen in an Art of Parliament passed in 1302 hy Kihvard III., hy -whieh l)oth French and Latin had to give place to Knglish in our courts of Lnv. The poems of Chaucer are the literary result — "the hriglit consummate flower" of tho union of two great powers — the hrilliance of the French language on the one hand and the homely truth and steadfastness of English on the other. Chaucer was horn in 1340, and died in 1400; so that wc may say that ho and his poems — though not tho causes — are tho signs and symhols of the great iniluenco that French obtained and held over our mother tongue. Put althougli we accepted so many vorde from our Norman-French visitors and immigrants, avo accepted from them no hahit of si)eech whatever. "NVe accepted from them no phrase or idiom : the build and nature of the English language remaini'd the same — unallected l)y foreign manners or by foreign habits. It is true that Chaucer has the ridiculous i)hrase, *' 1 n'am but dead" (for "I am rpdte dead"^) — wliich is a literal translation of the well-known French idiom, " Je no suis que." Put, though our tongue has always been and is impervious to foreign idiom, it is probably owing to tho great influx of French words which took place chiefly in the thirteenth century that many people have acquired a habit of using a long French or Latin word when an English word would do (juite as well — or, indeed, a great deal better. Thus some people are found to call a r/oo'( home, a desirable mansion; and, instead of tho quiet old English proverb, " Puy once, buy twice," we have the rf.) Scutcheon comes from tho Lat, sciifiun, a shield. Ihen seut- choon or escutcheon came to menu cmtt-of-uniix — or the marks and signs on his shield by which the name and family of a man were known, when ho himself was covered from head to foot in iron mail. 27. Norman Words ('/). — The terms connected with the chase are : Brace, couple ; chase, course ; covert, copse, forest; leveret, mews; quarry, venison. A few remarks about some of these may be interesting. Brace comes from tlie Old French hrai'L\ an arm (Mod. French Jmix) ; from the Latin hrachintn. The root-idea seems to be that which encloses or holds np. Thus hrachuj air is that M-hich stfimjs up tho nerves and muscles ; and a brace of birds was two birds tied together with a string. — The word forest contains ii\ itself a good deal of unwritten Xorman history. It comes from the Latin adverb /o;y^^•, out of doors. Hence, in Italy, a stranger or foreigner is still called aforc/^ficre. A forest in Norman-French was not necessarily a breadth of land covered with trees ; it was simply land out of the jurisdiction of the common law. Hence, when AVilliam the Conqueror created the !Xew Forest, he merely took the land out of the rule and charge of the com- mon law, and put it under his own regal power and personal care. In land of this kind — much of which was kept for hunt- ing in — trees were afterwards planted, partly to shelter largo game, and partly to employ ground otherwise useless in growing timljcr. — Mews is a very odd word. It comes from the Latin verb mutarc, to change. "When the falcons employed in hunting Avere changing their feathers, or inoultliKj (the word moult is the same as Dieus in a different dress), the French shut them in rt cage, which they called mue — from mntore. Then the stables for horses were put in the same i)lace ; and hence a row of stables has come to be called a mews. — Quarry is quite as stmnge. The word quarry, which means a mine of stones, 2(] IIIHTDIJV OF THE EXCLISII LANCJUACE. ft 1 1 I ' I ronK's from llu" Latin qiu((fr(lrr, to make squaro. lint tho Imntin;,' term quarri/ i.s of a iceU(in'>is) was the legal authority who sat behind lattice- work, which was called in Latin cancclU. This word means, primarily, little crahy ; and it is a diminutive from cancer, a crab. It was so called because the lattice-work looked like craljs' claws crossed. Our word cancel comes from the same root : it uieans to make cross lines through anything we Avish deleted. — Court comes from the Latin cars or cohnrs, a sheep- pen. It afterAvards came to mean an enclosure, and also a body of Iioman soldiers. — The proper English Avord for ixjiuhje is deemster or demster (which appears as tho proper name Donpster); and this is still the name for a judge in the Islo of jNFan. Tho French Avord comes from tAvo Latin Avords, dico, I utanish name Ctrl ; but we })reservc it in tho names countess and viscount — the latter of which means a person ■/// tJir plucr of {\u ricr^ a count. Peer conies from the Latin jinr, an equal. The House of Peers is the House of Lords — that is, of those who are, at least when in the House, c^jual in rank and ('(j7i(i/ in power of voting. It is a fundamental doctrine in English law that every man "is to be tried })y hh jKrrs." — It is worthy of note that, in general, tho French names for diflerent kinds of food designated the cooked meats; while the names for the living animals that furnish them are English. Thus we have beef and ox; mutton and sJiccp ; re.dl and caJf ; j^ork and pig. There is a remarkable passage in Sir "Walter Scott's ' Ivanhoe,' which illustrates this fact with great force and pic- turesqueness : — ■ " ' Gurtli, I advise thee to call olF Fangs, and leave tho herd to their destiny, which, whether they meet with bands of travelling soldiers, or of outlaws, or of wandering pilgrims, can be little else than to be convertinl into Xormans before morning, to thy no small ease and comfort.' '* 'The swine turned Normans to my comfort ! ' quoth ritn-th; * expound that to me, AVamba, for my Ijrain is too dull, and my mind too vexed, to read riddles.' " 'AVhy, how call you those gTunting brutes running about on their four legs ] ' demanded AVandja. "'Swine, fool, swine,' said the henl; 'every fool knows that.' " 'And swine is good Saxon,' said the jester; 'but how call M .|lii if' ! i! ' ( ii il ; : I i '■'■ 28 IllSTOltY OF TIIF. KXCMSII LAN(;rA<;K. yoii tlio HOW wla-ii hIk- i.s llaycd, aiiil tlniwii, :iiiil fpiart^Tt'd, aii«l liun^ U|) 1)y tlio 1u'»'1h, liko a traitor / ' " ' l*t»rk,' aiiHWcrcil th«i swiiKf-licril. '"I am Very ^'lad every fool kiiowH that too,' 8ai«l Waiiil»a; 'and pftrk, I tliiiik, is ^'ood Xorinan-Freiuli : and bo when tlu' lirutt! lives, and is in llit; cliar^'o of a Saxon slave, slu; goes l»y her Saxon name ; Imt becomes a Mornian, Jind is called |iork, when she is carried (o lln; castle-hall to feast nnion;^' (he nobles ; wliat dost thou thiidv of this, friend (lurth, ha]' " ' It is but too true doctrine, friend Wamba, however it j,'ot into thy fool's pate.' " * Nay, I can tell you more,' said "NVamba, in tlu; same tone ; ' there is old Alderman Ox continues to hold Ins Saxon epithet, while he is nnd<'r the charge of serfs and bondsmen sucli as thoii, but becomes ]5eef, a fiery French gallant, when he arrives before the worshii)ful jaws that are destined to consume him. ^Fyhneer Calf, too, becomes ^Fonsieur do Veau in the like man- ner ; he is Saxon when lie v quires tendance, and takes a Xor- man name ^vllen Ik; becomes matter of enjoyment.' " 30. General Character of the Norman-French Contributions. — The Xorman-French contributions to our language gave us a number of general names or class-names ; ^vhile the names for individual things are, in general, of purely English origin. The words animal and beast, for example, arc French (or / Latin) ; but the -words fox, hound, whale, snake, wasp, and fly arc purely English. — The words family, relation, parent, ancestor, are French ; but the names father, mother, son, daughter, gossip, are English. — The words title and dignity arc French ; but the words king and queen, lord and lady, knight and sheriff, are English. — Perhaps the most remarkable instance of this is to bo found in the alistract terms employed for the offices and functions of State. Of these, the English language possesses only one — tho word kingdom. Xorman- French, on the other hand, has given us the words realm, court, state, constitution, people, treaty, audience, navy, army, and others — amounting in all to nearly forty. AVhen, how- ever, we come to terms denoting labour and work — such as agri- rul Til thi rai sill ''i VCXAHULAHY OF THE K.NCJLISII LANGlA(iK. L"J tultnro and scafariiij,', we fiinl th<» pMportions cntiri'ly ri'vorsoil. The Knj^lish lanj^Mia^'t", in such ca»<'s, contributos aliiut.st overy- tliin^ ; tlio Fri'iich lu-arly notliin;,'. lii a^'riciilturt', mIuIc plough, rake, harrow, flail, ami many others are Eiij^'lish worils, not a sin^'le term for an a^'riciiltural process or implement lias l)eeii f,'iveu lis 1»y the warlike Xurman -Fremli. — AVhile the words ship and boat; hull and fleet; oar and sail, are all Knj,'lish, the Normans liavo jiresented us with oidy the sin<^le word prow. It is as if all tlu! Norman ('om[Ueror had to do was to take his stand at the jirow, ga/ing npon the land he was gf)ing to seize, while the l.ow-fJerman sailors worked for him at oar and sail. — A'^'ain, while tlie names of the various parts of the hody — eye, nose, cheek, tongue, hand, foot, and more than eighty others — ju-e all Knglisli, we have received only alxmt ten simihir words from the French — such as spirit and corpse ; perspira- tion; face and stature. Speaking hroadly, we may say that all words that express general notions, or generalisations, arc French or Latin ; while words that exi)ress specific actions or concrete existences are pure English. Mr Spalding oliserves — " "\V"e use a foreign term naturalised when wo speak of ' colour ' universally ; but we fall back on our home stores if we have to tell Avhat the colour is, calling it * red ' or * yellow,' ' white ' or * black,' * green ' or ' brown.' AVe are Komans when we speak in a general way of * moving ' ; but we are Teutons if we * leap ' or * spring,' if we * slip,' ' slide,' or * fall,' if we * walk,' * run,' *swim,' or 'ride,' if we 'creep' or 'crawl' or 'ily.'" 31. Gains to English from Norman-Prencli. — The gains from the Xorman-FVencli contribution are largo, and are also of very great importance. ^Er Lowell says, that the Xorman element came in as quickening haven to ine rather heavy and lumpy Saxon dough. It stirred the whole mass, gave new life to the language, a much higher and wider scope to the thoughts, nuich greater power and copiousness to the expression of our thoughts, and a finer and brighter rhythm to our English sentences. " To Chaucer," lie says, in * ^ly Study "Windows,' *' French must have been almost as truly a mother tongue as English. In him we see the first result of the Xorman yeast 30 IIISTOUV nr Till'; KN(JLISII LAX(;UACJK. 11 'I ' llil: Tipou tilt' li()inc-l)akt' i)roee.ss was a nnich nider one — but at the same time one much more practical, more etl'ec- tual, and more lasting,' in its results. The two peoples — the Xormans and the English — found tliat they had to live together. They met at church, in the market-place, in the drilling field, at the archery Imtts, in the courtyards of castles ; and, on the hattle-fields of France, the Saxon howman showed that he could fight as well, as hravely, and even to hetter pur])ose than his lord — the Norman haron. At all these places, inider all those cir- cumstances, the Xorman and the Englishman wore ohligod to speak with each other. Xow arose a striking ])henomenon. Every man, as I'rofessor Earle jmts it, turned himself as it were into a walking phrase-hook or dictionary. "When a Norman had to use a French Avord, he tried to put the English word for it alongside of the Frencii word ; when an Englishman used an 1-nglish word, he joined with it the French equivalent. Then the Language soon began to swann with " yokes of words " ; our words went in couples ; and the habit then begun has continued doAvn even to the jjresent day. And thus it is that we possess such couples as vrill and testament ; act and deed ; use and wont ; aid and abet. Chaucer's poems are full of these pairs. He joins together hunting and venery (though both words mean exactly the same thing); nature and kind; cheere and face ; pray and beseech ; mirth and jollity. Later on, the Prayer-Look, which was written in the years 1540 to 1559, keeps up the habit : and we find the pairs acknowledge and confess ; assemble and meet together ; dissemble and cloak ; humble and lowly. To the more English part of the congregation the simple Saxon words would come home with kindly association ; to others, the words confess, usscjnhh', dis- semUe, and humhlc would speak with greater force and clearness. — Such is the phenomenon called by Professor Earle bilingual- ism. " It is, in fact," he says, " a putting of colloquial for- V2 III.STOKV OF THE llNNiLISlI LAXUUAIiK. :li! ! \ • i ■1 i ! luuluj to do the duty of a Fronrh-Kii;,'liNli ami Kn;^liNli-Fii'ii» Ii v cnbulary." Kvcn Hunkt-r, wlio wruti' at tho ond of llio six- teenth century, Rr'eniH to Iiiivn Ix-en ol»li;,'('d to use these jMiiif* ; and we, find in his writin<,'H thi; (.ouiiles "cecity antl lihndncsM," "nocive ami hurtful," "sense; and nu-anin;^'." 34. Losses of English from the Incoming of Norman-French. • — (i) I»ef(»re the coiMiuj,' of tho Xnniiiius, the J'inglish lan;,'Ua},'(5 was in the hahit <>f forming' coiupounds with ease and etrect. Jiut, after the introduction of the Norman- French lanj,'uago, that power seems gradually in havn ilisappearcd ; and ready-mado French or Latin ^\ords usurpi'd th(! place of the honu'-growu Knj,'lish compound. 'I'hu.s despair puslied out wanhope ; suspicion dethrnned wantrust ; bidding - sale Ava.s expelled by auction ; learning-knight hy disciple ; rime-craft by the ( I reek woul arithmetic ; gold-hoard l)y treasure ; book-hoard l)y library; earth -tilth by agriculture; wonstead by residence; and so with a large; number of others. — !Many English words, moreover, luid their meanings deju'cciated and almost degraded ; and tho words themselves lost their ancient rank and dignity. Thus tho Xorman concpierors put their foot — literally and metaphorically — on tho .Saxon chair,^ which thus bccanio a stool, or a footstool. Thatch, which is a doublet of tho word deck, was the name for any kind of roof; but tho coming of tho Xorman-French lowered it to indicate a roof of ntnur. "Whine was used for tho weeping or crying of lunuan beings ; but it is now restricted to thq cry of a dog. Hide was the generio term for tho skin of aliy auinuil ; it is now limited in modern English to the skin of a beast. — Tho most damaging result \ii)on our language was that it entirely stopped the growth of English words. AVe could, foP example, make out of tho word burn — tho derivatives brunt, brand, brandy, brown, brimstone, and others ; but this power died out with the coming in of the N'orman- French language. After that, instead of growing our own words, wo ' Chair is the Norniim-Freucli form of the French chaise. The Germans still call a chair a stuhl; and among tho English, stool was the nniversal name till tlie twelfth century. vofAnir.vnY of tmk K\«;i,isn i,.\xr;T'Ar,K. X\ adoptinl them ready -iiumU'. — l*njf<'?»t4i»r Cmik ar»'H ilio KiikH»1» nud Lntin liui^uaj,'08 to two bankK ; and Hay*' that, uln'U tho NonnaiiH cain»* over, tho nccuunt at tins Kn^'li.sh bank wa« cl()sridk hy l)orrowing and conveying from without — hy tho external accretion of foreign words. 35. Losses of English firom the Incoming of Norman-French. — (ii) The arrestment of growth in the purely Knglish part <»f our language, owing to tho irruption of Norman-French, and idso to tho case with wliich wo covdd take a reatly-niadc word from Latin or from Greek, killed olF an old power which we onco possessed, and which Mas not without its own use and expressiveness. This was the power of making compound words. Tho Greeks in ancient times had, and tho CJermans in modern times have, this power in a high degree. Tlius u Greek comic poet has a word of fourteen syllables, which may he thus translated — " Meanly -rising-early-ancMiurrying-to-the-tribuiial-to-denounce-anothfr- for-an-infraction-of-the-law-concerning-the-exportationof-figs."* And tho Germans have a compound like " the-all-to-nothing- crushing philoso[>her." The Germans also 8ay iroii-jxtih for rail- vaijf handshoe for glove, and finger-hat for iJtimUe. "We also possessed tliis power at one time, and employed it hoth in j)roper and in common names. Thus wo had and luvve the names BraJcesjyear, Shal'estaff, Shalic^peur, Golightlt/, Dolifile, Standfast ; and the common nouns n-ant-icit, fiiid-fault, miunUe- nen-s (for tale-hearer), 2n'ncli-penny (for miser), ylngahcd. In older times wo had three -foot -stool, three-man-heeth^ ; stone- cold, hcaven-hright, honeij-siceet, snail-slow, nut-ljrown, lilg-livcml (for cowardhj)', hrand-fi re-new ; earth-wandering, u-ind-dried, thunder-blasted, death-doomed, and many others. But sucli Avords as forbears or fore-elders I'.avc been pushed out by ances- 1 III two words, a fig-shower or syco2)hunt. ^ A club for beating clothes, that could be handled only by three men. :u insTOItY OF THE KXf;LISII I.ANorACE. i* Js'U urn Ini'-i ; fni'cirlt ]>y caufinit ov jtnidnn'f ; ami imn'f hy ronsrienre. Mr Jiarncs, the Dorsctsliiro poet, uuulil like to see tlu'-se and similar (•<»)ni)oun//(7ut the. '* goodc-wyf " replied that sho " coude speko no frenshe." The merchant, who was a steady English- lost his man, lost nis temper, '* for he also coude speke no frenshe, hut wolde have hadde eggys ; and she iinderstode hym not." Fortu- nately, a friend happened to join him in the; lioiise, and he acted as interpreter. The friend said that "he wolde have eyrcn; then the goode wyf sayde that she understod hym wel." And then the simple-minded but much-perplexed Caxton goes on to say: " Loo ! what sholde a man in thyse daycs n^w wryte, egges oreyren'?" Such were the difllculties that beset printers and writers in the close of the fifte(Mith century. 37. Latin of the Fourth Period. — (i) This contribution differs very essentially in character from the last. The Xorman-French contribution was a gift' from a people to a people — from living beings to livingJaeiags ; this new contributiou was rather a con- veyance of words from books tojjooks, and it never influenced — in any great degree — the spoken language of the English people. The, ear an d the mouth carried t he_yorman-French words into our lan gua ge U-tho e.ye, the pen, and the printing- press were the^iust iiiments that brouglit in th e Latin Avords of the Fourth Period. The Xoi:inau-Fj;eiicli^ w^ml«- 4lMvt-4ymic_jn too k and ke]>t their pla ce in the sp okgii_lang iiage of the masses ofthiH^^^^" r^bc taSjiAi 'Qr d.s th at w o r cc civc 44n-4hfr mxteenth and s^yenteeivt]j^_^enturies_Jc^^ place 4u tha written or printed language of books ^of, sehnlar.s,- and xj£_litcrary nieu. The se new Latin words came in A vjtli llio Bfi_YiYal of I^earning^ W^"'rb j^^.nlffl r,i\]]y\} t^'» RfinaanflTinfl. The Turks attacked and took Constantinople in the year 1453; and the great Greek and Latin scholars who lived in that citx-^^^m'^^^^^y-P^''^^''^^^ ^U^ th eir ])riceless m anuscrij}.t3_,and books, and fled to all parts of Italy, Germany, France, and even into England. The loss of the East became the gain of the "West. These scholars became teachers ; they taught the Greek 30 mSTOIiV OF THE KNOLISH LANT.rAfJK. J '.m and Konian rlassicfj to C'af,'or and oarno t Icaniors ; and tlius a iK'W impulse was {^'iv<'U to tin; study of tlie great niastcrpioces of human thouglit and literary stylo. And so it came to pass in coursn of time that every one M'ho wished to liecomo an cdu- ?«?f/e?i/e»i passed over in the form of pungent (though we had 2^oignant already from the French) ; 7?rt?(^?ere?/i came in as pauper ; and Koparatnm became separate. 38. Latin of the Fourth Period. — (ii) This went on to such an extent in the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century, that one writer says of those who spoke and wrote this Latinised English, " If some of their mothers were alive, they were not able to tell what they say." And Sir Thomas IJrowne (1605-1682) remarks: "If elegancy (= the use of Latin words) still proceedeth, and English pens maintain that stream we have of late observed to flow from many, we shall, within a foAv years, be fain to learn Latin to understand English, and a work will prove of equal facility in either." !Mr Alexander Gill, an eminent schoolmaster, and the then head-master of St Paul's School, where, among his other pupils, he taught John ^lilton, wrote a book in 1619 on the English language ; and, among other remarks, he says : " O harsh lips ! I now hear all around me such words as common, vices, envy, malice; even virtue, study. Justice, jn'ty, mercy, com- 2Mssion, 2)rofit, commodity, colour, grace, favoiir, acceptance. But whither, I pray, in all the world, have you banished those words which our forefathers used for these new-fangled ones? VOfAnULAltY OF TIIK KNM-IsII LANfiTACF.. 37 Are our words to bo exocntod liko our citizonsi" Ami lio (alls this fashion of usin^ Latin words "tho now nian^'o in our spoak- ing and writing." I'ut tho fashion went on growing ; and ovon uneducated jieople thought it a (lever tiling to use a Latin instead of a good English word. Samuel liowlands, a writer in tho seventeenth century, ridicules this atrectation in a few lines of verse. He pretend.'* that he was out walking on the highroad, and met a countryman who wanted to know what o'clock it was, and whether ho was on the right way to the town or village he was making for. Tho writer saw at once that ho was a simple, bumpkin ; and, when he heard that he had lost his way, he turned up his nose at tho poor fellow, and ordered him to ])e off at once. Here are the lines : — " As on the way I itinerated, A rural i)er.son I obviated, Interrogating time's transitation, And of the passage demonstration. My apprehension did ingenious scan That he was merely a simplician ; So, when I saw he was extravagant. Unto the (jbscure vulgar consondnt, I bade him vanish most promiscuously. And not contaminate r../ company." i' I, ■if 39. Latin of the Fourth Period. — (iii) What happened in the case of the Xorman-French contribution, happened also in this. The language became saturated with these new Latin words, until it became satiated, then, as it Avere, disgusted, and would take no more. Hundreds of " Long- tailed words in ositi/ and ation" crowded into the English language ; but many of them wore doomed to speedy expulsion. Thus words like discerptihilifi/, supervacaneousnesSj sejitentnonalifi/, hidihundness (love of si)ort), camti in in crowds. Tho verb infcnenife tried to turn out soften ; and detiirpate to take tho place of dojile. ]>ut good writers, like Bacon and Raleigh, took care to avoid the \ise of such terms, and to employ only those Latin words which gave them the power to indicate a new idea — a new meaning or a new shade 3H HISTOUV f)F TIFF, rXCUSI! I.ANf;rAr;K. ] 1'^^ of lucaniuj,'. And wlicu wo come to the oightcentli century, wo lind that ii writer like Addisftn would have shuddered at the very nu'utidn of sueh " inkhorn terms." 40. Eye-Latin and Ear-Latin. — (i) One slight influence pro- duced hy this spread of devotion to classical Latin — tf) the Latin of Cicero iiml Livy, of Horace and Virgil — was to alter tho sjx'liing of French words. "NVe hi I already received — through tlie ear — tho French M'ordsrt.sw/?(/^, avrtifure, dcfuufy ddtc, vifaillr, and others. ]5ut when our scholars hecamc accustomed to tln^ book-form of these words in Latin hooks, they gradually altered them — for tlu; eye and ear — into a-tmiiU, adceiifinr, drfaul/, ((''/if, and rit'tiKil.^. They went further. A largo number of Latin words that already existed in the language in their Norman-French form (for we must not forget that French is Latin "with the ends bitten off" — changed by being spoken peculiarly and heard imperfectly) were reintroduced in their original Latin form. Thus wc had caitiff from the Xormans; but wo reintroduced it in the shape of captive, which comes almost unaltered from tho Latin cuptivum. Feat we had from the Xormans; but tho l^t\i\\\ factum, which provided the word, presented us with a .second form of it in tho word fact. Such words might be called Ear-Latin and Eye-Latin ; Mouth- Latin and Book-Latin ; Spoken Latin and Written Latin ; or Latin at second-hand and Latin at first-hand. 41. Eye-Latin and Ear-Latin. — (ii) This coniing in of tho same word by two different doors — by the Eye and by the Ear — • has given rise to tho phenomenon of Doublets. The following is a list of Latin Doublets ; and it will be noticed that Latin ^ stands for Latin at first-hand — from books ; and Latin ^ for Latin at second-hand — through the Xorman-I'rench. Latin Doublets or Duplicates. Latin. Latin '. Latin 2. Antecessorein Antecessor Ancestor. Beiiedictionem Benediction Benison. Cadcntia (Low Lat. noun) Cadence Chance. Captivuni Captive Caitiff. AC.K. VOfAnrLAKV OF IMF. ENOU.mi LAXnUAGF. 39 •'iitli centtjiy, wc liudderecl at tlio lit influence pro- in— to tlie Latin ^•as to alter tho X'ived— through "*, (h-/fr, vitaiUe, customed to tlin nidiially altered nitnre, df/aul/, '■go number of ("•'go in their that French is l>cing spoken Sliced in their the Xormans; I wliich comes t wc liad from led tho Avord, 1 fact. Such ;in; Mouth- itten Latin ; ig in of tho >y the Ear- he following that Latin ^ Latin 2 for TIX 2. Jstor. son. ice. ff. Conceptioncni Conception Conceit. CouHuetudineni Consuetuile f CuHtoni. ICostiima Copliinuni Coffin Coffer. Corpus (a Ijody) Corpse Corjw. Debituin (something owed) Debit Del)t Defectum (somctliiiig w.-nting) Defeit Defeat. Dilatfire Dilate Delay. Excmi)luni Example Sample. Fabrica (a worksJiop) Fabric Forge. Factionem Faction Fa.shion. Factum Fact Feat. Fidelitatem Fidelity Fealty. Fragilem Fragile Frail' Oentilis (belonging to a. f/r»K or Gentile Gentle. family) Historia History Story. Hospitale Hospital Hotel. Lectionem Lection Le.sson. Legalera Legal Loyal. Magister Master Mr. Majorem (greater) Major Mayor. Maledictionem Malediction Malison. Moneta Mint Money. Nutrimentum Nutriment Nourishment. Orationem Oration Orison (a prayer). Paganum (a dweller in a pnr/iis Pagan Payne (a proper or country district) name). Particulam (a little part) Particle Parcel. Pauperem Pauper Poor. Penitentiam Penitence Penance. Persecutum Persecute Pursue. Potionem (a draught) Potion Poison. Pungentem Pungent Poignant. Quietum Quiet Coy. Radius Radius Ray. Regalem Regal Royal. Respectum Respect Respite. Securum Secure Sure. Seniorem Senior Sir. Separatum Separate Sever. Speciea Speciea Spice. Statum State Estate. Tractum Tract Trait. Traditionem Tradition Treason. Zelosum Zealous Jealous. l!M to lIlSTf)KY OK TIIK KNflLlSlI LANfJUAOK. 42. Remarks on the above Table. — 'Ihc wf»r(l benison, a 1»l(!Hsinj,', limy ]»' cojitrasttMl witli its ni»i)fisit»*, malison, a curso. —Cadence in the fjillinj,' of sonmls ; chance tlu; ])cfalliiig of oveut?*. — A caitiff ^va.s at first a ctij/fiir — then a person wlio inailo no jiro|Hr ilcfi-iico, but (il/oimf liimsclf lo l)o taken caiitivo. — \ corps i.s a iHufi/ of troo2)s. — The word sample is fouiul, in <»Mer Kn^'lish, in tin; form of ensample. — A feat of anus is a tleed or fact of amis, jxir rwcfJ/curr. — To nndoi-stand how fragile liecanu! frail, ^\^^i must iironounce tlio g lianl, and notiec how tlio hard {^'uttural falls easily away — as in our own native words Jlxit and ha//, which formerly contained a hard g. — A major is a (jrcafcr cajjtain ; a mayor is a fjrcntcr magistrate. — A magister means a hii/i/rr nuni — as o])})osed to a minister (from nu'imsj, a smaller man. — Moneta was the name given to a stamped coin, because these coins ■were first struck in the temple of Juno i^Foneta, Juno the Adviser or the AVarner. (From tl*^ same root — mon — come monition, admonition; monitor; a< .nonish.) — Shakespeare uses the word orison freely for prayer, as in the address of Hamlet to Opiielia, where he says, "Nymph, in thy c isons, ho all my sins remembered ! " — Poor comes to us from an Old French Avord jJo?:OUA(;E. liactQlon (ii finger) Date (the fruit) Diutyl. riianUvHia Fancy I'liantafty. riinntiuitim (an a]>]toarHncc) riiant4->in I'hantaMin I'rculiutcron (an cMcr) I'ricHt l*re«liyter. ParalywiH Palsy ParalyriiH. Kcand.llnn Slander Scandal. It may Le vcniiirked of the word fancij, that, in Shakcspearo's tiiiu', it meant Inrc or I inu(ji nation — " Tell n»c, where infanci/ bred, Or in tlie heart, or in tiie head ? " It is now rcstrietod to mean a lighter and less sorioiis kind of imagination. Thus Ave say that Milton's 'Paradise Lost' is a work of imagination ; but that Moore's * Lalla Ifookh ' is a product of the poet's fancy. 46. Characteristics of the Two Elements of English. — If wo keep our attention fixed on the two chief elements in our language — the English element and the Latin element — the Teutonic and the Romance — we shall find some striking qualities manifest themselves. AVe have already said that whole sentences can be made containing only English words, while it is impossible to do this with Latin or other foreigh words. Let us take two l)assages — one from a daily newspaper, and the other from Shakespeare : — (i) "We find the functions of such an official defined in the Act. Ho is to be a ligally qualified vicdical p)'actitioner of ekill and experience, to inspect and report periodically on the sanitary condition of town or dis- trict; to ascertain the existence of diseases, more especially epidemics increasing the rates of mortality, and to foint out the existence of any nuisances or other local causes, which are likely to originate and maintain such diseases, and injuriously affect the health of the inhabitants of such town or district ; to take cognisance of the existence of any contagious disease, and to point out the most efficacious means for the ventilation of chapels, schools, registered lodging-houses, and other public buildings." In this passage, all the words in italics are either Latin oi Greek. Uut, if the purely English words were left out, the sentence would fall into ruins — would become a mere rubbish- Iieap of words. It is the small particles that give life and VOCAIULAKV OF TIIK i:N(;I.I>ll LAMHAiiK, 43 motion to each sentence. They arc the joints and liin^'«'S on Avliicli the wliole sentence moves. — Let us now look at a ])assa;,'e from ShakesiK-are. It is from the speecli of Macbetli, after Ik; has made up his mind to murder Duncan : — (ii) " Oo bid thy tni^trc».f, when iny drink is ready, She strike ujion the l»ell. (iet thee t« bed ! — Is this a dagger wliich I sec Wfcire me, The handle toward my liaml ? Come! let me clutcli thee! — I liiive thee not ; and yet I see thee atill. " In this passage there is only one Latin (or French) Avord — the word ini,ifi'cs{t. If Shakespeare had used the Avovd lady, the passage ■would have bi.'en entirely Ijiglish. — The jiassage from the newspaper deals Avitli large generalisations ; that from Shakespeare with individual acts and feelings — with things that come home " to the business and bosom " of man as man. Every master of the English language understands well the art of mingling the two elements — so as to obtain a fine effect; and none better than Avriters like Shakespeare, Milton, Gray, and Tennyson. Shakespeare makes Antony say of Cleopatra : — " Age cannot wither her ; nor custom stale Her infinite variety." Hero the French (or Latin) words custom and variety form a vivid contrast to the English verb siaUy throw up its meaning and colour, and give it greater prominence. — ^Milton makes Eve say :— " I thither went With inexperienced thought, and laid me down On the green bank, to look into the clear Smooth lalic, that to me seem'd another sky." Here the words inex}ierienced and dear give variety to the same- ness of the English words. — Gray, in the Elegy, has this verse: — " The breezy call of niccnsc-breathing morn, The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed, The cock's shrill clarion or the echoing horn, No more shall rouse them from tlieir lowly bed." ■WBBl 44 IllsTuKY ur TIIK KNOLI.SII LANCl'AJiK. H«'ro inffittnc, I'liti't'oH^ ami irhnliKj f^ivc ft vivid colouring,' to tho plainer litu's of IIk; homely English phrases. — Tennyson, in the Lotos-Kate rs, vi., writes : — '■ Dciir irt the vicmorif of our wedtlcd livcx, And dear tlic lawt cinhrarea of our wivcH And their wiinn tears : Imt all hath suffered rkatujr ; For snrrli/ now our houHohold heartliH are cold: Our Hons Inhrrlt uh : our looks arc Mra>if/f ; And wo Hhould come like ghosts to trouhlc joy." !Most powerful is the introduetiou of tho French -words t>i(jfn'ed chniKjr, inherit, Kfrnmji'^ and ironhhi joy ; for they give with l)ainful force tlic contrast of the present state of desoLition with the homely rest and happiness of tho old ahode, tho love of tho loving Avives, the faithfulness of the stalwart sons. 47. English and other Doublets. — A^'o have already seen how, by tho presentation of tho same word at two different doors — tho door of Latin and tho door of French — wo are in l)cssossioii of a considerable miniber of doublets. But this I)henomenon is not limited to Latin and French — is not solely due to tho contributions wo receive from these languages. "NVo iind it also within English itself; and causes of the most different description bring about the same results. For various reasons, tho English language is very rich in doublets. It possesses nearly five hundred pairs of such words. The language is all tho richer for having them, as it is thereby enabled to give fuller and clearer expression to the different shades and delicate varieties of meaning in the mind. 48. The sources of doublets are various. But five different causes seem chiefly to have operated in producing them. They are duo to differences of pronunciation ; to difi'ercnces in spel- ling; to contractions for convenience in daily speech; to differences in dialects ; and to tho fact that many of them come from different languages. Let us look at a few example? of each. At bottom, however, all these differences will be found to resolve themselves into differences of pronunciation. They are either differences in the pronunciation of the same word by VOCADUL.VRY OF THE ENGLISH LANGIA(;E. 45 (liflVront trilw's, (»r by nion in tlilVorcut coimtios, "who spook tlillVTciit (liiilt'cts ; or l>y men of »litl'<'rt'nt nations. 49. Differences in Pronunciation. — From thi.n source wo liiivo parson ami person (tho parson Itcin;^' the jtrrtmn or n'prt'- Hontativc of tlio Church) ; sop and soup; task and tax (the sk lias licre Ikhouu' ks) ; thread and thrid; ticket and etiquette; sauce and souse (to .stoop in ])rino) ; squall and squeal. 50. Differences in Spelling. — To and too are the same word — one bt'in<,' used as a preposition, the other as an advorl) ; of and off, ft-om and fro, are only dillerent spellings, which repre- sent dillerent functions or uses of the same word ; onion and union are the same word. An union ^ comes from the Latin unus, one, and it meant a large single pearl — a unique jewel ; the word was then applied to the i)lant, the head of which is of a pearl-shape. 51. Contractions. — Contraction has been a pretty fruitful source of doublets in English. A long word has a .syllable or two cut oil' ; or two or three are compressed into one. Thus example has become sample ; alone appears also as lone ; amend has been shortened into mend ; defend has been cut down into fend (as in fender); manoeuvre has been contracted into manure (both meaning originally to tcork icith the hand) ; madam becomes 'm in yes 'm ^ ; and presbyter has been squeezed down into priest;^ Other examples of contraction are : capital and cattle ; ohirur- geon (a worker with the hand) and. surgeon; cholera and choler (from cholos, the Greek word for hile)) disport and sport ; estate and state ; esquire and squire ; Egyptian and i < r 1 In Hamlet v. 2. 283, Shakespeare makes the King say — " The King shall drink to Hamlet's better breath ; Anil in the cup an union shall he throw." « 2 Professor Max Mliller gives this as the most remarkable instance of cutting down. Tlie Latin mea domina became in French madavie; in English ma'am; and, in tlie language of servants, '?«. " Milton says, in one of his sonnets — " New Presbyter is but old Priest writ large." From the etymological point of view, the truth is just the other way about. Priest is old Presbyter vfrit small. D 4G lIIHTOkY OF TIIK KXGUSIf LANfifACK. gipsy; ommot niDl ant; gammon and game; grandfather ami gaflTor; grandmother ami gammer; iota (the (Jrt'rk It'ttcr i) ami jot ; maximum ami maxim; mobile and mob; mosquito ami musket ; papa and pope; periwig and wig; poesy and posy; procurator and proctor; shallop and sloop; unity and unit. It is (juito cvidtiit that tin! abuvo jiairs of wttrds, allhun^'li in ifaiity one, liave very din't'i'L-nt nii'anin^'s and nsos. 52. Difference of English Dialects. — Another source of douhlels is to be found in the dialects of the; Kni^lish lanfjnago. Almost every county in Kn^'lany adding dillVrent endings to words, or by synthesis. '1 hesn endings arc called inflexions. Latin and Clreek are highly inflected languages; French and (lern)an liave many more inflexions than modern Englisli ; and ancient English (or Anglo-Saxon) also possessed a largo numher of inflexions. 2. Modem English Analytic. — AVhen, instead of inflexions, a language cmph)ys small particles — such as prepositions, auxil- iary verbs, and suchlike words — to express the relations of words to each other, such n language is called analytic or non- inflexional. When "WO say, as wo used to say in tlic oldest Englisli, " God is ealra cyninga cyning," we speak a synthetic language. ]iut when wo say, ''Clod is king of all kings," then we employ an analytic or uninflectcd language. 3. Short View of the History of English Grammar. — From tlie time when tho English language came over to this island, it lias grown steadily in the number of its words. On tlic other hand, it has lost just as steadily in the number of its inflexions. Put in a broad and somewhat rough fashion, it may bo said that — (i) Up to the year 1100— one generation after the Battle of Senlac —the English language was a Synthetic Language. 48 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANOUAGE. (ii) From iLn year 1100 or thereabontf, EnglUh has been loilnc Ita Inflexloiui, and gradually becoming more and more an Analytic Language. 4. Causes of this Change. — Even before tlio coming of the I)ano3 and the Normans, the English people had shown a tendency to get rid of some of their inflexions. A similar tendency can . be observed at the present time among the Germans of the Ilhine Province, who often drop an n at the end of a Avord, and show in other respects a carelessness about fjram- mar. But, when a foreign people comes among natives, such a tendency is naturally encourag(!d, and often greatly increased. The natives discover that these inflexions are not so very important, if only they can get their meaning rightly conveyed to the foreigners. Both parties, accordingly, come to see that the root of the word is the most important element ; they stick to that, and they come to neglect the mere inflexions. ^lore- over, the accent in English words always struck the root; and hence this part of the word always fell on the ear with the greater force, and carried the greater weight. AVhen the Danes — who spoke a cognate language — began to settle in England, the tendency to drop inflexions increased ; but when the Nor- mans — who spoke an entirely different language — came, the tendency increased enormously, and the inflexions of Anglo- Saxon began to *" fall as the leaves fall " in the dry wind of a frosty October. Let us try to trace some of these changes and losses. 5. Grammar of the First Period, 450-1100.— The English of this period is called the Oldest English or Anglo-Saxon. The gender of nouns was arbitrary, or — it may be — jioetical ; it did not, as in modern English it does, folloAv the sex. Thus nama, a name, was masculine ; tunge, a tongue, feminine ; and eage, an eye, neuter. Like nama, the proper names of men ended in a ; and we find such names as Isa, Off'a, Penda, as the names of kings. Nouns at this period had five cases, with inflexions for each ; now we possess but one inflexion — that for the possessive. — Even the definite article was inflected. — The infinitive of verbs ended in an; and the sign to — which we received from the Ul.STOUY OF THE (IKAMMAK OF EN(;LISH. 49 the Panes — was not in use, except for the dative of the intinitive. This dative infinitive in still presf rved in snch phrases as ** a honsc to let ; " " l)read to eat ; " *' water to drink." — The present participle ended in ende (in the Xorth ando). This present i>ar- ticiple may be said still to exist — in spoken, hnt not in written speech ; for some people regularly say icallon, 'join, for vulkliKj und ijoiiKj. — The plural of the present indicative ended in ath for all three persons. In the perfect tense, the plural ending was on. — There was no future tense; the work of the future was done by the present tense. Fragments of this usage still survive in the language, as when wa say, " lie goes up to town next week.'' — Prepositions governed various cases; and not always the objective (or accusative), as they do now. 6. Grammar of the Second Period, 1100-1250.— 'J'hc English of this period is called Early English. Even before the coming of the Xormans, the inflexions of our language had — as we have seen — begiui to drop off, and it was slowly on the way to becom- ing an analytic language. The same changes — the same sinipli- iication of grammar, has taken i)lace in nearly every Low German language. But the coming of the Normans hastened these changes, for it made the inflexional endings of words of much less practical importance to the English themselves. — Great changes took place in the pronunciation also. The hard c or k was softened into ch ; and the hard guttural g was refined into a y or even into a silent w. — A remarkable addition was made to the language. The Oldest English or Anglo-Saxon had no indefinite article. They said ofer stun for on a rock. But, as the French have made the article un out of the Latin unus, so the Engliisli pared down the northern ane (= one) into the article an or a. The Anglo-Saxon definite article was se, seo, ]?aet ; and in the grammar of this Second Period it became J^e, \>eOt jje. — The French plural in es took the place of the English plural in en. But liousen and slioon existed for many centuries after the Xorman coming; and Mr Barnes, the Dorsetshire poet, still deplores the ugly sound of nests and fists^ and would like to be able to say and to write nesten and fisten. — The dative plural, which ended in um, becomes an e or an en. The um, 50 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. how(!V(T, still exists in tho form of om in seldom ( = at few times) and whilom ( = in old times). — The gender of nonns falls / into confusion, and Ingins to show a tendency to follow the sex. ) — Adjectives show a tendency to drop several of their inflexions, and to hecomc as serviceahle and accommodating as they are now — when they are the same with all nundjers, genders, and cases. — Tho an of the infinitive becomes en, and sometimes even the n is dropped. — Shall and will begin to be used as /^i tense-auxiliaries for the future tense. 7. Orammar of the Third Period, 1250-1350. — The English of this period is often called Middle English. — The definite article still preserves a few inflexions. — Nouns that were once masculine or feminine become neuter, for the sake of convenience. — The possessive in es becomes general. — Adjectives make their plural in e. — Tile infinitive now takes to before it — except after a few verbs, like hid, see, hear, etc. — The present participle in Inge / makes its appearance about the year 1300. 8. arammar of the Fourth Period, 1350-1485. — This may be called Later Middle English. An old writer of the fourteenth century points out that, in his time — and before it — the English language was " a-deled a thre," divided into three ; that is, that there were three main dialects, the Northern, the Midland, and the Southern. There were many differences in the grammar of these dialects ; but the chief of these differences is found in the plural of the present indicative of the verb. This part of the verb formed its plurals in the following manner : — NOUTHERN. We hopes You hopes They hopes Midland. We hopeii Y'ou hofjcn They hopen Southern. We hopeth. Y'ou hopeth. Tliey hopeth.i In time the l\Iidland dialect conquered : and the East ^Midland form of it became predominant all over England. As early as \ the beginning of the thirteenth century, this dialect had thrown off most of the old inflexions, and had become almost as flexion- 1 This i»lural we still fiud iu the famous Wittchester motto, "Manners maketh man." • HISTOIIY OF THE GUAMMAU OF ENGLISH. 61 less n.s the English of the present tlay. I.ot us note a few of the more prominent changes. — The tirst personal pronoun Ic or Ich loses the guttural, and becomes I. — The pronouns him, them, and whom, Avhich are tnu) datives, are used either as datives or as ohjectives. — The imperative jdural ends in eth. " liiseth up," Chaucer makes one of his characters say, " and stondeth hy mc ! " — The useful and almost ubitjuitous letter o comes in as a substitute for a, u, and oven an. Thus nama becomes name, sunu (son) becomes sune, and withutan changes into withute. — The dative of adjectives is used as an adverb. Thus we find softe, brighte employed like our softly, brightly. — The n in the infinitive has fallen away ; but the e is sounded as a separate syllable. Thus we find breke, smite for hrekcn and smifpti. 9. General View. — In the time of King Alfred, tlie "NVest- 8axon spec u the AVessex dialect — took precedence of the rest, and became -^^^ I' -ary dialect of England. But it had not, and could not ha^ :^ .vi.y influence on the spoken language of other parts of England, for the simple reason that very few persons were able to travel, and it took days — and even weeks — for a man to go from Devonshire to Yorkshire. In course of timo the Midland dialect — that spoken between the Humber and the Thames — became the predominant dialect of England ; and the East ^Midland variety of this dialect became the parent of modern standard English. This predominance was probably due to the fact that it, soonest of all, got rid of its inflexions, and became most easy, pleasant, and convenient to use. And this disuse of inflexions was itself ja-obably due to the early Danish settlements in the east, to the larger number of Normans in that part of England, to the larger numljer of thriving towns, and to the greater and more active communi- cation between the eastern seaports and the Continent. The inflexions were first confused, then weakened, then forgotten, finally lost. The result was an extreme simplification, which still benefits all learners of the English language. Instead of spending a gi-eat deal of time on the learning of a large number of inflexions, which are to them arbitrary and meaningless, 62 ni.ST(;ltY f)F THK KN'(;LISII laN(;i:a(;e. fitrcignors li.'ivn only to fix tlu-ir nttfiition on the words and ]i1ir;ise.s lljonisclvcs, that is, on the very pitli and marrow of the laii;,Miag(! — indeed, on the language itself. Hence the great CJernian grammarian Grimm, and others, predict that English Avill spread itself all over the ■world, and become the universal language of the future. In addition to this almost complete sweeping away of all inllcxions, — which made Dr Johnson say, " 8ir, the English language has no grammar at all," — there were other remarkahle p.nd useful results which accrued from the coming in of the Norman-French and other foreign elements. 10. Monosyllables. — The stripping olf of the inflexions of our language cut a largo number of words down to the root, lluiulreds, if not thousands, of ourverl)s were dissyllables, but, l)y the gradual loss of the ending en (which was in Anglo-Saxon an), they became monosyllables. Thus bindan, drincan, flnd- an, became bind, drink, find ; and this happened with hosts of other verbs. Again, the expulsion of the guttural, which / the Normans never could or would take to, had the effect of compressing many words of two syllables into one. Thus haegel, twaegen, and faegen, became hail, twain, and fain. — Til these and other ways it has come to pass that the present English is to a very large extent of a monosyllabic character. So much is this the case, that whole books have been written for children in monosyllables. It must be confessed that the mono- syllabic style is often dull, but it is always serious and homely. AVe can find in our translation of the liible whole verses that are made up of words of only one syllable. !Many of the most jiowerful passages in Shakespeare, too, are written in monosylla- bles. The same may bo said of hundreds of our proverbs — such as, " Cat? hide their claws " ; " Fair words please fools " ; " He that has most time has none to lose." Great poets, like Tenny- son and ^Matthew Arnold, understand well the fine effect to be produced from the mingling of short and long words — of the homely English with the more ornate Komance language. In the following verse from Mattlunv Arnold the Avords are all monosyllables, with the exception of tired and contention (which is Latin) : — lliblUKY OF TlIE (iUAMMAU OF ENuLlbll. 53 1 " Let tlie long coiitentiun ccR*y communicated to the English ; and hence, in the present day, there are many people — especially in the south of /ICngland — who cannot sound a guttural at all. The muscles in the throat tliat help to pro(hico these sounds have become atrophied — have lost their power for want of practice. The purely Eng- lish part of the population, for many centuries after the Norman invasion, could sound gutturals quite easily — ^just as the Scotch I HISTOUY OK THE ORAMMAH OF ENGLISH. 50 in and the Germans do now ; but it gradually iH-'canic tho fashion in Knglane( a room"; "to icater the horses"; "to hlaclc-haU a candidatvj "; to " iron a shirt " or " a prisoner " ; " to toe the lino." On the other hand, verbs may be used as nouns ; for we can speak of a icork, of a beautiful j>n«7, of a long imlk, and so on. ns CHAPTEK IV. SPECIMENS OP ENGLISH OP DIFFERENT PERIODS. 1. Vocabulary and Orammar. — The oKlest English or Anglo- Saxon ditlurs from modern English both in vocabulary and in grammar — in tho words it uses and in tlu; inflexions it enii)loys. The diiriu'cnco is often startling. And yet, if we look closely at the wor!• 3. A Oomparison. — This will lioooinn pluinor if wo rompnn* tho Kngli«h of the (lusjH'la as it was written in difrtTt'iit jxiiods (if our Ianf(iiag(>. Tlif alteration in tlio iu«'anings of words, tlic changes in tho npi»lication of thoni, tho variation in tin* iiso of phrases, tlio falling,' away of the inllexions — all these thin;,'H lu'coino plain to tho oyo and to th(» mind as soon an wo thoii^dit- fully compare tho diirerent vorsions. The following are cxtraet.s from tho Anglo-Saxon version (99.")), the version of Wyclilli? (1389) and of Tyndalo (152G), of tho passago in Luko ii. 44, 45:— Axolo-Saxon. Wt^ndon (laet lie on heora geft'ro wiiere, dii comou liig itiiCH (liu'gea filer, and liine Hohtoii be- tweox Ida inagas and liis ciidan. Da hig hyne ne fundoii, lug gewendon to Hierusa- lem, hine sdcende. Wvn.IKFE, I Forrfothe tlii'i gcs- singe liiia to be in tlic j felowrtchipe, canien ' the wey of il day, and i soujten him among his cosynH and know- en. And thci not fynd- iuge, wenten ajen to Jerusalem, sekynge him. TvxDAi.r. For they HUpjxised lio had bone in the inmiiany, they cam a days ioinoy, and Hought hytn ainonge their kyn.sfolke and ac- (luayntiiunce. And founde hym not, they went backe agayne to Hicrusaleni, and sought hym. The literal translation of tlie Anglo-Saxon version is as follows : — (They) weened that he on their companionsliip were ( = was), when came they one day's faring, and him sought betwixt hia relations and his couth (folk = acquaintances). When they him not found, they turned to Jerusalem, him seeking. 4. The Lord's Prayer. — The same plan of comparison may he applied to the different versions of the Lord's Prayer that have come down to us ; and it will be soon from this compari- son that the greatest changes have taken place in tho grammar, and especially in that part of the grammar which contains tho inflexions. - 60 IIISTOHY OK TIIK KN(;LI.S1I LANGUA(l an well in earth as it is in heven. Oevo us this day ur dayly bred, And forgeve us oure dettes as we forgeve ur det- ters. And leado us not into tempta- ticm, But delyver us from evyll. For thyneisthekyng- dom, and the power, and the glorye, for ever. Amen. It will be observed that Wycliffe's version contains five Ro- mance terms — sitbstannce, dettisy dettouris, iemptacioun^ and dehjvere. 5. Oldest English and Eaxly English. — The following is a short passage frgm the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, under date 1137: iirst, in the Anglo-Saxon form; second, in Early Eng- lish, or — as it has sometimes been called — Broken Saxon; bl'ECIMENzj UF K.NGUJJ11 OF lUFFElJEM' MiUiODS. 61 tltii'tl, in iiiodt I'll KiigliHli. Tlio Itrcaking-ilowii of Iho ^'lain- iiiur U-coinoH »till uiuru Htrikiuj^'ly cvidoiit fruiu thid clutu juxtaiKisitiuii. (i) HI nwenctoti {>a wrcooait niciiii (ii) Hi Bwencloii tlie wrctco men ^iii) Tlivy ttwiuked ^.haruuovd) the wretched Uicu (i) puurt IuikIm mid cuMtcl-wcurcuiu. (ii) Oftliclatid mid ciihtcl-weortei*. (iii) Of the land with catitle-worka. (i) Da I>il caatela^i waeruii gemacod, f (ii) Ttia tlie cautleti wareti maked, (iii) When the castled were made, (i) |>tl fyldon hi hi mid yfelum maunum. (ii) thd fylden hi hi mid yvele men. (iii) then filled they them with evil men. 6. Oomparisons of Words aAd Inflexions. — Let us tukc a few of tho laodt proniinent words in our language, uiul observe the ehanges that liave fallen upon them sineo they made their appearance in our island in the fifth century. These changes will bo best seen by displaying them in columns : — V' Anulo-Saxon. Eauly Englihu. Middle Enolisu. Mo« '..-•. KauLi heom. to heom. to hem. to them. seo. heo. ho, Hcko. she. sweostrum. to tht Hwestres. to the swistren. to the siaters. geboren. gebore. ibore. born. lufigeiide. lufigend. lovand. loving. weoxon. woxen. wexide. waxed. 7. Conclusions from the above Comparisons. — We can now tlraw .several conclusions from the comparisons we have made of the passages given from different periods of the language. These conclusions relate chiefly to verbs and nouns ; and they K 62 lllrtiultV OF THE liNuLl:?!! LANULALiJi. ii)ay liccoiiK.' u.-^cful us a key tu ('iial)li' us to judge lu what )»('ii(nl in the lii.-itury of uur lanj,Miaj4e a passage presented to us Jiiust Lelong. If wi- fined about 1400). I'rcs. part, in inge. lid plural in en. Imperative in eth. Plurals in es (.separate syllable). Nouns. Possessives in es (sei)a- rate syllable). !/■■' 8. The English of the Thirteenth Century. — In this century there Avas a great breaking-down and stripping-ofl' of inflexions. This is seen in the Ormulum of Orni, a canon of the Order of St Augustine, "whose English is nearly as flexionless as that of Chaucer, although about a century and a half before him. Orm has also the peculiarity of always doubling a consonant after a short vowel. Thus, in his introduction, he says : — " piss boc is.s iieiiimiiedd Orrmulum Forr Jn ])att Orrin itt wrolihte." That is, "This book is named Ormulum, for the (reason) that Orm wrought it." The absence of inilexions is probably due to the fact that the book is Avritten in the East-Midland dialect. iJut, hi a song called " The Story of Genesis and Exodu.s," written about 1250, we find a greater number of inflexions. Thus we read : — " Hunger wex in lond Chanaan ; And his x aunes Jacob for-5au SrEriMKNS oi- KXdl.lSir OK MIIEUK.NT I'KKlUl'S. <):$ iter a \ ' Sento in t<> Kgyi't <•'* l>ringen cuicn ; He hilofe at ho.n <>o \v;ws guugo.-it lx>rcn." That is, "Iliui^'or wtixocl (increa.scil) in the lund of Canaan; and Jacob for that (reason) sent his trn sons into l^^ypt to bring corn: lio remained at homo that was yoiingisl l)(un."' 9. The English of the Fourteenth Century. — 'J'he four j^reatest ■writers of tlie fourteentli century are — in verse, Chaucer and Langlande; and in i)rose, Mandeville and Wycliflfe. The inflexions continue to dn^) oil'; and, in Chaucer at least, a larger number of French M-ords aitpear. Chaucer also ■writes in an elaborate verso -measmv that forms a striking contrast to the liomely rhythms of Langlande. Thus, in the " Man of Lawes Tale," ■we luive the verse : — " queeuod, lyvynge in i^rosperitcc, Duchesses, and ladyes everichone, Havcth SOU! routlie on hir adversitee ; An emperouriirf doughter stant allonc ; She hath no wight to wlioui to make liir nione. blood roial ! that stondest in this dredti Fer ben thy frendcs at thy gretc nedii I " Here, with the exception of the imperative in llavetU mm routhe ( = have some pity), b-taiif, and hen ( = are), the grammar of Chaucer is very near the grammar of to-day. How diflerent this is from the simple English of Langlande ! He is speaking of the great storm of wind tliat blew on January 15, 1362 : — " Piries and Plomtres weore passchet to pe gvounde, In ensauniple to Alen ])at we scholde do ))e bettre, Beches and brode okes weorc blowen to ])e eoipe." Here it is the spelling of Langlande's English that differs most from modern English, and not the grammar. — !Much the same may be said of the stylo of "NVyclille (1324-1384:) and of ^Mande- villo (1300-1372). In AVyclifle's version of the ( lospel of :Mark, V. 26, ho speaks of a woman "that hadde suilrido many thingis of ful many lechis (doctors), and spendid alio hir thingis ; anil no -thing profitide." Sir John Mandeville's English keeps many old inliexions and spellings; but is, in other respects, modern enough. Speaking of ^Mahomet, lie says : " And Jeo 61 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. BchuUij imdorstonds tliat Machiimctii was born in Arabyc, that "Was lir.st a jjoro knave that k(!pt canielcs, that wenten with inarcliantt'.s for niarcliandisc." Knave for Ijoy, and vcnten for ■went are tlio two cliicf diircroncos — the one in the use of words, the other in grammar — tliat distinguisli this jiiecc of ^lande- viUe's Englisli from our modern speech. 10. The English of the Sixteenth Century.— This, which is also caUed Tudor-l'Jiglish, differs as regards grannuar hardly at all from the Englisli of the nineteenth century. This becomes plain from a passage; from one of Latimer's sermons (1490-1555), " a bo(jk which gives a faithful picture of the manners, thoughts, and events of the period." "^ly father," he writes, "was a yeoman, and had no lands of his own, only he had a farm of three or four pound a year at the uttermost, and hereupon he till('(l so much as kept half a dozen men. He had walk for a hundred sheep ; and my mother milked thirty kine." In this passage, it is only the old-fashionedness, homeliness, and quaint- ness of the Enirlish- -not its grammar- -that makes us feel that it was not Avritten in our own times. "When liidley, the fellow- martyr of Latimer, stood at the stake, he said, " I commit oui cause to Almighty God, which shall indifferently judge all." Here he used indifferently in the sense of imjtartialhj — that is, in the sense of mcildng no difference between jiarties ; and this is one among a very large number of instances of Latin words, when they had not been long in our language, still retaining the older Latin meaning. 11. The English of the Bible (i). — The version of the Bible which wo at present use was made in 1611 ; and we might therefore suppose that it is wruten in seventeenth-century Eng- lish. But this is not the case. The translators Avere com- manded by James I. to " follow the Bishops' Bible " ; and the J)ishops' Bible was itself founded on the "Great Bible," which was published in 1539. But the Great Bible is itself only a revision of Tyndale's, part of which appeared as early as 1526. AVhen we are reading the Bible, therefore, we are reading Eng- lish of the sixteenth century, and, to a large extent, of the early part of that century. It is true that successive generations of RPECnrENS OF ENGLISH OF DIFFERENT PERIODS. r^ry printors have, of their own nrrord, altt^rod tlin ppcllinj;, nnd even, to a sliglit extent, modifitMl the f^mmmar. Thus we Imve fefchfiif for the oMcr/V/, viorn for mor^ soini kt soin'u, hn'ffh' for hrlchlp (whicli gives the connection with hrivi.:), jairs for rhmr.t, yi.ffJi for .s'/>/, and so on. ]liit we still find siuli iiarticiplcs as ithinf'd and nndci'ittaniJc'f ; and such plirases as "they can skill to hew timber " (I Kings v. C), " ahjects " for iihjfcf j)f;rso)ts, "three days agonc " for /n, the " captivated Ilehrews" for *' the captive Ilehrews," and others, 12. The English of the Bible (ii).— "Wo liave, again, old words retained, or nsed in the older meaning. Thus we find, in Psalm v. 6, the phrase " them that speak leasing," which reminds us of King Alfred's expression about "leasum spellum" (lying stories). Troin and irecn are often found; the "cham- paign over against Gilgal" (Deut. xi. 30) means iha jthu'n; and a publican in the New Testament is a tax-gatherer, who sent to the Roman Treasury or Publicum the taxes lie had collected from the Jews. An " ill-favoured person " is an ill-looking per- son; and "bravery" (Isa, iii. 18) is used in the sense of finery in dress. — Some of the oldest grammar, too, remains, as in Esther viii. 8, " Write ye, as it liketh you," wlu're the you is a dative. Again, in Ezek. xxx. 2, we find "Howl ye, AVoe worth the day ! " where the imperative worth governs day in the dative case. This idiom is still found in modern verse, as in the Avell-known lines in the first canto of the "Lady of the Lake " :— " Woe worth the chase, woe wortli the (hiy That cost thy life, my gallant grey I " ilf 66 CHArTER V. MODERN ENGLISH. 1. Qrammar Fixed. — From the date of 1485 — that is, from the beginning' of the roign of Henry YIT. — tlie changes in the grammar or constitution of our language are so oxtremoly small, that they are hardly noticeahle. Any Englishman of ordinary education can read a hook belonging to the latter part of the fifteenth or to the sixte( iith century Avithout difficulty. Since that time the grammar of our language has hardly changed at all, though we have altered and enlarged our vocabulary, and have adopted thousands of ncAV words. The introduction of Printing, the lievival of Learning, the Translation of the Bible, the growth and spread of the power to read and write — these and other influences tended to tix the language and to keej) it as it is to-day. It is true that wo have dropped a few old- fashioned endings, like the n or en in silvern and golden; but, so far as form or grannnar is concerned, the English of the sixteenth and the English of the nineteenth centuries are sub- stantially the same. 2. New Words. — But, while the grammar of English has remained the same, the vocabulary of English has been grow- ing, and growing rapidly, not merely with each century, but with each generation. The discovery of the New "World in 1492 gave an impetus to maritime enterprise in England, which it never lost, brought us into connection with the Spaniards, and hence contributed to our language several Spanish words. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Italian literature * • !f t* « If MODEKN ENfiLlsir. 6« M-as largely road; "NVj-att ami iSunoy show its influcncf iti their pooms ; and Italian •words hogan to come in in consideraMe nnmhers. Commeroo, too, has done much for us in thi> way; and along with the avtido imported, we have in general intro- duced also thn name it Lore in its own native country. In later times, S(.'ienco has boon making ra[>id strides — has hocn hring- ing to light now discoveries and new inventions almost every week ; and along with those nt^w discoveries, the language has been enriched with new names and new terms. T.et us h ok a little more closely at the character of these foreign contributions to the vocabulary of our tongue. 3. Spanish Words. — The words we have received from the Spanish language are not numerous, })ut they are important. In addition to the ill-fated word armada, we have the Sitan- i.sh for J//', which is Don (from Lat. (lomiiiif.i, a lord), with its feminine Duenna. They gave us also alligator, which is our English way of writing d higarto, the lizard. They also jire- sented us Avith a large number of words that end in o — such as buffklo, cargo, desperado, guano, indigo, mosquito, mulatto, negro, potato, tornado, and others. The following is a toler- ably full list :— Alligator. Cork. Galloon (a sliip). Mulatto. Ai niada. Creole. Grandee. Negro. BaiTicade. Desperado. Grenade. Octoroon. Battledore. Don. Guerilla. Quadroon. Bravado. Duenna. Indigo. Renegade. liutfalo. Eldorado. Jennet. Savannah. Cargo. Embargo. jMiitador. Sherry ( = Xeres). Cigar, Filibuster. Merino. Tornado. Cochineal. Flotilla. Mosquito. Vanilla. *»(. 4. Italian Words. — Italian literature has been read and cultivated in England since the time of Chaucer — since the fourteenth century ; and the arts and artists of Italy have for many centuries exerted a groat deal of influence on those of England. Hence it is that we owe to the Italian language a large number of Avords. These relate to poetry, such as canto, sonnet, stanza ; to music, as pianoforte, opera, oratorio, soprano, alto, contralto ; to architecture and sculpture, ns 68 HISTORY OF THE EXGLISII LAXnUAOF. portico, piazza, cupola, torso; aixl to i»aintin^', iw studio, fresco (an njifii-air painting), and otliors. The following is a r.omplotfi list : — Alarm. Charlatan. Incognito. Proviso. Alort. Citndel. Influenza. Quarto. Alto. Colonnade. Lagoon, Uogatta. Arcade. Concert. Lava. Ruffian. Balcony. Contralto. Lazaretto. Serenade. Balustrade. Conversazione. Maiu time to time importef()vrn, Lat. dnlrls). 7. Gkrman Words. — Tt nni.it not 1ki for^'otton that Kn<^lish is a Low-(Jennan dialeet, while the (Jerinan of hooks is Xew llij,'li- (leruian. AVe Iiavo never l)f)rro\ve(l directly from lli^'h-derman, b(!c,aust) wo liavo n«.'ver needed to borrow. Those modern Ger- man words that liave comc^ into onr langiiaj:,'o in recent times arn eliiefly the names of minerals, witli a few strikin*,' excejitions, such a.s loafer, which ram(3 to ns from tlie German immi|L,'rants to tlio T^'nitcd States, and plunder, wliicli seems to hav(! been l)rou<,'lit from fJermany by En<,dish soldiers who hiid .served nnder (fustavus Aflolplnis. Tho following are the German words wliicli M'e liavo received in recent times : — Cobalt. LaiKlgrave. Meerschaum. Poodlo. Kelsjiar. Loafer. Nickel. Quartz Hornlileiule. Margrave. Plunder. Zinc. 8. Hebrew Words. — Tlieso, with very few exceptions, liave come to us from the translation of tho Bible, Avhich is now in use in our homes and churches. Abbot and abbey como from tho Hebrew word abba, father; and such words as cabal and Talmud, though not found in the Old Testament, have been contributed by Jewish literature. The following is a tolerably complete list ; — Abbey. Cinnamon. Leviathan. Sabbath. Abbot. Hallelujah. Manna. Sadducees. Amen. Hosannah. Paschal. Satan. Behemoth. Jehovah. Pharisee. Seraph. Cabal. Jubilee. Pharisaical. Shibboleth. Cherub. Gehenna. Rabbi. Talmud. 9. Other Foreign Words. — The English have always been the greatest travellers in the world ; and our sailors always the most daring, intelligent, and enterprising. 'Jliere is hardly a port or a country in the world into which an English ship has not penetrated ; and our commerce has now been maintained for centuries with every people on the face .f the globe. AVo exchange goods with almost every nation and tribe nnder tho 1 H V. MODEHN KNUUtill. 71 sun. "NMion wp import nrtir l»»s or prodiiro from abroad, wo in ;,'»'npral import tlu! native name alon^ with tho thing. Ilt'nco it i.s that wu huvu guano, maize, and tomato from thu two America.^ ; coffee, cotton, and tamarind fri»m Araltia ; tea, congou, and nankeen from China; calico, chintz, and rupee fruni Ilindostan ; bamboo, gamboge, and sago from thn Malay Ptminsnla ; lemon, musk, and orange from INrsia ; boomerang ami kangaroo from Anstralia; chibouk, ottoman, iind tulip from Turkoy. Tho folhnving arc; Hsts of these fon-ign words ; and they are worth examining with the gi-eatest minutenesfj : — • 1 I ArniCAN Dialects. Baobab. Gnu. Kai-oo. QungKa. Canaiy. f! or ilia. Kraal. Zebra. Chimpanzee, Guinea. Oasis. Amerkan TONCIUES. Alpaca. Condor. Maize, Racoon. Buccaneer. Guano. Manioc, Skunk. Cacique. Hammock. Mocca.sin. S(iuaw. Cannibal. Jaguar. Mustang, Tapioca. Canoe. Jalap. Opossum, Tobacco. Caoutchouc. Jerked (beef). Pampas, Tomahawk Cayman. Llama. Pemmican. Tomato. Cliocolate. Mahogany. Potato. Wigwam. An/ iBIC. (The word al means the. Thus alcohol = the spirit.) Admiral (Milton Azure, Harem. Salaam. writes am- Caliph. Hookah. Senna. miral. Carat. Koran (or Al- Sherbet. Alcohol. Chemistry. coran). Shrub (the Alcove. Cipher Lute. drink). Alembic. Civet. Magazine. Simoom. Algebra. Coffee. Mattress, Sirocco. Alkali. Cotton. Minaret. Sofa. Amber. Crimson. Mohair. Sultan. Arrack. Dragoman. Monsoon. Syrup. Arsenal. Elixir. Mosque. Talisman. Artichoke. Emir, Mufti. Tamarind Assassin. Fakir. Nabob. Tariff. Assegai. Felucca. Nadir. Vizier. Attar. Gazelle. Najjhtha. Zenith. Azimuth. Giraffe. Saffron. Zero. 72 HISTOIIY 0|- TIIK EXCJMSir LANfSl'ArJF. Cm SgHK. Bohea. Hyuon. Nankeen. .Souchong. Cliiiia. JoHM. IVk.K-. Tea. Congou. •Tuuk. Silk. Typhoon. Hindi". Aviitftr, Cowrie. PagiMlft. Hyot, Hauyan. Durhar. I'alan(|uin. Sopoy. lirnhiiiin. .lungh*. I'ariali. Shatnpt>o. Hungalow. I. at; (of rui)CCH^ Puncli. Sugar. Calico. Loot. PunMAI;K.S in MIMuKY of KNUU^II I.AMU A«iK. (•I A.D. 450 507 670 735 901 300 366 L60 SOO 104 05 20 58 50 18. Robert Huining, " l(<>U-rt <>f Hniiin,' iDiitpilon the ' llHi>iii|Nii tiiiii nf Kri'iuli wor.U" ....... 1303 16. AyenbiU of Inwit ^-" Upiiioivu <>!' ('<>iiH«.ii>iK'c") 1340 17. The Great Plague. Aflvi iliii it livcuiucit \cm mu\ U'hh tla> fiwliiuii Id «itt.'!ik Kiriiuli ..... 1340 18. Sir John Mandoville, tiixt writ'T <.i> ill Ilii ' TiiivL'N,' wliiili <.iiutaiuf