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[-,_ _ 1

ALAS K A

' S RESOURCES.

•V

WILLIAM II. DALL,

T<l.li.O«.'.l>ll BXrUilTION.

BOSTON:

tEE AN I) SH Fi Pa RD

1870.

BlSNOTHtCA )

f . v^l^W

ALASKA

AND

ITS RESOURCES.

-*i

WILLIAM H. DALL,

DIRECTOR OF THB SCIENTIFIC CORPS OF THE I.ATE WESrBRN UNION
TEI.ECRAPH EXPEDITION.

BOSTON :

LEE AND SHEPARD

1870.

VJnivorwJaj"-'^
BiBLIOTHKCA

itr

Kntered according to Act of Congress, in tlie ycai 1870, by

WILLIAM H . D A L L ,

in (he Clerk's Office of the District Court of tlie District of Massachusetts.

Univbrsitv Press: Wblch, Bigslow, & Co.,
Cambriixib.

/370

do ti)c memory

ROBERT KENNICOTT.

FIRST DIRECTOR OF THE SCIENTIFIC CORPS,

CfjiK Woxk is rebtrtntlg StJiiratrH.

HE JOINED TO A NOltI.E AND CENEROUS HEART AN ENTHUSIASTIC
LOVE OF nature; defying in the pursuit OF KNOWLEDC.E
THE MIASMA OF THE TROPICS AND THE RIC.ORS OF THE
ARCTIC WINTER; MANFULLY ENDURINIJ ISOLA-
TION, SICKNESS, AND PRIVATION, AND
DYING IN THE FIELD, A MARTYR
TO THE CONSCIENTIOUS DIS-
CHARGE OF HIS
DUTY.

INTRODUCTION.

' I "HE purpose of this volume has been to comprise in a small
-^ compass the most valuable part of the present knowledge of
Alaska. The writer has specially endeavored to convey as much
information as his scope would allow, in regard to the native
inhabitants, history, and resources of the country. This end has
been kept steadily in view, perhaps at the risk of dulness.

The greatest care has been taken to verify such facts as have
not come under the personal observation of the writer. Toward
this end every accessible work containing information in regard
to the country has been consulted in the original. Where au-
thorities have differed, the statements thought most worthy of
confidence, or such as best agreed with the experience of the
author, have been adopted. Many discrepancies have been recon-
ciled, and not a few errors have been corrected. Mistakes to a
certain extent are inevitable, but it is hoped that, in all important
points, ihe statements herein made will stand the test of time
and future observation. Many of the conclusions in regard to
the natives may seem, to the superficial observer, unwarranted ;
indeed, the author found, during a second year's experience, that
not a few of his earlier impressions were erroneous, and constant
intercourse with the natives, during that year while isolated from
other white men, enabled him to clear up many doubtful points
which previous observations had left unsettled. The geograph-
ical information here recorded is, of necessity, partly approximate.
With a base upon which to found future observations, it is to
be hoped that accurate determination of many points will not
long be delayed.

INTRODUCTION.

Theories and opinions have been, as far as possible, kept in the
background, or, when expressed, so separated from the statements
of facts, that the reader is left free to adopt or reject them from
the evidence presented.

Now that the native and Russian names of places and people
in Alaska are to be introduced into American literature, it is very
desirable that they should be spelled as simply and uniformly as
their phonetic value will allow. Great care has been taken in
this respect ; a slight knowledge of the Russian language having
been of much assistance. It is earnestly recommended that
other writers will join their cfibrts to promote the acceptance
and use of the method of spelling adopted in this volume. It
is evidently for the interest of all that simplicity and accuracy
should be the only guides, and, above all, that uniformity should
prevail.

It is but just that the first acknowledgment should be made to
the Directors of the Western Union Telegraph Company. By the
liberality and generosity of these gentlemen a grand opportunity
was afforded of investigating the Natural History of this interest-
ing region ; while the operations of the ICxpedition were not
impeded, a large amount of information was collected, for which
they should receive the thanks of scientific men of all countries.
In the fiiilure of the direct objects of the Expedition, it must be
no small consolation to reflect that by such liberal conduct, at an
insignificant expense, results of such importance and of lasting
value have been obtained.

The writer has been under many obligations, during the
progress of the explorations, to Captain Charles S. Bulkley, En-
gineer-in-Chief of the Expedition ; Captain C M. Scammon,
U. S. R. S., Chief-of-Marine ; Adjutant George M. Wright ; Fred-
erick Whymper, Flsq., Artist of the Expedition ; and especially
to Captain E. Everett Smith, of the schooner F. L. Steele, for
many favors.

The writer also desires to express his sense of the favors con-

INTRODUCTION.

Vll

favors con-

ferred and facilities offcroil, during the progress of this work, by
the Smithsonian Institution, under the (hrcction of Professor
Joseph Henry. There is no other place where so much practical
and valuable information can be found, in regard to the less
known parts of North America, as in the archives of this
establishment. To Professor S. F. Baird, of the Institution,
the author is also under deep obligations for advice and assist-
ance.

To the trustees and librarian of the Boston Athcnxum and the
Boston Public Library; to Professor Theodore Gill, and Mr. Spof-
ford, of the Congressional Library; to Mr. S. II. Scudder, of t»"^
Boston Society of Natural History ; Mr. Kalusowski, Librarian tf
the United States Treasury ; Mr. Buynitsky, of the Treasury T e-
partment ; Mr. Chew, of the Department of State; Mr. "* ung,
of the Bureau of Stati tics ; Dr. C. A. Parry, of the Agricul-
tural Bureau ; Captam Patterson, Mr. Hilgaru, and other offiwcrs
of the United .jtatcs Coa.st Survey ; Mr. Bannister, of the Smith-
sonian Institution ; Dr. Torrey, of the United States Assay
Office; Dr. J. T. Rothrock, of the Agricultural College of Penn-
sylvania; Dr. Packard, of the Peabody Academy of Science;
Dr. Uhler, of the Peabody Institute in Baltimore ; Mr. George
(libbs ; Mr. F. B. Meek; Mr. George Davidson; Dr. A. Kel-
logg ; Professor Pxsche ; R. D. Cotter ; Mr. Chas. Wright ; Mr.
J. T. Dyer; VV. H. Ennis ; Baron O. de Bendeleben; Mr. Michael
Lebarge ; Captain P'rank E. Kctchum ; Mr. George R. Adams ;
F. H. Francis ; Captain Charles Riedell ; Miss S. K. Dall, and
many others, he is indebted for information or assistance.

The illustrations are all from original sketches by the writer, or
from the articles themselves, and owe whatever artistic merit they
may possess to the pencil of Mr. H. W. Elliott. The illustra-
tions of birds were engraved by Mr. H. H. Nichols, and the
others are by Mr. John Andrew.

The map is a photo-lithograph from the original, drawn under
the direction of the writer and now in the possession of the

Vlll

INTRODUCTION.

United States Coast Survey, and was put on stone by Mr. Julius
Bien, of New York.

The ethnological specimens figured are mostly from the col-
lection of the Smithsonian Institution.

Should further details be desired, reference may be made to
the works of which a list is given in the Appendix. Addi-
tional information of any kind is requested, and will be used
and full credit given, should a future opportunity be offered.

Smithsonian Institution, November, I869.

CONTENTS.

PART I.

TRAVELS ON THE YUKON AND IN THE YUKON TERRITORY.

CHAPTER I.

Arrival in Norton Sound. — Circumstances of previous visit. — News of the
death of Robert Kennicott. — Change of plans. — Receive my appointment
as Director of the Scientific Corps, and determine to remain in the country.

— Landing, organization, and departure of the vessels. — Departure of the
Wilder for Unalaklik. — Russian peechka. — St. Michael's Redoubt and Isl-
and. — Russian traders. — Stepanoff. — Natives and their houses. — Skin
belts. — Departure from the Redoubt. — Journey to Unalaklik. — Detention
at Kegiktowruk — Seal-hunting. — Innuit graves. — Bath as enjoyed by the
Innuit. — Character of the coast. — Departure from Kegiktowruk. — Topa-
nika. — Arrival off the mouth of the river. — Ice-cakes. — Arrival at Unala-
klik. — Cockroaches. — Native clothing. — Description of the post and vilKige.

— Deficiency of medical supplies. — Departure for Nulato via Ulukuk. —
Iktigalik and its inhabiLints. — Telegraph stew. — Escape of dogs and return
to Unalaklik. — Russian baths. — Disagreeable trip to Iktigalik. — All gone
on my arrival. — Second return to Unalaklik. — Impromptu theatricals. —
Departure for Ulukuk. — Deserted village. — Arrival at Ulukuk. — Springs.

— Transportation of goods. — Arrival of Mike with the brigade from Nulato.

— Departure for Nulato. — Parhelia. — Mysterious caterpillar. — First view
of the Yukon. — Arrival at Nulato

Pacb

CHAPTER II.

Arrival at Nulato, and introduction to the Creole bidarshik. — Description of
the post and its inhabitants. — Adjacent points. — History. — The Nulato
massacre and its cause. — Barnard's grave. — Daily life at Nulato. — Larri-
own. — Koyukun Indians. — Ingaliks. — Kurilla. — Plans for the coming
season. — Examination of a coal-seam. — Nuklukahyet chief. — Christm.is
festivities. — New Year's and erection of the first telegraph i)ole. — Aurora. —
Return of Ketchum. — Collections in Natural History. — Indian rumor. —
Cannibalism. — Russian ingenuity. — P'ounding of Fort Kennicott. — Depart-
ure of Ketchum and Mike on their wintc! journey to Fort Yukon. — Arrival of
our bidarra. — Trip to Woksatn.x' barrabora. — Scarcity of food. — First signs
of spring. — Rolibing a grave. — First goose. — Indian children. — Rescue of
the bidarshik. — Anecdote of M.-\jor Kennicott and erection of a monument
to his men'ory. — Formation o.'' alluvium. — Prepar.itions for our journey. —
Breaking up of the ice on the Yukon ........

■PPI

X CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.

Our departure from Nulato. — Sukaree. — Crossing in the Ice. — Peculation. —
Camp. — Koyukuk Sopka. — Barter on the Yukon. — Indian grave. — Oos-
kon. — Indian pipes. — Tohonidola. — Koyukun dress. — Catching butterflies
Melozikakat River. — Arrival at Nowikakat. — Trading for meat. — Shaman-
ism. — Indian theology. — Treating the sick. — Departure from Nowikakat. —
Hirch canoes. — Runaw.iy from Fort Yukon. — Tozikakat River. — Nuklu-
kahyet and the Twin Mountains. — Nuklukahyet tyone and other Indians. —
Departure from Nuklukahyet. — The Ramparts and Rapids. — Moose-killing.

— Pass the Ramparts. — Mosquitoes. — Plains north of the Yukon. — Kutcha
Kutchin camp. — Sachniti. — Arrival at Fort Yukon. — History of the fort. —
Five years without bread. — Degradation of the servants of the Hud.son Bay
Company. — Intense heat. — Arrival of the bateaux. — The annual trade. —
Tenan Kutchin Indians. — Other tribes. — Drowning of Cowley. — Red Leg-
gins. — Arrival of Ketchum and Mike — Missionaries and their value. —
Course of the Hudson Bay Company with the Indians. — Massacre at Fort
Nelson. — Indians of the Western United Slates. — Furs in the storehouse.

— Departure from Fort Yukon. — Arrival at Nulato. — Unexpected orders.

— Start for the Yukon-mouth. — Seal and beluga in the river. — Arrival at St.
Michael's 74

CHAPTER IV.

Arrival of the vessel. — Arrange to remain in the country. — Departure of the
Clara Bell. — Mushrooms. — Plans for the season. — Start for Unalaklik. - -
The Major's Cove. — Voyage to Kegiktowruk. — Description of the casine.
End of the old bidarra. — Leave Kegiktowruk. — Crossing the bar of the
Unalaklik River. — Send back for the goods. — Trip to Ulukuk. — Death of
Starcek. — Bears and bear-hunting. — Geological rcconnoissance, and discov-
ery of fossils. — Return to Unalaklik. — Purchasing winter supplies. — Innuit
of Norton Sound. — Tribes, physique, games, kyaks. — Disposition, morality, '
marri.iges, and infanticide. — Treatment of the women, and work allotted toi
the sexes. — Dress, labrets of the different tribes. — Property, method of com- '
putation, and map-drawing. — Fire-drills. — ^Vcapons of bone, flint, and
ivory. — Guns and trading. — Intercourse with Indians, and boundary lines
of their territory. — Shamanism. — Patron spirits. — Interment of the dead.

— Habits and means of gaining subsistence throughout the year. — Dances
and festivals. — Arrival of my new bidarra. — Sudden illness, and departure
for the Redoubt. — Storm and detention at Kegiktowruk. — Proceed to the
Redoubt on foot. — Return to Unahiklik. — Kill a deer. — Cowardly abuse of
the natives by the Russians. — Kamokin and his barbarity to the sick. —
Deaths in the village. — Making dog-harness 121

CHAPTER V.

Arrival of Kurilla and the dogs. — Departure from Unalaklik. — Various kinds
of sledges, — Arrival at Iktigalik. — Series of detentions. — Indian avarice.

— At Ulukuk and across the portage. — Comparative merits of different
sledges. — Wohisatux. — Arrival at Nulato. — Sham hysterics. — Fish-traps.

— Kurilla's return. — Journey to the Kaiyuh River. — Housekeeping. —
Christmas and New-Year's. — Snaring grouse. — Yukon fish. — Continued

CONTENTS.

sickness. — Arrival of the mail. — Start for the Redoubt. — IIow the Russians
travel vs. how the American.s travel. — Arrival at the Redoubt. — Return to
Iktigalik. — break-down >d repairs. — Dog-driving, and camp life in the
Yukon territory. — Snowshoes. — Arrival at Nulato. — Expeditions among
the Nulato hills. — Hostile Koyukuns. — Reasons for their hostility. — Char-
acter of the western Tinneh. — Endurance. — rrev.-ilcnt diseases. - Snow-
goggles. — Totems. — Dances and songs. — Arms. — Habits of life.— Addi-
tional notes on the Kutchin tribes. — Making shot. — Attack on Tekunka and
the result. —Arrival of swallows and geese. — IJrcak-up of the ice. — Narrow
escape. — Non-arrival of Indians. — I'avloff's departure

164

CHAPTER VI.

Departure from Nulato. — Lateness of the season. — Veto. — Kwikhtana bar-
rabora. — Lof k.Vs. — Habits of the beaver. — Swan-shooting. — Indian carv-
ings. — First Indians, — Kl.-intilinten. — A letter. — Meeting with the Mahle-
muts. — Anvik. — The Stareck. — Tottery. — Sand-hill cranes. — Canoes. —
Leather village on the Shageluk. — Great abundance of food. — Demand for
liquor by the Mahlenii''^. — Dances. — Attack and narrow escajjc. — Leave
the village. — Manki. — Kkogmuts. — Loon-cap vilKige. — Carvings, old
houses and graves. — Great breadth of the Lower Yukon. — Arrive at the
Mission. — Pass the Great Jiend. — Fishing-village. — Myriads of wild fowl.
— Energetic collection of specimens. — R.isbinik village. — Starry Kwikhpak
village. — Obtain a guide. — AndreafTsky. — Tragedy in 1S55. — Mistake of
guide. — Arrive at the Uphoon. — Kutlik. — Emperor geese. — Arrival of
Teleezhik. — Go on to I'astolik. — IJeluga-hunting. — Innuit carvings. —
Drawings on bone. — Rise of the water. — Elephant bones. — Start for the
Redoubt. — News of the ships. — Arrival at the Redoubt, and meeting with
old friends. — Traders. — Embarkation for California. — Abuses prevalent in
the new territory. — Value of a territorial government — Necessary legisla-
tion. — Disparagement of the territory. — Arrival in San Francisco . . 207

PART II.

f.EOGRAPHY, HISTORY, INHABITANTS, AND RF..SOURCES OF ALASKA.

CHAI'TER I.

Cicncral geographical and topographical description of Alaska. — Adjacent seas.
— Groups of islands. — Coasts and harbors. — River system. — Ocean cur-
rents. — Mountain chains and peaks. — Are.n. — Earlier maps. — Review of
some recent maps. — The authorities for the p.esent map. — Field for future
explorations 245

CHAPTER II.

A chronological history of the progress of exploration and trade in Alaska and
ihc adjoining territories, from 1542 to 1868

294

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.

Aboriginal Inhabitants of Alaslta ^j^

CHAPTER IV.

Climate and Agricultural Resources 433

CHAPTER V.

Geology and Mineral Resources ^cy

CHAPTER VI.

Fisheries, Fur Trade, and other Resources not previously mentioned . . 481

CHAPTER VII.

Adjacent Territories and their Inhabitants 506

APPENDIX.

A. Glossary 529

B. Population of Alaska • • 537

C. Statistics of the Fur Trade of Alaska 538

D. Meteorology 539

E. Latitude and Longitude of Importawt Points ..... 545

F. Vocabularies 547

G Natural History. /

List of the Mammalia of Alaska 576

List of the Fishes of Alaska 579

List of the Birds of Alaska • . . . 580

List of the I^pidoptera of Alaska 587

List of the Hymenoptera of Alaska 5^7

List of the Neuroptera of Alaska 588

List of Useful Plants of Alaska 589

H. List of Works containing Information in regard to Alaska

and the Adjacent Territories 595

INDEX 610

373

433

• •

4S7

d .

481

506

•

• •

529

S37

•

538

539

•

S4S

547

576

•

579
580

•

587
587
588
589

Alaska

PART I.

TRAVELS ON THE YUKON AND IN THE YUKON

TERRITORY.

595

610

lOur

CHAPTER I.

Arrival in Norton Sound. — Circumstances of previous visit. — News of the death of
Robert Kcnnicott. — Change of plans. — Receive my appointment as Director of
the Scientific Corps, and tletcrmine to remain in the country. — Landing, organiza-
tion, and departure of the vessels. — Departure of the Wilder for Unalaklik. —
Russian peechka. — St. Michael's Redoubt and Island. — Russian traders. — Ste-
panofT. — Natives and their houses. — Skin Iwats. — Departure from the Redoubt.

— Journey to Unalaklik. -^ Detention at Kegiktowruk. — Seal-hunting. — Innuit
graves. — IJath as enjoyed by the Innuit. — Character of the coast. — Depar-
ture from Kegiktowruk. — Topanika. — Arrival off the mouth of the river. — Ice-
cakes. — Arrival at Unalaklik. — Cockroaches. — Native clothing. — Descrip-
tion of the post and village. — Deficiency of medical supplies. — Departure for
Nulato via Ulukuk. — Iktigalik and its inhabitants. — Telegraph stew. — Escape
of dogs and return to Unalaklik. — Russian baths. — Disagreeable trip to Iktigalik.

— All gone on my arrival. — Second return to Unalaklik. — Impromptu theatricals.

— Departure for Ulukuk. — Deserted village. — Arrival at Ulukuk. — Spiings. —
Transportation of goods. — Arrival of Mike with the brigade from Nulato. — De-
parture for Nulato. — Parhelia. — Mysterious caterpillar. — First view of the Yu-
kon. — Arrival at Nulato.

ON the 24th of September, 1866, the clipper ship Nightin-
gale came to anchor half a mile southeast of Egg Island,
; Norton Sound.

A driving storm from the north and northeast obscured the
I atmosphere, and covered the deck with an inch or two of half-
melted snow and hail. The waves were yellow with sediment,
churned up by their own violence, and the very white-caps had
la sullied look which spoke of shallow water. We were drawing
[nineteen feet, with a rise and fall of the waves of at least twelve
Ifect more, and the breeze was freshening. This did not leave
la very large margin under the keel, and the well-known rapidity
jwith which a north wind will diminish the depth of water in
Ithe Sound, sometimes making a difference of a fathom in the
Icourse of a few hours, added to the anxiety of our ship's officers.
jOur indefatigable commander, Captain Scammon, was seriously
ill. Altogether, the circumstances attending our arrival in the
vicinity of Redoubt St. Michael's were not propitious.

THE VUKON TERRITORY.

Ill

A little more than a year before, we had visited this point in
the bark Golden Gate. We left a party to make the prelimi-
nary explorations, previous lo deciding on the line on which it
was proposed to build the international telegraph. This party
was under the command of the Director oi the Scientific Corps,
Robert Kennicott, whose previous experience in the Hudson Bay
Territory to the westward had fitted him above all others to fill
the arduous post of commander of the explorations in Russian
America. Several members of the Scientific Corps were of his
party, and to their combined labors we looked hopefully for a
solution of the problem of the identity of the Yukon River with
the so-called Kwikhpak of the Russians. This identity was
stoutly upheld by Mr. Kennicott, though persistently denied by
many, who looked upon the so-called Colvile River, flowing into
the Arctic Ocean, as the true mouth of the Yukon, while they
considered the Kwikhpak as a distinct river. The question was
regarded as uncertain by all. Information received from the
Russians, however, soon put the matter beyond a doubt, and
we looked to Mr. Kennicott and his party as the favored few who
were to p ss the term incognita between the limit of Russian
explorations and the Hudson Bay Territory, and thus complete
the exploration of the Lower Yukon.

Though their equipment was not such as we could have wished,
and though grave doubts prevailed as to the value of a miniature
steamer, of which much had been expected, still we left all of them
in the highest spirits, and with the heartiest wishes for their
success, as we sailed slowly away from Stuart Island, September \
17, 1865.

During the year which had passed many changes had taken
place in the organization of the Expedition. No word had been
received from the party eve.n through the Russian mail, which is
carried overland from St. Michael's every winter to Nushergak \
and thence by sea to Sitka.

Various detentions kept the vessels of the fleet lying in San
Francisco Bay long after they should have reached the shores of
Bering Sea, and it was only in the month of July that the Expe-
dition finally set sail. We had been lying in Plover Bay .several ;
weeks, during which time a rumor had reached us that an explor-
ing party had been at Grantley Harbor during the winter, and that

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

one member of the party had been badly frost-bitten. All were
supposed to be alive and well.

Now that we had again come within reach of our friends and
companions, our anxiety may be imagined. The state of the
weather and our distance from St. Michael's, almost twelve miles,
prevented our landing in a body. A boat with two officers was
despatched late in the afternoon, but the distance and the still
increasing storm forbade us to expect their return that night.

My own impatience was so great that I soon abandoned the
attempt to sleep, and accompanied the officer of the deck in his
inclement night-watch, pacing up and down in the rain and
sleet ; and I almost fancied that there was something derisive in
the whistle of the wind through the rigging and insulting in the
masses of slush which the swaying cordage occasionally threw in
our faces.

The next morning the storm continued with little abatement.
About noon we saw the steamer George S. Wright, which we
knew had arrived with the commander of the expedition a day or
two before, getting up steam behind the point of Stuart Island.
About four o'clock in the afternoon she came out and anchored
under the lee of Egg Island near us, and we soon saw a boat put
off from her. Every glass was pointed at her, and every eye was
strained for a glimpse of some familiar face ; but the long hair and
beards, the unfamiliar deer-skin dresses and hoods defied recog-
nition.

Pressing forward to the gangway, as the first man came over
the side, my first question was, " Where is Kennicott } " and the
answer, " Dead, poor fellow, last May," stunned me with its sudden
anguish. I stayed to hear no more, but went to my cabin as
one walks in a dream.

So he was gone, that noble, impetuous, but tender-hearted man,
who had been to me and many others as more than a brother !
During the past two years many had had bitter controversies with
him, but all felt and expressed their grief at his untimely death.
He was one who made enemies as well as friends, but even ene-
mies could not but respect the purity of motive, the open-handed
generosity, the consideration, almost too great, for his subor-
dinates, and the untiring energy and lively spirits which were
the prominent characteristics of the man.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

w'r

The details of his explorations and death will be found else-
where. His body had been tenderly cared for, brought down the
Yukon from the point where he died, placed in a vault at the
Redoubt, and was to be taken home in charge of Mr. Charles
Pease, who had been his friend from boyhood, and Mr. II. M.
Hannister, both members of the Scientific Corps. This would
leave the Corps without a single representative in the whole of
Russian America north of Sitka.

My own plan had been, to explain the operations of the Corps
during the past year to Mr. Kennicott, and if approved by him
to cross to the Siberian side and obtain such information and col-
lections as opportunity might offer, and especially to determine
by the barometer the height of the different volcanoes for which
Kamchatka is renowned.

Under the circumstances, however, and considering the infor-
mation in regard to North American natural history and geology
more important than that relating to the other continent, I re-
solved to remain at St. Michael's or in the valley of the Yukon
during the ensuing season. I determined to use my best energies
to complete the scientific exploration of the northwest extremity
of the continent, as it had been planned by Mr. Kennicott, and
which comprised the exploration of, —

First, the region between Fort Yukon, at the junction of the
Yukon and the Porcupine, and Nulato, the most eastern Russian
post on the former river ;

Second, the region between Nulato and the sea, westward across
the portage, and south by way of the Yukon to the sea ; and, —

Lastly, the whole region bordering on Norton Sound and the
sea to the north and south of it.

Toward this considerable collections and many observations
had been made at St. Michael's, but little had been done in
other parts of the country.

Captain Charles S. Bulkley, U. S. A., Engineer-in-chief of
the Expedition, having signified his desire that I should succeed
Mr. Kennicott as Director of the Scientific Corps, and learninii
that I desired to, remain in the country, ordered me to act as
Surgeon in general charge of the district between Bering Strait
and the Yukon. I submitted my plans for the scientific opera-
tions of the coming year to him, and they met with his entire
approval.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

unci and the

Great expedition was necessary in niakin}? my preparations.

The continued north wind began to tell on the depth of water
in the Sound, and on Saturday we grounded with every swell.
Luckily the bottom here is an impalpable soft mud, without any
stones, otherwise the old Nightingale would have left her bones
there ; and as it was, every few moments she came thumping
down, with a severity that shook everything, from truck to
kelson.

The following morning it cleared off. and those who were
to remain took their seats in a large scow li)aded with coal, which
was to be towed ashore by the steamer Wilder. The Wilder was
one of two small stern-wheel steamers, built in San Francisco,
and brought up on the deck of the Nightingale, designed fo*-
river navigation. They were shaped much like an old-fashioned
tlat-iron, and were just about as valuable for the jnirposes
required ; being unable to tow anything, or to carry any freight,
while in a breeze of any strength it was no easy matter to steer
them.

Sitting pensively on the larger lumps of coal, we had ample
opportunity of studying the defects of our tug, and it became an
interesting matter as to what we should do if she should break
down before reaching shore, as seemed likely. A cold and
extremely penetrating rain gave us a foretaste of the concom-
itants of exploration, and rendered our dej)arture anything but
romantic. Indeed, I could not help thinking that we bore much
more resemblance to a party of slaves ai route for the galleys, as
Victor Hugo describes them, than to a party of young and ardent
explorers, defying the powers of winter, and only anxious for an
opportunity to exhibit our prowess.

We finally arrived in safety at the landing, near the Russian
trading-post of St. Michael. Having pocketed some biscuit, I
was provisioned, and, picking out a soft plank in a back room,
I rolled myself in a blanket, and after some diificulty got to sleep.
The rain continued ; the Russians were hokling an orgie, with
li(luor obtained from the vessels ; the dogs howled nearly all
night ; the roof leaked, not water, but fine volcanic gravel, with
which it was covered. If this is a sample of the country, I
thought, it is not prepossessing !

On rising in the morning I found, as might be expected, that

'i\

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

I was likely to feci for some time the effect of my new style of
bed in a way that was anything but agreeable.

On Monday, the ist of October, 1866, the Nightingale sailed
for Plover Hay. All was activity on shore, preparing the Wilder
and all available boats for a trip to Unalaklik, the seaboard
terminus of the portage to the Yukon, at the mouth of the Una-
laklfk River. My friend, Mr. Whympcr, the genial and excellent
artist of the expedition, proposed to leave for Unalaklik on the
steamer.

The work of construction and exploration had been divided.
The larger number of men, and the work to be done in the region
west of the Yukon, had been placed in charge of Mr. VV. H.
Ennis and several assistants. Here the work of exploration had
been mainly finished, and construction, exclusive of putting up
the wires, was to be immediately commenced.

The work of exploration and future construction, to the north
and east of Nuldto on the Yukon, was intrusted to Mr. F. E.
Ketchum, to whom, with Mr. Michael Lebarge, the honor of
exploring the region between Nulato and Fort Yukon had fallci
after Kennicott's death.

Mr. Ketchum, who bore the title of Captain in the service of
the Expedition, was thoroughly qualified for the execution of the
trust committed to him. He had been eminently faithful to Mr.
Kennicott during his arduous explorations, and had successfully
carried out his plans after his death.

I proposed to accompany him to Nuldto, the place best suited
for the prosecution of the scientific work, and as he had decided
to remain for a while at St. Michael's, after consultation with him,
we secured a room in the Russian quarters together.

On Tuesday the steamer, in charge of Captain E. E. Smith, with
a Russian pilot, started for UnalakHk. As we were waving our
congratulations, to our dismay we saw her come to a stand-still,
plump on a rock at the entrance of the cove. It seemed as if her
career were about to come to an ignominious conclusion, but after
a good deal of labor she worked off without damage, and proceeded
on her way.

We returned to our quarters, where we built a fire in the
Russian stove. These stoves are a *' peculiar institution," in use
throughout the territory, and worthy of description. Here they

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

are built of fragments of basalt, the prevalent rock, and smeared
inside and out with a mortar made of clay. A damper in the
chimney is so arranged as to shut off all draught, and is taken
out when the fire is made. After the whole has been thoroughly
heated by a wood fire the coals are removed. The damper is put
in, thus preventing the escape of hot air by the chimney, and
without further fire this stove will warm the room for twenty-four
hours. It is admirably suited to the climate and country, and its
only objectionable point is the amount of room it occupies. A
i;ood deal of cooking, baking, &c., can be accomplished in a large
one, and the remainder is done in a building erected for the pur-
pose, and called the fovdruia. The Russian name for this stove is
fci'chka, but an iron stove, such as is used in the United States, is
called a kana'la. The foundation of the pedchka is of wood, filled
in with volcanic gravel, and covered with brick or slabs of lava.
In Russia they are generally built of brick entirely, and arc often
tiled over on the outside with painted tiles, such as are yet to be
found in some of the older houses in New England.

Our beds, as in all the houses in this part of the territory, were
made on a platform raised a few feet from the floor, and about
seven feet wide. Mine onsisted of a reindeer skin with the hair
on, and with one end s.-vvn 'ip, so as to make a sort of bag to put
the feet in ; a pillow of wiiJ-goose and other feathers is essential
to comfort ; this, with a pair of good blankets, is all that one needs
in most instances. Sheets are unknown in this part of the world,
and counterpanes are almost so.

Our time was well occupied in getting everything in readiness
for transportation, if the steamer should return as we hoped. If,
as was probable, she found ice in the Unalakli'k River, she would
have to go into winter quarters at once.

Meanwhile I took a careful survey of the old trading-post, or
Michaelovski Redoubt, as the Russians call it.

By order of Baron Wrangell, Michael T^benkofi", an officer of
the Russian American Company, established this post in 1833.
It is stated by different writers to be in latitude 63° 33' or 63° 28'
north, and longitude 161° 55' or 161° 44' west of Greenwich.
Few points were established by the Russians with the accuracy
deemed indispensable in modern English or American surveys.
It is stated by Tikhm6nief that, in 1836, the Unali'gmuts of the

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

t fli I

N ll

vicinity attacked the Redoubt, which was successfully defended
by Kurupdnoff, the commander.

It is built of spruce logs, brought by the sea from the mouths of
the Yukon and Kuskoqufm, which annually discharge immense
quantities of driftwood. This is stacked up by the Russians in
the fall, for miles along the ccast north and west of the Redoubt,
and is carried in winter to the fort over the ice by means of dogs
and slec'!. No other fuel exists on the island and adjoining
shores. These are entirely destitute of wood, if we except low,
scrubby willows and alders, which are found in the vicinity of
water. St. Michael's is situated on a small point of the island of
the same name, which puts out into the sound and forms a small
cove, abounding in rocks and very shallow. Here a temporary
landing-place is built out into water deep enough for loaded boats
drawing five feet to come up at high tide. This is removed when
winter approaches, as otherwise it would be destroyed by the ice.
The shore is sandy, and affords a moderately sloping beach, on
which boats may be drawn up. A few feet only from high-water
mark are perpendicular banks from six to ten feet high, composed
of decayed pumice and ashes, covered with a layer, about four
feet thick, of clay and vegetable matter resembling peat. This
forms a nearly even meadow, with numerous pools of water, which
gradually ascends for a mile or more to a low hill of volcanic ori-
gin, known as the Shaman Mountain.

The fort is composed of log buildings with plank roofs, placed in
the form of a square, and with the intervals filled by a palisade about
ten feet high, surmounted by a chciHiiix-dc-frise of pointed stakes.
This is also continued round the eaves of the buildings. There are
two outlying bastions, pierced for cannon and musketry, and con-
taining a number of pieces of artillery of very small calibre and
mostly very old-fashioned and rusty, except two fine brass howitzers
of more modern manufacture. The principal buildings are the com-
mander's house, — consisting of two private rooms, an armory and
a counting-room, or contoriim, — a couple of buildings used as store-
houses, a bath-house, and separate houses for the married and
unmarried workmen. There is a flag-staff leaning apologetically
as if consciously out of place, and a gallery for the watchman, who
is on duty day and night, with reliefs, and who tolls a bell on the
hour stroke to notify the inmates that he is not asleep. One of

"ully defended

the mouths of
irge immense
: Russians in

the Redoubt,
neans of dogs
md adjoining
e except low,
le vicinity of

the island of
forms a small

a temporary
■ loaded boats
emoved when
:d by the ice.
ing beach, on
m high-water
gh, composed
r, about four
J peat. This
f water, which

volcanic ori-

)ofs, placed in
)alisade about
Dinted stakes.
;s. There are
;try, and con-

I calibre and
■ass howitzers
s are the com-

II armory and
used as store-
married and

ipologetically

Itch man, who

a bell on the

2ep. One of

THE Yr» ■ «

»f

^'..attci i. d ahrul : :i .sun-clia1 is to
Hid a ii.'iicuahle feature in the
'iw'ood "'ImcIi. fioni a distance.

• ■unit and the inaiii-
vifich tlirre fcitho)iis

J -le bastions i*: withou? cannuo.. ar*4 ». ♦ v ; ?s i ; ^Aipihd^^ for
f refractory subject.'^.

Outside of the stockade ar : w-vcra'. jK^- buddings, — a snuul

!reh<vUso U3ed for furs, a l.irjjr vb«l '. ^". Lvi.jtN -irc drawn up in

, tter. a blacksmith's shoj , .'.tul i chui The \m'.cv is octagonal

shape, with a small donn , ii!<'fr«oumk"^ by a cios^, and a lieam

^> diring a beil at the side of .-s • porih v^hich covens the door

-\-%f. Other small buildings ,'

. . ft^und not far from the chui

...il is the stacks of bleached

...k not unlike tents or bastioM

'<-£t\v<'cn the point on which ' VWchac!-

■■■Ht. a small arm ot the sea ;?kV' - ui, ii>

iV be carried uri\ti the fl., . . ' m the \<yr' bear-' west by

1^, This is the bestprote.-tr^ ,vU-'!''iaL;t' .(<' has a^ much

- ..■ ■; ind as good Ixittom as can !■ i'./ j--^.f miu-h K •■ ;f out.

' the southwest c\trenHi.y vi h. j-rv knuvvi> ;i- i clKukotl'

■•' wo enter a narrow ani tortu'His cltanin.-l, often i> it mare

V liitty feet wide. whii:h s-rparates the island of .St. Mi.»'iae!

'(-■ »';c mainland. Tlii''. has been aptly nanit-d. the Canal by

^- '. .sians, and it divides midway into two branches wliieh are.

•.'■..•; to me. eqii illy tortuous. thv)Uf;h th.-} are styled the

, .*. and the Crooked re.-ipectiv<''y.

:' 'r>ainland near St. Michael's gra'iually rises bom the Canal
.'-^ adjacent shores into low basaltic Kills, with a riii;.:;ed and

• iiough not elevated coast.

• nmales of the f(.rt — with the exceptinn oi 9>i''<rc\ Stcpan

;otf, an old soldier, v.h.> commands not only this, but all

, uiEj-postc. in the i:)isirict of .^1. ■Michael, ur.ilcr the title

■: >Vi>lisha — may be divided into IhKi" elas-^i (..oiivicts,

• and natives.

.voiknjen of the kus'-ian Ameriean Coni|M:i\ wen, al-

. ^'.'ithont e.xccption, convicts, mo-lls from Sii-.;ria, wheie

impany was ori).iii;:!!h or{^anized. Tiny ni^n. men eon-

nf such crimes as theft, incorrii;ib[e dru^kcnne^^. lair'^lary,

;'Vf>.n mansla'ighler. Those men, at'ter a continued vesi-

m the country, naturally took to themselves wives. af><'r the

•11 of the country, snee Russian subjects in the Cumpany's

■. were juohibilcd from leg.il marriage with native women

tSSBft

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

I I

the bastions is without cannon, and is used as a guard-house for
refractory subjects.

Outside of the stockade are several other buildings, — a small
storehouse used for furs, a large shed where boats are draw.i up in
winter, a blacksmith's shop, and a church. The latter is octagonal
in shape, with a small dome, surmounted by a cross, and a beam
bearing a bell at the side of a small porch which covers the door-
way. Other small buildings are scattered about ; a sun-dial is to
be found not far from the church, and a noticeable feature in the
fall is the stacks of bleached driftwood, which, from a distance,
look not unlike tents or bastions.

Between the point on which St. Michael's is built and the main-
land, a small arm of the sea makes in, in which three fathoms
may be carried until the flagstaff of the fort bears west by
north. This is the best-protected anchorage, and has as much
water and as good bottom as can be found much farther out.

At the southwest extremity of this arm, known as Tcbenkoft"
Cove, we enter a narrow and tortuous channel, often not more
than fifty feet wide, which separates the island of St. Michael
from the mainland. This has been aptly named the Canal by
the Russians, and it divides midway into two branches which are,
it seems to me, equally tortuous, though the)' are styled the
Straight and the Crooked respectively.

The mainland near St. Michael's gradually rises from the Canal
and the adjacent shores into low basaltic hills, with a rugged and
rocky, though not elevated coast.

The inmates of the fort — with the exception of Sergei Stepan-
olT Riisanoff, an old soldier, who commands not only this, but all
the trading-posts in the District of St. Michael, under the title
of Uprovalisha — may be divided into three classes: convi is,
Creoles, and natives.

The workmen of the Russian American Company were, al-
most without exception, convicis, mostly from Siberia, where
the Company was originally u;g;tnized. They were men con-
victed of such crimes as theft, incorrigible drunkenness, burglary,
and even manslaughter. These men, after a continued resi-
dence in the country, naturally took to themselves wives, after the
fashion of the country, since Russian subjects in the Company's
employ were prohibited from legal marriage with native women.

•

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

These connections are looked upon with a diflferent feeling from
that which prevails in most communities, and these native
women mix freely with the few Russian ind half-breed women in
the territory who have been legally married. Their children are
termed Creoles, and formerly were taken from their parents and
educated in Sitka by the Company, in whose service they were
obliged to pass a certain number of years, when they became
what is called "free Creoles," and were at liberty to continue in
the service or not, as they liked. Many of the most distinguished
officers of the Company were Creoles, among them Etolin, Kush-
evaroff, and Malakoflf.

There are a few Yakuts in the service of the Company, and these,
with some native workmen, who are generally of the tribe which
inhabits the immediate vicinity of the post, compose the garrison.

The regular workman gets about fifty pounds of flour, a pound
of tea, and three pounds of sugar, a month ; his pay is about
twenty cents a day. Some of the older men get thirty cen«" and
a corresponding addition to the ration of flour. They work with
little energy and spirit as a general thing, but can accomplish
a great deal if roused by necessity. Small offences are punished
by confinement in the guard-house, or boofka, and greater ones by
a thrashing administered by the commander in person ; those who
commit considerable crimes are forced to run the gauntlet, receive
one or two hundred blows with a stick, or in extreme cses are sent
for trial to Sitka, or, in case of murder, to St. Petersburg.

The present Uprovali'sha, Stepanoff", has been in office about
four years. He is a middle-aged man of great energy and iron
will, with the Russian fondness for strong liquor and with un-
governable passions in certain directions. He has a soldier's con-
tempt for making money by small ways, a certain code of honor
of his own, is generous in his own way, and seldom does a mean
thing when he is sober, but nevertheless is a good deal of a brute.
He will gamble and drink in the most democratic way with his
workmen, and bears no mauce for a black eye when received in a
drunken brawl ; but woe to the unfortunate who infringes discipline
while he is sober, for he shall certainly receive his reward ; and
Stepanoff often says of his men, when speaking to an American,
" You can expect nothing good of this rabble : they left Russia
because they were not wanted there."

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

The commanders, or hiddrshiks, of the smaller posts in the Dis-
trict of St. Michael are appointed by Stepanoff, who has absolute
authority over them, and does not fail to let them understand it,
making them row his boat, when the annual supply-ship is in port,
as Alexander might have called his captive kings to do him menial
service. But Stepanoff trembles before the captain of the ship or
an old officer of the Company, much in the same way that his
workmen cringe before him. This sort of subserviency, the fruit
of a despotic government, is characteristic of the lower classes of
Russians ; and to such an extent is it ingrained in their characters
that it seems impossible for them to comprehend any motives of
honor or truthfulness as being superior to self-intercst.

The native inhabitants of this part of the coast belong to the
great family of Innuit. The name of the tribe is Unalcd, and their
name for the village, half a mile west of the Redoubt on the island
of St. Michael, is T'satsi'nni. The few families living there bear
the local designation of Tutsigcmnt, much as we should say
Bostonian or New-Yorker. The village comprises half a dozen
houses and a dance-house, built in the native fashion ; that is to
say, half underground, with the entrance more or less so, and the
roof furnished with a square opening in the centre, for the escape
of smoke and admission of light.

Diagram of Innuit T(5pek.

They are built of spruce logs, without nails or pins, and are
usually about twelve or fifteen feet square. The entrance is a
small hole through which one must enter on hands and knees, and
is usually furnished with a bear or deer skin or a piece of matting
to exclude the air. Outside of this entrance is a passage-way,
hardly larger, which opens under a small shed, at the surface of
the ground, to protect it from the weather.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

They are about eight feet high in the middle, but the caves are
rarely more than three or four feet above the ground. The floor
is divided by two logs into three areas of nearly equal size, the
entrance being at the end of the middle one. This portion of
the floor is always the native earth, usually hardened by constant
passing over it. In the middle, under the aperture in the roof,
the fire is built, and here are sometimes placed a few stones.
On either side the portion separated by the logs before men-
tioned is occupied as a place to sit and work in during the day,
and as a sleeping-place during the night. The earth is usually
covered with straw, or spruce branches when obtainable, and
over this is laid a mat woven out of grass. Sometimes the
.space is raised, or a platform is built of boards, or iogs hewn flat
on one side. This is a work of such labor, however, that it is
seldom resorted to. The beds, which generally consist of a
blanket of dressed deerskin, or rabbit-skins sewed together, are
rolled up and put out of the way during the day. Almost all
sorts of work are done in the houses after the cold weather sets
in. At this time, however, there did not appear to be any people
in the village, and Captain Ketchum told mt' that they would not
return for a week or two, being absent at Pastolik, where they
were killing the beluga or white whale. A solitary old woman,
perhaps of exceptional uglineis, spent her time picking berries,
which were abundant near the village.

Sumiay, October jth. — A party of natives of the Mahlemut
tribe arrived, in a skin boat, bringing letters from UnalakHk,
saying that the boats had arrived safely at that point. The tur-
rets or bastions of the Russian post were being fitted up for the
accommodation of the officers, and winter quarters for the men
were being arranged and made comfortable. The ground was
well covered with snow, and we were advised to use all practi-
cable expedition in reaching UnalakKk by water, before the forma-
tion of ice should interfere with navigation. The thermometer
averaged 9° Fahrenheit during the day, and no time was to be
lost.

We therefore made arrangements for starting the next day, —
Captain Ketchum and myself in one boat, Mr. Westdahl our
astronomer, and a party of natives, with two others.

The skin boats, in which most of the travelling by water is done,

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

'15

are of three kinds. One is a large open boat, flat-bottomed and con-
sisting of a wooden frame tied with sealskin thongs, or rdmni, and

Bidarri.

with the skins of the seal properly prepared, oiled, and sewed to-
gether, stretched over this frame and held in place by walrus-skin
line, or mdliout. This kind of boat is known among all the In-
nuit by the name oSmiak, and is called a bidarrd by the Russians.

ater is done,

Bidirka.

Another, a smaller boat, for one man, is made essentially in the
same way, but covered completely over, except a hole in which the
occupant sits, and around the projecting rim of which, when at sea,
he ties the edge of a waterproof shirt, called a kamldyka by the
Russians. This is securely tied around the wrists and face also ;
the head being covered by a hood, so that no water can by any
means penetrate to the interior of the boat. This boat is called
by the natives a kyak, and by the Russians a biddrka.

The other kind is used only by the Russians, and was copied
from those of the Aleutians, differing from the last only by being
longer and having two or three holes ; it is adapted to carry two or
three people. These boats are admirably light and strong, and
extremely valuable for making short journeys. It is, with persons
skilled in their use, all but impossible to swamp them, and the
Russians have introduced them into every part of the territory
as an invaluable adjunct to exploration. They call them simply
two or three holed bidarkas. They are propelled by single or
double ended paddles, and attain an extraordinary speed.

Monday, ^tli. — The weather being clear and fine, the wind
nearly fair, we determined to put off for Unalaklfk. We left St.
Michael's about noon, Westdahl leading, but the wind hauling
ahead we ran closer in, and left him making a long tack, which
Kctchum was rather apprehensive would be unsuccessful, as it is

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

impossible, or almost so, to beat against the wind with one of
these flat-bottomed skin boats.

About eight o'clock p. M. we put into a small rocky cove about
twenty-two miles from the Redoubt. This, from two small rocky
islets which protect it, is known to the Unaleets as Kcgiktownik,
a word derived from kikhtitk, meaning an island. There is quite
a village on the high bank back of the cove, and the inhabitants
came down and helped us to haul our boat up on a sort of ways,
built of round logs, held in place by large masses of rock. These
are necessary, as the cove is very shallow and so full of rocks that
the skin boats are very liable to be cut on them at low tide.
There were no signs of the other boats.

The village is notable on account of the number of graves
scattered over the plain about it, and also for the large size of the
dance-house, or casinc as the Russians term it. This building is
to be found in almost every village, and serves for a general work-
room, a sort of town-hall, a steam bath-house, a en -avanserai for
travellers, and a meeting-house for celebrating their annual dances
and festivals.

It is usually the largest and cleanest house in the village, and
generally empty at night, so that travellers prefer it to one of the
smaller and more dirty and crowded houses. In the present case
we were quartered in it very comfortably.

We immediately sent out our teakettle, in this country always
made of copper, and universally known as the c/iynik, — tea be-
ing c/iy in the Russian, a derivative from the original Chinese
c/ia/i.

Chy being ready, we imbibed deeply, and filling up the chynik
with water we dispensed the diluted fluid to our native friends, in
the bountiful tin cups provided by the Company. A small hand-
ful of broken biscuit added to the acceptability of the treat and
disguised the weakness of the chy. This is the invariable and
e.xpected tribute to the hospitality of the natives from all travellers
who avail themselves of the casine and other accommodations of
the village ; for which the Innuit have not yet learned to charge
by the night's lodging.

Appreciating the banquet, and warmed to enthusiasm by the
hot water, an old blear-eyed individual seized an article something
between a drum and a tambourine, and began to beat upon it with

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

with one of

J cove about
small rocky
Kcgiktowrnk,
icre is quite
i inhabitants
sort of ways,
ock. These
of rocks that
at low tide.

ler of graves
ge size of the
s building is
jeneral work-
avanserai for
nnual dances

3 village, and

Ito one of the

present case

luntry always
ik, — tea be-
iiial Chinese

p the chynik
ve friends, in
. small hand-
he treat and
variable and
all travellers
odations of
|ed to charge

kasm by the

le something

upon it with

a long clastic rod. lie was joined by all the old men in tlic
vicinity, in a dismal chorus of

Ung lii Villi, ah ha yah, yali yah yah, &c.,

keeping time upon his drum with an energy which showed that the
vigor of his youth liad not tleparted from him.

Four or five of the young men began to dance, posturing in
different attitudes, moving their arms and legs, stamping on the
floor, all in perfect accord with one another, and keeping accurate
time with the drum. We were too tired, however, to appreciate
tills exhibition, and signified as much to the company, who finally
left us to enjoy a good night's rest.

Tuesday, ()t/i. — We were awakened by an officious native, who
put his head in, bawling at the top of his lungs that the weather
was bad, very bad indeed, and that we could not get away to-
day ; after which pleasing piece of information he left us to our
own reflections.

Cn getting up and going out I found that the sky was cloudy
and the wind adverse, and ordering one of our Mahlemuts to put
on the chynik, I went down and reported the situation, which
involved our remaining a day or two where we were. Ureakfast,
consisting of chy, with sugar, — but of course no milk, — biscuit,
and a savory piece of bacon, was duly discussed ; and after a com-
forting pipe, we were quite ready to bear our detention with the
true voyageur's philosophy.

I went out, and soon made the acquaintance, by signs and the
very few native words which I had picked up, of a fine-looking
young Miihlemut, who was also on his way to Unalakh'k with his
family. The interview commenced by his begging for a little
tobacco, upon receiving which he was so delighted as to take me
to his tent, a poor little affair, made of unbleached sheeting pro-
cured from the Russians. Here he introduced me by signs to his
wife and child, the latter about two years old. The former was
not particularly ugly or pretty, but was engaged in manufacturing
tinder, which rather detracted from the neatness of her person.
This tinder is made out of the fur of the rabbit, the down from the
seed-vessels of the river poplar, or cotton lint obtained from the
Russians ; either of which is rubbed up with charcoal and water,
with a very little gunpowder, and then dried. The rubbing pro-

: I

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

cess was just going on, and I was thankful that etiquette did not
require hand-shaking, among the Innuit of Norton Sound. The
husband was a fine-looking, athletic fellow, standing about five
feet five inches, with a clear brunette complexion, fine color, dark
eyes, and finely arched eyebrows. The flat nose, common to all
the ICskimo tribes, was not very strongly marked in him, and a
pleasant smile displaying two rows of very white teeth conquered
any objection I might have felt to his large mouth. The baby
looked like any other baby, and was notable only from never show-
ing any disposition to disturb the peace.

Returning after awhile to the casine, I observed that the aper-
ture in the roofwas closed by a covering composed of the intestines
of seals, cut down on one side, cleaned, oiled, and sewed together
into a sheet, which is sufficiently translucent to admit the light
while it retains the warm air.

The universal salutation of the Innuit is Chammi ! Chammi !
and as likely as not, some greasy old fellow will hug you like
a brother upon a first meeting. As they are given to raising a
certain kind of live-stock, this method of proceeding is not likely
to suit the fastidious.

A note arrived from Westdahl by a native, one of his crew,
saying that on account of rough weather he had been obliged
to put into a small cove, some miles south of us, had cut Lis
bidarrd on the rocks and wet i-Omost everything.

Ketchum immediately despatci, ' '"'>'•- "^en with a needle, some
twisted thread made of deer sinew, callea^'^.u, . 'id a piece of seal-
skin prepared for use, technically known as litvtdk. These, with
some grease to rub on the seam, are all that is needed to repair
any injury done to the skin of a bidarrd or bidarka.

Wednesday, \otJi. — The water of the littie lovc in front of the
village was white with foam when we rose in ihe morning : evi-
dently we were not to get away yet. We »vj;ked over to a small
bay on the other side of the point on which Kegiktowruk is situ-
ated. Here we found a cache, that is to say, a kind of small log en-
closure about six feet squire, covered with logs held down by heavy
stones. In it were the bodies of four small hair seal, called m^rpa
by the Russians and nlksuk by the Mdhlemuts. They are covered
with short, stiff hair of a greenish silvery tinge, with darker spots
surrounded by dark rings, especially on the back. The young are

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

«9

tte did not
)iuul. The
about five
color, dark
imon to all
him, and a
1 conquered
The baby
never show-
it the aper-
lic intestines
/cd together
nit the light

'/ Chammi!
uig you like
\ to raising a
; is not likely

of his crew,
icen obliged
had cut liis

[needle, some
piece of seal-
These, with
led to repair

front of the
[orning : evi-
ler to a small
/ruk is situ-
;mall log en-
|wn by heavy
called m^rpa
are covered
Idarker spots
le young are

very beautiful, covered with long, silky, silvery hair, softer than in
the adult and without the dark spots. They are about eighteen
inches long, and the adults not more than four feet. The flippers
have five long nails and are covered with hair like that on the
body. The eye of the seal is black, very large and liquid,
almost human in its expression, and Jie whiskers -are placed like
those on a cat ; the bristles are perfectly transparent, three-sided
aiul twisted, looking like glass threads, about four inches long.
I'hc blood of these seal is very black, and so is the flesh, both
having a slightly disagreeable odor when fresh. They are caught
in rawhide nets. There is a much larger seal (like Pliocnjubata)
which is called maklok by the natives ; the name has been
frequently applied to both species, but erroneously. The fat or
blubber is about an inch and a half thick, very white and firm.
The natives cat it, as well as the meat, and trade it with the
Indians of the interior. The oil is ned for burning, and the
casine is lighted by means of four saucer-shaped dishes full of
dry moss or sphagnum soaked in this oil, which give out quite
as much smoke as light.

Returning, our attention was attracted by the numerous
graves. These are well worth the careful attention of the eth-
nologist ; many of them are very old. The usual fashion is to
p'.. : the body, doubled up, on its side, in a box of plank hewed
out of spruce logs and about four fee mg ; this is elevated sev-
eral feet above the ground on four posts, which project above the
cofTm or bo.x. The sides are often painted with red chalk, in fig-
ures of fur animals, birds, and fishes. According to the wealth
of the dead man, a number of articles which belonged to him are
attached to the coffin or strewed around it. Some of them have
kyaks, bows and arrows, hunting implements, snowshoes or even
kettles, around the grave or fastened to it ; and almost invariably
the wooden dish, or kantdg, from which the deceased was accus-
tomed to eat is hung on one of the posts.

There are many more graves than present inhabitants of the
village, and the story is that the whole coast was once much more
densely populated.

On arriving at the casine we met some men carrying long sticks
of light-wood, and were requested to remove our bedding and other
traps from the building, as the inhabitants were about to take a

I !

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

bath. This we did, much to our disgust, and adjourned to one of
the houses till it should be over, as a cold wind was blowing.

These baths are made by building a very hot fire in the casine,
the :niddle part of the floor being removable, so that the earth
may be exposed. Here the fire is built, and when it has sub-
sided into coals the gut cover before mentioned is put over the
smoke-hole, and the inmates proceed to bathe themselves in an
unmentionable liquid, which is carefully saved for this and other
purposes. Strange as it may appear, this habit was not con-
tracted without reason, for the alkaline properties of this fluid
combine with the oil with which they are smeared, and form a
soapy lather, which cleanses as thoroughly as soap, which they
cannot obtain, and removes the dirt, which water alone would not
do. After this they wash off with water and retire to certain
shelves, which are placed near the roof of the building, and repose,
wrapped in a deerskin, until the lassitude produced by the bath
passes away.

We waited as long as possible before entering the casine, but as
evening came on we were obliged to return to it. As might be
supposed, the amnion iacal odor was nearly stifling, and only the
raw, blustering weather prevented us from sleeping outside.

TJiursday., \\t/i. — To our great delight the sea had gone
down a good deal and the wind was fair. We bundled our
things into the boat, and although short-handed — two of our
men having remained with Westdahl — we put out about eight
o'clock, and just as we rounded the point saw the other boats,
which had repaired damages, following. The character of the
shore is abrupt and rocky from the Redoubt to Kegiktowruk,
thence to Golsova River, known by the two small islets or rather
rocks in the vicinity, and finally around Tolstoi Point to a
place called Topanika. There are very few points at which
a boat, especially a skin boat, can land even in perfectly smooth
weather, and in rough weather only two between Tolstoi Point
and the Redoubt. The first of these is the Major's Cove, so
named because it was the first point at which Major Kennicott
landed, after leaving St. Michael's with his party. The other
is Kegikt6wruk. We passed Tolstoi Point and reached To-
pdnika in safety. Here there is, except at high tide, a narrow,
shelving beach, backed by perpendicular walls of sandstone in

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

|do, a narrow,
sandstone in

bluffs from twenty to one hundred feet high. This beach con-
tinues all the way to the mouth of the Unalakli'k River, the bluff
growing gradually lower, until near the mouth of the river there
is only a marshy plain behind the beach. As the wind was light
we sent two of our men ashore with a long mahout line to "track"
the boats along the beach. We were now about ten English miles
from Unalakli'k. The wind blowing fair and freshening, we took
our men on board and made a straight course for the mouth of the
river. Meanwhile it was growing dark. I had been snoozing
under a deerskin for an hour or two, as the air was very cold,
but finally took up the paddle to warm myself, when Ketchum's
experienced ear caught the crunch of ice, and in a minute v/e were
into it. Large cakes about four inches thick covered the surface of
the water, and we all had our hands full in staving them off, as
they would have sunk the boat had they nipped us. We were not
far from shore ; the lights at the trading-post at the mouth of
the river were plainly visible. We fired several shots, but appar-
ently without rousing any one, and were obliged to go nearly a
mile north of the post to find a bit of beach suffici>.ntly clear of
ice to land upon. Having succeeded in hauling the boat above
high-water mark, we stumbled amongst the driftwood with which
the beach was strewn, up to the fort or trading-post, which
was closed, every one being asleep. W^e soon roused them, how-
ever, and after a regale of tea and bread I appropriated the bed
of a Russian, and sank to slumber, surrounded and overrun by
not less than thirty thousand adult cockroaches and their families.

Friday, 12///. — Rose with the determination of going some-
where where there were no iaralcdnoff, as the Russians call the
insects with which their apartment was i.ifested. I obtained a
tent, pitched it, and moved most of my traps out into it. Planted
a flag-pole and threw the ensign of the Scientific Corps to the
breeze, with the resolution to carry the blue cross and scallop,
before the year was out, where no other flag had yet floated, if
that were possible.

I began to provide myself with suitable clothing, such as the
natives wear. First,'' artcgi, or />iirhj, a'A the Russians call it.
This is a shirt of dressed deerskin, with the hair on, coming down
to the knees, and to be confined by a belt around the waist.
There is no opening in the breast or back, but a hood large

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

enough to cover the head, which may be pushed back when not
needed. This garment is trimmed around the skirt, wrists, and
hood with strips of white deerskin and wolverine or wolfskin,
both of which are highly prized for the purpose. Around the
hood the wolfskin is broad and taken from the back of the animal,
where the longest hairs are barred with white and black, which,
when the hood is drawn up, makes a kind of halo about the face
which is not unbecoming. When travelling, these long hairs
shield the face from a side wind to a surprising extent. The
parka is exceedingly warm, and the wind does not penetrate it ;
while in exceedingly cold weather a light one, made of fawn-skin,
or ivipcrotky, as the Russians term it, may be worn with the hair
turned in, inside of the usual garment, which is made of various
skins, according to the fancy. The fall skin of the young deer,
known as naUircss, is the most common and perhaps the best.
The skins of Parry's marmot {Spennophiliis PatTyi) and the musk-
rat {Fiber zibethicits) are praised for their durability, and wipe-
rotky parkies are neat and light, but do not last long. On the
whole the needress is as strong, durable, and warm as any, and
almost as handsome when well trimmed.

The next most important articles are the torbassd or Eskimo
boots. These are made of the skin of the reindeer's legs, where
the hair is short, smooth, and stiff. These are sewed together to
make the tops of the boots, which come up nearly to the knee,
where they are tied. The sole is made of sealskin, or luvtak pre-
pared in the same way as for making boats. This sole is turned
over at heel and toe, and gathered like the skirt of a dress, so as to
protect those parts, and brought up on each side. It is of course
nearly waterproof and rather durable, but can be easily replaced in
half an hour by a new one if necessary. It is wetted before being
sewed, which makes the sealskin flexible, and the proper formation
of the toe is aided by the teeth of the seamstress. In wearing
these boots, which are made much larger than the foot, a pad of
dry grass, folded to the shape of the sole, is worn under the foot.
This absorbs any moisture, serves as a non-conductor, and protects
the foot from the inequalities of ice or the soil. The whole fur-
nishes a warm and comfortable covering, indispensable to winter
travel. There are a pair of strings, one on each side, which are
tied about the ankle, supporting it and preventing the foot from
slipping about in the boot.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

ack when not
•t, wrists, and

or wolfskin,

Around the
)f the animal,
black, which,
Dout the face
e long hairs
extent. The

penetrate it ;

of fawn-skin,
ivith the hair
de of various
: young deer,
aps the uest.
,nd the musk-
ty, and wipe-
)ng. On the
1 as any, and

id or Eskimo

s legs, where

together to

to the knee,

luvtak pre-

ole is turned

ress, so as to

is of course

replaced in

Dcfore being

)er formation

In wearing

)ot, a pad of

der the foot.

and protects

le whole fur-

le to winter

e, which are

■le foot from

Deerskin breeches are worn by the natives, but are rarely
needed by white men when provided with clothing of ordinary
warmth and thickness.

The value of a good parka is at present about six dollars.
Boots and other articles are usually obtained by barter. Ten
musket-balls and a few caps are the regular price for a pair of
torbassa, a pair of deerskin mittens being worth from four to six
balls ; ornamental gloves and other articles are more or less
costly, according to the amount of work and the scarcity of the
article at the time. So far, the natives have not yet learned to
m.ike a well-shaped thumb to gloves and mittens, a triangular
shapeless protuberance serving their needs, but they may be easily
taught a better mode of manufacture.

A Ai.r- ivr bear skin in the raw, dry state is used as a bed, and
a M tn'cr,! ; Jressed deer or rabbit skins, in addition to a pair of
woolicii ' nes, completes the list of articles needed for winter
travel, though a small pillow is a great addition to one's com-
foit. A deerskin is worth, at the regular price, about sixty
cents.

For a number of days nothing occurred of special interest.
Captain Ketchum delayed starting across the portage to the
Yukon for Nulato, as it was still doubtful whether all the small
rivers were securely frozen over. I found my nights in the tent
not uncomfortable, though the thermometer ranged from twenty-
eight to zero of Fahrenheit. Waking one morning, I found myself
so deeply snowed vp that I had a good deal of difficulty in get-
ting out of the ■ : i»t It proved to be only a drift, however. A
tin dippc; of 'arr. /,o?en the first night showed no signs of
melting.

The Russian trad; ^f-r ''St at this point is much smaller than
the Redoubt. It is in rather a decayed condition, and has only
two glass windows, the remainder being made of gut, as used by
the natives. Glass i? a rare article here.

The stockade is built after the same plan as that at St.
Michael's, and encloses one barrack building, with a room for
the commander, a store, cook-house, bath-house, and a shed for
storing oil, f'--.. , ii is defended by two square bastions pierced
for cannon. 1./. <?;uns had lately been removed, and the
turrets fitted up ijr the accommodation of our officers. They

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

were of the most antiquated description, and likely to do as
much damage by the breech as by the muzzle.

The fort is situated on the right bank of the Unalaklfk River,
where it empties into Norton Sound. It is said to have been
built in 1840 and 1841.

To the north are two assemblages of houses occupied by Innuit
of the Kaviak, Mahlemut, and Unaleet tribes during part of the
year, the latter being the only permanent residents. The village
was formerly situated on the left bank of the river, but, an epi-
demic occurring, they removed and built new houses on the
north side. The remains of the old houses and the graves may
be distinctly traced.

The steamer Wilder, / le assistance of several hundred

natives and our own party, u , the direction of Captain Smith,
had been hauled up on the beach beyond the reach of the ice,
and might be considered as in winter quarters.

The Captain, who was an enthusiastic and successful sportsman,
gave me the first specimens I had seen of the beautiful snow-
white arctic grouse {Lagopiis albus), which may be started in
coveys on all the plains around the mouth of the river.

The beach at Unalaklik is shv;lving and sandy, and is bounded
by a ridge, on which the houses are built. Back of this ridge the
land is low, and overflowed for some distance when the freshets
occur in the spring ; beyond this low strip, which is parallel
with the beach, it rises slowly and evenly, culminating in the
ridges of the Shaktolik hills, which trend in a northeast and
southwesterly direction, and attain a height of about a thousand
feet above the sea. Several miles north of the river they come
down to the shore in high bluffs of gray sandstone. The coun-
try to the south, already mentioned, is much the same, though
the hills are farther inland and attain a higher elevation. From
the beach near the fort, Besborough Island may be seen standing
sharply and precipitously out of the sea, about thirty miles north-
northwest. Egg Island and Stuart's Island, to the southwest, are
so low that it is only on a very clear day, with a faint mirage
to elevate them, that they can be distinguished. Covered with
snow and without trees, the easy slopes and gracefully rounded
hills have an aspect of serene beauty ; the effect on a calm moon-
light evening is delightful.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

Thursday, October 2$th. — Captain Ketchum having made up
his mind to an early start across the portage, we entered on the
necessary preparations for our journey. Appointing Lieutenant
F. M. Smith Acting Surgeon for the Unalakh'k party, I divided
our exceedingly insufficient supply of medicines with him. The
liberal scale on which everything was purchased allowed of no ex-
cuse for the inefficiency and red tape which left fifty men for a year,
in a country where nothing of the kind was obtainable, with a sup-
ply of medicines which could be packed into a Manila cigar-box.

The proposed party for Nulato was composed of Captain
Ketchum in charge of that division, Mr. Frederick Whymper
the artist of the Expedition, Mr. Francis the engineer of the
Wilder, Lieutenanc Michael Lebarge, a constructor who may be
called Scratchett, and myself. Mr. Dyer the quartermaster pro-
posed to join us later in the season. It will doubtless be noticed
that this comprised some six officers to one man, but it must
be recollected that the work laid out for the coming year in our
division comprehended only exploration, and that we relied on
the Indians in the vicinity of Nulato for such manual labor as
we should need. The following season we expected to receive a
large number of constructors, who should proceed to build the
line as soon as the route was determined.

We intended to travel with dogs and sleds, the universal and
only practicable mode of winter transportation in this country.
The sleds, harness, and so forth, I shall take another opportunity
of describing minutely, and will only state at present that the
dogs are about the size of those of Newfoundland, with shorter
legs, and of all colors, from white, gray, and piebald to black.
They are harnessed to the sled on each side of a line, to which
the traces are attached, — two and two, with a leader in front ;
and the usual number is either five or seven, according to the
load. They will draw when in good condition about one hun-
dred pounds apiece with the help of the driver, who seldom rides,
unless over a smooth bit of ice or with an empty sled. The sleds
of the Eskimo are heavy, and shod with bone sawed from the
upper edge of the jaw of the bowhead whale. These bones are
obtained in the vicinity of Bering Strait, and good ones are quite
valuable. The remainder of the sled is made of spruce wood.
They will carry from six to eight hundred pounds. The sleds

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

used in the interior are much lighter and differently constructed.
The Eskimo sleds are suitable only for travelling over ice and
the hard snow of the coast.

Saturday, 2ph. — Having loaded four sleds and finding the
number of dogs insufficient, we sent down to the village and pro-
cured an additional cupply, seizing any stray dog whose owners
were not forthcoming, and pressing him into the service. About
eleven o'clock, just as we were ready to start, an old woman, howl-
ing dismally, cut the harness of one of these conscripts and let him
go. He was, however, immediately secured, the old woman paci-
fied with a small present of tobacco ; and with a salute of one gun
from the fort and a volley of revolver shots from our friends we
started up the Unalaklik River on the ice. We got along very well,
with the usual number of small casualties, such as the loss of one
or two of the vicious dogs, who gnawed their harness in two, and
the breaking of the bones with which some of the sleds were
shod. We proceeded until darkness and an open spot in the
river arrested our progress, and we camped on the bank for
the night. The atmosphere being about ten below zero, we
all relished our tea, biscuit, and bacon, and the ever-grateful pipe
which followed it, before retiring. No tents are used in the
winter, as they become coated with ice from the breath of the
sleepers and are also liable to take fire ; so, pulling our blankets
over our heads, we slept very jomfortably, w'lih nothing above us
except the branches of the spruce-trees and the canopy of the sky.
The trees commence as soon as we get sufficiently far up the river
to be out of the way of the coast winds and salt air, and are prin-
cipally willows, birch, poplar, and spruce.

Sunday, 2W1. — Woke to the disagreeable discovery that four
of our dogs had taken advantage of the darkness to gnaw their
sealskin harnesses and decamp to Unalaklik. Pushing on, literally,
with only three dogs, and five hundred pounds on the sled, I found
rather hard work for a beginner. At last, about noon, we arrived
at the first Indian village, called Iktfgalik, where we unloaded our
sleds, fed our dogs, and went into an Indian house built after the
Eskimo fashion and very clean and comfortable.

Iktfgalik is a fishing village with a larger population in summer
than in winter. On the left bank of the river, which is about six
hundred feet wide, are eight or ten summer houses, built on the

constructed.
»ver ice and

finding the
age and pro-
hose owners
/ice. About
^oman, howl-
; and let him
woman paci-
:e of one gun
ir friends we
)ng very well,
le loss of one
s in two, and
e sleds were
. spot in the
he bank for
low zero, we
-grateful pipe
used in the
ireath of the
our blankets
ing above us
ly of the sky.
up the river
land are prin-

pry that four
gnaw their
; on, literally,
I sled, I found
1, we arrived
Linloaded our
liilt after the

in summer
is about six
)uilt on the

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

bank, of split spruce logs driven into the ground, and roofed
with birch bark. The door is at the end facing the river, and is
an oval opening some three feet high. The houses are about
twelve feet square and entirely above ground, as in summer the
underground houses are full of water. Behind these houses are
the caches, called kradowoi by the Russians. They are simply
small houses, about six feet square and high, elevated from six to
ten feet above the ground on four upright posts. They arc well
roofed and are used only as storehouses for provisions, dry fish,
and furs, and are thus elevated in order that dampness or field-
mice may not g in access to them ; much like an old-fashioned
corn-crib. Frames are also erected where the sleds, boats, and
snow-shoes may be put out of the way of the dogs, who are always
on the alert for any animal substance, and will eat sealskin and
even tanned leather with avidity, even when moderately well
fed.

On the other side of the river are two winter houses and severnl
caches. One of these houses was the property of an old and
rather wealthy Indian, as Indians go, who had been christened
Ami'lka by the Russians. Ami'lka was anxious to obtain the title
of Tyonc, or chief, which is here merely a title and conveys no
authority except what age and wealth may bring with it. He
had been invested with the title by the explorers during the pre-
vious season, and, though an exceedingly mean old fellow, had
been of some assistance to them. In the house with him were his
wife, a very fine-looking Indian woman of considerable intelli-
gence ; and a young fellow called Ingechuk by the Russians, who
had a wife about four feet high, of whom he was exceedingly
fond and jealous. The other occupants were an intelligent fellow
known as Andrea, and his wife, an old, very ugly, but digt;ified
and hospitable woman. On our entering, she ordered some one
to clear a place, and spreading out a clean grass mat motioned to
us to be seated. Without relaxing her diligent oversight of the
children around her, of her work, or of a kettle that was boiling
by the fire, she sent out to the cache and obtained some dried
backfat of the reindeer, the greatest delicacy in this part of the
world ; cutting it into pieces of uniform size, she placed it on a
clean wooden dish and handed it to us, with an air of quiet dig-
nity quite unaffected, and as elegant as that displayed by many a

(

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

civilized dame when doing the honors of a palace. No return
was asked or expected, but a present of a few leaves of tobacco
was received with thanks. The backfat, when toasted over the
fire, has a rich nutty flavor and is extremely good.

The other house was occupied by a dirty old rascal called
Matfay, and another, equally dirty and more stupid, called M^esh-
ka. Matfay bore his greedy and deceitful disposition plainly im-
pressed on his countenance, and evidently felt aggrieved that we
had not honored his house with our presence, instead of sending
our Mahlemuts there, who would make him no presents.

Ketchum had actually gone into his place at first, thinking, as
the house was new, that it would be the cleaner of the two ; but
after a glance at it had beaten a hasty retreat.

These Indians belong to a branch of the family of Tfnneh, or
Chippevvayans, similar to those of Mackenzie River ; their tribal
name is Ingalik, or, in their own language, Kalyiih-khatdna, or
people of the lowlands. The tribe extends from the edge of
the wooded district near the sea to an' across the Yukon be-
low Nuldto, on the Yukon and its affluents to the head of the
delta, and across the portage to the Kuskoqui'm River and its
branches. Many of the adults have been christened, but not
Christianized, by the missionaries of the Greek Church, and are
usually known by their Russian names. They retain and use
among themselv ^, however, their original Indian names.

Monday, 2()th. — After a long night's rest, woke a good deal
refreshed, though rather stiff",, and enjoyed our breakfast thor-
oughly. Francis and myself took a walk some distance up the
river, finding many open places in the ice. After our return I
made a few sketches of the houses and Indians, and obtained a
beginning of a vocabulary of Ingalik words. These Indians all
understand a little Russian, and by this means are enabled to
communicate with the whites. No one in the territory under-
stands any English. The Innuit, especially the Mahlemut dia-
lect, is so easy to acquire that the fur-traders learn it in prefer-
ence to attempting the difficult task of teaching them Russian.
Very few of the Innuit understand any Russian, while almost all
the Russians understand some Eskimo. On the other hand,
the Indian dialect is so much harder to learn than the Russian,
that the Indians pick up Russian with facility, while none of the

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

No return
I of tobacco
ed over the

ascal called
illed M^esh-
plainly im-
ved that we
i of sending
its.

thinking, as
le two ; but

■ Ti'nnch, or
their tribal
■kJuitdna, or
:he edge of
Yukon be-
head of the
ver and its
ed, but not
"ch, and are
in and use
es.

good deal

ikfast thor-

nce up the

ir return I

obtained a

ndians all

enabled to

ory under-

emut dia-

in prefer-

n Russian.

almost all

her hand,

e Russian,

ne of the

Russians, except an old interpreter named Tele'ezhik, know more
than a few words of the Indian dialects.

In the afternoon Ingechuk brought us some white grouse and
some fresh reindeer meat. Of the latter a delicious dish was con-
cocted, which I will describe for the benefit of future explorers.
It was invented by the members of Kennicott's party during the
first year's explorations. The frozen reindeer meat was cut into
small cubes about half an incn in diameter. An equal amount of
backfat was treated in the .same way. Hardly covered with
water, this was simmered in a stewpan for nearly an hour ; water,
pepper, and salt being added as needed. When nearly done, a
little more water was added, and the finely broken biscuit from the
bottom of the bread-bag slowly stirred in, until the whole of the
gravy was absorbed. This done, we sat down to enjoy a dish
which would have awakened enthusiasm at the table of Lucullus.
It was known among the initiated as " telegraph stew," and the
mere mention of its name would no doubt touch, in the breast of
any one of them, a chord of electric sympathy.

The Russian name for the reindeer is alen^, perhaps derived
from the French. These deer are migratory, feeding on the twigs
of the willow and the fine white moss, or rather Hchen, which is to
be found on every hillside. They fnquent the hills during the
summer, and are driven thence only by the mosquitoes to seek
refuge in the water. In the fall and winter they prefer the more
sheltered valleys, and appear on the plains in immense herds in
the spring.

Tuesday, 30///. — Walked down the river, and, looking into some
deserted Indian huts, obtained some exquisite green mosses and
lichens which were flourishing there notwithstanding the cold
weather.

A number of sleds arrived from Unalaklik, bringing a large
amount of goods and provisions for transmission to Nulato.

On the rolling plain between the summer houses and the bases
of the Uliikuk Hills I found the larch {Larix viicrocarpa f ) grow-
ing sparingly to the height of twelve feet, and abundance of alders.
The snow-covered sides of these symmetrical hills stood out with
striking beauty against the dark clouds which formed the back-
ground of a rich crimson and purple sunset.

Wednesday, list. — Ketchum decided to send back all the heavy

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

;

hi ^1

Mahlcmut sleds, and kept nine dogs to assist us in taking the
goods up to Nulato on the light Ingalik sleds. The weather, being
above the freezing point, was so warm as to render the prospect
of our being able to cross the Uliikuk River on the ice rather
dubious ; it would have been useless to start until we could cross
it, as it is only a few miles from Iktlgalik. After the sleds had
started for Unalakli'k, we let out the dogs from an empty summer
lodge where they had been confined to prevent their following
their comrades down the river.

At this period of our explorations arose the famous controversy
between two of our party, in regard to the relative merits of beans
and rice as articles of food. However insignificant the subject,
such was the earnestness and even eloquence developed on both
sides, such was the array of facts brought forward to sustain the
several arguments, that the interest of every one was awakened
in the discussion. This lasted late into the night, and was renewed
immediately the following morning. I am sorry to be obliged to
record, however, that, as in many other discussions, both literary
and scientific, no definite result was arrived at, although each was
convinced against his will of the valuable properties of the escu-
lent defended by his opponent.

Thursday, November 1st. — The weather was still warm and snow
falling fast. We made the discovery that nine or ten of our dogs
had apparently decided to hold a town meeting in UnalakKk, and
had accordingly left for that place. This was exceedingly pro-
voking, as it would render our starting impossible in the event of
a sudden cold snap. I therefore proposed to Ketch um to go
back to UnalakHk and get the dogs, and Francis offered to do the
same thing. The decision was postponed till the next day.
Ketchum, finding dry fish likely to be scarce, called on the Indians
to bring out what they had to spare, and purchased it. This fish
is principally salmon and some small white fish, and is dried in
the sun without smoke or salt. It is the principal staple of food,
under the name of lU'a/t, for all travellers, both men and dogs ;
being very light and portable, yet full of oil ; of not the most
agreeable flavor, it is at least strong if not strengthening. Occa-
sionally one does get hold of a clean, well-dried ukali, that tastes
very well when broiled over the fire ; though in my own case the
use of it invariably produced heartburn. The ration for a dog is

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

taking the
ither, being
le prospect
ice rather
could cross
e sleds had
)ty summer
r following

:ontroversy
its of beans
he subject,
ed on both
sustain the
; awakened
'as renewed
obliged to
)th literary
;h each was
if the escu-

and snow

our dogs

akHk, and

ingly pro-

le event of

um to go

to do the

next day.

le Indians

This fish

dried in

le of food,

and dogs ;

the most

?, Occa-

hat tastes

n case the

r a dog is

one salmon weighing from a pound and a half to two pounds, or
as many smaller fish as will amount to the same. They will travel
on less, ■_ '.It the best policy is to feed your dogs well, and you may
then, with proper attention, be sure that they will work well and
rarely run away.

At this time Ketchum made an arrangement with L6fka, a
newly arrived Indian, and Andrea, to accompany him in a pro-
posed winter trip up the Yukon, and paid them partly in advance.

Friday, 2d. — Francis and I started at nine o'clock for Unala-
kli'k to bring back the missing dogs. Found the walking good but
wet, and we occasionally had to take to the bank. The distance
is twenty-two English miles in a direct line, but at least thirty by
the river, which is exceedingly tortuous. We arrived at the post
at two o'clock, just in time for a glorious Russian bath and a hot
cup of tea. These baths are an institution to be proud of. Every
Russian trading-post in the territory is furnished with a bath-house,
and once . week all the inmates avail themselves of it. As they
reckon time according to Old Style in the Russian colonies, their
Sunday falls on our Saturday, and as a consequence bath-day
comes on Friday. The apparatus is very simple. A rude arch
of loose stones, of the hardest obtainable kind, is built, and more
stones piled over it, so that a fire made beneath the arch can pen-
etrate between them. There is no chimney, but a trap-door in
the roof A large cask full of water heated for the purpose, and
another of cold water, generally with ice floating in it, and a suc-
cession of benches one above the other, complete the equipment.
When the stones are thoroughly heated and the smoke has all
passed out, all coals are removed and the trap-door is shut ; any
smoke or coals remaining will make the eyes smart and the bath
very uncomfortable. Each one leaves his clothing in an outer
room, and on entering wets his head and throws hot water on
the heated stones until as much steam is produced as he can
bear. He then mounts as high on the benches as he finds com-
fortable, and the perspiration issues from every pore. He then
takes a sort of broom or bunch of dried mint or birch twigs, with
the leaves still on them, which is prepared at the proper season
and called mdenik. With this he thrashes himself until all im-
purities are thoroughly loosened from the skin, and finishes with
a wash off in hot water and soap. Then taking a kantag, or

|t THE YUKON TERRITORY.

wooden dish, full of ice-cold water, he dashes it over himself and
rushes out into the dressing-room. This last process is disagree-
able to the uninitiated, but is absolutely necessary to prevent tak-
ing cold. I have known cases of acute rheumatism brought on by
omitting it. The dressing-room is spread with straw and always
communicates with the outer air. The temperature is often many
degrets below zero ; but such is the activity of the circulation, that
one dresses in perfect com.'ort notwithstanding. A warm dressing-
room would be insupportable.

These baths cannot be recommended for those with a tendency
to heart disease or apoplexy, but to persons in a healthy condition
the effect is delightful ; rheumatic patienta are frequently cured by
their means, with proper precautions. One of these baths will re-
move all traces of extreme exf^rtion or fatigue as if by magic, and
they may be advantageously followed by a few cups of hot tea
and an hour's repose.

After our bath we found to our disgust that the dogs had been
sent back, thanks to the energy of Mr. Dyer, and must have passed
us on the way, while making a short portage. The weather be-
coming disagreeable, we were soon reconciled to our disappoint-
ment, and were snugly ensconced in one of the bastions, which
had been hung with reindeer skins for comfort and warmth dur-
ing the severe winter, relating our experiences over the ever-
grateful cup of tea, while the sleet was driving and the storm
howled outside.

Saini'day, 2,d. — The weather continued warm and disagreeable.
The ice wa:-» very wet and bad, and we concluded not to return to
Iktfgalik to- lay. The village beyond Iktfgalik is called Uliikuk,
and many of the Russians call the former village New Ulukuk, as
it was built since the latter, by Ulukuk Indians, the point being a
good one for the fisheries.

The mouth of the UnalakHk River is obstructed by a bar, over
which at low tide there is only a few feet of water, except in a
narrow and tortuous channel, which is continually changing as
the river deposits fresh detritus. Inside of this bar we get two
or three fathoms of water for a few miles, but the river has only a
few feet in the channel, most of the summer, from the mouth to
Ulukuk. The tide-water comes up a mile or two, and from this
cause it is difficult at times to procure fresh water for drinking

himself and
i is disagree-
prevcnt tak-
•ought on by
■ and always
i often many
uilation, that
irni dressing-

li a tendency
:hy condition
itly cured by
baths will re-
y magic, and
»s of hot tea

Dgs had been
t have passed
weather be-
r disappoint-
itions, which
warmth dur-
er the ever-
d the storm

iisagreeable.
to return to
led Ulukuk,
Uliikuk, as
oint being a

a bar, over
except in a
:hanging as
we get two
r has only a
mouth to
id from this
or drinking

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

purposes, as the well water is disagreeably brackish. The same
trouble is found at St. Michael's, where the only good water is
obtained from springs on the mainland, near the shore opposite
the island. There are many of these springs near the shore along
the coast, ai d they are unfrozen all winter, the water having
a temperature of 28' to 30° Fahrenheit, even when the air is
several degrees below zero. Whether this is due to any latent
volcanic heat cannot yet be decided, but the islands of Stuart and
St. Michael, as well as the coast as far north as Tolstoi Point, are
composed of basaltic lava, full of amygdaloidal cavities and crys-
tals of olivine, and, in many places, roughly columnar in five-sided
pillars.

Sunday, ^Ih. — In the morning a strong northeast wind was
blowing, with the thermometer about 16", and a great deal of
loose snow driving about. I determined, in spite of the remon-
strances of the others, to delay no longer, and, putting some bis-
cuit and ukali in my pocket, I started alone, about eleven o'clock,
for Iktfgalik. The wind sweeping over the broad plains near thii
mouth of the river v/as so violent, and the sleet v/as so blinding,
tha was unable to face it, and was obliged to go from side to
si( the river diagonally. In doing this I was misled by a

brancn of the river, and proceeded several miles before I found
out my mistake. Retracing my steps, I took the right direction,
and reached the wooded part of the river, where the trees made a
shelter from the force of the wind and driving snow, late in the
afternoon. I found the ice rather soft and covered in many
places with drifted snow, so that the travelling was very laborious.
To add to my annoyances, it soon became very dark, and I had to
grope my way over ice-hummocks and through snow-drifts until
nearly worn out by the exertion. Passing round a bend in the
river, the ice gave way under me, and I had only time to
throw myself on one side, where it proved more solid, and I got
off with a wetting up to my knees. Taking off my boots and
socks, I wrung out the water and put them on again, when they
froze immediately. Nothing but the want of an axe prevented my
camping then and there ; but a howling, which came evidently
from no great distance, reminded me that it might not prove
healthy to sleep without a fire. I trudged along, and, to my great
delight, about eight o'clock, the moon rose, and I soon saw the
3

ill

lli' ■"•! ■

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

high caches of the village standing out against the sky, I
heard no dogs, however, and on reaching the entrance of
the house on the bank I found it closed with a block of wood.
Climbing on to the roof and looking through the gut cover, I
thought I saw a glimmer as of live coals where the fire had been.
My shouts finally aroused Ingechuk, who was the only occupant.
Ketchum iiad evidently gone, and I had my labor for my pains !
Between the small stock of Russian which I had picked up, and
the little Ingechuk knew, I finally managed to make out that
they had left that day and gone to Uliikuk. I made him boil the
chynik. and changed my wet clothes, which were frozen so hard
as to be difficult to get off; and then, after taking my tea, retired
with a feeling that I had earned a good night's sleep.

Monday, ^th. — Not wishing to take another useless tramp, I
prevailed on Ingechuk to take a note to Ketchum, if he was at
Ulukuk and if he wished me to join him ; and feeling rather stiff,
I remained in the house, writing and resting most of the day.
About the middle of the afternoon. Francis arrived. He had met
an Indian with a note from Ketchum, on the river, and knew Uiat
he was gone, but had kept on to Ikti'galik. Soon after, Inr^echuk
returned with a note from Ketchum, who was on the point of
starting for Nulato, and advised us to return to Unalaklik and
come up with the next brigade of sleds.

Tuesday, 6th. — Breakfasted on some fine salmon trout {koko-
liviya of the Indians, and kolsJiclio{\\\c Russians) which Ketchum
had sent down to us. These fish, when broiled in their skins on
a Stic'- over the fire, are exceedingly fine eating, but if fried or
cleaned before cooking lose much of their flavor.

Leaving some of our things with Ingechuk, to follow us the next
day, we started for Unalaklik about eleven, and reached it about
five o'clock in the afternoon ; our return created some amuse-
ment. The ice being very glniry made the travelling very disa-
greeable, and we were well satisfied when we came to our jour-
ney's end.

Adams, one of the original party, now justly known as the
pioneers, had left for the Redoubt in a bidarra, but had not re-
turned ; some fears were excited that he might not be able to
do so until the sea ice had fully formed. Temperature varied
from 15" to 20°.

te sky. I
itrance of
c of wood.
It cover, I

1 had been,
r occupant,
my pains !
ed up, and

2 out that
im boil the
en so hard
tea, retired

3s tramp, I
" he was at
rather stiff,
3f the day.
^e had met
I knew 'that
r, Inryechuk
e point of
ilakh'k and

rout {koko-
1 Ketch urn
lir skins on
if fried or

Ins the next
it about
lie amuse-
very disa-
our jour-

n\ as the
ul not re-
)e able to
Lire varied

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

For several days we remained in statu quo. Our time was
taken up in increasing our knowledge of Russian and the
Mdhlemut dialect, in preparations for another attempt to cross
the portage, and in reading a variety of matter provided by the
kindness of some of the officers who did not remain in the coun-
try. Several evenings were pleasantly diversified by an amateur
theatrical performance, aided by several violins. Many capital
personal hits were made, which, being taken in good j)art by the
victims, were productive of a great deal of merriment.

Monday, \2th. — Started for Iktfgalik about ten o'clock, with
two Mahlemuts, Shuri'igeluk and Ichiluk by name, commonly
known as Shuggy and New-Years, the latter having been hired
the previous year by Mr. Kcnnicott on New- Year's day. We had
two heavily loaded sleds of Mahlemut make, drawn by five and
four dogs respectively, dogs being scarce. The party consisted,
besides the two Eskimo above referred to, of Messrs. Dyer and
Francis, and myself, — Mr. Francis and I, not wishing to be idle,
hav'ing volunteered to assist in transporting the Nulato goods to
Uh'ikuk. By making several short portages, tlic distance was
materially reduced, and we arrived in good condition at Iktigalik
about two o'clock in the afternoon.

Tuesday, \yh. — After breakfast, loaded up one Mahlemut and
one light Ingalik sled and started at half past ten for Uliikuk,
which is about eleven miles from Iktigalik by several portages
and the river. About half-way on a bend of the river were two
roofless deserted houses, once a summer fishing village, called by
the Indians N'tso/i. Unromantic as it may appear, the sight of
these poor ruins, indicating probably a death in the midst of the
primeval woods, could hardly fail to produce a touch of emotion
ill any mind less occupied than that of the hardy and careless
voyageur. They formed a rude, half-effaced, but cfteclive monu-
ment of human sorrow, in a country where humanity seems
hardly to have taken root, existing as it does, only by a constant
struggle for the necessities of life.

Pursuing our way up steep banks and down sharp declivities
requiring the greatest care in the management of dogs and sleds,
over the ice-bound river and the rolling plains, dotted with clumps
of larch and willow, we finally struck the river at a sliarp bend,
just below the point where the village of Uliikuk is situated.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

IJ' ;i

I »

Here a large number of springs exist, some of them below the
bed of the river, whose waters are never frozen, an open patch
being found here during the most severe winters. The water in
these springs, measured by a standard thermometer of Greene's
make, was not very warm, but retained a temperature of thirty-
two to thirty-four degrees Fahrenheit during extremely cold
weather. I counted seven springs in the gravel beach near the
village, all without any ice about them ; most of them continue
open during the entire year, but are covered by the river during
the spring freshets.

The village contains five winter houses, a small casine, and a
row of high caches. It is situated on the right bank of the river,
which is here about two hundred feet wide ; about four miles to
the eastward the Uliikuk Hills rise to a height of about two thou-
sand feet. At this time they were snow covered of course, but
they are free from snow during the summer.

The open water in the river makes it somewhat difficult to ap-
proach the village with sleds from below, the banks, though low,
being steep and covered with small trees. Snow or ice, placed
upon the smooth pebbles from beneath which the springs were
flowing, soon melted, though the weather was at zero. With the
atmosphere at eight below zero, the temperature of one spring,
which gave out beautifully clear water with a .slight saline taste
like bicarbonate of soda, was thirty-two degrees ; another, quite
tasteless, was thirty-four degrees Fahrenheit.

The water in the river, at the edge of the ice, which was about
eighteen inches thick, had a temperature of thirty-one degrees. A
remarkable abundance of fish frequents the vicinity of this patch of
open water, especially the delicious salmon trout for which Uliikuk
is noted, and a small cyprinoid fish not elsewhere observed.

Ami'lka has a house in this village also, and into it we took our
baggage and rested ; an old Indian called Sammak roasted some
trout for our evening meal, while with some fresh alen^ meat and
backfat Dyer concocted one of those appetizing telegraph stews
previously mentioned.

Wednesday, i^t/t. — Francis and our two Eskimo started off
with three sleds to bring loads from Ikti'galik. Several sick Ind-
ians came to me for treatment, their own medical knowledge be-
ing confined to steam-baths and to counter-irritants in the form of

n below the

open patch

'he water in

of Greene's

re of thirty-

remely cold

ich near the

em continue

river during

;asine, and a
of the river,
four miles to
Dut two thou-
)f course, but

lifficult to ap-
1, though low,
3r ice, placed

springs were
•o. With the
if one spring,
It saline taste

nother, quite

[ch was about
degrees. A

this patch of

rhich Uliikuk

lerved.
we took our

"oasted some
1x6 meat and

:graph stews

started off
Iral sick Ind-
liowledge be-

the form of

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

bleeding by means of a large number of small cuts and the actual
cautery. They have no knowledge of the uses of the indigenous
herbs of the country or of any medicines.

I purchased a fine pair of snow-shoes about five feet long for a
rheath-knife, and Dyer obtained a large number of the river trout
f.om the Indians. I cannot understand why Kane and other
Arctic travellers could not preserve fresh provisions in a frozen
state, for winter use. In this country immense quantities of meat
and fish are so preserved without taint all the year round. Exca-
vations are made in the earth to the depth of two or three
feet, where it is usually frozen, and the contents are thus pro-
tected from the rays of the sun.

Towards evening Francis and the sleds returned with heavy
loads of goods from the other village.

Thursday, \^th. — It being my turn to take charge of the bri-
gade, I started with the dogs and men about half past ten, with
empty sleds. Reached Ikti'galik about two o'clock, and by means
of a little diplomacy induced Ingechuk and Ami'lka to lend me
their dogs, and also got hold of another sled.

Friday, i6t/i. — Rose early, and after chy peet, as the Russians
call a meal of bread and tea, harnessed up the dogs, and, taking
all the remaining goods, except some dog feed, started about half
past eight and arrived at Uliikuk about noon. Cached the goods
and repaired sleds and harness.

News arrived from Ketchum in the afternoon, by an Indian who
brought a sled and a worn-out dog from a point called Vesolia
Sopka, or Cheerful Mountain. He said that Ketchum had passed
that point with three sleds en route for Nulato, but that the roads
were very bad, the snow being deep and soft. One of our party
had been trading with Lofka, who, having an ear for music, bought
an accordeon, giving in exchange two dogs, c ic of which was sup-
posed to be running wild in the woods. Lofka knew nothing of
the use of the instrument, and it was a moot question which had
the best of the bargain. The instrument having been used to
play "Tramp, tramp, the boys are marching" for some four
months, about twenty-four times a tlay, was, to say the least, not
in a condition to be much injured by Indian fingering.

After waiting a day for the return of tne Nulato brigade which
was due, Dyer returned to Unalakli'k, leaving Francis and myself

* 1 :

111

nil iii r

'3jf THE YUKON TERRITORY.

with nothing to do but eat, drink, and sleep, which was extreme-
ly tedious, as the days were very short. We finally determined, if
the brigade did not arrive the next day, we would get a few dogs
together and carry a load to Vesolia Sopka. If it were a small one
it would be of assistance, and anything would be better than con-
tinued idleness. A large number of Indians arrived from dif-
ferent quarters, and I improved the opportunity to enlarge my
Ingalik vocabularies. One of them went out, and returned with
three brace of beautiful ruffed grouse (Bojiasa timbcllus) I also
purchased some small fish, which were devoted to the interests of
science.

Wednesday, 2ist. — Heard a howling early in the morning
and an outcry among the Indians, and jumped into my clothes
just in time to catch a sight of Mike's pleasant face coming
up the bank, with two Russians, six sleds, and nearly forty
dogs behind him. A rapid interchange of news ensued, while
unharnessing the dogs and putting the sleJs up on the stages
provided for the purpose. Mike was delighted to find that the
work of carrying the goods from Unalakli'k to Ulukuk had been
taken off his hands. The Russians were to go on to Unalaklfk,
and we should immediately proceed to Nuldto. Ketchum sent
word to me to come up immediately, as my services were likely
to be needed ; but unfortunately he was obliged to ask Francis to
wait for the next brigade, as the supply of provisions at Nulato
was exceedingly small. Nulato, as the natives say, is emphati-
cally a " hungry " place. We all regreUcd the provoking neces-
sity which deprived us for a time of the society of our lively and
energetic companion. He therefore made arrangements for
returning a third time to Unalakli'k with the Russians.

Thursday, 22d. — Rising early, the sleds were soon in readi-
ness, and, buying a lot of fresh trout, foi our own use and to send
by the Russians to Unalaklfk, we started about noon for Vesolia
Sopka ; our party consisting of six Indians, one man to each
sled, besides Mike and myself The road was excellent, and we
did not require snow-shoes ; the dogs were in good condition, and
we progressed very well.

After leaving Ulukuk, crossing the river and a belt of spruce
timber of small size and about a mile in breadth, we came to
open rolling land, between the river and the base of the hills.

THE YUKON TERRITORY,

as extreme-
terrnined, if
t a few dogs
; a small one
er than con-
;d from dif-
enlarge my
^turned with
lus) I also
interests of

he morning

I my clothes

face coming

nearly forty

nsued, while

1 the stages

ind that the

ik had been

;o UnalakKk,

[etchum sent

were likely

c Francis to

ns at Nulato

is emphati-

dng neces-

r lively and

;cments for

DU in readi-
and to send
for Vesolia
an to each
ent, and we
ndition, and

t of spruce
kve came to
Df the hills.

This country is almost level, with hillocks here and there, and
occasional clumps of low willows. This prairie-like plain is called
a ///«fl?!ra! by the Russians. . ,

From Ulukuk to the river at the Ves61ia Sopka is about four-
teen miles,* the greater part of which is over the tundra, which is
occasionally intersected by small streams falling into the Ulukuk
branch of the Unalakli'k River, and forming deep gullies, which,
until filled with snow, are difficult to pass with loaded sleds. The
dogs have sometimes to be unhitched and the sled carefully eased
over the ravine and lifted up the opposite bank, — a work fre-
quently of no small labor.

The Vesolia S6pka forms the termination of the range of the
Ulukuk Hills, but is somewhat lower and detached from the rest.
It attains a height of about eight hundred feet above the sur-
rounding plain, and has an even and beautifully rounded summit.
At its base, hidden by large and very tall spruce and poplar, runs
the Ulukuk River. We crossed the stream, which is about two
hundred feet wide, and soon reached a spot where the Russians
are accustomed to camp, on the opposite bank, from which the
Sopka (Russian for cone or peak, particularly a volcanic one)
probably derived its name of Vesolia (cheerful). Near this point
a small stream, known to the inhabitants as Poplar Creek, en-
ters the river. This is an excellent locality for trapping, as the
numerous fox and marten tracks testified. We boiled the chynik
and partook of a cheerful meal of bacon and biscuit, and then
pushed on by moonlight, over wooded hills, to an Indian summer
lodge, or barrdbora, built of spruce poles and birch bark. Here
we camped, and passed a rather uncomfortable night, as the frail
walls retained the smoke and admitted the cold wind. This point
is about eight miles from the Sopka.

Friday, 23^. — Rose early, and after reloading the sleds and
discussing chy, with accompaniments of bacon, biscuit, ukali, and
molasses, we passed on over hillsides sparsely wooded with spruce
and alder, through valleys, and up and down some rather bad
hills, occasionally along the river on the ice. About dark we
came upon some open tundra, just beyond a low marsh, known as
Reaver Lake, as it is covered with water in the spring ; here a
strong north wind was blowing full in our teeth, carrying the

• Unless otherwise stated, English statute miles arc meant.

: '''

'IM

( ';!

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

snow along the ground in blinding sleet. The atmosphere was
six below zero. The other sleds were some distance behind, but
as our sled carried the teakettle and axes, we felt pretty sure the
Indians would follow, though much against their will. We strug-
gled on until we arrived at an old camp of Ketchum's, where one
tree mocked us with its inefficient attempt at shelter. We de-
cided to camp here, no more suitable locality being within reach.
By placing the sleds to windward, with a piece of cotton drill
stretched around them, we managed to keep off the driving snow
a little. The hot tea in our tin cups burned the hand on one
side, while the keen wind gnawed it on the other. Smoking was
out of the question, and we lay down, using the bacon as pil-
lows, and watched the dogs, who, growling their disapprobation,
sheltered their noses with their tails, and, more fortunate than
ourselves, soon sank into unconscious slumber.

Saturday, 24///. — About four o'clock in the morning an old
Indian called Ivdn, from Nulato, came along with his son. They
pulled their own sled, and had a few marten skins with which they
were going to Unalakli'k to buy oil for winter use. Shortly after,
we broke camp and proceeded. About nine o'clock the sun rose,
attended by three beautiful mock suns, or parhelia. One was
nearly thirty degrees above the real sun, and there was one on
each side, similar, but more brilliant. All were connected by an
arch resembling a rainbow, except that it was of aa orange color
with a dark reddish band on the inner side, and threw out rays
of light from the outer edge. About a quarter of another similar
arch was reversed, touching the lower arch at the point where the
upper mock sun was seen, and a cross of brilliant light was noticed
at each junction of the arch with the mock suns. This beautiful
exhibition continued for six hours, from sunrise to sunset, and
Mike tells me they are not uncommon here in winter.

Shot a Canada jay, or whiskey jack {Pcrisorcns canadensis), with
a dark brown "woolly bear" caterpillar in his mouth, just killed.
Where it had come from was a mystery I do not pretend to solve,
probably from beneath the snow.

We decided to camp early, as we were all very tired, and after
descending a deep declivity called by the Russians Perivdlli, we
stopped on the bank of a small stream, maae a good camp, en-
joyed our supper, tea, and pipes, and slept soundly.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

Dsphere was

behind, but

tty sure the

We strug-

3, where one

er. We de-

'ithin reach.

cotton drill

Iriving snow

land on one

»moking was

aeon as pil-

approbation,

•tunate than

ling

an old
i son. They
h which they
shortly after,
the sun rose,
I. One was

was one on
lected by an
orange color
rew out rays
other similar
nt where the

was noticed
his beautiful

sunset, and

dens is), with
just killed.
:nd to solve,

d, and after
^erivdlli, we
camp, en-

Sunday, 26th. — Off at six. Passed over the flanks of some high
hills, from one of which I caught my first glimpse of the great
river Yukon, broad, smooth, and ice-bound. A natural impatience
urged me forward, and after a smart tramp of several miles we
arrived at the steep bank of the river. It was with a feeling akin
to that which urged Balboa forward into the very waves of a
newly discovered ocean, that I rushed by the dogs and down the
steep dec.ivity, forgetting everything else in the desire to be first
on the ice, and to enjoy the magnificent prospect before me.

There lay a stretch of forty miles of this great, broad, snow-
covered river, with broken fragments of ice-cakes glowing in the
ruddy light of the setting sun ; the low opposite shore, three miles
away, seemed a mere black streak on the horizon. A few islands
covered with dark evergreens were in sight above. Below, a faint
purple tinged the snowy crests of far-off mountains, whose height,
though not extreme, seemed greater from the low banks near me
and the clear sky beyond. This was the river I had read and
dreamed of, which had seemed as if shrouded in mystery, in spite
of the tales of those who had seen it. On its banks live thousands
who know neither its outlet nor its soarce, who look to it for food
and even for clothing, and, recognizing its magnificence, call them-
selves proudly men of the Yukon.

Stolid indeed must he be, who surveys the broad expanse of the
Missouri of the North for the first time without emotion. A little
Innuit lad, who ran before the dogs and saw it for the first
time, shouted at the sight, saying, amidst his expressions of
astonishment, " It is not a river, it is a sea ! " and even the Indioas
had no word of ridicule for him, often as they had seen it.

A half-mile above the point where we struck the river bank
is a cluster of winter houses and caches, which goes by the
name of Kaltag. Thither we turned our steps, a piercing
northwester sweeping down the river being an effectual argument
against further progress. We entered one of the houses, a large,
clean, and well-constructed building, where we found a very old
man known as Kaltag Staredk by the Russians {sfa/n'k meaning
old man), and his wife, with another woman, busily at jrk on
some winter clothing. They made room for us, spread some clean
mats, and Mike, who was a general favorite, especic.lly an.ong the
indigenous female population, by a present of a pair of scis.'-'jrs

' t

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

induced the old woman to give us three or four ptarmigan, with a
promise of six more on his next visit. He then proceeded with
the aid of some rice to concoct a stew which did great credit to
his culinary abilities.

We went out together to feed the dogs, and returning unex-
pectedly, I found one of the Indians investigating with his fingers
the recesses of a spare chynik which contained our molasses.
Such incidents are not uncommon, when travelling with the na-
tives.

After discussing our supper and congratulating ourselves on
the accomplishment of the portage without storm or accident, we
turned in early, to enjoy a good night's rest and thereby prepare
for an early start the next day.

Monday, 26th. — Pushed off quite early, travelling on the middle
of the river, finding the ice, which seemed so even and smooth
from the bank, to be broken, strewed with numerous cakes,
and diversified by hummocks, over which about eighteen inches
of snow had already collected. Here and there were patches
of smooth ice, evidently of recent formation, and once or twice
a light cloud over an opening indicated that the surface was
not entirely frozen. Numerous long islands, covered with
spruce, poplar, and willow, obstructed the view of the opposite
shore, which is quite low, while here and there we could catch
glimpses of the summits of the Kaiyuh Mountains, a range of
high hills to the eastward. The rig bank consists of rounded
bluffs following each other like waves, reaching a height of
fifty to one hundred and fifty feet, caused by the bending of
the strata, which are composed of layers of brown tertiary
sandstones of Miocene age. The sides of these bluffs, with the
ravines between them, are well wooded with spruce and birch,
which often attain a considerable height. The left bank is uni-
formly low and densely wooded. The thermometer to-day fell to
thirty-two below zero, but the air was still, and travelling was not
uncomfortable. About six o'clock we reached a broad ravine,
through which a small brook ran, and where an Ingalik named
Alikoff had built a small house, known as Alikoff's barrdbora.
This is about twenty miles from Kaltdg, which, I forgot to state,
is about twenty-five miles from Ivdn's barrdbora and thirty-six
from Nulato, perhaps a lew miles more by the road we took.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

Here we decided to camp for the night, and found the house,
which was empty, rather smoky and uncomfortable.

Tuesday, 2yt/i. — Making an early start for Nulato, we proceeded
up the river, the temperature being about twenty-eight below
zero. About eleven o'clock, arrived at an open space nearly two
miles long, bounded on the south by a sharp bluff known as the
Shaman Mountain. Here a seam of coal had been reported, and,
stopping for a moment, I ascertained that the report was correct.
Reserving a careful examination for some other occasion, I started
ahead of the dogs, following the old tracks on the snow, and soon
left the brigade behind me. In half an hour I reached a point on
the river where a party of three Russians were engaged in setting
fish-weirs under the ice. An old fellow, whose head shook like that
of a Chinese mandarin, informed me that the post of Nulato was
only a mile beyond. A steady walk of nearly an hour convinced
me that it was nearer three miles, but I soon espied the stockade
and two turrets at no great distance. Ascending the bank, I
went into the enclosure, and, inquiring for the Americans, was
directed to a low building on one side. On entering I was
soon shaking hands with Ketchum, and with Whymper, who
was already engaged in sketching.

VVe were congratulated on our quick trip from Ulukuk, and
exchanged items of news. The noise of the dogs was soon heard,
and we were busily engaged in unloading and storing the goods,
as well as unharnessing the dogs, who seemed as glad as anybody
that their journey had come to a satisfactory conclusion.

II ;

li,l

CHAPTER II.

— Ingaliks. — Kurilla. — Plans for the coming season. — Examination of a coal-
seam. — Nuklukahyet chief. — Christmas festivities. — New Year's and erection of
the first telegraph pole. — Aurora. — Return of Ketchum. — Collections in Natural
History. — Indian rumor. — Cannibalism. — Russian ingenuity. — Founding of Fort
Kennicott. — Departure of Ketchum and Mike on their winter journey to Fort
Yukon. — Arrival of our bidarra. — Trip to Wolasatu.x' barrabora. — Scarcity of
food. — First signs of spring. — Robbing a grave. — First goose. — Indian children.

— Rescue of the bidarshik. — Anecdote of Major Kennicott and erection of a mon-
ument to his memory. — Formation of alluvium. — Preparations for our journey. —
Breaking up of the ice on the Yukon.

HAVING finally arrived at Nuldto, which I proposv-d to
make my head-quarters, and having rested from the fa-
tigue of the journey, I was introduced to Ivan Pavloff, the bidar-
shik or commander of the trading-post. He was a short, thick-
set, swarthy, low-browed man, a half-breed between a Russian
and a native of Kenai, and was legally married to a full-blooded
Indian woman, named Marina, the widow of a previous biddrshik,
by whom he had a large family of children. He appeared to be
a good-humored fellow, though the Indian clearly predominated
in him. While evidently understanding nothing of the object of
the collections and observations which I proposed to make, he yet
assured me that I should be welcome to any information or assist-
ance I might need. A disagreeable servility marked his inter-
course with the Americans and full-blooded Russians, the latter
regarding him with unconcealed contempt on account of his
Indian blood, notwithstanding his responsible position. This
accounted for the expression which might often be observed
on his face while conversing with him. It seemed a mixture
of stupidity and low cunning, as if he were apprehensive that
some covert ridicule, or attempt at overreaching, lay hidden in
the conversation addressed to him. He was an insatiable drinker,

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

ription of the post
massacre and its
Koyukun Indians,
ination of a coal-
's and erection of
sctions in Natural
Founding of Fort
journey to Fort
ira. — Scarcity of
- Indian children,
erection of a mon-
or our journey. —

proposed to
from the fa-
off, the biddr-
short, thick-
a Russian
full-blooded
)us biddrshik,
peared to be
redominated
le object of
make, he yet
ion or assist-
ed his inter-
s, the latter
ount of his
ition. This
DC observed
a mixture
■lensive that
y hidden in
ble drinker,

and ungovernable as .i mad bull when drunk, though at other
times quiet and unexcitable. He was continually pestering us
with requests for liquor, until I was obliged to poison all the
alcohol intended for collecting purposes. Notwithstanding his
faults, most of which were hereditary, he brought up his chil-
dren and treated his wife as well as his light allowed him to
do. He had a large proportion of generosity and hospitality
in his character, was unusually free from any disposition to
immorality, and was never known to sell any furs, purchased
by him and belonging to the Russian American Company, to
any of our party, as he might easily have done. He could not
read or write, and the accounts were kept by an assistant called
Yagor Ivdnovich. He cherished in his heart a dislike to the
Americans on account of their superior energy and intelligence,
which led them to regard him with no very respectful eye. When
he was drunk, the bitter and unfounded prejudices which he cher-
ished came to the surface ; otherwise we should hardly have sus-
pected them. I have been thus careful in drawing his portrait,
not because the individual is of any particular consequence, but
because he is in many respects a type of the largest class of
the civilized inhabitants of Russian America. They are known
among the Russians as Creoles. The other inhabitants of the
post of Nuldto were two Russians, the only whites beside our-
selves, named Karpoff and Paspilkoff (the Pomoghnik, or assist-
ant, who kept the accounts, was a Creole, like the biddrshik) ;
an old Yakut, named Yagorsha, who was a curiosity in himself;
two half-breeds ; and a few Indians ; while a nearly equal number
of Indian women were employed in and about the post.

The fort was a large one, two sides and a part of the third
formed by buildings, the remainder a stockade, thus enclosing
a large yard. On one side was a long structure, containing two
rooms, which served for the biddrshik and his assistant and their
families. These rooms were separate! by a covered space from
the rest of the building, which contained a magazine for trading-
goods and furs, a stoic room where fish were kept, and another,
which was principally occupied by our goods. Opposite to this was
another building of the same size, containing one large room, sepa-
rated in the same way from a small one, in both of which workmen
and their families lived. Each of their was surmounted with a

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

turret pierced for fjuns, ar J in one of these were two antique, rusty,
and almost useless six-pounder" The third side was occupied
by a low -studded building, about twenty feet long and ten wide,
which wr occupied; a shed, where fuel might be kept dry; the
bath-house, and a shed used to cook in, and called by courtesy
the />07'(ini in, or kitchen. The front of the yard was closed in by
a stockade about sixteen feet high, of pointed logs set upright in
the ground, and was provided with a large gate. 'J'he houses
were of round logs ; the roofs, nearly flat and covered with earth,
could be reached by means of steps provided for the purpose.
The windows were all of the parchment, or seal intestines, before
mentioned, and the buildings were warmed by the universal
peechkas, the seams of the walls being calked with dry moss.

■ — - — I. - gj. ' . '

Interior of Fort DerSbip, from above.

Directly across from the fort, which faces the river, is a low
island, less than a mile long. The river is narrow here, being
by exact measurement only a mile and a half wide. The lati-
tude of the fort is nearly 64° 42' north, and the longitude 157° 54'
west. The variation of the compass is nearly thirty-two degrees
to the eastward.

A mile and a furlong east-northeast is a small creek, a raging
torrent in the spring, called Klat-kakhdtnc\>y the Indians, literally
" Stop-a-bit River." Half a mile west-southwest is the mouth of

tiquc, rusty,
IS occupied
d ten wide,
pt dry ; the
by courtesy
;losed in by
t upright in
'Jhc houses
with earth,
he purpose,
tines, before
le universal
y moss.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

the Nuldto River, from which the post takes its name, though it
was originally called Fort Derabin, from its builder and first
biddrshik. Hetwecn these two streams the land is low, gradually
rising from the river into low hills, and for the most put densely
wooded. A short distance from its mouth the Niilato River

-C-"
*

ir, is a low
lere, being
The lati-

[de 157° 54'
|wo degrees

|k, a raging

IS, literally

mouth of

Nul4to and the Yukon from the Bluffs.

receives two streams of no great size. Its total length is about
twenty miles, inclusive of windings. The opposite bank of
the Klat-kakhdtnc rises abruptly into a rocky, precipitous bluff,
affording a fine view down the river. Not far below the mouth
of the Nulato the river-bank rises, but not so abruptly, into bluffs

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

about one hundred feet high, with higher hills behind them.
Neither deer nor moose are often found in this vicinity.

In 1838, Malakoff, a Creole, explored the Yukon as far north as
Nulato. Here he built a small trading-post, without a stockade,
consisting of several small houses. This was occupied during
the summer and fall, but in consequence of the scarcity of pro-
visions, at the approach of winter the Russians, under Notarmi
the bidarshik, left it and returned to the Redoul L. On their
return, in the spring, it was found that the Indians, jealous of the
permanent settlement of the whites in their immediate vicinity,
had destroyed it by fire. The same thing was repeated in 1839,
the buildings being burned and contents carried off.

In 1 84 1, according to Tikhm^nief, the historian of the Russian
American Company, Derdbin was sent to Nulato and rebuilt the
fort, after arranging the difficulty with the natives by means of
numerous presents given to the most influential chiefs. Yet, not
having benefited by previous experience, the post was composed of
several detached log-houses, strongly built, but several hundred
yards apart, and without a stockade or other efficient means of de-
fence. Other buildings were added as necessity called for them,
and in 1842, Lieutenant Zagoskin, I. R. N., a special explorer of the
Company, arrived, and assisted at the erection of some of these.

For ten years, though frequently threatened, the little settle-
ment escaped injury, Derdbin meanwhile carrying on a lucrative
traffic with the natives for furs. In the spring of 185 1, Lieutenant
Barnard, of H. M. S. Enterprise, arrived at Nulato with the bidar-
shik, in search of information in regard to the fate of Sir John
Franklin. He was a member of Captain Collinson's Expedition,
and, with Mr. Adams a surgeon, and one man, had been left by
the Enterprise at St. Michael's the preceding fall Being prob-
ably a blunt, straightforward Englishman, with no knowledge
of Indian character and suspicion, he made the remark, in the
presence of others, that he intended to " send " for the principal
chief of the Koyukun tribe of Indians, whose head-quaitors wen;
on the Koyukuk an-^l Kotclkakat Rivers, and who were then hold-
ing one of their annual festivals, about twenty-five miles from
Nuldto. This unfortunately-worded remark was conveyed to the
chief in question, through some of the Indians at the post, by a
passing native.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

ehind them.

far north as
t a stockade,
jpicd during
ircity of pro-
der Notdrmi
L. On their
ealous of the
liate vicinity,
Ltcd in 1839,

' the Russian
d rebuilt the
by means of
zk. Yet, not
> composed of
'eral hundred
; means of de-
lUed for them,
explorer of the
me of these.

little settle-
on a lucrative
I, Lieutenant
ith the bidar-
of Sir John
; Expedition,
been left by
Being prob-
lO knowledge
mark, in the
the principal
uurters were
re then hokl-
le miles from
vcyed to the
[he post, by a

This chief was the most wealthy and influential in that part of
the country, widely known and distinguished by a remarkably
large and prominent Roman nose, from which he had received
a name which, literally translated, means " humpbacked nose.'

He was not accustomed to be " sent "' for. When the Russians
desired to see him they respectfully requested the honor of his
presence. His Indian pride rose at the insult, and he immediately
called a council to discuss the rumor. The .shamans were of
course first consulted, and they unanimously declared that it
boded no good to the chief in question. The council then de-
cided that, if the report proved true, they would, with all the
Indians there assembled, go together to the fort and demand
satisfaction. They waited some time, and finally were about to
disperse to their homes, when a single dog-sled appeared on the
river.

This sled was accompanied by Ivan Biilegin, a Russian, and an
Indian workman of the Nukito tribe, who had been sent up to see
if any information were attainable, and if so, to bring down the
Tyone of Koyiikuk.

The ill-fated Biilegin drew his sled up on the bank, sending the
Indian who accompanied him for water to boil the chynik. Sit-
ting down on his sled to rest himself, he was approached stealth-
ily from behind and, being struck on the head with an a.xc or
club, was instantly killed.

The sled was dragged away and j^lundcred ; when the Nulato
Indian returned and saw what had been done, he turned to run,
but the Koyukuns called to him, saying, "Are you not one of us .■*
We will not hurt you." Overcome by fear, he returned and un-
willingly assisted in the atrocity which followed. Biilegin's body
was stripped, the flesh cut in slices from the bones, and the sav-
ages, infuriated like wild animals by the sight of blood, roasted
these remains and devoured them. An Indian, who noticed the
reluctance with whicli Bulcgin's companion joined in the horrid
feast, crept up behind him and drove his knife up to the hilt in
his neck. The fighting men present then stripped themselves
of all incumbrances except their bows and arrows, and, putting
on their snowshocs, set out at once for Nulato. Less than a
iialf-mile below the trading-post were thiee largo winter houses,
crowded with Ingaliks of the Nulato tribe, — in all, about a hun-

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

dred men, women, and children. These houses were situated near
the river-bank, a few rods northeast of the mouth of the Nulato
River. It being in the month of February, and an unusually
warm spring, the Nulato Indians had taken the precaution to clear
away the snow from above their birch-bark canoes, forty or fifty of
which were lying about. Intending to forestall retaliation for the
death of Biilegin's companion, the Koyukuns approached with the
greatest quietness, not to disturb the sleeping inmates. The canoes
were seized, broken up, thrust into the apertures in the roofs and
the narrow underground entrances of the houses, and fired. The
frightened inhabitants, wakened by the noise and crackling of the
flames, endeavored vainly to force a passage through the fire.
Some of ihe men, seizing axes, cut their way out through the
wooden walls, but were mercilessly shot down by the arrows of
the Koyukuns. Many were suffocated in the smoke. A few
women ',y<;re taken by the victors, and one or two children were
able to save themselves in the woods, through the negligence or
pity of the conquerors.

A young man called Wolasatux, renowned for his skill with the
bov/, escaped to the mountains, eluding the vigilance of the pur-
suers by his swiftness of foot. All the rest were smothered or fell
beneath the knives and arrows of the assailants. But little noise
was made, except by the screams of the women and the shouts of
the destroyers, for at that time the Ind'ans had no guns. The
slumbers of the Russians were not disturbed.

It is said that two Indian women who were employed at the
fort, having risen early to boil the chyniks for the morning meal,
heard and understood the cries of the victims, but, overcome by
fear and anguish at the death of their kindred, stupidly shut
themselves into the cook-house, and did not alarm the Russians.

The Koyukuns next made for the tradiag-post, and found the
bidarshik, just risen, sitting behind one of the houses. Saying
to Ivan, one of their tribe who had been employed at the fort
as interpreter, " If you do not kill the bidarshik, we will kill
you," they forced him to consent. He approached Derabin and
.stabbed him in the back repeatedly, so that he fell to rise no
more. The Russian interpreter, a man said to have understood
seven languages, happening to come out, saw the act, and turning
unarmed to the Indians, upbraided them for the murder, but fell

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

tuated near
the Nulato
1 unusually
tion to clear
y or fifty of
Ltion for the
ed with the
The canoes
le roofs and
fired. The
kling of the
^h the fire.
;hrough the
e arrows of
)ke. A few
lildren were
egligence or

ikill with the
of the pur-
;hered or fell
t little noise
le shouts of
guns. The

[oyed at the
irning meal,
ivercome by
.ipidly shut
Russians,
found the
les. Saying
at the fort
e will kill
lerabin and
to rise no
understood
,nd turning
ler, but fell

in the doorway, pierced with seven arrows. Rushing over his
prostrate body, they entered the house. Barnard was lying on
his bed reading ; at the sight of the hostile Indians he raised him-
self up to reach his gun, which hung above his head. Twice he
fired, and twice the barrel was struck upwards, the balls taking
effect in the ceiling. An Indian shaman — christened Larriown by
the Russians — and his brother seized the arms, and one plunged
his knife into the Englishman's abdomen, so that when it was
withdrawn the inte<5tines followed it, and he fell back mortally
wounded. Several shots were fired, and one struck Larriown in
the groin. Three children and their mother were killed; their
father, Teleezhik, being absent in the Kaviak peninsula, as inter-
preter, with Captain Bedford Pirn.

Leaving the bidarshik's house, the Indians next attacked the
casdnncr, or room where the workmen lived, where there were
two Russians and several Creoles. Tliey had barricaded the door,
and being at some distance from the other house, knew nothing
that had happened. One of them aimed through uhe window at
the crowd of Indians ; when the other, hoping to avoid blood-
shed, advised him to fire above their heads, in hope that they
would disperse. The crowd separated, but did not retreat, and
only answered by a shower of arrows. The next shot, better
aimed, killed one of the Indian?, when a panic seemed to seize
them, and they immediately retreated with their booty and pris-
oners to Koyukuk. Larriown sat in great agony in the outer
room of the bidarshik's house. A Russian lay in the inner room,
helpless from fever, who had been overlooked by the Indians in the
excitement. His wife, an Indian woman named Maria, brought
hi-n a loaded pistol, and held him up while he fired at the sha-
man. His trembling hands could not direct the ball, and Lar-
riown dragged himself out to the river-bank. Here he found a
Koyiikun woman, who had been stayin<; at the fort, with her
baby on a little sled, which she was drawing by a band over her
forehead. He threw the child into the snow, and ordered her to
draw him to Koyukuk. She refused, and he stabbed her to the
bcart ! How he finally got away, no one knows. Thus ended
the Nulato massacre.

An Ingalik, named Lofka, was sent by the Russians with a
letter to the Redoubt. He placed it in his boot, fortunately, for

Ill

J'U

■I ' *' ,
i 1

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

he was stopped on the river and searched by two Koyukuns, who
suspected his errand. Finding nothing, they let him go.

Mr. Adams, the surgeon, immediately started, with Tel^ezhik
and a party of Russians, for Nulato. Captain Pirn, having re-
turned from his adventurous journey frost-bitten, could not ac-
company him, and remained at Unalaklfk.

The Russians had sewed up the wounds ; but, before Mr.
Adams arrived. Lieutenant Barnard was dead. It only remained
for him to perform the last sad offices and to erect a cross over
his grave, with the following inscription : —

LIEUTENANT J. J. BARNARD,

Of H. M. Enterprise,

Killed Feb. i6, 185 1,

BY THE KOUKUK INDIANS.

F. A.

The Russian American Company, as is the wont of trading
companies, never took any measures of retaliation for this mas-
sacre. Larriown, and Ivan, the murderer of the bidarshik, arc
frequent visitors at the fort. Presents wore sent to the Koyiikuu
chiefs, and there the matter ended. A stockaded fort was soon
built on the present site, and the graves of Barnard and Derd-
bin lie a stone's throw behind it. The excavations where the
Indian houses stood are still to be seen, and form the graves of
those natives who perished by the massacre.

On the 29th of November the indefatigable Mike started
again for Ulukuk. I occupied myself with putting my instru-
ments in order for meteorological observations. The thermome-
ter, a standard one, registered thirty-six below zero. Our cook
and principal assistant about the house, in the absence of the
fairer sex, was Peetka, the son of Ivan, previously mentioned as
the murderer of Derabin. His father was acting as an inter-
preter for the Russians. In an Indian house, outside the stock-
ade, Larri6wn was domiciled with his wife and child. The appear-
ance of this man was remarkable. A small round head and face,
piercing eyes, thin scattered hair, a short pug nose (unusual in an
Indian), a tremendous development of the muscles of the jaw,
a very dark complexion, and a fiendish expression of countenance
combined to make his appearance the reverse of attractive, even
when in good humor.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

)yukuns, who
1 go.

ith Teleezhik
n, having re-
could not ac-

t, before Mr.

)nly remained

a cross over

ont of trading

for this mas-

bidarshik, are

) the Koyukuvi

fort was soon

ard and Derd-

ons where the

1 the graves of

Mike started
Ing my instru-
Mie thermome-
|ro. Our cook
ibsence of the
mentioned as
as an inter-
Iside the stock-
The appear-
Ihead and face,
(unusual in an
Ics of the jaw,
)f countenance
Ittractive, even

His wife possessed some of these characteristics in a lesser
degree, but was equally repulsive. Both of them had gained,
by a long list of evil deeds, a reputation as sorcerers or shamans,
which made their influence among the Indians immense. Both
of them were well acquainted with the uses of intoxicating liquors,
which for some years the Koyiikuns have obtained from traders
at Kotzebue Sound. This circumstance has done much to ren-
der the tribe, naturally cruel and turbulent, one of the worst in
the territory. Fortunately, disease and the scarcity of food, annu-
ally increased by the use of firearms in killing reindeer, have
reduced their numbers, and at present they can hardly muster
over two hundred families. From increased immorality, due to
the introduction of liquor, the births are few, and hardly replace
the deaths. Few women have more than two children, while
many have only one, a large proportion being barren. The
tribe, therefore, may be regarded as on its way to extinction.
They are of the family of Ti'nneh, belonging, with the Ingaliks
and Nowikakat Indians, to the division of Eastern Ti'nneh.
Their dialect is closely allied t the Ingalik, hardly differing
more from it than the widely separated local dialects of Ingalik
differ from one another. Their principal villages are on the
Kotclkdkat and Kotelno Rivers, the largest being known as
Kotelkakat.

The Indians living on the Yukon between Koyiikuk and
Nuklukahyet are known to the Ingaliks as Unakatana, or
"far-off people," and call themselves, with most other Indians
living on the river, Yukon ikatana, or " men of the Yukon."

The Nukito Ingaliks are nearly extinct. The Ingaliks liv-
ing on the other side of the Yukon, between it and the Kaiyuh
Mountains (known as Takai'tsky to the Russians), bear the name
of Kaiyuhkatdna, or " lowland people," and the other branches of
Ingaliks have similar names, while preserving their general tribal
name.

The Ingaliks are, as a rule, tall, well-made, but slender. They
have very long, squarely oval faces, high prominent cheek-bones,
large ears, small mouths, noses, and eyes, and an unusually large
lower jaw. The nose is well formed and aquiline, but small in
proportion to the rest of the face. The hair is long, coarse, and
black, and generally parted in the middle. But few of them

n',!

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

shave the crowr.j as is the custom among the Eskimo. Their
complexion is an ashy brown, perhaps from dirt in many cases,
and they seldom have much color. On the other hand, the
Koyukuns, with the same high cheek-bones and piercing eyes,
have much shorter faces, more roundly oval, of a pale olive hue
and frequently arched eyebrows and a fine color. They are the
most attractive in appearance of the Indians in this part of the
territory, as they are the most untamable. The women espe-
cially are more attractive than those among the Ingaliks, whose
square faces and ashy complexion render the latter very plain,
not to say repulsive. The women do up their hair in two braids,
one on each side ; but among the Koyukuns it is not uncommon
to see the hair cut short, especially after a death in the family.
The detached hair is tied up in a little bundle and placed in the
crotch of a tree, or anywhere where it will not be disturbed by
animals. Parings from the nails are treated in the same way, as
they have a superstition that disease will follow the disturbance
of such remains by wild animals.

The original dress of the male Koyukuns consists of a pair
of breeches of deerskin, with the moccasins, or coverings for the
feet, attached, and a deerskin parka w'thout any hood, long
and pomted before and behind. At present they buy many
articles of cioihing from the Eskimo and from the Russians,
especially for winter wear. They are fond of ornaments and gay
colors, while the Ingaliks, who wear clothing much like that
adopted by the Eskimo, care little for ornaments or beads.
Both build houses similar to those already described, while the
other tribes of the same family, to the eastward, build only tem-
porary lodges of skins and poles, which they transport from place
to place. The habits, utensils, and mode of life of the Ingaliks
and Koyukuns are very similar, and will be more fully uescribed
hereafter.

They depend for food upon the reindeer and moose, salmon
and other fish, and small game, more or less, according to the re-
sources of the locality in which they live. At Nulato the only
dependence is fish, and some small game, such as grouse and
water-fowl in their seasons. There are no deer or moose at
Nulilto, and food is often very scarce.

I found a constant current of cold air, with a temperature from

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

kimo. Their
I many cases,
er hand, the
)iercing eyes,
lie olive hue
They are the
is part of the
women espe-
galiks, whose
r very plain,
in two braids,
)t uncommon
in the family,
placed in the
disturbed by
same way, as
; disturbance

sts of a pair

;rings for the

y hood, long

y buy many

he Russians,

ents and gay

ch like that

ts or beads.

d, while the

d only tem-

rt from place

the Ingaliks

ly uescribed

oose, salmon
ng to the re-
ito the only
grouse and
or moose at

erature from

32° to — 55° Fah., entering our room by means of the cracks

in the floor, which was composed of logs squared on the upper
side. Needles, forks, spoons, and other articles of use and orna-
ment followed each other into the abyss. The matter, though
lau""hable, was also serious, as our stock of the last-named
articles amounted to only one apiece. After consultation we
employed Kun'lla, one of the few surviving Nuldto Indians,
to calk the seams with moss. Our stock of this was soon ex-
hausted, following the spoons, and we made the best of a bad
job by covering the floor thickly with straw, that again with
mats, and over all nailing some old blankets. By placing a few
reindeer-skins about for rugs, we managed to improve matters a
good deal. Previously, one day when the freshly heated peechka
was pouring out a generous supply of hot air, I tried the ther-
mometer at the eaves, where it stood at ninety ; four feet above the
floor gave a temperature of forty-five, while on the floor the mer-
cury indicated several degrees below freezing. The walls were
inything but tight, and the warm air of the room deposited its
extra moisture in hoar-frost, like feathers, near the fissures.

Peetka proved very unreliable, disappearing and staying so,
just when we wanted him, and Kun'lla, the Indian before men-
tioned, was secured as a substitute. His history was romantic.
Son of a wealthy and influential chief and shaman, at the time
of the Nulato massacre he was but three or four years old ; in it
his father, mother, and all their family perished. The boy and
his sister, a year older, were in the trading-post at the time, and
escaped unharmed, from their extreme youth. Some of the Rus-
sians had taken pity on them and brought them up, until, as they
grew older, they were able to earn their own living.

His sister, christened Anna, was one of the most comely Inga-
liks who came under our notice. Both of them were unusu-
ally tall ; both had acquired habits of neatness and an excel-
lent knowledge of the Russian language, from their residence in
the trading-post. Anna was married to a very good kind of
fellow, an Ingalik, who had accompanied us in our journey from
Ulukuk and who was named Little Sidorka, to distinguish him
from another of the same name but of greater longitude.

Kun'lla proved to be a faithful and intelligent fellow, and having
had some experience in cooking for our parties during the previ-

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

ous year, was well qualified to assist in the culinary department.
To be sure, our style of living was simple and unostentatious,
consisting principally of fried white-fish three times a day, varied
by bacon, of which we were very sparing when fish was obtain-
able.

Finding a blanket on the bare boards, even alleviated by a
deerskin, rather uncomfortable sleeping arrangements, we pur-
chased several large feather-beds, filled with spoils from the wild
geese and ducks, and had a small mattress made from them for
each one of the party. With the addition of a pillow from the
same source, we felt as if we could enjoy the sleep of the just,
without danger of rheumatism.

Our plans for the coming season were now discussed and
approximately settled. Whymper and myself decided to ascend
the Yukon together, as far as Fort Yukon, by water in the spring.
Ketchum proposed, in company with Mike Lebarge, to make the
same journey over the ice, with dogs and sleds, in February.
Dyer was to descend the Yukon and investigate the delta. On
the 4th of December the temperature was fifty-six, below zero.
Faint parhelia appeared. In a short walk I observed that the
atmosphere seemed filled with an icy mist, small acicular crystals
of ice suspended in the air. On the 7th, the weather being
milder (twenty-two below zero), I decided to visit the coal seam
below Nulato before the snow should cover it. Only one dog was
available ; so, getting a small sled, and packing our blankets,
chynik, and mess-pan upon it, with a bag for bringing some coal
from the vein for trial, I started ahead, while Kurflla followed
with the sled. We met Yagorsha on the way, who with many
gesticulations declared that we were going to have a severe snow-
storm, and that we had better turn back. I concluded to risk it,
however, and we finally arrived at the Shaman Bluff, where we
soon found a sheltered ravine with plenty of dry wood ; spread-
ing a blanket as an awning to keep off the snow, which came
thick and fast, we built a cheerful fire and enjoyed our tea.
After a good night's rest and a hearty breakfast of bacon, biscuit,
and tea, I went to the end of the bluff, where the coal was situ-
ated. A thorough examination of it showed that the seam was
much contorted, running out at each end completely ; that the
only mass of coal was in a large pocket or elbow of the contorted

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

seam ; and that the whole deposit contained less than a ton.
What there was of it was of excellent quality, hardened by
heat and compression ; it was enclosed on each side by thin
layers of shale and the brown Miocene sandstone previously
alluded to.

Filling a bag with fragments of coal and geological specimens
as trophies, we started homeward. The poor dog, I am afraid,
had a hard time of it, what with the soft new snow and the
weight of the bag, but we arrived without detention or accident,
though rather tired.

Kurflla, who was an excellent shot and an enthusiastic sports-
man, liked nothing better than to spend an hour every day shoot-
ing specimens for our collection. I obtained many more than
I had dared to hope for in this way, — redpolls, downy and
three-toed woodpeckers, pine grosbeaks, titmice, hawk-owls, and
(strange to say) a bullfinch {Pyrrlnda), the first ever shot on the
American continent. On the nth, Mike returned from Uliikuk
with Francis, and this event, with the news that our friends
brought from below, was quite a relief to the monotony of our
daily life.

On the 1 2th, a chief arrived at the fort from Nukliikahy^t,
where the Tanandh River joins the Yukon. He greeted Ketchum
as an old acquaintance, and promised to have plenty of moose
meat for us when we should come that way in the spring. He
remained several days at the fort, and on one of them assembled
a number of Indians in our room and discoursed to them at the
top of his lungs for nearly two hours. I expected to see him
drop from exhaustion, every minute of the last half-hour, but long
practice had doubtless inured him to it, and I resigned myself,
while one of the party took up a concertina and played " Tramp,
tramp " by way of diversity.

The return brigade was intrusted to Scratchett, who left,
with Francis, for Unalaklfk on the 17th, while Mike rested his
wearv bones for a season.

I continued adding to my collections and vocabularies, and
setting traps for foxes, who had a fashion of carrying off the bait
without disturbing the trap. Ivan Pavloff, however, succeeded in
trapping several, of which I secured the skeletons. Whymper
was busily at work on his sketches, while Mike and Ketchum

■■■1

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

were getting ready for their proposed journey. Altogether, time
did not hang very heavily on our hands.

We found the Indians to be a great nuisance in one way.
They had a habit of coming in and sitting down, doing and
saying nothing, but watching everything. At meal-times they
seemed to count and weigh every morsel we ate, and were never
backward in assisting to dispose of the remains of the meal.
Occasionally we would get desperate and clean them all out ;
but they would drop in again, and we could do nothing but
resign ourselves to the annoyance, as we did not wish to offend
them. They intended no offence, doubtless, but wanted an oppor-
tunity of studying the Anglo-Saxon species of the genus homo in
its lair.

Fish growing scarce, Kdrpoff was fitted out with some trading-
goods, and sent to Koyiikuk in hope that he might obtain some
grouse or rabbits from the Indians of that locality.

Christmas time approaching, we joined in endeavoring to cele-
brate the day appropriately. Our knowledge of chemistry and
the domestic arts was taxed to the utmost in the production
of pies, gingerbread, and cranberry dumplings ; while a piece
of Uliikuk reindeer meat, which had been kept frozen ever
since our journey across the portage, performed the office of
the customary "roast beef of old England," and a brace of
roasted ptarmigan represented the Yankee turkeys. Green peas,
tomatoes, and other preserved vegetables were produced for the
occasion ; and, with the company of the bidarshik and his assist-
ant, we sat down to the best dinner ever eaten in that part of the
continent. The day was enlivened by the reading of several
original literary productions, and the brewing of a mild bowl
of punch from a supply of old Jamaica, which we owed to the
kind thoughtfulness of Mrs; Scammon. Altogether the occasion
was one which will long be remembered with pleasure by those
who took part in it.

The 27th of December an observation was made, which
showed the day to be just three hours long. As nearly as
our watches could determine, the sun rose at a quarter before
eleven, and set at a quarter of two. Proposing on New- Year's
day to raise the first telegraph pole in the division of the Yu-
kon, Mike went out with Kun'lla, and returned with a fine

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

spruce, of the orthodox dimensions, for the purpose. An In-
dian, with the euphonious Russian name of Squirtzoff, was em-
ployed to peel and trim it.

On the 31st we sat the Old Year out, and hailed the New
with its prospect of successful explorations. We had hoped
that our party might all be present on New- Year's day; but
there was no sign of the expected arrival of Mr. Dyer. After
breakfast we went out in a body and raised the first telegraph
pole, ornamented with the flags of the United States, the Tele-
graph Expedition, the Masonic fraternity, and the Scientific
Corps. A salute of thirty-six guns was fired, — one for each
State ; and the enthusiastic Kun'Ua was brought to the ground
by the recoil of a great Russian blunderbuss, which he had
undertaken to discharge.

A few days after, Ivan Pavloff returned from a journey of
several hundred miles with dog-sleds, bringing about five hundred
marten or American sable skins.

The Russians throughout this territory compute their time
according to Old Style, and hence are always eleven days behind
time. They celebrated Christmas and New-Year's day on the 5th
and 1 2th of January, respectively.

Dyer arrived on the 3d, and on the 5th Captain Ketchum
started on a last visit to the Redoubt.

Strong endeavors were made to construct some sleds for
Ketchum's trip, after the style of the Hudson Bay Company ; but,
having no patterns, much good birch was spoiled without satis-
factory results.

We had entertained great expectations of seeing exhibitions
of the Aurora Borealis of unusual beauty ; but they were not
realized. The few displays which were observed were of an
insignificant character. No colored lights were noticed, and the
brilliancy of the light was far below what we had anticipated.
Several of these displays, however, presented phenomena which
may not be uninteresting to the general reader, as showing dis-
tinctly some points not previously established in regard to the
mode of appearance of the aurora under some circumstances.
February nth, 1867, an aurora was observed under the following
conditions. From a gap in the hills north of Nulato, a white
light was seen to issue, early in the evening. The sky was

fi r

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

'M!

, I

much overcast with cirro-stratus clouds, which were rapidly pass-
ing in a different direction from the wind at the surface of
the earth, which last was from the north. The light before alluded
to approached with the wind, at about half the pace of the wind,
m a cloudlike shape or condition, not far from the surface of the
earth. The form of this luminous cloud was in successive waves,
or ripples, and resembled the rings of smoke rising from a pipe,
one within another, gradually expanding. The inner or focal
rings were more intense than the outer ones, and the light was
more intense in some parts of the rings than in others. They
advanced as the ripples do when a stone is thrown into still
water, and these ripples were compressed in an -oval form by
the wind, the longer diameter being east and west, across the
current. It showed unmistakably that the shining medium was in
consistence similar to cloud or mist. From the brighter portions
of the rings, light streams of the same medium occasionally
dripped, and dissipated at some distance below the point whence
they originated ; from which it might be inferred that the r^ore
intense portion of this medium was denser than the atmosphere.
No rays or streamers issued upwards from the upper edges of
the rings, which were clearly defined and below the real clouds, of
which the altitude seemed less than fifteen hundred feet. The
hills from between which the auroral cloud had issued, and the
tops of the higher trees between the fort and the hills, were
dimly seen, or obscured by the lower portion of the haze, or cloud,
which seemed not more than a hundred feet above the earth, as
seen from the roof of the higher building. It followed the air-
currents entirely; and all its motions seemed guided or controlled
by them. Wavy outlines in the ripples seemed caused by the dif-
fering velocity of the air in different parts of the current. It cov-
ered the whole sky in about two hours from the time of its first
appearance. As it spread and enlarged, the light became fainter.
It did not give out a positive light, but had a mildly luminous
appearance, like phosphorescence.*

Captain Ketchum and Mike had returned February ist, bring-
mg with them Captain Everett Smith, of the Wilder, and a

* These remarkable phenomena were observed, in a greater or lesser degree, in
several instances, of which an account was communicated to the National Academy,
at its session in September, 1869, by the writer.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

good budget of news. Several miles of poles had been erected
in the vicinity of Grantley Harbor and Unalakli'k. Provisions,
especially tea and sugar, were at a high premium. Our sup-
ply of tea had been very small, and coffee in this climate is
worthless.

A point near the Klatkakhatnc River was decided upon for the
location of the head-quarters of the Yukon division, and a bargain
was made with Paspi'lkoff, the shaky-headed Russian, to put up
the building, which was to be of logs.

I prepared the specimens of natural history which had been
obtained during the winter, for transportation to UnalakHk and
the Redoubt. They filled two large boxes, many acceptable ad-
ditions having been made through the kindness of my compan-
ions.

A walk with Captain Smith, near the fort, resulted in obtaining
a fine specimen of the Hudson Bay titmouse {Pnriis Hiidsonicus),
a bird which I had not previously collected, and the first specimen
of which I owe, with many other valuable birds, to his quick eye
and unerring aim.

About this time a little excitement occurred, owing to a rumor,
started by one of the Indian women in the fort, to the effect that
Larridvvn had planned the destruction of one of the proposed
parties which were to ascend the Yukon. A council of inquiry
proved, however, that the rumor had no more reliable foundation
than a dream.

The Indians are exceedingly suspicious in the most unimportant
things, and the following incident is a good illustration of it. In
talking over the scarcity of provisions, some one had jokingly
remarked, that, if we were driven to the wall, we should have to
make soup of Paspflkoff's baby, a new addition to our population.
This was repeated by one of the women, and very soon old Ivan
the interpreter made his appearance, saying that the Indians
wished to know if we were cannibals. He added that, since the
time of Biilegin's murder at Koyukuk, there was no instance
known where the Indians had eaten human flesh. After indulg-
ing in a hearty laugh, we relieved his apprehensions, which seemed
to be serious, and thereafter were more guarded in our remarks.

Peetka, his son, had been very active in procuring birds for
my collection, and much to my regret appeared one day with

\ ^1

'^1 I

1 4;

I ;■(.■[■

fill

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

three fingcrr. of his left hand nearly blown off, by carelessly pull-
ing his gun through the bushes by the muzzle. The injury was
so serious that amputation seemed necessary, but by careful ap-
plication of water dirissings twice daily, I was enabled to preserve
them, though in a si'ff and useless condition. Sometime after,
the little fellow brought me in a marten, one of his own trapping,
the only fee for medical spr\'ices I received in Russian America
during two years' practice.

The details of our Yukon trip were settled, and the boatmen
engaged, so that we felt a reasonable confidence in the suc-
cessful result of our proposed explorations. In the mean time I
occupied myself taking angles and measurements for a chart of
the Yukon and the small rivers near Nuk'ito, in the constant ad-
dition of specimens to the collection, with the meteorological rec-
ords, and the enlargement of my vocabularies.

One of the Russians took occasion one evening to express his
dislike of the Americans by beating and abusing, without cause,
a boy in our employ called Antoshka. Without recourse to the
bidarshik, Ketchum treated him to his deserts, — a well merited
thrashing. This timely protection to our Indian servants much
increased our popularity among the Indians, and enforced re-
spect from the Russian convicts employed by the Russian Ameri-
can Company, in a salutary manner.

Breaking the minute-hand of my watch one day, I repaired the
damage by uuvvinding the silver tliread from a violin-string and
twisting a portion of it around the barrel of the broken hand.
Opportunities for the exercise of ingenuity of this kind are fre-
quent in this country, where few mechanics of any kind are to
be found. The remarkable facility with which the Russian peas-
ant can turn his hand to anything was well exemplified among
the men in the fort. All of them, with the ta/>(>r, or short-handled
Russian broad-axe, could accomplish almost any piece of carpen-
tering, from squaring a log to building a boat or a house. Many
of them could handle blacksmiths' tools, and even manufacture,
from sheet copper (provided by the Russian Company), chy-
niks, kettles, and lamps for burning the seal oil used in winter.
There are several good blacksmiths in the country, and Aleuts,
Creoles, and even Indians learn the use of their tools with re-
markable ease.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

•elessly pull-
injury was
^ careful ap-
to preserve
ictinie after,
vn trapping,
in America

he boatmen
in tlic suc-
nean time I
r a chart of
:onstant ad-
ological rec-

cxprcss his
thout cause,
Durse to the
veil merited
vants much
enforced re-
sian Ameri-

"epaired the

i-string and

okcn hand.

nd ate fre-

vind are to

ssian peas-

fied among

ort-handled

of carpen-

ise. Many

anufacture,

any), chy-

in winter.

nd Aleuts,

s with re-

On the 6th of March the plans for our proposed new station
were decided upon, and the exact location selected. The en-
closure was to be one hundred feet by sixty-five, and to con-
tain a barrack, officers' quarters, bath-house, cook-house, and
several store-houses. Paspi'lkoff promised to set about the work
at once, and it was agreed that the members of the party would
assist him in bringing and raising the heavy timbers.

On the nth of March, having completed his preparations, Cap-
tain Ketchum set out on his adventurous journey with Mike over
the ice to Fort Yukon. It was undertaken under the most dis-
couraging circumstances. Neither his provisions nor hi- dog-
focd were sufficient to last during the journey of over six hun-
dred miles. Russians and Indians alike shook their heads and
declared their disbelief in his prospects of success. The snow
would be soft and impassable. The dogs would run away, or
<;ive out for want of food, and die. He could mt feed himself
or his Indians, and all would perish of starvation. The Uliikuk
Indians who had engaged to go backed out at the last mo-
ment, and there was extreme difficulty in obtaining two men and
two boys to take their place. This was finally done through
the intervention of old Ivan, who sent his own son Peetka, and
induced the others to go. The very day was dull and cloudy,
with indications of snow. For two white men to undertake such
a journey, in the face of all this discouragement, through a coun-
try of which the resources were known to be very precarious,
with the prospect of certain st irvation if their guns did not sup-
ply them with sufficient g .uc to ic^iS he dogs and i»irty, was
resolute and courageous in the extreme. From this point of view
Mie journey was unquestionabW one of the most 'emarkable
undertaken by modern explorers.

As their heavily laden sleds moved slowly away over the soft
snow, we hoisted the stars and stripes, gave them three volleys
from the big gun, a liearty cheer, and any number of salutes from
guns and pistols. As tho) passed out of sight, the chances of
success and failure seemed so unevenly balanced that we liardly
dared .) anticipate the realization of the plans which they were
so bravely and energetically endeavoring to carry out.

Our party now consisted only of Messrs. Dyer, Whymper, and
myself, with Scratchett the constructor, and two Indians.

f! :

J|iPf.W-il|l*HP***" '■'»• «^pa^qpmiB|pq^^«

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

i:7

On the 1 8th our eyes were gladdened by tlie appearance of old
Yagorsha, with the little skin boat, purchased at Uliikuk last fall,
for which he had been sent. It came up from Ulukuk entire, on
a sled drawn by five dogs, and had sustanied some slight injuries.
In this boat, Mr. Whymper and myself were to ascend the Yu-
kon after the .spring freshet. Antoshka and another Indian were
sent by Dyer down the Yukon to a place called Yaknts-kaldtciiik,
where a three-holed bidarka was supposed to lie, which he pro-
posed to use in descending the Yukon and pursuing his examina-
tion of the delta.

We determined, although it was not strictly in the line of
our duty, to cut and erect the poles necessary to bear the line ])e-
tween the Nukito post and the proposed site of our new Fort
Kennicott. The distance was a few rods over a mile, and re-
quired about thirty poles. The work was done entirely by the
four members of our party, except clearing away the brush and
trees for twelve feet on each side, which we intrusted to one of
the Russian workmen.

Dog-feed and fresh provisions giving out, I proposed to make
a trip to the Kaiyuh villages, and endeavor tc purchase any sup-
plies which the Indians might be able to spare. I arrived with
Kuri'lla and the dogs at a small village of two houses, on the left
bank of the river, nearly opposite Alikoff's barrabora, and being
the residence of the old veteran Wolasatu.x. The village is known
by his name. I fouml all the Indians away, and was obliged to
take some fish out of his cache to feed the dogs with.

Wolasatu.x' barrabora is a well built Indian winter house, and
stantis near another smaller one, with two or three caches about
it, or a small clearing in a dense growth of poplars and willows.
These trees grow so close together, that they have reached the
height of some thirty or forty feet, almost without branches, and
so slender that it gives one a feeling as of standing on a Hat pin-
cushion beset with enormous needles and pins. An old man
finally appeared, who sold us a few ukali and some grouse. The
next morning, Kurilla went out, and in the course of his hunting
met some Indians, who informed him that Antoshka had not been
able to obtain any dog -feed here or at Kaltag, and that it n-as not
improbable his dogs might be starving. Also, that all the Indians
were awav after deer, and that it was uncertain when they would

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

irance of old
kuk last fall,
uk entire, on
ight injuries.
:encl the Yu-
Indian were
uts-kaldtciiik,
vhich he pro-
his cxamina-

thc line of
r the line be-
)ur new Fort
mile, and rc-
itirely by the
lie brush and
ted to one of

:)osed to make
base any sup-
I arrived with
es, on the left
ra, and bein.i;
lagc is known |
Ivas obli;;cd to r

return. This determined me to return to Nulato, so that Dyer
might send some fish from our slender store to Antoshka, and
thus prevent his journey from coming to an unfortunate con-
clusion. There was no prospect of buying anything where we
were.

The next morning we set out for Nulato, and found that the
moist snow rendered the travelling very hard. The weather was
so warm that the snow adhered in large lumps to the snowshoes,
aJding a weight of ten or twelve pounds to the foot at each step,

,^^-..tsS

Wolasatux' b.irrabcira in wiiittr.

until the masses would break off by tlieir own weight, the same
process being repeated indefinitely. VVc were exceedingly fa-
tigued upon our arrival, near dusk.

It was immediately letermincd to send Scratchctt down to
Kahag with some fish for Antoshka. Our pr<»spccts of food at
this time were anything but encouraging. Wherever the bhune
should have fallen, th^^ fact remained, that if it iiad not been for
the flour and fish we obtained from the Russians, we should have
been in a starving condition ; while it was said, and never denied,
•so far as I know, that the Nightingale, on her return, carried with

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

' :

BSiIlS!

iii

U ; I

<\t

her ten thousand rations. The preposterous folly of issuing food
by ordinary rations to men in an a "ctic, or nearly arctic climate,
was never more fully demonstrated. On the resources of the
country as developed by the natives, who have all they can do to
feed themselves, a large body of men cannot support themselves
in this part of the territory, unless their time be devoted to noth-
ing else.

On tlie 8th of April, .Scratchctt returned with a load of fresh
reindeer meat, which he liad obtained from ihe Indians, a number
of whom accompanied him. Among them was Wolasatux and
his foster-son Mikaishka, and Tekunka, a noted shaman and
tyone among the Kaiyuh Indians. The latter proved to be a
very good kind of fellow ; he sold us a large amount of meat,
refusing the offers of the Russians, who saw his slcd-load taken
into our store-house with unconcealed disgust. The day had
gone by when they could control the trade of that kind, and force
the reluctant Indian to sell against his will his hard-earned booty
for a leaf or two of tobacco and a few balls.

We paid liberally, but not extravagantly, for provisions of all
kinds, and as the supply was very limited, the Russians, un-
willing to raise their tariff of prices, were often obliged to go
without.

The continued warm weather was melting the snow rapidly,
and although we had cleaned off the roof as much as possible,
still the melting ice caused a constant dripping during the day.
The ev(^ning frost would put an end to it for a while, but it
returned with the heat of the morning sun.

The Nulato and other small rivers had felt the elfects of
the melting snow, and the ice on the edge of the Yukon, which
rests on and is frozen to the beach, was covered with water from
them.

Mies, to all appearance the common universal house-fly, as well
as the bluebottle, had appeared in large numbers, and might be
seen on the sunny side of every wall.

On the loth I found the first fully expanded willow catkinr,,
and the pretty red catkin of the alder. A white-winged crossbill
the first so far obtained, was shot in a grove of poplars not far
from the post.

On the roof of the house I obtained a large number of sm^

•1

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

r issuing food
irctic climate,
ources of the
:hey can do to
,rt themselves
looted to noth-

, load of fresh
ians, a number
A'olasatux and
I shaman and
iroved to be a
lount of meat,
^led-load taken
The day had
kind, and force
rd-earned booty

)rovisions of all
: Russians, un-
1 obliged to go

e snow ra\>idly,

.ich as possible,

hiring the day.

a while, but it

the eflects of
Yukon, which
Iwith water from

kouse-fiy, as well
[•s, and might be

willow catkins, |
vinged crossbill |
poplars not far

Lumber of small

musk-beetles, of a steel-green color and strong odor. Several
other species were obtained from the stumps and mossy hillocks
which began to project above the level of the snow. The field-
mice were also beginning to be active, and the children about the
for*" eagerly scanned with their keen eyes, bow and arrow in band,
the various stumps and crevices where they might find them ;
when successful they flocked with their prizes to me, sure of a
few beads or some other trinket to repay them for their labor.

The white i)tarmigan began moulting, or rather brown feathers
began to appear in their necks and on the edges of the wings,
wheie the first change may be looked for.

While skinning a hawk-owl I discovered in the ovary an egg,
nearly perfect. Kuri'lla, on his return from a foragirg expedition,
brought fine specimens of the great gray owl [Syrniiim cincirum),
which measured four feet across the wings, and the white owl
{Nyctca nivca). The latter frequently flies by day without diffi-
culty, and he is a sharp hunter who can approach it within gun-
shot, even at midday.

April 23d being a good snowy day, I took advantage of the
opportunity, to visit a grave on the point, near the Nulato River.
Carefully lifting the cover, I removed the cranium, and putting
it into my haversack, I returned by a roundabout way to the
fort. I had long had my eye upon this grave, and had been
waiting for weather which would cover up my tracks, in order
to secure the skull. The Indians are very superstitious in regard
to touching anything that has belonged with a dead body, and
would have been highly incensed had it become known. There-
fore T took the first opportunity of packing safely away the only
Ingalik cranium ever collected.

An expedition to the bluffs above Nulato resulted in my obtain-
ing a number of fossils, which probably indicate a Miocene age
for these beds. There are very few and very poor fossils in
these sandstones, notwithstanding their wide euent and great
thickness.

Birds became more plentiful as spring advanced, many sum-
mer visitors arriving in April and the earh part of May. The
hawks and owls were already laying their eggs, and the young
of the Canada jay, as I afterwards learned, were already hatched.
Scratchett started for Unalakli'k April 25th, with the last mails,

! I

(

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

and on the last trip possiljle this season. The Russians prophe-
sied that he woukl not be able to get through, and the weather
gave some probability to their croakings.

The 25tb of April was a great holiday, or prdsnik, of the Rus-
sians. It was their Easter, and was a day of rejoicing for us
also, as Ant(')shka returned from a foraging expedition on the
Kdiyuh River with a good load of deer meat from Tekunka.
Out of our plenty we sent a haunch in to Ivan Tavlofl", to his
great satisfaction.

The walls of Fort Kennicott already begnr. to assume their
proportions, and we frecpiently went up li) assist Paspi'lkoff in the
work of raising the loj^s to their proper places.

On thj ..'Sth old Maria died. She was an Indian woman,
long domiciled with the Russians, and had been present at the
Nuhito massacre.

On the following day the first goose was seen, the solitary
advance-guard of the thousands to come. Strolling on the
beach, I obtained a :imall hawk and the first snipe of the season.
The weather had become exceedingly warm. Shirt-sleeves were
the rule, and the little children enjoyed themselves on the broad
river-beach, building houses with pel)bles and making mud jiies,
much as their brothers and sisters do all over the world when
a vacation or a holiday releases them from restraint and the
mother's watchful eye. I never saw a young child punished in
Russian America, c-xcept the well-^rown boys of the Russian
bidarshik. They behave quite as well as civilized children, and
grow up with quite as much respect for their parents. An
Indian baby, unless sick, never cries; and why should it .'' It has
no one to rub soa|) in its eyes, and never feels the weight of the
parental hand. The mother makes it a doll, if a girl, out of bits
of sc|uirrel-skin and fur. If a boy, the father builds for him a
little sable-lrap, a miniature cache, in which to put his shinitig
pebbles and other childish treasures, or a tiny fish-trap, in wliich
the mother takes care that a choice bit of uknli. a rabbit's head, or
a piece of reindeer fat shall be caught in some mysterious way.
As soon as they can toddle about they are instructed in the
mysteries of setting snares, and the pride with which the boys or
girls bring home their first grouse, or even, by great good luck, an
unfortunate rabbit, is fully shared by the parents. Their dresses

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

he weather

arc ornamented with the ehoicest beads ; the sweet marrow or
tongue of the fallen reindeer is reserved for them by the father
successful in the chase. They travel hundreds of miles with the
ciog-sleds, and from these little children I have o(U:n obtained
dozens of mice or small birds, canj^iit near some solitary lodge
far away among the mountains, which rumor had informed them
I would jnu'chase with beads or trinkets, i'hcy carried these
proudly home again as tlnir own earnings and the prize of their
own industry. I always paid something for such specimens, even
if (juite worthless, to encourage them to perseverance, and in
tliis way I obtained many invaluable specimens.

Scratchett arrived from Unalakh'k on the 4th of May, having
li;td a very hard journey, and getting up to his neck in water
while crossing some of liie small rivers, swelled witii the melting
snow. The scurvy had attacked the parties at Unalakh'k, from
the absence of fresh provisions, but was fortunately stayed in its
progress by the providential advent on the L^nalaklik plains of
large herds of deer, of which mrny were killed.

On the 3d, Kurdla killed a goose, a white-cheeked brant (/'.
Icucopardn), and two ducks, — a mallard and a (iolden-eye. He
received the annual pound of tobacco, the pcr()uisit'.' of him
who kills the first goose in the spring. I'rom thi> time we
hoped to obtain an .d)undance of water-fowl, which are the only
support of the inhabitants of Nulato until the freshets subside
and the salmon begin to ascend the river. Curiously enough,
there are no fish in lliese rivers which will take die hook.

On the 7th of May the first swans were sc:c:n. They are the
small American species, the trumpeter not being found in this
region, and very rarely visiting Fort Yukon. The geese did not
arrive in large numbers until the 9th of May. trn days later than
oti the previous year. The commonest ducks were the pin-tail
and the green-winged teal.

On the 1 2th of May the water came down with a rush, break-
ing up the ice on the Nulato River, and Hooding the ice on the
\''akon. At the same time a torrent ]ioured down the Klat-
kakhatne River. Ivan IVivlolf, having gone shooting over to the
island, on his return was caught between the two currents and
swept into a hole in the ice. Paspilkoff gave the alarm, and,
catching up two paddles, T hurried to the beach, where Scratchett

ill

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

had already launched a birch canoe. With Ant(Sshka, he rapidly
made his way among the fragments which threatened to crush
the frail boat, and succeeded in extri';atinf; the Russian in safely.
To his credit be it said, the act was very handsomely done. The
Russians were shouting and running wildly about, like chickens
when a hawk is preparing for a swoop, and were not of the slight-
est assistance.

A year before, the ice having broken up, a convict named
Tarentoff had been to the island in a birch-bark canoe. Retr ru-
ing, he was nipped between the ice-cakes and was sinking, when
Major Kennicott saw him from his seat on the roof of the fort,
and hurried two men to his assistance, unquestionably saving his
life. When the Russian had changed his clothes, he came with
protestations of gratitude to his preserver, who answered, " Do not
thank mc, Tarentoff; thank (iod." The ne.xt day, while walking
in the early morning on the beach near the fort, taking the angles
of the mountains for his proposed map, and with thoughts per-
haps intent on the long anticipated journey, then only awaiting
the disappearance of the floating ice, the Major was called to his
eternal home ! Ills remains were found where he fell; struck
down by disease of the heart, aggravated by exposure, privation,
and anxiety. On the sad anniversary of his death we erected, on
the nearest hillock not swept by the spring freshets, a cross, which
was hewn out by the blacksmith Taspilkoff, and which upheld a
tablet with the following in.scription : —

In Mkmokv ok

RonickT KENN'icorr,

NATURAI.Isr,

who liicil near this place.
May \^t/i, 1866, ai^ed thirty.

On asking PaspHkoff what he wanted for his labor in hewing
out the arms of the cross, he replied, "We Russians take nothing
for what we may do for the dead ; we do not know when it may
be our turn."

On the 12th of May the mosquitoes made their appearance,
though the snow still lay on the ground in abundance. They
were larger than our home moscpiitoes, and V' ry bloodthirsty.
After a few days it was impossible to sleep without a net.

THE YUKON TKRRITOUY.

tak'j nothing
when it may

We had abundance to do, gcttin^j our bidarnl in onh-T for the
journey, and packinj; our stores into the smallest possible space,
knowing by experience that every ounce counted. Collecting
was not neglected ; and many specimens of birds were obtained
which are only summer visitors. A walk to the blufl' above the
Klatkakhatne River was rewarded by the discovery of a few more
fossils, and some very minute land-shells, similar to, if not identi-
cal with, r^'istcrn American and Northern European s])ecies.

I had at this time a good op|)ott unity of observing the forma-
tion of the alluvial soil of the islands and baidvs of the Yukon.
Two or three feet below the surface, the ground is frozen, and
probably always continues so, as therj are no roots of living trees
below that depth. The soil is composed of distinct layers, each
layer consisting of a stratum of sand, overlaid by mud, and
covered with a thin sheet of vegetable matter. These layers
evidently mark the annual inundat ons, the materials brought
down settling according to their specific gravity. They varied
in thickness from half an inch to three inches, but averaged about
about an inch. I counted one hundred and eighty of them in
one bank, exposed by the undermining and washing away of the
soil by the river, leaving a perpendicular bank about ten feet
high. This action of deposition and denudation is constantly
going on ; and so great is the amount cairied out to sea by the
Yukon water, that the water of Bering .Sea is discolored by it
for many miles, even (piite out of sight of [hv. land.

Occasionally the roots and stumps of trt-cs might be seen
exposed, in their natural position, but deep below the surface.
These had evidently been broken off in some ancient Hood, and
fmally buried under new deposits of alluvium. I even thought
I detected, in the lower and older layers, indications of carbon-
ization, or transformation into a kind of lignite, among the strata
ofvtigetable mattiM".

The Russians had already put their large bidarr.'i in order,
and, looking with contempt upon oiii' little boat, which was
J^haped like a dory, about (ifleen feel long and four and a half
wide, asserted that we could not keep up with them ; that it was
impossible to row such a bag-shaped contrivance against the
rapid river current ; that it would not bear a sail as large as the
one we had had made ; and, fmally, that, with such a boat, it

Jl
If I

iH !

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

was useless to attempt ascending the river, for we should cer-
tainly fail. Wc did not fail to appreciate the consideration for
our weakness and inexperience, which was indicated by such
comments ; and it but strengthened our determination to reach
Fort Yukon at all hazards, even if the boat had to be replaced by
a raft.

We had provided a mast, and Kurdla exercised his taste and
ingenuity in carving an arrow, with a broad tail to which some
blue cotton was attached, to serve as a fly. The square sail was
composed of stout linen towelling, purchased of the Russians ;
and we were provided with an A-tent, and a large piece of
drill, with which our Indians might make a tent for their own
shelter.

Our boat was too small to admit of a rudder, and an enormous
paddle for use in steering was made by Kun'lla, and ornamented
with bars and stripes of red ochre. We had jjrovided several
oars cut out of seasoned spruce, no harder wood being attain-
able, except birch, which is too brittle.

On the i6th and i8th of May we all united in erecting the
poles between the Nulato post and Fort Kennicott. Dyer had
decided to take Antoshka, and a Creole called Aloshka, who
understood the Eskimo dialect of the Innuit of the Yukon-
mouth, serving as an interpreter as well as an assistant in
paddling the three-holed bidarka in which the journey was to
be made. Scratchett was to remain at Nulato and secure logs
for the buildings to be put up at Fort Kennicott after the ice
had passed out of the river.

The ice on the Yukon was separated from the shore by a wide
belt of water, and we hourly looked for a rise which should give
it a start down stream.

On the 19th of May, about one o'clock, as Whymper and my-
self were sitting on the roof, we perceived a slight motion, and
upon our raising a shout to that effect, the whole population of
the fort was soon out on the bank, watching the slow progress
of the great sheet of ice between us and the island. The pre
vious year the ice had broken up on the 21st. The water began
to rise very rapidly, and soon covered much of the beach. We
watched it with a great deal of interest ; but the sight was by no
means as grand as we had anticipated. It passed very quietly

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

for a time, and finally stopped, a jam having occurred somewhere
below, and the water being still too low to carry all before it.

On the 2 1 St it began to move again ; and the water had risen
to the foot of an inclined plane opposite the fort-gate, where the
bank is usually ascended. The Russians do not start up the
river until the ice is well out of it, as the danger to skin-boats
would be too great to risk.

Our necessary trading-goods and provisions amounted to nearly
eight hundred pounds, which, with the men, oars, sails, and
other baggage, made up nearly eighteen hundred pounds. Of
this we intended to put a bag of flour and one of bread on board
the large Russian boat, maKing about sixteen hundred and fifty
pounds that our little bidar-d must carry.

On the 25th, all our preparations being completed, we took our
last night's rest in the old Nulato trading-post.

<^,^o.

o.-r-.*^

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

Ui§2t 12.5

■" Ui 12.2

?* Hi ■"

|i-25 i 1.4

Photografiiic

Sciences

Corporation

33 WIST MAIN STRIIY

WnSTH.N.Y. MSN

(716) •72-4303

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CHAPTER III.

Our departure from Nulato. — Sukaree. — Crossing in the ice. — Peculation. — Camp.

— Koyukuk Sopka. — Barter on the Yukon. — Indian grave. — Ooskon. — Indian
pipes. — Tohonidola. — Koyukun dress. — Catching butterflies. — Melozikakat
River. — Arrival at Nowikakat. — Trading for meat. — Shamanism. — Indian theol-
ogy. — Treating the sick. — Departure from Nowikakat. — Birch canoes. — Run-
away from Fort Yukon. —Tozikakat River. — Nuklukahyet and the Twin Mountains.
— Nuklukahyet tyone and other Indians. — Departure from Nuklukahyet. — The
Ramparts and Rapids. — Moose killing. — Pass the Ramparts. — Mosquitoes. —
Plains north of the Yukon. — Kutcha Kutchin camp. — Sachniti. — Arrival at
Fort Yukon. — History of the fort. — Five years without bread. — Degradation of
the servants of the Hudson Bay Company. — Intense heat. — Arrival of the bateaux.

— The annual trade. — Tenan Kutchin Indians. — Other tribes. — Drowning of
Cowley. — Red f xiggins. — Arrival of Ketchum and Mike. — Missionaries and their
value. — Course of the Hud.son Bay Company with the Indians. — Massacre at Fort
Nelson. — Indians of the Western United States. — Furs in the storehouse. —
Departure from Fort Yukon. — Arrival at Nulato. — Unexpected orders. — Start
for the Yukon-mouth. — Seal and beluga in the river. — Arrival at St. Michael's.

EARLY in the morning of the 26th of May we helped our
' companion, Mr. Dyer, to pack his baggage into the bidarka,
and about seven o'clock saw him fairly started, wiih Ant6shka
and A16shka, on their journey to the Yukon-mouth. We gave
them a parting salute, and immediately placed our own boat
in the water and proceeded to load her. The Russians had
already finished, and were assembled at a pseudo-religious cere-
monial before their departure. At eight o'clock we pushed off.
Yagor and the two Russians who remained behind saluted the
flotilla with several discharges of the rusty howitzer. The Rus-
sian boat took the lead, with eight oarsmen and a light freight.
We followed them at a short distance. Our party was com-
posed of Mr. Frederick Whymper and myself; KurHla ; a little
Ingalik called Mikdishka, or in the Indian dialect Menoh61noi,
meaning beetle, in allusion to his diminutiveness ; and lastly, a
Koyukun, whose name was so remarkably long and unpronounce-
able, that we decided to call him Tom. All these had arrived
early in the morning in single birch canoes, a large number of

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

ation. — Camp,
iskon. — Indian

— Melozikakat

— Indian theol-
canoes. — Run-
'win Mountains,
jkahyet. — The

Mosquitoes. —
:i. — Arrival at
Degradation of
I of the bateaux.

— Drowning of
naries and their
assacre at Fort

storehouse. —
orders. — Start
>t. Michael's.

helped our
the bidarka,
1 Ant6shka
We gave
r own boat
ussians had
igious cere-
pushed off.
sahited the
The Rus-
ght freight.
r was com-
Ua ; a little
Vlenoh61noi,
md lastly, a
ipronounce-
lad arrived
number of

which, with their owners, were to accompany us to Nuklukah-

The rain poured down on us and made everything wet and un-
comfortable. I realized, for the first time, the size and power of
the logs and fragments of ice which, seen from the banks, seemed
so small and insignificant. KurHla, whose Indian name was
Unookuk, had had much experience in this sort of navigation,
and proved himself active, energetic, and efficient.

The boat had been hurriedly loaded, and the goods were not
arranged to the best advantage. It always takes a day to get the
party and boat into good working order. After pulling about six
miles we felt the necessity for taking some breakfast, and, the
Russians setting the example, we hauled close into the bank and
boiled the chyniks. It is, of course, impossible to take or make
soft bread on such a journey, as it would very soon mould. The
traditional "damper" is a humbug. It is invariably heavy, and a
fruitful cause of heartburn, indigestion, and consequent ill humor.
Hence, in the absence of biscuit, a substitute being necessary, the
Russians are accustomed to bake a large quantity of bread which,
after slicing, they dry in t'.ie oven, so that, without browning, it
becomes as hard as a rock. This hardness, however, immediately
disappears when the siikan'e, as the Russians call it, is immersed
in hot tea ; and in this respect it is preferable to biscuit, which
takes a long time to soak. It is, however, more liable to break
up than biscuit, when carried in a bag, and not unfrequently re-
tains dust and grit from the mud walls of the peechka, unless
very carefully dried. We had both biscuit and sukar^e ; some of
the latter having been made of white flour, it proved execrable,
the Russian sukar^e being always made of groats or Graham
flour.

Just above the ravine and little brook where we took our tea
was a rounded rock, boldly jutting out into the river. Around
this a constant .^itream of ice-cakes, logs, and driftwood was pour-
ing. The Russians first reached this point, and after one or two
trials tnrned back and camped, hoping that the ice would cease
running before the next morning. KurfUa saw this move with
great disgust. " The Russians retreat : Un6okuk will not retreat,"
said he, and struck boldly out into the stream of ice and drift-
■ 'ood. For ten minutes all had their hands full, staving off logs

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

ii 1 1

B< i^

S|j'::

and ice-cakes, and the danger was too imminent to think about.
A clearer part of the river was soon reached in safety, the drift
always running most thickly in the strongest current. Paddling
up stream a mile or two, the severity of the rain induced us to
camp on an island, where we pitched our tent in a willow grove,
and < ndeavored to dry ourselves. The evening meal consisted of
salted white-fish and tea. We now discovered that Scratchett
had availed himself of the confusion of our starting to appropriate
sundry spoons, and other articles of use and necessity, to his own
advantage. Although of iron, the loss was as great as if they had
been of gold ; for who can eat bread and tea without a spoon ?
We had just two left, and our Indians must take turn and turn
about in using them. Another loss which we all regretted was
three pounds of sugar, which I had purchased with a shirt, of the
individual above mentioned. It is to be hoped that he has duly
repented in his subsequent retirement.

Several canoes had followed us through the ice in fear and
trembling. Their inmates, camped near us, presented a melan-
choly spectacle. A woman whose long upper garment consisted
of white cotton, with her hair streaming down her back, resembled
a drowned rabbit ; and an old man seemed to have received a
more thorough washing than for many years previous. We were
all very wet, but our clothing repelled the rain much better than
deerskins or cotton drill.

Blessed be the man who invented rubber blankets ! Mine, after
a season in the Lake Superior region, did noble service, as well as
Whymper's, which he had obtained in British Columbia. Laying
them down on the mud in which our camp was situated, only
covered by a little willow brush, we spread out our blankets, and
were soon at rest. '^\e Indians, except Kurdla, who, as coxswain,
slept in our tent, made their tent out of a great sheet of drill, after
their own fashion. Bending down the tops of several slender wil-
lows, they crossed them in different directions, and spreading the
covering over that, the whole was nearly circular. It was always
a marvel to me how they could lie down in it, it was so small.
After all got inside, the edges were carefully tucked in and the
mosquitoes effectually excluded.

The rain prevented the latter from being very troublesome, and
we slept comfortably.

think about,
fety, the drift
It. Paddling
nduced us to
willow grove,
I consisted of
at Scratchett

appropriate
:y, to his own
IS if they had
DUt a spoon?
irn and turn
egretted was

1 shirt, of the
t he has duly

in fear and
ted a melan-
ent consisted
ck, resembled
'e received a
IS. We were
h better than

! Mine, after
ce, as well as
bia. Laying
situated, only
blankets, and
•, as co.xswain,
: of drill, after
.1 slender wil-
spreading the
[t was always
vas so small.
J in and the

blesome, and

>
o

a,
O

u
III :j

IMi: YUKON TKRHITOKY 7?

The browti Miocene samlstoncs before mentioned arc auc-
-nied ncre by blue sandstones, which at Nuldto lie below tbcm.
he latter contain few fossils, — mostly sy^amore leaves (f^/ti
litis), and other ve;i;etable remains.

Monday, May 27///. — Starting about three o'clock in the morn-

.'. we sov>a passed the Russians, who had gone a little farther

the night and camped above us. We passrd throu^jh a small

;h or fiiiidka between some islands. About ten oclook we

• cd at a tine blutf near the mouth of the Koyukuiv River, a

mark in this part of lh<; rciuntry, and known as the Koyii-

.Sopka. Here is a small kt'vukun village, where wc stopped

took tea. I bought a large pike- i^hstix rtt&r) and a quunllty

',' reindeer meat.

\fter' passing the Sopkatbc river is very winding, and wc

•lently crossed it in order to «ihor«t.'n the distance. When in

4 .-o wc came to the in.un thannri, »! a4» a hard tug to

. it, and we invariably lost groui^d, si^iOictHneit swfr ilm tit m a

. roimding a turn In the river we saw a large number of

3 lying near the bank and a crowd of dark fignres on the

These proved to be Koyukuns, »vho proposed to ac-

my us. Iv.'in the tyonc, l.anidwn, and a handsome fellow

red shirt, named "Cousin" by Kctohum on his last season's

iccosted us with gesticulations of welcome. As rain throat-

and we wished to keep our provisions dry, we camped in

■St pi ice we could find among the dcn.se thickets of willow.s

line the shore everywhere. There were a. few hills in the

.^e, but no mountains. The foliag<> was not fully out, but

hcate green of the young leaves made the river banks very

iiul Close to the warrr grow willows and alders. A little

r back are belt.'? of btoad-lcaved poplars (/-". bahamifira),

1 the dry gn^und spruce {AbLs alba), growinj:^ to a very

size and mixefl witi" :i.*«)v;ns (Pofnlus tremuloidis), whose

ilorcd hark and silve >-d leaves contrast tmely with the

vcrgreens. On the rtH^kv blutfs a ..species of junij^er is

ant, crawling over the '<*cks. but nut rising from the soil.

the left bank, which i« pvrrywhere low, the willows and

i^ ai»pear to predominate The banks in many piaccs^are

iinincd by the rapid curn;*ht, arnl frequently fall into thr

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

::W'it^-

i.i'J-

■**<.' ill

i*l-

ti^\

.■; '!:'■

The brown Miocene sandstones before mentioned are suc-
ceeded here by blue sandstones, which at Nuldto lie below them.
The latter contain few fossils, — mostly sycamore leaves {P/a-
tanus). and other vegetable remains.

Monday, May 27th. — Starting about three o'clock in the morn-
ing, we soon passed the Russians, who had gone a little farther
in the night and camped above us. We passed through a small
slough or pratdka between some islands. About ten o'clock we
arrived at a fine bluff near the mouth of the Koyukuk River, a
landmark in this part of the country, and known as the Koyii-
kuk Sopka. Here is a small Koyiikun village, where we stopped
and took tea. I bought a large pike (Esox estor) and a quantity
of dry reindeer meat.

After passing the Sopka the river is very winding, and we
frequently crosse*^' it in order to shorten the distance. When in
doing so we ca.ne to the main channel, it was a hard tug to
cross it, and we invariably lost ground, sometimes as much as a
mile.

On rounding a turn in the river we saw a large number of
canoes lying near the bank and a crowd of dark figures on the
shore. These proved to be Koyukuns, who proposed to ac-
company us. Ivan the tyone, Larriown, and a handsome fellow
in a red shirt, named "Cousin" by Ketchum on his last season's
trip, accosted us with gesticulations of welcome. As rain threat-
ened, and we wished to keep our provisions dry, we camped in
the best place we could find among the dense thickets of willows
which line the shore everywhere. There were a few hills in the
distance, but no mountains. The foliage was not fully out, but
the delicate green of the young leaves made the river banks very
beautiful. Close to the water grow willows and alders. A little
farther back are belts of broad-leaved poplars {P. balsamifcrd),
and on the dry ground spruce {Abies alba), growing to a very
large size and mixed with aspens {Poptiltis trctmiloidcs), whose
light-colored bark and silvered leaves contrast finely with the
dark evergreens. On the rocky bluffs a species of juniper is
abundant, crawling over the rocks, but not rising from the soil.

On the left bank, which is everywhere low, the willows and
poplars appear to predominate. The banks in many places are
undermined by the rapid current, and frequently fall into the

iX<

7»

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

river in large masses, with the trees and shrubs upon them,
startling the unaccustomed ear with a noise like thunder.

The ground where Ketchum camped the previous year, accord-
ing to Kurflla, was under water; we had camped on a low island
somewhat in advance of the Russians. The Koyukuns brought
their stores of dried meat and fat, and I purchased about fifty
pounds of the former. The tariff of prices was high, compared
with what we had paid for the same things on the coa-:!. We
gave five loads of powder for a duck, seven for a goose, if fat ;
five balls or a small bundle of leaves of Circassian tobacco, called
by the Russians a papodsh, for a beaver-tail ; six to eight balls for
the dry breast of a deer ; four or five for a deer's tongue ; and
for fat, especially the marrow of the long bones of the reindeer,
whatever would buy it, usually a pretty high price. A ball, a
charge of powder, or two caps, are the units of trade, and will
buy almost anything. Knives, beads, flints and steels, needles,
small looking-glasses, handkerchiefs of various colors, woollen
scarfs, and cotton drill or calico are all useful, but tobacco and
ammunition are the great staples. The Circassian or Chcrkdtsky
tobacco, imported only by the Russians, and exceedingly strong,
is the prime favorite where the Russians trade ; but those who
deal more with the English at Fort Yukon like the long natural
Kentucky leaf best. The latter we used for our own smoking,
obtaining an excellent article from the Russians for thirty cents a
pound.

Swans, brant, and sandhill cranes were seen, the former abun-
dantly. Ivia PavloflF sent me two eggs of the white-cheeked
goose (B. latcoparcid), which were found on a bit of sandy beach
near the camp, and every step added some new plant, insect, or
bird to our col'^ctions. The Koyiikuk S6pka is composed of a
soft crystalline rock apparently unstratified.

In this kind of journey, sluggards are out of place. We
allowed ourselves but four or five hours for sleep, and after a cup
of tea continued on our way.

Tuesday, 28///. — Ivan the tyone, and old Wolasdtux came along
in their little canoes with some half-dried fish for sale, which
we purchased for our Indians. Passing through a narrow pra-
toka between two islands and the shore, we came to a solitary
Indian house, quite empty. On the hillside near it stood a

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

solitary grave. A little fence of white spruce stakes was built
around it, and from several long poles streamers of white cotton
were floating. KurHla said that it was the grave of an Indian
who had died in the previous fall, and that the house was occu-
pied by his wife, who spent all her time (except when procuring
food) in watching the grave, and devoting all her property to the
purpose of adorning it. The house looked neat and clean, the
hillside was green, and the sun shone brightly on the lonely
grave, as we passed by on the other side of the pratoka. Just be-
yond, a perpendicular and solitary bluff fronted the river. Close
to its face rushed the swift current, with its burden of driftwood,
at the rate of seven knots an hour. There was no backing out :
we had to cross here. The swift part of the current appeared to
be narrow. The canoes first essayed it, and were swept like
straws a mile down stream in the twinkling of an eye.

This made us careful. We kept close to the rock, where there
was a little slack water, and then, driving our paddles into the
water with a will, we passed the current, and reached the op-
posite bank, not more than a quarter of a mile below. Waiting
to rest, we saw the Russians kill a beaver in the water, and then
cross the stream with about the same success as ourselves. Con-
tinuing on our way, about six o'clock we stopped to boil the
chynik and to rest, Ivan Pavloff was invited to take tea with us.
Sugar being a very scarce article in this country, it is usually
boiled with water into hard cakes, which, when properly done,
are not affected by the weather. Soft sugar will waste away
imperceptibly with the dampness. The orthodox way is to take
a fragment of this hard sugar, bite off a small piece of it, and
drink your tea without putting any into it. This is much more
economical, and is hereby recommended to boarding-house keep-
ers. I was much amused by observing Pavloff, who after finish-
ing his tea replaced the lump from which he had been biting in
the common sugar-box.

About ten o'clock we came to a very wide part of the river,
where the Russians lay to for a while, and fired a small boat-gun
which they carried in their bidarrd. This was to notify the In-
dians, if any were in the vicinity, that the Russians were ready to
trade ; but none made their appearance, and the bidarrd soon con-
tinued on its way. On a low sand-bar, where the sun poured

i I

80 THE YUKON TERRITORY.

down with double force, and mosquitoes hummed in myriads, we
also found an old man and his old wife. I afterwards heard that he
had a young one. His hair stood out in every direction where it
was not matted down by dirt. His clothing hung in the filthiest
rags, and his voice sounded like that of a fishhawk with a cold.
His name was Oosk6n, or Rabbit, and it was stated by Kurdla
that he was noted for his good-humor and generosity. He might
have given away all his clothes, which would account for his ap-
pearance. His wife was his duplicate, except that she was silent,
which is an excellent thing in women. The old fellow brought
me a gull's egg, which I gratefully accepted, wished to sell me
some fish, which I respectfully declined, and finally brought out
two stuffed skins of the beautiful northern phalarope, which I
purchased, as they were in very fair condition. I afterwards
discovered they were stuffed with a very sweet-scented grass.
On pointing this out to Wolasatux, he shook his head gravely,
and said, " They are rotten ! " These Indians have no apprecia-
tion of sweet odors. The wild rose {^Rosa cinnamomca), which is
one of the few fragrant flowers to be found or. the Yukon, is
called among them by an untranslatable name, on account of its
perfume. The only odor they appreciate lies hidden in the steam
arising from the soup-kettle.

Rain coming on, we camped on a steep bank, and the Russians
followed our example.

I afterwards added a green-winged teal and hooded grebe
{Podiceps cornutus) to our collection. A high sandy bluff near
our camp was full of the nests of the bank swallow. It seemed
like a gigantic honeycomb swarming with bees, as the light-
winged swallows darted about. The eggs are white, and are
laid on a few very fine twigs, which keep them off the sand.
I counted nearly eight hundred holes, all of which seemed to be
occupied. I obtained from the Indians quite a number of ducks
and geese for our kettle.

Wednesday, 29///. — We broke camp about five o'clock in
the morning. Nothing occurred to break the monotony of con-
stant steady paddling. Two Indians in the bow of the boat
would row until tired, and then we would stop for a few minutes
to rest, and let them smoke. The last operation takes less than a
minute : their pipes are so constructed as to hold but a very

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

the Russians

A. — Kiitcliin.
II. — Innuit.

C. — Koyiikun.
I), K. — Chukctice.

small pinch of tohacco. The bowl, with cars for tying it to
the stem, is generally cast out of lead. Sometimes it is made of
soft stone, bone, or even hard wood. The stem is made of two
|)ieccs of wood, hollowed on one
side, and bound to the bowl and
to each other by a narrow strip
of deerskin. In smoking, the
economical Indian generally cuts
np a little birch wood, or the in-
ner bark of the poplar, and mixes
it with his tobacco. A few rein-
deer hairs, pulled from his parka,
are rolled into a little ball, and
placed in the bottom of the bowl to prevent the contents from
being drawn into the stem. A pinch of tobacco, cut as fine
as sniiflf, is inserted, and two or three whifts are afforded by it.
The smoke is inhaled into the lir : , producing a moment.nry
stupefaction, and the operation is over. A fundus which grows
on decayed birch trees, or tnider manufactured from the down
of the poplar rubbed up with charcoal, is used with flint and
steel for obtaining a lij;ht. Matches are highly valued, and
rcailily purchased. The eflfect of the Circassian tobacco on the
lungs is extremely bad, and among those tribes who use it many
die from asthma and congestion of the lungs. This is principally
due to the saltpetre with which it is impregnated. The Indian
pipe is copied from the Kskimo, as the latter were the first to
obtain and use tobacco. Many of the tribes call it by the Eskimo
name. The Kutchin and Kastern Tinneh use one modelled after
the clay pipes of the Hudson Hay Company, but they also carve
very pretty ones out of birch knots and the root of the wild rose-
bush. The Chukchees use a pipe similar to those of the Es-
kimo, but with a much larger and shorter stem. This stem is
hollow, and is filled with fine birch shavings. After smoking for
some months these shavings, impregnated with the oil of tobacco,
are taken out through an opening in the lower part of the stem,
and smoked over. The Hudson Bay men make passable pipe-
stems by taking a straight-grained piece of willow or spruce,
without knots, and cutting through the outer layers of bark and
wood. This stick is heated in the ashes, and by twisting the
6

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

f \

li' :

ends in contrary directions, the heart-wood may be gradually
drawn out, leaving a wooden tube. The Kutchin make pretty
pipe-stems cut of goose-quills wound about with colored porcu-
pine quills. It is the custom in the English forts to make every
Indian who comes to trade, a present of a clay pipe filled with
tobacco. We were provided with cheap brown ones, with wooden
stems, which were much liked b^ the natives, and it is probable
that small brier-wood pipes, which are not liable to break, would
form an acceptable addition to any stock of trading-goods.

For the first time we were able to use our sail, as a fair wind
sprang up in the afternoon, and for a short time we made excel-
lent progress.

About five o'clock we camped at a place where In summer the
Indians have a fishery, and which is called Kam^n-sikhtcr.

Thursday, ^oih. — The sealskin of which the bidarrds are made,
by long contim mce in the water becomes soft and unsound.
Hence, as the weather continued rainy, we decided to lay over
a day, take the boat out of the water, dry and oil it ; the Rus-
sians doing the same with their bidarrd. During the interval,

many additions were made
to our collections. I ob-
served a fine-looking Ko-
yukun, called ToJio-nidola,
who wore a mantle made
of a dressed deerskin. It
was cut to a point behind,
and into fringes around
the edge. It was orna-
mented with a few beads,
hanging in short strings,
and was colored on the
inside with red ochre;
making a very graceful ar-
ticle of apparel. The breeches had the moccasins continuous
with the leg, and were heavily embroidered with large black and
white beads. The pattern universal among the Koyiikun men
consists of a band of beads in front, from the thigh to the ankle,
a short one crossing it at the knee. At the ankle the long baud
bifurcates, and the two ends, after reaching the sides of the foot,

Tohonidola.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

continue all around its edge, except over the heel. The pattern
for females is similar, but the perpendicular band on the leg is
omitted. The Koyiikun male parka has been described. The
pattern of ornamentation is a broad band of beadwork across the
breast and back, and over the shoulders, with fringes on the
pointed ends, and a few short tails of beadwork in front and on
the sleeves. The female parka comes below the knee, and is cut
round like an ordinary dress, but a little shorter in front than
behind. They are ornamented with a similar band around the
shoulders, sometimes one around the wrist, and one around the
edge of the skirt in lieu of fringes. Before the introduction of
beads by the Russians, this work was done in porcupine quills,
often in very tasteful patterns, and among the Tcndn Kittchin, or
Tananah River Indians, this practice still obtains White and
black or brick red are the only colors I have seen used on cloth-
ing, and they are always embroidered in alternate bands. Other
beads, of various colors, in strings seven feet long, are valued
by the natives as property, having a fixed value of two marten-
skins a string. They pass from hand to hand, much as we use
money. Small beads, of various kinds, are much in demand
among the women, who use them as ornaments for their children.
Strong beads, over which the hand passes smoothly, are the only
kind suited for fur-trading. Red, black, white, dark blue, and
amber are the desirable colors.

Friday, 31J/. — Making an early start, we passed a point
known as Sakatalontan, about half past three in the morning.
Large stacks of driftwood, as big as houses, came floating down
in the current, and great care was necessary to avoid collision.
These were piles of logs thrown upon sandbars by previous
freshets, which the unusually high water had floated off entire.
We passed many low bluffs of blue sandstone and a few gravel-
banks. Tom found a mallard's nest on the bank, with nine cgi;s
in it, which were devoted to an omelet, after carefully emptying
the shells with a small blowpipe. We comped on a high bank
without taking the tent out of the boat, as the night was remark-
ably pleasant and the mosquitoes unusually quiet.

Saturday, yune \st. — The next morning at one o'clock we
were on our way again, working hard against a strong current.
The sandstones were now succeeded by conglomerate and meta-

11: i

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

morphous quartzose rocks. Many butterflies, including the fa-
miliar swallow-tail (JPapilio Turnus), and another species some-
what similar {P. Aliaska), were hovering over the surface. Upon
mentioning that I would give a needle apiece for good speci-
mens, a commotion was aroused amongst the little fleet of birch
canoes which accompanied us. All was excitement, paddles were
flourished in the air, the light canoes darted about after the
slowly sailing, unsuspecting butterflies, and the result was a
considerable number of passable specimens. I saw, also, several
wax-wings {Ampelis garrulus) in the bushes along shore, and
obtained a sandhill crane. A fair wind sprang up and sent the

Mt. Hohonila from the Melnzikakat.

Russians scudding around a si.\-mile bend under their large sail.
Our boat proved a very slow sailei, the wind soon dropped, and
we had to pull all the way around the bend.

After camping we employed Larriown's wife to sew up some
cuts in the sealskin of our bidarrd. These were made by the
constant stream of driftwood ; but when sewed up and the seam
well rubbed with tallow, the boat was as tight as ever. The
skin was old and very rotten, so that we had to exercise the
utmost precaution in landing and in avoiding driftwood or rocks.

Sunday, 2d. — About ten o'clock the next day we took our
tea at the mouth of the Melozikdkat or Clear River. From this

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

Mr large sail.

point a fine view may be had of a mountain which rises per-
haps two thousand feet above the river, and is known to the In-
dians as Hoho-nHa. The upper portion still retained snow in
many ravines, though later in the season it disappears entirely.
The mosquitoes were exceedingly troublesome. The night had
ceased to be dark, as the sun remained only about two hours
behind the high hills which shut out the horizon.

Monday, ^d. — Passed the Uka-wiitne or " Look-and-see-it "
River. It is a small stream. Near its mouth the Yukon is very
broad and full of islands. About noon the sun was so scorching
(90° in the shade) that we pulled into the bank and rested for a
couple of hours. We then proceeded to the point on the right
bank where the Russians had camped, waiting the report of a
messenger who had been sent to the village of Nowikakat on the
left bank a few miles above. As he did not appear I turned in,
and had h.irdly got under the blankets, when I heard the well-
known voice of Larri6wn, who poked his ugly head into the tent,
saying there was plenty of dry meat and many Indians at Nowi-
kakat, and begging a little tobacco for his information.

I put on my boots and stepped out of the tent, around which
a number of Indians had gathered. The old Nowikakat tyone
was there, and one of the men who had gone up with Ketchum
suddenly appeared. He gave us the welcome information tlxit
Ketchum and the party had reached Fort Yukon in safety, and
had started with open water for Fort Selkirk, having sent the In-
dians and six remaining dogs down the river in a bidarrd made of
moose-hide.

Tuesday, ^th. — We struck our tent, broke camp, and started
for Nowikakat, in company with the Russians and Indians. We
hoisted the American flag over the blue cross and scallop-
shell of the Scientific Corps, and came into Nowikakat Harbor
with colors flying. We received and returned a salute of mus-
l<etry, and, finding with difficulty a place among the myriads of
birch canoes where we could moor our boat, wc pitched our tent
in the middle of the village. We informed the tyone, or chief,
that we were exceedingly tired, and must sleep before any trading
could be done. This was quite true, as I, for one, had slept but
about two hours out of the last forty-eight. We tied the flaps of
the tent closely, but even this did not prevent the Indians from

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

raising the edge of the canvas and peering in upon us witH^as
much curiosity and pertinacity as country boys at a circus After
a few hours' rest we rose and dressed. We could not keep out
the Indians, until we admitted the tyone, whose repeated orders
kept them outside for a time. He watched the process of washing
with great interest, from which I inferred that he did not indulge
in that luxury. He was very anxious that we should present him
with our brushes, combs, soap, and other articles for the toilet,
which we were obliged to refuse him ; but we made up to him for
the disappointment by presents of tobacco, powder, and ball. We
heard that Antoine Houlc, the Fort Yukon interpreter, was at
Nuklukahy^t with a trading party, and we desired to send a letter
to him ; but old Ivan, the tyone, prevented our doing so, by fright-
ening our messenger with an account of the danger of making
such a journey alone. I-'or this piece of mischief he got a scold-
ing, which astonished him a"d made him less officious in future.

After breakfast, which we shared with the Nowikakat tyone,
we proceeded to business. Whymper was busy with his sketch-
book, and left the trading to me.

All accounts of the country between Nowikakat and Fort
Yukon agreed in representing it as a district where provisions
were very scarce, and so we had determined to provide them in
advance. I purchased, for seven fathoms of drill, three papooshes
of tobacco, and five balls, a birch canoe of the largest size, with its
paddles. From the abundant stores of dried meat and fat which
the Indians had laid in, I obtained about three hundred pounds
of dry deer and moose meat, clear moose fat in birch dishes, and
dried entrails of the deer, which were filled with fat of the best
kind. I was able to secure, besides, a large number of moose
and deer ton<^aes, and dried moose noses, the latter making a
delicious dish when thoroughly boiled. We also succeeded in
engaging two more men to take this canoe-load of meat at least
as far as Nuklukahyd-t. A large number of birds'-nests, mouse-
skins, and other specimens of natural history, were also secured.
I had then an opportunity to make a few observations on the
place and its inhabitants.

Nowikdkat Village is situated on a beautiful little enclosed bay,
into which the river of the same name enters, with several smaller
streams. This river is about one hundred miles long, and its

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

us witl^'as
reus After
ot keep out
eated orders
,s of washing

not indulge
present him
)r the toilet,
ip to him for
nd ball. We
reter, was at
send a letter
so, by fright-
:r of making
s got a scold-
is in future,
ikakat tyone,
h his sketch-

:at and Fort
re provisions
vide them in
ee papooshes
size, with its
nd fat which
dred pounds
|h dishes, and
,t of the best
ler of moose
r making a
puccecded in
meat at least
nests, mouse-
also secured.
Itions on the

enclosed bay,
Iveral smaller
long, and its

mouth is about one hundred and thirty miles from Nulato in
a direct line. By the Yukon the distance is considerably greater.
The head-waters are on the southeast side of the Nowikakat and
Kdiyuh Mountains, and, according to Indian accounts, a short
portage can be made to the head-waters of the Shdgcliik or
so-called Innoko River, or, by crossing the mountains, to the
Kdiyuh River. These portages are frequently made by the
Indians who trade with the Ingaliks.

A narrow entrance connects the basin with the Yukon.
Through this a beautiful view is obtained, across the river and

Looking out of Nowikakat Harbor.

through the numerous islands, of the opposite shore and the
Yukon Mountains in the distance. The feathery willows and
li<(ht poplars bend over and reflected in the dark water,

unmi.xcd as yet with Yukon mud ; every island and hillside is
clothed in the delicate green of spring, and lu.\uriatcs in a density
of foliage remarkable in such a latitude.

The village appeared to be a mere collection of huts, temporary
lodges, an J tents; one or two winter houses seemed as if long
deserted and rapidly going to decay. All these were crowded
together on a low bank, from which the willows seemed to have
been recently cut away. The shore was absolutely covered with

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

i !

birch canoes. The dress of the Indians was similar to the
Koyukun, already described ; but a few specimens of fine bead-
work and fringed hunting-shirts showed the effect of English
intercourse. The guns were all English single-barrelled flint-
locks, while the Koyiikuns are provided with double percussion
guns from the traders in Kotzebue Sound, through the l"lskimo.
The principal supply of food seemed to be moose meat. Fish
was evidently scarce, and deer less abundant than near the coast.
As evening approached, Larri6wn the shaman, and his wife, were
called upon to e.xercise their art for the relief of a sick man who
apparently had not long to live.

The belief in shamanism is universal among the natives of
Alaska, Eskimo as well as Indians. Even the Aleuts, long
nominally converted to Christianity, still retain superstitious
feelings in regard to it. It is essentially a belief in spirits who
are controlled by the shaman ; who come at his call, impart to
him the secrets of the future and the past, afflict or cease
afflicting men by sickness at his behest, and enable him to
advise others as to seasons and places of hunting, good or evil
omens, and the death or recovery of the sick. These however
are not spirits who were once men.

Many Indians — in fact, all the Tinneh that I have conversed
with, who have not been taught by the English or Russian mis-
sionaries — do not believe in the immortality of man. Of those
who have a dim notion of the kind none have any idea whatever
of future reward and punishment, of any Supreme Power or Deity,
of good and evil in a moral sense, or of anything which can be
called a religion. Assertions to the contrary proceed from the
ignorance or poetical license of the author, or from an intercourse
with tribes who have derived their ideas from missionaries.

The support which the spiritual instincts of human nature
demand is met among the Indians by a belief in shamanism.
All animals, woods, waters, and natural phenomena such as the
aurora borealis or thunder and lightning, arc supposed to be
either the abodes or the means of manifestation of spirits. The
latter have power and knowledge limited by their respective
spheres. The most powerful and beneficent of all are the ob-
jects of ridicule and contempt, as often as of fear or reverence,
in the Indian legends which relate to them. The whole relation.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

between the Indians and these spirits as they believe in them,
is one of self-interest and fear. They preserve all bones out of
reach of the dogs for a year, when they are carefully buried, lest
the spirits who look after the beavers and sables should consider
that they are regarded with contempt, and hence no more should
be killed or trapped. Other singular superstitions, the result of
accident, some local incident, or unexplained coincidence, are
found to be peculiar to each narrow territory or small tribe.

The younger Indians look on these things with contempt and
ridicule ; it is only when starvation or sickness impends, or the
continued threats of some greedy shamdn create alarm, that they
pay any heed to them. It is with age alone that these super-
stitions become firmly implanted in their minds. The strange
effects which firm belief and vivid imagination have frequently
produced among civilized and intelligent human beings arc too
well known to require further confirmation. Hence it is not to
be wondered at among ignorant Indians, whose imagination is
untrammelled by knowledge of the simplest natural laws, that the
self-deluding frenzy of the shaman should, as it frequently does,
produce seemingly supernatural effects, which confirm his in-
fluence.

Among the Indians who frequent the trading-posts many may
be found who have imbibed a few indistinct ideas from Christian
theology, without renouncing their native superstitio or gaining
any comprehension of the cardinal principles of morality or re-
ligion. It is from intercourse with such, that many of the popular
delusions about the " Great Spirit " of the Indians have arisen.

In the present instance, the Indians formed a circle around
a fire, near which lay the sick man wrapped in a dressed deerskin.
Larriown had donned a suit of civilized clothing, which he had
obtained from some trader. He wore a very large black felt hat
with a broad brim, and his wife had a similar equipment, so that
it was difficult to distinguish them. They walked in contrary
directions around the fire, gazing at it or into vacancy. At inter-
vals he uttered a deep bass sound between a shout and a groan,
which she answered in a higher key, both quickening their pace
and occasionally stopping short and shuddering convulsively from
head to foot. At last the responses were more rapid and assumed
a kind of rhythm ; the whole circle of Indians acted as chorus in

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

the intervals. In the midnight dusk the circle of tall swarthy
forms in strange apparel, the fitful gleams of firelight, the groans
of the sick man, and the mysterious writhing forms before him, all
united to give to the strange chorus an intensely dramatic effect.

Contortions which were almost convulsions shook those two
black forms, while the fiendish eyes of Larri6wn rolled until the
whites alone were visible. Between the spasms both made mes-
meric passes over the sick man, keeping time with the deep
monotonous chorus, which might well have been the despairing
wail of a lost spirit. The muscular contortions gradually grew
less violent, from sheer weakness. The ring of Indians gradually
broke up, the chorus ceased, and the ceremony was over.

IVcdticsciay, $t/i. — We rose at five, and putting our meat into
the canoe and our baggage into the boat, we followed the Rus-
sians out of the basin. This is the only place on the Yukon
which appears to me safe for wintering a steamer, unless she were
beached. The ice descending in the freshets would at any other
point carry her away or crush her. The heat of the sun was so
great that we lay over from eleven until two, and rested in the
shade of some magnificent birches. Nowikakat is noted for the
beauty and good workmanship of the birch canoes made there.
The single canoes are easily carried in one hand. They are about
twelve feet long, just wide enough to sit down in, and have the
forward end covered for three or four feet with a piece of bark, to
keep water out. They are exceedingly frail. The frame is made of
birch wood steamed, bent, and dried. They are sewed with the
long slender roots of the spruce, and calked with spruce gum. The
bark is put on inside out, shaped, and sewed over a clay model just
the shape and size of the proposed canoe. The regular price for a
single canoe is a shirt, or five marten skins. The paddles are of
the usual lance-head shape, with a ridge in the middle on each
side, running down to the point and strengthening the blade.
They are four or five feet long, with a cross-piece at the end of
the handle, and gayly colored with red ochre, blue carbonate of
copper, or a green fungus which is found in decayed willow wood.
Tlie single canoe will carry a man and a bag of flour.

The large canoes are of the same shape, but will carry three
men and their baggage, in all about six or eight hundred pounds.
They are sometimes sixteen feet long, and do not turn up at the

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

9»

I swarthy
he groans
ire him, all
itic effect,
those two
1 until the
nade mes-
the deep
despairing
ually grew
s gradually
:r.

meat into
d the Rus-
the Yukon
ss she were
t any other
sun was so
;ted in the
ted for the
nade there.
:y are about
have the
of bark, to
is made of
d with the
[gum. The
model just
price for a
idles are of
le on each
the blade,
the end of
.rbonate of
illow wood.

[carry three
|ed pounds,
up at the

ends, as the canoes of the Lake Superior Indians do, but are
straight, and furnished with a Y-shaped prow above the cut-
water. Each carries a dish of spruce gum, some extra pieces
of bark, and a bundle of spruce roots, to repair damages, which
frequently occur ; and a small framework of slats for the occupants
to sit on.

In the afternoon we were surprised to see a wreath of smoke
curling over the trees beyond a point on the river. The small
canoes immediately fell back ; and Ivdn, with his usual cow-
ardice, called out to us to stop, for fear of hostile Indians. Dis-
regarding his warning, we took the lead, and saw a white man
and two Indians standing by a large fire. We supposed it was a
guide, or Antoine Houle himself, whom we had expected to join
at Nuklukahy^t. It turned out to be a man from Fort Yukon,
who stated that he had left the fort on account of long-continued
ill-treatment, and that he had trusted to fortune to enable him to
escape from a tyranny which he had resolved to bear no longer.
He had started from the fort, with a little powder, a gun, and a
few bullets, in a small canoe, and had supported himself by kill-
ing game ; cutting up his bullets into shot, and when these
failed using gravel from the beach. He had just been upset,
lost his gun and everything except what he had on his person.
He had passed Antoine at Nuklukahyit, telling the latter that he
had been sent down with letters for us, as he knew from Ketchum
that we were coming up. Antoine had given him a letter which
Ketchum left for us, and was now on his way back to Fort
Yukon with the furs he had bought. The man gave his name as
Peter McLeod, and stated that he had been fourteen years in the
Hudson Bay Company's service. We called upon him and Ivdn
Pavloff to join us at our noon-day meal, and treated them to
bacon, biscuit, and tea. He assured us that he had not tasted
bread for four years.

Assuming his story to be true, we could not advise him to
return. I furnished him with trading-goods sufficient to purchase
provisions until he should arrive at Nulato. Pavloff, with his
habitual generosity, insisted on furnishing him with a blanket,
to replace that which he had lost, a flint and steel to obtain fire,
and an order to Yagor to feed him until his return. We all
united in wishing him a safe arrival, and in supplying him with

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

such necessaries as we could spare, and then continued on our
way.

Thursday, 6th. — We passed through an exceedingly long pra-
toka, which was so winding and narrow that I suspected we
had got into a small river instead of a slough of the Yukon. We
had intended to travel by night and take our rest in the hot noon-
time ; but the sight of some fresh deer meat in the camp of the
Indians who had preceded us induced my companion to defer
this arrangement until we should leave the Russians at Nuklu-
kahy^t. We therefore camped, and indulged in the luxury of
some hot venison steaks.

Friday, Jth. — We had hitherto been unable to use the track-
ing-line, except at short intervals ; but the slight fall in the water
had left a narrow beach, which we now availed ourselves of

The little river tern, whose bright colors and graceful motions
cannot fail to attract the traveller's eye, was very common in this
part of the river. One of our men in tracking passed near one of
their nests, and the parents immediately attacked him. Swoop-
ing and returning, in long curves, they almost brushed his cap,
uttering loud cries, and keeping it up for several hundred yards.
At last, annoyed by their conduct, which he did not comprehend,
he brandished a large stick in the air. Even then they did not
rest until we were a quarter of a mile from their breeding-place.
I obtained a fine piece of black obsidian on the beach, and
noticed syenitic rocks for the first time in the Yukon territory.

Saturday, 8th. — About eleven o'clock the next day we reached
the mouth of the Tozikdkat, which empties into the Yukon some
fifteen miles from Nuklukahy^t. Here we boiled the chynik
and rested for a while. We usually sent one of the small canoes
up a little distance when we camped near a small river, in order
that we might obtain clear water for making our tea. The Yukon
water is full of sediment. The mosquitoes were exceedingly trouble-
some ; without gloves and a net nothing could be done. The
Indians always placed a dish of wet moss with a few coals in it
on the bows of their canoes ; this produced a smoke which kept
the insects away from the canoe when in motion. We smoked
them out of our tent, when camping, in the same way.

The mouth of the Tozikakat is obstructed by a bar, on which
lay piled hundreds of cords of driftwood.

led on our

' long pra-
ipected we
Likon. We
: hot noon-
amp of the
•n to defer
at Nuklu-
luxury of

the track-
i the water
;s of.

"ill motions
non in this
lear one of
I. Swoop-
id his cap,
I red yards,
mprehend,
ey did not
ding-place.
:each, and
:rritory.
ive reached
ukon some
he chynik
lall canoes
:r, in order
rhe Yukon
;ly trouble-
one. The

coals in it
vhich kept
/e smoked

, on which

1 ll

Till

KON lERRITOkV.

^^3

•J.

where
and I"
This ii
in spri'\.
losc ab<>v-
k'likk and
oi the Yd
view this v>
much bru.Kl'
man has clipp^

ihr br. »•! mouth uf the Tanandh River was acetj,

the \ nkon. The latter curves abruptly to the left,

i« rn ii< s the low laiui, fuiming a point or island.

'u< Mr- neutral [;roiintl where all ti»e tribes meet

" wnd it rose the moiintains. Two summits

iher.t iinown by the Inf-lian nimes of Mo-khinih-

!,i{j-at-hn'. The latter '\» really on the right bank

'i the former on the left, but from our point of

' per''[>tible. At the junction the Tananah is

ui the V'lil-on, yet u)to this noble nvcr nc white

iui* paddle.

llelow the juc tion the Yukon attains a width of five miles at

least A fair wm<l sprang up, and, as usual, the Russians left us

far behind. By duif of hafd paddling, about lialf past five lu the

i*fternoon vsi: rnund-"!) the blurt opposite Niik!iik.^hvci. Utre wc

Ound I'avloH, who, with unexpeci-.d (consideration, was waiting; fvM"

J* We crossed togcthei, with our flaj^s flying;. 1 he Nnklukjhy^t

•vonf\ who had Wen at Nuldto during the winter, hatifd us from

ach. PavlotT answered him, and wc landed, drew up our

ind prcpareil to go throuj;h the ceremony fur such cases

'>«ie and pr(jvided. We forme' in line, with blank char^ies in

•yr guns. The Indians did th.i . sa ne. Tiiey advanced on us

^'■uting, and discharged Ibcir guns i.i the air. Wo returned ih'i

'«niplimont, and they retreated to repeat the performance. After

minute ' of this mock fi;^ht the tyone appeal cvl between us.

•• harangued the Indians, who answered by a .shout. Turning

■ •!, ho informed us ihnt wc wv.rc n>»w at liberty to transact

: asiiicss.
^ntoine and bis Indians had left for I'ort Yukon two days be-
There was little or nchhiitg to eat at Nuklukahyet. Some
'lad been sent by thi- tyone after moose, and meanwhile the
' dances which take place here were performed on empty
hs.

iyone came in with a 5; 'tie di'^h o\ fat as a present. Ijc

;• .J that there was nothing better to ofter us, and i,'ave us a

■- *hich Ketchum bad*wrttt«n during the winter; in it be r*.

;od that we would give the tyone, who had materially assisted

.»!iy powder and bail we couid spare. The pqwdfr and k«?'

liwhed by the Companv vv;is exhausted at NowikdkaS, tiift I

■s^'
^^^

0",

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

To the east the broad mouth of the Tanandh River was seen,
where it joins the Yukon. The latter curves abruptly to the left,
and between them lies the low land, forming a point or island.
This is Nuklukahyet, the neutral ground where all the tribes meet
in spring to trade, lichind it rose the mountains. Two summits
rose above the othe known by the Indian names of Mo-kldu-o-
klikli and Alout-klag-at-lin . The latter is really on the right bank
of the Yukon, and the former on the left, but from our point of
view this was not perceptible. At the junction the Tanandh is
much broader than the Yukon, yet into this noble river no white
man has dipped his paddle.

Helovv the junction the Yukon attains a width of five miles at
least. A fair wind sprang up, and, as usual, the Russians left us
far behind. Hy dint of hard paddling, about half past five in the
afternoon we rounded the bluft" opposite Nuklukahy<^t. Here we
found Piivlofir, who, with unexpected consideration, was waiting for
us. We crossed together, with our flags flying. The Nuklukahyt^t
tyone, who had been at Nuldto during the winter, hailed us from
the beach. Pdvloff answered him, and we landed, drew up our
boats, and prepared to go through the ceremony for such cases
made and provided. We formed in line, with blank charges in
our guns. The Indians did the same. They advanced on us
shouting, and discharged their guns in the air. We returned the
compliment, and they retreated to repeat the performance. After
ten minutes of this mock fight the tyone appeared between us.
He harangued the Indians, who answered by a shout. Turning
to us, he informed us that we were now at liberty to transact
our business.

Antoine and his Indians had left for Fort Yukon two days be-
fore. There was little or nothing to eat at Nuklukuhy6t. Some
men had been sent' by the tyone after moose, and meanwhile the
annual dances which take place here were performed on empty
stomachs.

The tyone came in with a little dish of fat as a present. He
regretted that there was nothing better to otiter us, and gave us a
note which Ketchum had written during the winter; in it he re-
quested that we would give the tyone, who had materially assisted
him, any powder and ball we could spare. The powder and ball
furnished by the Company was exhausted at Nowikdkat, but I

' 1

f I

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

made him a present of a can of powder and forty balls from my
own private supplies, and asked him to keep a little meat for us
when we should return, \vaich he promised to do. He was a
rather good-looking Indian, possessed a good deal of intelligence,
and was younger than any other tyone we had seen. He wore an
English hunting-shirt of red flannel, ornamented on the shoulders
with large pearl buttons, and fringes of mooseskin. Around his
waist was a long Hudson Bay sash. He wore moccas-ns, and
mooseskin trousers cut in the English fashion, with fringes down

Young Nuklukahyet tyone.

the outside of the leg, and blue leggins tied with a band of bead-
work below the knee. His black glossy hair was cut st.aight
around the neck, and parted a little on one side. Altogethev,
he appeared much cleaner and more attentive to dress than
any of the Indians of the Lower Yukon.

All these Indians paint their faces. Black is obtained by rub-
bing charcoal and fat together. Vermilion is purchased of the
traders, and supplies the place of the red oxide of iron which they
formerly used. I saw one who appeared to have used graphite,
or plumbago, on his face, but on examining the article itself it

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

from my
leat for us
He was a
telligence,
^e wore an
; shoulders
Ground his
;as'ns, and
nges down

Ind of bead-
:ut st.aight
lAltogethev,
Idress than

led by rub-
iscd of the
[which they
Id graphite,
:le itself it

proved to be micaceous oxide of iron, and was said to be obtained
on the banks of the Tananah.

They wear an ornament made of dentalium, the sookli of the
Russians, and " money-shell " of American traders. It is here

Nuse ornament of the Yukon Indians.

represented of natural size. A hole is pierced through the skin
of the nose, below the cartilage, when very young. Women
and men alike wore it ; while at Koyiikuk we noticed it only
among the women.

These Indians are fond of ornaments, and among other things I
noticed in use as such were necklaces of bears' claws and teeth,
sable tails, wolf ears, bands of beads and dentalia, embroidery of
dyed porcupine quills, small ermine skins, hawk and eagle feath-
ers, beavers' teeth (with which they whet their knives), and the
bright green scalps of the mallard. Some wore hoops of birch
wood around the neck and wrists, with various patterns and fig-
ures cut on them. These were said to be emblems of mourn-
ing for the dead.

I noticed several graves in which the dead were enclosed, in a
standing posture, in a circle of sticks squared on four sides and
r>ecured by hoops of green wood, thus looking much like a cask.
From the sticks hung strips of cloth and fur.

In the afternoon we witnessed one of their dances. The spec-
tators formed a circle around two men who were the performers,
and joined in the usual monotonous chorus of" Ho, ho, ha, ha," &c.
The dancers were stripped to the waist, and held in each hand
eagles' feathers tipped with bits of swan's-down. Their heads
were shaved, and bound with fillets of feathers. The dance con-
sisted in motions of the head, arms, legs, and every muscle of
the body in succession ; putting themselves in every imaginable
posture, joining in the chorus, and keeping exact time with it and
with each other. I could not find out its emblematic meaning.

We engaged two Indians to take the canoe of meat to Fort
Yukon. One of them, whom we had called Bidarshik, had come
with us from Novvikakat. The other was a wild specimen of the
Nuklukahy^t tribe, whom we decided to name Dick. A number

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

■ \

of others indicated their intention to travel with us to Fort
Yukon and trade there. One of them had been employed by
Ketch um the previous summer. About three o'clock in trie
afternoon we loft Nuklukahyet and the Russians behind us,
receiving a salute from them, which we duly returned.

The river was becoming deeper and narrower, and the hills
were rising and approaching more closely to the Yukon, as we
ascended. Late in the afternoon a sunken rock cut a hole in the

In the Ramparts,

bidarra, and we halted for repairs. On account of the extreme
heat we now decided to travel by night and camp in the hottest
part of the day.

Monday, \oth. — We entered, about three o'clock in the after-
noon, between high bl'iffs and hills rising perhaps fifteen hun-
dred feet above the river, which here was exceedingly deep
and rapid and not more than half a mile wide. The bends
were abrupt, and the absence of sunlight and the extreme quiet

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

us to Fort
:mployed by
lock in the
i behind us,
ncd.

md the hills
rukon, as we
a hole in the

produced a feeling as if we had been travelling underground.
The appropriate and expressive English name for these bluffs is
" the Ramparts."

We were approaching the so-called Rapids of the Yukon, of
which we had heard so many rtories. The Russians had pre-
dicted that we should not be able to ascend them. The Indians
joined in this expression of opinion, and had no end of stories
about the velocity of the current and the difficulty experienced in

If the extreme
lin the hottest

in the after-
fifteen hun-
pedingly deep
The bends
lextreme quiet

Looking back at the Rapido.

ascending them. We all felt a little anxious, but v^rere conhdent
of overcoming the supposed difficulty in fon'" way. We met
some Indians and obtained a little fresh meat. About midnight
we arrived at the Rapids. The river is very narrow here, an(|
the rocky hills rise sharply from the water. The rocks are
metamorphic quartzites, and a dike or belt of hard granitic rock
crosses the river. The fall is about twelve feet in half a mile.
The rapid current has worn the granite away on either side,
7

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

forming two good channels, but in the middle is an island of
granite, over which the river rushes in a sheet of foam during
high water. There are several smaller " rips " along the shore,
especially near the left bank, but nothing to interr ipt steamer
navigation, except the very rapid current.

Several Indians attempted to ascend in their small canoes.
We saw them reach a point just below the island, and by dint
of the hardest paddling keep stationary there a few minutes ;
when, their strength being exhausted, away went the canoes
down stream like arrows.

We joined our tracking-line with several rawhide lines belong-
ing to the Indians, and by keeping close to the rocks succeeded
in tracking over the worst part without much difficulty. Taking
our seats again, we had a hard pull to pass one jutting rock, and
our troubles were over. We then enjoyed a well-earned cup of
tea, and took a parting glance at the Rapids from above. From
this point only a broad patch of foam in the middle of the river
indicated their existence.

Tuesday, wth. — Coal has been said to exist in this vicinity,
but erroneously, Ther:; are no sandstones or other fossiliferous
rocks, and the granite is immediately succeeded by quartzites.
I found plenty of wild garlic on the rocks, and currant and goose-
berry vines in blossom. The Indians were attended by numerous
l.'ttle dogs, which ran along the shore, following the canoes, and
sometimes swam across the Yukon two or three times in a day.
These were excellent hunters, but too small to use with sleds.
During the day they dislodged a porcupine, of which I secured
the skull.

Several women were with their husbands, who intended to
leave them somewhere on the road until their return from trad-
ing. They were hideously ugly and dirty, — far worse than the
Koyvikuns or Ingaliks whom I had seen. They took chaige of
the large canoes with the baggage, while the husband carried the
furs in his small canoe. There were several babies, all very dirty,
but otherwise like most Indian babies. During the day they
were tied into a kind of chair made of birch bark and packed
v^ h clean dry moss, which was changed when occasion required.
: ' e object itself looked much like an ordinary willow baby-chair,
but nad a projection in front between the child's legs, which came

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

; an island of
f foam during
jng the shore,
;rr ipt steamer

small canoes,
id, and by dint

few minutes ;
nt the canoes

le lines belong-
ocks succeeded
iculty. Taking
Iting rock, and
1-earned cup of
1 above. From
die of the river

in this vicinity,
her fossiliferous
i by quartzites.
rant and goose-
ed by numerous
the canoes, and
times in a day.
use with sleds,
which I secured

ho intended to
turn from trad-
worse than the

took chai ge of
)and carried the
-s, all very dirty,
T the day they
ark and packed
casion required.

low baby-chair,
3gs, which came

up as far as its breast, and prevented its tumbling out when
untied.

It is remarkable that there are no terraces along the river, and
the flinty rocks show ice-markings only for a foot or two along
high-water mark.

Wednesday, \2t/t, — The water, which had fallen some two
feet, rose about six inches during the day. The Indians assert
that this second rise always takes place, and precedes the starting
of the salmon up stream. We passed a dead moose in ihe water,
and shortly after the Indians killed another, some of the meat
of which we purchased. Passed a wrecked canoe on some shoals.
The next day we passed the Yukutzcharkat River, which Cap-
tain Ketchum had called, on his sketch-map, the VVhymper
River, in compliment to our friend and companion, Mr. Frederick
Whymper.

Thursday, 13///. — The long handle of our frying-pan having
broken off, as they invariably do in travelling, it had been bent,
«o that it might be used to catch hold of the pan, put it on and
off the fire when hot, &c. We were much annoyed at finding
that our Indians had left it behind at the last camp. This may
.seem trivial ; but it is no small undertaking to use a frying-pan
without a handle on an open wood-fire. Such acc'dents in an un-
inhabited country bring forcibly before the mind the great value
of many small conveniences which we never think of at home.
The night was spent in tracking around a very long bend, which
left us in the morning only a few miles in a direct line from the
point which we had left in the afternoon. We cut the skin of our
bidarra again, but pushed on, keeping her dry by bailing.

Bidarshik and Mikaishka, who kept in advance of us, killed a
large moose, and we were well supplied with fresh meat.

Friday, 14///. — Passed a very small stream called by the In-
dians Tdtsun-ikhtnn, or " Caught-in-the-rocks." I found a fos-
sil skull of the musk ox {Ovibos vioschaius) on the beach. Wild
roses, snowballs, and gold-thread were in blossom on the hillsides,
and the fragrant juniper scented the air. A fine bluff, with a
rocky face like a great staircase, marked the mouth of the Tsee-
toht River on the right bank. After this the river begins to
widen, and numerous small islands occur.

Saturday, \ yh. — The next day we left the mountains be-

BlBUOTHi !:.
OUavionsi-'

R]'

lOO

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

hind us. Just beyond them the Notokdkat, or Dall River of
Ketchum, enters the Yukon from the north. The latter river is
very broad at this point. We passed through some very strong
water. Not the least annoyance in this kind of travel is the con-
stant complaining of the Indians, unused to steady hard work
and ever ready to shirk, doing on principle the least they can.

Monday, ijth. — We enjoyed from our camp a fine view of the
end of the Ramparts and the intervening islands. Passed by
several deserted houses formerly inhabited by some Indians of
the Kutchin tribes, who all died five years ago of the .scarlet fever.
This fever was introduced by a trading-vessel at the mouth of the
Chilkaht River. From the Chilkaht Indians it spread to those
of the Upper Yukon, and down the river to this point, where all
died and the disease spent itself. These are known to the Eng-
lish as the Small Houses, and the locality is an excellent one for
game and fish of all kinds. The women were left behind on an
island in the morning, and the Indians, relieved of the heavy
canoes, were already far in advance of us.

Ttiesday, \%th. — One of the few who accompanied us fol-
lowed a cow-moose in the water until tired out, when he killed
her with his knife, and with some difficulty we towed her ashore.
We occasionally saw a black bear or a Canada lynx on the
bank. For .several days we kept steadily on, little of interest
occurring. It was noticed that the trees began to grow smaller
and more sparse as we ascended the river. The sun hardly
dipped below the horizon at midnight, and his noontide rays
scorched like a furnace. The mosquitoes were like smoke in the
air. Through constant and enforced observation, I came to dis-
tinguish four kinds, — a large gray one, and another with white
leg-joints, a very small dust-colored one which held its probos-
cis horizontally in advance, and another small one which carried
its probe in the orthodox manner. All were distinguished from
the civilized species by th^; reckless daring of their attack.
Thousands might be killed before their eyes, yet the survivors
sounded their trumpets and carried on the war. A blanket of-
fered them no impediment ; buckskin alone defied their art. At
meal-times, forced to remove our nets, we sat until nearly stifled
in the smoke, and, emerging for a breath of air, received no
mercy. My companion's hands, between sunburn and mos-

U River of
itter river is
very strong
1 is the con-
' hard work
it they can.
I view of the
Passed by
: Indians of
scarlet fever,
mouth of the
ead to those
int, where all
I to the En^-
illent one for
behind on an
of the heavy

s^*Vi,;^

■*. :*

■■ V

4lr:'

inied us fol-
hen he killed
d her ashore,
lynx on the
le of interest
grow smaller
sun hardly
oontide rays
smoke in the
came to dis-
r with white
Id its probos-
hich carried
guished from
their attack.
|the survivors
blanket of-
Iheir art. At
nearly stifled
received no
n and mos-

■;./

. V.U ii .(;., . ,

^r^'

'V: >

•i1

I % '
-^

*■" '""'"^.l' '■ H

lOO

THE YUKON TKRKITORV,

hinfj U3. Just bcyomJ ihau the Motokdk.it, or l).x\[ River oi
Kclchum, « jiters the Yukon fnuM the north. The latter river i«
very brijul at tfiis point. We passed throngli some very stroni
water. Not the least ann())ar'ce in ihi.'' kin*! of travel is the cor
stanr i.-'mp!aming of the Indiana, unused ti> steady iiard wor.
an«.< ever ready to shirk, doin^,' om principle the least they can

Muntiaw 17///. — We enjo)ed from our camp a fine view of tii
end of the Kamparts and the intcrveninj<: islands. I'as.scd b
several deserted houses formerly inhabited by some Indians o
the Kut_hin tri!x;s, who all died five yeais ago of the scarlet fevei
This fever was introduced by a tnuhnjf-vessel at tl» mouth of th
» 'liilkaht River. From the Chi]k;iht Indians \* -prrad to tho
'fih'' I'|.<}icr ^'.iluii, and down uie river tu this point, where a'
ilied and tlic disea-^e .spent ithrlf. These are known to tlie ICn-
lish as the Small Houses, an<l ihe locality is an cf\'celient one U
pame and fish of nil kinds. The women were left behind on a
island in the morniufj;, and the Indians, relieved of the hea'
canoes, were already far .n advaiice of us.

'Iiifs<iay, i<S//r. — Cjne of the few who arxompanied u.^ ;
lowed a cow-moose in the water unid tired out, when ho kil'n
her Nvith his knite, and with .-Aome difficulty wc towed her ashoi-f .
We occasionaliv .saw a black bear or a Canada 1) n.x o\\ t'le
bank. For several days we kept steadily on, little of interest
oecurriu}^. It w:is noticed that the trees began to grow sma'lei
ana more sparse as we ascended the river. The sun hardly
dipjieil below the horizon at ntidnight, and his noontide ray.s
sqorchcd like a furnace. The mosquitoes were like smoke in the
air. Through con'^tant and enforced oh.scrvati()n, 1 came to di.;-
tinguish four kinds. — a large gray one, and another with white
leg-joints, a wry small dust-colored one which held its prohos-
'i'' h-rizuntally in advance, and anoiher small one which carried
It' .•r.''be in the orthexlo.K manner. All \\k:yc distinguished troin
the -Hafttd species by ihj r-.ckless dariiig of their attack.
Thou-^viftt might be killed before their eves, }ct the survivors
founded ^Mfce* tnnnpsns and carried on the war. A blaid<et of
f"Mi(} the r ?v'. I'Tipedimenl ; buckskin alon.- defied their art. At
nieal-times, ■ 4 -.1 ',0 remove our net.s. wc sat until nearly stifled
in the ^Ynoke, ■• ' emerging for a breath of air, received nd
mercy. My cott};U't«ftn's hands, between sunburn and mos

!m 'i

U Riv<;r o'
Lttcr river i*
very stronL
1 is the cor
I iiard worts
it tlicy can
! view of ttv
Tasscci b".
; Indians o'
scarlet fevc-i
inmitli of ill'
oad to thu:.
int. where ali
1 to the Vav^
client one U>
behind on ::
of the heav.'

anied iis ; '
'hen ho kilt< 1
:d her ashcirf.
lynx on t'le
le of intenfSt
^nnw sniaUer
• su!i liaidlv
-•..uiitidc ray-,
smt'ke in the
1 came to diii-
■ , with white
' its prolws-
wl.ich catricf!
riguished Ironi
their attacii.
{\v survivors
A blanket of-
liheir art. A'
nearly stifled
received w
vn and mov

n
a

hi
tr
T
C;
lei

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

lOI

quitoes, were nearly raw, and T can well conceive that a man
without a net, in one of these marshes, would soon die from
nervous exhaustion. The mosquitoes drive the moose, deer, and
bear into the river, and all nature rejoices when the end of July
comes, and their reign is at an end.

Hoth banks had become very low and flat ; the repion had a
dreary appearance. Only five snow-covered peaks, supposed to be
]iart of the Romdntzoff range, rose above the level of the plains.
These are the only mountains near the Yukon, in Russian
.America north of the Alaskan range, which bear snow through-
out the year.

The plain here described reaches to the shores of the Arctic
Ocean, broken only by a few ranges of low mountains near the
coast, of which the Romdntzoffare the highest. To the eastward
it rises almost imperceptibly, attaining its highest elevation be-
tween the head-waters of the Porcupine and the left bank of the
Mackenzie. This table-land, somewhat broken and rocky, as seen
abutting on the Mackenzie River has the appearance of high
hills. These are the "mountains" of Richardson. There arc
no true mountains north of the Yukon, except the Romdntzoff.
Nothing of less than five thousand feet in height has a ri^^ht to
the title of mountain ; but in the careless speech of the Hudson
Bay trappers and traders anything more than two hundred feet
high is a " mountain."

Saturday, 22d. — After passing the Birch River of the Eng-
lish, called by the Indians To/nvnn-tinkdka, we came upon a
camp of the Kutcha Kutchin'. Camping here, I purchased a
number of fish, which they were catching and drying. There
were four or five men, a boy or two, and five women. All were
much finer-looking than the Unakhatana we had left behind us
at Nuklukahydt. All wore many articles of English make ; one
of the women had a calico drc-.s on. They had many dogs, all
of the black, short-haired, long-leg^jed English breed.

The men wore the Hudson Bay moccasins, leggins, and fringed
hunting-shirts of buckskin, originally introduced by the English
traders, who obtained them from the tribes to the southeast.
They had abimdance of the fine bead-work in which the French
Canadians delight, and which those women who frequent the forts
learn to excel in.

I02

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

The next afternoon, when we awoke we found the old chief
from Fort Yukon waiting to see us. After a Hberal present of
tobacco and a tin cup, he returned the compliment by a small
piece of very fa' moose meat. The old fellow's name was SaUi-
iii-ii, which the traders have corrupted into Senatee. The heat
was so extreme that we deferred our start until half past eight
in the evening.

Sunday, 2id. — We stopped for tea and rest twice , and when
opposite the mouth of the Porcupine River v/c delayed a few mo-
ments, to set the colors and load our fire-arms. Rounding a bend
of the river, about noon we saw the white buildings of the fort on
the right bank, about a mile above the mouth of the Porcupine.
We gave them a hearty salute, which was returned by a fusillade
from a large crowd of Indians who had collected on the bank.
Landing, we received a cordial greeting from an old French Cana-
dian and two Scotchmen, who were the only occupants. The
commander and Antoine Houle were daily expected, with the
remainder of the men and the auiiual supply of goods from La
Pierre's house, by way of the Porcupine River.

We were shown to a room in the commander's house, where
we deposited our baggage ; and, after putting our boat and
equipment in safety, we turned in for a good nap.

The journey, exclusive of the time spent at Nowikakat and
Kame,.sikhter, had occupied less than twenty-seven days, and
the disip.nce travelled we estimated as about six hundred and
thirty miles. In a straight line the distance from Nuldto to Fort
Yukon is over four hundred and eighty miles.

We were much elated at the successful issue of our journey,
and I confess to having felt a pardonable pride in being the first
American to reach Fort Yukon from the sea.

This trading-post was founded by McMurray in the season of
1846-47, and the original fort was a mile or more farther up the
river. The present fort was commenced in 1864, and at the
time of our visit needed only the erection of a stockade to com-
plete it. The cause of the change of location was the undermin-
ing and washing away by the river of the steep bank on which
the old fort was built. At this period, the old houses had been
removed, and some of the remaining foundation-timbers projected
far over the water.

the old chief
ral present of
nt by a small
ime was SaUi-
:ee. The heat
mlf past eight

ce ; and when
lyed a few mo-
unding a bend
I of the fort on
the Porcupine.
I by a fusillade
on the bank.
French Cana-
:upants. The
;ted, with the
oods from La

house, where
our boat and
ip.

owikakat and
^en days, and

hundred and
*Iulato to Fort

r our journey,
being the first

the season of
farther up the
4, and at the
ckade to com-
the undermin-
xnk on which
scs had been
bers projected

■V. • <. U

irrrr-

i I !

^ ^

W '^

liiii

THE YUKON TERRITORY,

103

If,

LV,

-ont builc!ing;.s cunsist of a lar<rc house, cnnlaining .six

the comnKituier : a block ui three houses, of one room

.he workmen ; a la!f:;e storehouse ; a kilch<Mi ; and four

OS. or bastions pierced for musketry, nt'thc corner^ (if

• Hxl stOckude. Outside of the fort is a small house of

% belonging to Antoine Houlc the interpreter.

. '• hou^^es were strongly built, roofed with sheets of spruce

lod and fastened down by lonq; poles. The sides were

. with a white ni'-n:u" uiade from shcll-inarl, obtainable in

'•*i?^*j#inity. Most of the windows were of' j)arehment, but those

;nmander's liouse were of glass. The latter was prnviiled

•ii's f,ood plank Hoor.s, ai d ihc doors and «:ashcs were painted

--.with ochre. The yird was fret: from dirt, and the houses,

* J t?ieir white walls and r-d trimnjings, made a very favorable
w'Tiparison with w-- of those in the Russian p/sts. "*■

i. oe fort -a .■ ; ' ibout tn-o hundred .nl'j.s frou^ I.i i'ierre'.s

'Inline, by thv ji .,,i/ie k'ver, the joi* lii'^v \.\^c\(: and l)ack hemp;

normed in about tvvc!-,;\' da}'.-. Further particular, in K-.i^-'ard

.{s geographical position will be found elsewhere. Tiic inha'j-

•Us aic all cm[)lo\es of the Hud>;bn Hay Company. Most <.>f

■ '."J are from the Orkney Islands and tin' rorth of Scotland,

. ,!c a few arc F,. licb. Catiadians, with a tni.xtureof Indian !)iooil.

v ihis time the garrison eonsisleri/of !Vir.J. McDongal the com-

.• .dcr, and si,x. men, of wliom (our were .Scotchmen The Rev.

McDonald, a mi.ssionary of the Estnblislied Church, wns also

• «:ted with the boats.

'fie ue.xl day we got u|> a p-n rl hreakf.v-.t, nnd invited the three
*h»i had reci'.ivcd uf '".\c r<'[)ast consisted of flapjnrk.s,

• » •■■■\, tea with su^ar, m-i •. ■ - ceat As 'several of lh< m had
.,?'= :>mv. ''-ars wiihout t.. ■ 'read, it m.vv be ima-fi:-.'"! this

■ »'/i... treat to them, i . 'u. .or men and d";^'^ it this place

»;uiir, i. c. drv moose nr'-.j. . 'ernathiij, with (Uy deer merit,

^ .4..»'.iy varied by tVesh "lea >if 'i\t same kindv ind tlie sligiil

•( A ^.atnc anr! fish »v'hich s n>w and then obl.im.ibK?. The

-"<__ ; ,'*<vds which are desirned f.*i this p>int take two years

•r rv-iTiAr^ation from Yor> Kfutf-y or, Hudson Hay. <.ine

'■ mrr fifty nulo: i.i^ to be made, between I'ort Mc-

h tVel River. La I'ierre's House on the I'jjptr i'or-

■^T^ fi«re the gcv

'.re carried on sleds '\^^ winter, arrow^

^i^p

'■Ki:

■""-^ ■'■..,. ■■■> #> 4-;-^ -;,','">Sifv

'«&

** '

:^*J

,.>»•*''■'

^^^ '

"v-*

»«a

t.:"^^

^M'i^_

•«N„

r."**^

jA^li'it.

THE YUKON TERRITORY,

103

'Wi*:

^■' f '.1-

^..

1'. .

''..\f^.

i->

■*■■'

^d^''

• ._^

JjjBy

■f'W *''

- ■ "^ ,1 ,

■■r<^^

''^

.■1; J

The present buildings consist of a large house, containing six
rooms, for the commander ; a block of three houses, of one room
each, for the workmen ; a large storehouse ; a kitchen ; and four
block-houses, or bastions pierced for musketry, at the corners of
the proposed stockade. Outside of the fort is a small house of
two rooms, belonging to Antoine Houle the interpreter.

All the houses were strongly built, roofed with sheets of spruce
bark pinned and fastened down by long poles. The sides were
plastered with a white mortar made from shell-marl, obtainable in
the vicinity. Most of the windows were of parchment, but those
of the commander's house were of glass. The latter was provided
with good plank floors, and the doors and sashes were painted
red with ochre. The yard was free from dirt, and the houses,
with their white walls and red trimmings, made a very favorable
comparison with any of those in the Russian posts.

The fort is situated about two hundred miles from La Pierre's
House, hy the Porcupine River, the journey there and back being
performed in about twenty days. Further particulars in regard
to its geographical position will be found elsewhere. The inhab-
itants are all employes of the Hudson Bay Company. Most of
them are from the Orkney Islands and the north of Scotland,
while a few are French Canadians, with a mixture of Indian blood.
At this time the garrison consisted of Mr. J. McDougal the com-
mander, and six men, of whom four were Scotchmen. The Rev.
Mr. McDonald, a missionary of the Established Church, was also
expected with the boats.

The next day we got up a good breakfast, and invited the three
men who had received us. The repast consisted of flapjacks,
bacon, tea with sugar, and moose meat. As several of them had
been some years without tasting bread, it may be imagined this
was a rare treat to them. The fare for men and dogs A this place
is the same, i, e. dry moose meat alternating with dry deer meat,
occasionally varied by fresh meat of the same kind, and the slight
supply of game and fish which is now and then obtainable. The
trading-goods which are designed for this point take two years
in transportation from York Factory on Hudson Bay. One
portage of over fifty miles has to be made, between Fort Mc-
Pherson, on Peel River, to La Pierre's House on the Upper Por-
cupine. Here the goods are carried on sleds in winter, across

I04

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

the high, rough, and broken table-land between the two rivers.
On account of these difficulties in transportation, few provisions
are ever sent to this isolated post. These few find their way to
the table of the commander, or to the Indian tyones who bring
large quantities of furs to the annual trade. The men should re-
ceive three pounds of tea and six of sugar, annually, to flavor
their diet of dry meat ; but I was informed that this supply was
exceedingly irregular, and often failed entirely.

The Indian chiefs often obtain a small present of tea, sugar, or
flour, but the latter is quite inaccessible to the men, except through
the favor of the commander. These men are allowed two suits
of clothes annually, if the supply holds out ; but for anything else
they must wait until the furs are all purchased, and then, if any-
thing remain after the Indians are satisfied, the mei»are allowed
to purchase. Even if by their own skill they trap furs enough to
buy articles of clothing, the Indians still take the precedence.
They are allowed to purchase what they can from the Indians,
but must turn it all in to the Company, and, if they need it, must
buy it at Company's prices. The standard of value is the beaver-
skin. One " made beaver," as they express it, is worth two shil-
lings, or two marten skins. A man buys a dressed mooseskin,
to make moccasins of, at its regular value of two " made beaver,"
or four shillings. He cannot set his wife at work making mocca-
sins, but must sell it to the Company for what he paid the In-
dians, and buy it back for tivcniy shillings, which is the Company's
selling-price. If he does not do this he is liable to lose all his
Dast earnings which happen to be in the Company's hands, and
■ iice a flogging beside from the commander. Every effort is
made, to make these men marry Indian wives ; thus forcing them
to remain in the country by burdening them with females whom
they are ashamed to take back to civilization, and cannot desert.
They perform a larger amount of manual labor for smaller pay
than any other civilized people on the globe.

The hardships and exposures to which they are subjected are
beyond belief. In fact, the whole system is one of the nicst exact-
ing tyranny ; and only in the north of Scotland could men of
intelligence be found who would submit to it. The systematic
way in which the white " servant of the Company " is ground
down below the level of the Indians about him, is a degrada-

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

105

tion few could bear. They are not even furnished with good
tools. The Hudson Bay axe is a narrow wedge, which an
American lumberman would reject with contempt. The Hud-
son Bay knives — at least such as I saw at Fort Yukon —
are so worthless that even the Indians prefer to buy files, and

Knife of Kutcliin manufacture.

manufacture their own knives from them. The guns are all
flint-locks of the most miserable description ; and this rubbish
must be bought at treb ^ its value by the Hudson Bay voy-
ageur, in a country where the axe and gun are a man's right and
left hands ! There is some comfort in reflecting that a few years
will put an end to this. Free traders already pass through the
greater part of the Hudson Bay territory without restraint, and
they will not be long in reaching a district so rich in valuable
furs as that of Fort Yukon.

The sun was so intensely hot that in the middle of the day we
could do nothing, but during the cooler hours much of interest
was added to my collection and my companion's portfolio. At
noon, out of the direct rays of the sun, one of Greene's standard
thermometers stood at 112" Fahrenheit. The men informed me
that on several occasions spirit thermometers had burst with the
heat. In the depth of winter the spirit falls sometimes as low as
sixty-eight and sixty-nine below zero, making a range for the
year of one hundred and eighty degrees Fahrenheit ! Neverthe-
less, potatoes, turnips, lettuce, and other hardy garden vegetables
mature during the short hot summer, and barley was said to have
succeeded once, but only reached a few inches in height.

We were very well pleased to hear from an Indian runner
that the boats were not far off. On the 26th of June, Messrs.
McDougal, McDonald, and Sibbeston arrived with the bateaux.
The latter were about forty feet long, nine feet beam, and drew
two and a half feet of water. They are well adapted to the
navigation of the Porcupine, which is full of shoals and sand-
bars, and they brought a load of nine thousand pounds each from
La Pierre's House.

io6

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

We invited the commander and Mr. IvTcDonald to be our
guests for the day, and did our best to provide a good dinner.
We found them to be typical Scots, — quiet, reserved, cautious, but
hospitably inclined. Antoine Iloule the interpreter, who arrived
with them, was of mixed French and Indian blood, and was a thor-
ough voyageur. More independent than most of the Company's
servants, he had his house to himself outside of the fort ; and
like many of his Indian cousins, deaf to the remonstrances of the
missionaries, had provided himself with one more wife than is
usual in civilized countries. This was the more excusable, as the
poor fellow suffered from ossification of the knee-joint, and could
do but little to help himself His house was always open to
every one, and was a noted resort of the Indians, with whom he
was a great favorite. With them he could talk in their own
dialects, while the usual mode of communication between the
whites and Indians in this locality is a jargon somewhat like
Chinook, known by the name of " Broken Slave." The basis of
this jargon, which includes many modified French and English
words, is the dialect of Liard River. The nati' name of the
tribe called Slav6 is AMto-tinnch, or " People living out of the
wind."

The next business for Mr. McDougal, after storing his goods,
was the annual trade. Every spring the Yukon, and other In-
dians who do not trade with the Russians, assemble at Fort Yukon,
there await the arrival of he boats with the new supply of tobacco
and goods, and then do their trading. After this is over, the furs
are put into a large press, which is a conspicuous object in the
yard, and pressed into bundles weighing about ninety pounds
each. These bundles are covered with beaver-skins of the poorest
class, and are pressed so solid by means of wedges that, even if
dropped into the river, the water will not penetrate them. Each
bundle contains a certain number of marten or fox skins packed in
beaver ; they are bound with rawhide cut in strips known as
" babiche," and each bundle is called a " piece."

After the trade is over and the furs are packed, they are taken
in the boats to La Pierre's House, and the boats return empty.
Any remaining goods are laid aside, and sent down the river in
the following spring to Nuklukahy^t. During the remainder of
the year but little trading is done, and months pass without an

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

107

Indian visiting the fort. A certain amount of tobacco is distrib-
uted among the men, and a certain amount is cached, in order
that they may not be entirely without the article in the spring.
The flint-lock guns sold by the Hudson Bay Company are pre-
ferred by the Indians to percussion guns, as caps are not always
obtainable, while a flint may be picked up on any beach. These
guns are valued at forty marten skins. They cost five dollars
apiece, and the skins will average one hundred and fifty dollars
in total value.

On the afternoon of the 27th a shout was raised that the
Tanandh Indians were coming. On going to the beach, some

Sakhniti.

twenty-five single canoes were seen approaching. The occupants
kept perfect time with their paddles, advancing in three platoons,
and passed over the water as swiftly and beautifully as a flock of
ducks.

Sakhnfti, the chief of the Kutcha Kutchin, or Fort Yukon In-
dians, stood on the bank dressed in his gayest costume, with a
richly embroidered blue blanket wrapped about him. He hailed
the foremost canoes as soon as they were out of the current.
After a harangue of a few minutes a fusillade was commenced by

■T

y 1

' '

1 08

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

the Indians on shore, and returned by those in the canoes, after
which they landed. The Tenan Kutchin (people of the moun-
tains), or Indians of the Tananah, are known to the Hudson Bay
men as Gens des Buttes. They are without doubt the tribe of all
others which has had the least to do with the whites. No white
man has yet explored the river on which they live. We only know
that its head-waters are not very far from Fort Yukon, and that
its general course is parallel with the Yukon. It is represented
as running between mountains, and obstructed with rapids and
cascades. The Tenan Kutchin are regarded with fear by the
adjacent tribes, and are doubtless a wild and untamable people.
Their numbers are supposed not to exceed one hundred and fifty
families. Of their mode of life nothing is known, except that they
obtain their subsistence principally by hunting the deer. No
women accompanied this party. They were all dressed in the
pointed parki'es, which were once the universal male dress of the
family of Tinneh, and from which they have been called Chippe-
wayans, meaning " pointed coats." These coats were ornamented
in the same manner with beads or quills as the dress of the male
Koyiikuns, already described. Their parkies and breeches were
smeared with red ochre. All wore the dentalium nose-ornament
previously noted. The most striking peculiarity about them was
their jnethod of dressing their hair. Allowed to grow to its full
length, and parted in the middle, each lock was smeared with a
mixture of grease and red ochre. These then presented the ap-
pearance of compressed cylinders of red mud about the size of the
finger. This enormous load, weighing in some of the adults at
least fifteen pounds, is gathered in behind the head by a fillet of
dentalium shells. A much smaller bunch hangs on each side of
the face. The whole is then powdered with swan's-down, cut up
finely, so that it arlheres to the hair, presenting a most remarkable
and singular appearance. The dressing of grease and ochre re-
mains through life, more being added as the hair grows.

The fat is soon rancid, and a position to leeward of one of
these gentry is highly undesirable. This method of dressing
the hair is peculiar to the men. Among civilized nations such
practices are confined to the fairer sex. The gulf between
pomatum with gold powder and tallow with red ochre is not as
wide as it seems at first sight ; and the addition of swan's-

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

109

J canoes, after
of the moun-
Hiidson Bay
the tribe of all
es. No white
We only know
ikon, and that
is represented
ith rapids and
b fear by the
amable people,
idred and fifty
xcept that they
the deer. No
dressed in the
lie dress of the
called Chippe-
sre ornamented
;ss of the male
breeches were
nose-ornament
out them was
row to its full
meared with a
isented the ap-
the size of the
the adults at
|d by a fillet of
1 each side of
-down, cut up
lost remarkable
and ochre re-
grows,
[ard of one of
Id of dressing
nations such
[gulf between
mre is not as
m of swan's-

down is a suggestion which is worthy of consideration by the
ladies.

The tribes now represented at the fort, beside the Kutchd
and Tendn Kutchin, were the following : the Naklu' Kiitc/iin,
or Gens de Large, from north of the Porcupine River ; the
Vinitd Kutchin, or Rat Indians, from farther up the Porcupine ;
the Han Kntchin (wood people), or Gens de Bois, from the
Yukon, above Fort Yukon ; and finally, the Tutcluhic Kutchin
(crow people), or Gens de Foux, from still farther up the Yukon.

The tribes resembled each other in appearance and dress.
They all belong to the fcimily of Tinneh, which is their name
for "people." Their habits of life differ somewhat according to
locality, but none have settled villages, — carrying their deerskin
lodges wherever food is most abundant.

Those who live in mountainous districts, hunting the active
deer from summit to summit, are notably the most savage and
unruly. Those ■ no live by hunting the more phlegmatic moose,
which inhabits the lowlands, are much more docile. Their lan-
guages are similar in construction and roots, though not in
the forms of many words. The dialect of the Upper Tananah
assimilates closely to the Kutchin languages, while that spoken
near Nuklukahyt^t resembles more nearly the Ingalik. The
Tananah Indians brought the news of the body of a white man
having been found in the river below.

A sad event had happened at Fort Yukon in the early spring.
A young man named Cowley had been acting as clerk at the
fort, and at the time of the freshet was .shooting geese on an
island across the river. He had crossed in a large canoe with
one of the men employed at the fort. He was a new arrival, and
not accustomed to the mode of life, and was therefore subjected
to many practical jokes from the old voyageurs. Wishing to
return, he could not find the canoe, and supposing that some trick
had been played upon him, the two embarked in a very small
single canoe and attempted to cross. The river was full of ice,
and nothing more was ever seen of them. The wrecked canoe
which we had passed in the Ramparts was doubtless the one in
question. The Rev. Mr. McDonald, being informed of the Indian
rumor, immediately started down the river with a companion, to
investigate the matter, and if necessary to perform the last rites
over the remains.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

Among the chiefs at the fort was a man 6f remarkable intelli-
gf.ice, vvho had been of great service to the whites on various
occasions. He went by the name of Red Leggins, and possessed
great influ-^nce among the Indians. I applied to him for assist-
ance in obtaining ethnological specimens and vocabularies, and
improved the opportunity by taking his portrait.

On the 29tb of June we were called out by the Indians, wl:?
said that Ketch urn was coming. Two canoes were seen in the
distance, and before long we had the gratification of shaking the
hands of our fellow-explorers, and offering them our hearty con-
gratulations on the complete success of their arduous explora-
tions. They had arrived safely at the site of Fort Selkirk,
and brought back as a trophy a piece of one of the blackened
timbers which remained. They reported the river to be open to
navigation up to that point : but just beyond it was a rapid,
where a portage would be necessary. The country was a fine
one, well timbered, abundantly supplied with moose and game,
and inhabited by friendly Indians. An enumeration of the ob-
stacles which they had encountered would be out of place here,
but it may fairly be said that only extreme patience, endurance,
indefatigable energy and courage, could have surmounted them.
They were principally, however, not such as would impede a
well-provided party of regular explorers. We " laid ourselves
out," in California parlance, to get up a good dinner for our
friends ; what with this and the interchange of news and informa-
tion, it was well into the next day before we sought our pillows.

Mr. McDona'd returned, having determined the body to be
that of Ward, Cowle/s companion. He had buried it near the
point where it was foand.

After the trade, which occupied several days, we obtained
the necessary goods to pay our Indians for the trip. To those
who had come up with us from Nulato we gave each a gun ; the
Nuklukahy6t man received a good capote ; and we gave a knife,
shiri, and powder-horn to Bidarshik.

Our diet while at the fort consisted chiefly of boiled dried
meat, which when cooked resembles in flaVor and stringiness a
boiled skein of yarn.

Mr. McDonald during our stay performed several services
among the Indians. He was an earnest and well-disposed man.

ble intelH-
)n various
possessed
for assist-
larics, and

dians, wh?
rcn in the
liaking the
icarty con-
s explora-
-t Selkirk,
blackened
be open to
Ls a rapid,
was a fine
and game,
of the ob-
olace here,
endurance,
tited them,
impede a

ourselves
er for our
d informa-

pillows.
ody to be

near the

obtained
To those
1 gun ; the
e a knife,

)iled dried
inginess a

1 services
losed man.

mi¥'

<r>? "

m:f^-

%l.V KI-. *. ••. I NS.

1 lO

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

Ainon^ the chiefs at the for»^ was a man 6f ipmatkaMc uitelli-
gence, whc^ had been uf grea!, tjcrvicc to the whiles on various
occ.i!;io!i 1. Ho went by the lUfiu- o( Rr.l Le^gins, and possessed
great inHueiicc among ihc liid:,to.;. I applied to hiiii for a>sist-
ancc r obtaining ctlniologicajl spectti)--;is and vucalmlaries. :ind
imi)r. -.d th'* opporiLinity by taking hi.'; portrait.

<.)>: ^ae _'<)th of }u,)c we were ca^l*;*! out by ihi- Indians, wI;->
said .'at K<- lehutn w.i.s^ coining. Tsvi.) canoes were S'.'cn in tlie
dl'!.r;-^e. .'ind betore long we had the gratilicati'm of .'ihaking the
han.:.'r-i oi V -0 Jvllow-explorer.s, and offering tlieni our iiearty con-
gi t' ilatii;;,' >.>n the complete ."ucccss ot their anhious explora
l^' ,^ f'l^y l'"T^i arrived saiely .at the site of I'ort Sclkirlv,
arid broi:ghi. baek as a trophy a piece o\' one of the blackened
tindu rs wiii. h lenuiined. They reported llie lieer l.) be open to
navigatior \vp to that point; but just beyond it waj^ a lapid,
when: a portage would be necessary. 'J'he country was a fni-
one, ui.ll lini.berid, abundantly sujifdied with moose and gmn
an(i inhal^itcd by fntndty Indians. An enumeration of th<- oli
siacles which they hai ei^eountcred woul i be out of plac^ heic,
but it m:;y fairly be ^aiJ ihat oi)ly - xtf( rnc patience, endur.inc-.
indtfaiiuaMe rr.ersfv and couragt, cuutd have surmounted then,
Tht V v,;r«: jKineipally, htn\ever, not ^tu.h as would inn.^ede a
Vtell-i^-.M' \;ed parry of regular explorer'^ We " laid ourscdv;
out.' in California parlance, to get up a good dinner tor ov
friend's ; what with ihi'; and tlie interchange of news and iulorm..
tion, i', was well into the next day before we Bought our [)illo\v:;.

M-r. McDonald returned, having determined the boiiy to '
that 'rf Wat :1, Co V lev's companion He had b'uicd it ne;n- li
i'oint wh('rc it Wa> ''■)und.

After ihe trade, whicl^ occupied several days, wc nlitain- i
'.lu liece-'.saiy goods to i)ay our Indian-^ lor liie trip. To tliv .
\ve'^ ha! come ':p vilh us from Nulato wc gave each a gnu; t-o
S;ik ' '- di.et i<):.v. neeivt/d a good caputt ; and wc gave a kn:te,
iih;" ,!• 1 >iowi!erh. :a to lUddrshik.

(.; • • ; '' vhile at ■•-■ iurt con^ir^ted chi. iiy of boiled dried
meat, \. ■ . - •'»ben. cooK.. i lesianbles in ILi^^-ir and .dringinc ^s a
boiled "^L ,r , >: .;:rn.

Mr. Mci' ' )..i !utiu'; oui stav p''il\>i;ned several .'^:ervices
among liie lau:.i'is 'b was an earnest lU'i well-disposed man,

kahlc mtelli-
s on various
nd possespotl
m for a.-sist-
Lnilaiies, :uk1

Indians, wl;-'
S'-enin the
' shaking the
r hcartv con-
lous iWjjlora-
[•'ort Selkirk,
Ik: blackoiu'd
I,.) be open to
was a lapii!,
y was a fiu'
sc and game
)n of the I'll
if pkice^ here,
e, cn(hiranee
|Ouiitcd then,
impede a
lid o'.iiseh-.

Uf.r UT III
and inrornr.

ir pillowr..

hody to '

il. ni'ar w

we obtain- I

'l"o thu^e

'.•■ 1 j^im ; the

•V,; a kn!!e,

luiilod dried
-trinj-jine^s a

RK 1) I, KC. C. 1 NS.

: ;d scniees
I -posed man,

|:'^

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

■til

a fair type of most missionaries to the Indians. His discourses
were rendered into broken Slave by Antoinc Houle. In the
evening the Indians, old and young, gathered in the fort-yard and
sang several hymns with excellent efifect. Altogether, it was a
scene which would have delighted the hearts of many very good
people who i< now nothing of Indian character ; and as such will
doubtless f gure in some missionary report. To any one who at
all under itood the situation, however, the absurdity of the pro-
ceeding H'as so palpable that it appeared almost like blasphemy.

Old Sakhni'ti, who has at least eighteen wives, whose hands
are bloody with repeated and most atrocious murders, who knows
nothing of what we understand by right and wrong, by a future
state of reward and punishment, or by a Supreme Being, — this old
heathen was singing as sweetly as his voice would allow, and with
quite as much comprehension of the hymn as one of the dogs in
the yard.

Indians are fond of singing : they are also fond of tobacco ;
and for a pipeful apiece you may baptize a whole tribe. Why
will intelligent men still go on, talking three or four times a year
to Indians, on doctrinal subjects, by means of a jargon which can-
not express an abstract idea, and the use of which only throws
ridicule on sacred things, — and still call such work spreading
the truths of Christianity?

When the missionary will leave the trading-posts, strike out into
the wilderness, live with the Indians, teach them cleanliness first,
morality next, and by slow and simple teaching lead their thoughts
above the hunt or the camp, — then, and not until then, will they
V . competent to comprehend the simplest principles of right
and wrong. The Indian does not think in the method that
civilized men adopt ; he looks at everything as " through a glass,
darkly." His whole tra n of thought and habit of mind must be
educated to a higher and different standard before Christianity
can reach him.

The Indian, unchanged by contact with the whites, is in mind
a child without the trusting affection of childhood, and with the
will and passions of a man. Read by this standard, he may be
fairly judged. One fact may be unhesitatingly avowed : if he
can obtain intoxicating liquors he is lost. Neither missionaries
nor teachers can save him while it is within his reach. A general

112

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

S H

Hi i

glance at the condition of the American Indians at this time con-
veys only one idea, which is, that the trader outstrips all re-
straints and that the whole race is irrevocably doomed.

In dealings with them they appreciate justice, but do not prac-
tise it, and they respect the strong arm alone. It has often been
asked why the Hudson Bay Company has succeeded in its in-
tercourse with the aborigines without the misery and bloodshed
which has stained our western frontier. The inference has been
as often drawn that it was owing to the justice which was charac-
teristic of the Company's dealings with the Indians. That there
is no foundation for this opinion I propose to show.

In the first place, while the Hudson Bay traders have had few
contests with the Indians, still, in proportion to the number of
whites, full as many Indian outrages have taken place as in the
Western United States. The following from the pen of Bernard
R. Ross, Esq., of the Hudson Bay Company, is pertinent to the
question.* Speaking of the Eastern Tinneh, he says : —

" As a whole, the race under consideration is unwarlike. I have
never known, in my long residence among this people, of arms having
been resorted to in conflict. In most cases their mode of personal
combat is a species of wrestling, and consists in the opponents grasp-
ing each other's long hair. This is usually a very harmless way of set-
tling disputes, as whoever is thrown loses ; yet instances have occurred
of necks having been dislocated in the tussle. Knives are almost in-
variably laid aside previous to the contest. Some of them box tolera-
bly well ; but this method of fighting does not seem to be generally ap-
proved of, nor is it much practised. On examination of the subject
closely, I am disposed to consider that this peaceful disposition pro-
ceeds more from timidity than from any actual disinclination to shed
blood. These Indians, whether in want or not, will take the life of any
animal, however useless to them, if they be able to do so, and that they
can on occasion be sufficiently treacherous and cruel is evinced by the
massacre at St. John's, on Peace River, and at Fort Nelson, on the
Liard River. It may not be out of place here to give a brief account of
the latter catastrophe.

"In 1841 the post of Fort Nelson, on the Liard River, was in charge
of a Mr. Henry, a well-educated and clever man, but of a hasty tem-
per and morose disposition. While equipping the Indians in the au-
tumn he had a violent dispute with one of the principal chiefs of the

* From the annual Report of the Smithsonian IiiStitution.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

113

Bastard Beaver Indians resorting to the establishment, who departed
srreatly enraged, and muttering suppressed threats, which were little
thought of at the time. In the winter a 'courier' arrived at the fort
to inform the whites that there were the carcasses of several moose
deer lying at the camp ready to be hauled, and requested dog-sleds to
be sent for that purpose. Mr. Henry, never in the least suspecting any
treachery, immediately despatched all the men and dogs that he could
muster. On their way out they met an Indian, who told them that they
had better turn back, as the wolverines had eaten all the meat. This
information, as it turned out, was given from a friendly motive ; but
fear of ulterior consequences to himself prevented the man from speak-
ing more plainly. The fort interpreter, who was of the party, took the
precaution to carry his gun with him, and when they drew near to the
path which led from the bed of the river to the top of the bank, where
the Indians were encamped, he lingered a little behind. On the others
mounting the ascent, they were simultaneously shot down, at one dis-
charge, by the natives, who were in ambush awaiting them. When the
interpreter heard the shots he was convinced of foul play ; he therefore
turned and made for the fort as quickly as he could, pursued by the
whole party of savages, whose aim was to prevent him from alarming
the establishment. The man was a famous runner, and despite the
disadvantage of small snow-shoes, which permitted him to sink more
deeply than the Indians, who, on their large hunting snow-shoes, al-
most skimmed over the surface of the snow, he would have reached the
houses before them, had not the line that confined the snow-shoe on
his foot broken. His enemies were too close upon him to allow time
for its repair ■ so, wishit g to sell his life as dearly as possible, he levelled
his gun at the nearest Indian, who evaded the shot by falling upon his
face, whereupon the whole party despatched him. After perpetrating
this additional murder the band proceeded to the fort, which they
reached at early dawn. A poor old Canadian was, without suspicion
of evil, cutting fire-wood at the back gate. His brains were dashed
out with their axes, and they entered the establishment, whose inhabi-
tants, consisting, with one exception, of women and children, were
buried in profound repose. They first opened Mr. Henry's room,
where he was asleep. The chief pushed him with the end of his gun
to awaken him. He awoke, and seeing numerous fiendish and stern
faces around him, made a spring to reach a pair of pistols that were
hanging over his head ; but before he could grasp them, he fell a bleed-
ing corpse on the bosom of his wife, who, in turn, became a helpless
victim of the sanguinary and lustful revenge of the infuriated savages.
8

'i'i

114

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

Maddened by the blood, they next proceeded to wreak their vengeance
on the innocent women and children, who expired in agonies and under
treatment too horrible to relate. The pillage of the stores was the
next step, after which they departed, leaving the bodies of the dead un-
buried. No measures further than the abandonment of the fort for
several years were taken by the Northwest Company, to whom the
establishment belonged, to punish the perpetrators of the atrocious
deed ; yet it is a curious fact that when I visited Fort Liards in 1849,
but one of the actors survived, all the others having met with violent
deaths, either by accident or at the hands of other Indians. This man,
who was at the time only a lad, confessed to have dashed the brains
out of an infant, taking it by the heels and swinging it against the walls
of the house."

This, and the long list of forts pillaged by the Indians or aban-
doned on account of their hostility * by the Hudson Bay Com-
pany, is sufficient to show that their occupation has not been
wholly peaceful. But little has been said of these outrages, as it
was evidently for the interest of the Company that they should
not be talked about.

It must also be noticed that the policy of the Company has
always been to put as few men as possible in these trading-posts.
A very few white men can go in safety where a large body would
instantly excite hostilities. After the fort has been in operation
for years, and a demand created for tobacco and other articles,
the Indians feel that it is to their advantage to have them there,
and the whites in small numbers no longer excite their jealousy.
Then, whenever a new post was established, the influential chiefs
were handsomely provided with presents, the whites in the fort
were kept in subjection to the extent already described, going
about in rags, while the Indians obtained broadcloth and clothing
of every description for their furs. This obvious superiority
pleased the vanity of the savage. Little or no retribution fol-
lowed the outrages previously mentioned. In some cases pres-
ents were plentifully distributed to appease their anger, and any
offence toward an Indian was severely punished. The self-re-
spect of the white man was sacrificed to the desire of obtaining
furs. Lastly, the most warlike and bloody tribes had been reduced
to comparative quietness in the early colonial wars.

* This includes Forts Selkirk, Pelly Banks, Dease, Frances, Babine, Peace Rivet,
and others, — all burnt or pillaged and abandoned.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

115

ine. Peace River,

On the other hand, the Indians of the western plains were
races more vigorous and active than their northern congeners.
They were met by large bodies of pioneers, bent on settling and
occupying the territory. Indian outrages, provoked or unpro-
voked, met with speedy return from the colonists, and matters
were still further complicated by the recognition of the hypo-
thetical authority of the chiefs by the government. Promises
were made by th . former, of which they had not power to en-
force the fulfilment by the Indians, who were erroneously sup-
posed to obey them. The pernicious system of making presents
to the chiefs, the. introduction by traders of Intoxicating liquors,
and, above all, the failure of the government in any instance to
enforce respect by its strong arm, have created an animosity
which will die out only with the Indians themselves.

It would seem brutal to advise force as a civilizer, but the
Aleuts, who were thoroughly crushed and subjugated by the
early Russian traders, and subsequently by the Russian American
Company, are to-day the only large body of aborigines in America
who give any promise of ultimate civilization.

After the trade was over, we had an opportunity of looking at
the results. It was a sight seldom witnessed by others than
traders. The large loft over the store-house was literally over-
flowing with valuable furs. Among other trophies of the chase
were forty-five silver foxes. The commander confessed to five
thousand sables purchased the previous year. The men in the
fort said that the amount was nearer eight thousand, with half as
many beaver, and five hundred foxes of all kinds. Few otter, and
very few mink are obtained iiere, but black bearskins, dressed
mooseskins, and black and silver foxes are especially abundant.
The value of the furs annually obtained at this post cannot be es-
timated as less than fifty thousand dollars.

We decided to start down the river on the 8th of July. The
women in the fort were very busy filling orders for mocca-
sins, and other specimens of their work, which vve designed for
friends below. I was indebted to one of the men for a fine
pair of otter-skin mittens, which have since done me good ser-
vice. Ketchum decided to take a small boy, Jean Baptist: by
name, who was well qualified to act as interpreter with several
tribes of Indians. He spoke comparatively little English, but

H I

1 ;

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i i
j

lll'l

•i*

ii6

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

utiderstood Canadian French, having a little Canadian blood in
his veins.

The commander coolly proposed to Ketchum that he should
kidnap, iron, and send back to Fort Yukon the unfortunate run-
away McLeod ! However, we let it pass without remark, for we
were under great obligations to Mr. McDougal for hospitality
shown us, and assistance rendered in paying our men. Ketchum
arranged it so that, in going back, VVhympcr and Mike should
take the bidarra, while he and I had each a large birch canoe,
with Indians fore and aft to paddle it. Having got everything
on board, we shook hands and bade our kind entertainers good
by. About two o'clock in the mornmg of the 8th we left Fort
Yukon behind us. A tremendous firing from the assembled In-
dians announced our departure, and we returned the compliment
to the best of our ability.

Travelling down stream is always easy. Our journey seemed
easier still us, in the broad channel, out of reach of the mosquitoes,
we drifted on without impediment at the rate of four or five miles
an hour. Points appeared, were passed, and faded out of view,
almost without our perceiving it ; while between them, going up,
we had passed many hours of hard paddling in the hot sun. No
sand-bars or shoal water obstructed our progress anywhere, ex-
cept where the swift current brought us close to the bank. We
tied our canoes together, and floated down, ■ ometimes sleeping,
and often in a revery which recalled the lotus-caters of the Nile.
We did not camp anywhere. We boiled the chynik and cooked
our meals ashore, and, pushing out into the broad stream, ate
them while calmly drifting with the current. Sometimes the
mosquitoes would try to follow us, and we could see them vainly
endeavoring to make headway against the fresh breeze usually to
be found in midstream. They were always unsuccessful, and we
discarded our nets and laughed at the discomfited insects. About
three o'clock in the afternoon of the 9th we re-entered the Ram-
parts, and here, in the swifter current, our progress was more rapid.

Large fires were burning in the forests, and on the sides of the
hills. They had been kindled by some neglected camp-fire, and
spread rapidly over the mossy sod and leaves dried by the mid-
summer sun. The smoke hung o rer all the country, obscuring
everything with a lurid haze.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

117

ian blood in

\t he should
rtunate run-
imark, for we
)r hospitality
1. Ketchum
Mike should
birch canoe,
)t everything
rtainers good
we left Fort
issembled In-
: compliment

irney seemed
le mosquitoes,
r or five miles
I out of view,
em, going up,
hot sun. No
nywherc, ex-
le bank. We
nes sleeping,
of the Nile.
and cooked
.1 stream, ate
imetimcs the
them vainly
;e usually to
ssful, and we
cts. About
d the Ram-
Is more rapid,
sides of the
mp-fire, and
by the mid-
y, obscuring

About six o'clock on the afternoon of the loth we passed the
Rapids. The water had fallen, and wc should not have known
the place but for the Indiaiij. One of the party refused to believe
it. A long island of rock, smoothed by the water, divided the
river, which flowed smoothly but with great swiftness on either
side. The riffle which had attracted most of our attention had
been caused by an insignificant ledge of rock, now bare. The
difference between the level of the ice in winter and extreme high-
water mark, as indicated on the rocks, cannot be much less than
thirty feet. Some distance below wc found the Nuklukahyet
chief and his people fishing for salmon with large hand-nets.
The little canoes sailed down stream with the current, the Indians
keeping in line like soldiers, and joining in a monotonous but not
discordant chorus. At a given signal, all plunged their nets be-
low the surface, and on raising them a great salmon frequently
was seen struggling in the meshes. In this case all joined in a
derisive shout and song. The dried meat which the chief had
promised was not forthcoming. A "cash" business is the only
safe one with Indians. They never pay old debts, giving as a
reason that the articles purchased are already worn out.

We had a good deal of amusement chasing the young geese.
Their wing feathers not being grown, they could not fly ; but they
wore very expert divers, and were beneath the water almost as soon
as the cap flashed. We obtained quite a number, and found them
very delicate eating. We passed numerous fishing-camps, where
the banks were red with the salmon, split and hung up to dry.

About eight o'clock oi\ the evening of the 12th we arrived at
the bluffs above Nuhito. Here old Yagorsha, the Yakut, was fish-
ing, and hailed us from the bank. He told us that the whole of
Russian America had bet n bought by an American company, and
that an American ship an.' steamer were already at the Redoubt !
The pleasure which we felt at this intelligence was marred by
doubts of its truth ; but, passing on, about ten o'clock we arrived
at Nukito. Here the air resounded with the discharges of cannon,
which welcomed our return. Indians and Russians vied in the
expenditure of gunpowder, and the enthusiastic Kuri'lla used up
all his ammunition in returning the salute.

Our delight was soon damped, however, by an incompre-
hensible order which awaited us. This instructed us to trans-

III!

1,1 (

is8

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

mit, without delay, all movable property belonging to the Tele-
graph Company to the Redoubt. Various rumors about the sale
of the country were current among the Russians. Nothing was
certain, and one of them remarked to me with a sneer, " Perhaps,
Gospodin Doctor, it is the Americans, and not the Russians, who
are about to march ! "

The Koyukuiis occupied the beach, fishing, and with character-
istic insolence took fish out of the Russian nets before their eyes.
The latter were too few in number to resent the insult, the
bidarshik and two men being absent at the Redoubt.

We proceeded to carry out our instructions, purchasing the
large Russian bidarra, putting all the collections and other
valuable property aboard, and hiring six men to accompany us
to the sea-coast. Near midnight, July 15th, we started down
the river, full of anxiety, not knowing what changes were at
hand.

The river was lined with Indian fishing-camps laying in the
winter supplies of ukali. Had we possessed the necessary trad-
ing-goods and transportation, we might have bought thousands of
salmon.

On the night of the 17th we saw the first star visible since the
end of April. On the 19th of July, about eleven o'clock at night,
we felt a shock as if we had struck a snag. Next morning we
arrived at the Russian mission of the Greek Catholic Church.
There we learned that there had been an earthquake shock in
the night, of sufficient severity to throw down books and other
articles from the shelves on which they were placed. The priest,
or " Pope " as the Russians call him, with most of the Russians
who belonged here, was absent at the Redoubt. In this part of
the river the channel is deep enough for vessels of any size. It
is extremely broad, the low left bank being sometimes barely
visible. Sloughs and innumerable islands characterize this por-
tion of the Yukon.

The weather was much of it hot, cloudy, and disagreeable,
with occasional rain, forming a marked contrast to that which
we had experienced farther inland. The white-winged gull
{Lartts laicopterus) replaces the familiar silver gull (Z,. argentatus)
of the Upper Yukon. On the morning of the 22d we saw numer-
ous leopard seal {nerj>a) sporting in the river. Seal have been

THE YUKON TKRRITORY.

119

occasionally seen at Nuldto, and on one occasion a white whale
or Beluga was killed only a few miles below Nuldto, at least four
hundred miles from salt water. About five o'clock the same day
we reached the post of Andreaffsky, occupied by two men only,
one of them a native. The other received us as hospitably as his
means would allow, and spread us a repast of salted salmon and
bread. We made his heart glad by a present of some tea, as his
own supply was exhausted, and borrowed his assistant to guide
us to the Uphoon, or northernmost mouth of the Yukon, by
which the sea-coast is reached. A strong breeze arose, and we
scudded before it, reaching the Uphoon and dismissing our guide
about three o'clock the ne.xt morning.

About noon we reached a Russian house at Kiitlik, whose in-
mates were absent at the Redoubt. Five channels leading in
different directions misled us, and we pulled nearly ten miles up
a small river, until the tide turned and we saw our mistake.
The next trial was more successful, and we soon reached Pastolik,
an Eskimo village opposite the Uphoon-mouth, where we camped
ashore for the first time since leaving Nulato.

The next morning we divided our load, hiring another bidarrd
and some Unali'gmut Eskimo to assist us in our voyage along the
sea-coast to St. Michael's. At noon we reached Point Romdnoff,
the Cape Shallow Water of Cook. This is the only hill or land-
mark north of Cape Romdnzoff on the coast. Here is a small
village of a few huts, where we purchased some fish and game.

About two o'clock in the morning of the 25th we reached
the southeastern entrance of the Canal between St. Michael's
Island and the mainland. Here we stopped and arrayed our-
selves in apparel more suitable for civilized society. We tracked
through the Canal, hoisted our flags, and bore away for the
Redoubt with a light wind. Here we arrived about noon of
July 25th, finding all the members of the exploring and con-
structing parties gathered to receive us. The news was soon
cold.

The Atlantic cable was a triumphant success. The United
States were in negotiation for the purchase of Russian America.
Our costly and doubtful enterprise was abandoned, and the
bark Clara Bell was soon expected, to take all hands to San
Francisco. The ill-fed and hard-worked constructors hailed their

'in!

■■

1 20

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

deliverance with joy; but the weather-beaten explorers, with their
carefully matur:d plans for more thorough and extended explo-
rations during 'he coming year, felt a regret and disappointment
which could hardly be over-estimated, as with a few words these
prospects were destroyed. There was, of course, nothing to be
done but to pitch our tents on the beach, and there await the re-
turn of the vessel, now absent in search of the parties which had
been left at Grantley Harbor, Bering Strait. •

I I

CHAPTER IV.

Arrival of the vessel. — Arrange to remuin in the country. — Departure of the Clara
bell. — Mushrooms. — Plans for the season. — Start for Unalaklik. — The Major's
Cove. — Voyage to Kcgiktowruk. — Description of the casine. — Knd of the old
bidarra. — Leave Kegiktowruk. — Crossing the bar of the Unalaklik River. — .Send
back for the goods. — Trip to Uliikuk. — Death of .Stareek. — Hears and bear-hunt-
ing. — Geological reconnoissance, and discovery of fossils. — Kcturn to Unalaklik. —
Purchasing winter supplies. — Innuit of Norton Sound. — Tribes, physique, games,
kyaks. — Disposition, mo.i ity, marriages, and infanticide. — Treatment of the
women, and work allotted to the sexes. — Dress, labrcts of the ditlerent tribes. —
Property, method of computation, and map-drawing. — Fire-drills. — Weapcuis of
bone, flint, and ivory. — Guns and trading. — Intercourse with Indians, and boan-
dary lines of their territory. — Shamanism. — Patron sjjirits. — Interment of the
dead. — Ifabits, and r.icans of gaining subsistence throughout the year. — Dances
and festivals. — Arrival of my new bidarra. — Sudden illness, and departure for the
Redoubt. — Storm and detention at Kegiktowruk. — Proceed to the Redoubt
on foot. — Return to Unalaklik. — Kill a deer. — Cowardly abuse of the natives by
the Russians. — Kamokiii an'' his barbarity to the sick. — Deaths in the village. —
Making dog-harness.

ALONG month passed by and brought no signs of the
ship. A party of seven bidarras, manned with Okeeogenuits
and other Bering Strait Innuit, arrived at St. Michael's. They
brought the news that the Grantley Harbor parties had safely
embarked, and departed. We began to fear that some accident
had happened to the vessel. Our daily walk was invariably to
the northeast bluff, whence we could look seaward. A pound of
tobacco was promised to the first person who should see the ship.
About three o'clock in the afternoon of the 1 8th of August an
old woman came breathless from the bluff, saying the .ship was
coming. All started to confirm the report, which proved true, and
the venerable Martha was made the recipient of more tobacco
than she had ever before possessed.

It was the Clara Bell, and about eight o'clock she anchored in
the bay. I had by this time become pretty well versed in colonial
Russian, as spoken in the territory. I had also some knowledge of
the Innuit and Indian dialects, and understood the mode of life

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THE YUKON TERRITORY.

necessary in the Yukon Territory. I had formed my plans, and
immediately took the opportunity of explaining them to Major
George M. Wright, adjutant of the Expedition, and now in charge
of all the men and materials which were to be shipped on board
the Clara Hell.

A pretty thorough reconnoissance had been made of the geology
and natural history of the Yukon above and at Nulato, and v.-..
th-* shores of Norton Sound. The Lower Yukon and the delta
had yet to be examined. I felt unwilling that the plans of Mr.
Kennicott, so far carried on successfully, should be left uncom-
pleted. I therefore proposed to carry them out alone, and at my
own expense, and relied on Major Wright for the co-operation ne-
cessary to accomplish this arrangement. With his characteristic
politeness he agreed to do what lay in his power. He could leave
me no provisions, as they were already short of them. He could
sell me, at the Company's prices, a small amount of trading-goods,
and he would pay a certain proportion of the salary due me from
the Cotiipany into the hands of Stepanoff (the chief factor of the
Russian American Company at St. Michael's), who could furnish
me wit'.' some trading-goods and a limited supply of provisions ;
while for the rest I must depend upon the natural resources of the
country.

Explaining to Stepanoff that I had no desire to interfere with
the fur-trade, he expressed himself willing to co-operate with me,
and the proposed arrangement was carried into effect.

To my companions of the previous year, and to the officers of
the vessel, I was greatly indebted for many articles useful in the
country, and otherwise unattainable. The boy who had been
brought from Fort Yukon was left in my care to be sent home.
My mail was made up for transmission by the vessel to San Fran-
cisco • the Reports on the Medical Department and the Scien-
tific Corps were placed in the adjutant's hands. The collections
of the previous year were also sent aboard. I depended, for the
means of reaching civilization again, on some passing trader or
the annual store-ship of the Russians. On the 23d of August
everything was concluded, and I went on board and bade all hands
good by. I returned, with the boy Johnny and Stepanoff, in the
Russian boat. About four o'clock in the afternoon the Clara
Bell stood out to sea.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

123

ly plans, and
mi to Major
low in charge
)ed on board

f the geology
ilato, and v.'.i
and the delta
plans of Mr.
^ left uncom-
e, and at my
operation ne-
characteristic
e could leave
n. He could
rading-goods,
due me from
factor of the
could furnish
)f provisions ;
sources of the

interfere with
rate with me,

le officers of
useful in the
10 had been
le sent home,
to San Fran-
the Scien-
collections
nded, for the
ng trader or
d of August
de all hands
anoff, in the
n the Clara

As I saw her white sails disappear in the distance I realized
more thoroughly the loneliness of my position, and that I was the
only person in the whole of that portion of the territory who spoke
English. If I needed companions, I must seek them among alien
convicts or Indians, in a foreign tongue.

Returning to my room in the fort, I soon stifled any feeling
of regret by busying myself in putting on paper a brief sketch
of my plan of exploration for the coming year.

Stepanoff called me, saying that there was no meat or other
fresh provisions in the fort, and we must go out and get some-
thing for dinner. At first I took down my gun, but he informed
me that it was unnecessary, and after walking a short distance he
pointed out various fungi, which he assured me were eatable.
Tlicy were of two or three species, all poisonous in our climate ;
but in this extreme northern region they proved to be innocuous
and eatable, though quite tasteless.

During our walk we came to a definite conclusion on the sub-
ject of fur-trading. Stepanoff said that he did not believe in the
rumor which prevailed as to the sale of the country ; that his
duty to the Russian American Company would compel him to
prevent any one from trading except the authorized employes of
the Company ; that when the official information should arrive I
might trade as much as I chose, but until then I must refrain.
I assured him that trading was not my object in remaining in the
country, and that I would not do anything of the kind until he
had received definite information. The latter might be expected,
if at all, by a midwinter courier from Nushergak to the Kulma-
koff Redoubt on the Kuskoqui'm. Such couriers had been sent
on rare and important occasions, and a mail was always sent to
Nushergak from St. Michael's every December.

Stepanoff begged me to consider myself his guest while at the
Redoubt, and offered to have any orders sent to Nulato in regard
to the building in which we had spent the previous winter, if I
desired to use it during the coming season.

My plans were as follows : First, to examine the rocks along
the shores of Norton Sound and across the portage as thoroughly
as possible. Next, to take my trading-goods and such provisions
as I could obtain to Nulato ; spend the winter in making explora-
tions in that vicinity, and. if possible, make a winter visit to Kot-

liii

i':\

111

124

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

zebue Sound ; to take a boat across the portage and descend the
Yukon in the spring, examining the rocks carefully, and making
as thorough collections as possible of specimens of natural his-
tory ; to spend some time at the Yukon-mouth ; and finally
return by ^ea to the Redoubt, and there await some opportunity
of getting a passage to Sitka or San Francisco with the collec-
tions.

I therefore requested Stepanoff to order Ivan Pavloff to have
the house put in thorough repair, the seams calked, floor put in
order, and the peechka replastered. The building at Fort Kcn-
nicott was too large and too cold to be readily made habitable.
The orders were sent by Kun'lla, whom I engaged as my per-
manent assistant. He, with Antoshka and Tekunka, started for
Nulato via Unalakl k, in the three-holed bidarka in which Dyer
had descended the Yukon. Kun'lla was to get our dogs and sleds
together, hire Indians, buy likali for dog-feed, and meet me at
Unalakli'k as soon as ihe Yukon was ice-bound. Then we would
proceed together to Nulato. I furnished him with the necessary
Irading-goods for purchasing dog-feed and hiring Indians, and he
departed in high spirits at the responsibility intrusted to him.

One day when Stepanotf was away shooting, on the marshes
about the Canal, one of the Russians came to me with a sable, for
which he wanted alcohol. I refused him, and added that I had
promised Stepanoff not to purchase furs, and should keep my
word. The meaning of truth and honesty is incomprehensible to
these degraded wretches, and he still urged me, saying Stepanoff
would never hear of it. As he did not take any notice of re-
peated refusal, I became at last so angry that I pitched him heels
over head out of the door and down the steps, into the muddy
courtyard, greatly to the amusement of old Martha, who had
just previously brought in some work, and was waiting for her
pay.

Life among the natives is far preferable to being surrounded
by white men of such a despicable class. It is not to be won-
dered at that the knout and the brand were formerly in use in
Russia. Nothing else would seem capable of inspiring a respect
for the law in such minds.

My time was passed in running lead into balls, adding to the
collection, and making general preparations for starting for Una-

lal
the

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

125

descend the

and making

natural his-

and finally

: opportunity

;h the collec-

ivloff to have

floor put in

at Fort Ken-

de habitable.

> as my per-

i, started for

which Dyer

)gs and sleds

meet me at

en we would

he necessary

iians, and he

1 to him.

the marshes

h a sable, for

I that I had

lid keep my

ahensible to

g Stepanoff

otice of rc-

d him heels

the muddy

a, who had

ting for her

surrounded
to be won-
rly in use in
ig a respect

ding to the
ng for Una-

lakli'k as soon as any natives should arrive from Pastolik, where
they were hunting the beluga.

I accompanied Stepanoff on several of his shooting expeditions
in the Canal, and secured a large number of geese, ducks, and
swans. These are salted, and form an acceptable addition to the
winter fare.

On September 22d I purchased my supplies, including six
hundred pounds of flour, twenty-five of tea, fifty of sugar, and a
variety of trading-goods. I alj^ laid in a supply of crockery —
a mug, plate, and bowl apiece — for myself, Johnny, and Kun'lla.
China ware is more precious in this part of the world than silver
plate in more civilized localities. I also purchased fifty pounds
of sukaree, and some large likali for use on the road. Several
Mahlemuts having arrived, I engaged them to accompany me to
Uiialakli'k. I proposed to take the old bidarra in which we had
descended the Yukon from Nulato. I had engaged to have a
small bidarra made at Pastolik and forwarded to me for use the
coming spring ; but it had not yet arrived. The old one was
very large, and the lashings and covering very rotten. I hardly
dared risk my invaluable trading-goods ; but, taking counsel with
some of the Innuit, we concluded that we could probably reach
Unalakli'k in safety with it.

My crew was composed of Johnny, a Mahiemut called Myunuk,
an old man whom I called New- Years, and a young Kaviagenuit.
The latter had an extremely stupid appearance, but was an excel-
lent hunter.

On the 23d of September I put my goods on board, took a
mail for the Russians at Unalakli'k, and put to sea. The wind
was hardly fair, and rather light, and I was obliged to beat across
the southeast arm of the Sound, and put into the Major's Cove.
I had hoped to reach Kegiktowruk, but the wind was adverse,
and so high I could not risk it. Having pitched our tent under
the shelter of the hill, I sent Johnny off to shoot ptarmigan, and
rigged some fishing-poles, in hopes to catch some small fish, ol a
species known here as ivauch-nc, a kind of torn-cod. Our success
was not very great, but we got a mess for supper, and Johnny
returned with an arctic hare which had already donned its winter
coat of white.

The next day the wind was still high, and it was impossible to

126

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

I if

m.i\

PI'

get away. The anchor dragged so much that I was obliged to
haul the bidarra up on the beach. Our sail had proved too small,
and we occupied ourselves in sewing on a strip of drill on each
side. Having experienced the difficulty of transporting heavy
goods by sleds to Uliikuk, I hopfed to get them to that point by
water ; but the ice was already forming in the ponds on the tun-
dra, and I began to fear that the Unalakli'k River would be frozen
over before my arrival. The next day the weather was equally
bad, and we were compelled to remain. Game and fish were
both very scarce, and we lived principally on sukaree and tea, as
I had no bacon.

On the 26th the wind was very variable and the waves very
high. Toward noon it came from the westward, and against the
wishes of the men I decided to start. Just as we left the cove
some tremendous rollers came in, but we rode over them safely,
and New-Years remarked, " The far-off wind has died away."
Looking out to sea, I saw that the rollers mentioned above were
the last, and the sea was quite smooth.

The wind grew fresher and fresher, be'ng nearly a-beam. The
coast between the cove and Kegiktowruk is rocky, with no land-
ing-places. The wind increased and rain came in squalls. The
darkness rapidly closed over us and the clouds were so heavy
that the land was indistinguishable. For three hours I held the
tiller, almost blinded by the rain, fearing every moment that the
wind would haul ahead and drive us on the lee shore ; my only
guide in steering was the white line of breakers on the rock-bound
coast. We passed a rocky point, known as Pallonoi or Burning
Point, in safety, and about half past eight the moon suddenly
broke throu<;h the clouds, revealing the three rounded hills which
lie back of Kegiktowruk. W^e pulled into the cove, and I sent up
to the village to obtain help in hauling up the heavy boat, but
the inhabitants had gone to sleep or refused to come. We did
our best to put her in safety, and went up to the casine, where we
boiled the chynik and turned in.

The Kegiktowruk casine is the largest in the country. The an-
nexed section gives an idea of its construction. Its area is about
twenty-five feet by thirty, and its height fifteen feet from floor
to smoke-hole. The entrance is similar to that of the ordinary
houses, but at a is a second opening, by which the cavity beneath

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

127

the floor may be reached. In the middle of the floor is a hole
(b) where, during their dances, the performers come up from
below, not entering by the ordinary door at i. A portion of
the floor about twelve feet square (ff) is composed of planks,
which may be removed when it is desired to build a fire on the
earth beneath. Broad planks about three feet and a half above
the floor form seats (s) where the spectators may place them-
selves. The opening (l) in the roof is for the admission of light
and egress of smoke. There are no other windows. The en-
trance (i) is usually closed by a hanging bearskin. The sides
are of logs split in two and placed on end in the earth with the
flat side inward. The roof is supported by large logs laid across
so as to support each other. These are covered by a layer of
small timbers, split, or hewn flat on one side ; and the latter are

Di.igram of Innuit casine.

kept in place by large timbers laid over them outside and at-
tached by a saddle-joint at the four corners of the roof. The
latter is covered with straw, and the straw with earth, pounded
down hard, so as to be waterproof There is not a nail or a pin
in the whole structure, which is of the most solid description.
Some of the logs are two feet in diameter, and the broad seats on
each side, previously referred to, are each composed of a single
plank forty-four inches wide, thirty feet long, and four inches
thick. These enormous planks are from dri*t-logs, and were
hewn with the stone a.xes of the natives.

I was informed that, the old casine being decayed, all the
Innuit of Norton Sound had joined in building the present one.
Many logs were towed from distant parts of the coast. The
whole work had occupied six seasons in construction, and had
been standing about seven years.

128

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

M !

:,j!i

;Hi I

The annexed sketch of the village was taken on the spot. On
the right is the casine. There are several ordinary winter houses,
which are on the brow of a high bank. Caches are scattered
about, and stages, on which the kyaks are elevated out of reach
of the dogs. In the engraving, the kyaks are represented too
much curved upwards, fore and aft. They are nearly straight,
except at the bow.

At the left of the houses is a mass of perpendicular timbers,
projecting from the ground. This was the dwelling of an old
couple, who died in the summer while the other inhabitants were
away. Returning from the chase, rather than touch the bodies,
they broke down the house over them, and filled it in with earth ;
a few projecting uprights are their only monument.

There is no beach, the cove is shallow and full of rocks, and
the skin-boats must be hauled up on ways built for the purpose,
of logs. The village is a very dirty one. Travellers are usually
detained there by adverse winds. The inhabitants have no
reputation for honesty, and it is in every respeci the meanest
place on the Sound. The principal support of the inhabitants
is the seal-fishery, but in the fall reindeer abound in the
vicinity. Our young Kaviak started in search of deer, as the
weather would not permit of our continuing the voyage. We
started with a fair breeze about noon, but just as we had got
well out of the cove the wind shifted dead ahead, and we had
to put back.

The boat made so much water that I suspected a hole, and un-
loaded her. The Kaviak and New-Years were away, and My-
unuk was sick ; so I had an hour's hard work unloading her alone.
I called some of the natives who were looking on to help turn
her over. As soon as we raised one side the whole frame gave
way, and the sides of the boat shut together like the leaves of a
book! The sealskin lashings were quite rotted away, and only
the weight of the goods had kept her in shape. Here was a
quandary ! There was only one bidarra in the village, and she
was very small and narrow. She belonged to an old man, who
saw his advantage and used it. After long persuasion I induced
him to lend her to me to take my goods to Unalaklik. He
required for her hire an enormous price, more than the boat had
cost him originally. He demanded his pay in advance, and his

:he spot. On
vinter houses,
are scattered
out of reach
presented too
:arly straight,

cular timbers,
ing of an old
labitants were
ch the bodies,
in with earth ;

of rocks, and
r the purpose,
rs are usually
ants have no
: the meanest
le inhabitants
30\md in the
f deer, as the

voyage. We

5 we had got

and we had

hole, and un-
way, and My-
ing her alone.

to help turn
ic frame gave
he leaves of a
Ivay, and only

Here was a
|lage, and she

lid man, who
lion I induced

alaklik. He
Ithe boat had

lance, and his

■■ -,11:;

,:^-

5 I

f ' p.W

ill!

ifi

k '\

!'!.

128

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

The annexed sketch .>< ihe vilku^e was takcti on the spot.. On
the r'v^Yit is the casino. There are several onlinary winter huiises.
whi'-S arc vn the hi.w of a high hank. Caches are scattered
a':«;»u, an 1 stages, on which the ky.iks are elevated out of reach
of the dogs. In the <-nj;ravinj;, i\\f kyaks are represented toe
rMxch cur\ed 'ujiwarcLs, lore and aft The) are nearly straight,
exccjit at the how.

At the l-l"; of the houses is a nia.ss of perpendicular timbers
projeoting !>.,!;( )h.- ground. This \v.t« the dwelling of an old
coujile. wiio du(! in the summer while the other inhabitants were
away. Rciv.rr.ihg from thi.* chase, rather than touch the bodice
they broke down ihe house ovrr them, and filled it iii with earth
a few projecting upright.? are their only nUinument.

liierc* is no beach, the cove is shallow and fiill of rocks, an
the skin-boats mast be hauled up on ways built for the purpose
. oflo<;s. J'he village is a very dirty one. Travellers arc u.suall.
detained there by adv.jrsc winds. The iiihaLitaiils have n.
reputalioa !ur lionesiv, .md it is in every respect the meaner-,
place on the Sound, i !.- priuci])al support of the inhabitant
!■. the seal-fis!it:ry, but !a tUt Tali reindeer abound in tl-
vicinity ( hr young Kavuk started in search of deer, as th
uoailn:r .•..»: Li not permit of our continuing iIk: voyage. \\
:'ar'ei.i \v.?: t lair breeze about nuoii. but ju'^t .is we" had g^- .
Wv 11 uiu. • ' ilij.ccve ill-: wind >.!ufted dead ahead, and we h;id
' -> T>ut back

i'h ' o.it niaile so much water that T su.spccted a liole, and v.n-
li'iided '.'r. i'lie K.iviak and New- Years were away, and M'
unuk w.i^ suk , so I had an hour's hard work unloatling her alotv,.
i ^ ilied .' mc of the natives who were looking on to help tuj
; -• ! ^i•r. A *=onn as we raised one side the whole frame gu
■!!l<-s of the boat shut together like tlie leaves of .
'.u-i:di 'ashitigs were quite rotted away, and onh
'1 'v.'Ofls iiad. kept her in shape. Mere was
here " ■- <;nly one bidarra in the village, and si
.md o.it i.\v. Slie belonged to an old man, viif-
•. .-'nil > "d it. After long per.-iuasion I indu^.
^ m-.: .'■ t.ike my goods to Unalaklik. )'

• ti enormous price, more than the boat ' .;

i th,
1 he

I !v ■
• pi,...
was V-:

-,aw hi
Iiiru u

requirj'd f</i Im . •
cost hin> ufi^'inaliv

demanded his pay in advance, anu

he spot.. On
nntcr houses.
Avt: scattered
out of reach
ircscnted toe
:>rly straight.

niirtr timber?
11^^ ot an o]{\
abitants were
:h the bodice
n \vith earth

of rocks, an

the purpoH
•s arc usual'.
inis_ have r-

the mearie ■
e inhabitant
•ound in tt'
i doer, as tl-
voyaj.;c. \\

we had j;

and we h -.'i

io!o, nnil ^n
a\, and ]\1'
her aloti
to help tu'
'■■anie g;-
.;;aves o;
a\ , and oi ,
III no was
age, and si
id man, w'l-
m I indu>.
dakh'k. ^ '
■ boat '. .i
:e, anu n.,

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

129

wife stood by him while I measured out the (hill, powder, ball,
and tobaeco, and, as I gave him the required quantity of each,
would exclaim, "It is too little, we must have more!" I was
very much provoked, but there was no way in wl ich I could help
myself, and I was obliged to satisfy hci avarice, and make her a
present besides, while wishing her at the bottom of the sea. I
then loaded the boat, but she was so dry that the water came in
at all the seams, and I was obliged to unload her again. It was
evident that I must leave a large part of my load at the village,
and send back for it. I was very loath to do this, as the Kegik-
towruk men arc notorious thieves ; but there was no help for it.
Having picked out the most valuable part of the cargo, including
the flour, sugar, tea, lead, and powder, I placed the rest in charge
of the old man to whom the boat belonged. I then loaded up for
the third time, after greasing the scams with tallow. This day's
experience will give a faint idea of the annoyances sometimes
endured, and the patience required, in travelling among these
natives.

That afternoon an old acquaintance arrived, — a IMahlemut
called Ark-hannok, and his family. His bidarra was so full that
he could not take any goods for me, but he promised to send back
his men and boat from Unalakli'k, to fetch the goods I left behind.
In the evening the absent Kaviak returned with two haunches of
venison on his back, having killed a deer. We had a good supper
off them, and retired early. The next morning I rose at four
o'clock and found the wind fair. We boiled the chynik and
took a hasty breakfast, getting off about six. Our boat was very
low, her gunwale amidships being only four inches above the
water. She was so narrow and crank that we were obliged to
lash a kyak alongside with two oars, as an outrigger. lu'cn then
the Innuit were unwilling to sail from point to point, but insisted
on hugging the shore.

The wind was light, and we only reached Golsova River by
noon. We rounded Tolstoi Point with a fair breeze. At To-
panika we landed, and found a Mahlcmut chief, called Ark-na-py-
ak, camped with his family. Here we drank tea, and took on
board a lad about twelve years old, whom we had named Tommy
the previous year. He wished to go to Unalakli'k, and to oblige
the natives I offered him a passage. We started about three
9

.!i': I

•ill

§'^'

fill :i

130

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

o'clock, with a strong breeze from the southwest, wind coming in
pufis with intervals. The water was perfectly smooth, and wo
sailed finely for some time. The wind grew stronger rapidly, and
soon raised a sea which made me anxious. The tide was hiuh,
and the perpendicular sandstone bluffs rose direct from the
water, the narrow beach being covered. There was no oppor-
tunity for landing until the bluffs were passed. The waves began
to don their white caps, and occasionally tossed a handful of .spray
in our faces, as a foretaste of what was coming. I resigned the
steering-paddle into the more experienced hands of old New-
Years, and stood by him with another, in case that should break.
I distributed tin cups to all hands, as I knew we should have to
use them very soon in bailing.

The end of the bluffs was passed, but to my dismay I saw the
long low beach piled with driftwood, forming an impenetrable
clicvanx-dc-frisc at high-water mark. Against it the waves were
dashing. There was no choice but to go on. It was rapidly
growing dark, but the mouth of the river was discernible. We
managed, by constant bailing, to keep her free, though every tenth
wave would throw in a dozen bucketfuls. The worst was yet to
come. I knew that the sea would be breaking on the bar at the
mouth of the Unalakli'k River, where there is seldom over five
feet of water. The only question was, could we pass through that
line of breakers in safety .' I hardly dared to hope we could,
We already heard them roaring on the bar, and could see their
white caps dimly. We were all so thoroughly drenched that we
could be no wetter. The old Mahlemut never flinched. With
his eye on the breakers, as we drew nearer and nearer, he sat
silent and rigid as a carved image. The younger men crouched
in the bottom of the boat. The little F.skimo lad looked fright-
ened, but did not stop bailing for a moment. I threw off my
hunting-shirt, and made ready for swimming. As we were just
upon the breakers I glanced at the steersman. He moved not a
muscle of his weather-beaten face. The next moment a crash
announced that our outriggers were broken. I threw myself
upon the kyak and, with the young Kaviak, held it for a moment
in place. The crest of the advancing roller struck us on the
stern, deluging us with water, and before I had time to realize it
another followed it, almost burying us ; and for a second I thought

cominp; in
ith, ami we
rapidly, and
Ic was high,
t from the
5 no oppor-
vavcs began
Ifiil of spray
resigned the
Df old Ncw-
lould break,
ould have to

\y I saw the
mpenetrable
waves were
was rapidly
rnible. We
1 every tenth
t was yet to
le bar at the
)m over five
hrough that
c we could.
Id see their
bed that we
bed. With
larer, he sat
n crouched
ked fright-
rew off my
c were just
noved not a
nt a crash
|rew myself
|r a moment
us on the
to realize it
I thought

' I

. V|(« ■

^-^i^ljii*'

I y.)

riir: YLKON- 'ri.KKlTORV.

: ':

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s.rit' ' ii<dy li'!' .-o''.! ! .• . i iv •, ii.J L;r. w •!''>n:.^( v r.'ii.idh,- aiui
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III

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

we were going clown. .She rose again, however, more than half
filled ; and shaking the water out of his scanty hair, the old man
said calmly, " Here is the river, there is the fort." We were in ,
smooth water. The Ir.st breaker had carried us over the bar.

All hands bailed for dear life, and as soon as we had freed the
boat from a dangerous amount of water we pulled for the shore.
Here we foinid ice, and were obliged to pull half a mile to find
a landing-place. The Innuit shouted at the top of their lungs,
and we were soon answered. Eskimo of all ages and both
sexes came out from their dens, helped to haul up the boat, and
unloaded her above high-water mark. I expected to find the
flour and sugar, which were in bags, entirely spoiled. Popoff, the
Unalakli'k bidarshik, finally awoke, and opened the gates. With
the help of the natives, I carried the goods into the storehouse,
dismissed the men, who took refuge with their friends in the
village, and, quite exhausted, followed Popoff into the casarmer.
Here I stripped off my clothes. I had literally not a dry stitch
on me, and there v ibout a gallon of salt water in each boot.
Popoff kindly suppl.' i ! le with dry clothing, and we s'lt down
around the hospitable samovar. I dare not say how manj' cups of
fragrant tea I disposctl of. I know the last was well among the
" teens." The bed was only a plank and a blanket, but, with a
tobacco-box under my head, I lost .iiyself in a well-earned slumber.

The next day, thanks to the tea, ! arose as fresh as ever, tliough
not until nearly noon. My first act wi s to overhaul the goods.
The tea I had taken the precaution to solder up in an empty lin
before leaving the Redoubt. The powder was in tight cans.
The lead of course was not injured by wetting. The flour, to my
surprise, was but slightly wet. Water dors not easily penetrate
flour in the bags. Our clothes, except what were in tight seal-
skin bags, and our blankets, were soaked, The sug;u- had suffered
most. About half of it was well salted. This was a serious loss,
Init might be partly made gowl. Altogether we got off much
better than I had dared to anticipate

Popoff, another Russian named Ostiofskci, two native work-
men, and a Creole woman comprised the entire garrison at the
tort. Popoff was a mu'h pleasanter fellow than most of the
Russians, and I got along with him very well. The village con-
tained very few natives, most of them being still absent hunting

•I

I:
I

132

THK YUKON TERRITORY.

deer. The next day I secured Ark-hannok"s bidarra, and de-
spatched it with a crew of five to fetch the remaining goods from
Kegiktovvruk. On the night of October ist they reuirned, to
my surprise, with their load. The rascals at Kcgiktowruk had
stolen some thirty pounds of backfat and a hatchet. The re-
mainder of the goods were safe.

The weather continued warm and rainy. A few days cleared
the ice completely out of the river. I therefore made immediate
arrangements for taking the heavy goods by water to Ulukuk, thus
saving time, and transportation over a very bad portage in winter.

On the 3d of October I took three men and the Kegiktovvruk
bidarra, and started up the Unalaklik River. We found the cur-
rent very strong and the water low. We drew, loaded, a foot and
a half, finding occasional difficulty in crossing the sandbars.

Ingalik gra -e.

Ulukuk, in a straight line, is only thirty-three miles from Unala-
klik. By the river, which is more winding than the ancient
Meander, it is at least double the distance, and probably more.
On the morning of the 4th we reached Iktigalik. Mere we
found mnny of the Ingaliks. They wanted to go up in my boat
to Ulukuk, and attempted to detain me by all sorts of contradic-
tory stories about the river. I had had some experience in estimat-
ing 'h': value of such talk, and pushed on. Every night new ice
formed in the river, and I used all my energy in travelling, in
order that we might not be caught and frozen in. On the morn-
ing of the 6th we arrived at Ulukuk. As we drew near we heard
a low wailing chant, and Mikala, one of my men, informed me
that it was women lamenting for the dead. On landing I saw
several Indians hewing out the bo.x in which the dead are placed.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

'33

i, and de-
oods from
Uirned, to
jwruk had
The rc-

lys cleared
immediate
lukuk, thus
i in winter,
egiktowruk
nd the cur-
, a foot and
- sandbars.

On inquiry I found that our old acquaintance of the previous
year, " Kaltag Stareek," had gone to his long home. He had been
for many /ears the "oldest inhabitant," and was much respected
by the Russian.s. The body lay on its side in a deerskin. The
heels were lashed to the small of the back, and the head bent for-
ward on the chest, so that his coffin needed to be onlv about four
feet long.

We lost no time in putting the goods into an empty cache,
covering them with walrus hide, and nailing up the door. During
a long experience I have never known of goods being meddled
with or broken open if properly secured, no matter how lonely the
situation of the cache, or how long it remained unvisited. "A
cache is sacred" is one of the axioms of the wilderness. This
goes far to prove that the average of honesty among these In-
dians is higher than that which obtains among white men. The
Innuit, as at Kegiktovvruk, are occasionally less trustworthy.

The Ingaliks had just returned from a bear hunt. Bears are
not uncommon in this part of the territory. There are three
species: The large brown bear of the mountains, known as the
"grizzly" among the Hudson Bay voyageurs ; ihe barren-ground
bear {Ursiis Richardsonii oi Mayne Reid), which is confined in Rus-
sian America to the extreme northeast ; and the black bear, which
frequents the vicinity of the Vukon, in the wooded district only.
The polar or white bear is found only in the vicinity of Bering
Strait, on the shores of the Arctic Ocean, and on St. Matthew's
Island in Bering Sea. It has probably reached the latter locality
on floating ice ; we only know of its existence there from whalers,
who apply the name of Bear Island to the locality, from the abun-
dance of these animals. We know that it is not found on the
mainland south of latitude 65°. The cubs of the black bear are of
the same color as the parent, and the adult is very much .-innaller
than its brown cousin, which sometimes reaches a length ot nine
feet, with a girth nearly as great. The brown bear, or grizzly, is
the only one which manifests any ferocity, and it always avoids
any contest unless brought to bay.

The manner of hunting it is as follows. After discrirvering its
lair the natives carefidly measure the opening. Timbers of the
requisite length, and from four to six inches in diameter, are care-
fully cut, and carried to the vicinity. During the day, when the

\ i!

134

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

bear is known ta have returned to the cave, the Indians collect
in large numbers, and approach with the utmost quietness, cacli
carrying a timber or a large stone. The timbers are then fitted
into the mouth of the den, forming a barricade, and stones in
large numbers are piled up against them, only leaving an open-
ing about a foot square. Burning brands are then thrown in to
arouse the animal, who puts his head out of the opening, which is
too small for egress. A volley of balls soon puts an end to his
existence. After satisfying themselves of his death, the hunters
remove the barricade, and divide the body amciig themselves.
The skin is valuable only as a rug or bed, or to hang in the
doorway of a lodge to exclude the cold.

The Indians were anxious that I should pass the night at
Ulukuk ; but, fearful of being frozen in, I decided to return with-
out delay. Coming up, while examining the rocks I discovered
a fossil elephant tusk about eight feet long on one of the bars
in the river. I put it up on end in order to sec it and take it
with me on my return. A snow-storm came on, which obscured
everything, so that we passed down without seeing it, and
arrived at Ikti'galik about seven in the evening. The next morn-
ing we left Ikti'galik about nine o'clock, and half-way down came
upon the three-holed bidarka which Kurilla and his companions
had left on the shore when they struck across the summer port-
p.j^c. I thought it might prove useful, and took it aboard.
About two o'clock we arrived at Unalaklik, just in time to enjoy
a steam bath. While I had been r.bsent sonic Eskimo from Kot-
zebue Sound had arrived, bringing alcohol, purchased from the
traders.

The whole village was in a turmoil, and the Russians at the
fort in no little alarm, anticipating a-i attack. Some natives
having reported a remarkable and unknown object as cast upon
the beach, Popoffand my.self walked four or five miles to examine
it. It proved to be the carcass of a walrus deprived of its hivad.
These animals, as well as whales, are unknown in Norton Sound,
and this carcass had probably been driven by the wind and sea
from the north.

On Jie 9th of October I had the bidarka repaired and well
oiled. The next day, with Tommy, Johnny and a Kaviak, 1
started for Topanika, to examine the geological characte-' uf the

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

135

ians at the

shore. At night we arrived at a creek where an old Mahlemut
chief, Allu-iokan, and his people were camped. Here I purchased
some deer meat and a large number of tongues.

The next morning the Innuit left us for Unalakli'k. Johnny
and Tommy started into the interior in search of deer. Taking
my haversack, I proceeded to Tolstoi Point, examining the rocks,
and taking notes of the character, thickness, and dip of the
strata. I found no fossils except indistinct vegetable remains.
Climbing the bluff, I followed the edge of a deep ravine inland
for half a mile. Feeling thirsty, I managed to swing myself down
the precipitous sides, by the birches which grew sparingly in
rifts of the rock. Here I found a stream of pure cold water, and,
bending down to drink, some fine fossils attracted my attention.
Securing a bundle of about fifty pounds' weight, I had a piece of
hard work packing them on my back out of the ravine. I was
obliged to walk in the bed of the stream, as the sides were
too abrupt to ascend with my load. I finally arrived at camp,
after dark, and pretty tired. No one was there, and I built
a large fire, fearing that Johnny might be unable to return
in the obscurity over the rough and broken hills. The boys
arrived at last, having killed two deer, bringing, however, only
the tongues and kidneys. I rated them well for the folly of de-
stroying game which they could not use or bring home. Econ-
omy in such matters is incomprehensible to the native mind.
They are always ready to destroy life even if they can lot avail
themselves of the remains.

The next day, having completed my observations, I availed
myself of an invitation to take passage for Unalakli'k in a
passing Mahlcn-ut bidarra. I occupied myself for several days
in purchasing articles which I had found from experience were
necessary or useful in the interior. These were principally
Eskimo winter boots, of deerskin with sealskin soles ; deerskin
mittens, parkies, and breeches, some destined for the ethnological
collection, and others for use ; boot-soles, to replace old ones
when worn out ; deer sinew, for sewing skin clothing ; fine seal-
skin line, for lashing sleds, bidarni-frames, dog-harness, and boot-
strings ; mahout, cr walrus hide cut in long strips, for tracking-
line ; prepared sealskin, for mending boats ; oil, foi lamps in
winter ; ukali, by the thousand, for dog and man feed ; the whiii

'id

136

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

|ii ^iri'ii

'; I

iX'W

M-l

bellies of the deer, with dried fish skins and wolverine skins, for
trimming skin clothes ; and the backfat of the reindeer, to supply
the total absence of pork, bacon, and butter.

The reindeer, in summer, is furnished with a broad layer of
fat, between the muscle and the skin, along the back from the
shoulder to the haunch. This layer comes off in a single piece
fifteen inches broad and from half an inch to four inches thick.
This is called the " backfat." Other fat in smaller quantity is
procured from the vicinity of the kidney.s, the omentum, and the
intestines. A little is also procured with the marrow, by pound-
ing and boiling the bones. All this in its dried state is liable to
spoil. Anticipating this, I had all my fat cut, pounded up, and
tried out. When thoroughly extracted, I poured the pure fat into
empty tin cans, thus preserving it from injury and rendering it
compact for transportation. The Hudson Bay pemmican is made
by pounding dry meat between stones, until all the meat is re-
duced to powder. The sinews and gristle are picked out, and the
rest is mi.xed with boiling fat and poured into a rawhide bag,
where it becomes perfectly solid. Pemmican is unknown to the
Russians, whose chief dependence is fish. Indeed, I do not know
of any part of Russian America where meat and fat abound in
sufficient quantities to be much used in this way. Pemmican is
tasteless, unappetizing food, but contains much nourishment in a
very compact form.

I have hitherto deferred any minute account of the Innuit of
Norton Sound, preferring to give my own impression of them
unaffected by that of other observers. During the time spent at
Unalakh'k I became moderately proficient in their language, and
studied their mode of life with great care.

The Innuit, as they call themselves, belong to the same family
as the Northern and Western Eskimo. I have frequently used
the term Eskimo in referring to them, but they are in many
respects very different people from the typical tribes called by
that name in the works of Parry, Ross, Simpson, Kane, and
other arctic explorers. Comparative vocabularies and an analy-
sis of the different branches of the family will be found elsewhere
in this volume. The present remarks refer more particularly to
their mode of life.

It should be thoroughly and definitely understood, in the first

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

^Z7

place, that they are not Indians ; nor have they any known rela-
tion, pliysically, philologically, or otherwise, to the Indian tribes
of North America. Their grammar, appearance, habits, and even
their anatomy, especially in the form of the skull, separate them
widely from the Indian race. On the other hand, it is almost
equally questionable whether they are even distinctly related to
the Chukchees and other probably Mongolian races, of the east-
ern part of Siberia. This is discussed elsewhere.

The Innuit of Norton Sound and the vicinity are of three
tribes, each of which, while migrating at certain seasons, has
its own peculiar territory. The peninsula between Kotzebue and
Norton Sounds is inhabited by the Kdviaks or Kavidganut Innuit.
The neck of this peninsula is occupied by the Mdhleniut Innuit.
The shore of Norton Sound south of Cape Denbigh to Pastolik
is the country of the Unalcds or Unaligiiuit Jnnuit. The habits
of these tribes are essentially similar. They are in every respect
superior to any tribe of Indians with which I am acquainted.

Their complexion I have described as brunette. The effect of
the sun and wind, especially in summer, is to darken their hue,
and from observing those who lived in the fort, I am inclined to
think that a regular course of bathing would do much toward
whitening them. They are sometimes very tall ; I have often
seen both men and women nearly si.v feet in height, and have
known several instances where men were taller. Their aver-
age height equals that of most civilized races. Their strength
is often very great. I have seen a Mahlemut take a hundred-
pound sack of flour under each arm, and another in his teeth,
and walk with them from the storehouse to the boat, a distance
of some twenty rods, without inconvenience. They are fond of
exercise, and practise many athletic games, such as football or
a similar game, tossing in a blanket or rather walrus hide, run-
ning races, hurling stones or lances, lifting weights, and wrestling.
Their boats — the kyak or bidarka, and oomiak or bidarra — have
been already described. It may be mentioned in this connection
that the oomiak is not considered among the Norton Sound Innuit
as a " women's boat," nor is there ever any hesitation about men's
using them. In this they differ from the Eskimo as described by
arctic explorers. It is noticeable that the more northern the canoe,
the smaller it is made. The kvak of Nunivak Island is double the

11; .

138

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

t I

size of those used in Hcring Strait. The kyaks arc often orna-
mented with heUiga teeth, or carved pieces of walrus ivory,
imitations of birds, walrus, or seal. The prow is also fashioned
into the semblance of a bird's or fish's head. Securely seated in
his kyak, with a gut shirt strongly tied around the edge of the hole,
the Innuit is at home. He will even turn over his kyak and come
up on the other side, by skilful use of his paddle.

Aziak or Sledge Island is an abrupt rock rising out of the
water, with a landing only at low tide in good weather. I was
informed by the captain of a trader, a trustworthy person, that
he once approached the island to trade, in rough weather, but
could not send a boat ashore, as it was impossible to land. He
lay as close as he dared under the lee of the island. Here they
saw the Innuit tying several men securely into their kyaks, on the
top of the rock, some fifteen or twenty feet above the water.
"When all was done each man grasped his double-ended paddle,
and two others took the kyak by bow and stern and tossed it,
with its occupant, into the water. For a moment they disappeared
under the waves, but instantly rose and righted themselves ; in a
few minutes they were alongside, and being taken on board, pro-
duced furs and ivory from their kyaks, with which they proceeded
to trade for tobacco and other articles. When the tide and wind
fell they returned to the island. This is an excellent illustration
of the wonderful skill with which they learn to manage these little
canoes. In his kyak the Innuit docs not hesitate to attack the
seal, walrus, or whale. Those of Norton Sound have only the
seal and beluga, but those of Bering Strait have abundant oppor-
tunities for hunting the bowhead and walrus.

They are good-humored and careless, slow to anger, and usually
ready to forgive and forget. They are sometimes revengeful ; and
murders, generally the result of jealousy, are not very rare. The
women are modest, but a want of chastity in an unmarried female
is hardly looked upon as a fault. Taking this fact into consider-
ation, they are rather free from immorality. Among the Mahle-
muts, cousins, however remote, do not marry, and one wife is the
rule. Among the Kaviaks, incest is not uncommon, and two or
three wives, often sisters, arc taken by those who can afford to
support them. These people have become demoralized by trad-
ing liquor for their furs, and wide-spread immorality is the result.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

139

The same is also true of the Kotzebue Sound Mahlemuts. What
we should call immodesty is often undeserving of such a term.
Where a practice is universal there is nothing immodest in it, and
it may be quite consistent with morality. For instance, the Aleu-
tians, men and women, for ages have been accustomed to bathe
together in the sea. They do not think of there being any im-
modesty in it, yet any immorality is exceedingly rare among
them. Hence we should not judge these people too iiarshly.

There is no ceremony connected with marriage among the
Innuit, though presents are often made to the bride's parents.
Intermarriage between natives o." different tribes is frequent. If
ill-behaved or barren, the wife is frequently sent away, and another
takes her place. Children are greatly prized, if boys. Girls are
at a discount. Infanticide is common among them, both before
and after birth. As an excuse, they say that they do not want
and cannot support so many daughters. Other women do not
like the trouble and care of children, and destroy them for that
reason. The usual method is to take the child out, stuff its mouth
with grass, and desert it. I have seen several children who had
been picked ujo in this condition, and brought up by others than
their parents. The women alone destroy children, but the men
seldom punish them for it, and doubtless acquiesce in advance in
most cases. Sometimes we find females who refuse to accept
husbands, preferring to adopt masculine manners, following the
deer on the mountains, trapping and fishing for themselves.

The men treat their wives and children well. The latter are
never punished, and seldom need correction, being obedient and
good-humored. The men have their own work. Hunting the
deer and seal, building and repairing the winter houses, making
frames for boats, sleds, and smw-shoes, preparing sealskins for use
on boats or for boot-soles, trapping, and bringing home the results
of the chase, — in fact, all severe labor, — is performed by the
men. Snaring partridges, drying and preparing fish, cutting up
the meat when brought into camp, picking berries, dressing deer-
skins and making clothing, cooking, and taking care of the chil-
dren, — these are solely feminine pursuits. Both se.xes join in pad-
dling the oomiaks, celebrating their annual dances, bringing and
cutting wood, and other work of a like nature. The women are
seldom beaten, except for ill-temper or incontinency. They keep

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140

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

their persons moderately clean, braiding the hair on each side,
and twisting beads or strips of wolfskin in with the braids for
ornament. They arc often of pleasing appearance, sometimes
qiutc pretty. They preserve their beauty much longer than In-
dian women. Their clear complexion and high color, with their
good-humor, make them agreeable companions, and they are often
very intelligent. A noticeable feature is their teeth. These are
always sound and white, but are almost cylindrical, and in old
people arc worn down even with the gums, producing a singu-
lar appearance. The eyes are not oblique, as in the Mongolian
races, but are small, black, and almost even with the face. The
nose is flat and disproportionally small. Many of the Innuit
have heavy beards and mustaches, while some pull out the

former. The men all wear the labrcts, but
do not tattoo. The women generally have
a few lines tattooed on the chin, from the
lower lip downward. The inhabitants of the
Diomedc Islands tattoo extensively ; they also
wear large labrcts made of hypochlorite and
finely polished. The tattooing is in spiral
lines and waving scrolls, seldom or never rep-
resenting objects. The Norton Sound Innuit
women never wear labrcts,* but occasionally
pierce the nose and ears. I have never seen any ornament
worn in the nose, but ear-rings are not uncommon. The fol-
lowing sketch represents the usual form. They are carved
from beluga teeth. Among the Mdganitts, a tribe to the
south of the Yukon-mouth, the women wear a
peculiar labret. It is flat and curved, like a bent
nail, with a broad head, which goes inside the
mouth, and prevents the labret from slipping
through. They are slightly carved, and orna-
mented with dots and lines. The Iioles are
pierced through the front of the lower lip and
close together, not under the corners of the mouth, as among t'.ie
men. The curved ends stick out like little horns.

In Norton Sound the holes for the labrcts are not always pierced

* The figure represents : A, the M.iRcmiit fcnuilc labret ; 11, c, the Okeeogcmut ; the
rest arc Norton Sound labrets of different patterns.

Labrcis.

Ear-rings.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

T41

each side,
braids for
sometimes
r than In-
with their
y are often
These are
md in old
g a singu-
Mongohan
face. The
the Innuit
11 out the
abrets, but
jrally have
, from the
ants of the
' ; they also
hlorite and
s in spiral
[ never rep-
und Innuit
ccasionally
ornament
The fol-
ire carved
)e to the
en wear a
ike a bent
inside the
11 slipi)ing
and orna-
lioles are
er lip and
among t'.ic

lys pierced

cogcmut ; the

in youth. Whenever the act is performed a feast is given, and
the holes arc made by means of an awl, with great solemnity.
This would indicate that originally the pri :tice had some greater
significance than mere ornament. It is now impossible to dis-
cover what that significance might have been. At first a mere
ivory peg is inserted (k, c;) with a hole in which a small wooden
peg is put to keep it in place. After the opening has healed,
others a little larger are inserted, and so on, until the hole
will admit a peg of the full size, and shaped more like a but-
ton or stud (i\ !•:). (Ornaments carved fum beluga teeth are
commonly worn. They represent fig-
ures of men, animals, or fish. These
are some of them, representing a flat-
fish, goose, and seal. Walrus teeth, ob-
tained by barter, are also used in carv-

uig.

Amulets.

The dress of the men has already
been described. It reaches to the mid-
dle of the thigh, and is cut around
nearly or quite straight. The female
dress, on the other hand, is continued in two rounded flaps
below the knees, before and behind. They arc trimmed with
strips of white deerskin with the hair cut short, separated by
narrow strips of dried fishskin and edged with strips of wolverine
or wolf skin, so cut that the long hair makes a fringe. The hood
is trimmed with a broad piece of wolfskin, with frequently a
strip of the white skin of the arctic hare inside for warmth.
Tlie whole effect is very pretty, especially when the parka is
made of the tame Siberian reindeer skin, which is mottled with
white and delicate shades of brown. The fishskin referred to,
when prepared for use, looks like brown marbled paper. It has
'.10 scales, and I have not seen the fish from which it is taken.

The women wear breeches and boots made in one piece, while
the men use deerskin socks, and boots which are not sewed on
to the breeches. All use a belt of some kiul. The favorite
belt among the women is made of the portion of the lower jaw
iif the reindeer which contains the front teeth. This piece of bone
is very small, — I have counted the teeth of one hundred and fifty
deer in one belt, — and these belts are not uncommon. They

142

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

are sewed on a broad strip of leather, fastened with a large
button or bead in front. From the belt hangs the needle-case,
usually made of the humerus of a swan, plugged at one end and

Done needle-case.

having a removable stopper at the other. It is usually orna-
mented with black lines, as in the above example.

A man's wealth is frequently estimated by parkies. They will
buy, with their surplus property, large numbers of parkies. Ten
deerskin, or two mink parkies, or one sable parka, are equivalent
to a gun. Sealskins, sables, guns, and ammunition arc also units
of value. They can count up to a hundred, and some of the
more intelligent to five hundred. They frequently keep accounts
by tying knots in a string or notching a stick. They divide the
year by the seasons, and time by lunar months, and days. They
can also estimate with much accuracy how much of the day has
passed, by the position of the sun or stars. They are very quick
at understanding, and can draw very reliable maps, the only
diflficulty being that far-off distances are exaggerated when
compared with those laid down as nearer their homes. They
are all provided with flint and steel for lighting fires, but formerly
used a different apparatus on the principle of a fiddle-bow drill.
This consisted of a mouthpiece of bone or ivory with a small hol-
low in it, a flat piece of very dry soft wood, a pencil-shaped
piece of dry hard wood, and a bow with a slackened string. One

end of the pencil fitted into the hollow
in the mouthpiece. The latter is held
between the teeth. A turn of the bow-
string was taken around the pencil ; the
tablet of .soft wood was held in the left
hand. The pencil was held firmly against
the tablet and the bow rapidly moved
back and forth by the right hand. The
pencil of course revolved rapidly, the fric-
tion created a small pile of dust on the
tablet, which was quickly ignited by the heat. A piece of tinder
preserved the light, and the fire was obtained.

}

Innuit fire-drill.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

'43

nth a large

needle-case,

one end and

isually orna-

I. They will
arkics. Ten
re equivalent
ire also units
some of the
ccp accounts
ey divide the
days. They
the day has
•e very quick
IS, the only
jrated when
)mcs. They
but formerly
lie-bow drill,
a small hol-
encil-shaped
One
the hollow
tter is held
of the bow-
pencil ; the
in the left
mly against
idly moved
hand. The
lly, the fric-
lust on the
ce of tinder

>tring

PiKulka.

Formerly bows, arrows, and lances were their weapons. !n
Norton Sound they are now supplanted by guns obtained from
the traders. Iron was unknown among these natives two genera-
tions ago. All their weapons were of ivory, bone, and slate,
except a few native copper implements which came from the
Indians of the interior. In early times, the old men say, a knife
or a string of beads was worth fifty marten skins. A peculiar
kind of knife, shaped like a chopping-knife and called a pignlka,
is used in cutting skins. It is made of sheet-iron and has a bone
handle. It is preferable to scissors in cutting furs, a3 it only cuts
the skin and not the hair.

To this day the Innuit have no knowledge of working iron by
means of heat, although with the aid of a file they
will make quite u.seful knives, saws, and other C
articles, out of scraps of old sheet or hoop iron. /
While the ancient Indians made their cutting
instruments and tools of stone or native copper,
the ancient Innuit substituted, in many cases,
bone and ivory. Stone arrowheads, formerly the universal
weapons among the Tinneh, are now rarely to be found. On
the other hand, the ivory weapons of the Innuit are still in
use. The Indian discarded the stone arrowhead entirely, for one
of iron; the Innuit retains the ivory head, merely adding to it a
tip of iron. The Indian leaves the bow to the children; the more
a(|uatic Innuit finds a gun out of place in his kyak, and still uses
the weapon of his ancestors to hunt the seal. Ashore, his weaporj
is usually a gun. The guns most common among them are very
li,L;ht double-barrelled Belgian fowling-pieces, with an average
bore of twenty-eight or thirty. These are obtained from the
Kotzobue Sound and Grantley Harbor traders. South of Nofton
Sou. id the Innuit are provided with very few guns, and these are
mostly long Hudson Bay flintlocks, obtained by trading with ^he
Tinneh tribes of the interior.

Trading is carried on to a large extent between the Indians
aiul Innuit. The former sell their wooden dishes and other
household articles, furs, wolf and wolverine skins, to the latter for
oil, sealskins, seal and walrus line, and articles obtained by the
Innuit from the traders. The Innuit again trade beaver skins,
Wooden dishes, and other articles of wood to the Tuski and other

144

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

tribes of Bering Strait, in exchange for walrus ivory and skins of
the tame Siberian reindeer, which the latter obtain from the
Chukchees. In this way a commerce is constantly carried on
between the interior tribes of America and Siberia, by means of
the Innuit, who act as middle-men. The bitter enmity and con-
stant hostility which are found between the northern and western
Eskimo and the Indians do not exist between the latter and the
Innuit of the western and southwestern coast. It is true that
both exhibit great jealousy in regard to their boundary lines.
These lines are generally formed by the summit of the watershed
between the small rivers which empty into the sea and those
which fall into the Yukon. They coincide nearly with the lino
of the wooded district to which the Indians arc confined. Any
man of either race found on the wrong side of the line is lial)le to
be .shot at sight, and deaths occur every season from this cause.
Nevertheless, a tacit arrangement exists between adjoining tribes
of the two races, so that an Innuit who kills a deer on Indian ter-
ritory may retain the meat, provided he leaves the skin at the
nearest Indian village. The Indians cross the Uli'ikuk portage
every winter, and trade at Unalakli'k with the Innuit. The latter
cross the Anvik portage at the same season, and trade with the
Yukon Ingaliks. Great caution is used by both while in foreign
territory, and nearly every year a panic occurs on the coast or in
the interior, from some rumor that the hostile race ire preparing
for invasion and war.

The Indians call the Innuit and Eskimo I'ska'mi, or sorcerers.
Kagitskci'mi is the Innuit name for the casines in which their
shamans perform their superstitious rites. From this root comes
the word Eskimo. The belief in shamani.sm is much the same
among the Innuit as that which is entertained among the In-
dians, but the rites of the Innuit shamans differ in the manner
of performance from those of the other race, and very much from
those of the Chukchees and olher inland races of Siberia.

A Mahlcmut shaman covers his head and the upper part of his
body with a kamlayka. He holds a wand, often of ivory, in each
hand, and beats on the floor of the casine, keeping time with a
monotonous chorus. When the frenzy seizes him he rolls on the
floor in violent convulsions. His body and face are concealed
beneath the kamlayka, which rustles violently with his motions,

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

and skins of
in from the
y carried on
by means of
nity and con-
and western
atter and the
is true that
undary hnes.
he watershed
:a and those
ivith the line
nfined. Any
ne is hable to
m this cause,
joining tribes
m Indian ter-
e skin at the
ukuk portage
t. The latter
radc with the
lile in foreign
\c coast or in
irc preparing

or sorcerers.

which their
s root comes
ch the same
ong the In-

the manner
y much from
|)eria.

r part of his
vory, in each

time with a
rolls on the
ire concealed

his motions,

while all watch anxiously for any words which may escape him
during the fit. Such are regarded as omens of deep significance,
and the hearers are impliciily guided by ihem.

The totemic system is not found among the Innuit. ICach boy,
when arrived at the age of puberty, .selects an animal, fish, or bird,
which he adopts as a patron. The spirit which looks after the
animals of that species is supposed to act henceforth as his guar-
dian. Sometimes the animal is selected in early childhood by
the parents. If he has long-continued want of success in his
pursuits, he will sometimes change his patron. They do not ab-
stain from eating or using the flesh and skin of the animal which
they have chosen, as do some tribes of Indians. They always
wear a piece of the skin or a bone of that animal, which they
regard as an amulet, and use every precaution against its loss,
which would be regarded as a grave calamity. Whet desiring
ansistance or advice they do not themselves seek it, but employ
a shaman to address their patron spirit. These customs do not
extend to females. The spirits of the ileer, seal, salmon, and be-
luga, are regarded by all with special veneration ; as to these
animals they owe their supj)ort. Each has its season, and while
hunting, it is almost impossible to induce them to attempt any
other work, as they seem to think each spirit demands exclusive
attention while he extends his favors. The homes of these spirits
are supposed to be in the north. The auroras are the reflections
from the lights used during supposed dances of the spirits. Siij-
gularly enough, they call the constellation of Ursa Major by the
name of Okil-6kpuk\ signifying Great Bear, and consider him to
be ever on the watch while the other spirits carry on their festiv-
ities. None of the spirits are regarded as supreme, nor have the
Innuit any idea of a deity, a state of future reward and pun-
ishment, or any system of morality. Many of them have been
christened by the Russian missionaries, but none have any idea
of Christianity.

The dead are enclosed above ground in a box, in the manner
previously described. The annexed sketch shows the form of the
sarcophagus, which in this case is ornamented with snow-shoes,
a reel for seal linos, a fishing-rod, and a wooden dish or kantag.
The latter is found with every grave, and usually one is placed in
the boy with the body. Sometimes a part of the property of the

146

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

dead person is placed in the coffin or about it. Occasionally the
whole is thus disjioscd of. Generally the furs, provisions, and
clothing (except such as has been worn) are divided among the
nearer relations of the dead, or remain in possession of his

family if he has one. Such cloth-
ing, household utensils, and weap-
ons as the deceased had in daily
use are almost invariably enclosed
in his coffin. If there are many
deaths about the same time, or an
epidemic occurs, everything belong-
ing to the dead is destroyed. The
/ house in which a death occurs is
■ ^mw^mMW^/ always deserted, and usually de-
stroyed. In order to avoid this, it

Inniiit gr.ive. , « » • 1

IS not uncommon to take the sick
person out of the house and put him in a tent to die.

A woman's coffin may be known by the kettles and other fem-
inine utensils about it. There is no distinction between the sexes
in method of burial. On the outside of the coffin figures are usu-
ally drawn in red ochre. Figures of fur animals indicate that the
dead person was a good trapper ; of seal or deer, show his profi-
ciency as a hunter ; representations of parkies, that he was
wealthy: the manner of his death is also occasionally indicated.

For four days after a death the women in the village do no sew-
ing, for five days the men do not cut wood with an axe. The
relatives of the dead must not seek birds' eggs on the overhanging
cliffs for a year, or their feet will slip from under them, and they
will be dashed to pieces. No mourning is worn or indicated, ex-
cept by cutting the hair. Women sit and watch the body, chant-
ing a mournful refrain, until it is interred. They seldom suspect
that others have brought the death about by shamanism, as the
Indians almost invariably do. At the end of a year from the
death a festival is given, presents are made to those who assisted
in making the coffin, and the period of mourning is over. Their
grief seldom seems deep, but they indulge for a long time in wail-
ing for the dead at intervals. I have seen several women who
refused to take a second husband, and had remained single, in
spite of repeated offers, for many years.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

147

onally the
sions, and
imong the
ion of his
nich cloth-
antl wcap-
l in daily
ly enclosed
are many
time, or an
ins bclong-
>ycd. The
1 occurs is
.isually de-
void this, it
ike the sick

1 other fem-
;n the sexes
res are usu-
\tc that the
w his profi-
lat he was
indicated,
do no sew-
axe. The
vcrhanginj;
1, and they
licatcd, ex-
ody, chant-
Dm suspect
ism, as the
r from the
ho assisted
•cr. Their
Ime in wail-
omen who
single, in

Their habits are very regular. ICvery season the same round
is gone through as in the previous one, only varied by the differ-
ences in temperature and in the prevalence of tish and game.

In February they leave the .illages and repair to the moun-
tains, with all their families. They pursue the deer until the
snow begins to melt. I am informed that among the Miihlemuts,
near their more inland villages, they will not permit any water to
he boiled inside of the houses while the deer hunt continues.
This is only one of many similar superstitions. The deer are
stalked ; noosed in mahout snares, set where they are accustomed
to run ; or driven into pounds built for the purpose, where they
are killed by hundreds. Since the introiluction of fire-arms, about
fifteen years ago, the number of deer has been very greatly
(Iimini.shed. At the same time the bow and arrow have fallen
into disuse, and it would be impossible at present for them to
obtain sufficient food without guns and annnunition. The K;iv-
iak peninsula formerly abounded with deer ; at present none are
found there.

When the snow melts and the ice comes out of the small rivers,
the Innuit return to their homes. Myriads of water-fowl ar-
rive, and breed on the steep cliffs of Ik'sboro' Island, and similar
promontories of the coast. About this time the young men
seek for eggs and kill the parent binls, wliile the older and more
wealthy start for Grantley Harbor and Kotzcbue Sound, where
the traders meet them as soon as open water affords oppo' tunity.
As June arrives, eggs are more abundant, and form for a while
the chief article of diet. (juIIs' eggs are rejected by the women
and children, who believe that they will grow old and decrepit if
liiey eat them. Seal may also be obtained in small numbers,
and immense schools of herring visit the shores, remaining
about ten days and then disappearing for the season.

As July advances the salmon arrive, and every one is found
upon the shore. Gill nets are stretched out from the brach, and
the sands are red with the fish, split and hung up to dry ; dogs
and men have as much as they can eat, and large supi)lies of
I'lkali are laid in for winter use. While the fishery lasts no wood
must be cut with an axe, or the salmon will disappear. Near
the end of July a small fleet of bidarnis arrive with those who
have been away trading, and a deputation of Tuski or Okee-

148

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

f'-'

}■

(Sgcmuts with walrus ivory, whalebone, and tame reindeer skins
for barter.

In August many of the women repair to the hills, where they
hunt the young reindeer fawns. The latter arc caught by run-
ning after them, or in snares. Their skins are valued for cloth-
ing, and make a very pretty light parka. They are of a uniform
brownish red, lighter on the belly, and not spotted like the young
of the red deer. The skins are nearly valueless until about a
month old, and it is hardly necessary to contradict Zagoskin's
fables about the unborn young. The latter, I believe, are not
eaten by the Innuit ; at least, I have frequently seen them thrown
to the dogs. The stomach of the adult deer, filled with half-
digested willow-tips, is regarded as a delicacy, and eaten as we
do salad. The supply of backfat is also laid in at this season ;
later it disappears.

In September many repair to Pastol Hay and Norton I^ay,
where they kill the beluga, left in shallows by the tide. The
seal fishery is at this time in full blast, and the natives will not
work on the frames of boats or kyaks. As the cold weather
comes on, the rutting season of the deer comes with it, and most
of the Innuit repair to the mountains after them. At this season
the supplies of deerskins, sinews, and meat are laid in for the
winter. About the middle of October the shores of the Sound are
girded with ice. The seal disappear, but myriads of a small fish,
like tom-cod, are found all along the shores, and are
fished for through holes in the ice. The hook is pe-
culiar. It is made of a small oval piece of bone with
a sharp pin inserted into it diagonally. It is not baited,
\^ as the fish bite at the ivory, which is tied on a whale-
\ bone thread, whose elasticity gives the hook a tremu-
J lous motion in the water. The sinker is also an oval
J? piece of bone or ivory. These little fish are excellent
#* eating, and are caught by thousands at Unalaklik.
^i^ Hy this time the majority have returned to the villages,

fish"iiook ^ntl trapping commences. The women are at work on
andsinker. the wiutcr clothiug, and the season of festivity sets in.
The greater part of November and half of December is occu-
pied by dances and festivals. About January the trade with the
Indians commences, and in February they again repair to the

THL YUKON TERRITORY.

149

idccr skins

mountains as before. This gives a sketch of their mode of life
(hiring the year. The dances and winter festivities deserve more
minute description.

All the Innuit are fond of dancing and singing together. The
princij)al jwint, in both Innuit and Indian dances, is, to make as
many different kinds of motion with the body and arms as pos-
sible, always keeping the most exact time with the chorus and
with each other. The dances take place in the casine of tlie vil-
lage, and time is kept by a number of old men, who Icail the
chorus and beat time with an elastic wand on a sort of large
tambourine. Their festivals may be divided into two classes, —
one where they meet simply to dance and sing, and the other when
there are also other ends in view. In the former the singers con-
fine themselves strictly to the chorus " L'ng hi yah," &c., which
has previously been described. These dances are held whenever
a sufficient number happen to meet in the casine a. id desire it, but
always in the evening. The other festivals also take place in the
evening, and are of diiVerent kinds. First, there is the opening
festival of the winter, which differs from all the others. Then
there are festivals at which the givers desire to Indicate their
friendship for each other by making presents in a manner which
will be afterwards described. A third kind of festival is given a
year after the death of a relation. A fourth, when a wealthy man
wishes to make himself the reputation of a public benefactor. A
fifth, when a man wishes to redress an injury which he has done
to another, and a sixth, when the village unites in inviting the
inhabitants of another village to partake of their hospitality.

The opening festival of the season is usually held early in
November. No women participate, except as spectators. The in-
variable chorus is begun, and kept up until all the young male in-
habitants arc collected in the casine. As soon as all are present,
dishes of charcoal ground up with oil are brought in ; all the young
men strip themselves and proceed to paint their faces and bodies.
No particular pattern is followed, but each one suits his own fancy.
When all are duly adorned they leave the casine in single file, end-
ing with the boys. Attired in Adam's original costume, they visit
every house in the village, chanting as they go. I'^ach family has
prepared dishes of eatables according to their means. These are
given to the performers; and when all the houses have been visited,

'50

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

— the atmosphere meanwhile perhaps many degrees below zero, —
they return laden to tiie easine. Passing under the floor, eaeh one
stands a moment in the central opening, ehants for a few seconds
while the old men beat the drums, and then springs out and de-
posits on the floor the dish he carries. When all have come in
they form in a hollow square, each one holding a dish in both
hands, A peculiar chant is begiui by one of the old men, and the
others join in with him; they then turn towards the north corner
of the building, chanting, and at a given signal all raise the dishes
of food which they carry, above their heads in a northerly direc-
tion, at the same time looking down and uttering a hissing sound.
This is repealed several times ; the chant then continues for a
few minutes, when they turn to the east and repeat the perform-
ance ; and again to the south and west. This is to exorcise evil
spirits. This being done, all set to and dispose of the eatables.
When the feast is over they proceed to wash ofl" the paint, at
which stage of the performance most civilized spectators are
obliged by the odor to retire. After the washing is concluded
all join in the ordinary chorus and disperse to their homes.

The third kind of festival );i given by *.he relatives of the dead,
both male and female. They appear by the underground passage,
carrying food and presents. Placing them on the floor, they join
in the usual chorus. The motions of the 'females are graceful and
easy. The men strive to outdo each other in jumping and ex-
treme exertions of every muscle of the body, always keeping
perfect time. Ik'tween the meaningless syllables of the chorus,
words are interpolated, eulogizing the virtues of the deceased and
relating his exploits in hunting and fishing. The men imitate in
their actions the motions of approacliing the deer, of .shooting,
pursuing, and of taking off the skin. The .same dumb show is car-
ried out until the relation of the history of the dead man is com-
pleted. The women then distribute the eatables to the friends of
the family. The men distribute the presents. Some trifle, such
as a leaf of tobacco or a pair of sealskin boot-soles, is given to
every spectator. A handsome gift falls to him who made the
coffin, and smaller presents to others who assisted at the inter-
ment. After this is over a more lively chant begins, indicating
that the season of mourning is over, and that the relatives have
performed their duty. With this the exhibition closes.

THK YUKON TERRITORY.

15'

ow zero, —
r, each one
L'W seconds
lit and dc-
c conic in
ih in both
LMi, and the
irtli corner
the dishes
lerly diiec-
sing sound,
in lies for a
c pcrform-
;orcisc evil
e eatables,
e paint, at
:tators are
concluded
homes.
r the dead,
1(1 passage,
, they join
racel'iil and
g and ex-
s keeping
the chorus,
ceased and
imitate in
shooting,
low is car-
an is corn-
friends of
trifle, such
s given to
made the
the inter-
indicating
itives have

The fourth festival is not a very common one, and is more prac-
tised among the tribes of the Viikon-moiith and to the southward.
The man who proposes to give it often saves up his property for
years, and retains nothing, being reduced to poverty by the festi-
val. He accumulates deerskins, beaver, sealskins and furs, beails,
and other articles of value. He exerts himself to the utmost in
preparing food for his guests. When the preparations are com-
plete he sends to all the natives of the vicinity, who crowd to the
feast. It begins with dancing and singing, each guest doing his
utmost to excel in each and do honor to the occasion. The festi-
val lasts as many days as the provisions will huKl out. On the
last day the host, dressed in a new suit, welcomes his friends in
the casine. To each he gives presents of whatever he may like
best ; when all the store of gifts is exhausted the host strips him-
self replacing the new clothing by the poorest rags, and gi^-' < ih<'
former to whoever has not previously receiveil a gift. ' s wife
does the same. Thf guests put on their new clothing on the
sjwt in silence. 'Ihe host then aildresses ihcm, saying tha' he
has nothing .eft, and deiJieciating his own generosity as much as
possible. He then dismisses the assembly, who go back to their
homes. No return is asked or expected, and the host is often
reduced to extreme destitution, which he regards as a slight
matter compared with the reputation which the festival has given
him. At some of these feasts ten guns, two hundred beaver, a
hundred sealskins, fifty deerskins, five hundred sable, two hundred
fathoms of strung beads, ten wolf or wolverine skins, and as many
suits of clothing and blankets, have been given away by one man.
Stepanoff told me of a man who saved for fifteen years, until he
accumulated such a store of valuables, and then made a ftast and
gave everything away.

The fifth kind of festival is also of rather rare occurrence. I
witnessed but one. The man who had originated the (piarrel
sent a messenger some seventy miles to the man who had been
injured or offended. The messenger was dressed in a new suit,
with a red shirt, and carried a wand ornamented with feathers in
his hand. Intimation of the intention had of course reached the
recipient in advance. The messenger found l.-m at his work.
Chanting as he approached, he made known his errand, striking
the receiver with his wand ; and suddenly seizing a kiii:"j, he

1^2

THK YUKON TICRRITORY.

1 i

1 'lit

li I

I i,

I I

j;iaspcil him by the iicck and brandished it above his heail. The
otiicr. undcrstamiin}.; the intention, made no resistance ; and con-
cUuHnj; his chant, the niessenj^er intjiiireil what restitution was
desired. The other told what he wisheil tor, and the niessen<rcr
informed him whi-rc ami when it wouUl be made. The heralil
then returned to him who sent him, and his errand was done.
Several weeks iater the least was <;iven. The reijuired restitu-
tion and much nuire was presented to the offended party, who, as
well as the offeniler, was dres.sed in an entirely new suit of clothes.
After the ^ifts had been accepted the two stood up and danced
tOi;ether, keeping time with the ilrums. They then exchanged
clothing, as a sign that they were friends again, and the person
who received the presents diviileil tobacco ami sealskins among
the spectators, which fmisheil the ceremony.

The si.xth sort of festival is frequent. Mvery winter several
take place. In December, 1867, the M.ihlemuts resiiling at Una-
lakli'k invif-MJ the M.ihlemuts of Shaktolik to participate in a
festival at the former i)lace. The guests arrived about the
miildle of the month, ami were (luartereil in the tlitVerent houses
in the village. On the opening of the performances all gathered
in the casine. The guests were merely spectator.s. The princi-
pal men of the rnalaklik village, eight in number, appeared by
the subterranean passage and formed in line on the floor. Six
women, the best dancers in the place, look their places opposite.
AUuianok ami one or two old men, whose age ibrbaile their join-
ing in the dance, took the drums and led the chorus. The men
were stripped to the waist. They wore breeches of tame rein-
deer skin, and had each a tail of wolf or wolverine attached to
the belt behiml. They had on gloves trimmeil with wolverine
skin, and boots ornamented with strips of fur and marten tails.
Arouml the head each had a fillet of deerskin ornamented with
feathers, •.vhich came down on the shoulders behind. The women
were provideil with long shirts maile of the intestines of the
seal, cleaned, split, ami sewed together. These shirts were trans-
lucent, embroidered with bits of colored worsted, and orna-
mented with short pendent strings of beads. Through the semi-
transparent tlress the motions of the body were j)erceptible.
Their breeches were of tlie white Siberian reindeer, embroidered,
decorated with strips of wolfskin, anil nuule to fit the limbs

THK YUKON TKRRITORY.

»53

lis head. The
incc ; and con-
rostitution was
the nicsscpgcr
J. The herald
and was done.
x|uired reslitii-
party, who, as
suit of elothes.
up and daneed
lien e.\ehan<;ed
and tlie person
,'alskins among

winter several
siding at Una-
artieipate in a
/ed about the
liferent houses
es all Leathered
The {irinei-
, appeared by
the floor. Six
laees opposite,
aile their join-
us. The men
of tame rein-
le attaehed to
kith wolverine
marten tails,
amented with
The women
stines of the
s were trans-
1, and orna-
ugh the semi-
perceptible,
embroidered.
It the limbs

pcrfcetly. The upper dress eanic a little below the knees.
Their hair was arranged ami braideil on eaeh siile, with the
greatest care. Strips of white wolfskin and strings of beads
were incorporated with the braids, and pendants of beails and
beail necklaces ornamented the shoulders. Their hanils were en-
cased in snow-white gloves, fitting closely and made with great
care from the temler skin of the reindeer fawn. These were
trimmeil arounil the wrist with a fringe of wolfskin. In eaeh
hand they held long eagle tcathers, to the edges of which tufts
of swan's-down were attached. The opening chant was slow and
incasureil. The motions oi' the dancers were modest and pleas-
ing ; the extreme gracefulness of the women, especially, would
have excited admiration anywhere. They kept the most perfect
time with the chorus aiul ilrum taps. Hetween the .syllables of
the former, words of welcome to the strangers were interpolated
ill such a way as not to interfere with the rhythm. The slowly
waving teathcs and delicate uiululations of the ilancers remlered
the scene extremely attractive.

As the performance went on, the spectators joineil in the
chorus, which became more animated. Other villagers entereil
into the ilance, and all joined in ilumb show to imitate the opera-
tions of ilaily life. New songs, invented for the occasion, ile-
scriplive of hunting the deer, bear, and fox, of pursuing the seal
in kyaks, of travelling in the oomiak.s, of tishing ami other pur-
suits, were introduced in the chorus. The excitement increased,
and was ,added to by the applause of the spectators. All en-
trretl freely into the enjoyment of the hour. Children appeareil
tnun below, dressed in new ami beautifully decorated clothing.
With the gieatest gravity, and keeping time in all their motions
with the song, they deposited on the tloor dishes of boileil fish,
iiuat, oil, and reiiuleer marrow; berries in a cream-like mixture
ol snow, oil, and fat ; and other delicacies. This done, they
sc.unpered out, to return again. The dance came to a close, and
the least began. That over, all joined in a lively chorus, to-
bacco was distributed to the spectators, and the performance
closLil for the night. TIk next evening a similar exhibition took
place, which was repeated every night for a week. The best
il.mcers took occasion to exhibit their proficiency singly ; new
and original songs and symbolic ])antomimes were introiluced

i; !

1.54

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

every evening. During the whole of the festival only the most
necessary labor was performed, and it would have been quite
impossible to induce anybody to do any outside work. When
it came to an end the guests departed, to reciprocate another
winter at Shakt(Mik. In this way the hospitable Innuit vary the
monotony of their existence, and by constant interchange of
hospitalities produce the most friendly feelings between dilTer-
cnt tribes. Those about the Yukon-mouth seldom take part
in these festivities on Norton Sound. The latter embrace the
different tribes from Pastolik to Kotzebue Sound and Ik-ring
Strait.

The dialects of those to the southward are so different that they
would have difficulty in intercourse with the former, which is
probably the reason of their absence ; but among themselves they
carry on an equal amount of such festivities. The semi-re-
ligious masked dances and midnight mysteries of the ancient
Aleutians find no counterpart among the Innuit of Norton
Sound.

It is impossible to doubt that, among all American aborigines,
much in their mode of life, customs, and ceremonials is of a local
nature, anil due to extraneous circumstances. Much is also due,
unquestionably, to the similarity of thought and habit which must
obtain among human beings of a low type, and who gain their
living by similar means. Hence, a general similarity of many
customs may naturally be expected between both Innuit and In-
dians, as well as far-distant aborigines of different parts of the
world, and this similarity can afford no basis for generalizations
in regard to their origin.

Popoff and myself determined to join in giving a festival of the
second class, which has not yet been described. Rlyunuk was
chosen as the messenger. He was dressed in a new suit of clothes,
which was his perquisite ; he wore a fillet of wolfskin around his
head and carried a wand in his hand. This was about six feet
long, and curiously ornamented and carved, somewhat resembling
the Roman palms carried in procession by high dignitaries of the
Catholic Church on Palm-Sunday. He received his messages and
departed. P()poff had designated Alluianok as the one whom he
desired to honor. I chose Ark-napyak, another chief; and Os-
trofskoi another, called Andre.

■A

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

155

The messenger, fust finding where the person indicated is, runs
at the top of his speed. On approaching him he shouts, "Oh ! oh !"
as loudly as possible, and chants a lively chorus. At the same time
he delivers his message, waving his wand about the head of the
other, and tells him that PopotV, or whoever it njay be, is desirous
of giving a festival, and having selected him as a suitable person
to honor, desires to know what would be acceptable to him as a
present. The other replies that he will accept the honor, and
mentions whatever he may want. In this ease, Alluianok asked
for tobacco and a new shirt, Andre for wolverine skin, and Ark-
napvak for a glass of water, meaning licpior. A day was set for
the festival ; all who chose to come were welcome. W'e had a large
kettle, containing some ten gallons of rice, cracked wheat, and
oil, boiled into a general mush, and flavored with molasses ; and
another full of tea ICach guest was served with the former, and
received with the latter a slice of bread and a lump of sugar.
The presents werj then given, and the practice is to give as much
as possible over and above what was asked for. lieing without the
liquor which was so much desired, I chose to understand the requer.t
literally, and presented Arknapyak with a large bowl full of scarlet
heads, much coveted by the Innuit, and filled up with water.
Powder, lead, caps, drill, and a little case of portable tools made up
his present, and after the others had received theirs, I tlistributed
among the guests small i)ieces of black tobacco, careful that none
should be overlooked. If the festival had been given by natives
only, dances and the chorus would have preceded the feast, but
the casarmer of the fort was unsuitable for dancing. The assem-
bly then dispersed, and we were notified to attend at the next
stage of the proceeduigs, in the casine of the village.

A day or two after, the messenger came to us to know what we
desired in return, using the ceremonial previously described. One
of the points which give zest to these festivals is the practice of
asking for the thing of all others most difficidt to obtain. It is a
point of honor with the giver to proci're it at any price or risk.
In some cases couriers are sent humlreds of miles, and the festival
is prolonged until their return, in order that the honor of the host
may be untarnished. I asked for a live seal, knowing very well
that the seal had left the coast at least three weeks f^efore, and
that no amount of trouble would obtain one. PopofT asked for

156

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

I' i

J
\

.i ■H

foxskins and beaver ; Ostrofskoi, for a tame reindeer parka, and
wolfskin for collars.

The next day we repaired to the casine in the evening. The
custom is for those who bring presents to approach by the under-
ground passage. We sat on the floor around the aperture, and
Myunuk appeared and distributed tobacco to those present, a
beaver-skin to Popoff, and a pair of walrus tusks to me. The
giver stands in the aperture and dances and sings there for a few
moments, the old men, meanwhile, keeping time on the drums.
Alluianok came up and presented Popoff with throe fine red
foxes. The giver always depreciates his present, and says there
are no more to be had, after which he stoops down and pulls out
something more, repeating the remarks until his supply is ex-
hausted. Arknapy'ak brought me a fine pair of winter boots
ornamented with wolverine skin, a dish of doer fit, two marten
skins, a bundle of boot-solos and some berries. Andre oftored
fat, berries, a fine kamhiyka, wolfskin for collars, half a sealskin
for boot-soles, meat, reindeer tongues, sinew, and a fine pair of
tame reindeer breeches. Plach, after giving all his presents,
howled once or twice, danced in the aperture, and finally jumped
out to one side. The old men kept up a persevering drumming
and chorus. We distributed the tobacco and fat among them
and returned to the fort. Arknapyak said that his men had gone
to the edge of the ice after seal, and he could not yet fulfil all
of his duty, but would do so before the festival v.\is over. It was
again the turn of the Innuit, and hoping to find me unprepared,
he asked for a plane, which of all things is most difficult to obtain
in this part of the world. I was fortunate enough to find one in
the tool-box which I bought of Popoft". It was duly presented at
the ne.xt meeting, which was similar to the one already described,
and in return I asked for a good tame reindeer suit for my ethno-
logical collection. The closing evening of the festival arrived,
and after the preliminary dances and singing wore concluded,
the head of a seal appeared in the opening of the floor, the body
followed, and it began to move about, pulled by strings in the
hands of bystanders stationed for the purpose. It was dead, but
complete and frozen in a natural attitude. As it was jerked
about the Innuit imitated the cry of the seal, much to everybody's
amusement. Arknapyak then appeared and stated that owing to

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

157

2er parka, and

evening

The

I by the undcr-

: aperture, and

ose present, a

s to me. The

there for a few

on the drums.

three fine red

and says there

I and pulls out

supply is cx-

f winter boots

"at, two marten

Andre offered

half a sealskin

a fine pair of

1 his presents,

finally jumped

[ring drumniiuL;'

among them

men had gone

ot yet fulfil all

over. It was

ne unprcparetl,

icult to obtain

to find one in

y presented at

ady describeil,

for my ethno-

stival arrived

re concludoel,

floor, the body

strings in the

was dead, but

it was jerked

to everybody's

that owing to

the lateness of the .season he was unable to procure a more lively
seal for the purpose, and hoped that this one would prove satis-
factory. Me added that it would not bite. His explanation was
received with applause, and he added many other acceptable
articles to his present. The old men rose, and Alluianok the
senior chief then declared that the festival had been properly
carricil out and every one satisfied. He thanked us for joining
with them in such a cordial manner, and proclaimeil that the
feast was at an end. It was the first time on Norton Sound that
white men had joined with the Innuit in celebrating these games,
although Stepanoff had .several times done so, when on trading
expeditions among the more southern Innuit.

While collecting on the beach west of the river on the 18th
of October, I met a native who said that he had come up in my
new bidarr.i from the Redoubt. The stormy weather hail de-
layed it. The next day it arrived at the fort, in charge of I'chuk
K(')liak, a trustworthy Mahlemut, who on many occasions had
been extremely useful to our parties. His only fault was a pre-
dilection for liquor. He was honest, straightforward, and very
intelligent. He had received the name of Isaac from .some of the
traders, who had also taught him to write his name legibly, but
the Innuit had corrupted Isaac into Ichuk.

Ingechuk and Andrea having arrived from Ikti'galik, I endeav-
ored to engage them to take the bidarni up to that place while
ilie Unalakh'k River was still unfrozen. They agreed, but put o(T
starting until the next day. When the morning had arrived we
provided bread and likali for them, when I discovered that the
brave Ingaliks expected me to hire somebody to row them up the
river ! After expressing my opinion very freely of their laziness
ami general worthlessness, I hired ihree Malileinuts to take their
places. That ..i.iernoon I was seized with violent pain in my
neck and back, accompanied by fever, probably caused by camp-
ing on the river. On examining my boxes I was astounded to
tind that the small supply of medicine had been left at the Re-
doubt. I felt that the case admitted of no delay. Although the
Joth of October, the air was mild and pleasant. Not a particle
of ice was to be seen on the river or along the seashore. I went
up to the village, and through Isaac's mediation obtained two
men. Patting a little tea, sugar, and two loaves of bread, with

"»

158

THE YUKON TKRRITORY.

half a dozen salt salmon-trout, into the thrcc-holcd biddrka, in
half an hour I had started for the Redoubt, a journey as unex-
pected as it was sudden. Another day, if the weather continued
fine, would bring us there. We camped at Fossil Creek near
Topiinika, but I passed a sleepless and painfid night. The next
morning we wore otT again early and plied our paddles vigor-
ously, hoping to reach Pallonoi Point. The waves rose very
high, however, showing heavy weather to the westward, and the
wind began to freshen. The rollers became so large that we were
obliged to put on our kamlaykas and tie them round the holes.
The bidarka was frequently buried in the water, and as she was
very old I was obliged for safety to put in at Kegiktowruk. My
situation may be imagined, burning with fever and impatience at
the delay. There was no help for it, however. Four days I lay
in the casine, suffering from anxiety quite as much as from the
pain, which however grew no worse. We got out of provisions
the second day, as I had not anticipated such delay. I cut the
last loaf into three parts and divided equally with my men. There
was nothing else but seal meat obtainable. I tried the heart and
liver, which were not objectionable, but the flesh impregnated
with the oil was positively revolting. The blubber, when per-
fectly fresh, has a taste exactly resembling the smell of the old-
fashioned lamp oil. Certain arctic explorers have pronounced
this, as well as the raw entrails of the seal, to be "delicious!"
I can regard this statement only as the result of a depraved appe-
tite goaded by hunger. The blubber of the beluga and whale,
and even the flesh of the walrus, sea lion, and fur seal, is eatable.
When fresh the taste is but moderately disagreeable ainl is easily
conquered by hunger. But the flesh and oil of the leopard-seal
are always extremely repulsive, and cannot to the civilized palate,
by any stretch of the imagination, be considered otherwise.
Whale-blubber is a luxury compared to it.

I could not force myself to do more than taste it, and the result
was immediate nausea. Fortunately, in the evening I obtained a
small supply of venison and a deer's tongue. The latter dried or
frozen is a great delicacy, and has the flavor of chestnuts. This
flavor is lost in great part by 'cooking. In any shape there is no
other kind of tongue which will bear comparison with it.

Towards night of the 24th 'he waves fell somewhat. About

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

'59

d biddrka, in
rncy as uncx-
ler continued
1 Creek near
t. The next
addles vigor-
'cs rose very
vard, and the
that we were
inid the holes.
d as she was
:towruk. My
impatience at
311 r days I lay
:i as from the |
of provisions
ly. I cut the
y men. There
the heart and
impregnated
r, when per-
il of the old-
pronounced
delicious !"
)ravcd appe-
and whale,
al, is eatable,
ainl is easily
leopard-seal
ilized palate,
otherwise.

,nd the result
I obtained a
Iter dried or
;tnuts. This
there is no
1 it.
hat. About

midnight I stepped out to look at the weather: snow-clouds were
driving across the sky, the surf roared, and billows dashed upon
the rocky islets. About five o'clock in the morning I rose and took
another look. The wind had subsitled, but no boats would leave
tliat cove for si.x months. The weather was icy cold. As far as
the eye could reach seaward was a sheet of ice ! Aided by the
snow, the intense cold in five hours had covered the entire coast
of the Sound with ice. It was not clear, smooth, and solid, such
as makes in calm weather, but a white, frothy, rough substance,
looking like the white slag from an iron-furnace. Close in shore
it was several feet thick, but soft and unsafe, with occasional
pools of water. The Russians, who often have a substantive name
for conditions of things which we describe by means of adjectives,
cull it s/iiig(ih, in distinction from clear, solid ice, which is lo/it.

I dismantled the bidarka, raised her on a stage out of reach of
the dogs, made up three packs of about fifty pounds each, and
about ten o'clock started with my men for the Redoubt on foot.
The travelling was exceedingly hard ; we had to step from one
tussock to another, which often gave way, striking the toes against
the frozen ground. I had only one light parka without a hood,
and the wind was very cold, liy constant exercise I managed to
keep warm, and about nightfall caught sight of the hut on the
knoll at the Major's Cove. I told the men we would camp here,
and they received the information wi . exclamations of thankful-
ness. The house was a wretched one, much out of repair, and in
consequence smoky. My bread was exhausted ; we had fortunately
one drawing of tea, but no sugar, and only a small fragment of
frozen deer meat. One of my men opened his pack and com-
menced unrolling a small biunlle. First a piece of paper, next a bit
ot sealskin, and so on, until about ten wra[)pers had been removed.
To my surprise it was the bread I had given him several days be-
fore. I praised his economy, but he interrupted nic, saying, " Take
it ; you want it more than I do," and insisted upon my accepting
it. The other, who was almost a boy, seeing the bruised and
battered condition of my feet, brought out some pieces of cotton
drill, which he asked me to use as " nips " and to return to him
at some future time. These instances of kind-heartedness are
worthy of being remembered. They give a glimpse of character-
istics we never found among the Indians, and which eminently

rrwr

1 60

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

?l!

distinguish the Innuit. Several similar instances were related
by members of Major Kennicott's party. Mahlcmuts in their
employ, during a scarcity of provisions, denied themselves in
order that others might not suffer.

The next day we boiled our tea-leaves over again, and made the
best of our way over the ice along shore. The mouth of the Canal
was frozen, as I had hoped, and with care we crossed safely, and
reached the Redoubt just as the service was over and the inhab-
itants were coming out of church. Stepanoff, who with astonish-
ment had watched us crossing the new ice, received mc hospita-
bly. I obtained the necessary medicines, and, by heroic doses of
calomel and quinine, succeeded in quelling the disorder.

Four days after, though quite weak and still far from well, I
started on my return with a Russian Creole, named Goldscn, a
sled with six dogs, and three natives. I had obtained some sugar
from Stepanoff, to make up my loss, and a good parka, with other
necessary articles. The weather was about twelve below zero,
and rather windy. We kept on the ice beyond the Major's Cove,
but as it was untrustworthy we were obliged to take to the bank.
Here the going was very bad, as previously mentioned. There
was no snow, and we stumbled over the frozen hillocks until our
feet ached again. We arrived safely at Kcgiktowruk in the even-
ing. Here we took on the tent and other things which I had
been obliged to leave behind.

The next day the travelling was even worse. In many places
we had to cut our way through low but heavy willow brush, which
grows along small watercourses. We camped in a ravine near
the two islands. In the evening the wind fairly howled, and it
began to snow. The air was full of fine snow, which the strong
wind drove into the eyes. Travelling under such conditions is
almost impossible and very dangerous. The Russians call this
poorga. It is in such storms that travellers los,^ their way, and
are frozen to death. Clear cold, however great, can always be
borne, with proper clothing and e.xercise, but the poorga, penetrat-
ing to the bone, first blinds, then chills, and finally exhausts the
hapless traveller, who no sooner falls than he is covered by the
snowdrift.

The next morning was more pleasant. We passed Golsova
River about eleven. In the middle of thp afternoon we saw a

|ii \

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

161

herd of deer fcedinj; among the willow brush. The dogs started
off on a full gallop, sleds and all, and it was with the greatest dif-
ficulty that we checked them. I started in one direction, and
(ioklsen in another. A doe with her finvn passed near me. I
fired, and she sprang into the air ami came down full on her
horns. A few struggles, and she was dead. The others, alarmed
by the shot, were off at full speed. On examination I found that
one of the buckshot with which the gun was loaded had struck
her on the leg. Falling on her horns, she had come down with
such force as to break open the skull and pierce the brain. This,
and not the shot, had killed her. On skinning her we found the
ucKlcr full of milk, which we saved in a tin cup. It was thick
and rich, like cream. The winter coat of the reindeer is gray,
with long while hair on the throat. It is a very awkward-
looking animal when in motion, reminding one of a cotv. The
eye is large and black. We cached the meat and skin, taking
only the heart and liver. We hung up a handkerchief on a snow-
shoe, and poured powder in a wide circle around it to keep off
the fo.xes. Pushing on, we crossed Tolstoi Point, and camped in
the house at Topanika. To reach it we were obliged to unload
the sled, and carry every article, as well as the dogs, through the
water around two points of rock. The ice was rotten, and there
was a strip of open water ten yards wide between it and the
shore. That night wc had milk in our tea, the only time during
my stay in Russian America. The house at Topanika, though
well built, is very smoky, so much so that in good weather it
is better to camp out of doors.

The next day we started for Unalaklik about eight o'clock.
We had broken all the bone off the runners, and the sled
moved slowly, I pushed on ahead, and reached Unalaklik about
two o'clock ; the dogs arrived about two hours afterward.

The annual rumor of a proposed invasion by the Shageluk In-
gallks had reached Unalaklik during my absence, and after two
days' excitement had been forgotten.

November 3d, Isaac's brother arrived from Kotzebue Sound
with two kegs of rum, bought from the traders. The whole
village was in an uproar very soon, and the Russians barred the
doors and loaded their guns, shaking in their shoes with fear.
Poor Isaac came

up
II

:apon ot any

162

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

and the Russians seized him, tied him with ropes, and beat him
dreadfully with dog-whips. I remonstrated, but they paid no
attention to it, and when weary of abusing him they turned him
out of the fort, half naked, and blind with the treatment he had
received. As soon as it became known in the village the women
united in bewailing the misfortune, and the wind brought their
cries distinctly to our ears. Isaac's wife came up to the window
of the bidiirshik's room and cried, " Wc will tell the Americans
when they come back, and they will not forget us," but she was
only answered with curses. More brutality joined to greater
cowardice I hope never to witness.

The storm blew over in time, though the hatred which all the
natives bore the Russians was much increased. Isaac was very
popular among the Innuit, and had never injured the Russians
in any way. I took some medicine and went down to the village
next day, and dressed his wounds and bruises, but the Russians
were afraid to leave the fort for a week.

On the 8th of November an old woman died very suddenly
in the village. The warm weather in October had occasioned
much sickness everywhere among the natives. Pleurisy and bron-
chitis were very prevalent ; many were sick, and all much alarmed.
liy the liberal use of mustard I assisted many of them, and my
attempts to cure them met with the utmost gratitude from the
poor people. The weather was very cold, and a piercing east
wind prevailed, which did not help matters.

Near the fort is a small village of Kaviaks ; their chief, named
Kamokin, had been of much assistance to Captain Pim and other
explorers in search of Franklin. He was always harping on
this subject, and brought it forward on every occasion. A more
persevering old beggar I never saw, nor were any of the others so
unreliable or so mean. A fierce bulldog given him by the P^nglish
was a perfect nuisance in the village. One of his workmen was
sick with pneumonia, but not dangerously ; he was in a fair way
to recover when the old woman died. Fearful that this man
would die in the house, which must then be deserted, Kamokin,
with the greatest barbarity, and deaf to our remonstrances, put
him out of doors in a cotton tent, without food, blanket, or fire.
Of course, in two days, with the temperature thirty below
zero and a sharp wind, the poor fellow died. His body was

5 i

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

'63

<lrnggccl a short distance, wrapped in a ,,icce of sealskin m. .
wuh one or two logs, and all h.s little pr ,, "tv i^cl li J 1 i
scattered about on the ground. U-ft in th s wa ' ''""'

attacked it. and it was only by threa e nVk'^ l ■ f '"""
^vo..Id take the body and throw t imo' h ""'.'" ''''' '''
«n.,ke-ho,e. that we Anally i.:i::Ar:o' " .e::;;^^^'^

ll^c cold weather continued, and we expected K Xui 1
dogs every day. Meanwhile I had a nun ber ' f 1 "

work making new harness as th/n 1 . '""* '''^ ""^

need a doubL^ supp y tI' ,, Inrn """ T' '"' "'^ ^'^""''

anO bright bu.to". ' '"' °""'"""=^ ""'' ''' A-"'-^'

1 !

CHAPTER V.

Arrival of Kiirill.i .-md the dops. — Departure from I'nalaklik. — Various kinds of
sledges. — Arrival at Ikligalik. — Scries of cktentions. — Indian avarice. — At
Ulukuk and across the portage. — Comparative merits of ditTennt sledjjcs. — Wol-
asatux. — Arrival at N'ulato. — Sham hysterics. — Fish-traps. — Kurilla's return. —
Journey to the Kaiyuh River. — llousekee|)ing. — Christm.i.^ and .\'ew-Vear's. —
Snaring grouse. — Yukon fish. — Continued sickness. — Arrival of the mail. —
Start for tlie Rcdoulit. — IIow tiie Russians travel ri. how the Americans travel.
— Arrival at tlie Reduuht. — Return to Iktigalik. — Iheak-down and repairs. — Dog-
driving, and cam]) lite in the Yukon territory. — Snowshoes. — Arrival at Nulato. —
Kxpeditions among the Nulato Hills. — Hostile Koyukuns. — Reasons for their hos-
tility. — Character of the western Tinneh. — Kndurance. — I'revalent diseases.—
Snow-goggles. — Totems. — Dances and songs. — Arms. — ll.ihits of life.— \d-
dilional notes on the Ktitchin tribes. — Making shot. — Attack on 'I'tkunka . ihe
result. — Arrival of swallows and geese. — I5rcak-up of the ice. — Narrow esc. —
Non-arrival of Indians. — I'avlolT's departure.

, I

EARLY in the forenoon of November 12th I was called out
by a cry that dogs were coming. On rcacliing the river-
bank I saw the tall form of the indefatigable Kuri'lla behind a
rapidly advancing sled. He had hardly reached the fort when
Pavlolf, Paspi'lkoff, Peetka, and Ivan the tyonc came in sight
with two other sleds. All was as usual at Nulato, and there was
a fair prospect of abundance of fish in the coming winter. We
greeted them heartily, and were soon seated around the steaming
samovar. They were eight days from Nulato, and had found the
ice on the Yukon in good condition, though there were still open
places in it. The Russians were bound for the Redoubt, and
Ivan had come to Unalaklik to buy oil.

The 14th was stormy, and on the 15th I arranged to start for
Ulukuk. I was short of dogs, as Stepanoff had taken all the dogs
belonging to the Telegraph Company, except those which Kun'lla
had brought from Nulato. I was able to secure nine from the
Unalaklik village, and hired three Mahlemuts to assist us as far as
Ulukuk and perhaps to Nulato. I obtained two Innuit sleds,
which would be available only as far as Ulukuk. These sleds arc

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

165

admirably suited for travcllinj; over the ice, but are too heavy to
use on a portaj;e. They are made of spruce wood, with the run-
ners shod with bone cut from the upper edi^e of the jawbone of
the whale, and peg<;ed on with birch pegs. 'Ihey arc brouj^jht from
Ikring Strait, and j^ood ones are worth ten sables a pair. The
bled is furnished with a flat bottom made of slats, on which the

Iniiuii sled of Norton Sound.

was called out

load is laid, and with a low horizontal rail. We were accustomed
to lash a pole on each side, projcctin;^ behind the sled at an anj^Ie
of fifty decrees with the runner These poles, strengthened with
a cross-bar, assisted materially in pushing and guiding the sled
and in lifting it up and down steep banks.

We had brougli' <lown from Fort Yukon to Nuhito, the previous
summer, two Hudson Hay sledges and a set of harness. They arc

Hudson B.iy sled, loaded.

made of three birch boards about twelve feet long. These are cut
thin at one end, about three feet of which is bent over, lashed and
covered with rawhide to keep it in place. Inside of this curve the
voyageur carries his kettle. T'.ic boards are secured to each other
l)y crosspicccs well lashed on. The load is jilaccd inside of a large
hag as long as the sled, and made of tlresscd mooseskin. It is then
covered over and firmly lashed by means of a rawhide line and
netting attached to each side of the sled. A piece of mahout,
known as the tail-line, passes through a loop in the head of the sled
and is tied to the lashings over the load, binding it all firmly to-
gether. The preceding sketch shows the appearance of the loaded

1 66

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

sled. The harness is furnished with a padded collar, like a horse-
collar, but rounded, which goes over the neck of the dog, and the
traces are long. The dogs are harnessed tandem, and three good
ones make a team. Tiie traces are buckled on each side of the
dog behind, so that the strain all comes on the load and no power
is wasted. I found it advantageous to lash two poles to the load
behind, as already described, as it is very hard work controlling
the motions of the sled by means of the tail-line alone.

The Indian sled of the country is much lighter. It is made of
birch, with thin, broad runners, which bend with the inequalities
of the road. The accompanying picture will give a better idea

iSI

Ing.ilik sled i>f ilu' \iikon.

of it than a description. There are no nails or pins, the whole
being lashed together by means of rawhide thongs. The load- is
usually covered with cotton cloth, and firmly kislied to the sides
and rail of the sled. The dogs are harnessed two and two, with
a leader, to a single line in front of the sled. The traces are tied
together, antl attached by a short cord to the sled-line. The har-
ness was described in the last chapter.

We had had many discussions during the past season, in regard
to the respective merits of the different kinds of sleds, and I was
very glad of the opportunity of thus putting them to a practical
test. The Hudson Ikiy sled is the only one used by their voy-
ageurs ; while the Russians use a sled similar to the Indian one,
but broader and more strongly made.

We started for Ulukuk about noon of the 15th. Our loads
were unusually heavy and the teams small. On each of the Mud-
son Bay sleds I placed about four hundred pounds, and gave them
three good dogs apiece. The Indian sled took about the .same
load with four dogs, and the Innuit one had about seven hundred
with five dogs. The latter, being shod with bone, will carry a

i)llar. like a horse-
" the clog, and the
n, and three good

eaeh side of the
oad and no power
poles to the load

work controlling
ine alone.
;r. It is made of
h the inequalities
•ive a better idea

r pins, the whole
gs. The load is
sli.ed to the sides
wo and two, with
le traces are tied
l-line. The har-

I season, in regard

sleds, and I was

:m to a practical

;cd by their voy-

the Iiulian one,

;th. Onr loads
[ach of the Hud-
[, and gave them
jabout the same
It seven hundred

[ne, will carry a

THE YUKON TLHRITORY. 167

\-cry heavy load ovc- smooth ice with ease. I took one of the
Hudson Bay sleds, as I always made it a rule to take as heavy a
sled as any man in the brigade. With this arrangeniv'nt no man

I Id

)f th.

dit of his load, and

.\cessive \ _
V Jett without an excuse. A light sled should alwa; ; lead, and
break the road. This was KuriUa's post ; I brought up the r-^ar,
to jnevent the natives from neeiUessly lagging behind. When
sure of my men and with a good road, I always took the lead. It
is a good plan for the leader to carry the blankets, chynik, and
axes ; for if a storm shouKl come up, anil the otners should drop
behind, they cannot camp until the day's work is finished, and
they have caught up their lost ground.

We found the going moderately good, and camped a short dis-
tance below Ikti'galik about six o'clock. The days were begin-
ning to be short. The sun rose about ten o'clock, and by three
ill the afternoon had again reached the horizon. His highest
elevation was far below the zenith.

We reached Ikti'galik early the next day. Here we camped,
bought dog-feed, and rearranged the loads, substituting an In-
dian sled for the Iniuiit one, which was of no further use, as we
were about to make portaijes. Matfay had promisetl me a new
sled and the use of his dogs, for which I had paid him in atlvance.
N\)\v, the old rutlian refuseil to let liis dogs go at all, and gave us
a weak and almost worthless old sled. Ami'lka and others had
built some new winter houses near Nuk'koh, and had deserted
riukuk entirely, only one h..)use there being still inhabited. All
the Ingaliks were gt)ing to the Kaivuh River a little later in the
season. Here Tekunka had announced that he woukl hokl a fes-
tival. He was now on his way to Unalaklik to purchase oil. We
were delayed the next day, having to patch up the old sled, but

t off about ten o'clock. We had not proceedetl far before three

tlic knees on one ude bn^ke After making the best repairs
in our power we pushed on, and about noon reacheil the new
village.

I fere we found a large number of Indians. There was a new
sled there, and the owner asked for it a can (i lb.) of powder, ten
balls, and ten percussion-caps. The usual cost of a sled is twenty
balls ; yet I would have purchased it, even at the outrageous
price he named ; but after paying him he stooped down and be-

1 68

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

m. <

gan to strip off the lashings, saying that the remni belonged to
anoti.er man. At this my temper, which had been at the boihng-
point ever since I left Matfay, gave way, and I expressed my de-
cided opinion of him as thoroughly as my vocabulary permitted
me. Leaving the sled and reclaiming the price, I pushed on, de-
termined not to submit to such an imposition. About a mile
beyond the village the old sled ga\ ^ out entirely. This was the
last drop. I said nothing, but took out my pipe and sat down to
calm my nerves. The others did the same, and finally Kun'lla
spoke up and said that we must go back and buy the sled pre-
viously spoken of. He suggested that he had a small tin which
held only half a pound of powder, and if that were presented to
the man he might not detect the difference : in this way we
might get even with him. We had plenty of mahout to lash the
sled again. I told him he might try, and he went off and soon
returned with the sled. We had meanwhile boiled the chynik.
and now took our tea, after which we reloaded. One of our
dogs had taken the opportunity to gnaw off his harness and dis-
appear in the woods. Meanwhile it had become almost dark,
and the men were grumbling, and wanted to go back and spend
the night at the village. They invented stories about there be-
ing no ice in the Ulukuk River, and went grudgingly to their
work when I told them that stopping was out of the question,
and we should sleep only on our arrival at Ulukuk. This day's
adventures are fair specimens of the ai noyances sometimes ex-
perienced in travelling, and which only patience and energy can
overcome. The dogs are given to running away when most
wanted, and light steel collars, and chains such as horses are
hitched with, would be a very valuable addition to any traveller's
equipment.

We arrived in good order, but some time after dark, and
camped in one of the winter houses. There we found a few
Indians, and obtained abundance of trout, fresh from the river,
with which we fed ourselves and the dogs, reserving the lighter
likali for the road. A small Indian cur occasioned great con-
fusion during the night, howling and fighting, and started at
last for the woods, with several of our dogs in pursuit. I had
reckoned that old Amdka would be willing to lend us his fine
team, but he refused; — such is life among the Indians!

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

169

ni belonged to

at the boiling-

)ressed my de-

lary permitted

pushed on, de-

About a mile

This was the

id sat down to

finally Kun'lla

^ the sled pre-

mall tin which

•e presented to

1 this way we
lout to lash the
It off and soon
cd the chynik.
. One of our
arness and dis-

2 almost dark,
:ick and spend
bout there be-

ingly to their

the question,

This day's

sometimes ex-

d energy can

when most

as horses are

any traveller's

er dark, and
found a few
om the river,
ng the lighter
ed great con-
nd started at
irsuit. I had
d us his fine
dians!

The next day was occupied in repairing damages, reloading,
and recovering our runaway dogs. The weather was disagree-
ably windy, with snow.

On the iglh we started very early. A few miles from Ulukuk
v,e were astonished to see dogs coming, and in a few moments
the previously mentioned cur appeared, with Amilka's three dogs
in hot pursuit. These were immediately impounded and pressed
into the service, forming an exceedingly acceptable addition to
our insufiicient teams. Even the cur was made to contribute, by
tying her to the foremost sled as leader.

In crossing one of the gullies by which the tundra is inter-
sected, the new sled was broken beyond repair. The Indians
were in despair ; but, by cutting off about three feet of the other
runner, I made a short sled, in which two dogs could haul our
blankets and other light but bulky articles. The remainder of
the load and team was distributed among the other sleds. Ow-
ing to this delay we were obliged to camp near the Vesolia
Sopka. These repeated stoppages were the more annoying as
our dog-feed was short.

The next day we made better time, and camped near Beaver
Lake. Many deer tracks were visible, and there were evidently
herds in the vicinity.

The following morning we passed Beaver Lake and One-Tree
Camp. The wind and snow were blowing just as they were the
year before, when I was travelling with IMike. I little thought
at that time that my next journey on that road would be taken
alone. Facing the keen wind, I got my nose and cheeks some-
what frostbitten, but soon restored them by rubbing with snow.
It has been said that freezing is unaccompanied by pain, but my
experience does not confirm it. The feeling is as if a thousand
red-hot needles were being driven into the flesh. Of course,
after it is frozen beneath the skin, there is no further pain. Im-
mediate application of snow will relieve it, and the usual elTects
are slight. The skin peels off and leaves a l)rown stain resem-
bling sunburn, and quite as ephemeral. Fire and warmth should
be avoided, as they produce an intense burning pain attended
with inflammation. The best plan in cold weather is to face the
wind boldly; after a while the skin will become inured to it.
Arriving at Perivalli, we camped, making our supper of ukali
and tea.

WFW

; i

170

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

I i

f !

The next morning we started with the twilight. The valley
through which we had been passing is of an hour-glass shape.
The narrowest part is near a round, abrupt hill, called by the
Russians the Ass's Head. It widens toward Ivan's barrabora
and Kaltag. We camped not far from the latter place. For the
last three days we had been on snowshoes, and the road was far
from good.

In the following morning early we reached the Yukon, and
crossed to the village on the left bank. Here I bou<iht some dojr-
feed and a couple of rabbits. There were many fresh marten and
fo.x skins on the caches, and most of the men were away trapping.
At this season the fur is the best ; toward spring it becomes faded
by the sunlight. The next day we continued on our way, reach-
ing Wolasiiti'x' barrabora in the afternoon. Dog-feed was very
scarce, and I was obliged to give them only half a fish apiece,
instead of a whole one, which is the usual ration. I found my-
self very tired, having worked with a Hudson Bay sled all day,
and with a very heavy load. I came to a conclusion about the
sleds, which I have not yet seen any reason to change.

The virtues of the Hudson Bay style are, that it will carry very
heavy loads without breaking ; that it will make fair time on level,
hard snow ; that the method of harnessing is good ; and with
first-class dogs it will do good service. Its faults are, that it will
not carry as large a load of light baggage, dog-feed, &c., as the
Russian style ; that it is much harder to guide ; that it is ex-
tremely hard work to take it up hill ; that on a side-hill it keeps
sliding down, unless a level road is beaten for it ; finally, that it is
almost immovable in soft snow, a large pile of snow always form-
ing under the head of the sled.

For the Russian style it may be said, that, while more liable to
fracture, it is much lighter; it will carry an equally heavy load,
with the same dogs, as the other style, and the load is above the
surface, and not so liable to injury from water or snow ; it rides
much more easily on a hillside and in soft snow, and the driver
can help the dogs much more eftectually. The Hudson Bay style
is the best for carrying such loads as oil, fresh meat, flour, and
hardware ; and the other for all lighter loads. The Hudson Bay
harness is decidedly the best, but not suitable for a large team,
which would infallibly tangle at every declivity. The Innuit sled

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

171

t. The valley
Lir-glass shape.
, called by the
ill's barrabora
lace. For the
e road was far

le Yukon, and
ight some dog-
:sh marten and
away trapping,
becomes faded
)ur way, reach-
-feed was very
" a fish apiece,
. I <"oiind my-
y sled all day,
sion about the
ige.

will carry very
r time on level,
)od ; and with
ire, that it will
ed, &c., as the
that it is e.x-
le-hill it keeps
iially, that it is
always form-
more liable to
ly heavy load,
d is above the
now ; it rides
nd the driver
ilson Bay stylo
eat, flour, and
Hudson Bay
large team,
e Innuit sled

is ^alperio^ to both on the ice, and far inferior everywhere else.
The Hudson l^ay dogs are swifter and better trained, but not so
enduring or tough as the dogs of the coast.

Wolasatu.x, poor man, was in great tribulation. His eldest son,
a bright-eyed, intelligent boy of twelve, was evidently tlying.
The child was wasted to a skeleton ; his cheeks burned with fever;
his stomach alone protruded. The old man and his wife were
hoth laid up with pneumonia, and his breast was covered with
scars, where he had applied the actual cautery. I left as much
bread as I could spare, and some pieces of backfat for the sick
boy, who brought out from its hiding-place the skin of a lemming,
which he had prepared for me the previous summer. I made the
old man a liberal present, for he was a very generous and kind-
hearted old fellow.

About noon the following day we reached Nuhito. Only three
Russians were there. The house in which I proposed to winter
was unfit for occupancy, being without windows. It had been
repaired according to my orders, and I occupied a corner in the
hidarshik's house until my own should be ready. Several of my
dogs had been taken to feed during the past summer by Indians,
who had failed to return them in the fall. I .sent a man to Koyi'i-
kuk, where a great festival was being held, to procure the missing
animals. Fish was very scarce, the traps catching very little, as
the water continued high in the river. The next day two dogs
arrived, but a third had been killed in a rage by the Inilian who
had it in charge, as he had hoped to keep it permanently. The
dogs and sleds were prepared for another journey to Ulukuk, to
hring up the remaining goods. On the 2.Sth of November the
brigade started, in charge of Kurilla. Johnny acc()mpan_) >ng him,
with two Indians and the IMahlcmuts Tiic Russians got after
my alcohol for collecting, and I was oblij^cd to poison it. I set to
v.nrk making windows, nul laying my plans for putting down a
tlsh-trap on my own account. The idea of being dependent on
the Russians for fish was repugnant to me, and I knew very well
that they were often witiiout fish for their own use.

Several of the Indians at the fort had been attacked by a kind
of fit, and one of these occurred in my presence. The Russians
consulted me as to some means of cure. The p-atient fell in a
sort of convulsion, struggling violently, appearing unconscious,

ffn

¥'

';;

if'

iiii

S !

172

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

tearing the clothing, and breaking everything within reach.
There were no symptoms of any disease, and the fits were epi-
demic, seizing one after another at short intervals. The cases
resembled the descriptions of those people who were supposed in
ancient times to be bewitched, and also some of those appear-
ances which have accompanied cases of semi-religious mania in
Europe in modern times. Suspecting the cause of the symptoms,
I recommended the application of a birch twig, well laid on: the
result exceeded my anticipations. The patients arose in a rage,
and the epidemic was effectually checked. The reason for such
behavior was inexplicable, and is one of the mysteries peculiar to
the Indian mind. It is probable that in the course of time these
fits, at first wilful, became in a measure involuntary.

Having finished the windows, I began to put the house in
order, and it soon assumed a habitable appearance. My fever,
which I had hoped was thoroughly conquered, returin^J, and I
felt anything but well.

On the 4th of December, Pavloff and his companions returned
from the Redoubt. They brought discouraging reports from
Kurilla, whom they represented as without dog-feed. They
strongly opposed my putting down an independent fish-trap, say-
ing that it would cost me a great deal, that I should catch no
fish, and that they could furnish me with all I required ; but I de-
termined to persevere in my own plan. These fish-traps are the
sole dependence of the Russians and Yukon Indians in winter,
for a regular supply of food. They are made in the following man-
ner. Green spruce trees, straight-grained and without knots, are
selected. It is often a matter of great difiiculty to find them.
When obtained they are repeatedly split by means of wedges,
until the wood is reduced to strips a quarter of an inch in diam-
eter and twelve feet long. The tough green wood does not break.
These strips are for the basket and funnel. Thicker ones are
used for making the fences or mats. The former are carefully
trimmed until cylindrical. The latter arc tied together with
osiers until a sheet of network is formed, with the strips crossing
each other at right angles, and the meshes about two inches
long and one high. These sheets are eight feet high and ten
long. The basket is twelve feet long, cylindrical, tapering nearly
to a point at one end, and open at the other. The aperture in the

^ 'S

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

within reach,
e fits were epi-
als. The cases
ere supposed in
f those appear-
[rious mania in
■ the symptoms,
2ll laid on : the
arose in a rage,
reason for such
ries peculiar to
sc of time these

it the house in
II cc. My fever,
returiiv^J, and 1

inions returned

5 reports from

3g-fced. They

t fish-trap, say-

hould catch no

lired ; but I dc-

h-traps are the

ans in winter,

bllowing man-

lout knots, arc

to find them.

ans of wedges,

inch in diani-

oes not break.

icker ones arc

are carefully

together with

strips crossing

)ut two inches

high and ten

apering nearly

aperture in the

point is about eight inches in diameter, and is closed by a small
cover. The cylinder is about two feet in diameter. A large
funnel of similar network is made. The mouth of it is eight feet
square, and it tapers to a very small aperture, just large enough
to admit a fish. The point is inserted into the open end of the
cylinder, and the whole is tied together. The network of both is
fastened with strong twine of hemp, or the inner bark of the wil-
low. Holes are cut into the ice, uprights driven into the mud at
the bottom of the river, and the mats are tied strongly to them.
In this way a T-shaped fence is made, extending at right angles
to the current out into the stream, to a point where it is about eight
feet deep. The funnels, with baskets attached, are fastened to the
cars of the cross-stroke of the T, one basket pointing up stream
and the other down. They are so arranged that they can be
lifted to the surface and out of the water. The ice above them
is broken away by means of four-sided chisels made for the pur-
pose. As they are raised every other day it does not form to any
great thickness. The baskets are kept in place by sharp poles
attached to the point and to the sides of the funnel, and pushed
down into the mud. Fish going up or down stream follow the
shore until they come to the fence, which guides them to the
mouth of the funnel, when they enter the basket, from which they
cannot escape. The water passes freely through the network, and
keeps them alive for any length of time. As the water falls, the
fence is extended, and baskets moved out or new ones put down.
It is a work of no little labor to cut through the ice and put down
the trap, or sa/><^r, as the Russians call it. This trap was original
with the Yukon Indians, but is found only below Koyukuk. The
upper Indians and the Hudson Bay people know nothing of it.
Yagorsha informed me that the Yakuts had a similar custom.
Without it, in winter, starvation would reign on the Lower Yukon.
Similar traps are used in summer and raised by means of boats.
The slender network, exceedingly frail when dry, is very tough
when wet. The fish are shaken out by opening the cover at the
point of the basket. I had great difficulty in getting suitable
wood, and had to send six or eight miles from Nulatofor it. I cut
the willows on the island myself, to be ready for work when Ku-
ri'Ua returned.
Mctrikoff, the bidarshik of Nulato before Pavloff, died suddenly.

'74

THE YUKOxN TERRITORY.

-.v.-

I i;

I I

leavinf; two bright, intelligent children. The Russians had re-
tained thcni on sufferance until the Governor could be heard from
in regard to them. Maksutoff's reply was, that the Company
would do nothing for them, and they had better be given to the
Indians! Their mother was dead, and the recommendation of
the hard-hearted Russian was carried into effect. Ingechuk, who
was a relation of the mother, came and took them to Uliikuk. It
was hard to see two such boys deprived of all prospect of educa
tion and condemned to a worthless life with the Indians, but ii
was a fair specimen of the character of the Rus;-ians in Northwest
America.

The weather had set in very cold, and averaged thirty below
zero at noon. The wood for the trap, which had been obtained
with so much trouble, proved unsatisfactory, and there was no
prospect of obtaining more until Kurilla returned. Meanwhile,
though sick and miserable, I had not neglected the collections,
and had already several hundred birdskins of the species which
are winter residents.

Late in the afternoon of December 15th, Kun'lla made hh ap-
pearance with the brigade. They had done everything I desired,
had brought all the goods except a bag of oil and some ukali,
and the train contained four Rlahlemut dogs, beside thirteen of
mine. The Innuit had come forward and offered dugs as soon as
they heard I was in need of them. I could not have trusted any
Russian in the territory to do the work as well and faithfully as
Kun'lla had done it.

The Russians were out of fish. I had ukali, but none to spare.
It was evident that nineteen dogs could not be fed at Nulato for
any length of time, and I determined to go to the Kaiyuh River,
where Tekunka was giving a festival, and distribute all but one
team among the Indians, to be fed and used until I needed them
again.

Notwithstanding they had nothing to eat, — as the day was a
Prasnik, or holiday, when they were not obliged to work, — the
Russians preferred sitting in the house and grumbling, to the
trouble of going to the fish-trap.

On the 17th of December the Nowikakat tyone and seven men
arrived with a small hand-sled loaded with furs, which they sold to
Pavloff. When they were at a little distance, though their num-

Ii li'H!

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

175

ssians had re-
bc heard from
the Company
le given to the
imcndation of
[ngechuk, who

Ulukuk. It
pect of educa
Indians, but ii

1 in Northwest

.1 thirty below
been obtained
there was no
. Meanwhile,
he collections,
species which

made hij ap-

ling I desired,

d some likali,

le thirteen of

gs as soon as

c trusted any

faithfully as

lone to spare,
at Nulato for
iiyuh River,
all but one
needed them

le day was a

work, — the

ibling, to the

id seven men
they sold to
their num-

ber could be counted, the Russians were seized with one of their
cowardly fits, barred the gates, loaded the howitzer, and prepared
for an attack from eight men and a boy ! On their stating their
errand, the commotion subsided and the gates were opened.

I made the tyone a present of some tobacco and ammuni-
tion, in consideration of his services during the previous spring.
With Indian assurance, he immediately (lemaiuled a seine, gun,
blanket, and a large supply of ammunition, which of course were
produced forthwith.

The next day I harnessed all the dogs into one sled and started
for Wolasatu.x', riding several miles for the first time during my
stay in Russian America. We found all sick on our arrival, and
very short of provisions. The following morning we jiroceeded
up a small river and across the country, until we arrived at Te-
kunka's barrabora on the Kaiyuh River. Here we found the
festival in full blast and the place crowded with Indians, dancing
and singing all night, so that we got very little rest.

The country is rolling, sparsely wooded, and full of small lakes
and rivers, which contain many fish, especially in summer.

The next morning, as the Indians were still engaged in their
festivities and would not attend to anything else, I put on my
snowshoes and travelled about fifteen miles eastward, to the
ridge of the Kaiyuh Mountains. These are low hills, trending in
a northeast and southwest direction, and at that season covered
with snow. Beyond them the country was rolling, with oc-
casional hills, and sparingly wooded. The rivers, if any, were
hidden by the snow. I returned, and reached the house in time
to make a good camp outside, as I felt very tired and unwilling
to be deprived of sleep for another night. I made my supper on
raw, frozen whitefish, scraped up like frozen pudding. This dish
is not unpalatable, as the freezing has all the effect of cooking.
Several of the Indians made me presents of mink and marten
skins.

The next day was devoted to trading. I secured a full sled-
load of frozen fish and ukali, keeping six dogs, and hiring In-
dians to take and feed the rest. I also purchased a quantity of
frozen berries, and some mats to cover the floor of the house at
Nulato.

Tekunka promised faithfully to make one of my party down

176

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

. .

• !

' i :

'. :

■

n-"

the river in the sprnig, and I gave him a gun as part payment
to clinch the bargain.

The next day all the Indians dispersed to their homes. We
left Tekunka, passing up the river to a place known as Jearny's
barrabora. Jearny (meaning fat) was the name of a very stout,
greasy Ingalik, who had a house and fish-trap, where I hoped to
obtain some more fish. The afternoon was moonlight, the sun

Jearny's barrabora.

setting very early, and after stopping to buy fish vvc thought best
to push on. The fence of the fish-trap at this place extended
clear across the river, and was made of bundles of willow brush
tied together and placed side by side. There was only one
Indian house and two caches. The building over the entrance
to the house was large, square, strongly built of heavy logs, and
pierced for musketry.

We camped five miles beyond. I had determined to return by
another route, which would bring us on the Yukon nearly op-
posite Nulato. Here I met with a serious misfortune, losing a
fine meerschaum, which had been my constant companion and
solace. I was now reduced to a single brierwood, in very poor
condition. The next morning, starting with the first light, we
followed a very poor, roundabout trail toward the Yukon. I

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

177

s part payment

ir homes. We
3wn as Jcarny's
)f a very stout,
lere I hoped to
mliffht, the sun

>ft-

|e thought best

place extended

|f willow brush

was only one

the entrance

cavy logs, and

Id to return by

Ion nearly op-

Itune, losing a

|m pan ion and

in very poor

irst light, we

ie Yukon. I

went on ahead of the dogs, and soon outstripped them. About
dark I reached Nuh'ito, pretty thoroughly tired out, having made
nearly forty miles on snowshoes. The train arrived about two
hours after.

On leaving Nukito I had placed all our slender store of crock-
ery on a high shelf, that it might be out of any ordinary danger.
What was my regret, on going into the house, to find that the
shelf had given way, and the whole was in fragments on the floor !
No more could be obtained for love or money, and we were re-
duced to eating off of tin. Luckily, I had purchased of Ketchum
a Hudson Hay cup, saucer, and plate, made of iron lined with por-
celain. These were uninjured, and afterward did good service.
Another plate was repaired by boring small holes with an awl,
and sewing the pieces together with strong wa.ved thread.

My efforts were soon directed to the work of supplying our
household with various necessary utensils. Lamps, small cups,
and other articles were manufactured out of old tin cans. Mos-
quito-netting furnished the material for a sieve, and with I'aspil-
koff's assistance I made a candle-mould. Seal-oil lamps arc very
unsatisfactory, requiring constant picking, and making a great
deal of smoke. Cotton twine furnished wicks, and I was soon
able to make very passable candles from my extra supplies of
reindeer fat.

The flour which I obtained from the Russians was a mixture of
rye and wheat meal, usually denominated groats. The husks were
so coarse and abundant that sifting became necessary. The Rus-
sians raised their bread by means of leaven, but as this made sour
bread I adopted another plan, which is here described for the
benefit of future travellers. A gallon of warm water was niixeil
with a handful of coarse salt, flour enough to make a batter, and
was placed in a wooden vessel on the warm peeehka over night.
Larly in the morning flour enough was stirred in to make it of
the proper consistency. At breakfast-time the fire was made, and
alter breakfast, when the coals were removed from the oven, the
bread was kneaded, made into loaves, and put in. An hour usu-
ally served to bake it, making a batch of perfectly light, sweet
bread, without yeast or leaven. White flour may be treated in
the same way, but takes longer to rise. I usually made up about
forty pounds of flour at a time, and the bread would last us about
12

.78

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

1 1

a week. I soon found, by calculation, that wc must be very carefi:!
with our flour, and was obliged to weigh out the daily allowance, —
a pound each, not a very large piece of .such damp brown bread.
I allowed each three pounds of sugar per month, and a jiound of
tea for all hands. In this way I managed to make our supjily
last, although wc were often on short commons. I-'ish, rabbits,
and grouse were unusually scarce, and often entirely deficient.
No deer visit Nuhito during the winter.

I had saved a small piece of frozen deer meat for Christmas,
which found us without other supplies in the storehouse. Christ-
mas morning I bought two white grouse, and sent Johnny out to
shoot another, which he fortunately succeeded in doing. With
these, some berry pies, and some sweetened short-cake, I made

Yukon grouse-snare.

out a pretty fair dinner, and invited Fivloff pnd Yagor to eat it
with me, each bringing his own cup. pl;ite, and spoon, as my
stock did not set the table. It was a kv.iely Christmas compared
with the last, or with any I had ever '-pent before. It was impos-
sible to help thinking of the dear ones at home, of the Christmas-
trees and festivities they were enjoying, and equally impossible to
doubt that they were thinking of us as we were of them, though
many thousand miles away,

New-Year's day brought cold weather, forty-eight below zero.
My hunters were unsuccessful, and our dinner was reduced to fish
soup, cranberry pie, bread, and tea. My family consisted of
Johnny, two Indian boys, and Kuri'lla. I sent the boys out set-
ting snares for grouse and rabbits. These were occasionally
successful, and eked out our slender bill of fare. The snares are

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

J 79

very carefi:)

llowaiicc, —
rowii hnrul.

a JKHllul of

our supply
ish, rabl)its,
ly deficient.

• Christmas,
sc. Clirist-
niny out to
)ing. With
ike, I made

or to eat it
)on, as my
s compared
was impos-
Christmas-
ipossible to
cm, though

)clow zero,
ccd to fish
nsisted of
ys out sct-
iccasionally
snares are

[| made of twisted deer sinew in a running loop. This is attached
to a pole, balanced, as in the preceding sketch, between two
branches, and caught over a h'<ri/.o;ital pole by means of a small
pin tied to the snare, lirush is piled on each side ot the tracks
which the grou.sc run in, so that they have to pass through the
opening where the snare is set. A touch loosens the pin, and the
iicavy end of the pole falls, hanging the partridge or rabbit in the
air. Some seasons hundreds are caught in this way. These
grou.se feed entirely on the willow buds, and the crop will some-
times contain a pint. The flesh is hard, drw and tasteless ; a
long experience in eating it has left an unfavorable imjiression.
Our fish-trap was in process of manufacture, but illness prevented
me fronj assisting. I seldom rose from my bed, except to weigh
out the daily allowance of bread, and I felt my strength failing
fast. In spite of this, I could hardly force myself to cat, and was
tormented with constant headache.

Cold days alternated with warm weather, and even occasional
rain. Pavloff said he had not known such a season for sixteen
years. Such mild weather in January was unprecedented.

January i6th the Indians and some Russians, whom I had hired
to help, commenced putting nvn my fish-trap. Kurilla came
home with an ugly wound in thv- thigh, from falling from the sled
upon an ice-chisel. I dressed his wound, but this disablement
was a serious misfortune. AW the Kaiyuh Indians, starved out
by the unwonted scarcity of fish, had gone to IHukuk, where
there is always abundance, to stay until March. Weeks passed
by, and not an Indian came near the fort.

The Russians were totally without fish, returning from the
cxamina^^ion of fifteen baskets with three poor whitefish. They
were living on tea and bread. Their dogs were nearly starving.
Ivan started up the river on his annual trip to Nowik;ikat, and
hoped to find dog-feed on the road.

Kun'Ua's wound healed rapidly, and to my great thankfulness
he was able to ride on the sled and examine the fish-trap, which
had caught six whitefish, — a good omen. The first week or two,
before the resin is washed out of the wood, the trap rarely catches
anything. On the 24th of January there were twelve fish in the
trap. From that time forward we obtained from ten to thirty
fish every two days, which drove the wolf from the door, and

i8o

THE YUKON TERKITOKY.

»!■

enabled me to save my ukali by Iccdiiij; the doj^s partly on fresh
fish. The Russian trap siill coiUiniu-d almost empty, and if I
had not perseveieLJ in n>y plan of piittinj^ down an independent
trap, 1 should have been left witliout fresh provisions and lost my
doj;s by starvation.

The first fish which are caught in early winter on the Yukon,
are the " A'.v// " (/.i'/,i ni(Uiiln!(i) of the Hudson l?ay men. These
are known in Lake luie as the " eel pout," and grow in the north-
ern rivers to a very large size. ! have seen them four feet long
ami weighing sixty pouiul.s. The liver is very large and full of a
rich sweet oil, which we found viMy useful in cooking. The livers
themselvi's are good eating, but very rich. The llesh is hard and
tasteless, and is usually given to the dogs. They present an ana-
tomical i>eculiarity in having from one to four distinct gall blad-
ders. The spawn, which occupies a large part of the abdominal
cavity, makes an excellent soup. The next most common kiiul of
fish is a red sucker, which grows also to a larg\; size. The lu\ids
make a good soup, but the rt-st of the body is so full of bones as to
be umiitable. The pike (/■.".v.'.r I'stoi) is very common in the lakes
and sm dl rivers, but rare in the Yukon. A salmon-trout is rarely
caught, and a belated salmon occasionally finds its way into the traj)
as late as Januarx . There are six kinds of whitefish, some large
and others small. The sea whitefish, or Moiskoi siux^i of the Rus-
sians, is considered tlie best. TiuMe is also found in spring a fish
reseml)ling the whitefisli, but dark-colored, and with a very long
dorsal fin, fiom whiih it gels the Indian name of " blanket-fish." In
July the salmon begin to asci-nd the river. There are five kinds.
Thri't' of them are good eating, but the others are only fit for dogs.
After August tlu'y art- bruised and in bad condition, being cast
in layers a foot deep on llu' banks of (he small rivers. I have
seen hundreds of thousands of deail sidmon cast up in this way by
the stream. Of eourst>, in this condition they are only fit for
dog-feed, though the Indians will eat them if other Ibod be sca'"ce.
Most of these fish, except the salmon, are common to the rivers of
tlu> 1 ludson Hay territory.

On the ,^c)tii of Jair.iary, I'avlolf returned. He had not gone far,
for want of dog-feed. His trade consisted of a biaek bearskin and
one lynx ; the previous year he had brought l)ack .sonn: seven
hundred sables.

rUH YUKON TKRRITORY.

iSl

arlly on fresh
uply, unci if I
1 indcpciulcnt
s and lost my

n the Ynkon,

men. These
V in the north-
four feet lonj;

and full of a
-;. The livers
sh is hard and
resent an ana-
inet j;all blad-
Ihc abdominal
nnnon kind of
L'. The heads

of hones as to
in in llie lakes
-trout is rarely
lyinto the trap
sh, some large
i^'-j of the Rus-

\ sprinj; a fish
|h a very lonj;-
.nd<et-fish." In
lire five kinds,

ily fit fordo{;s.

m, hi'inj; cast

livi-rs. I have

lin this way by
only fit for

l)od be sea'ce.

) the rivers ol

|l not t;()ne far.

l)i-arskin and

some seven

I\ly eollection had thriven pretty well, in spite of siekness. I
had a ke{j; of small animals ami lish, two boxes of birdskins, and
other li};ht specimens.

Still, 1 was fearful lest my siekness should increase so as lo jne-
veiit my eollectin<; in the spriuj;'. I saw that the Russians and
Indians considered me as half dead already, and 1 resolved to
overcome it by force of will, if other means faileil. I lookeil in
the };lass one day, and saw such a cadaverous rtlleetiori there that
1 turned it to the wall. I had alreaily made prc-parations for my
journey to the sea-eoast, and the birch was seasoninj; trom which
I intended to have a louj; sled made, expressly to bring the bidarni
over the portage without taking it apart.

On the y\ of b'ebruary there was a commotion in the fort.
Dog-trains were approaching in the distance. A riunor spread
that Stepanoff was coming, and it was aumsing to watch the un-
accustomed energy with which tite Russia'- > hasteni'd to clean
out the yard, removing the accumulated dirt of monllis, and
sweeping the path clean from the gateway (K)wn to the ice. It
was not Step.inolf, however, but a Russian and two Creoles,
with two of Step.inorr's line teams from the Redoubt. On ar-
riving, they proved to be KiimarolV, Lukeen, and Al<')shka ; they
brought a bag of oil lor I'/ivloff, a two-gallon keg of molasses,
and a larger keg of salted geese, — a present from Stepanoff
tor me. 1 knew at once tliat ll'.ey had not come so fir nu-rely
to bring lln'se things. I asked if any news had arrived from
Sitka, and reci-iveil only an v'vasivi- ' pW. Afte-r a liltU- I ealleil
Lukeen, who was a jolly little ' 'reole. into my house, and stinni-
lated him until he told nn-, witii many inj unci ions of seenn-y,
that the oiriciai news had arrived, \i,i Nuslu'rg.ik and the Kiisko-
(|uini, of the sale of the; territory to the I'nited States, that the
Kussian Ame-riean Company was wound uj , anil all the Russians
would return to Sitka or the /\moor River by the vessels in the
spiing. This ...■•. good news, and 1 lost no time in hoisting the
stars and stripes on our llagstal'l' in front of the foi!. The news
was soon made public, and all rt'ceived it with joy. Old men wlio
had been many years in the country, detained by trilling debts to
the Com|)any, which llu-y had no m ;ans of paying, were e.vtrav-
agant in the expression of their delight in the hope, so long
<lel"erred, of seeing Russia once more. I'he nali\e women, who

l82

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

:|i:

Ml!
Mil

It II

i i

could not accompany their husbands if the latter chose to leave
the country, were in tears at the prospect of parting; while oth-
ers, whose husbands had treated them with brutality, did not
conceal their pleasure at the hope of getting rid of them.

Kil.-iaroff decided to try his luck in trading at Koyiikuk, and
beyond ; on his return, Pavlofif was to go with him to the Redoubt
for orders. I decided to accompany them, thinking, if I did
break down on the road, I should be within reach of assistance
from them, and I had many misgivings as to my own strength.

Paspi'lkoff at once set about making my new sled, and we began
to prepare sukaree for the road. By dint of extreme argument I
succeeded in getting Peetka to accompany me to the Redoubt.
I proposed to take Kun'lla, and leave Johnny and the rest to take
care of the house.

Kamaroff and Lukeen returned with a few furs on the 13th,
and everything was prepared for an early start the ne.xt day.
Our loads consisted principally of the collections. I took a Hud-
son Bay sled, and the long sled for the boat, with eight dogs. On
the 14th we set out. I found myself too weak to walk, and was
obliged to ride nearly all day on the sled. We made a very short
day's work, as the Russians stopped to get dog-feed from the
fish-traps, and camped at Wolasatu.x' barrabora, where they rum-
maged all the caches for ukali, the Indians being at Ulukuk.
The next day we camped at Kaltag. The necessity for work and
the determination to do it were conquering my weakness. I felt
better than for months previously.

The next day we reached the hill at Beaver Lake. This was
an excellent day's work, and I so remarked to Kamarofif. " Yes,
Gospodin Doctor," he replied, with an amusing air of superiority,
" this is the way the Russians travel." I made no answer, but did
not forget the remark.

The next day we took tea at noon near Ivan's barrabora. The
Russian sleds were light, and they had full teams of fine dogs.
With our heavy sleds we were soon left behind. I forced myself to
walk on snowshoes behind the sled, and relieved the dogs as much
as possible. We passed Poplar Creek, and came to the Vesolia
S6pka about dusk. The moon was shining, although there were
dark clouds coming up, and we pushed on as fast as our tired dogs
would go. Stopping a moment to rest, I improved the ; poortu

';l!v^

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

183

• chose to leave
ng ; while oth-
jtality, did not
I of them.
Koyiikuk, and
to the Redoubt
nking, if I did
h of assistance
wn strength.
1, and we began
me argument I
> the Redoubt,
the rest to take

rs on the 13th,

the ne.xt day.

I took a Hud-

;ight dogs. On

) walk, and was

ide a very short

-feed from the

here they rum-

ng at Uliikuk.

:y for work and

akness. I felt

ike. This was

narolT. " Yes,

of superiority,

answer, but did

irrabora. The
s of fine dogs.

reed myself to
dogs as much
to the Vesolia
igli there were

our tired dog:
1 the ; poortii

nity to sketch the scene, of which the frontispiece gives a good
idea. The crust was covered with about three inches of soit dry
snow, and the Hudson Bay sled pulled very hard. Constant exer-
cise of the lungs and whip were necessary to keep the dogs up to
their work. On we trudged, following the track, lifting the sleds
up and down gullies, pushing through occasional drifts, and shout-
ing encouragement and admonition to the dogs, calling each by
his name.

, We did not turn off from the tundra at Uliikuk, but kept on,
until I noticed that there were no new tracks, and called to Ku-
n'lla, inquiring where the Russians were. Me replied that he did
I " know ; perhaps they had camped at Ulukuk ; but as that road
s\:\:: uch a bad one he had kept on the Indian trail across the
tUiidra direct to Ikti'galik. I approved of his determination, but
saw that we must reach the latter place before we could camp, as
the trees along the edge of the tundra were small and sparse, the
wind was rising, snow beginning to fall, and poorga impended.
At last we reached the river, and collected all our energies, as the
blast, carrying snow and almost blinding us, was increasing in
severity. In half an hour we passed a fish-trap, and soon after,
the welcome sight of the tall caches against the sky met our eyes.
We carried the sleds up the bank with a will and a shout, which
brought the Ir.dians like marmots from their burrows. An In-
dian who \m'\ been with us during the early part of the day came
out and irjuir; 1 where the Russians were. Kuri'ila replied that
wc did 10 i.i'.ow, probably at Ulukuk. The air rang with their
shouts oi d i'- L-n, at the idea that a sick man, with heavy loads
and feeble tea. s 'lould have outstripped the fine dogs and empty
trains of the L.ussians. The poor dogs were unharnessed, and
immediately crrlcd themselves up to sleep, refusing to eat, from
latigue. It \> as with a pardonable feeling of pride that I took
my place in the house by the fire, and discussed the day's work
over a cheerful cup of tea. By the winding road which we were
obliged 10 take, we had made not less than fifty miles, unquestion-
ably :;'■' iongest day's travel with loaded sleds which had been
made 111 .■ ;: pari of the territory within the memory of the old-
est inhab'tunt.

The next morning, after a long night's rest, we arose and fed
the dogs. The teams were loaded and harnessed up, and I spent

ii!'

184

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

a half-hour purchasing deer meat and likali for my dogs on my
return. We then started down the river, and after a mile or two
stopped to obtain some water. Just as we were about to push on,
the Russians, who had been travelling since daybreak, came over
the bank. Kamaroff advanced, cap in hand, and inquired where
I spent the night. I informed him, and he remarked that we had
made an excellent day's work yesterday. It was now my turn,
and I replied, " Yes, Kamaroff, that is the way the Americans
travel ! "

About three o'dxk in the afternoon we reached Unalakli'k.
Here we found Osi ^ alone, Popofif having been recalled to

the Redoubt. After .. , trouble, I hired a Mahlemut sled to
take our goods on to St. Michael's. All the Innuit were away
hunting deer, only two or three old people remaining in the vil-
lage.

After a cold, rough journey, we reached the Redoubt about
noon of the 23d. The wind was very strong, the ice broken and
piled up in barricades twenty feet high. The temperature aver-
aged twenty-eight below zero. We were just in time for a hot
bath, and Stcpanoff received me with great hospitality. A pri-
vate letter from the Russian ex-governor had informed him of the
circumstances of the sale and transfer of the country, and the
arrival of General Rousseau at Sitka. The winter expeditions
from the Redoubt had been very successful, and more furs had
been obtained than for many previous years.

I obtained two bags of flour, some powder, and tea, from Ste-
panoflT. At home it would sound queerly to talk of going three
hundred and fifty miles for a bag of flour, but here it was well
worth the trouble.

Though still very weak, I felt perfectly well, and could ascribe
my recovery only to the exercise of will required by the journey.

On the 27th of February I started with I'avloff for Nukito.
We were able to pass around Tolstoi Point on the ice, an unussual
occurrence, which facilitated our journey. We arrived at Unala-
kli'k on the 29th. I found that Ostrofskoi had made away with a
good many of the ukali which I had relied on to feed my dogs on
the return. It was impossible to obtain restitution, as ukali were
not to be had for the asking. These fellows are inveterate thieves.

On the 2d of March I reached Iktigalik. I had hired several

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

185

dogs on my
mile or two

to push on,
, came over
uircd where
that we had
3w my turn,

Americans

1 Unalakh'k.

recalled to
mut sled to

were away
g in the vil-

Lloubt about

broken and

rature aver-

le for a hot

ity. A pri-

1 him of the

try, and the

expeditions

re furs had

X, from Ste-
oing three
it was well

)uld ascribe
je journey,
for Nuhito.
Ian unusual
|l at Unala-
way with a
ny dogs on
lukali were
ite thieves,
[ed several

extra dogs from the Russians, and found two of my own here,
which Andrea had stolen. The place was crowded with the
Kiiiyuh Ingaliks, and I gave him a rating for his dishonesty, in
their presence, which made him sneak away like a whipped cur.

We determined to strike on to the tundra directly beyond
Ikti'galik, and I would recommend this plan to all future travel-
lers. It is far preferable to the old route by way of Ulukuk.
Ry keeping along the bases of the Ulukuk hills, a nearly even
road may be obtained as far as the Vesolia Sopka. At the first
bank beyond Ikti'galik the runner of the new sled carrying the
bidarra broke short off. My mortification was great, and the
Russians passed on, thinking us disabled for several days at least.
To make a birch runner, the wood must be bent while green, and
then well seasoned. To do that here was out of the question,
and wc lighted our pipes and sat down to consider what could be
done. After consultation, Kun'lla started off with the axe over
his shoulder, and I made a good fire, and put on the chynik,
determined to be comfortable, whatever might turn up. Kun'lla
returned with a slender spruce tree, which he rapidly hewed
into the shape of a runner. I sent an Indian back to the village
to borrow an awl and buy some small sealskin line. As soon as
the runner was hewn out, we bent it in the fire, and in two
hours we had the sled completely repaired. The new runner
was thick, heavy, and clumsy, but answered the purpose very
well. Deerskins, to prevent the sealskin from chafing, were laid
on the sled, which had no rail. The boat was then replaced, and
strongly lashed. We took our tea, and proceeded on our way.
In the afternoon we passed the Russians, who had camped near
a small stream. They were much surprised and disgusted at
.seeing us so soon. We camped just beyond the Ves(')lia S<')pka.
1 had the heaviest load on one of the Ihulson Hay sleds, Kun'lla
had the bidarra, and an Indian called Blackbird had the other
sled.

My team comprised three dogs. The leader was a fine black
dog named Ikkee, who had a magnificent bushy tail, which was
always erect and curly. The next one was black and white, and
called Sawashka, a hard worker and of amiable disposition.
Next the sled was old Kamiik, my favorite, and the ugliest dog
in the brigade. His tail, poorly furnished with hair, was usually

M llil

K'l . i;

I' m

\ i

t» !

Iii.l

|;::f

:lil

|.:i

i86

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

between his legs ; his ears were short, and scored with the marks
of many battles. His face was stolid, and exhibited emotion
only when feeding-time came, or when some other dog ventured
too near or lagged behind. His body was large, and his legs
were like pillars ; his color was white, with dirty spots. Alto-
gether he looked a good deal like a lean pig. But how he would
pull !

A description can give but a faint idea of dog-driving. It is
an art in itself. The nature of dogs is cross-grained, and they
frequently do the wrong thing with apparently the best inten-
tions. Each has a peculiar look and character. Some are irre-
claimably lazy, others enjoy hard work unless pushed too far ;
some arc greedy and snappish, others good-humored and decor-
ous. All arc very joractical, showing affection only for the man
who feeds them, and for him only as long as he feeds them.
Hence the voyageur should always feed his own team himself
They dislike the whip, not only when in use, but in the abstract.
They will always destroy one if they can get at it. The whip is
made with a short handle, a very long lash, braided of leather or
sealskin, and usually loaded with sheet lead or bullets in the
core.

As we walk behind the sled, which ordinarily travels about four
miles an hour, wc hnve an excellent opportunity of studying
dogs. One habit appears to be ingrained in their nature. It ex-
hibits itself at street-corners in cities, and at every bush, stump,
or lump of ice which they pass on the road. When travelling
rapidly, some dog will stop twenty times an hour to examine
any bush or twig which attracts his attention. If a leader, it
checks the whole team ; if not, he usually entangles himself in the
harness, and jumps frantically to release himself as he hears the
well-known crack of the whip about his ears. If a log comes in
the way, and the driver is not ready with his help in urging the
sled over it, down they all drop on their haunches, wagging their
tails and looking about with a pleased expression, or uttering a
sentimental howl. With a crack of the whip, and a shout to
Kamuk to stir himself, their reveries are broken, and we go on.
Going down hill, the whip and lungs are again called into requi-
sition, to keep the dogs out of the way of the descending sled.
It has been said that no man can drive dogs without swear-

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

187

ing

I think it is in a measure true. At all events, he must have
a ready store of energetic expletives to keep them on the qui vive.
In Russian America we always used the indigenous epithets, which,
as we did not understand them, were hardly sinful. If there is a
tree near the trail, the dogs invariably try to pass it on different
sides, until checked by their harness ; they constantly exhibit such
idiosyncrasies, and it was lucky for Job that he was not set to dog-
driving : if he had been, I fear his posthumous reputation would
have suffered.

At noon 've stop for a cup of tea. Here the true voyageur ex-
hibits himscif in building the fire. A greenhorn or an Indian will
make a conical fire, at the side of which you must place your chy-
nik, and wait until it chooses to boil. A white man's fire is built
in layers. The sticks in each layer are parallel with each other,
and at right angles with those in the layer beneath. A few chips
are placed upon this pile, which presents a broad, flat top, on
which you set your chynik. A few shavings are whittled from a
dry stick, and you light your fire on the top of the pile. The
free circulation soon puts it all in a blaze, your kettle boils in ten
minutes, you drop in your tea and let it boil up once, and you are
ready for "chy peet." If the fire be lighted at the bottom, it
takes twice as long to kindle, and if you boil your tea more than
an instant, it is ruined. Many travellers drink a caustic decoction
of tannin, which they call tea; such unfortunates are to be pitied.

Tea over, you empty out your chynik, and set it in the snow a
moment to cool, that you may not burn your sled cover. Having
replaced it, and seen that the dogs are untangled, you shout to
Kamiik, " Be off, you old sinner ! " Down goes his tail, and away
you go. A greenhorn will have burnt his skin boots meanwhile,
trying to warm his shins, and have put the axe where it will knock
a hole in the chynik or drop out through the slatting of the sled-
bottom, if you have n't looked out for him. The wind blows the
snow in his eyes ; his toes bump against the bar of his snowshoes ;
now and then he trips himself up with them : truly, the poor fel-
low has a hard time. If he has the right grit in him, he will soon
learn, and laugh at these things as you and I do. Up hill and
clown dale, until it begins to be dusky in the south. Greenhorn
thinks it is the west, because the sun sets there. In June we will
show it to him setting due north, and rising there within half an

hi ' i

1 88

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

hour after it went down. The chief of the brigade has been on
the lookout for a place where there is plenty of dry wood, and
having selected his ground, gives the signal for halting. Kurflla,
who delights in showing his proficiency in the use of the American
axe, makes a straight wake for yonder dead spruce. Greenhorn
takes an a.xe, and chooses a small tree to begin with. Somehow
or other, the chips don't fly as they do over yonder ; but, by dint
of chopping all round like a beaver, it finally falls, burying him
under the branches in the deep snow, where he must stick until
somebody picks him up.

Meanwhile the direction of the wind is noted, and the camp
placed accordingly; — not so that it will blow on the backs of
those who sit in front of the fire, — because this always makes
an eddy where the smoke will remain, choking everybody, —
but so that the wind will blow on their sides, lengthways of
the camp, and carry the smoke away. In March we must
excavate the snow to a depth of eight or ten feet before we
can find solid ground to build ' 'r fire on. If built above the
ground it will gradually sink beneath the snow, leaving us in the
cold. One Indian goes in search of water, another cuts spruce
boughs, and you instruct greenhorn in the art of placing the
twigs, stem down and tips up, so as to make a soft and springy
bed. A green log is placed at the foot of the bed, to keep the
blankets out of the fire. Some one is cutting poles for a tempo-
rary stagi.. On this the sleds are placed, with their loads intact,
to keep them out of the way of the omnivorous dogs. The har-
nesses are also hung out of reach for the same reason. Then
each dog receives his supper of one dried salmon, and you carry
your blankets to the camp. Kun'lla comes staggering under the
weight of a huge back-log, and follows it up with half a dozen
more, and also a supply for morning use. The camp being made,
and everything else done, we finally light the fire. Greenhorn
asks why you don't do that first, and you explain that the effect
would be to keep everybody in the vicinity warming themselves,
while the camp was unfinished, and hence the other necessary
work would be slighted.

The ever grateful cup of tea being ready, and such other pro-
visions cooked as you may have, you enjoy the evening meal and
discuss the events of the day. Supper being over, you light your

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

189

pipe. What demon would have the heart to deprive the weary
voyageiir of his tobacco, — or what money would buy the pleasure
which he derives from it ? Oceans of whiskey would poorly re-
place his cup of tea, and untold gold would fail to purchase his pipe.

That delicious fifteen minutes being over, one last glance must
be taken at the sleds and dogs. As you return, the inmates of
the camp are invisible, beneath the surface. The fire and smoke
and glow, which issue fron. the excavation in the snow and illu-
minate the dark evergreens behind the camp, remind one of the
mouth of Inferno. The deerskins are spread ; if you are luxu-
rious you have a small pillow, if not, you take the biscuit-bag as
a substitute. Water being scarce, a large cake of snow is impaled
on a stake before the fire. Beneath it is the chynik, which soon
fills with water as the cake melts. Your nips and the straw from
your boots are hung in the smoke, to be thoroughly dried for to-
morrow's use. Unless this precaution is adopted, you will have
cold feet the next day. You cover yourself with a blanket on
which skins of the arctic hare or rabbit have been sewn. This
forms a light but very warm protection. I have slept comfortably
with nothing else and with the air at sixty below zero. You pull
your head entirely under the blanket, leaving a very small hole
for air, and if the dogs, who like r warm corner, do not come and
lie down on top, you may enjoy undisturbed the sleep of the just.

Leaving our camp in the morning, we pushed on among the
trees toward Beaver Lake. Every step was taken on snowshoes.
The snow was blown in our teeth, and the wind howled in such a
way that we knew poorga was raging on the tundra. Near the
edge of the timber at Beaver Lake we found an old camp. This
we cleaned out and enlarged, making a first-rate camp of it. It
was useless to go farther, as there were no trees and it was impos-
sible to travel over the open country. The great spruce trees
rocked and moaned with the fury of the blast, and the snow flew
in sheets far above our heads. The next morning it was even
worse. As we were well supplied with provisions and dog-feed, I
concluded to remain where we were. In the afternoon the Rus-
sians came up. I invited them to occupy part of our camp, and
told them they could not go over a mile farther, and then would
not be half as comfortable. But no ; their energy was not so
easily daunted, and on they went.

IQO

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

I have spoken of travelling on snowshoes. To travel without
them in winter is impossible, but sometimes on an old, well-beaten
road, or with a hard crust on the snow, and while travelling over
ice, they are not needed. The different kinds of snowshoes are,
in a measure, characteristic of the locality where they arc used.

Different kinds of snowshoes.

The Innuit snowshoe (a) is small and nearly flat. It is seldom
over thirty inches long. The netting is open and strong, being
made of fine remni. That which supports the foot is made of
strong mahout, which passes through holes in the frame. It
is strong, simple, and well adapted for walking on the hard snow
of the coast. Both shoes are alike.

The Ingalik snowshoe (c) is much larger. Mine were five feet
eight inches long, and strongly curved up in front. They are
always rights and lefts, a slight difference being made in the
curves of the frame of the two shoes. They are much wider in
front, and the netting, which is pf deer sinew twisted into twine,
is much closer than in the Innuit shoes. The netting under the
foot is the same. In all the snowshoes the strings are alike.
Two short loops over the toe, and a long one around the foot
above the heel, fasten it to the foot. In walking, the toe sinks
into an opening in the netting provided for the purpose. Begin-
ners generally strike their toes against the bar, but after some
experience they learn how to adjust the loops and prevent this.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

191

Fo travel without
m old, well-beaten
le travelling over
of snowshoes are,
;re they are used.

■^.'-

i ;

flat. It is seldom
and strong, being

foot is made of [

in the frame. It |.

on the hard snow [

[ine were five feet \

front. They are 1
;ing made in the I
ire much wider in f
wisted into twine, ^
netting under the |
strings are alike
e around the foot fl
ing, the toe smks |

purpose. Begin-
ir, but after some
id prevent this.

The Kutchin snowshoe (n) is made a little smaller than the
Ingalik pattern, but much in the same style. The netting is
much closer and finer, and is made of fine line, cut from prepared
deerskins, called babfche. The whole .shoe is prettier and more
artistic. It is frequently painted and ornamented with beads.

The Hudson Bay snowshoe (b) is very small, thirty inches
being the regulation size. This is in order that it may sink
deeper in the snow and beat a better road for the sleds. It
is sharply curved upwards in front, and is furnished with a
knob to break the crust of the snow. The frame is flat, not
rounded as in the other kinds. The foot netting is put on
around the frame, and not through holes in it. All the net-
ting is very fine and close, and made of babi'che. They are gen-
erally painted in gay colors, and ornamented with tufts of colored
worsted. The latter in moist snow must be a great nuisance, as
the snow must stick to them and greatly increase the weight.
In hunting, the Hudson Bay men use the larger Kutchin shoe.
The latter is probably the best of all for general use.

The next morning the wind had gone down, and we started
very early. We passed the Russian camp, about a mile beyond
ours, and soon overhauled them on a side hill, where they were
stuck in a large drift. I proposed to go ahead and break the
road for them, at the same time taking some of their load,
though my sleds were already the heaviest. My offer was ac-
cepted, and we led the way for the remainder of the trip. We
camped near the Ass's Head that night, and about ten miles
above Kaltag on the Yukon the following day.

The road on the river was exceedingly bad. The long March
day and the warm sun made the snow moist and sticky. Each
snowshoe would raise ten pounds adhering to it, and it was ex-
tremely hard travelling. We took tea three times during the day.
Tired out with running before the dogs, Pavloff s Indian lay down
on the snow and refused to run any further. None of the Rus-
sians were in a condition to take his place. We were only some
three miles from Nulato, and I gave my sled to the runner, and
took his place. It was really a relief to e.xercise another set of
muscles, after walking behind the sled and pushing all day. We
found all in bed at Nulato, as we were not expected for several
days, and the Russians were especially surprised to see me, sup-

192

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

posing mc to have been too sick to return immediately. PavlolTg
wife had the samovar ready, and we all took a cup of tea to-
gcibcr, which did much to relieve the fatigue of the day.

The Russian fish-trap was catching nothing. Mine had been
very fortunate. There was a pile of several hundred frozen fish
in the storehouse, Cj lite sufficient to feed my dogs. The next day
Blackbird was handsomely rewarded for his work, and sent back
with the e.xtra dogs to Unalakli'k.

Repairs being needed on the ri."h-trap, I discovered that the
Russians had appropriated all my ^jxtra wood during my absence.
After some trouble I obtained restitution.

Having a small piece of glass, I inserted it in the window.
After getting the light all winter only through parchment, it was
a great relief to be able to peep out occasionally, and to admit a
few rays of pure sunlight.

The plans which had beeii settled upon by the Russians were
about as follows : A raft was to be built in the spring, and on his
return from the annual trip to Nuklukahyet, Pavloff was to em-
bark with all the Russian employes and goods belonging to the
Russian American Company, and make the best of his way to the
mouth of the river, where boats from the Redoubt would meet
him and convey them to St. Michael's.

In the latter part of the month of March I made several expe-
ditions, without dogs, to the h'lly region back of Nukito. In this
manner much geographical and geological information was ob-
tainet'.

About the ist of April, Bidarshik, one of the Koyiikuns who had
accompanied us to Fort Yukon, arrived from the mountains, where
he had been deer-hunting. He brought a sled-load of meat, of
which I secured the greater part, — a most acceptable addition to
our monotonous fare of fish-soup. He brought the information
that Larriovvn was endeavoring to excite the Koyukuns to active
ho-stilities against the Nulato post. Larriown was one of a family
of five brothers, all Influpntial men among the Koyukuns. One,
whose name 1 could not obtain, had recently died. He had been
concerned in the first Nulato massacre, and was accused of having
killed Barnard. Since that time he had committed many outrages.
A Yukon Indian, named Nikolai, who had been extremely useful to
Major Kennicott's party in their explorations about Koyukuk, had

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

'93

y. PavlofTs
p of tea to-
ic clay.
\c had been
1 frozen fish
^he next clay
id sent back

red that the
my absence.

the window,
inient, it was
d to admit a

Lissians were
r, and on his
T was to em-
inging to the
is way to the
would meet

icveral expe-
ito. In this
ion was ob-
is who had
itains, where
of meat, of
addition to
information
Ins to active
of a family
:uns. One,
lie had been
led of having
[ly outrages,
lely useful to
)yukuk, had

an exceedingly pretty wife, and, with his brother, was possessed of
much property. In the fall of 1866, Larriinvn's brother iutluced
Nikolai and his brother to accompany him to the mountains after
ilcer. 'I'herc the former killed both of them, and hid the bodies,
securing their guns and ammunition. All the autumn and far into
winter, the other Indians sought tiie brothers in vain. At last
the murderer, tired of hearing about them, led the searchers to
the place where they lay, and boldly avowed his crime. He then
went to the house where they had lived, and plundered it. Niko-
lai's mother reproached him with the unprovoked murder, and
he threw her into the fire, forced Nikolai's wife to accomi)any
him, and fled to the mountains. Of the whole family, oidy the
little son of Nikolai and his sister, who were away, escaped.
There was no one to revenge them, and the murderer escaped
impunished. In the fall of 1S67 he died of pleurisy. Much sick-
ness of the kind prevailed during the winter, and Larriown, whose
dictum as a great shaman was not to be denied, accused the Rus-
sians of having caused the sickness and death by their sorceries.

his may seem incredible, but such reasoning is characteristic

die Indian mind. The remaining brothers sent beads to the
various Indians as an inducement to attack the Russians ; but so
far they had hesitated, from the scarcity of provisions. Bidarshik,
under promise of secrecy, divulged the plot to me, and begged
nie to leave Nulato. I took him into the magazine, showed
him my stores of ammunition and my arms, and told him that
I was prepared for anything ; that the Russians had given
me the use of a house in the fort, and if they were attacked I
should assist them against their enemies, — giving him permission
to inform the Koyukuns of the determination. Rumors were rife,
during the entire spring, of a proposed attack, but none was at-
tempted.

De'ails have already been given of the practice of shanuinism
among the Indians, and the various tribes have been described.
A few more particulars in regard to them and their mode of life
may not be uninteresting.

The Indian character, with some modifications, is the same
almost everywhere. The Ingaliks are peacefully inclined, and as
industrious as any Indians. They are more honest than the major-
ity of uneducated whites, and much more so than those tribes who
13

194

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

Iir'i '

^«i

? i

)»(

have been degraded by the use of liquor, They are courageous,
but not bloodthirsty, and are easily controlled by a firm hand.
Avarice appears strongly in their characters ; the affections are
but slightly developed, and are exhibited only toward their chil-
dren. The latter are obedient and respectful to their parents,
but exhibit no love for them. The old people live on odds and
ends of food which the young ones do not eat ; this seems rather
to be a custom than any deliberate neglect. The opinions of the
old men are always consulted, and usually followed. Foster-
children are not uncommon. The fruit of their labor belongs to
the person who reared them, and they are in a manner slaves,
but still possess property of their own, and marry when they like.
The authority of the foster-parent is retained as long as he lives.
Children are anxiously desired, even when women have no hus-
bands. The Ingalik women are less inclined to sensuality than
many others, but are by no means strict in their morals. Incon-
tinence on the part of a wife is seldom punished with anything
more than a beating. Excessive laziness or ill-temper sometimes
induces the men to discard them entirely. Tlie women are rarely
chastised, and usually well treated. Both sexei' are dirty about
their persons, and handsome women are exceedingly rnre. The
old ones are often hideous. The Inga'iks are tall, but more slen-
der than the Innuit, and their legs are often ill-. shaped. Thi.s
comes from constant sitting in a small caiioc in summer, and
walking on snowshoes in winter. They are seldom very muscu-
lar ; those who live on fish arc invariably the most dirty, weak,
cowardly, degraded, and least intelligent. Their number appears
to be decreasing. Few women have more than two children ;
twins are almost unheard of Many women are barren. The
number of deaths annually increases, from their habit of inhaling
the smoke of the Circassian tobacco into the lungs, which greatly
adtis to the prevalence of lung diseases.

While the Indians are exposed to privations of every kind from
childhood, they are, if anything, less hardy than the whites. A
white man of ordinary strength and endurance can invariably tire
oi't any Indian, as soon as he has become accustomed to the
mode of life, I believe that the white can surpass the Indian in
everything, with but little difficulty, even in those things to which
the latter has devoted his attention from infancy. All my own

1 1

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

'95

experience tends to confirm this opinion, and it is certain that
Indian sagacity has been greatly overrated, especially in the fables
of such romancers as Cooper.

Diseases are quite as })revalcnt among them as among civilized
people. As yet, among the Ingaliks, zymotic diseases aio un-
known. Pleurisy, pneumonia, bronchitis, dyspepsia (not rare),
asthma, rheumatism, colic, hydrocephalus, calculus, uretliritis, and
hemorrhoids were noticed, and various mild diseases of the skin,
boils, and small tumors are not uncommon. Oplithalmia is pro-
duced by the reHection of sunlight from the mist arising Irom the
melting snow in the .spring. To obviate this, they, as well as the
Innuit, make use of goggles after the annexed pattern. These

Snow-goggles of the Yukon Indians

are made of soft wood, cut to fit the face, and tied by a string
behind the head. They are pierced with one or two slits which
admit of vision. The inside is blackened with charcoal, and
some have a small ledge over the slit, as a shade, also bhickcnetl.
I found these goggles superior to those of green glass with which
n-e were provided.

Curiously enough, a taenia, developed from hydroids foi :.d in
the reindeer, is occasionally found among these Indians. iiave
seen humpbacks, club-feet, and other malformations among Ko-
yiikuns, and once a deaf-and-duml) man. Slrabisnais is common,
and I have seen several cases of cataract.

Their remedies, besides the rites practised by the shamans, are
few and simple. Bleeding, scarification, actual cautery, ligatures,
stoum baths, and fasting, are practised, but they have no knowl-
edge of the virtues of any roots or herbh. The women seem e.\-

196

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

U J

erupted from the curse of Eve. Delivery takes place in a few
minutes, the mother kneeling ; no pain is experienced, and she is
about again and at her work in half an hour. The infant is
rubbed with grease, washed and put to the breast. They arc
rarely weaned under three years.

The Indians are devoid of fortitude, crying at a scratch or cu'.
which we should consider trifling : this may be partly ascribed to
ignorance. They are short-lived, few men reaching forty-five.
The women live longer, many reaching sixty. Their exact ages
can seldom be determined, as they keep no record and soon for-
get. They can count one hundred, but no further.

The work is divided among the sexes much as among the In-
nuit. There is no such enslavement of the women as exists
among the Kutchin and other eastern and southern tribes. The
men do nearly all the hard work. They have no pride of family
such as is so prominent among the Koloshes, and few know who
were their grandfathers. A very few of the Ingaliks have more
than one wife ; none, as far as I know, have more than two. The
Koyukuns are more lax in this respect. Cousins do not marry
among the Ingaliks, but there are no rules observed by the Ko-
yukuns in regard to marriage. There is a superstition among
the Koyukuns that a youth must not marry until he has killed a
deer, otherwise he will have no children. They believe in love-
philters, made of an owl's liver, which, to be successful, must be
administered without exciting suspicion. The totcmic system,
properly so called, is unknown among them, but the) nave the
practice, as described among the Innuit, of selecting a patron
spirit. Some substitute for an amulet the small brass crosses
distributed by the Russian missionaries ; sometimes both hang
around the neck on the same string.

The Kutchin have always possessed the system of totems, and
I quote the following remarks from an account of them by
William L. Hardisty, Esq., of the Hudson Bay Company. All
the Kutchin are divided into three castes or totems, called re-
spectively Tchit-cJic-ah, Tcug-ratscy, and Nat-sah-i, according to
Strachan Jones, Esq., late commander at Fort Yukon. Mr. Har-
disty says : —

"With reference to the origin of caste it is difficult to arrive at a cor-
rect solution. I believe that they do not know, themselves, for they give

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

197

nr exact ages
and soon for-

various accounts of the origin of the three great divisions of mankind.
Some say it was so from the beginning ; others, that it originated when
all fowls, animals, and fish were people, — the fish were the C/iiisah, the
birds Tain-gecs ah-tsa/i, and the animals iVa/s/ng/i ; some, that it refers to
the country occupied by the three great nations who are supposed to
have composed the whole family of man ; wliile others, that it refers to
color, for the words are api)licable. Chitsah refers to anything of a pale
color, — fair people ; A'at-siiig/i, from a/i-ziiii:;/i, black, dark, that is, dark
people; Taitigccs-ah-tsah, neither fair nor dark, — between the two, —
from tain-gecs, the half, middle, and ah-tsah, brightish, from tsu, the sun,
bright, glittering, shining, &c. The country of the Na-tsik-kut-chin is
called Nah-t'singh to this day, and it is the country which the Nat-singh
were supposed to have occupied. The Na-tsik-kut-chin inhabit the high
ridge of land between the Yukon and the Arctic Sea. They live en-
tirely on the flesh of the reindeer, and are very dark-skinned compared
with the Chit-sangh, who live a good deal on fish. Some of the Chit-
sangh are very fair, — indeed, in some instances approaching to white.
The Tain-gees-ah-tsa, taken as a whole, are neither so fair as the Chit-
sangh nor so dark as the Nah-t'singh. A Chit-sangh cannot, by their
rules, marry a Chit-sangh, although the rule is set at naught occasion-
ally ; but when it does take place the persons are ridiculed and laughed
at. The man is said to have married his sister, even though she may be
from another tribe, and there be not the slightest connection by blood
between them. It is the same with the other two divisions. Fhc ( hil-
dren receive caste from their mother : if a male Chit-sangli marry a
Nah-t'singh woman the children are Nah-t'singh, and if a male Xah-
t'singh marry a Chit-sangh woman the children are Chit-sangh ; so that
the divisions are always changing. As the fathers die out the country
inhabitetl by the Chit-sangh becomes occupied by the Nah-t'singh, and
vice versa. They are thus continually chan.uing countries. Latterly,
however, these rules are not so strictly obf.erved or enforced as formerly,
and no doubc will soon disappear altogether. One good thing proceeded
from the above arrangement, — it prevented war between two tribes who
were naturally hostile. 'I'he ties or obligations of color or caste were
stronger than those of blood or nationality. In war it was not tribe
against tribe, but division against tlivision ; and as the children were
ne.er of the same caste as the father, the children would, of course, be
against the father, and the father against tlie children, — part of one tribe
against part of another, and part against itself ; so that, as may be sup-
posed, there would have been general confusion. This, however, was
not likely to occur very often, as the worst of parents would have natu-
rally preferred peace to war with his own children."

198

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

jlj!

1: i

- t

It is not improbable that the custom or system of totems origi-
nated in a desire to prevent war, and to knit the tribes more
closely togf^ther. It is a well-known fact that most of the inter-
tribal Indian wars have occurred between those who did, and
those who did not, adopt the system. In all other known tribes
the names of the totems are those of animals, and I doubt whether
the similarity of the Kutchin names to words indicating color, re-
ferred to by Mr. Hardisty, is anything more than an accidental
coincidence, or perhaps an error. The system is found in perfec-
tion among the Thlinkets or Koloshes.

The method of disposing of the dead has been described. The
dances or festivals of the Indians are less varied and interesting
than those of the Innuit. They are held at their yearly meetings
at Nuklukahy^t, or other neutral trading-grounds. Others are
given by men who desire a reputaticn for liberality; others by
the relatives of a dead person a year after the death ; still others
by the inhabitants of a village who desire to extend their hospi-
tality to neighboring villages. These dances have been previously
alluded to. Their choruses are less euphonious and less varied
than those of the Innuit. Their dances have less of a symbolic
character. Feasting and giving presents form the chief attrac-
tions at their festivals. The universal chorus is " He ! he ! ho !
ho ! " indefinitely prolonged. When the feast for the dead is
given the presents are hung on a pole. Around this the dancing
is done. The Indians wrap themselves in blankets, and the mo-
tions are simple jumping up and down, gradually moving side-
ways, as in the old game of " threading the needle." There are
no graceful motions or postiv ings of the arms and body, as in the
Innuit dances.

The Indians, particularly the women, are fond of singing, apart
from their festivals. Their ears are very quick, and they soon
catch up an air fnm hearing it sung once or twice. Our parties
contained several good singers, who enlivened the evenings with
patriotic and comic songs. The Indians soon caught up the airs;
and "Tramp, tramp, the boys are marching," " Sixteen cents a
dozen," and " Marching through Georgia" may now be heard
from the mouth of almost any Yukon Indian. The women are
fond of making up songs of their own, which they hum over their
work. Some of these are full of sentiment and not unworthy of

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

199

preservation. The chorus always forms a prominent part. The
following is a free translation, preserving the original rhythm,
of one which I heard a Koyiikun woman singing as she sewed.
It is a fair specimen of many which were translated to me, some
of which I preserved. It is the song of a mother hushing her
child to sleep, and the air was slow and soft.

cribed. The

* Tiie wind l)lows over the Yukon.
My husband hunts the deer on the Koyukun mountains.
Ahmi, Ahmi, sleep, little one.

'• There is no wood for the fire.
Tiie stone axe is broken, my husband carries the other.
Where is tlie sun- warmth ? * Hid in the dam of the beaver, waiting the

spring-time ?
Ahmi, Ahmi, sleep, little one, wake not !

" Look not for ukali, old woman.
Long since the cache was emptied, and the crow does not light on tiie

ridge-pole !
Long since my husband departed. Why does he wait in the moun-
tains ?
Ahmi, Ahmi, sleep, little one, softly.

'• Wliore is my own ?
Dacs lie lie starving on the hillside ? Why does he linger?
Comes he not soon, I will seek him among the mountains.
Alimi, Ahmi, sleep, little one, sleep.

" The crow has come, laugiiing.
His jjeak is red, his eyes glisten, the false one !
' Tlianks for a good meal to Kuskokala tlie shaman.
On the sharp mountain quietly lies your husband.'
Aiimi, Ahmi, sleep, little one, wake not !

"'Twenty deer's tongues tied to the pack on his shoulders ;
Not a tongue in his mouth to call to his wife with.
Wolves, fo.xes, and ravens are tearing and fighting for morsels.
Tough and hard are the sinews ; not so the child in your bosom.'
Aiinii, Ahmi, sleep, little one, wake not !

'• Over tlie mountain slowly staggers the hunter.
Two bucks' thighs on his shoulders, with bladders of fat between them.
Twonty deers' tongues in his belt. Go, gatlier wood, old woman !
OlTllew the crow, — liar, cheat, and deceiver !
Wake, little sleeper, wake, and call to your father !

* I. c. the warm principle of the sunlight, which they regard as a personal spirit.

■f !r

' If

I 'i

n.l

200

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

" He brings you backfat, marrow, and venison fresli from the mountain.
Tired and worn, lie 1ms carved a toy of the deer's horn,
While he was sitting and waiting long for the deer on the hillside.
Wake, and see the crow, hiding himself from the arrow !
Wake, little one, wake, for here is your father! "

These songs are heard in every lodge. Some attain wide popu-
larity, others are unknown except to the singer, who measures
the stroke of her paddle or the motion of her needle by the simple
rhythm of the air.

The bow has long since given place to the gun among the
Koyiikuns, Kutchin, and northern Ingaliks. Long, single-bar-
relled flint-locks have been obtained from the Hudson Hay Com-
pany at Fort Yukon since 1847, and at about the same time
traders from the Sandwich Islands began to visit Grantley Har-
bor and Kotzebue Sound. The latter trade a small Iklgian
fowling-piece, double-barrelled and of small bore. These guns,
with some ammunition, bring twenty marten-skins, and the Hud-
son 13ay guns are sold for forty.

Their habits, though not as regular as those of the Innuit, still
pursue a nearly uniform course, each successive year being much
like the previous one, and only modified by the greater or less
abundance of game and fish.

Life among the Indians is a constant struggle with nature,
wrestling with hunger, cold, and fatigue ; the victory is ever un-
certain, and always hard-earned. The opening and closing of
navigation are the two great events of the year. The months of
April, May, and June are the hardest of the season. The snow-
is melting, ophthalmia attacks the deer-hunters, and the winter's
store of food is nearly or quite gone. In May the geese and
ducks arrive. The fish-traps are carried away by the rising water
in the rivers, and few have sufficient ammunition to supply them-
selves with wild fowl for many weeks. The inen take their canoes
and ascend the small rivers, as soon as the ice breaks up and the
freshets drive the beaver out of their winter houses. For a week
or two they support themselves in this way, and then those who
have been successful in trapping start for Nuklukahyet to trade.
There they find the moose and deer driven by the mosquitoes
into the river, where they may b^^ killed, iicars leave their winter
quarters, and their meat occasionally adds to the spring supply

^:l

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

20 1

; mountain,
hillside.

n wide popu-
vho measures
by the simple

m among the
ig, single-bar-
son Bay Com-
lie same time
Grantley Har-
small Belgian
These guns,
and the Hud-

:he Innuit, still
;ar being much
greater or less

2 with nature,
Dry is ever un-
md closing of
The months of
on. The snow
nd the winters
the geese and
he rising water
o supply them-
ke their canoes
laks up and the
For a week
[hen those who
ahyet to trade.

he mosquitoes
|ve their winter

spring supply

of food. The women, and such of the men as remain at home,
are busy making nets and seines from the inner bark of the wil-
low and alder. The wood for the summer fish-traps is also pre-
pared, and the baskets and other parts of the trap are tied to-
gether, ready for use. On the Lower Yukon the eggs of wild
fowl are obtained in sufficient numbers to furnish a partial means
of subsistence. This is also the season for making birch canoes.
Early in June the king salmon {Kahthl of the Ingaliks, or cho-
wichee of the Russians) begin to ascend the river. After the
middle of July only stragglers of this species are caught. The
chowi'chee are followed by two or three other kinds, and the
salmon fishery is well over about the end of August. During
this period most of the Indians are on the river, fishing, splitting,
and drying the fish for winter use. Some are smoked, but the
greater part are simply dried in the sun. They have no salt, and
never use it, even when it might be procured from the Russians.
In consequence many of the likali have a tainted flavor. White-
fish are caught and dried at the same time as the salmon, but are
smaller, and not so extensively fished for. They are most plenty
and in their best condition in September. In the latter part of
October the ice puts a stop to fishing, until it is strong enough to
set the winter traps. In August many Indians repair to the hills,
where the reindeer are in prime condition, fat, and less timid than
at other seasons. The fawns are also large enough to m, i<e their
skins of use. Moose are very rare on the Yukon below Koyii-
kuk. In August the young geese are fledged, but cannot yet fly,
as their wing-featheis are not fully grown. The old ones have
also moulted, and many of both kinds are caught in nets. In
October and November the white grouse have returned to the
willow thickets on the river, where they are snared by hundreds.
In December the winter fish-traps are put down, and some deer-
hunting is done on the mountains. Trapping begins in October;
before that, the furs are worthless. In December .id January,
trading commences with the Innuit for oil and seuiskin. In Feb-
ruary and March the fish-traps and snares for grouse and rabbits
are their principal reliance. In the latter part of March the
starving season sets in again. By some tribes. April is called the
"hunger month." In IV^ay, rabbits are very pi'^ntiful for a week
or two, when the wild fowl arrive in millions, and the yearly round
is completed.

202

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

The Koyukun and Ingalik names for women generally end in
"il'no" as Tdllo-ilno, "dashing water," &c. The names of men
frequently end in "ala" as Kiisko-kdla, "he who strikes," &c.,
but are not so regular in their terminations as the female names.
With the Kutchin the father takes his name from his child, not
the child from the father as with us. Thus, Kzv(fe-cch-ct may have
a son and call him Sdh-nu. The father then takes the name
Sah-nu-tec, and his former name is forgotten. Sometimes the
mother will drop her name, and be called Sah-nu-bc-han, or Sah-
nu's mother.* The same practice obtains among the Indian
tribes to the south, as the Koloshes; but the western Tinneh are
without it.

In war, when a Kutchin Indian kills his adversary, he cuts all
his joints. They are governed by the same chiefs in peace and
war. The authority of a chief is very limited ; the Indians are
very unruly, and indisposed to submit to authority. The chiefs
are chosen on account of their wisdom, wealth, or courage, and
not on account of birth. They have no insignia of office, and
only such privileges as they can take ; none that the others can
withhold from them. This undeniable fact has been universally
ignored in the dealings of the I'nited States Government with the
Indians.

The chiefa and old men are all who are entitled to speak in
council ; but most young men will not hesitate to rise and give
their elders the benefit of their wisdom. Among the Han Kut-
chin a metal ring is sometimes used in the nose instead of the
dentalium ornament of the western Tinneh. Among the eastern
Tinneh the women are literally beasts of burden ; but they have
the privilege of disposing of their daughters at any age ; the fathers
and brothers having no voice in the matter, according to their
customs. They have the singular custom of net cutting the nails
of girls until they are four years old. The reason they give is,
that, if they did so earlier, the girl when grown up would be lazy,
and unable to embroider in porcupine quills, an art which they
carry to great perfection. The children are seldom weaned until
three years old. They arrive at the age of puberty at about
twelve or fourteen. Some of the women reach a gieat age; one

* Vide account of Kutchin tribes by Strachan Jones, Esq., in Smithsonian Report,
1866.

the

BBi'"' - 1

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

203

at Fort Simpson was estimated to be ninety-seven years old.
The eastern Tinneh and Kutchin tribes far surpass the western
Tinnch in their proficiency with the needle, and in their love for
ornament. The latter care little for trinkets, seldom paint, and
will barter their furs only for tobacco and useful articles. This
should be borne in mind by traders.

Preparations for the spring shooting soon became necessary.
I had no shot, and was obliged to make all I needed. The Rus-
sians are accustomed to hammer lead out into slender bars, to cut
these in small cubes, and roll them. This process being exceed-
ingly laborious, I hit upon another plan. I took a piece of walrus
tusk and planed it off until it was about half an inch thick, flat
on each side, and about two inches wide by six long. Taking
a large nail, I filed the point and rigged a "fiddle-bow drill."
With this I bored a hole about three eighths of an inch in
diameter, a little smaller at one end than at the other. I then
filed off a little more of the point and bored another hole a
little smaller, and repeated the process until the last hole was
about the diameter of a duck-shot. I ran my lead into small
bars, and, greasing them well, wire-drew them through the holes,
beginning with the largest. The result was lead wire of the
diameter required. This was cut up into pieces, each piece
as long as the diameter of the wire. These were then rolled
with a little ashes in an iron pan under a flat stone. This pro-
duced shot nearly as round as dropped shot, though not polished.
In this way I manufactured seventy pounds of shot of difterent
sizes, which answered every purpose. It was a work of great
labor, but less so than by the Russian method. A man can make
in this manner ..ibout three pounds in a day. The Russians at Nu-
Idto were each furnished every spring with five pounds of lead
and half a pound of powder. With this they must supply them-
selves with game, or go hungry. The same practice is usual at
Fort Yukon, except that the men are furnished wit'i manufactured
shot.

As spring approached, we made leady for our journey to the
Yukon-mouth. The collections of natural history grew apace.
Many hundred birdskins, and other specimens, were brought
together, some of which had not previously been collected. On
the 2ist of April, Tekunka paid us a visit. He was accompanied

rrr

ii!! I.|

r^ii p

I ?

lui

I 4

|:i

204

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

by all the Kaiyuh Iiigaliks who were returning from Ulukuk.
While sitting peaceably in the casarmer he was insulted and
struck by Shabounin, a convict from Archangel in Russia, who
had been sent to Nukito to build the raft on which the Russians
were to descend in the spring. I heard Kurdla calling to I'avloti,
in the yard, that Shabounin was killing Tekunka. I rushed into
the casarmer at once. Tekunka was standing on one side, his
face bleeding, and hurling defiance in good Russian at his assail-
ant. The Russians were huddled in one corner, unarmed, and
cowed by the crowd of Ingaliks, each with his hand on his gun,
which half filled the room. Sure of his power, though himsclt
unarmed, Tekunka did not spare his tongue. He told them that
he held their lives in his hand. " A word," said he, " and my
men wash this floor with your blood. You call us ' dogs of In-
dians!' We know what you are, — murderers, thieves, and out-
laws, driven from Russia for your crimes ! Yet >v-u come to our
country and abuse us without reason, take away our daughters,
and pay us with a leaf of tobacco for furs which you cannot trap
yourselves! Why should I not avenge this unprovoked insult?
Why do I not order my men to exterminate you like vermin ?
Because I had rather stand here and tell you in your own casarmer
that I hate, despise, and defy you !"

Pavloff now entered, and was called upon to redress the injury,
which he did sullenly and reluctantly. Shabounin was rebuked
before the Indians for his conduct, and a present of tobacco and
ammunition was made to Tekunka, who received it with uncon-
cealed disdain. The Indians .slowly left the room, and I followed
them. They took their baggage and sleds, and left the fort. It
is very seldom that such an exhibition of spirit is seen among
these Indians, but Tekunka was unusually intelligent, and had
worked in the fort among the Russians when young. It must
also be said that such an outrage on the part of any Russian
had never before occurred at Nulato, and probably very seldom
anywhere.

On the iith of Ajiril the first swallows appeared, and on the
27th Kun'lla earned the pound of tobacco by killing the first
goose of the season.

The Russian raft was well under way, and was a clumsy
concern, shaped like a flat-iron, and provided with high bul-

th
di
ni
i nil

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

205

from Ulukuk.
s insulted and
in Russia, wlio
h the Russians
tiling to I'avloff,

I rushed into
n one side, his
lan at his assail-
r, unarmed, and
and on his gun,
though himscll

told them that
d he, " and my
us 'dogs of In-
hieves, and oiit-
y^u come to our

our daughters,
you cannot trap
irovoked insult ?
Du like vermin ?
ur own casarmcr

Iress the injury,

in was rebuked

of tobacco and

it with uncon-

and I followed

eft the fort. It

is seen amonj;

igent, and had

)ung. It must

|of any Russian

ly very seldom

|red, and on the
cilling the first

iwas a clumsy
Ivith high bul-

warks, a mast, rudder, or rather sweep, and a sail. They informed
me that it was after the pattern of the rafts on which timber is
floated down the rivers of Russia which flow into the Northern
Sea.

Meanwhile the skin had been taken ofT our little bidarra, well
oiled, repaired, and replaced. The must, oars, and sail were manu-
factured, as well as an enormous j)addle, which Kun'lla, in his
capacity as coxswain, proposed to use himself The Russian
bidarra was made ready for their trading-voyage to Nuklukahyet.
Johnny would accompany them, and go on to Fort Yukon with
the Indians. lie was a useful little fellow, but gratitude or af-
fection formed no part of his nature, and I did not e.xpect to miss
him much.

On the 24th of May the Nukito River broke up, and the water
and ice came down with a rush. About four o'clock in the after-
noon the ice on the Yukon moved a little, and then stuck fast.
An ice-barrier fifteen feet high formed near the bluff north of
NuLito. This remained several days without change. On the
28th I went up to the Klat-kakhatnc River, and crossed in an old
birch canoe which I found there, after hewing out a rough paddle,
and leaving my axe in a dry log, four feet above the water. On
the other side the beach between the ice and the high perpen-
dicular bluff was only about six feet wide. I collected here a
number of interesting fossils which had been uncovered by the
melting snow. Suddenly I heard a crash, and the water began to
rise very rapidly. The barrier had broken, and I had to run to
escape being crushed between the bluff and the enormous blocks
of ice which the rising river ground against it. I was just able
to keep pace with the water, and found my canoe on the little
point quite submerged. On the other side the log, with the a.xe
in it, was floating away with the ice. I emptied the canoe, and
pa(klled after the v.^e, and got safely ashore on the Nukito side.
Here I stopped awhile and enjoyed the sight. Blocks of ice
six feet thick were driven against the bank, cutting off large
trees, and carrying ice and turf many yards inland. In some
places the ice was piled thirty feet high. I only regretted that
niy artist companion of the previous year, Mr. Whymper, was
not there to preserve the scene with his ready pencil. The
break-up of 1867 was nothing to it. At the fort the ice came

206

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

I :i

close to the bank. A little more, and the buildiiij^s would have
been in danger. Pavloff said that he had seen a similar freshet
only once before in fifteen years.

The barrier being removed, the water soon began to fall, and
left the great blocks and piles of ice stranded all along the beacli.
There was hardly room to land a boat anywhere near the fort.

We now set about packing up in earnest. The store was half
full of goods, which I could not carry away. The bo.xes of collec-
tions, with our baggage, filled the bidarr.i. She was a little
beauty, well shaped, light, and elegant.

The season was very late. On the 1st of June, Pavloff and his
men left for Nuklukahyct. The river was full of ice, and Tekunka
and his men had not appeared ; so I was still delayed. Johnny
departed with the Russians, not even bidding me good by, al-
though he was loaded with articles which I had given him. He
had letters for Mr. McDougal, the Fort Yukon commander, which
I took pleasure in addressing to " Fort Yukon, Alaska Territory,
United States of Amcriea" as the Scotchmen had insisted against
all reason that the post was situated on the British side of the
line. As my Indians did not make their appearance, I secured
Kuri'lla's brother, — "Monday" by name, as he was engaged on
that day, — and determined that, if Tekunka failed to keep his
promise, I would start the next day, and trust to luck to obtain
another man somewhere on the river below.

nj)on
had a
men.
but tl
the pi
niothe
to go
not su
On
The si
and th
: nailed
post as
goods \
The

would have
lilar ficslict

to fall, and
'<■ the beach.

the fort,
jre was half
jccs of collec-
was a little

ivloff and his
md Tekunka
'cd. Johnny
good by, al-
en him. He
lander, which
ka Territory,
sistcd against
h side of the
ice, I secured
^ engaged on
to keep his
ick to obtain

CHAPTER VI.

ncpaitiirc from Nulato. — Lateness of the season. — Veto. — Kwikhtana l>arrabora.

— Lofka's. — Habits of tlic beaver. — Swan-shooting. — Indian carvings. — First
Iiuiians. - Klantilinten. — A letter. — Meeting with the Maiilemuts. — Anvik. —
'I'lic StarccK. — Pottery. — Sand-hill cranes. — Canoes. — Leather village on the
Sliageluk. — (Ircat abundance of (ood. — Demand for liquor by the .Nhdilenuits, —
Dances. — Attack and narrow escape. — Leave the village. — NLanki. — Lkogmuts.

— I.oon-cap village. — Carvings, old houses and graves. — Oreat breailth of the
Lower \'uUon. — Arrive at tlv Mission. — I'ass the (Ireat Hend. I'ishing-village.

— Mvriails of wild fowl. — Lnergctic collection of specimens. — Kasbinik village. ,

— Starry Kwilhpak village. — Obtain a guide. — Andreafl'sUy. — Tragedy in 1855.

— Mistake of guide. — Arrive at the Uphoon. — Kutlik. — Emperor geese. — Ar-
rival of Tcleezhik. — Go on to I'astolik. — liehiga-hunting. — Innuit carvings. —
Drawings on one. — Rise of the water. — Llcphant bones. — Start for the Reiloubt.

— News 'f the ships. — Arrival at the Redoubt, and meeting with old friends. —
—Traders. — Embarkation for California. — Abuses prevalent in the new territory.

— Value of a territorial government. — Necessary legislation. — Disparagement of
the territory. — Arrival in San Francisco.

EVERYTHING was ready for our departure. The bidarrd
was almost transparent from the oil which was smeared
upon the outside, and inside it was as dry as a bone. TOkunka
iiatl apparently deceived me. There were no signs of him or his
men. Long e.xperience had inured me to such disappointments,
but there were few Indians at Nulato, and it was difficult to fill
llie place of those whom I had expected. By giving to Monday's
mother all the likali and oil which were left over, I induced him
to go with me, as the old woman, with these provisions, would
not suffer from hunger before his return.

On the morning of the 2d of June everything was put aboard.
The supplies which I left behind were put into the storehouse,
and the door fastened with a padlock and chain and then securely
nailed up. The Koyiikuns were already threatening to burn the
post as soon as the Russians left it, but, in case they did not, the
goods I left behind might prove of some use to somebody.

The beach in front of the fort was covered with larg-e blocks of

j ■ ;(

; 'I

s ..I :
I'M

3 II

,; ' t! l|

I t

rl '^ '

I I

i j

208

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

ice, and the quantity of ice in trie river was much greater than
usual for the time of year. We pushed off with some difficulty,
on account of the low water, and finally reaching the channel,
took a last look at the old fort of Nulato. The day was cloudy
and cold, with a head-wind. Not a mosquito had yet shown
himself, a fact which proved, more than anything else, the un-
common lateness of the season. Our little company consisted of
myself, Kun'lla, Monday, and a little foxy Koyukun dog called
Bushy, which was my especial pet. The stars and stripes and
the scallop of the Scientific Corps floated from the mast, which
was also decorated with a broad-tailed arrow ornamented with a
blue muslin fly. I took the stroke oar and Monday the bow, as
Kun'Ua's skill was needed to avoid the numerous floating cakes of
ice in the rapid current. I found that my sickness hud unfitted
me for severe labor, and after a few hours I changed places with
Kun'lla.

The river presented a very different appearance from that of
the previous year, when we started up the Yukon. Now large
blocks of ice were piled up on the shores, where they had been
driven by the first high water; no weather had yet occurred warm
enough to melt them. VVe took our daily tea near the Shaman
Bluff, close by the coal seam, and, while enjoying our meal, Kun'lla
was quick enough with his gun to bring down a mallard which
flew overhead. As we pulled down the river I was so fortunate
as to secure a pair of the beautiful Harlequin duck (//. torqiiatus)
which flew from the mouth of a small stream. This elegant duck
is very shy and solitary v\ its habits, preferring the small streams
which wind among the trees, away from the main river. We saw
no T'.idians on the banks, as the fishing-season had not com-
menced. Late in the evening we arrived at Kalt.ig, and camped
on the left bank. The ground was still muddy from being over-
flowed, and the willow leaves were still folded. At the Kaltag
village we found Matfay and his family from Uliikuk. They pro-
posed to mul.e a trading-voyage down the river a little later in
the season. Big Sidorka was also there. He had promised to
accompany the Russians to Nuklukahyet, but the threats of the
Koyiikuns and the ice in the river had caused him to change his
mind. He was now very anxious to go down the Yukon with me,
as he had never been below L6fka's barrabora. We boiled our

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

209

:h greater than
some difficulty,
ig the channel,
day was cloudy
had yet shown
ig else, the un-
my consisted of
ikun dog called
and stripes and
the mast, which
lamented with a
(day the how, as
ioating cakes of
ess hud unfitted
ged places with

ce from that of
on. Now large
I they had been
t occurred warm
;ar the Shaman
>ur meal, Kuri'lla
I mallard which
,vas so fortunate
{//. torqiiatiis)
is elegant duck
e small streams
river. We saw
had not coni-
ig, and camped
om being over-
t the Kaltiig
ik. They pro-
little later in
d promised to
threats of the
to change his
[ukon with me,
|We boiled our

ducks, and found them all very lean and tough from the scarcity
of food. The horsetails {Eqinsche), on which they feed, had hard-
ly begun to show themselves above the mud.

Wi'dncsday, June id. — As there was little prospect of obtain-
insr a more suitable man farther down the river, I decided to let
Sidorka go with us. His Indian name was Yeto, and by that we
called him. The brown sandstones on the right bank cease at
Kaltag, and below is a long stretch of gravel banks, and then
gray sandstones and shales with very poor vegetable remains.
At the village near the bluffs below Kaltag there were a few
Indians. Here I bought half a dozen martens for a few loads of
powder and ball. The wind kept obstinately ahead, and impeded
our progress a good deal. We took tea near the mouth of the
Kaiyuh River. The left bank of the Yukon appears to be gener-
ally low, with hills in the distance. The right bank is always the
higher, and the river seems to run on the right side of a broad
valley, of which the bluffs on the right bank and the distant hills
on the left form the boundaries. The vegetation resembles that
farther up the river, but here the willows and poplars attain a
larger growth. We pitched the tent on the banks of a small
creek, where the level dry ground formed an excellent camp-
ing-place. There were the remains of many old Indian camps
here, and we saw a large number of sand-hill cranes, besides
adding to our collection a specimen of the beautiful purple sand-
piper.

Thursday, Atth. — I rose very early, and taking my gun, went to
a pool near by, where I got a shot at a swan, but failed to bring it
down. By patient waiting I finally succeeded in getting a brace
of green-winged leal, which are the best eating of any of the
v.ater-fowl found on the Yukon. The mosquitoes were abundant
hero, as the location was warm and sunny, and I .soon awoke the
Indians by raising a corner of their tent and giving the preda-
ccous insects access to the interior. The sun shone brightly, and
the day was most beautiful. We soon pushed off and continued
on our way. We passed through a number of sloughs, and
stopped at several of the islands to shoot. On many of them
small lagoons exist, and on these the water-fowl congregate early
in the morning to feed. We obtained quite a number of brant
and several ducks. A downy owl {Bmcliyoins Cassini) flew out
14

n^^

2IO

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

from a thicket and, prol^ably impelled by curiosity, followed the
boat at a short distance for nearly a mile. The superstitions of
the Indians were exci»^ed, and they finally shot the bird, which fell
in the water and continued to follow us, carried by the current,
even in death.

The alder buds were just opening, and the tender leaves began
to appear. About ten o'clock, passing through a small pratoka.
we saw on a gently rising mound a white Greek cross. This
spot, according to Kuri'lla, was the place where the boat for
Nulato with goods from the Redoubt was onr-^ caught by the ice
and frozen in. The crew built a house and wintered here. They
called it Kwikhtana barrabora or Cold Hou-se, from the extreme
cold which they suftered. One of them, who died, was buried on

WSSSs

Silt" i>r KwiklUaiin b.irrabom.

I ,

this mound, where the cross marks his resting-place. Game was
scarce, and we were obliged to be economical with our stores.
For dinner we boiled three geese and a duck in the big kettle. I
usually made away with the duck and a pltitc of soup, beside tea
and sukaree, while the Indians never failed to clean out the
kettle, leaving only the bones, which were the dog's perquisite.
In the afternoon we crossed the river to a slough which Kuri'lla
said was a short cut ; but after going a little way the wind was so

followed the
perstitions of
irtl, which fell
I the current,

leaves began
mall pratoka.
cross. This
the boat for
ht by the ice

I here. They

II the extreme
a'as buried on

Game was
[h our stores.
Ibig kettle. I
lip, beside tea
llean out the
I's perquisite,
/hich Kurilla
wind was so

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

21 I

strong and dead ahead that I determined to turn b:ck and go by
the main river, where we were sheltered by the high bank. We
saw many fresh tracks of the black bear along the muddy shore.
Crossing again, we continued along the righ.t bank, which in some
places is composed of trachytic rocks of different colors. These
do not rise to any great height, and are soft and crund)Iing.
Yellow, red, green, blue, and all transitions from black, through
gray, to white were observed. Toward evening we approached
the Yakutz !: latenik River, at the mouth of which is an Indian
house in a very dilapidated condition. This is known as Lofka's
barrabora. It had a melancholy appearance in the twilight.

Lolk.i's b.ur.ibiir.i

being deserted and falling into ruins. We decided to camp here.
As we pulled toward the beach, a large otter started from among
the willows and ran along the shore. We b ul brought along a
small canoe made of three boards, and Kuri'lla hastily jumped into
this and made for the beach. He landed, but the otter was too
quick for him ; it plunged into the water near the river and dis-
appeared. We put up the tent, boiled the chynik, and retired to
rest. The rain, which soon came on, did not disturb us, as every-

15 ' ^:'

212

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

thing had been put ashore and covered with the bidarra before
we had turned in.

Friday, ^th. — The rain had ceased about four o'clock in the
morning, and it had cleared off finely. A stroll along the banks
of the small river revealed many fresh beaver-tracks. The
beaver, when forced to leave his house by the spring freshets,
which fill it with water, seeks his living along the banks of the
small rivers, until the waters subside. He is a gregarious and
playful animal, fond of gymnastics for their own sake. When he
finds a steep, smooth mud-bank, he usually amuses himself by
crawling up and then sliding off into the water, repeating the
process many times, apparently enjoying the fun as much as
boys do coasting. He is nocturnal in his habits, and very timid.
Taking the small canoe, Kun'lla paddled patiently up and down,
making as little noise as possible, and scanning the water near
the banks for the beaver's nose. This is the only part visible,
the rest being below the surface. A crack, followed by a shout,
told that my old Scotch rifle had done its wcrk, aud Kun'lla soon
appeared in triumph, bearing a small beaver. The flesh of this
animal is to most persons disagreeable. A slight odor and flavor
which accompany it frequently produce nausea with those un-
accustomed to it. I never ate the meat, but the paws and tail I
found very good. The former are covered with a black skin, with
only a little hair near the junction with the arm or leg; when
thoroughly boiled they resemble pigs' feet. The tail is composed
of muscular fibre containing a large amount of a peculiarly sweet
fat in the interstices. The skin which covers the tail has the ap-
pearance of scales, but there are no real scales. The skin readily
peels off if scorched in the fire, and the tail, when well boiled, is a
delicious morsel. The muscles and inner skin are reduced by
boiling to a kind of jelly, and the whole is so rich that one cannot
eat much of it. The castoreum, which is used in medicine, is
contained in two glands which open near the tail. Their use is
not clearly understood, but is probably similar to that of the
musk glands in the muskrat and muskdeer. A favorite amuse-
ment among the Kutchin Indians consists in taking the humerus
in the hands and endeavoring to break it ; as it is very short and
strong, this requires considerable strength. After skinning the
beaver, and stretching the skin on a hoop of green willow, we

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

213

darra before

clock in the
ng the banks
racks. The
ring freshets,
banks of the
egarious and
e. When he
IS himself by
repeating the
as much as
d very timid,
up and down,
lie water near
J part visible,
;d by a shout,
Kuri'Ua soon
; flesh of this
dor and flavor
dth those un-
iws and tail I
lack skin, with
or leg; when
1 is composed
culiarly sweet
il has the ap-
e skin readily
lell boiled, is a
e reduced by
at one cannot
medicine, is
Their use is
lo that of the
:vorite amuse-
the humerus
ery short and
skinning the
len willow, we

pushed off. The wind was, as usual, dead ahead and very strong.
Although aided by the current, wc had hard work to make head-
way against it. Blowing against the stream, it raised quite a sea
on the broad river, and as our gunwale was only four inches
above the water, we found it necessary to keep close in shore.
We stopped to rest several times, and arriving near a broad, shal-
low lagoon, we went ashore, and creeping behind the willows,
tried to get a shot at some of the water-fowl which were feeding
there. My favorite, of seven guns, was a Scotch rifle, which had
been bored out so that it carried shot as well as ball. It was re-
markably long in range, and very true. The ball which I used with
it was a long conical one, weighing an ounce and a quarter. One
of these was quite enough to bring down anything which it hit.
Loading with buckshot, I waited for Kurilla, who had gone to the
other end of the lagoon, where several swans were gracefully
seated in the water. The report of his fowling-piece, which
brought down a couple of brant, roused the swans from their
reveries ; and striking the \. .ter with their broad wings, they rose
slowly and sailed through the air in single file toward my hiding-
place. They arc not rapid flyers, and I could count every sweep
of their strong white wings. As they followed one another, ut-
tering their harsh cry at intervals, their heads and necks in a
straight line, they looked anything but graceful, and would hardly
be recognized as the same birds so lately seated on the water.
Just before getting in range, they most provokingly changed their
course and struck out across the Yukon ; so I had my trouble for
my pains.

Before returning to the boat I secured a mallard and a white-
fronted goose, to which the Indians added several pintails, and
seven brant, so that our larder was well supplied. Toward even-
ing we began to look for a camping-place, but everywhere the
shore was covered with great blocks of ice, some distance above
the water, and we were finally obliged to haul the boat up on a
large ice-sheet which was grounded on a sand-bar. Mere we
cam[)ed, and a most uncomfortable camp it was. We had to
travel a long distance to obtain driftwood sufficient to make a
fire. Sand makes the hardest bed known ; fine gravel is much
more comfortable. The mosquitoes too, though not abundant,
were by no means idle. Everything along the river showed that

1^ ^

Mb\

214

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

it was an unusually late season. Few small birds were seen, and
no butterflies as yet. The birch, poplar, and willow had only be-
gun to unfold their leaves, while on the north slope of the hills
snow still rested.

Saturday, 6th. — We started early, and pulled against the same
strong wind. We landed at a village which was quite deserted,
the inhabitants being away after beaver. The facility in carving,
shown by the Ingaliks of the Lower Yukon, was well displayed
here. Paddles, dishes, and other articles lay scattered about
where the owners had left them. The winter houses were half
full of water, and the Indians had evidently been living for some
time in three large summer houses. Among other things lying
about, I noticed a large scoop or shovel shaped like a table-spoon,
but seven feet long. It was carved out of one piece of wood,
and ornamented with designs in red chalk and charcoal. It was
of very graceful shape, and had evidently been used for throwing
cut the ice from the aperture through which the fish-traps are
raised in winter. I noticed a small bowl prettily carved, with two
ears or handles. A long stick, to which a block of wood is
attached at one end, is used, with tne bowl referred to, for grind-
ing up tobacco into snufif. My InJians were anxious to appro-
priate some of these articles, but I would not allow them to do
so in the absence of the owners. The paddles, many of which
were seen, were curiously painted v\ith green, red, and black, and
were smaller and more pointed than those in use farther up the
river. The paddles decrease in size as we go down the river;
those at the Yukon-mouth are very small and narrow indeed.
We passed a very small waterfall during the day, the first I had
seen on the river.

On a small island we saw the first Indians. 1 here were only
three or four, and they were much alarmed when they first saw
us. We landed, and found that they were making fish-traps.
They had nothing to sell except some eggs, and a few vikali,
which I bought for the dog. After making them a present of a
few leaves of tobacco, we pushed off and continued down the
river.

The boat was ill stowed, and a good deal of mud had gathered
in her bottom from our feet, so I determined to camp early, turn
her over, and wash her thoroughly, after taking out the goods.

ds were seen, and
illovv had only be-
slope of the hills

against the same
IS quite deserted,
icility in carving,
■s well displayed
scattered about
houses were half
1 living for some
her things lying
ic a table-spoon,
piece of wood,
harcoal. It was
ed for throwinfr
e fish-traps are
:arved, with two
nek of wood is
;d to, for grind-
xious to appro-
ow thcni to do
nany of which
and black, and
farther up the
own the river;
1 arrow indeed,
the first I had

lere were only
they first saw
ing fish-traps.
i a few likali,
a present of a
led down the

had gathered
np early, turn
4t the goods.

hlliiltlll

11 1

! i

I; i

\ . il:!

! 11!

Miii

THK YUKON TERRITORY.

»f^

If?

Ill I: II

hv-

river

'\othing rots a l))darra like iimd or dirt inside of it. Wo cam{y?d

: :\ small brook, and Kiirdla .started oft after game, while we

Tided to the boat. Wc finished cleaning her and gave her a

h\ oiling before getting snpper reiuly. The three Indian?; pol-

•d the beaver's bones, while 1 regaled myself on a ful teal

•^ted on a stick liefore the ftre.

Sunday, ph. — The day opened fair, hul with the same wind,

.h was soon attended by smart s.hiweis of rain. \\ -v- pnlled

.g shore, and abont ten o'elock came to the jjoint where the

sians hud loeatcd a sort of rapid. It proved (o be nothing

e" than a piece of swifr M-.»ter, roiining along Uie baye of a

.'.e of low conglomerate bh.iffs, h>r ?«■■» or three miles, The

■.^r here was quite tr.oad ; to thv: iigr.r ><«■'-«,; succjssive hiils,

ing one afier anotli-T, and •a'.iing into pM;('!c- .'.. ■ *< '

• ^rink was, as usual, low, and a large islnisd uiviiird jh<,

■ iii :. beyond. Kurilla .saui th:it thv. irtiuii !>•!,-

i.s KlantUHn-toiy meaning " n^ck.i and strong WviU '

*• k'ih>ians had reported a coal ^eani here, hut the rocks are

i:.rHte, preceded by trachyte of various colors, and ful-

"V i)-.-ds of cln\, quartzite, and yellow gravel.

'.1.-^1 !!.<! to take the anne.ved sketch, tukI to examine the rocks.

('oing, an arctic hare scampered by on the edge; of the

!K.iifula was too quick for lier, however, and a sh'U from

' .'Tiught her down. I wa^ .■;orrv at'terward, wiicn we

oiimal, to see that the teats were full of milk ; for it

• -i)e had, soinewhi-re, a family of Utile bunnies, who

. and j>robably di..; for want of a mother.

-M at a .^mail ri\iilet about noon, and conchali.d to

■ :e until the wind till someulu'. We scoured the small

. ^^R liver for g.'niie, at;'.! came back to camp we:!! loaded.

he wind became '-.-i-^ vi<>i'-nt, arni wc j'ushed a little

troam, camping A: lUt nine o'clock.

— As we slowlv •.Icscended the river, we saw a few

• '>J3* bank. They aj>pt.-.ncd to bt; shy. and indispored

v. >'^i finally one of t)v,ni i>ut ot'l in his canoe, and e.\-

^iA f>aper in the end cf a long cleft stick. I took it,

paddled av. ly as fast as he could. It was a

. piiier, carefuUv fc/lded. I opened it, and after

^ H,;»npings 1 came to a bit of while paper, ap-

ill

• *

ill) '• I ,;.

1' i<i«."

,.^

:i^

.^3 :

■■:^'V.

■i ^y

»-.• - ■ .. '<>

«;f,

'f.

. .ii:*

■i

"■':

V .... "*■

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

215

■ 1-4^ * ■. '

''%^

■'*'■,■

Nothing rots a bidarra like mud or dirt inside of it. We camped
near a small brook, and Kun'lla started off after game, while we
attended to the boat. We finished cleaning her and gave her a
good oiling before getting supper read\". The three Indians pol-
ished the beaver's bones, w , le I regaled myself on a fat teal
roasted on a stick before the tire.

Sunday, yh. — The day opened fair, but with the same wind,
which was soon attended by smart showers of rain. We pulled
along shore, and about ten oclock came to the point where the
Russians had located a sort of rapid. It proved to be nothing
more than a piece of swift water, running along the base of a
range of low conglomerate bluff's, for two or three miles. The
river here was quite broad ; to the right were successive hills,
rising one after another, and fading into purple distance. The
left bank was, as usual, low, and a large island divided the river
a few miles beyond. Kurilla said that the Indian name of the
|)lace was Klan-ii-ltu-icii, meaning " rocks and strong water."

The Russians had reported a coal seam here, but the rocks are
conglomerate, preceded by trachyte of various colors, and fol-
lowed by beds of clay, quartzite, and yellow gravel.

I landed to take the annexed sketch, and to examine the rocks.
While so doing, an arctic hare scampered by on the edge of the
bluff. Kun'lla was too quick for her, however, and a shot from
my rifle brought her down. I was sorry afterward, when we
skinned the animal, to see that the teats were full of milk ; for it
showed that she had, somewhere, a family of little bunnies, who
would suffer and probably die for want of a mother.

We took tea at a small rivulet about noon, and concluded to
remain there until the wind fell somewhat. We scoured the small
lakes near the river for game, and came back to camp well loaded.
.-\boat sunset the wind became less violent, and we pushed a little
farther down stream, camping about nine o'clock.

Monday, 8t/i. — As we slowly descended the river, we saw a few
Indians on the bank. They appeared to be shy, and indisposed
to meet us, but finally one of them put off in his canoe, and ex-
tended a bit of paper in the end of a long cleft stick. I took it,
and he immediately paddled away as fast as he could. It was a
bit of yellow tissue paper, carefully folded. I opened it, and after
removing several wrappings I came to a bit of white paper, ap-

2l6

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

parently the blank edge of a newspaper. On this was a rude
drawing of a boat, by its side a bottle, and under the drawing, in
a straggling hand, was written, " Isaac Koliak,"

The meaning was evident. My intelligent Mahlemut friend
had crossed the portage from the seaboard to Anvi'k, not far be-
low on the Yukon, and was going down the Yukon on a trading-
voyage. He knew I was coming down the river, and sent this
note by one of the river Indians to inform me of his proximity.
We passed the northern entrance of the great Shageluk slough,
and continued down the main stream toward Anvi'k. There were
numerous large, well-wooded islands, and the mouth of the slough
might easily be overlooked. A little later we saw a camp on the
right bank, and, pulling toward it, soon recognized Isaac and his
party. They received us with the most lively demonstr.-itions of
welcome, and declared their intention of going down the river
with us. The party comprised about thirty Mahlemuts, male and
female, and their children and dogs. Isaac told mc that he had
crossed from Kegiktowruk late in the spring, with three large
bidarnis on sleds drawn by dogs, and had descended the Anvik
River after the ice had broken up. His intention was to descend
the Yukon, trading as he went, and to meet the American traders
who were expected at St. Michael's in the early summer. The
articles which they had brought for trade were principally skin
clothing of their own manufacture, needles, tobacco, guns, andani-
munition. They proposed to buy furs, and woodci. dishes or kaii-
tdgs, of Indian manufacture. The Innuit are accustomed to make
these voyages for the purpose of getting rid of their old guns and

Kantags and wooden ladle.

surplus ammunition, at prices much higher than they pay for new
ones to the traders at Grantley Harbor and Kotzebue Sound.
The wooden ware is an article of trade with the Innuit of Bering
Strait, where wood suitable for the purpose does not grow. I

IS was a rude-
he drawing, in

hlemut friend I
'I'k, not far bo-
on a tradinir-l
and sent thi.>
his iiroximitv. I
igeliik slough,
. There were i
of the slough I
I camj) on tin
Isaac and his
anstrp.tions of
)wn the river
uts, male and
c that he had
1 three large
ed the Anvik
as to descend
;rican traders
immer. 'Jhe
ncipally skin
:uns, andani-
ishes or kan-
med to make
old guns and

pay for new
hue Sound.
it of Bering
Dt grow, I

hi!

I'! !

\ ■

ANVIK STAREEK.
"One more leaf of lobacco."

■Jf -? it ■

THL vrK.ON rf.RKiTORV.

i i

>k f ^<rK on lioatd a^ a passenger, wliile hi;i pa'ly ■:;>>! tlicir
;i' • icily to ("lU.nv ts to ;\iivik.

'\" 'v-aciicd iiie moinh "t" ihc Anvik K'.vv ahou); noon, and

'rii ij) the ';tr(\'im fin :•. slu^rt distance, tij tin j>oint wlierc the

;;•;••■ i-? situated. Ilcre [lOth si<l'S of ihc \'uki.ii are latlier

'.. ''v/i I'ai below they bei-.rn-- i"\v and fill, llv- \.ik..'ii

; \ni\ here a ■■..■ri-.-t; ot >:W'', * ir'> lM'Us, \v;iieh is the In si ob-

- '.•'.)i\ ti:-; r'V'jr froii) llie si a.
■ , V. •.■;-. t'nv. a Maliwi.. y,':['A ■ m

ti:> ".Kivi;:;ation as wc
'.rs eh iiii^r .i-mc^vliai
' ■: tout cIi;M:n<'l dui ;o:.

(. \'.

sl.a;

.\iivi'k

l.■^ a l:u

;ii ■ I

lie Wii r HI

n':i...rs,

• lie ti''.i!)' n if. ,taiil

1 ■■''..: i.a' ;m aj'-

,K^ ''I Mv, fi. ist, thi V .i.r ,

-!n/!ia/<* ->;> ■;. ,o j ' ■*■ in.r 1

iiiuii'. wor is. . vi. .. jit ,1 -li
"ii the\ uhtai;; ir'.'iT t' . mi

I .l!'- ll'L

t'.i u

nil"

!■ d

lan name;- \ i ii

I il'lifli < 1 111 , Ui

[li li .;.ruages is used iii tr idiuv,.

,1. I.I, .ll.M'I.K-

!■';•■■ with die Riisdai: V ^vl.o cud., i .umd :-o'-^!'-;hm'': n;

I ;.!'i I.

:is. Thih fael i- a

uiii'itm

1 n: \ iid lu th".'; diifercnt 'HaK

C.U':ie • '1 nil Of 'Ilipl r .

d .'ii' iKi be ' .;r'! ■ in

i,d:il:S. A .sirail

XV iar'M>ii IS '•■,1 use "■■ M . t \ r\ 1]

»vi!u d'' coast tribe

V -h

;, I ' ' ) 1 1 s (_i !

■'Ilk, 'VIM!

ml. rest, "tin

mr-ii ' h'

.enU'nUl

.1' ' iii.i

.f (

.., 'L'v al,

by Isa.ic to d

eieend l^

'J.

, uil mis'i.

hi", It

!i\mc'. ; iv't 'ii;

V w M .itipe,';''.-d vi !i

■lire i";it'/ii Iiiv '■<' . ■.•■'! ' \i> n-Ji, 'x^lncb hi.

r tobaci I) '11
\\< pait if the
' .:. ■ that ii \v;v'

V C I

I -'I'

av^v'i: \" i.f V.

1 : Vvail'CO !U. 1-
; •ica:^"!) .ll";d li.li
I li > [I ;. I ,< ■ :i!

I !>

) Ion;; \--\
aoh ■u-ii IK
•■: hi , ! i' V

1 11. ■■ 111'

Ih' !.H

:K; ,'i '•(

'I lfl\ .'• , ■!•

lUii n '" ' A iiialiM

) ^ ■ ■(.

ilT'Od

v-.c. ■■' I

i/'i !',.'t ;' 1'. >! I * ''i\'

M '1

4 I

-i:i

■i '■
1 ^

1 :' 'ji

:i!;:i-

1 1

.H^M:-'

.,'::'j-sHfi,

fi
L

„,.'': -^

-*m

*^^-:^.-

- '^i'.

\^ V

s r A (■ f

I ,

■r,rr\:

\;x(.'' , „

tol
b(i

pu|

vil

hi;.

witl

>trJ

I ^"'

" the

cai:

IllL,^

Inn

cusl

\ uou

THK YUKON TERRITORY.

217

took Isaac on board as a passenger, while his party got their
boats ready to follovv us to Anvi'k,

We reached the mouth of the Anvi'k River about noon, and
pulled up the stream for a short distance, to the point where the
village is situated. Here both sides of the Yukon are rather
high. Not far below they become low and flat. The Yukon
widens, and here a series of sand-bars exists, which is the first ob-
htruction to navigation as we ascend the river from the .sea.
These bars change somewhat every year, but a native pilot can
find a five-foot channel duruig the lowest stage of the water in
the fall. Anvi'k is a large village, of some ten or twelve houses,
each of which may contain twenty inhabitants. The natives are
Ingaliks, but from constant intercourse and close proximity to the
Innuit triber, of the coast, they have adopted many of the Innuit
customs. Among these, that of wearing labrets is most conspic-
uous. The language spoken is the true Ingalik, with no inter-
mixture of Innuit words, except such as ivc used to designate
objecl.-j which they obtain from the latter in trade, and for which
there aic no Indian names. A jargon containing a large numb«.f
of words of both languages is used in Iro ling. This is also used
in intercourse with the Russians, who uiulci^Land something of
the Innuit dialec . This fact is a sufficient cause of miscompre-
hension in regard to the different dialects, and should be borne in
mind by p'.ilologists. A similar jargon is in use wherever the
Indians tride with the coast tribes.

We boii'xl the chynik, while I examined the village and took
notes of points of interest. The chief man of the village had
been hired by Isaac to descend the ShJgeli.k and meet him at
the southern entrance ; but an old fellow who appeared to have a
good deal of influeu'e came forward w ith two fi.:h, which he pro-
posed to sell for tobacco. The price of ;i salmon is a leaf of
to1)acco, on this part of the Yukon. lie wanted two leaves
a[)iece, c(>m))laining that it was early in the season an<I fish were
scarce, while the leaver were very small! His parka was almost
deprived of hair by long use, his breeches were shiny with
;,'rease and dirt, which also incrusted his hands and face, while
the hair on his aged head, though cut short, stood erect as if in
protest against the invasion of so much raw material. Me looked
so comical, as he stood haggling for a leaf of tobacco, with his

2l8

THK YUKON TERRITORY.

. Ji't "*( . I

Imm*

mvii.i

j^^,-).,:

head on one side and his small eyes glistenii)<^ with excitement,
that I j^avc him tiu; price he asked, and made it scjuare by taking
his portrait, I)irt was the prominent characteristic of the village.
The year before, we had touched her-.., and the space in front of
the houses was red with thousands of salmon, split and hung up to
dry. It was yet too early for the fish this season, und there were
many new baskets and nettings lying about, — the material for
projected fish-traps. Many of the inh;ibitants were absent, after
beaver. One man brought me ten fine inru-ten, but asked so high
a price that I refused to buy them. The Stareek (old man)
brought mc. two marten and some mink, which I bought, but the
Mahlemuts had ])urehased most of the furs. Well armed, bold,
and numerous, the hitter completely overawe<I the degraded, fish-
eating Indians, and forced them to sell whattver they li.id, at the
purchaser's price.

I noticed th;it the graves or coffins here, instead of being
covered with logs, as farthrr uj) the river, were filled in wiUi
earth beaten down hard and i)lastered over with clay. They
\vi:re larger, rather more eh:vated, and ])ainled niore after the In
nuit fashion than those farther U]) on the Yukon.

I saw {|uite a number of clay pots and cups of nativt> manu-
facture here. They vvc:re mostly large, holding three or four gal-
lons, but some were smaller, and one was evidently modelled after

Indian ))(>1It'i'v.

a Russian mug. The common Tnnuit lamp is also made of clay,
and all their pottery is rudely ornamented with lines, dots, and
cros.ses. They are about three (|uaiters of an inch thick, of a dark
bluish clay, and were perfectly l)Iack from smoke and grease. 1
would have purchased some of them, but they were .so large and
so exceedingly dirty that I did not care to put them in the boat.
This kind of pottery was formerly universal, but has been super
seded by the kettles of the traders. The pots are made by hand,

and
driei
The
Xi'iii
\\

The

conn

cross

from

arc

hut

Whi

iheoi

1.11(1

/)
and '
look
were
arc V

pciK

1 !)(

drav

scvc

! ji

TIIK YUKON TLRRITORY.

2 19

excitement,
"e by taking

tluj villaj^e.

in front of

liunj,^ lip to
i there were
material for
ihscnt, after
ked so I)i};h

(old man)
Liht, but the
n-med, liold,
;ra(lcd, fish-
iiad, at the

id of beinn;
ed in witii
:kiy. Tiicy
fler the III

live mana-
ir four <;al-
dellcxl after

de of clay,
, (h/iS, and
, of a dark
grease. I
kirge and
the boat,
en supcr-
j hy hand,

and therefore not perfectly round or symmetrical. They are
(hied in the sun, then baked, and will stand the fire very well.
The Innuit name for the ])ots x'a A/kiisik, for the saucers or lamps
NiUiiik, and for the euj^s Im-oivuii.

We lef* Aiivi'k soon after drinking our tea, with Isaac on board.
The wind was so high that wr could not cross the river, and rain
coming on, we soon ( aniped on a sm;>ll island. The other boats
crossed to the other si(K;, and we lost sight of them. Starting
from camp, I saw and killed a large sand-hill crane. These birds
are plenty on the Lower Yukon. I have seen thousands of them,
hut never c;f any color except brown, gra)-, and fawn color.
While ones are unknown, and I doubt the correctness of the
theory which considers the white crane of tl;e Mississij)pi valley
and the saml-hill ciane to be one species.

'/'iics(i(t}\ ijik. — The rain ceasing, we [)assed down the river

1 and entered a long slough or cut-off Near noon we stopped and

I took tea. Soon after, we came to an Ingalik camp where they

I were making birch canoes. The birches of the Lower Ingaliks

arc very ilifi'erent from those of the Upi)er Yukon Indians. The

In;;alik biitli c.xnoti.

rough waters of the broad river need a stronger canoe than those
used hy the Kutchin tribes. ICverything is cari;fiilly carved and
sinoolhed. The frame is stout and strong, and ornamented with
red paint. The bark is sha[)ed over a mound of the exact size of
llie jjfoposed canoe, and sewed with spruce roots. The cut rep-
resents the canoe before the gum is placed over the sewing.
The paddles are laiice-shai>ed, small and sK-nder, and ornamented
with the most fantastic figures, in red. hiaek, and green. I ex-
pressed a desire to see the green pigment, and one of the Indians
[iroduccd some. It was a sort of fungus (/\-rjirjii) or mould, which
pi nrt rates decayed birch wood and -olors it a deep blue-green.
1 bought a small model of a canoe, §n»m which the above figure is
drawn. There were seven large canoes nearly finished, and
several in process of manufacture. The Ingaliks take fleets of

:j,,;

1 ■ ;

(i'l

• hi

1 i

jfi' !

2 20

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

these new canoes clown to the delta in the fall, and trade them
to the river Innuit for oil, ivory, boot-soles, and other articles.
Isaac expressed a great desire to take one of the little model
canoes to his baby, and I bought one for him, to his great delight.
We also purchased some fish and berries, and went on our way.
We passed a large winter village between two hills, known to the
Russians as the Murderer's Village. Crossing the Yukon about
three o'clock, wc came to the southern entrance of the Shageluk
slough. Ascending a little way, we reached the Leather Village
of the Russians. This is a large Ingalik summer village, the
inhabitants in winter living at the last-mentioned settlement.
Here we saw the cotton tents of the Mahlcmut camp near the
Indian houses. Isaac's wife stood on the bank, holding the baby,
which crowed and exhibited all its infantile joy at seeing its
father, who still further delighted this promising member of the
family by producing the toy canoe.

We left the boat in the water, and took only our tent, cooking
u^^ensils, and blankets ashore, as the number of natives was so
great that I thought it the safest way, especially as these Indians
have a reputation for stealing. Leaving one man on the watch, I
strolled into the village. The amount of food collected here was
almost inconceivable. Large stages were groaning beneath the
weight offish, caught and dried the previous .sjason. Long lines
were strung with fresh white-fish, drying in the sun. Rows of
caches full of dry fish, meat, fat, and skins of oil, showed that
hunger need not exist in this favored locality.

The fresh meat of three or four moose, jr.st killed, was lying in
one pile; another contained the har.nchcs and shoulders of ten
deer. Every few minutes a canoe half full of fresh whitc-fi.sli
would arrive from the fish-traps, and in no part of the Indian
country have I ever seen food so plentiful and so easily obtained.
I was informed that the natives had quite a trade wit'.i those from
other places, who came to buy ukali in the winter and sprin:.,.
The summer houses were large and well built. The walls ever,
of the caches were thick, and in many cases pierced with loop-
holes for guns. There were but few dogs about, and I noticed a
large white-breasted thrush tied by the leg, and apparently quite
tame. I tried to buy the bird, which I had not seen elsewhere,
but the owner could not be found. The Indians told me that

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

221

trade them
ler articles,
little model
eat delight.
)n our way.
lown to the
ukon about
e Shageluk
ther Village
village, the

settlement.

p near the

g the baby,

seeing its

iber of the

nt, cooking
ves was so
zse Indians
he watch, I
d here was
eneath the
Long lines
Rows of
owed that

IS lying ill
crs of ten
white-fish
he Indian
■ obtained,
hose from
id spriiiu-
walls ever,
with loop-
noticed a
ntly quite
elsewhere,
1 me that

Teleczhik, the old Russian interpreter, had been there the previous
day, and was now trading for furs farther up the Shageluk. I re-
turned to my tent, and bought a lot of fresh meat and some fat.
Isaac came up and said that his brother had come with him, and
had a little liquor which he had bought of tlie traders, but not
enough to make a " good drunk." " Now," said he, "we want you
to sell us your whiskey, and we will pay you well for it, with furs
or anything you want." During my abso^ice the rascals had dis-
covered a can of alcoholic specimens in the boat, and supposed it
was whiskey. I told him that I wanted it myself, that it was not
good to drink, &c., but he went away very sulky. The Mahle-
niuts, male and female, now dressed themselves in the new fur
clothing which they had brought to sell. Old Abraham, Isaac's
father, commenced drumming, and the rest soon began one of their
characteristic dances. Those who did not dance raised the old
"Ung-hi-yah" chorus and kept time, clapping their hands. It
was a sight to remember. Ten or fifteen clean, handsome, stal-
wart Innuit, going through the graceful gesticulations of their
national dance, dressed in new and handsomely trimmed parkics
of every variety of skin, — with the tall poplars and spruce for a
background, a fire on one side, and above the genial twilight of
the arctic night. Their wild chorus added to the charm of the
scLMie. Around them in a wide oval were huddled the well-fed
but filthy Indians. Their skin clothing was hairless from long
use, and while almost dropping off them from decay, glisi.ened
with vermin. Degradation, filth, stupdity, fear, and wonder
marked their features. The meanest of the Innuit far surpassed
the best of them in strength and manliness. Their miserable
condition was due in great measure to their sedentary habits,
vnnstant fish diet, and natural indolence. Very few had guns at
all, and those which they did have were old, worn out, and nearly
worthless. The Ingaliks who live farther up the Sh.igeluk are
SvVivl to be more intelligent and active, probably because they sub-
sist on the deer and moose which they are obliged to hunt. Af-
ter the Mahlemuts had concluded their dance they distributed
tobacco in small pieces to the bystanders. I repaired to my tent,

ne: the alcohol-can, for i " '

ippc!

^y-

nsr

lay down to rest. I had not got asleep, -vhen I heard somethi
crash against the tent-pins, breaking down two of them. At the

:.i; ii:

222

THK YUKON TERRITORY.

¥'

i I

t i

.■'t

same time, Kurflla slioutcd to me from outside that the M;ililc-
muts were after tlie alcoliol. I shouted hack to ]()<)]< sharp, as
they would not jj;et it while I had a loatled f;im. I pulled on my
hoots, seized my revolver, which lay by my head, and thn^vv back
the flap of the tent. There stood a Mahlemut with his hand on
the trigger, and the muzzle of his gun about two feet from my
breast. At the same moment, Kun'Ua's long arm jerked the gun
from his hands, and flung it far away among the bushes.

I stepped out of the tent, and the Mahlemnts slunk away with-
out a word. They were intoxicated, having drunk the liquor of
which Isaac had spoken. The Indians had hidden themselves,
while my men, guns in hand, stood near the tent. If the Mahle-
muts had been sober, they would not have behaved so. It was a
narrow escape, which I hardly realized at the time. The in-
truders retired to their tents, seeing us armed and ready for any-
thing. The Indians now mustered courage enough to come out,
anil the chief came to me and begged me, with many bows and
deprecatory gestures, to remove my camp, as he was afraid there
would be trouble yet. " You know these Innuit are so very
bad, so horribly bad, such beasts, worse than dogs," said he, al-
most with tears in his eyes. No doubt he was thinking of the
miserable gun which they had just given him for twenty fine
marten skins, which he dared not refuse them. I consulted with
KuriUa, and then told the chief that we would move our camp to
the island in the middle of the river, and if any one wished to
trade meat or fur they would find us there. The tent and other
traps were thrown into the boat, and we pulled across a very swift
current to the island. Just as we hauled up the boat, Kuri'lla shot
a swan who was sailing slowly overhead, and taking the little
canoe, he started down stream after it. Some Indians came over
with beaver skins and tails, which I purchased ; and I hired one of
them to act as sentinel during the night, with a good fire to keep
off the mosquitoes. When Kurilla returned we gave our watch-
man the swan to pick, to keep him a.vake, and turning in, were
soon lost in slumber.

WcJiicsdoy, \o//i. — We pushed out into the rapid current very
early in the day, while we saw nothing more of our Innuit friends,
who were probably sleeping off their headaches. We pulled hard,
hoping to reach the Mission before night. We passed a village

niol

HtoJ

an(l
of I
to

Mai

thai
/:7vi

THK YUKON TKRRITOKY.

223

the Miihl
)k sharp, as
ullcd on my
thrt'vv back
his hand 011
ot from my
<cd the gun
cs.

away with-
10 liquor of
themselves,
the Mahle-
. It was a
:. The in-
idy for any-
o come out,
ly bows and
afraid there
are so very
said he, al-
king of the
wenty fine
suited with
ur camp to
wished to
and other
very swift
uri'lla shot
the little
came over
red one of
re to keep
nir watch-
<:; in, were

rrent very

lit friends,

lied hard,

a villas;

of two houses, called Manki, interesting principally as being the
most inland Innuit village on the Yukon. The difference of
stock was apparent only from the countenances of the natives
and the dialect which they spoke. The latter exhibited no signs
of any mixture of Indian words. It was quite incomprehensible
lo my men, who had been .able to converse freely at the last vil-
lage. I could understand only a few words, which resembled the
Mahlemut, though the grammatical construction was the same as
that of the other Innuit dialects. These natives belong to the
likogiiiitf (sometimes called Kii'iklipdirinHt) tribe, and are known

First Prcmnrsk:! village.

to the Russians as Prc-nwrski, or " dwellers near the sea." They
extend to the seaboard, on both sides of the river. Their habits
ill general are similar to those of the coast Innuit already de-
scribed, but are a little modified by their situation on a river,
which presents some conditions which do not obtain on the sea-
shore. They are at peace with the adjacent Iridians, probably
as much because both are miserable cowards, as from any other
reason.

As we sailed down the river, an old fellow in a small bidarra
came out from a river which entered the Yukon from the west,

}

#?rii

i,i\

224

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

and brought some cranberries for sale. A great difference is
noticeable between the villages on the Upper and those on the
Lower Yukon. Bilow, we find large, solid, permanent houses,
gayly painted paddles, and great abundance of skin boats, the
prows of which are frequently fashioned to resemble the head of
some beast or bird ; above, the dwellings are at best miserable
huts, tents, or temporary shelters made of brush. Dirt, and a defi-
ciency of the ornamental, mark the upper villages, while the only
boats are the frail and carelessly made birch canoes. A little
farther on we met a three-holed bidarka with a Creole from the
Mission in it. He was going to the small river we had just
passed, to try and hire the bidarra from the natives, for a trip to
the Redoubt. He gave us some goose-eggs, and went on his way.
We kept on until eight o'clock in the evening, and finding that
we could not reach the Mission within several hours, camped at a
native settlement, called by the Russians Loon-cap Village. Wo
pitched our tent near- a small brook, and soon had the kettle on
the fire. This village presented many points of interest. The
number of inhabitants was only eight or ten, the remainder
having died. This decrease in population is noteworthy along
the Lower Yukon. Everywhere there are fewer natives than
formerly. The decrease is partly due to lung diseases, which
arise from their habit of drawing the smoke of the Circassian
tobacco into the lungs. In this particular village, within a gen-
eration, there had been several hundred inhabitants. There were
eight large summer houses, in each of which a hundred people
might have been comfortably accommodated. These houses
were built of immense planks, hewn out of single logs with stone
adzes. ]\Lany of these planks were four inches thick, and three
feet wide by twelve feet long. The houses were in a miserable
state of decay. Water stood in some of them, and only one or
two were habitable. The rafters were carved into rude imitations
of animals, and still retained traces of the red earth with which
they had been painted. The graves were the most conspicuous
and remarkable part of the village. They exceeded any I have
ever seen on the Yukon, in intricacy of ornament, variety of de-
sign, and in their number compared with the size of the village.
They were on the hillside, a little way above the houses. I no-
ticed that they were not covered with logs or slabs of wood like

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

225

the Ingalik graves, nor with earth and clay like those at An-
vi'k, but were filled with earth over the body, and then carefully
covered with pieces of birch bark, held down by heavy stones.
The supports of the box were immediately underneath it, and
large balustcr-likc standards ornamcntctl the corners. Many of
the boxes were carefully fitted, smoothed, and painted with va-
rious designs. Some had fur animals depicted on them, showing
that the dead person was a successful trapper. Others had the
bear, deer, and other animals, denoting thi graves to be those of
hunters. Fish, birds, pictures of seal and beluga hunting, were
painted with the usual red pigment on others. Many were
studded with pegs of ivory or bone ; some were surrounded by a
carefully carved and painted railing. Drums, kantdgs, paddles,
bows of tremendous size bound with sinew, arrows of bone carved
into intricate lace-work, quite different from anything I have seen
elsewhere, strings of beads, belts, pieces of brass scratched with
patterns, kettles, and other articles of use and ornament were
attached to many of the coffins. On posts in front of some of
them were separate pieces of wood-carving, such as masks re-
sembling- the human face, and trimmed with wolfskin, carved
human heads, beavers transfixed with arrows, fish, beluga, and
boats with men in them, all variously painted.

The ethnologist would find a wide field in the vicinity of this
village alone. The few inhabitants had a melancholy cast of
countenance, as if conscious that they were living among the re-
mains of the ingenuity of their ancestors, which they could not
hope to emulate. They were successful in hunting ; that very
day a bear and three deer were killed, with nothing but arrows, a
few rods from the houses. The men wore dresses of birdskins,
which are common on the Lower Yukon. Some of them had
caps made of the skin of a loon or hawk, with the breast above,
the head still attached and hanging down behind, and the wings
on either side. The vegetation was luxuriant. I forced my
way to the vicinity of the graves through a growth of grass and
weeds four feet high. Care was necessary to avoid falling into
excavations, the sole remains of ancient winter houses long since
rotted away.

I bought some fresh venison, and after a hearty supper we
turned in.

J^-^

'^<^.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

^ A

, St

1.0

I.I

11.25

ISiKA U2.S

IJO ■^" MHl

u^ lU 12.2

HMi.

14 11.6

Fhotograpdiic

Sciences

Corporation

■1>^

7* WRtt MAIN STMIT

WKiiSTIR.N.Y. 14980

(716) •73-4903

^>^

;

226

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

I, ,:,

Thursday, wth. — After collecting a few plants, among which
were the blossoms of black and red currants, we pushed off on
our way to the Mission. The trees had already become less
abundant, especially on the right bank. The latter was pretty
high in many places, and trachytic rocks were observed. In
some places the river is exceedingly wide, and once or twice,
when we were in the current close to the right bank, the left
bank was quite invisible. A broad, smooth sheet of water
stretched to the west, undisturbed by any ripples, and not broken
by islands or dry sand-bars. The scene strongly impressed upon
the observer the majesty of the great river upon which we were
travelling. About ten o'clock the basaltic rocks indicated the
proximity of the Mission, and hoisting the American flag and
that of the Scientific Corps, we rounded a point, and the build-
ings came into view. The water near the shore was shallow,
and we had some difficulty in hauling in our heavily loaded
boat. We fired a gun, and were saluted in return by the Rus-
sians.

We found that the missionary of the Greek Church in the
District of St. Michael's (commonly known to the Russians as
the Pope) was on the point of starting for the Redoubt. He
had dismantled the church of everything valuable, and had nailed
up the door. At his request I look an inventory of the houses
and articles of furniture he left behind, as he hoped to sell them
to the Americans when they arrived. He then applied for med-
ical advice, and gave a lengthy description of his personal mis-
eries, which were all clearly referrible to an undue indulgence in
alcoholic stimulants. This, I believe, in the Greek Church is
not considered to detract from the holiness of its ecclesiastics.
All of those I have met with in Alaska and Kamchatka were
inveterate topers. He told me that he had been seven years a
missionary on the Yukon, and that he thanked God that he now
had an opportunity of returning to Russia, where a glass of rum
might be had for twenty-five kopeks (five cents). I cautioncfl
him against ddirhnn tremens, and bade him good by. His Creole
servant, who accompanied him to St. Michael's, had a very
pretty wife, and I doubted if something more than a fatherly
benediction did not lurk in the kiss Father Larriown gave her
just before he embarked.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

227

nong which
jhed off on
tccome less
was pretty
served. In
e or twice,
nk, the left
t of water
not broken
■essed upon
ch we were
dicated the
m flag and
1 the build-
ras shallow,
ivily loaded
»y the Rus-

iirch in the
Russians as
Joubt. He
I had nailed
the houses

sell them
ed for med-
rsonal mis-
Julgence in

Church is
cclesiastics.
hatka were
'en years a
lat he now

ass of rum

1 cautioned
Mis Creole

lad a very
a fatherly
1 gave her

The other Russians at the Mission were Milavdiioff the bidar-
shik, and Goldsen, who had been acting as secretary. Mila-
vanoff was a good trader, but an invalid from liver complaint,
which is common among the Russians in this country. He gave
mc a good supply of bread, as my own was nearly exhausted, and
I made him a present of my Derringer, to which he had taken a
fancy. I was sorry to find that I could not get an interpreter
here, as the Innuit dialect of the delta was incomprehensible to
all of our party. The buildings at the Mission, except a new
house of Milavanoff s and one belonging to the Pope, are very
rotten and miserable. The pla^e is a very unhealthy one.
It is situated between two hills which shelter it completely from
the wind. Several pools of .stagnant water are close by. The In-
dian village is very filthy, and their
refuse from fish and other matters
is everywhere scattered about. I
counted six dead dogs among the
bushes, and close to the houses there
is a large number of graves, both
R'/iSsian and native. Some of the
latter were curious, and were fur-
nished with the baluster-Uke sup-
ports before mentioned.

We emptied our boat, turned her over, gave her a good oiling,
and left her to dry. This is imperatively necessary when travel-
ling in skin boats, and should be done at least once in ten days,
if possible. We all took a good steam bath, which was a great
luxury. Once, farther up the Yukon, I had tried the experiment
of bathing in the river, but the water was so cold that only a
single plunge was endurable. In this part of the river the water
is so muddy that it adds nothing to one's cleanliness to bathe
in it.

Friday, 12///. — After securing a number of specimens, grind-
ing our a.xes, and performing a variety of similar small jobs, we
again proceeded on our way. Just below the Mission we saw a
native attacking a beaver with one of their bone tridents. Ku-
rilla started to his assistance, in the canoe, with his gun ; after a
little while they returned, and I bought the animal, as it lay. for
tlircc bunches of Circassian tobacco. We kept on all night, as

Ekogmut grave.

r^T

228

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

the air is cooler than in the clay, and there is no darkness, though
the sun goes a little below the horizon. No stars were visible all
night.

Saturday, 13///. — About midnight we rounded the Great Ik-nd.
Here we met the head-wind blowing in our teeth with redoubled
force. For all the use they had been, so far, we might as well
have left the mast and sail at Nuhito. At the Iknd we found a
camp of natives who were waiting for the wind to subside. They
had nothing for sale except a few mink and some eggs. I bought
some swan's eggs for scientific purposes, and also a bow of the
kind in use in the Yukon delta. These bows are made of .spruce,
which has little elasticity when dry, and is very liable to break.
To remedy this defect the bow is bound with cords twisted from
deer sinew, as shown in the annexed figure. This gives it great

jg ' )'" ■

MWT" T ^Mtt E

'I
1 1*

\nf

Ekogmiit bow.

Strength, and overcomes the brittleness of the wood. We took tea
in a slough, and about noon stopped at a village where the inhab-
itants were engaged in fishing. It is only by personal inspection
of such a village that any one can obtain an adequate idea of the
immense quantity of fish which is annually caught and dried on
the Lower Yukon. Several acres of ground in front of the sum-
mer hou.ses were literally covered with standards and stages bear-
ing line after line of fish, split and hung up to dry. The odor is
borne to a great distance by the wind. The tlogs, children, ami
other inhabitants of the village, during the fishing-season, recall
the old lines, —

" Jesluinm he waxt-d fat.
And down his cheeks they hung ! "

while the long rows of caches are crammed with provisions for the
winter. This condition of things holds good as far as Anvlk.
Hcyond that point the fish are scarcer, and, as previously related,
Nulato is far from furnishing food of any kind in plenty. In the
foreground the ditferent parts of fish-traps were lying, in readi-

ness, though
ic visible all

Great Bend,
h redoubled
light as well
we found a
bside. They

s. I bought I ■:^;; tHk^

I bow of the

le of s|)ruce, H JJIt

)le to break. ™ ^ ''

twisted from

ivcs it great

We took tea
the inhab-
inspection
idea of the
;uul dried on
of the sum-
stages bear-
'he odor is
lildren, and
•ason, recall

ions for the
as Anv(k.
Lisly related,
ty. In the
g, in readi-

!■!!

228

th«- tr is

thr '.Uif ,
1. , 1 ■.

TFIK '. ( tvON ri.Ri.TloKV.

i 1 iha<! 'I tluT Ji«y. and ib^re i-^ no flarkncs';, ihoug!.
t lirti' 'V .;ja ihi: horu<'>n, N<. .tars \vt;ic vLsihle al'

-• \"iii i.ii P'ulnight \vc riiinJcd thu (i!\,Mt Heiul
■ » ■ lua'i wiini lilnwing in our teeth with f^edoiible'
il ih(. um; they hail brcn, so far; wt: nuj^hl as we!'
h ■' I. !(*•' ;if ir.a>; and sail at Xulat". At the IJcud \vr found a
. :iitn|vi.' lu ivi-. wli.t v-n." vvaitiiif; lor the wind to subside. The
had ' uiiij. k>r salt" c vr pt .; few mink and .some cj;i!-;. 1 bough
son- rtaus i:';*;*^ fot -.•Rntific purjio'^cs. rin.l alsi ;i l.'ow of th
k':, i in u^«: in the \ 'ikon delta. These- b<)Wa urc niaiii.- orsprucff
u!iicl) iia-> iutf: elanti- itv wh. ii drv, anti \> vry lial)lt'. to lireak
\\> •iMih'd\ this dif'''l t!u' bow is bound \Mtli cord^ twi^Jcd frot
dcfi :5iiiLVv. as shown in [hr anuoxcd fi^jurc J'his ^he-.^ ii grtfli

Iski'ii'ii'ii Ijo'

:db=^-^-««^-

«.i'! . i>rit'.: r.c.ss of tb(.: w.iod. W r i ook If^

■ -, ;.i'f '. » «n >;-'p| d at a '.'illa^c where tlv: inhaf-
U'^\i\: I iii I'- ill i '. i.s only bv i^fJr.'>op.al nispcctici.

• TcnL-ii^.
in u • i" '.
I tun- . V ,

• li" ,' ;\ a \i!l:i:.:.- tli.it .u.', th' ca;! o1)ta'n an a'^'qiiat'- Ki>.a of th
i.n: ;' n ■• .piaiit '\. <'\ (Ish vvhiih i aniuial'y L.iti^ht and tlricdo'
Ci I «iv,c'- ^ ui. .111. Si-v. ral -i^rcs ."f j.o.,u..J in fro;:l "f the sutn
ii r h"ii'-; -; v\ ri' litcia!!} cov< rod with .'-tandaids ai'd staj;'c.s bear-
!• 1.'' a!ii r liiii- "1 fish, spli' .md linnj; Uf' lu dry. The i>dor 1 •
'" 'm n ;..i-;<t di la:ii:(: b^ Ihi umd Thi: dojj.'^, 'Inldrcn. and.
lit: I'ld'i! lu, , 'if the ' ij'a^c, ilnrin;; tho n.iiiing--..'.ison, rcciii

fh-: ' ,r- _-. ^

I>' imriin li' w.i\i'"ti t\\f.

•\i il 'J.iwii liis tl' eki they ''p .: "' '

u 'ui' t'l. V. ^ : { Laches are craiume I '^ith pnviMoni for lh(

win'- ! '] >d'.iiivt of thint^s holds ;•. .>d a far as Anvfk

Hcyond iliru j -uMiNh are scart.- r, and. •t's previously rdateti.

Nnl.'iio •• ihr lo ^i^hl!l>; food ol an, kind in plenty. In &■

forr-piound tliL ti-^' nt parts of tii^h tr.ip->. wcif l\inc;, 'm rc:ul\

i±^

•s';, thoug!.

• vibiblfj a!

iixat Ikml
redouble'
ihl as we''
K'' iViuntl t
.ilk'. The-

1 l)OUg}'
l,H)U o( th

• or^prucv
i' tn break
\vi:,i''d froi

t'.n; inhal.
|l iiispcctioi.
of th

d 0'

I, I'.. I
Hi tine

•1 tlu- sutr
beai-

:U,v.S

Irhvj i>doi I

I'lren. im.'
n, re:ar

i for ihf
Anvik

rclatcil.
In tV.

II ronii

tiiij

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

229

ness to repair any damage, or put clown a new trap, if the water
fell so as to render it necessary. Here some men were emptying
the fish out of a basket, and there others were returning with a
canoe-load of salmon from some distant zap6r.

We bought a few whitefish, and some mink. I saw two red fox
cubs with collars, tied to stakes in some of the houses. These
wore apparently intended to amuse the children. We then
departed, and finally camped on a sand-bar which was literally
alive with wild fowl. We were now getting into the region
where they abound, during the spring and summer, in myriads.
The report of a gun will often raise such immense flocks of geese
as literally to darken »he air; sometimes a flock will be four or five
miles long, and two or three rods wide, flying as close together
as they can with safety. Swans whitened the surface of several
lagoons, and from them down to the tiniest snipe, not weighing
more than an ounce, every kind of wild fowl abounded in pro-
fusion. Their eggs were scattered over the sand-bars, and a
hatful could be obtained on any beach. On attempting to empty
the swan's-eggs which I had purchased the day before, by means
of a blow-pipe, they resisted all my efibrts. On breaking them,
what was my surprise at finding that they had been hard boiled
by the natives, to keep them from spoiling !

The real work of the season had been well commenced at Nulato,
but partially suspended since we left, as we had procured but few
birds new to the collection, since leaving that point. Now I had
my hands full, and leaving the task of navigating to Kuri'Ua, I was
constantly occupied skinning the birds which we obtained at
every turn. I passed many a night without getting an hour's
sleep, in order that rare birds might be preserved ; and the work
of preparing birdskins is anything but a pleasant one. The
results to be obtained for natural history were so great, that it
was impossible to grudge a moment of time so spent, or to neglect
any opportunity of adding to the note-book or the collection.

Sunday, \^th. — Passed the Rasbi'nik village, where I bought a
marten-skin and a haunch of reindeer meat. The natives here
always cut a small piece off" every skin after selling it, for luck
as they say. Toward night we reached the village of Starry (old)
Kwikhpdk. Here I found a man named Yaska, who had been
interpreter at Andr^affsky. I explained to him that I wished to

1. 111!

230

THE YUKON TKRRITO.IY.

visit tlic Kiisilvak Slouj^li, and obtain eggs and skins of the
beautiful emperor goose {Chlocphaga cana^ica), which breeds in
abundance there, and there only. He could not go himself, but
obtained a boy who knew the way, and explained to him what I
wanted. Tiie village was full of fresh skins of the reindeer fawn.
I counted a thousand and seventy-two bunches hanging up to
dry. Each bunch contained four skins, or enough to make a
parka. This would give a total of nearly four thousand three
hundred of these little creatures, which had been killed during
the past two months. The village contained a great deal of dry
meat and fish, but the inhabitants were squalid and dirty. I saw

Andre.iffsky.

a tame owl sitting on one of the rafters, and a few marten-skins
were hanging on a cache. I bought an otter-skin of the finest
quality, for four bunches of Circassian tobacco. Not wishing to
camp in such a dirty place, we proceeded a little way down the
river with our guide, and camped.

Monday, \^th. — While collecting in the morning, I found cow-
slips in blossom on I he marshes, and obtained the eggs of the
beautiful white-winged gull. The long-continued and never-tir-
ing head-wind was stronger than usual this morning. To avoid
it. we entered a long slough, where we took tea, and I collected
many yellow butterflies {Picris venosa Scud.), the only species

THE YUKON TKRKITURY.

23!

which I noticed on the Yukon near the sea. About one o'clock
wo emerged from the slough, ami at this point killed several
geese. The waves were very high, and after an hour's hard pull-
ing we passed the mouth of the Milavanoff River, and finally
reached Aiidreaffsky Fort. It was quite deserted. The .solitary
fort, with the windows all nailed up, the bare hills, and cloudy
sky, made the place seem more lonely and dreary than ever.
We hauled up the boat, and boiled the chynik, and rested until
the wind should abate a little.

Andreaffsky was built in the form of a square, the buildings
making two of the sides, and a stockade the other two. It con-
tained barracks, a store, magazine, cook-house and bath-house.
It was erected about the year 1853. In 1855 it was the scene of
a mournful tragedy. There was formerly an I*:k(')gmut village
near the fort. Several of the natives were workmen at the fort.
No trouble had ever occurred. Several of the garrison had gone
up to Nulato with the annual provision-boat, and only the bidar-
shik and one Russian, besides the native workmen, were left ii\,the
fort. One Friday in August, the natives at'acked the Russians
as they came naked out of the bath, and killed them with clubs
and knives. A Creole boy escaped to the hills, ami finally crossed
the portage to the vicinity of St. Michael's. When he reached that
point the Uprovalisha was away, and his secretary, Ivan Kogen-
ikoff, was acting in his stead.

The Russians had long murmured at the conduct of the Com-
pany, in leaving unavenged the Nulato massacre. The oppor-
tunity of settling accounts with the natives was too tempting
to resist. Kogenikoff and Gregory Ivanhofif, with two Creoles,
immediately started for the fort. On reaching it th. found
everything in confusion. The dead bodies lay at the door of
the bath-house. The natives, not knowing how to u.sc flour,
had merely carried off the sacks. They had also ripped ojien
the beds, and carried away the ticking, while the mass of
flour and feathers was left on the floor. After satisfying them-
selves that there was no living thing in the fort, the Ri .sians
started for the village, which was about a mile off. As they ap-
proached, Kogenikoff saw a man standing in the door of one of the
houses and pointing a gun at the approaching party. It after-
ward turned out that the gun had no lock ; but not knowing this,

232

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

lijllljl

the Russians fired, ami killed the man. The natives, who wcro
few in number, came rushing out, and were shot down wiihout
mercy. The Creoles, who, when aroused, have all the ferocity of
the aboriginal savage, attacked the shaman and beat out his
brains with clubs. None were spared. 'Jhc blood shed at the
fort was not yet dry, and the infuriated Russians resolved that
the authors of that cowardly outrage should be e.xtcrminateil
without mercy. When they stayed their hamls the work was
done. I'\ithers, mothers, and children had passed their " evil
quarter of an hour." The result was wonderful. l'*rom that day
to this not a native on the Lower Yukon has lifted his hand
against the whites. The bloody lesson was not thrown away.
The strong hand, which alone commands the respect of savages,
was worth a thousand missionaries. To this day the natives trav-
elling on the river near the fort pass by on the other side. Large
quantities of tobacco and other property, stolen from the fort, were
found in the village. Around the necks of most of the dead,
crosses were found hanging, indicating that the thieves and mur-
derers were baptized converts of the Yukon Mission.

The only articles remaining in the fort at the time of our visit
were three six-jKninuer.^, and some old iron. Toward evening,
though the river vv'as still very rough, we embarked, and by keep-
ing close to the bank managed to travel several miles farther.
The white dome of the Kusilvak mountain loomed up grandly to
the .southwest. Just south of it is a shallow slough which leads
into the south slough of the delta. This is navigable only for j
bidarkas. The trees were now reduced to low willows, and the
level character of the country to the north and west showed that
we had passed all the mountains. A few low hills still fringed
the right bank, but the general level of the country was only
a few feet above the sea. We finally camped on the bank of a|
small stream, which our guide said was called I-lgg River.
The evening was cold and raw, the sky cloudy and sombre, and j
the vegetation far less advanced than that a hundred mile-
inland. Fragments of ice, the remains of huge blocks left by tlicl
freshet, still lay on the shore.

Tuesday, \6t/i. — The whole morning we pulled against :
strong steady head-wind. We passed into a narrow slough, and I
by a turn to the northward were able for the first time to use our

TIIL YUKON TERRITORY.

233

sail. Convinced that wo were passiiij; the mouih of the Kiisilvak,
we crossed to the other side of the river. 'I'wo hours were eon-
Mimed in doinj^ this, altlioii^h we made at least three knots ami a
lialf an hour. The aspect of llic country, Hat, marshy, and
iiuidily, was truly desolate. We saw immense numbers of wild
fowl in the distance, but no other animals. We camped on the
left bank, and I noticed that the mice in winter, crawling alon;;
the surface of the snow, hatl j^nawed the bark from the willows
full six feet above the -ground. This would indicate that the
snow falls at least to that depth. ;\ few warblers wi-re buililing
their nests in the thickets, and 1 noticed the tracks of mink along
the mudily beach.

1 1 'aims liny, xjt/i. — Our guide to my astonishment insisted on
criissinj; the river a;;ain. As none of us understood ;'ie I're-
UKMska dialect, we were unable to find out what his in:i: .tions
were. About noon wc stopped at a small island and oilected
about fifty c«;j;s of the water-hen {^Ma^iis siiTutot) The) were
laid under loj^s, without any lining to the nest, and covered caie-
fully with dr) ii. .es and down. The jiarent birds flew sv.icam-
ing, round the island, out of gunshot. About half a'l hour after,
our guide brought us to the mouth of the Uphoon! I rcco-nized
the place immediately, and by referring to my vocabularies
managed to make out that he had supposed this was our desti-
nation, and that he knew nothing about the Kusilvak. This was
a great disappointment to mc, as I had hoped to obtain large
numbers of the eggs and skins of the ICmperor goose. liowcvei,
there was nothing to be done but to make the best of it. I paid
him, and he started homeward, while we kept on our way through
tlie Uphoon. The small beaches were plentifully strewn with
eggs. The most common were those of Ihitchin's goose, the
white-winged gull, and the pin-tail duck. I had instructed Ku-
rilla in the manufacture of omelets, and tlu'v now formed part
of every meal. The egg-shells were carel'ully emptied with a
bK)\vpipe anil devoted to science, while the contents went into
the frying-pan. We camped on a high bank, which bore the re-
mains of many native camp-fire.s, and just before turning in I was
fortunate enough to shoot a fine specimen of the beautiful red-
necked loon. The Uphoon is an excellent collecting ground, but
the emperor goose is seldom seen there.

I' ' n

234

THE YUKON TKRRITORY.

Thursday, \?>t/i. — We started late, after unlimited omelet, and
rowed wiowly through the various windings of the slough.
Now and then we stopped to eollect eggs or speeimens, and the
boat was fairly covered with our feathered prizes. We passed
one deserted native house, and about dark arrived safely at Kul-
lik. This settlement consists of one house, built by a Russian
called \n;inyan, containing a living-room, kitchen, and bath-room,
under one roof; a single Innuit barrabora stands near it, and a
great cache, the largest in the country, has been erected behind
the house. The house was entirely empty, and had such a smoky
smell that I decided to sleep in the tent, and only to do my bird-

i ■;;

J ■ '

; ,

: ; ■

' !'

. :

Kiitlik

skinning inside, where there was room to spread out the skins
to dry. I proposed to spend several days here, and to send
the Indians out shooting, while I kept at work preparing the speci-
mens. Ananyan, wiih his family, was away in the Kusilvak, where
he was salting chowichec {Sahiio oriaitalis Pall.) for Step.inoff

The ne.\t day I busied myself repacking the specimens which
had been collected on the road. I sent out all the Indians with
liberal supplies of powder and shot, and promised ten balls as a
present to whoever should bring in one of the much-desired geese.
I blew about five dozen eggs during ihe day which is an under-
taking to be appreciated only by those who have tried it. To-

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

235

ctl omelet, and
f the slough,
iniuns, and the
s. Wo passed
safely at Kut-
by a Russian
and bath-room,
> near it, and a
erected behind
d such a smoky
to do my bird-

out the skins

, and to send
aring the spcci-
vusilvak, where
or Stcpanoff.
K-cimens whii li

e Indians with
ten balls as a
i-dcsired geese,

1 is an under-
tried it. To-

ward evening it rained, and I moved everything from the tent
into the house, except my blankets. The men came back loaded
with game, and the indefatigable Kun'lla, with an unwonted sniile
on his sober face, untolded a piece of cotton and i)roiight out a
magnificent old gander of the right sort. The goklen tips to the
snowy feathers of the head, the beautitul "ashes-of-roses" color
of the body, marked with half-moons of black, gave it the undis-
puted right to its proud title of the l^mperor, or, in Russian,
Cicsdr-kii.

The Emperor unose.

Tiie following day and the one after that were spent much
in the same way. I was busy preserving and packing the
skins, while the Indians were constantly out gunning. Sichirka
added another goose to my collection, and 1 obtained near the
house several pairs, and also the eggs of a curlew {Liiiiosii timpyj^i-
(i/is) not previously found on the American continent. On Mon-
day, Kun'lla heated the bath-room, and we all took a steam balh.
In the evening about half past eleven that old veti.ran Telee/.hik
arrived from the Shiigeluk with a boat-load of fiu-s. lie would
only stop to drink tea, however, and with his two companions
pushed on to Pastolik. He had obtained about a thousand
martens.

V !in

2.;6

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

Tuesday, 2id. — After packing up all the collections, I con-
cluded to follow Teleezhik to Pastolik. We arrived there safely,
and had hardly landed our cargo before a strong head-wind
sprang up, so that we had been just in time. Pastolik is a Una-
leet village of some thirty huts, mostly built of turf and driftwood.
Just now it was without inhabitants. It is situated on the shore
of a wide inlet, into which the Pastolik River empties. The
mouth of this inlet is nearly closed by a bar which is almost dry
at low tide. Inside of the bar there are deep places, and here a
beluga fishery is carried on in the month of August. The beluga
is a small white whale, allied to the sperm whale and porpoise.
They come into the shallow water to breed, and are prevented
from getting out of the inlet by the bar. When the tide falls, the
natives in their kyaks attack them with lances, and large num-
bers are killed. The flesh is eaten, and the blubber and oil pre-
served for trade and winter use. The length of these animals
seldom exceeds fifteen feet, and a large one will weigh about two
thousand pounds. I counted eighty skulls lying about the huts,
the remains of the fishery of the previous year. The teeth of the
beluga are of the consistency of ivory, and are extensively used
by the Innuit in making small carvings. Birds, seal, deer, and
other animals are imitated with some skill by the natives, and
many articles of use and ornament are made by them from ivory.
The previous year, on our arrival from Nulato, I purchased a
large number of these articles. An awl or bodkin is here reprc-

Ivory bodkin.

sented. The larger articles of ivory are made from walrus tusks,
which are obtained by trade with the natives of the northern
coast. In July and September a seal fishery, similar to that at
Kegiktowruk, is carried on here, and many are secured in nets.
These nets are exceedingly strong, and are made from rcmni,

Seine needle.

with a peculiar needle, which is here represented. The Innuit

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

237

women are extremely expert at this kind of work. I am informed
that with similar nets, during the moulting season, they secure
large numbers of wild fowl and also many arctic hares in the fall.
During the moulting season they obtain many skins of the differ-
ent species of divers, by driving them into shallow water where
they cannot dive, and spearing them with bone tridents. Of these
skins they make parkies and other articles of clothing, some of
which are very tasteful.

The Innuit have also a custom of making, on flat pieces of
bone, rude drawings of animals, hunting parties, and similar things.

INNUIT DRAWINGS ON BONE.

The Innuit

Spearing geese.

Wolves after deer.

Innuit dance.

Ueerhunting.

These drawings are analogous to those discovered in France in
the caves of Dordogne, and the preceding sketch of the drawings
on cither side of two bone knives illustrates their general character.
I have seen an ivory bow, used in connection with a drill, and
made of an entire walrus tusk, which had depicted on each of
the four sides every pursuit followed by the Innuit from birth to
interment. These facts have a peculiar interest as showing some
similarity between the customs of the picsent Orarian tribes

238

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

and those of the ancient European cave-dwellers. Similar draw-
ings are common everywhere among the Innuit, while I have
never seen among the Tinneh tribes of the northwest any similar
specimens of art. Some of the Innuit tribes to the southward
exhibit much more ingenuity in such matters than those of Nor-
ton Sound and the vicinity.

Back of Pastolik are extensive marshes bounded by the low-
range of the Pastolik Hills, while at their foot the Pastoliak
River flows, emptying into Pastol Bay. These marshes are the
favorite haunts of myriads of wild fowl.

IVaiticsdciy, 24///. — This morning an unexpected misfortune
occurred. The strong west wind raised the water so high that it
not only invaded our tent near the shore, but surrounded the
boxes of birdskins before we becan^.c. aware of it, and I was
obliged to empty them, unpack every individual specimen, and dry
it in the sun. This was fortunately accomplished and the speci-
n^ns repacked, when clouds came up and it began to rain. From
the marshes my Indians obtained many fine birds and eggs,
including several specimens of the exquisite Sabine's gull {Xniia
Sabinii), and a pair of Emperor geese. This is nearly the most
northern point reached by the latter species.

A solitary native arrived in a kyak at night, and reported
others on the way. I picked up near the village a large portion
of the skull of the extinct elephant {li/tp/uu firiviigaiiiis). These
bones are not so common as the teeth and tusks, being f )und on
the surface only, and usually much decayed ; whde the bones of
the musk-ox and fossil buffalo found in the same situations are
much better preserved, and sometimes retain some of the ani-
mal matter in the bone. The natives have no tradition of any
other large animal than the reindeer and moose, and regard the
elephant and musk-ox bones as the remains of dead " devils."
The tusks are not so well preserved as those found in Siberia,
which are usually buried in the earth. The former are black-
ened, split, and weathered, and contain little ivory in a state fit
for use, though the Innuit of the Arctic coast occasionally find
them in such preservation that they make kantags or dishes of
the ivory, according to Simpson.

On Friday, Goldsen arrived in a three-holed bidarka with his son
and an Innuit lad. He reported that Milavdnotif was at Kiitlik.

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

239

Saturday, zjth. — The wind being nearly fair, all hands loaded
up, and we started for the Redoubt. I had hoped to get a larger
boat at Pastulik, fearing to trust my little bidarra to the waves of
the open sea, but there were neither boats nor natives at hand.
We sailed well, and soon outstripped Teleezhik, though the nim-
ble bidarka led the fleet. We drank tea on the shore, about
ten miles from I'astolik, and then pushed on toward Point Roma-
noff. Goldsen arrived at this point some time ahead of us, as
it had become quite calm.

On reaching the village, near the solitary hill which marks
the point (which is the Cape Shallow Water of Cook), I was
about to land, when Goldsen cried out to me, "Hurry up I Mr.
Doctor, don't stop for a moment, there are two American ves-
sels at the Redoubt I " My joy and excitement can hardly be
described. Our ignorance of any details only added to it. The
news was obtained through a native who had been to the Canal,
and had only seen the vessels. I immediately proposed to Gold-
sen to put his native into the bidarra, while one of my Indians
would take the other [laddle, and I would accompany him in the
swifter bidarka to the Redoubt. This arrangement was soon
completed, and I left Kun'lla to bring the bidarrd to St. Michael's.
We touched at Pikmikt;ilik, and entering the Canal took tea on
the bank. While the chynik was boiling I took a bath in one of
the lagoons, and otherwise prepared myself to meet civilized
beings once more. After tea we pulled vigorously all night.

Sunday, 2St/t. — About three o'clock in the morning we reached
the northern mouth of the Canal, and saw a small schooner lying
in the bay. To the eastward a bidarra was pulling for the Canal,
but seemed rather to avoid us. Taking Goldsen's glass, I made
out one white man in it, and the round sides of two barrels rose
conspicuously above the gunwale. I felt sick as I sat down,
knowin , hat the cargo must consist of rum, and seeing already
the beginning of evils whose future growth none could estimate.

We pulled up to the landing near the boat-house. I'^vcrything
seemed much as usual, and everybody was evidently asleep. My
eye soon fell on a pile of boxes, which were not of Russian make,
and just beyond was a lot of American tin cups. I hastened to
the house on the point, which was evidently occupied. Entering,
I nearly stumbled over a sleeper on the floor. He rose and came

240

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

11 :

out into the light, and I was soon shaking hands and cxchangins?
hurried interrogatories with Mike Lebarge. The unmixed dchght
with which I welcomed his familiar face can hardly be appre-
ciated. I found, to my own astonishment, that speaking Eftglish,
after a year of nothing but Russian and Indian dialects, was any-
thing but easy, and for several days I was obliged to resort to
Russian when fluency was required. The news, much of it eigh-
teen months old, was all news to me, and it was weeks before I
gained anything like a comprehension of the events which had
occurred in the civilized world since I last heard from it. My
only disappointment was that they brought me not a single home
letter. All of these had been sent to Sitka or elsewhere, in ig-
norance of my whereabouts. I had not heard from home for
nearly two years.

Captain Smith had left with his vessel for Grantley Harbor. He
would return to St. Michael's, and I made the necessary prepara-
tions for accompanying him to California. I must pass over the
events of the next month at the Redoubt. Several trading com-
panies, beside that which Mike represented, intended to send par-
ties into the country. The vessel in the bay was principally loaded
with liquor, which had in some mysterious way eluded the vigi-
lance of the United States officials at Sitka ; she belonged to one
of these companies. Some time after, the vessel arrived which
had been sent to take back those Russians who desired to return
to Russia. Very few went in her, as most of them were hired by
the new trading companies. To Mr. George R. Adams, and Cap-
tain Riedell, of the brig Constantine, I was under many obligations.
On the 2 1st of July the schooner Frances L. Steele arrived from
Bering Strait with Captain Smith on board. On the 9th of Au-
gust, having shipped the collections, I embarked for San Fran-
cisco via the Aleutian Islands. We touched at St. George's
Island and some of the Aleutians on our way to California.

The incidents of the voyage need not be recounted here. It
is sufficient to say that I obtained abundance of evidence that
during 1868 great abuses were prevalent in the new territory.
One trading company in particular, hoping, by its large capital
and connection with the officers of the defunct Russian Company,
to crush all smaller concerns, had not hesitated at force, fraud
and corruption, to attain these ends. It would be impossible to

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

241

believe in the probity of some of the officials (since removed)
at Sitka, as it was impossible to avoid seeing the outrages which
liad been committed. One instance of the temper of these
traders will suffice. A party, consisting of several German Jews,
one Russian, and some other foreigners, had staked out the places
where the fur seal come up on the island of St. George, and
declared their intention of holding these tracts of beach under
the houKstead laws (!) by force, if necessary. Two unarmed
Americans, who had served in the army and navy during the late
war, and who had a permit to seal from the Sitka authorities,
having trespassed on the land staked out, were set upon by a party
of armed natives, led by a member of the company referred
to, were tied hand and foot, and left all night in a mud hovel used
for storing salt. The next day they were released on condition
that the trespass should not be repeated.

In their present condition the Creoles are unfit to e.xercise the
franchise, as American citizens. If a territorial government
should be granted to the handful of Americans now resident in
the territory, it would simply give the stronger companies the
power to crush and ruin the weaker ones, and a full opportunity
of smuggling and selling liquor would be afforded to the former.
The present system of a military government, with honest officers,
is unquestionably the best, until the proper reservations are made
and regulations in regard to trading are enacted. The territory
is not likely to be populous fo'' many years, and should rather be
regarded as a great storehouse of fish, timber, and fur ; from
which American citizens alone should be allowed to draw sup-
plies, under proper restrictions and on payment of reasonable
taxes. The country, under a monopoly, afforded one hundred
thousand silver rubles a year, taxes, to the Russian crown, and,
with the development of other resources than the traffic in
furs, can certainly afford as much to the United States. I speak
from no uncertainty, but from positive knowledge ; I believe that
a proper and not onerous system of taxation would afford two
hundred and fifty thousand dollars in gold per annum.

It is but reasonable to suppose that a territory separated by sea
and foreign territory from the United States — being in point of
fact a colony — should need, and be the subject of, special legisla-
tion, differing in many particulars from that applied to territories
16

242

THE YUKON TERRITORY.

1.1

li.'il

which are merely continuations of densely populated districts
under State jurisdiction.

I have seen with surprise and regret that men whose fore-
fathers wielded the axe in the forests of Maine, or gathered
scanty crops on the granite hillsides of Massachusetts, have seen
fit to throw contempt and derision on the acquisition of a great
territory naturally far richer than that in which they themselves
originated, principally on the ground that it is a "cold" country.
This complaint is but half true to begin with, since on half of the
coast of the new territory the thermometer has never been known
to fall below zero. Icebergs are unknown in Alaska from Dixon's
Entrance to Bering Strait, and no polar bear ever came within
a thousand miles of Sitka. On the other hand, has the race of
hardy pioneers died out among us ? Do we, as a nation, sigh only
for indolent siestas in the canebrakes of Cuba .■' In a country
where all that we honor and respect has grown from the efforts
of those whose energy, fostered by conflict with the elements,
has made a garden of the rock, turned the forest into fruitful
fields, and drawn the precious minerals from the flinty bosom
of the earth, there can be but one answer to such a question.

We have bought for a nominal price the key to the North
Pacific. It can no longer be said that three ironclads can block
ade our entire western coast. Two hundred and fifty years hence
there may be a new New England where there is now a track-
less forest. The time may come when we shall call on our Pacific
fishermen to man our fleets, on the lumbermen of Alaska and
our hardy northern trappers to don the blue, and strike another
blow for unity and freedom. The oak must weather the storms
of many winters before it gains maturity. Alaska is not a Cali-
fornia, where cities arise in a night, and may pass away in a day.
Meanwhile we mus*^ be patient.

We entered the Golden Gate on the 29th of September. I
cannot close this partial record of my experience in the north,
without a word of acknowledgment to those Californian friends
who made my welcome back so warm. The friendship of Cali-
fornians, easily acquired, is as precious as their own gold, and
as enduring as their Sierras. When I stepped on board the
steamer, eastward bound, I felt almost as if I were leaving rather
than approaching home.

ted districts

PART II.

GEOGRAPHY HISTORY, INHABITANTS, AND RESOURCES

OF ALASKA.

I !fi

ill!

on
we
ex;
cla

Pri
lati
(m(
the
tine
me
mo
tior
finn

the

ing

whc

dire

the

pro\

oce;

sion

CHAPTER I.

General geographical and topographical description of Alaska. — Adjacent seas. —
(Jrmips of islands. — Coasts and hirbors. — Kivcr system. — Ocean currents. —
Mountain chains and peaks. — Area — Earlier maps. — Review of some recent
maps. — The authorities for the present map. — I'icid for future explorations.

THK United States territory known by the name of Alaska
is bounded, in general terms, by the Frozen or Arctic Ocean
on the north, the Pacific Ocean, Herintj Sea and Strait on the
west and south, and the Hudson Hay territory on the east. The
exact boundaries as laid down in the treaty of cession, and pro-
claimed June 20, 1S67, are as follows: —

" Commencing from the southernmost point of the island known as
Prince of Wales' Island, which point lies in the parallel of 54° 40' north
latitude, and between the 131st and the 1331I degree of west longitude
(meridian of (Ireenwich), the said line shall ascend to the north along
the channel called Portland Channel, as far as the point of the con-
tinent where it strikes the 56th degree of north latitude ; from this last-
mentioned point the line of demarcation shall follow the summit of the
mountains situated parallel to the coast as far as the point of intersec-
tion of the 141st degree of west longitude (of the same meridian) ; and
finally, from the said point of intersection, the said meridian line of
the 141st degree, in its prolongation as far as the Frozen Ocean.

" With reference to the line of demarcation laid down in tlie preced-
ing article, it is understood, —

" 1st. That the island called Prince of Wales' Island, sliall belong
wiiolly .... to the United States.

" 2d. That whenever the summit of the mountains, which extend in a
direction parallel to the coast, from the 56th degree of north latitude to
the point of intersection of the 141st degree of west longitude, shall
prove to be at the distance of more than ten marine leagues from the
ocean, the limit between the British possessions .... and the posses-
sions ceded by this convention shall be formed by a line parallel to the

1 1

vr^

246

C.EOGRAFHY OK ALASKA.

winding of the coast, and which shall never exceed the distance of ten
marine leagues* therefrom.

"The western limit, within which the territories and dominion con-
veyed are contained, passes through a point in Uchring's Straits on tht-
parallel of 65° 30' north latitude, at its intersection Ity the meridian
which passes midway between the island of Krusenstcrn, or Ignalook,
and the island of Ratmanoff, or Nunarbook, and proceeds due north
without limitation, into the same Frozen Ocean.

"The same western limit, beginning at the same initial point, proceeds
thence in a course nearly southwest, through Uchring's Straits and Heh-
ring's Sea, so as to pass midway between the northwest point of the
island of St. Lawrence, and the southeast point of Cape Choukotski, to
the meridian of 172° west longitude, thence, from the intersection of that
meridian, in a southwesterly direction, so as to pass midway between
the island of Attou, and the Copper Island of the Komandorski couplet
or group in the North Pacific Ocean, to the meriilian of 193° west longi-
tude, so as to include in the territory conveyed the whole of the Aleutian
Islands east of that meridian."

Adjacent Seas. — The most extensive of the adjacent as is the
North Pacific Ocean. The dividing-line between it ;, 1 Bering
Sea may be said to be the chain of the Catherina Archipelago,
from the most western point of Aliaska Peninsula to Cape Kam-
chatka. That great extent of water lying north of lat. 56,
between the Kadiak group and the Alexander Archipelago, has
been named by the Superintendent of the Coast Survey the
Gulf of Alaska.

Bcrimr Sea extends between Kamchatka and Eastern Siberia
on the west, and America on the east ; from the Aleutian Islands
to Bering Strait. It has two principal eastward prolongations, —
Bristol Bay and Norton Sound; and two to the west, — Ana-
dyr Gulf and the Gulf of Kamchatka. Passing through Bering
Strait, which separates Asia and America, we come into the
Frozen Sea or Arctic Ocean. Here the coasts are even and uni-
form, and the only arm of this sea which is of any size is Kotze-
bue Sound, northeast of Bering Strait. The northern portion of
this ocean is as yet unexplored.

Groups of Islands. — The North Pacific rivals its southern por-
tion in the size of its archipelagoes. The magnificent group of
eleven hundred islands, which guards the American coast from

• That is to say, 30 geographical miles, or about 34|Vir English statute miles.

! ;1:

l!'li!'!

GEOGKAI'IIY OF ALASKA.

247

itancc of toi)

n' as is the

tatute miles.

Dixon Kntrancc in 54° 40' to Cross Sound in lat. sS"" 25' N.,
has received the name of the Alexander Anliipela^j^o from
the L'liited States Coast Survey, in honor of the l-Juperor of
Russia.

The islands southeast of the peninsula of Ali.iska, between Ion.
151 and 158 W., are known as the Kadidk Archipilai:;o, from the
name of tlie principal island.

The j;reat chain of islands from Ion. 158 to 195' W. was
appropriately named by Forsler in 1786 the Catlurina Air/ii-
ft/d^ifo, in honor of the enliy;htencd and liberal ICmpress Cathe-
rine II. of Russia.

Tiie most westerly of the j;roups included in this archipelago
is tliat known as the Komaiuiorski or Coiniiiandir s Islands, from
Commander Hering, who died upon one of them. Their situation
is about lat. 55° N. and Ion. 193 ' \V. They are two in number.
The largest is known as Inriiii^ Island, and the smaller and more
cistern as Copper {Mcdni) Island.

The chain between Ion. 163' and 188' W. bears the general
name of the Alcntian Islands, from the term Aleuts, ajiplied by
the Russians to their original inhabitants. They are divided into
several grou, s. Those west of Ion. 185° W. are called the Nearer
(AY/;/////) Islan Is. They comprise ..•]////, which is the largest,
Agattii, or the Crooked {Kn{i^li) Island, and three small islets
known as the Snnic/ii, from Snnil:, the feast on the seventh
Thursday after l-laster, on which day they wen- discovered.

The group ne.\t east of the Nearer Islands, between Ion. 185
and 180° W., is known as the Rat {Kin'si) Islands. They are about
fifteen in number, large and small. The most important arc
IlotildiT, Big and Little Gut {Kccska) Islands, Little Net {Sntkin)
Island, Rat {Kra'sa) Island, Anichitka Island, and the Island of
Seven Peaks {Si'misopochnoi).

The next group, from Ion. 180° to 172° W., bears the name of
the Andndnofski Islands, after Andreanoff, their discoverer.
There are about thirty of them. The largest is Atka, and, in the
ortlcr of their size, Addkli, Tdnaj^a, Kdnaga, Anilia, S^i^naw, Sit-
kiii, or Great Net Island, Burnt {Gonloi) Island, Tdnara, Tagaldxa,
Vitliik, Undlga, Amdtignak, and Kavdlay. The last four, with a
number of small islets, are sometimes called the Dt'laroff Islands,
from their discoverer. With Burnt Island they are separated from

248

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

>hI1u

lillH'i

the rest of the group by the Tdna^a Pass. Between Amlia and
Seguam is situated the rocky and dangerous Si'gunfn Pass.

Between Amukhta Pass (Ion. 172° VV) and False or Isanotski
Pass (Ion. 163° 20' W.) lie the Fox {Lccsi) Islands. This is the
largest of the four Aleutian groups. It contains thirty-one
islands, more or less, including the largest in the Catherinu Archi-
pelago. The principal are, in order of size, Unimah, Unaldshka,
Uniiiak, Akiiidii, Ak/iiin, Yittuiska, Amukhta, Chiigiitgan, Kiigdl-
ga, TigdUa, Avatdiiak, Ukamak* Ulidlga, Spa'rkiii, and the cele-
brated volcano islands of St. John the Theologian {Joanna Bogos-
lova) and the Four Craters. Between Unimak and Akhun is the
Unimak Pass, the best passage for vessels bound for Bering Sea.

East of Unimak, the southern coast of Aliaska is liberally
fringed with islands. A group comprising i'uga, A^agdi, lYiii-
niak, Tidkinak, and a number of others unnamed on the Russian
chart, is called the Shuniagin Islands, from the name of a sailor
of Bering's expedition, who died and was buried there.

The Kadidk ArcJiipclago ( onshta of Kadidk, Afogndk, Tugidak,
Sitkinak, Marmot {h'rdskic) Island, Spruce ( Yehkiiv) Island,
Woody (Li'snoi) Island, Cliirikoff \ox Ukaviok) Island, named after
its discoverer, and many smaller islands. A small group north-
west of Chi'rikoff Island is known as the Sc'niidi Islands ; another
in the mouth of Cook's Inlet, as the Barren {Bezplodnoi) Islands;
northeast of these, a group of three is called the Cliugatz Islands.\

The Alexander Archipelago will be described in connection
with that part of the coast.

In Bering Sea (lat. 57^ N., Ion. 169^ 30' W.) we find the Priby-
loff Islands, so named after their discoverer. They comprise four
small islands : St. Paul, St. George, Walrus {I\Ior::lu)zui), and
Beaver {Bobrtnvi) Island. These are the fur-seal islands. North
of the Prfbylotif Islands (lat. 60° 30' N. and Ion. 173° W.) is situ-
ated the St. Mattheiu group, containing St. ]\Iattlu\v, Pinnacle,
and Hall islands. These are uninhabited, rocky, and precipitous.
It is said that a few Russians, left here by the Company to collect
sealskins during the winter of 1816, all died of starvation. On

* In the mouth of IJnimak P.iss. Usually but incorrectly placed on the charts as
Ouganiok. Ckiitnol: is one name for Chirikoff Island of the Kadiak Archipelago.

t Not to be confounded with the islands which thiong Chugdch Gull, or Prince
William Sound.

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

249

;n Anilia and
/ Pass.

c or hatwtski
This is the
lis thirty-one
therinu Archi-
(', L'liahis/ika,
iiigaii, Kiigdl-
, and the ccle-
Joanna Bogos-

Akhiin is the
• Bcrinj; Sea.
;a is liberally
, Nagdi, Nii'i-
n the Russian
inie of a sailor
;rc.

'Hiik, Tiigidak,
I'hki'v) Island,
d, named after

group north-
iiids ; another

iiioi) Islands;
igat.': Islauih.]
in connection

nd the Pribj'-
comprise four
orzIurMi), and
ands. North
3° W.) is situ-
hcii\ Pinnacle,
d precipitous,
any to collect
xrvation. On

:1 on tlic charts as

Arcliipclapo.
;h Gulf, or Triucc

the other hand, the whalers ussert that St. Matthew is full of
white bears, and call it, for that reason, Bear Island. St. Mat-
thew is on the line which marks the southern limit of floating
ice in large fields. Small (piantities may be found south of it,
but not so as to endanger navigation, even in mid-winter. This
ice line extends from Cape St. Thaddeus, on the coast of Kam-
chatka, to the St. Matthew group, and in a southeast direction,
finally touching the northern shores of 15ristol Hay. A little to
the south of east of the last group, .-.cparated from the continent by
I'.tolin Strait, is the large and unexplored island of Nunivak. In
Ion. 170° W. and lat. 6^° 30' N. is situated the large island of .SV.
Laivraicc. The latitude which Bering gives for the island which
he so named (64'' 30') has raised a doubt as '.o its identity with
the one which we call St. Lawrence. It is ihe Anderson Island
of Cook, and as it is mostly low, with a number of prominent
hills, it was suj)])oscd by the early discoverers, who saw it in
thick weather, to be a group of several islands. There is a small
cluster of rocks close in, south of the east cape (which has been
called Cape Anderson), known as the Pinik Islands. St. Lawrence
is known to the Tuski as Iivorien. Then, is a large island in
the head of the Gulf of Kamchatka, which the Russians call
Karaginski Island, from its discoverer, Karagin. There are also a
lew small islands to the northeast of it.

In Bering Strait ('.at. 63° 58' 30" N., Ion. 167° 58' W.) is a small
inhabited island, c;;llcd Ckivok by the native*, generally charted
as King hiai: i. It rises about six hundred feet above the sea.

The Dioniedes arc two small islands in the middle of Bering
Strait. Between them passes the boundary line between Russian
and American territory. The Russian island is called Ratnidnojf
or Imiklit, and the American goes by the name of Kn'isenstern or
lugdliuk.

A few miles southward lies the Fairxvay Rock, in lat. 65° 38'
42" N. and Ion. 168' ^3' 42" W. All these islets are inhabited,
and the natives are known as Okee-(')gmuts.

In the Arctic Ocean, recent discoveries by American whalers
show the existence of an island or large extent of land, of which
the west cape (lat. 70" 46' N. and Ion. 178° 30' \V.) has received
the name of Cape TJtomas, and the southeast point (lat. 70^ 40'
and Ion. 178^ 51' W.) that of Cape Ifazuaii, from the discov-
32

"v:\

250

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

crer, Captain Long of the bark Nile. Captain Raynor found
the southeast extremity to be in Ion. 176' 40' W., and Captain
Bliven of the Nautilus traced the land as far north as lat. 72^ N.
without observing its northward termination. This discovery
is elsewhere spoken of at length, and has appropriately received
the name of Wraugcll Land. To the eastward, Captain Kel-
lett, R. N., discovered an island in lat. 71' 20' N. and Ion. 175" 16'
W., which he landed upon and called Herald Island. Another
island was reported to have been seen by him August 17, 1849,
and was called Plover Island. The latter has not since been con-
firmed. Captain Raynor reports another island in lat. 70^ N., to
the eastward of Herald Island, and bearing W.N.W. from Point
Barrow. A fertile field for discovery is here laid open for Amer-
ican explorers.

Coasts and Haibors. — It would be out of place, and will not
here be attempted, to give a minute description of the labyrinth
of bays, channels, sounds, and straits which are found in the
Alexander Archipelago. The briefest enumeration possible of
the principal points of interest is all that belongs here. For
more minute inquiry the investigator is referred to the charts of
Tebenkoff and Vancouver, to the works of the latter, and those of
Cook and Mcares. All that most readers will care to know will
be found in the "Coast Pilot of Alaska," recently published by the
Coast Survey, and with it much other detailed information derived
from the works of the older navigators.

The Great Archipelago of I\I 'ares extends from the head of
Puget Sound to the head of Lynn Channel and Cross Sound.
That part of it which has received the name of the Alexander
Archipelago lies north of Dixon Entrance (lat. 54" 40' N.), which
separates the British and American islands. But a few of the
eleven hundred islands will .^e mentioned here. Among those
distinguished for their size are those of Bardnoff, Prince of
Wales, Rcxnlla Gigc'do, Admiralty, CJiichagoff, Kupridnoff, Koii
or Kou-i-u, Etolin, and Zan'mba.

The principal channels by which they are divided are Cliatluwu
Peril, Icy, and Clarence straits ; Cross, Christian, and Frederick
sounds ; Lynn Channel, and Stephen's Pass. The smaller arms
which diverge in every direction from these are innumerable, and
afford access to every portion of the archipelago without setting

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

25'

foot on land. These are far from being explored as yet, and Mr.
Davidson says, " There is not even a small map of any part of the
coast, or of any harbor, which can be counted as worth more than
a reconnoissance or preliminary survey."

The first anchorage in the southeast part of Alaska is Tay-
akhoiisiti Harbor. This is situated in lat. 54° 46' N. and Ion.
130° 35' W., and contains a village of the Tongas Indians. Here,
in 1867, the United States military post of Fort Tongas was
established. It is about ten miles northwest of Fort Simpson.
In clearing the timber for this post, it is reported that yellow
cedar trees eight feet in diameter were cut down. The flanks of
all the islands of this archipelago bear a magnificent growth of
the finest timber, from the water's edge to fifteen hundred feet
above the sea. The two most prominent capes which put out
into Dixon Entrance from the American islands are Cape Muzon,
or more properly Kygdni, and Cape Chacon.

The first anchorage in Clarence Sound is Port Gardner, in lat.
54' 49' N. and Ion. 131° 45' VV. An anchorage near the entrance
of Kazdrn Bay (lat. 55° 27' and Ion. 132° 01') is reported good and
easy of access. A Russian established a salmon fishery here in
1868. The timber is said to be very abundant and of good
quality.

On the northwest part of Wrangell Island in lat. 56° 31' 30"
and Ion. 132° 23' 30" is situated Etolin Harbor. Here the Rus-
sians formerly had a stockaded trading-post, called St. Dionysiiis.
Here the United States poet Fort Wrangell is situated. The
harbor is good ; coal and abundance of timber is reported. To
the east of Dixon Entrance, with a general northerly direction,
lies the Portland Canal, chiefly interesting as being throughout its
extent the dividing line between British and American territory.
Near its southern termination is the mouth of Obscjvatory Canal.
Here, on a point of land west of the mouth of the Nasse River,
the Hudson Bay Company established a factory in 1835. This
vicinity is renowned for the incredible amount of fish which visit
it at certain seasons. By striking a lath, armed with three pointed
nails, upon the surface of the water as if raking, an Indian will
fill his canoe with herring in twenty minutes, during their season.
At ihc junction of the eastern part of Dixon Sound with the
northern part of Chatham Sound lies Port Simpson. Here, on

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

i|fii

iii

, 'II' II ■

I : Plll"^

i,l

"i ^':'i!i

Chim-shydn Island, is a large village of Indians of the same name,
and the stockaded Hudson Bay post of Fort Simpson. This, ac-
cording to Mr. Davidson, is the most important British post in
this section of the English possessions. It consists of a stockade
two hundred by one hundred and sixty feet, with bastions at two
of the angles. Inside are dwellings for the traders and their
families, storehouses, a kitchen, and a magazine for the furs.
The housp'? 3I1OW many marks of rifle-balls directed by hostile
Indians at the fort, and at each other.

The country around the fort is not high. It has been cleared
of timber for half a mile around, and there are vegetable gardens
in the rear of the stockade, where root crops mature well. The
latitude is estimated at 54° 33' 35" N. and the longitude at 130'
22' 4c,." W.

The southern mouth of the Stikfne River opens into Stikine
Strait about lat. 56° 41' N. and Ion. 132^ 22' W. A smaller
mouth enters Frederick Strait or Sound about lat. 56' 48' N.
This river closes in December, and opens early in May. In lat.
56° 46' N. and Ion. 132" 45' 30" W. is situated Kygdni Harbor,
opening upon Cordova Bay.

In lat. 57° 06' N., Ion. 132° 54' W., is situated the first large gla-
cier seen in the Alexander Archipelago as we approach from the
south. In the winter of 1853 - 54 one of the California ice-ships
loaded with ice from this glacier.

The extreme southwest point of Alaska Territory is Cape
Kygdni, situated about lat. 54^42' N. and Ion. 132° 43' 48" W.
The northwest point of Queen Charlotte's Island bears south
39° W. about twenty-eight miles.

On the western shore of Chatham Strait, in lat. 57° 51', Ion.
134° 57' W., lies Pdvloff Harbor. The shores are reported to be
covered with a very dense growth of timber.

Icy Strait connects Chatham Strait with the ocean, and was .so
named by Vancouver on account of the masses of floating ice
from the glaciers which are encountered there. Vxo\\\ abreast
of a point known as Seduction Tongue, a magnificent glacier,
which has been named the Davidson C lacier, enters Chatliam
Strait in lat. 59° 07' N.

The mouth of the Chilkaht River enters Lynn Channel in lat.
59° 13'. In Frederick Strait, lat. 56° 55' 30", is, Saginaw Bay, ^o

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

253

named from the United States vessel which entered it in 186S.
The longitude of the Indian village here is about 134° W. I'ish
are said to abound here. Northeast of Point Coniwallis is Kakc
Strait, so named from the Indians which inhal it it. Its north-
cast entrance is in lat. 57° N., Ion. 133° 56' VV. In Hamilton Har-
bor on ihe east shore (lat. 56° 52' N., Ion. 133° 34' W.), Vancouver
found the remains of eight Indian villages. Coal has been re-
ported here.

Vancouver says the land between Kake Strait and the main
"produces a noble forest of large and stately pine-trees," and the
shores are in general low and apparently fit for cultivation if
cleared of wood.

Ci lacier Ann opens from Stephens Strait about lat. 58" 12'
and Ion. 134° 13' W. It is really the outlet of a small river
called the Taku, which has been confounded with the Tahco
River of the interior. The shores are high, and the ravines full
of glaciers. In 1840 the Hudson liay Company established a
stockaded post at the mouth of the river, with bastions, and gar-
risoned with twenty-two men. Deer are very abundant here ; in
1842 twelve hundred skins were obtained. The mountain sheep
and goat also abound. The trading-post is situated in a snug,
well-protected harbor, opening by a narrow entrance into Ste-
phen's Passage.

Iktween Point Woodhonsc and Cape Edgccuvibe lies the en-
trance to Sitka Sonnd.

Sitka Harbor is very contracted, and contains two anchorages,
the eastern and western. Numerous buoys have been laid down
by the Russian American Company, to which vessels usually
moor. The eastern is recommended as the best by the officers of
the Coast Survey.

The geographical position of the Coast Survey Station between
the United States barracks and i e church is in lat. 57"^ 02' 52"
N. and Ion. 135° 17' 45" VV. The variation of the compass was
28" 49' E. in August, iZG"]. The mean rise and fall of the tide is
stated to be 7.8 feet, and spring tides 11.9. The highest range
was 13 and the least 2.1 feet.

About nine miles south of Sitka are the Rapids, which connect
the waters of Deep {Glubokoi) Lake with Lake {Oserski) Bay. At
these rapids, according to Galovi'n, are the salmon fisheries of the

'in

h.:l

254

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

Russian American Company. There is a fall of nine feet, where
weirs are constructed, and great quantities are caught. These
fish were given away to all ' ho needed food, and the surplus over
this consumption amounted to five or six hundred barrels.

In January, 1867, the town and post of New Archangel (now
usually called Sitka, from the Indian name of the bay on which it
is situated) contained nine hundred and sixty-eight inhabitants,
of whom three hundred and forty-nine were Russians, and the
remainder Aleuts or Creoles. Few of the Russians now remain ;
the closing up of the affairs of the Russian American Company
having deprived them of the means of obtaining a livelihood,
nearly all have returned to Siberia or Russia.

Cape Edgecumbe, at the entrance of the Sound, is well marked
by the extinct volcano of Mount Edgecumbe. This was discovered
and named Mount San Jacinto by Bodega in 1775. The top,
which is the rim of a great crater, is nearly level, and, according
to Coast Survey measurements, attains a hei"^t of 2,855 feet
above the sea. It has a most remarkable appearance from the
Sound. The lower flanks are covered with a dense forest, but the
upper portion is quite bare, and in winter snow-covered and dis-
tinguished by deep ravines, which radiate regularly from the sum-
mit. No other mountain on the coast has such an appearance.
It is situated upon Knhoff Island.

Back of the town of Sitka, which is on ^aranoff Island, are two
mountains. The nearer one is rounded and covered with trees,
and the sharp snowy peak of Vostovia immediately behind it gives
the appearance of a single mountain. Vostovia was ascended by
a party of the Western Union Telegraph Expedition, in August,
1865, and found to be 3,216 feet high by mercurial barometer.
The rocks of the summit were syenitic. Its latitude is 57^03' 23'',
and longitude 135° 12' 57". The old Russian observatory was
situated opposite the town, on Japan {Japonski) Island.

Sitka was the capital of the Russian Colonies in America.
The Governor or chief Director of the Company had his resi-
dence here. The Governor's house is situated on the upper por-
tion of the rocky peninsula on which the town was first built. A
cupola is placed on top of it, one hundred and ten feet above the
sea. From this cupola a light was shown when two guns were
fired in the harbor below.

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

!55

c feet, where
ught. These
; surpUis over
irrcls.

changel (now
ly on which it
t inhabitants,
;ians, and the

now remain ;
can Company

a livelihood,

s well marked
vas discovered
75. The top,
md, according
of 2,855 feet
ance from the
forest, but the
/ered and dis-
from the sum-
in appearance.

sland, are two
red with trees,
iehind it gives

ascended by
Dii, in August,

al barometer.

is 57° 03' 23".
)scrvatory was
and.
in America.

had his resi-
:he upper por-
first built. A

feet above the
wo guns were

According to Mr. Davidson the shortest distance from San
I'rancisco Harbor to Sitka is twelve hundred and ninety-si.\ miles.
l'"rom a point ten miles west of the south Farralon, olf the Gold-
en Gate, a direct course for the entrance to Sitka Bay can be
laid. It is north, 23° VV., twelve hundred and fifty-five miles.
]\y the inner passage between the archipelago and the coast
of British Columbia and Alaska, the distance is si.xteen hun-
dred and forty-seven miles. Large sailing vessels must go out-
side.

The town of Sitka, at the time of our visit in 1865, contained
about one hundred and twenty buildings. As we saw the town
from our moorings in the western h;"-bor, the Governor's hou.se
and flagstaff, standing high above all the rest, were the most
prominent objects. Beyond were the steeple and dome of the
Greek church, and nearer the water the large storehouses, the
counting-house, and various hulks, drawn up and used as store-
ships. The houses were all of logs, but painted a dull yellow ;
the metal roofs were red, and with the emerald green spire of the
church, projected against the dark evergreens of the adjacent
hills, presented an extremely pictures([ue appearance. It was
quite unlike anything else in America, and seemed to belong to a
world of its own. Much of it was more primitive than many
western towns where the shingles are yet bright from the saw-
mill; yet the place was eighty years old.

Our reception from the officers of the Russian American Com-
pany was most cordial. All, including the ladies, vied with each
other in trying to render our stay in Sitka agreeable. I need
hardly add that they were quite successful.

The moisture of the climate renders Sitka disagreeable, and
the continued cloudy weather makes it gloomy; but the one or
two days during our stay, when the sun came out and the sky
was clear, were exceedingly pleasant. The islets, with which
the bay is crowded, are covered with wood to the water's edge,
and many of the views in the harbor are exceedingly attractive.
The principal buildings are the Governor's house, the counting-
lioiise, the barracks, church, and hospitals. The lions of the town
consisted of the Governor's garden and a steam sawmill, to both
<'t which we were introduced. The Indian village outside the
stockade consisted of large log-houses, with a round hole in front

256

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

i 1 ,j li

i ill!:

' iji

ili

which served as a door. There were many curiously carved and
painted sarcophagi of wood, in which the ashes of dead Indians
were preserved,

liaranoff Island, on which Sitka is situated, is unexplored.
The dense forest and moist soil, as well as the mountainous
character of the island, renders exploration difficult and often
dangerous. Manufactures of various articles used in their trade
were established by the Russian American Company at Sitka.
The population in 1867 was about one thousand, of which one
third were Russians.

The archipelago ends at C(7j>c Sjkitccr. The occcui coast
north of Cross Sound, according to Vancouver, is steep, woody,
and much indented with coves and small rocky bays. Cape
Spencer is the northwest point of Cross Sound. Fifteen miles
northwest is Icy Cape of the Russians, on the mainland. Thirty-
two miles northwest is the remarkable bay described by La
Perouse, and called by the natives Lituya Bay. It is sometimes
known as Port Fmn^ais. It presents the appearance of a great
fissure or rent in the high plateau which forms this part of the
coast. It divides in the interior into two arms. It is said by
La Perouse to be destitute of fish, except halibut, which were
caught weighing over one hundred pounds. Salmon and trout
abounded in the streams which fell into it. The mountains are
precipitou.s, rising to the height of five or six thousand feet, and
densely clothed with forests. The woods were full of berries ;
bears, martens, and squirrels were plenty. Four great glaciers
enter the bay, and the magnificent scenery was declared by that
navigator to surpass in grandeur the profound valleys of the
Alps and Pyrenees.

The Russians had entered this bay long before La Perouse,
and at one time contemplated establishing a post here. There
are several Indian villages of the Thlinket family, in or near the
bay, and a large fishery at the mouth of a stream on the coast a
few miles north of the entrance. The next most important prom-
ontoiy, northwest (twenty-two miles) from Lituya Bay is Cope
Fau\ucathcr. It is said to be in lat. 58° 50' 12" N. and Ion. 137°
48' W. The coast northwest of this point to Bering or Ydkntai
Bay is narrow, low, covered with wood and backed by high moun-
tains. Between Cape Phipps, or Ocean Cape of the Russians, and

GEOGRAPHY OP^ ALASKA.

257

Cape Manby, is the entrance to Ikring Bay. It was so called by
Cook and Vancouver, as being the bay in which liering probably
ancliorcd in 1/41. It was called xldmimlty Bay by Dixon,
rniic dc Monti' by La I'erouse, and Yakutat by the natives. Here
a Russian post was established. The coast from Cape Manby to
Cape Suckling is forbidding in the extreme. La Perouse said
that masses of snow covered a barren soil without trees. The
mountains appeared to be a very little distance from the sea. A
low table-land at their bases was covered with trees. This part
of the coast is indented by a small bay, called ley Bay on account
of the glaciers which surround it. Olf this stretch of coast for
about one hundred miles are moderate soundings, known to
the whalers as the Fainveatlier Ground.

Between Kayc or Kayak Island, in Ion. 144° 53' W., and the
main is a shallow bay known as Comptroller s Bay. Between the
145th and 146th meridians, along the coast, lie the shoals and
flats off the mouths of the Copper or Atna River.

West of Ion. 146^, extending to 149°, lies the great Chugdch
6"//^ sometimes called Prinec William Sound. It is crowded with
islands, and extends its arms like tentaculx in every direction,
covering an extent of over twenty-five hundred square miles.
The entrance is about fifty-five miles wide, and blocked with
iskuuls. The most important of these are Montagu, Ilinchiubrook,
Knight, and Hawkin islands.

Port Etehcs is on the southwest part of Hinchinbrook Isl-
and, in lat. 60° 16' and Ion. 146' 56'. Constantine Harbor opens
into it. On this lagoon was situated the Redoubt Constantino
and Elena, a post of the Russian American Company. It is
described as being a well-built, stockaded fort, with two bas-
tions.

Chugdch Gulf, and the various islands in it, contain many ex-
cellent harbors. The Russians in old times built many vessels
here. In Chalmers Bay a remarkable point was noticed by Van-
couver, which bore stumps of trees cut with the axe, but far below
IiHv-water mark at the time of his visit. It has been appropriately
nametl Sinking Point.

The climate of the Gulf is more severe than that of the coast
to the southward, but in June, according to Portlock, most of the
snow was melted. Fish, excellent timber, and berries, beside in-
17

25S

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

H')

(ligenous grain {FJyinns) and wild peas, are reported to abound
exceedingly. From the head of the Gulf a portage can be made
to the head of Cook's Inlet. The natives are of the Innuit
family, and are called Clingdchcs or Chiigdchigmut.

Between the Gulf and Cook's Inlet is the great peninsula of
Kcndi. The ocean coast of this peninsula extends from Cape
Piigct, in lat. 5(/ 55' and Ion. 148'' 33' W., to Cape Elhabctli^ in
lat. 59° 09' and Ion. 151'^ 51' \V. This coast is indented by many
inlets and bays, of which Days Harbor and Rcsitrrcction J>ny
afibrd good anchorages. The latter was long the shipyard of
the Russian American Company, and a post was situated there.
The whole coast is abundantly supplied with wood, and glaciers
occupy many of the gorges. Several groups of islets, called the
CJiisivcUs and Pyc Islands, lie off the iJiores.

Near Cape Elizabeth are situated the Chugatz Islands (not to
be confounded with the islands in the Gulf of Chugach), and a
cluster called the Barren Islands. These are one thousand six
hundred and seventy miles north, 42° VV., from the Farralones
off San Francisco Harbor.

The entrance to Cook's Inlet is between Capes Douglas and
Elizabeth, with a passage on either side of the Barren Islands.
Within the capes the inlet is sixty-five miles wide ; fifty miles
farther up it contracts to twenty-five miles, whence it gradually
diminishes to twelve or fifteen. At its most northern latitude the
river Suchi'tna enters the inlet in 61° 16'. Here the inlet turns
to the eastward and southward, and is known as the Titrnagain
Arm. It is shallow, with a narrow channel, and receives the Fire
{Kncck) River about Ion. 150" VV.

On the eastern shores of the inlet are Port C/iat/iam, where
the settlement of Alcxdndrovsk is situated, English Harbor, Chu-
gdchik Bay, and St. Chrysostom Harbor. The small river Kakiui
also enters from the east. The eastern .shores are low and cov-
ered with herbage and clumps of timber. Farther back the
mountains rise to a considerable height, and contain large gla-
ciers. The tides in the eastern portion are said to rise and fall
thirty feet, so that the arm must be nearly dry at low tide. There
are two islands, Angiisiin and Kalgin, in the inlet, and the water
between Cape Douglas and the coast north of Augustin Island is
known as Kdmchak or Kdmishak bay. On the cast coast ot

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

259

ed to abound
; can be made
of the Innuit

t peninsula of
ids from Cape
' Elizabeth, in
;nted by many
surrcctiou J'oy
le shipyard of
situated there.
1, and glaciers
ilcts, called the

Islands (not to
hugach), and a
e thousand six
the Farraloncs

IS Douglas and

Barren Islands.

ide ; fifty miles

,ce it gradually

|ern latitude the

the inlet turns

the Tiiniagain

iceives the Fiic

"Jtatham, where
\lt Harbor, Clin-
\\\ river Kakiui
re low and cov-
Irther back the
jitain large gla-
to rise and tall
)W tide. There
[, and the water
Igustin Island is
cast coast ot

Cook's Inlet, at the mouth of the Kaknu River, is situated Redoubt
St. Xie/tolas. Some miles farther south is the settlement of .S7.
George. These were both posts of the Russian American Com-
pany.

Leaving the Inlet, the southeast coast of the peninsula of Ali-
aska is abrupt, rugged, destitute of trees for the must part, in-
dented with countless bays and coves of small size, and full of
rocks. The first inlet of importance is the bay of Katmdi in lat.
58°. Mere Jurassic fossils were found by Wosnesscnsky. On a
lake in the vicinity petroleum is found floating. This part of the
peninsula is separated from the Kadiak /Xrchipelago by Shelikojf
Strait, so named in honor of one of the most energetic pioneers
who explored and developed this territory.

Kadid/c and the adjoining islands, though separated by a broad
expanse of water, appear to be a prolongation of the range which
forms the peninsula of Kenai. The rocks are similar and the
general trend is the same. The more protected portions of these
islands are well wooded with fine timber, and they also contain,
with the shores of Cook's Inlet, much of the best farming and
grazing land. They are well populated and are really the centre
of trade of the territory. St. Paul, the principal settlement, by its
position and importance, deserves, fixr more than Sitka, the honor
of being the capital of the territory of Alaska. It has been
several times the principal depot of the Company, but political
reasons determined them to keep the capital as far south as pos-
sible. Beside the settlement at St. Paul, there arc three villages
on T/irec Saiuts Bay, Afogndk, Spruce, and Woody islands, and
a number of native settlements. The depot of the Ice Company
is on Woody Island. A frequent and noticeable feature of tliis
part of the coast is the pinnacles, or needle rocks, which may
lie found off almost every bluff or point.

Westward from Kadiak we pass the Scmidi Islands and Chir-
d^ off [ox Ukamok) Island, on which the Company had a factory,
llie marmot {^Sp. Parryi) was introduced here and multiplied to
such an extent as to give employment to a number of persons
who were sent here from Sitka (as a punishment for .slight of-
ences) to prepare the skins. On Popoffznd Unga, islands of the
Shumagin group, are settlements. Unga contains two excellent
harbors. Coal Harbor on the north abounds with cod, and is a

26o

Gi:o(;RArnY of Alaska.

.li'

ilil:lh

I.I

frequent rendezvous for llic fishermen. Dilaroff Pay, at the
southeast end of the island, has a settlement upon it. Nearly due
west from L^nj^a, on the peninsula of Aliaska, is the Bclkojfski or
Squirrel settlement. It would he out of plaee to describe here the
myriads of rocks, shoals, and islets which cluster about the .shores
of the i)eninsula. It terminates at /'rt/jf /Vwj, otherwise known
as Isanotski Strait ; long marked as navigable from French sur-
veys in the last century, but really an impassable lagoon. Upon
it is situated the Morse settlement of Aleutians. West of it ex-
tends the island of L'nimak, separated from Akhiin and Tigalda
by the l'nimak Pass.

In the Aleutian chain, which has already been described, the
principal settlements are upon the islands of Unahishka, Akhun,
Tigalda, I'mnak, Amlia, Atka, Adakh, and Attu. The principal
harbors or anchorages are, in Unahishka, Ilii'iliuk or Captaiiis Har-
bor, Jnavcr, and Mdkiisliin bays ; in y^mlia, Svi'c/mikoff Bay and
Korovinski Bay ; in 'Yiwwx^^'a., Slavardssi Bay ; in Amchi'tka, A7/-
lojf Bay ; finally, in Attn, Cliichagojf Harbor.

Captain's Harbor, Unalashka, next to Kadiak and Sitka, is the
most important place in the territory. A considerable trade has
sprung up here since the purchase of the territory, and it is a
favorite point for vessels to touch and obtain water, wood, or
fresh vegetables.

Chi'chagoff Harbor in Attu, if we may beli'jve report.-,. Is al-
ready the seat Oi -^"frgling operations more or less extensive, by
which Siberian sablco u.... ''-="esc opium are made to do duty as
the productions of Alaska.

Returning to Aliaska, and going eastward after leaving False
Pass, the first point is Granite Cape* in Ion. 163' 15' W. and
lat. 55° 12' N. (approximate). East of this cape the coast is deep-
ly indented with bays and coi i;s, all very shallow; the shoals
extend off the coast for se\ cr-.i miles. The general trend is to
the northeast. Amak hiaaa, a sharp volcanic peak about two
thousand feet high, lies in Ion. 163° VV., and lat. 56° 32' 30" N.,
with unexplored shoals W.N.W. and S.S.E. of it. Passing Cape
Lconovich in Ion. 162° 15' W., we arrive at Cape Rodgnoff in 161°
08' 15". East of Cape Rodgnofif is a shallow bay, and a long island
known as Walrus Island. The eastern end of the lagoon is called

* These positions arc from the sketch charts of the Russian American Conip.iny.

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

261

can Company.

J'ort Molhr, and it is said to carry six fathoms well in. The
coast hi-'yond trends N.IC. by I'"., and is strai,L;ht and even, with
shallow water off of it. About Ion. 159" 20', stretchin;^' north-
eastward to Caf'c Slivi^oitoff is a shoal with sonic small islands
called the .W'rpic/ioi or Scai Islatn/s. The coast trends in a
more and more nurtherly tlirection, with fron) five to ten fathoms
ten miles off shore. Passing the shallow mouths of the Sulima,
rga;;uk, and Naknek Rivers, the long and shallow northeastern
end of Bristol Hay makes up to the mouth of the Kwi'ehak River,
in hit. 59° \., Ion. 156' 57' W. To the west, broad shoals extend
far off shore to the mouth of Nits/ur^tik Jniy. This ba)' is about
fifteen miles long and ten wiile, very shallow, and obstructed
by sand-bars and shoals. Upon its northeast extremity, at the
mouth of the Nushergak River, is situated the Redoubt Alcxaudni
in lat. 58° 57' 06", Ion. 158' 18' 24" (Wrangell). The west shore
of the bay is formed by a broad, low point, rising to the northward
into hills, and said to 'y. separated from the mainland by a slough,
which passes from Nushergak Bay to the shallow lagoon of Ki'ili-
kak, opening on Kulnkak Bay. The southernmost extremity of
this point is called Cape Coiistaiitiiic, (lat. 58^ 25' 05" and Ion.
158° 51' 30") and is said to have a long, narrow shoal extending
S. E. by S. ten miles from shore. West of Cape Constantine the
shore trends northwesterly upon Kulnkak Bay, which contains
several islands. The most western and largest is I [di^cinncistcr
Island, named after c of the governors of the territory. It is
sei)arated by a narrow and shallow pasagc from the mainland ;
the waters northeast of it are called (ii'igiak Bay, from a river of
the same name which empties there, in lat. 59^ N., Ion. 160'^ 23' \V.
Westward of the island the shore is high, rapidly rising inland
into mountains. The southern point of this promontory, in Ion.
161° 48' 30", is nearly due west from the southern point of Ha-
gcnmcister Island, distance about twenty-four miles, and is situ-
ated in lat. sS'' 35' (approximate). This important promontory
being unnamed in the Russian charts, I propose to name it after
the distinguished head of the Coast Survey, Cape Pciirc. A
small island is reported to the east of it at a distance of less than
a mile. Just west and north of it is a small protected cove,
from which, due west, extends the long, narrow promontory of
Capf Nezvcnham. From the north side of the neck of this

-fn

•Mi
m

262

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

Ai i:n!

promontory the coast extends nearly due northward, intersected
by C/itik-i<.'ivi and (/oot/z/ru's bays. I'"rom the north point of the
latter well into the mouth of the Kuskoquim extend wide shoals
along shore. The same is true in a still greater degree of the
opposite shore. This bay is called Ktiskoqiihn Bay from the great
river which empties into it. Under a lii\e drawn from the north
point of Cjoodii'jws \?ay to Cape Avlnoff, the greatest depth
between the shoals is eight fathoms. In kit. 59' 48' is the bar
with only two fathoms, and a little lower down the channel is
divided by a sand-bar which has six fathoms in the narrow
channel to the east, and only two in the broader western one.

West of the mouth of the Kuskoquim the shore is moderately
low, with very broad shoals exlentling from ten to twenty-five
miles off shore. ICntering Etoliii Strait, sometimes marked as
Cook's Strait, we have to the west of us Ni'mivak "Island, and to
the east the coast of the continent, fringed with broad shoals,
and indented with large, shallow bays. 1 he southeast point of
the island, which has rocks off of it for several miles, is calleil
Cafe li toll II, after tiie explorer of the strait. The average depth
is five to eight fathoms, deeper toward the island.

Nunivak is lightly woodeil in sheltered parts, anil contains
many high hill.s. It is inhabited by Innuit, very degrailed and
filthy, but noted for the beauty of their ivory weapons and kyaks.
Tobacco traiU.'s well here. There are no harbors in Nunivak.
The island is of a triangular shape, lowest toward the north.

The east head of the northern entrance to the ^itrait is Cafe
Vaiiroiiiur, m hit. 60° 36' N., Ion. \6$'' 15' W. The west head
is Ca/'t- KInaiiicliciiko in lat. 60° 42' N. and Ion. 165° 50' W.
The former is elevated and hilly.

North of Cape Vancouver is EtoIiii Ihiv, a wide and shallow
indentation of the coast into which the Kwinchagak River falls a
mile or two south of lat. 61" N. The north shore of the hay
trends nearly cast and west; about Ion. [65" 15' it bends more
toward the north, and in Ion. 166° 10' VV. and hit. Ci° 14' N.
is the first of a series of capes which make out from the coast,
enclosing a series of bays more or less shallow. The maiidand i.'^
rolling with low hills. These ca]K's, with one exce|)tion, beini;
unnamed, it has been proposed to dedicate them to the later
explorers on the Yukon. The first has been named Cape l\'/ty»i-

GEOGRAl'IIY OF ALASKA.

263

ard, intersected
h point of the
nd wide shoals
r degree of the
from the great
from the north
greatest depth
' 48' is the bar
the channel is
in the narrow
r western one.
i is moderately
to twenty-five
nes marked as
'Island, and to
I broad shoals,
iheast i)oint of
iiilcs, is called
average depth
1.

, and contains

degraded and

;)ns and kyaks.

s in Nunivak.

he norlli.

;itrait is Cixpc

['he west h<;ad

1^)5° 50' W.

e and shallow
c River falls a

e of the bay
t bentis more
t. 61" 14' N.

im the coast,

c mainland is

:e[)tion, being

to the lattT

Cape Why III-

per. The next to the northward in lat. 61" 22' and Ion. 166"
24' has received the name of Cape Dall. The next, a high pro-
nioatory, from which a long arm exteiuls some eight miles in a
norlherly direction, is Cape Romdiizoff, named after the Russian
nobleman and statesman who fitted out Kotzebue's expedition.
The southern and boldest portion of the cape is situated in Ion.
166" \f and lat. 01° 29' ami the western face trends, witli some
indentations, in a nearly north and south direction. On the Rus-
sian charts shoal water is laid down extending several miles out
from the cape, with six fathoms six miles from shore.

North of Cape Romanzofr is a shallow bay with three fathoms
off the entrance. The next, t'<{/'r Smith (named for Captain E.
v.. Smith, to whom we owe the first chart of the Yukon delta), is
a long, low point extending in a northeast direction, the extreme
end being in lat. 61° 47' and Ion. 166' 23' 30." In the narrow
bay north of this cai)e, which has not been sounded, two small
streams empty. The north shore of this is formed by Cape Dyer
(named for Lieutenant J. T. Dyer, who assisted in the recounois-
sance of the Yukon- mouth), a moderately high, rouniled cape,
the extremity of which is in Ion. i''>6' oS' and lat. 61° 49'.* Its
trend is nearly parallel with Cape Smith. North of Cape
Dvor, the shore treiuls in a southerly and easterly direction, ten
or twelve miles, to the mouth of the Kun or Maria Louisa River,
so named by Captain Smith, b'rom tliis i).;int the coast takes a
northerly direction to the mouth of the Muganolwik River, in lat.
Gf N. Seven miles off the coast are two long islands, t)r dry
sand-bars, known as the Sandy Islands. The southwest point of
the southern island is .dx miles distant from the iH)rth shore of
Cape Dyer. I.etween them we have three and a half, four, and
eight fathoms going from l'>i' cape to th(; island. ICastward from
the same point on tlv; cape wo fiiul three and a half, three, one
and a half, two, one and a half, and o\w fathom to the shore, nine
inilus north of the river mcuth. North of this point, between the
islaiuls and the coast, and beyomi, to the mouth of the Kipniuk
or Black River, in lat. 62" 12' and Ion. 165, the shore in strong
north winds is dry for a tlistauce of six or seven miles iVom the
US' A\ oast line.

* TIr' l.ttitvule aiul longiludc ot" those c.ipcs is ai)i)ii)\iin.iic, tlctcnniiitil In hearings
fioiu (.'.MH' IvomanzolT.

r •
.''!8ii

Ol'l

)lii.:i

tl-::

! "i''iihi

"Mil

.k^'

264

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

The bay north and east of Cape Dyer and southeast of the
southern sand island, it is proposed to call Scammon Bay, in
honor of Captain C. M. Scammon, U. S. R. S., Chief of Marine
of the Western Union Telegraph Expedition. It affords good
anchorage for small vessels except in a northwest wind. The
country in from this part of the coast is low, marshy, and full
of small sloughs, lakes, and rivers.

From the mouth of the Kipni'uk River to Pdstol Bay the coast
is occupied with the Yukon delta. It is everywhere low and
nearly level ; from Cape D)er to Cape SJialloiv Water of Cook
{Point Romanoff and Point Azido^akak of the Russian charts)
there are no landmarks whatever.

The water off this part of the coast is very shallow, and close
to shore is often nearly dry in strong northers, with the exception
of the Kiisilvak and Kutlik channels. The Kipni'uk or BlacI:
River is a narrow and rather shallow streaui, and eniplic lu

three or four sloughs, the most northerly of which has been ci' d

the Devils Slong/t, because it is so extremely tortuous. Here
immense quantities of wild fowl breed ; eggs and birds in their
season are found in incalculable numbers. At the mouth of al-
most every slough or river, Innuit villages may be found. North-
east three or four miles from the mouth of the Devil's Slough is a
small river, at the mouth of which is situated the Ti'e-atee-cgc-
nint villaere. About five miles farther in the same direction is
the mouth of the SontJi Slough of the Yukon. This is one of
the longest and most .shallow of the Yukon-mouths. It is fre-
quently too dry for the passage of bidarkas. North of this
mouth off shore are five dry sand-bars or islands. Northeast
three miles is the mouth of the Kiisilvak Slough. This is the
true Yukon-mouth, being the only one which carries a deep
channel out to sea. The mouth of the Kiisilvak is in (approx-
imate) Ion. 164° W. and lat. 62° 26' N. There is a village on the
south point called Kioei'-ahogevint, and one on the north point
known as Oniisr-antio-ejnnt. lietwcen them we have nine fathoms,
and the depth decreases as we ascend the slough about a fathom
a mile, until we have four or five fathoms, which may be carried
up the Yukon without interruption, three hundred miles, to the
mouth of the Anvik River.

Passing to the westward from between the villages, the channel

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

265

ithcast of the
Tinon Bay, in
lief of Marine
affords good
it wind. The
irshy, and full

Bay the coast
here low and
VatcT of Cook
ussian charts)

low, and close

I the exception

ni'uk or Black

id eniplic- 1m

las been ci'. ..tl

irtuous. Here

birds in their

e mouth of al-

ound. Nortli-

il's Slough is a

e Ti'c-atcc-cgc-

je direction is

his is one of

ths. It is fre-

North of this

Is. Northeast

This is the

arries a deep

is in (approx-

village on the

le north point

nine fathoms,

bout a fathom

nay be carried

miles, to the

s, the channel

goes between the two largest sand-bars, carrying nine, eight, sev-
en, and just between the eastern points of the bars five, three,
and at last two and a half fathoms, about eight miles from the
mouth of the Kiisilvak. This is the shallowest place. Thence
the channel trends southwesterly, with three and three and a half
fathoms, then passing on either side of a long bar, on the north
side we get four fathoms steadily for as many miles, when it de-
creases off the point of the long bar to three, then three and a
half, four, and five, gradually trending in a more southerly direc-
tion as far as sounded, which was about eight miles west of the
mouth of the Kipni'uk River. This channel, is indicated in the
map which accompanies Baer and Helmersen's Beitrage (St. Pe-
tersburg, 1839), though without any soundings. That map was
probably drawn from information derived from the explorations
of Glasunoff, in 1835-38, through Admiral Wrangell.

The length of the Kiisilvak is about forty-five miles, and its
course from the mouth is nearly southeast. It is three or four
miles in width. The point north of the mouth separates it from a
wide but shallow slough, named the American mouth by Captain
Smith. This trends in a northeast direction, and opens into the
Kwilxlipak mouth of the Yukon. This is wide, but also shallow,
and ofiers no navigable channel by which to enter the Yukon. It
debouches on the coast about lat. 62° 41'. For a description of the
many and intricate sloughs which intersect the delta, the reader is
referred to the map. The Kwikhpak is about fifty miles long.

71ie most northern slough or mouth of the Yukon opens into Pas-
tel Br^y, and has a depth of three fathoms. It is called the Uplioon
by ",:ie Russians. Through this slough the goods for the trading-
' ts 01 the Yukon and Kuskoqufm were always carried. Their
•oi,v> . \ '!s about as follows. Taking advantage of a high tide,
the I' .c frcm Redoubt St. Michael's entered the northern end of
the cho \ ji or Canal which separates the island of St. Michael's
from th ; mainland. On the bar at this entrance five feet of water
may be obtained in the channel during spring tides. Once over
this bar, which is about two miles broad, two fathoms or more
wat' r is found in the Canal. Passing through the Canal and by
the mouth of the Pikmiktalik River, the next difficulty is experi-
nccd off Point Romanoff. Here the water is very shallow for a
' " ( distance offshore ; three miles out, at a proper season of the

266

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

'I!: ■ 'I

tide, four or five feet may be obtained. With a north wind all
this is nearly dry. A pilot is needed to carry the vessel through
the shallows of Pastol Bay ; but once over them and into the
Uphoon, no further trouble is experienced. Vessels diawing not
over four feet can in this way safely enter the Yukon. The tides
at the Yukon-mouth average three feet, spring tides five feet, but
the rise is greater just inside the mouths on account of the slack
water. There is but little saltness to the water off the delta, and
it is discolored for miles out of sight of land. There is little doubt
that the shallow plateau of Bering Sea is due to the detritus
brought down by the Yukon, Kuskoqi'iim, and other rivers. Near
the mouth of the Uphoon there is a Russian house and barrabora
called Kutlik. Not far beyond is the village of Pas to I ik, at the
mouth ' ^'v' Pastolik River, and the shore of Pastol Bay curves
gently to. :he east and north to Point Romiinoff. A small

stream, the i ...itoliak, comes in from the lakes and marshes back
of Pastolik.

Point Romanoff is a solitary rounded hill of metamorphic sili-
cious rock, in lat. 63° 06' and Ion. 162° 48' W. (approximate). It
forms the north extremity of Pastol Bay. Beyond it the coast is
low, strewn with volcanic rocks, and trending eastward and north-
eastward to tb'^ mouth of the Pikmiktalik River. Northeast eidit
miles in Ion. 162° W. is the southwestern entrance of the Canal,
Due north is the channel between Stuart and St. Mkliacl isl-
ands. In the north entrance to this channel three fathoms may
be obtained, with shelter from most winds, and great abundance
of dry driftwood, much of it large enough for masts or .spars,
West and southwest of the north point of Stuart Island, the line
of three fathoms may be drawn, extending southward along the
coast to the Kiisilvak Channel, thirty miles off shore. The water
shoals very gradually, and the bottom is soft and makes good hold-
ing ground. The shores of the islands are rocky, and offer few
good points for landing. Good water cannot be obtained upon
them.

In Tdbaikoff Cove, on the eastern point of St. Michael Island,
is situated Redoubt St. Jl/ie/iae/, in lat. 65° 28' and Ion. 161°
51' 54" (Kellett). Northeast ten miles from the eastern point
of St. Michael's Island is E^^ Islaud, about which anchorage in
three and a half fathoms, mud and shell, may be obtained. Two

)•

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

167

north wind all
vessel through
I and into the
Is diavving not
on. The tides
:s five feet, but
it of the slack

the delta, and
e is little doubt
to the detritus
;r rivers. Near

and barrabora
Pastolik, at the
5tol Bay curves
in off- A small
\ marshes back

itamorphic sili-
proximate). It
d it the coast is
i^ard and north-
S^ortheast eight

e of the Canal,
St. Michael isl-

;e fathoms may

eat abundance

nasts or spars,
sland, the line

vard along the
c. The water

akes good hold-
, and offer few

obtained upon

^Tichacl Island,
and Ion. 161
eastern point
anchorage in
btained. Two

and a half fathoms may be carried well up into the Cove, until
opposite the boat-house. This is the best place for small vessels.
The rise and fall of tides in the Cove will not average over four
feet. The second tide is very uncertain, and sometimes hardly
perceptible. They all depend much upon the wind. A strong
north wind will sometimes diminish the depth of water by six
feet in twenty-four hours, and a strong south wind may raise the
water three or four feet in the same time. Vessels coming in to
the Cove should keei? well off shore until past Egg Island. The
small cove where boats land is full of rocks, and care should be
taken to avoid one which lies directly in the middle of the en-
trance. Fresh fish, game, or deer meat can usually be obtained
here by vessels. Good water can be obtained directly on the
shoro of the mainland, in a small rocky cove opposite the Re-
doubt.

The shores of Norton Sound, trending eastwardly and northeast-
wardly to Tolstoi Point, arc rocky, and present no boat harbors or
good landing-places. A few — the Majors Cove, Kegiktoivriik
Coir, and a cove near the mouth of the Golsova River — afford
some protection for skin boats. Beyond, and close under Tolstoi
Point, small vessels will find protection from south and southeast
winds, in four fathoms, sandy bottom. Beyond we have a narrow
sandy beach, covered to the base of the perpendicular bluffs at
high water. Off the mouth of the Unalakli'k River extensive shoals
prevail, but three miles off shore five fathoms may be obtained.
The fort at the mouth of the river, according to Kashcvarofif, is in
lat. 6^" 52' 36" and Ion. 161° 51' 54". North-northwest from the
fort lies Besboroitgh Island, in lat. 64° 06' 30" and Ion. 161° 07'.
This is probably too far east, and neither of the above positions
can be relied upon.

Inside of Besborough Island, anchorage may be obtained in
four fathoms in northerly and easterly weather. The water near
the shores and in the greater part of Norton Bay is very shal-
low ; hardly deep enough for boats in the head of the bay. Cape
Iknbigh on the east and Cape Darby on the west form the
heads. Numerous shallow rivers empty into the bay. The coun-
try east of Norton Sound and Bay rises into rolling hills from
five to fifteen hundred feet in height. West of Cape Darby
IS Golofiilna Bay, named by Etolin from the vessel in which he

Ms ^'

268

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

explored it in 1820. The shores are high and rocky, and good
protection from all winds is reported at the head of the bay, in j
four fathoms, sand. Here a shallow lagoon, known as Golovin\
Sound, empties. From the similarity of the names some con-
fusion has resulted. This lagoon is said to be connected, by the!
Fish River and a series of lakes, with Grantlcy Harbor, so that, in
summer, skin boats may pass from the one to the other without a
portage. The northern shores of Norton Sound are high and
rolling. Point Nome, the most southern land west of Golofni'na
Bay, is situated in Ion. 165°. Beyond it, the coast trends in a
northwesterly direction to Point Rodney and Bering Strait. The
former is situated in lat. 64° 39' and Ion. 166° 18', according to
Beechey. Aziak or Sledge Island of Cook, on the same authority,
is in lat. 64° 29' 30" and Ion. 166° 01' 30," about eleven miles off
shore, tlkivok or King Island is situated in lat. 64° 58' 30" and [
Ion. 167° 58'.

Port Clarence is protected on the south and west by a long I
low point of land, and affords a secure anchorage. On a small
sand-spit is the Innuit village of Nodkmut. Grantlcy Harbor is
situated at the head of the bay, and affords excellent anchorage in [
four fathoms. This harbor is perfectly protected, and vessels of
various exploring expeditions have frequently wintered there. A I
large lagoon or lake opens into it from the east, near Tdksnmut |
village.

The nort'^ern shore of Port Clarence is high, and trends north-
ward and westward to Cape Prince of Wales. This, the most|
western land of the American continent, is situated in lat. 65°
33' 30" and Ion. 167° 59' 12". The native name is King-dgan.
North of it the shore is low and gradually trends more and more |
to the eastward, the only indentation being the shallow Shishma-
re ff Inlet. About Ion. 163° 34', Cape Spanbcrg forms the most I
northern point of the peninsula, and the western head of Kotzcbiu\
Sound.

The great peninsula enclosed by the waters of Norton Bay and I
Sound, Bering Strait, the Arctic Ocean, and Kotzebue Sound, it
is proposed to call the Kdviak Pcninsida, from the native name |
of Kavi-fak and the Kaviak Innuit who inhabit it.

Kotzebue Sound is comparatively shallow, fourteen fathoms |
being the greatest depth reported. To the eastward it is pro-

! M'

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

269

nd trends north-

longed into several shallow inlets. Escholtz Inlet or Bay, known
as Kihiguk to the natives, receives the waters of the Kiinguk
River. Hot/iam Inlet receives the Inland and Kowak rivers,
and through Selawik Lake the waters of the Selawik River.

From Cape Kritsenstern, the nor^h head of the Sound, the
coast trends to the northwest, with many shallow lagoons along
shore. The country inland is generally low, with a few hills. In
lat. 68° 21' Point Hope projects into the sea. It is a long, low,
sandy point, and reaches Ion. 166° 48', with a shoal extending
several miles west of it. North of it the coast is high, to Cape
Lisbnrne, in lat. G$^ 56' and Ion. 166° 08'. Here the shore trends
suddenly eastward to Cape Beaufort, in lat. 69° 13' and Ion. 163°
34' Northeasterly the coast is again low, and we reach Icy Cape
of Look, in lat. 70° 20' and Ion. 161° 40'. The next cape. Point
Bamiv, is the most northern land of Alaska territory, and is situ-
ated ill lat. 71° 27'. The coast now turns to the eastward and
southward, and about twenty-two miles from Point Barrow is
Dense Inlet, a shallow and deep indentation of the coast. In Ion.
150° 42' the Colvile River empties into the Arctic Ocean. Pro-
ceeding eastward, we finally arrive at Demarcation Point, in lat.
69^ 40' and Ion. 141° of 30" W., which brings us nearly to the
boundary line. The whole northern coast is low, without good
harbors, and fringed with numerous shoals. Inland it rises into
hills and low mountains, which have been plentifully bespattered
with names by the English explorers. The most important, as
regards height, is the Romanzoff range. There are a few villages
of the western Eskimo along the coast, and between Point Bar-
row and Cape Lisburne.

It may not be out of place here to mention that East Cape, the
most eastern land of Asia, is situated in lat. 66° 03' 06", and Ion.
169° 43' 48", according to Beechey. From Cape Prince of Wales
to East Cape is fifty-four miles, from the former lu Fairway Rock
i!i nineteen miles, thence to Ratmanoff Island thirteen miles, and
thence to East Cape twenty-two miles. Nine miles northwest ot
Cape Chukotski, the most southern land of the Chiikchee penin-
sula, is the entrance to Plover Bay, in lat. 64° 23' 30" and Ion.
173° 26'. This fine bay is the general rendezvous of the whalers
and trading vessels in the fall. It contains several very good
anchorages, the most protected of which is Snug Harbor, at the

illi

•::

mil,

■■ \

270

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

north end of the hay, behind IV/ialc hhiud. Here, and in livnna
Harbor, another arm of the bay, any vessel might safely winter.
The bay is surrounded on all sides by high, rocky hills, the prin-
cipal of which, Mount Kennicott, I found to be 2,343 ^^^'t h'o'i.
The rounded hill which fronts the sea to the cast of the entrance
is known as J3ald Head. The barren hills give this bay a cheer-
less aspect to the landsman ; but sailors will find comfort in the
bountiful supply of good water, the secure anchorage, and tlie
tame reindeer meat and fish which may be obtained from the na-
tives. Scurvy grass is abundant on the sandspit in the bay, but
no wood, except a little driftwood, can be found.

The principal ports to the southward are Nizni (or lower)
Kamchatka, at the mouth of the Kamchatka River, and Petro-
pavlovsk. The latter is situated on Niakina Cove, Avdtclia Bay,
and was founded in 1739 by Ivan Jelagin, Ikring's pilot, and
named after the two vessels of the expedition. It is at present
without a garrison, and probably does not contain over fifteen
hundred inhabitants. It is the residence of the Governor of
Kamchatka, and the principal port of the peninsula. An excel-
lent view of it, by Frec'^rick Whympcr, may be found in the Lon-
don edition of Hartwig's " Polar World."

River System. — The Pacific watershed of Alaska is much
smaller than that of Bering Sea. In most places the mountains
approach closely to the seashore, and the water discharged by the
rivers is collected far inland, and forces its way to the sea through
some narrow pass or perpendicular canon. Much of the rainfall
is congealed on these lofty summits, and finally reaches the sea
by slow degrees as a glacier-torrent.

Just east of the boundary line, the Nasse River o^ F.fitish Co-
lumbia debouches into Observatory Inlet. It is one of the most
prolific in fish of the rivers that flow into the Pacific. Its course,
as determined by the Western Union Telegraph explorers, is very
difierent from that laid down for it on most maps. Rising in a
small lake, near the head-waters of the Skoot River, it flows south-
ward about fifty miles, then southeast and southwest in a broad
curve, until it falls into the Inlet. Part of its course is narrow
and rapid, over falls and through caiions, near which are Indian
fishing villages. It is not navigable for more than a quarter of
its length. At its mouth is an English trading-post.

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

271

re, and m/ti/nna
ht safely winter,
y^ hills, the prin-

2,343 <"^t;t hi-;h.

of the entrance
:his bay a cheer-
d comfort in the
borate, and the
ned from the na-
t in the bay, but

STizni (or lower)
liver, and Petro-
z'c; Avdicha Bay,
ring's pilot, and
It is at present
tain over fifteen
he Governor of
snla. An excel-
)und in the Lon-

\laska is much
;s the mountains
ischargcd by the

the sea through
of the rainfall

reaches the sea

"r of Efitish Co-
one of the most
ific. Its course,
xplorers, is very
3S. Rising in a
■, it flows south-
west in a broad
ourse is narrow
k'hich are Indian
m a quarter ot

3St.

The next river of large size is the Stikiiic. This has become
well known on account of the gold-diggings on its banks. These
arc all situated in British territory. The course of the Stikine
has been determined by the explorers of the Western Union Tele-
graph lv\pedition. One of their stations was situated near the
mouth of the north fork in lat. 57^ 28' N. and Ion. 129° 56' \V.

The head-waters of the South Fork and I'ittfiekl branch extend
as far cast as Ion. 127°. The entire length is over two hundred
and fifty miles, and it is navigable only for boats.* The North Fork
is about forty miles long, and rises on the east side of the Bald
Mountains, near the head-waters of the Yukon. The Russians,
under Commander Bassarguinc, explored the river for about
sixty-five miles in 1863.

A small stream, called the Taku (not Tahco), flows into Glacier
Arm of Stephen's Strait. About 1840 it was ascended for
thirty-five miles, by Mr. Douglas of the Hudson Bay Company.
It is less than sixty miles in length, and on old maps was usually
prolonged far into the interior, and confounded with the Tahco
River, one of the streams which form the Yukon. This error was
corrected by the Telegraph explorers. The current is very rapid ;
the stream is narrow, flowing between stupendous mountains,
and navigable only for canoes, with frequent portages.

The Chilkdht River, a much larger stream, enters the northern
extremity of Tynn Chann d. The general direction of this river is
from the north. It is said to flow between bare and precipitous
cliffs, destitute of timber. The Indians ascend it, against a very
rapid current, in twenty days, when they make a portage by sev-
eral lakes to the Lewis River, a tributary of the Yukon. This
portage is laid down on the map which accompanies this volume,
from an Indian sketch map. The river is probably a hundred
miles long, with numerous branches. Iron ore is reported by
Mr. Davidson to exist in the vicinity of the mouth.

Northwest of Cape Fairweather the river Alsckli flows by five
mouths into the sea. The ground through which these pass is so
low, that at very high water it is covered by the sea, forming a
lagoon fifteen miles long and twelve wide, which has received the
name of Dry Bay. It was named by La Pcrouse Bering s River,
and is supposed to be a .short stream.

*'' It is said, during tiie s])ring fresineis, which greatly swell the river, to be navigable
for small steamers, with difficulty, for a hundred miles or more.

i(-

272

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

'! M

In lat. 60° 17' and Ion. 145° 20' lies the mouth of the Atm
or Copper River. The delta is thirty miles long by four or five
wide, and is overgrown with willow. The principal mouth is
at the northwest end of the delta. Here is an Innuit vilh.^e
(Alaganik). The lower part of the river flows through low
ground, with many lakes. Our knowledge of the course of
this river is due to the researches of a Russian, named Scre-
brdnikoft^, and is rather dubious. He was killed by the native-
for his bad conduct, but his papers were delivered up. Thcit
are said to be rapids seventeen miles above the delta, and from
them the river pursues a northerly course. About one hun-
dred miles above the rapids a branch called the Chccliiiiw falls
into the Copper River. At this point a single Russian re-
mained for a few years and traded with the natives. A river
enters from the west, which heads in a lake from which a port-
age can be made to the Fire {Knik) River, which falls into
Cook's Inlet. Little is really known about the Atna River, but
the banks are said to be mountainous, well wooded, and with r
casional glaciers. The precise locality of the copper from which
it takes its name is unknown. It is found in rolled masses of
native metal, similar to that found in the Lake Superior district,
and the locality is supposed to be within a hundred miles of the
mouth. It has long been an article of trade with the Indians;
one of the articles which Bering's expedition found on the coast
where they landed in 1741, was a whetstone on which copper
knives had been sharpened. The natives knew nothing of iron
before the traders came, but it was an easy matter to beat a rude
knife out of native copper.

No streams of any size fall into Chugach Gulf Two, however,
empty into Cook's Inlet.

The Knik * or Fire River falls into Turnagain Arm from the
northeast. It was examined by Cook and Vancouver. It is only
navigable for twelve miles, when it becomes wide and shallow.
The Russians are said to have ascended it in skin boats to a lake
called Plavdjiio, whence by portage and river travel the Copper
River may be reached. Our knowledge of it is slight, and it is
supposed to be less than one hundred miles long.

A few miles northwest of the Fire River mouth lies the mouth

* Erroneously written Kuyck, Kweek, Knuyk, Kook, &c.

GEOGRAI'HY OF ALASKA.

^73

Two, however,

of the Suchitna River, with a broad shoal across it. M;ilakoff is
said to have explored it in 1834. Its course is mapped from
Russian sources, and it is supposed to be several hundred miles
long, but we know nothing of it with certainty.

On the east shore of the Inlet are the small StaricJikoff and
Kdkna rivers. They are insignificant streams fed by glaciers.
In the sands of the latter, Doroshin was said to have found
gold.

West of Augustin Island is a small stream, by which, through
the mountain gorges, a portage is made to Lake Ilidmua. From
the northwest slope of the peninsula of Aliaska several small
rivers flow into Bristol Bay. The country between and at the
bases of the high mountains, which form the prolongation of the
Alaskan Range in the peninsula, is very low and marshy. In
many places large lakes are found, some of which are so near
the level of the sea that the water is brackish. These empty into
the sea by rivers on either side, and it is said, that in some places
a portage, or rather passage, can be made in canoes from one
shore of the peninsula to the other, hardly lifting the canoe out
of water during the journey. The larger of the rivers which
flow into Bristol Bay as we go eastward are the Siilima, the
Ugagtik, the Ndknek, and the Kzuieliak. All derive their water
from lakes of lesser or greater size, and the last from the great
Lake Iliamna. This lake, though known for a generation, is yet
unexplored. It is supposed to be rather shallow, and is known to
be over eighty miles long, and about twenty-four broad, — fully
half as large as Lake Ontario. It has been mapped as SluHikoff
Lake, but the native name is quite as appropriate and more
euphonious.

North of Bristol Bay is situated Fort Alexandra, one of the
Russian trading-posts, at the mouth of the Ntishcrgdk River.
This is a large stream, but shallow, and the harbor is a poor one.
This river is very tortuous, flowing between hills, and deriving it-^
supply from large mountain lakes.

In lat. 61° 20' N. the head-waters of a branch of the Kusko-
quim interlock with those of the Nushergak.

On the right bank a large stream, called the Aleknagdk, falls
into the Nushergak near its mouth, heading in a large lake of
the same name. About seventy-five miles above the Russian
18

2 74

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

illlll

post, another river is said to come in from the westward. The
head-waters of the Nushergak arc in a very mountainous country,
said to be volcanic.

The whole length of the river is said to be about one hundred
and fifty miles, but no satisfactory explorations have yet been
made. To the westward a chain of rivers and lakes is said, on
the authority of the natives, to connect with the head-waters ol
the A/i/ii-'i' RiviT, which falls into the Kuskoqiiim. The winter
mail to aiid from the K61mako(T Redoubt on the Kuskoqiiim is
carried by natives, who go up the Nushergdk, crossing to the
Hulitnak River, passing down that to the Kuskoqiiim, and then
down the Kuskoqiiim fiftv miles to the Redoubt. No white man
has ever penetrated into this wilderness, and the reports of the
natives greatly magnify the rugged character and grand scenery
of the portage. One part of it is said to be made through a
chasm ony a few yards wide between two volcanic mountains.
Zeolites, sulphur, and blue carbonate of copper have been received
as from this region, and the goshawk is said to abound there.

In lat. 60° N. Ion. 162° W., at the head of Kuskoqiiim Bay, the
Kuskoquim River enters the sea. This is the second larofesi
river in Alaska, and the largest whose watershed is confir
the terriiory. In latitude it extends from 60° to nearly t
and in longitude from 153° to 162° W. Its total length is esti-
mated at between five and six hundred miles. Its principal
tributary is the HuHtnak, before mentioned. The head-waters,
though annually visited by traders, have never been satisfactorily
explored or mapped.

In 1832, Ivan Simdnsen Lukeen, a Creole,* was sent, with a
party of natives, up the Nushergdk River to explore the portage
to the Hulitnak River and the Kuskoquim beyond. In 1818
the mouth had been visited by Korsakoff, and in 1820, K61-
makoff, bidarshik of Nushergdk Fort, explored the river for a
considerable distance. Trading parties annually visited it, but
no post was established until Luke^n's expedition, though K61-
makoif made a second visit there in 1830. About fifty miles

* Ivan Lukeen, was born of Russian and Spanish-American Creole parsnts, iii the
Ri)SS colony in California, about 1820, according to his own st.itcmcnt to mc. lie was
well educated in the Sitka school, and proved active, energetic, and intelligent. At
the time of his expedition he was acting as clerk for Kolmakoflf. He was extremely
short, muscular, of a swarthy complexion, and pleasant good-humored expression.

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

275

below the mouth of the HuHtnak on the Kuskoquim, Lukccn
built a quadrangular stockade, enclosing several buildings, which
was called Lukeen's Fort. He was installed as commander, and
reigned there, so to speak, for seven years. An excellent inter-
preter, speaking the Innuit languages of the Lower Ki.skoquim
with fluency, he adopted a mode of life not dissimiar in some
respects to that of the natives, among whom he att^'ined great
iuthience. In 1835, Glasunoff explored the mouth of the Kusko-
quim, and from that time forth the post was elevated to the
dignity of a Redoubt, for which the supplies were carried in
boats up the river. In 1841 some parts of the post were de-
stroyed with fire by the Indians. Kolmakoff, then Uprovali'sha
of Fort Alexandra at Nushergak, was sent to the Kuskoquim and
rebuilt the Redoubt, which then took his name. In 1SC6 the
garrison, in charge of Uprovalfsha Dementoft", was withdrawn,
and the post dismantled. After the establishment of posts on
the Lower Yukon, the goods for Kolmakoff Redoubt were carried
up the Yukon and across a portage, in lat. 61° 40' 30", to the Kus-
koquim. This was done on account of the diffi' ulty of taking
goods up stream against the rapid current of the Kuskoquim.

About latitude Ci'' N. a small river, known as the K^ciiic/iagdk,
debouches into the shallow waters of Etolin Bay northeast of
Cape Vancouver. It has not been explored, but is known to
be shallow, and is supposed to be about fifty miles long.

North of Cape Dyer, a small river, called by Captain Smith
the Maria Louisa River {Kitn of the Innuit), empties into Scam-
nion Bay. Ten miles from the mouth is a native settlement,
known as Kuttenmut. Several other shallow streams come to
the coast between Scammon Bay and the Yukon delta. These
are, as we go northward, the Muganoloxvik, the Popes River, the
Black or Kipniuk River, and the Tec'-at-iokiink River. All of
these were formerly supposed to be sloughs of the Yukon, and
arc mapped as such on most maps. The Black River is the
largest, and is supposed to be about fifty miles long.

The Yukon delta occupies the coast between lat. 62° 21' and
62° 50' and extends inland nearly sixty miles. The deepest
mouth and true channel is the Kusilvak, but the widest is the
Kxvikhpak. The Russians entering the delta by the UpJioou or
northern mouth, which opens into the Kwi'khpak, and KMrning

m:I|||

IP'

Ml!

i'l

if:

f I

276

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

that name from the Innuit tribes at the mouth, have erroneously
applied it to the whole river, much as a person first entering the
Ganges might apply the name Hooghly to the whole river, from
the circumstance that he entered it by that mouth. The delta
has already been described in the account of the coast.

The head-waters of the Yukon were known to the traders and
trappers of the Hudson Bay territory early in this century, hi
1837, Glasunoff explored the delta of the Yukon, and ascended [
the river as far as the mouth of the Anvik River. The follow-
ing year, Malakoff explored as far as Nulato, where a post wa'>
established under the command of Notarmi. The garrison
returned to St. Michael's in the winter, and the natives burnt
the fort during their absence. In 1841 a permanent post was
established by Derabin. In 1S42, Lieutenant Zagoskin reached
Nulato, and in the spring ascended the Yukon as far as Nowi-
kakat. Here he turned back and reported that it was impossible
for skin boats to ascend any farther. In 1847, McMurray de-
scended the Porcupine River and founded the tniding-post of
Fort Yukon. Soon after, Mr. Robert Campbell descended the
Upper Yukon from Fort Selkirk, at the mouth of the Lewis
River, to Fort Yukon. In the autumn of i860, Rcbert Kennicott
arrived at Fort Yukon, and in the spring of 186 1 descended as
far as the Small Houses.

About this time the Russians began to visit Nuklukahy^t to
trade in the spring. Strachan Jones, Esq., commander at Fort
Yukon, had sent several parties of Indians to trade at the same
point, and in 18G2 descended the Yukon in boats, as lar as Nowi-
kakat, thus really completing the chain of exploration begun by
Zagoskin. Still, as there was no communication between the
English and Russians, the identity of the Yukon with the
Kwi'khpak of the Russians remained unknown. The Russinn
chief trader at St. Michael heard of the visit of the English, and
determined to find out something about the English fort, of wliicli
vague rumors had reached him through the Indians. Ivaii
Simonsen lAikeen, before mentioned, was selected for this duty;
he accompanied the trading party to Nuklukahyct, and left tliem
there, reaching Fort Yukon, with the assistance of the Indians, in
the summer of 1863. He remained long enough to fulfil his
instructions, pretending to be a runaway from the Russian ser-

ii- ,.

.ii

GEOGRAPHY OK ALASKA.

277

vice; then stole away by night and reached Nuh'ito in his canoe in
safety. Lukeen, therefore, was the first man to ascend the Yukon
from the sea, and to determine its identity with the Kwikhpak.
The Russian Company took no action in the matter, and the
information thus obtained was not made public. In the spring
of 1866, Frank E. Ketchum, of St. John, New Bruiiswick, with
Michael Lebarge, of Montreal, Canada, explorers for the Western
Union Telegraph Expedition, in pursuance of orders received
previous to the death of their commander, Robert Kennicott,
ascended the Yukon to P'ort Yukon in a bidiirka with Lukeen,
who now a second time visited the English post. They returned
to Nulato, and crossed the portage to St. Michael's. In the
month of March, 1867, the same undaunted explorers, without
Lukeen, undertook their perilous journey with dogs and sleds,
and arrived safely. May 9th, at Fort Yukon. Here they remained
until the ice was well out of the river. May 2Sth of the same
year, Frederick Whymper, of London, and the writer started for
Fort Yukon in a bidarni, arriving there June 23d. Meanwhile
Ketchum and Lebarge had pushed their investigations in canoes
as far as Fort Selkirk. They returned to Fort Yukon, and in
company we descended to the Yukon -mouth, and proceeded by
sea to St. Michael's. During the summer, Peter McLeod, an
employd of the Hudson I3ay Company, ran away, and descended
the river to Nulato, afterward crossing by the portage to the
Redoubt. We are the only party who (up to 1868) have de-
scended from the Upper Yukon to the sea by the river.

In August, 1867, Michael Byrnes, of British Columbia, explored
the head-waters of the Yukon from Lakes Kennicott and Ket-
chum to Tahco Lake. At this point he was recalled, as the sus-
pension of operations by the Telegraph Company rendered his
services no longer necessary. The short distance between Lake
Lebarge and Tahco Lake is all that remains untn oden by the
white man. This portion of the river is well know Trom Indian
reports, so that ther^ is no question as to the identity of the
Tiihco and the Lewis rivers.

In 1867, Captain Elijah Everett Smith, of Edgartown, assisted
by Lieutenant Joseph T. Dyer, of Washington, I). C, explored
the delta of the Yukon, and to Captain Smith we owe the first
chart of it which approximates in any degree to accuracy.

1 ,i:

278

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

In the spring of 1868 the writer descended the Yukon from
Nulato to the sea, and then proceeded to the Redoubt.

This completes the history of the explorations of the Yukon.
Zagoskin, Surgeon Adams and Lieutenant Barnard, of H. M.
Enterprise in 185 1, the servants of the Hudson Bay ZiA Rus-
sian American Companies, one or two missionaries, Robert Ken-
nicott and the explorers of the Western Union Telegriph Expe-
dition, are the only white men who had visited the Yukon
previous to July, 1868, as far as is known to me.*

The following arrangement will show the length of the Yukon,
its various tributaries, posts, villages, and obstructions to naviga-
tion, more clearly than a mere description could do. The astro-
nomical positions are mostly approximate.

liil!

Head-waters Tdhco River.

Lake Kennicott, in lat. 57° 45',
Ion. 130° 45', true source of the
Yukon, and head of the West Fork
of the Tdhco.

Lake Ketchum, in lat. 58° 30',
Ion. 131° 10', head of the East
Fork. These two lakes are sepa-
rated only by a narrow portage from
nonhern affluents of the Stiki'ne
River. The two forks are on either
side of the Bald Mountains. The
West Fork is about 126 (English)
miles long, from Lake Kennicott
to its junction with the East Fork,
in lat. 59° 20', Ion. 132° 45'. Both
receive various small streams on
their way.

From the junction the Tdhco
flows through a valley, 38 miles,
into Vdtchee Lake (iq miles long),
thence, 32 miles, through another
small lake, into a canon, and over

Head-waters Pelly River.

Frances Lake, in lat. 61° 08',
Ion. 128°, on which was once situ-
ated Frances Fort, H. B. Co.

From the .V. E. end of Frances
Lake the Frances River flows, 49
miles, into Lake Finlayson, 23
miles long.

From Lake Finlayson, 27 miles,
to the Pelly River, flowing from the
Pelly lakes. At this junction Fort
Pelly Banks was once situated.

From Pelly Pinks, 95 miles, to
a sharp curve of 15 miles, at the
end of whicli are rapids with a bad
portage. On its way the Pelly re-
ceives four small streams from the
north and one from the south.

From the rapids, 35 miles, to the
mouth of Macmillan's River (215
miles long), and thence to the
lower rapids, 8 miles.

From Macmillan's River, which

* I have been unable to obtain any account of Kirkby's travels in the Hudson Bay
territory. He is indirectly mentioned by Dr. Petermann as having visited Fori
Yukon.

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

279

a rapid or cascade. Beyond, 12
miles, is another cascade, and the
river passes into Tdhco Lake, nar-
row, but 45 miles in length. From
Tahco Lake, through a small lake,
to Lebarge Lake, 58 miles. (Here
the Portage River [30 miles long]
flows into the Tahco, heading in a
lake from which the Indians make
a portage to the Chilkaht River,
by means of a series of lakes and
small rivers.) Through Lake Le-
barge, 20 miles long, to the mouth
of the Pelly, about 90 miles. Total
length of the Tahco, including
lakes, from Lake Kennicott to Fort
Selkirk, 437 miles.

drains the southern base of the
great bend of the Rocky Moun-
tains, 48 miles, to the mouth of the
Tdhco or Lewis River, where Fort
Selkirk (burned in 1851) was situ-
ated. Total length of the Frances
and Pelly, including lakes, from
Frances Lake (long erroneously
mapped as feeding the Liard River)
to Fort Selkirk, 300 miles. At
Fort Selkirk, Pinus contorta grows
six to ten feet high. This is the
most northern limit of true pines
on the Yukon,

YUKON RIVER.

Left Bank.

From Fort Selkirk to the mouth
of the White River (124 miles long,
heading in a large lake, and desig-
nated from the discoloration of the
water by a white clay or mud), 94
miles.

Right Bank.

From the mouth of the White
River to the mouth of the Stewart
River (132 miles long, north of the
Rocky Mountain range, and re-
ceiving many n duents and lakes,
on one of whicli II. B. Co.'s Reid

House was once es
miles.

This part of the Yukon cuts through the great bend of the
Rocky Mountain chain, and flows through a kind of canon. Cap-
tain Ketchum reports the scenery as extremely grand ; the Yukon
is narrow, deep, and very swift, but with no other obstruction to
navigation. The rocks were metamorphic quartzites and black
slates, according to his report and specimens brought down.

the Hudson Bay
i^ing visited Fori

Left Bank.

Mouth of the Deer River to the
month of an unnamed rii'er (50
miles long), 38 miles. Ten miles

Right Bank.

From the mouth of the Stewart
River to the mouth of the Forcier
River (35 miles long), 38 miles.

:[l

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280

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

farther another small stream flows
into the Yukon from the west.

Hence to the Deer River (40 miles
long), 37 miles.

Mouth of the nameless river to
that of the Sheep River, 31 miles.

In this vicinity the Yukon emerges from the mountains, be-
comes wider and full of islands. The banks are hilly, with abun-
dance of timber, game, moose and deer. The water of the Yukon,
above the mouth of the White River, is clear and dark. This clear
water and the white water from the tributary flow for many miles
side by side without mixing, but afterward the rapid current
forces them together, and the Yukon water is discolored to the
sea.

Left Bank.

Mouth of Antoine River to
mouth of the Kdtlo River (30 riiles
long, many bones of Pliocene ani-
mals reported by Rev. Mr. Mc-
Donald), 25 miles. At the mouth
is a rounded hill, called also Mount
Kdtlo, toward which, if arrows are
shot, say the Indians, they never
fall to the ground.

Some distance above Fort Yukon
a large slough cuts off the angle of
the bend, and enters ine Yukon
some distance below the mouth of
the Porcupine River. From this
slough it is not many days' journey
to the head-waters of the Tananah,
according to the Indians.

From Fort Yukon, in hit. 67°
12', Ion. 142° 35', to the Birch
River, 40 miles. (Recent astro-
nomical observations by Captain
Raymond, U. S. T. E., place it in
lat. 66° 34' N. and Ion. 144° 21' W.,
approximate.)

Right Bank.

Mouth of the Sheep River to the
mouth of the Antoine River (25
miles long, named after Antoine
Houle), 45 miles.

Month of the Kdtlo River to
Fort Yukon, 60 miles. Haifa mile
below, the Porcupine River enters
the Yukon from the east. (By it
the boats carry the goods from and
the furs to Lapierre's house, to
which it is navigable, a distance of
150 miles, and thence across the
portage to P'ort McPherson [on
Peel's River flowing into the Mac-
kenzie], 64 miles. The course of
the Porcupine River, usually called
Rat River by the Hudson Bay men,
is through low country well sup-
plied with lakes and streams.)

From the Birch River to the
Small Houses, 80 miles. From
these to the mouth of the Dall
River (.'' 45 miles long ; named by
Captain Ketchum on his sketch
map ; Indian name Ndtokakat), 40
miles.

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

From Fort Yukon to the mouth of the Dall River and the
entrance of the Ramparts the Yukon is very wide, tortuous, full
of sloughs, islands, and cut-offs, which change somewhat every
year, with fresh deposition and denudation of material. The
country on each side is low and flat ; many small rivers may
empty into the Yukon, concealed by the numerous islands. Low
hills are seen in the distance, drawing together as we approach
the Ramparts. From near Fort Yukon five snow-covered sum-
mits of the Romanzoff range are visible.

When we enter the Ramparts the change is very great. Hills
from 500 to 2,000 feet come close to the river, which is narrow,
deep, and rapid, but without obstructions to navigation. The
so-called Rapids are described in another part of this volume.

J?ig/if Bank.

Mouth of the Dall River to the
mouth of the Tsee'toht River in the
Ramparts, 33 miles.

Left Bank.

Mouth of the Tsedtoht River to
the mouth of tlie Whymper River
(named by Captain Ketchum in his
sketch map ; Indian name Yukuts-
charkut), around a large bend, 28
miles.

^f outh of the Whymper River to
the Rapids, 50 miles.

Rapids to the mouth of the Ta-
nanah at Nuklukahyet, 30 miles,
leaving the Ramparts a few miles
above Nuklukahytit.

The Tananah River enters the Yukon in lat. 64° of N., and Ion.
150° 08' W., and is entirely unexplored. No white man has dipped
his paddle into its waters, and we only know of its length and
character from Indian reports. They inform us that it flows
from the eastward, that some of its head-waters are not far from
Fort Yukon, and others not distant from the upper Ramparts of
the Yukon above the fort. The largest trees brought down in
the spring freshets come from this river ; its banks are said to be
high and mountainous, and its course marked by rapids and
cascades. The length is estimated at two hundred and fifty
miles. The name Tanandh means River of Mountains, and it
has long been distributed in various parts of Russian America

r>'

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'M--

' 'Mi

282

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

I I

1 1;

I if

^ill

I Ml Hill

I !!:iill|

■' 'i'llil

on the old maps, under the name of the River of the Moun-
tain Men. The Hudson Bay men called it the Gens des Buttes
River.

Ze/if Bank.

From the mouth of the Sitzi-
kiinten to Nowikakat Harbor, 65
miles. (The Nowikakat River [ c 1 2
miles long] rises in the Kaiyuh
Mountains, near the sources of

Right Bank.

From Nuklukahydt to the mouth
of the Tozikakat River, 13 miles.
From thf^ Tozikakat to the mouth
of the Sitzikunten River, 18 milco.

From Nowikdkat Harbor to the

the Innoko or Shageluk, and the mouth of the Ukawutni River, \i

Soonkakat Rivers. It flows north-
east along the base of the Nowika-
kat Mountains, and into a small
cove or harbor, which opens by a
narrow passage into the Yukon,

miles. From the latter to the
mouth of the Meldzikakat (Clear
River), 35 miles.

The Meldzikakat is about 75
miles long, and enters the Yukon

and on which Nowikakat village from the north, with a wide bar at

is situated.)

From the mouth of the Kdna-
ton to the mouth of the Soonka-
kat, 8 miles.

The Koyiikuk River enters

stream, formed by the fusion

rivers from the w^est, and the

length, including tributaries, is

Other rivers, rising near it,

sounds.

Left Bank.

From Nulato in lat. 64° 42', Ion.
157° 54' W., toWolasatux, 14 miles.
From Wolasatux to the mouth of
the Kafyuh River, 32 mile.-.

Ldf ka's to the head of the great
Shageluk Slough, 30 miles.

its mouth.

From Meldzikakat to the Kdna-
ton River, 33 miles.

From the mouth of the Soon-
kakat to the mouth of the Le- 1
barge River (a name which I pro-
pose to substitute for the Indian I
name Miskiintrkdkat), 8 miles.
From the Lebarge River to the I
mouth of the Koyiikuk River at
the Sopka, 40 miles,

from the north, and is a large
of the Kuthlatno and Kutclno
Kotelkakat from the east. Its
estimated at one hundred miles,
fall into Kotzebue ana Norton!

Right Bank.

From Koyiikuk to the Nulato I
River near the Nulato trading-post, [
22 miles.

Mouth of the Kaiyuh River tol

Ldfka's, 50 miles.

Head of the Shageluk to Anvil I

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

283

Anvfk to the winter Leather Vil-
lage, at the end of the Shageluk,
27 miles. (The Anvfk River is
about 50 miles long, and from Keg-
iktowruk a winter portage is made
in two days to the Anvi'k River.)

Mouth of the Challik River to
the Mission at Ekdgmut, 43 miles.
(Near the Mission is a small river
by which the portage to the Kusko-
quim is made. Head of the South
Slough from MilavanofF River, 8
miles.)

22 miles. (Head of the Shageluk
to the mouth of the Shageluk or In-
noko River, 18 miles. From that
point to the end of the slough, at
the summer Leather Village, 40
miles.) End of the Shageluk to the
mouth of the Challik River, 26
miles.

From the Mission to the most
southern part of the second Great
Bend in the Yukon, 36 miles (lat.
61° 35'). From this point to the
mouth of the Milavanoff River, 26
miles.

From the mouth of the Milava-
nofF River to Andrdafsky Fort, 13
miles. Andreafsky to the head of
the delta, 10 miles.

The length of the South Slough is about 64 miles, that of the
Kusilvak, or true Yukon-mouth, 50 miles ; the Kwikhpak, 52
miles, and that of the Uphoon, 54 miles.

The distance from Fort Selkirk to Fort Yukon is thus about
392 miles. Thence to Nulato, 549 miles,* and thence to the
mouth of the Kusilvak, 357 miles. From the Kusilvak-mouth to
the lower rapids on the Pelly (1,352 miles), or to the Lower Tahco
rapids (1,513 miles), the river is navigable throughout for vessels
drawing not more than four feet, and for a great part of its length
for those drawing much more. The first shoals are at Anvi'k, the
next near Nowikakat and near Fort Yukon ; at some seasons more
than four feet may be difficult to obtain. Elsewhere the depth
may be estimated at from two to ten fathoms.

* The manner of our return voyage to Nulato, steadily floating down stream night
and d.iy, formed an excellent check on the somewhat exaggerated estimates of
distance made in going up. Our rate of progress, reunning, could hardly have
averaged less than one hundred miles a day, the rate 0" t^e current varying from
seven to three knots an hour, while we kept carefully '• the most rapid portion.
Below Nulato the current is less rapid, and the stance seems much greater
on that account. Our estimate in going up was 630 miles, which was very close
to Captain Ketchun's estimate of the previous year. Corrections reduced it to 550
miles. Captain Raymond's recent surveys confirm the near appioximation to correct-
ness of our mapping from dist.inces and bearings,

i \

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!i;^l|;piiiliiiij

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if ^5

284

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

The total length of the Yukon from the Kiisilvak-mouth to
Lake Kennicott is about 1,800 miles. This may be too low an
estimate if we take in all the curves of the channel, which I have
not done ; so we may safely estimate the total length of the Yu-
kon with all its windings, at about 2,000 miles, of which three
fourths are navigable for river steamers. In some places on the
Lower Yukon one bank is invisible from the other. Above the
Ramparts, including islands, the river is sometimes twenty miles
wide. By its size and the important changes which it is always
bringing about in Bering Sea, it is fairly entitled to rank as one
of the largest rivers in the world. It is larger than the Ganges
or the Orinoco, about the size of the Danube or the La Plata, and
belongs to that great family of northern rivers, of which the Obi,
Lena, Saskatchewan, and Mackenzie are the most prominent
members.

At Kutlik several small rivers, draining the adjacent marshes,
fall into the Uphoon. Not far beyond, the Pastolik River, fol-
lowed by the Pastolidk, falls into the sea southwest of Point Roman-
off. North of the point the Pikmiktdlik River drains a large
extent of tundra, and has a village situated near the mouth. East
of the Canal the Golsova River, a small, shallow stream, empties
into Norton Sound, and farther north the Unalaklik River, drain-
ing the Shaktolik Hills, the Uliikuk Mountains, and the valley of
the Yukon Portap - There is a large bar off the mouth, and in
high water not more than four feet can be obtained as far as Ulii-
kuk. During the period of low water in the fall, only skin boats
can ascend it.

Norton Bay receives the waters of a number of small rivers,
which head among the hills between Nulato and the coast. Tlie
principal of these are the Inglutdlik, on which large numbers of
fossil bones are reported, and the KSyiik River.

Golofni'na Bay is connected with a large lagoon which opens
into Grantley Harbor by the extremely winding channel of the
Fish River, which has one principal tributary, the Kdvi-dva-zak
River. The Kung-uk River (Buckland River of English charts)
falls into Escholtz Bay, Kotzebue Sound. At or near its source,
among the Nulato hills, is situated the village of Attenmut, near
the head of the Seldwik River, which falls into Selawik Lake,
emptying into Hotham Inlet. The Kcwak and Inland rivers,

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

285

Ivak-mouth to
be too low an

which I have
;th of the Yu-
f which three

places on the
r. Above the
5 twenty miles
h it is always
to rank as one
an the Ganges

La Plata, and
which the Obi,
ost prominent

acent marshes,
olik River, fol-
f Point Roman-
drains a large
i mouth. East
tream, empties
k River, drain-
the valley of
mouth, and in
as far as Ulu-
jnly skin boats

small rivers,
le coast. The
re numbers of

which opens
;hannel of the
Kdvi-dva-zak
nglish charts)
ear its source,
Utenmut, near
Selawik Lake,
Inland rivers.

small unexplored streams, fall into the same inlet. They are
prolonged far into the interior, to fill up the unexplored space
on most maps.

A small river is said to enter VVainwright Inlet on the northern
coast, but the only one of any size falling into the Arctic Ocean
is the Colvile in Ion. 150° 35'. It is unexplored, but on many old
maps the Yukon was represented as the upper portion of it, and
in others, more recent, it is gratuitously represented as extending
several degrees to the southward. This completes the list of the
known rivers of importance in Alaska. On the opposite coast
the principal rivers are the Anadyr, falling into Anadyr Gulf ; the
Kamchatka, emptying into a lagoon at Nfzni Kamchatka; and
the Avdtcha, which enters the head of Avdtcha Bay,

Ocean Currents. — The great currents which exist in the North
Pacific anxl Bering Sea should not be left unmentioned. To
these is due the mild climate of the southern portion of Alaska,
and in fact that of the whole northwest coast of America, as
compared with the northeast coast.

The great warm current, the Gulf Stream of the Pacific, is
known to the Japanese as the Knro Sizvo or Black Stream, from
its color as compared with the other water of the Pacific. It is
called by geographers the Japan curnent. It splits on the west-
ern end of the Aleutian chain ; one portion of it sweeps eastward,
south of the Aleutians, and, striking the shores of the continent, is
deflected southward. It brings a warm, moist atmosphere, which
is condensed on the snowy peaks of the coast ranges, and causes
the remarkable rainfall which characterizes the coast as far south
as Oregon.

The other and smaller portion passes between the Command-
er's Islands and the end of the Aleutians, and northward through
Berng Strait. Hence no ice floats southward through the strait
from the Frozen Ocean, and I learn that the whalers in the
spring have seen large masses of ice steadily sailing northward
through the strait a knot and a half an hour, against a very stiff
breeze from the north. In summer a small cold crrrent passies
southward along the coast of Kamchatka, but in May it would
seem as if this was wanting. At that time the whalers follow the
coast northward, as the .ce melts close to it, before that to the
east is affected. The vessel which, in this way, is the first to

mil

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ffif 1

M-tl

!'«?*

' i

I'HK

286

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

pass Iiast Cape is sure of plenty of whales, beside the spring
trade.

The water on the west side of Bering Sea is deeper than that
to the cast. It would seem as if an ocean valley existed here,
heading in Plover Bay ; as in the latter place one hundred and
one fathoms without bottom arc reported between the heads, and
fifty farther in. In the vicinity of the Shiimagin Islands there
was in August, 1865, a strong current to the north and east, with
a surface temperature of 56° Fahr. The currents through Unimak
Pass are largely dependent on the tide, but run more strongly
and for a larger part of the day into Bering Sea, than the reverse,

Through some of the narrow passages in the Aleutian chain
severe tide-rips often occur, and vessels should be cautious in
entering them.

Mountain Ranges, Peaks, and Volcanoes. — The high mountains
of Alasl<a all lie south of lat. 65°. The Coast or St. Elias Range
contains the highest peaks and most of the volcanoes. It extends
along the whole northwest coast from C.''lifornia to the peninsula
of Aliaska. The general trend is northwest. About Ion. 142" VV.
it loses in a measure the distinctive characters of a mountain
chain, and merges with the ranges which join it from the north
and east, forming the Alaskan Range. That portion of this range
immediately northwest of Cook's Inlet has been termed on some
maps the CJiigmit Monntains, from what cause I have not been
able to discover. Back of the Coast range in the British territory,
to the east, are many parallel ranges of hills and mountains, as
yet slightly explored. The Rocky Monntain chain extends east
of the basin of the Yukon, between it and the Mackenzie, as far
north as lat. 64°. Here it bends westward, and, becoming broken,
it passes to the west and south, combining with the coast ranges
to form the Alaskan Range. To the north the country, though
broken, elevated, and containing many ranges of hills, yet bears
nothing (except the Romanzoff Range) worthy of the name of
mountains ; that is to say, nothing which reaches the height of
five thousand feet. The mountains which border on the Mac-
kenzie, as described by Richardson, are rather the edges of a liigh
and broken table-land than mountains; at all events, in the light
of new discoveries, they must be regarded as a small and insig-
nificant spur, instead of the prolongation of the main range. By

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

287

ide the spring

the discovery of this fact, the orographic law, that the coasts and
principal ranges of continents have a general parallelism in their
trend, is vindicated.

The old maps represent the Rocky Mountain range as reach-
ing the Arctic Ocean in a line nearly parallel with the Mackenzie
River. The trend of the mountains as thus laid down formed
the only noteworthy exception to the general law above men-
tioned, acknowledged by all orographers. Many reasons induced
a doubt of the correctness of these maps, and led to an investi-
gation of the facts, which are as follows : The accounts of the
Russians who had been in the region of the Nushergak and
Cook's Inlet united in confirming the existence of a great
range, continuous with that which forms the backbone of the
peninsula of Aliiiska. The watershed, or distribution of the
rivers of the region to the north of this range, added confirma-
tion. Two years' exploration in the valley of the Yukon showed
that all the ranges of hills and low mountains had the same
general trend with the great range to the south. Ketchum's ex-
plorations showed that the Yukon cut its way, nearly at right
angles, through a great chain of mountains, which extended
to the westward and eastward, and that, proceeding northward
to a point a hundred and fifty miles southeast of Fort Yukon,
the character of the country changed, becoming comparatively
level and entirely free from high mountains. The furs from
Fort Selkirk were taken down the Yukon, up the Porcupine,
across to Peel's River, and up the Mackenzie, to the usual
points, rather than one quarter of the distance across the
Rocky Mountains to the Mackenzie. The Hudson Bay men
at Fort Yukon agreed in representing the country between
that point and the Mackenzie as comparatively even, though
broken and hilly to the eastward. The character of the Porcu-
pine River, surrounded by lakes and only obstructed by sand-
bars without rapids, forbids the idea that it intersects a great
range of mountains.

The preconceived opinion that we should find a continua-
tion of the western fauna of America on Norton Sound, such
as exists south of Aliaska, was disproved by extensive collec-
tions. Pirds (such as the Golden Flicker, the Waxwing, and
Canada Jay) and fishes (e. g. Esox cstor) hitherto unknown

288

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

on the west coast of America, abounded in the Yukon Valley
The characteristic western species were absent. South of
Alidska and these mountains the reverse was the case. lixclud- 1
ing Asiatic stragglers and water-birds, the fauna of the Yukon
Valley was almost entirely Eastern Canadian. The truth of this
is evident to the naturalist who may examine the catalogue of
birds. These facts undeniably indicate that a continuous ran;;i;
of mountains exists,* which, like a great wall, retards the norlhern
and western progress of the species of the western fauna, while the
continuous table-land, to the north of the western curve of the
ranges, ofters no obstacles to the free westward migration of truly
eastern species, to Bering Sea.

The smaller ranges worthy of mention are the Bald Moun-
tains, on either side of which the Yukon takes its rise ; the
Shaktolik and Uliikuk hills, near Norton Sound ; the Niilau
Hills, between the Yukon and Norton Bay; the Kaiyuh and
Nowikdkat mountains (1,500 feet), east of the Yukon ; the Yukon
Mountains, a low range northwest of the Yukon ; and the Ronidn-
zoff Mountains, north of Fort Yukon, the only mountains in the
Yukon Valley, north of the Alaskan Range, which bore snow all
summer in 1867.

A low range of hills borders the Arctic coast, which has re-
ceived many names. The southern portion of the Kaviak
peninsula contains a range of hills. The Aleutian Islands are
simply the submarine continuation of the Alaskan Range.

A statement has been circulated, to the effect that the volcanic
line of the coast ranges, the Aleutian and Kurile Islands, and
the islands of Japan, is nearly or quite coincident with a Great
Circle line. A glance at a map on which the Great Circles are |
laid down as straight lines, is sufficient to dissipate this error. A
Great Circle line from San Francisco to Hakodadi strikes across |
the Pacific, and barely grazes the southernmost islands of the
Catherina Archipelago.

The number of known volcanic peaks in Alaska, according to
Grewingk, is about sixty-one, of which only ten show any symp- 1

* It is probable that the active volcanoes of Aliaska and their allies are of later
elevation than the more inland portions of the Alaskan Range. The latter, while
parallel in limis of elevation, and almost inextricably interlaced with the former, .ve |
probably of 1 riassic age.

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

289

toms of activity. The principal peaks, volcanic and otherwise,
with their estimated heights, are as follows : —

Mount Calder, Prince of Wales Island,

Mount Edgecumbe, Kruzoff Island,

Mount Crillon (on the continent),

Mount Fairweather, « •< . .

Mount St. Klias, " " . .

Mount Wrangell, near the Copper River,

Redoubt Volcano, Aliaska Peninsula, .

Iliiimna Volcano, " "

Alai Volcano, " "

Chigfnagak Volcano, Aliiiska Peninsula, .

■^'eniaminoff Volcano, " "

Tavloff Volcano, " " . .

MedvidnikofT Volcano, " "...

Walrus Peak, " " . .

Mount Devastation or Isandtski, Unimak Island,

Mount ShishaUlin, Unimak Island,

Thunder Mountain (Pagromnaya), Unimak Island,

Akutan Peak, Akutan Island,

r kushin Volcano, Unalashka Island,

Ro<' >sldva Volcano, .....

Vst'vidoff Peak, Umnak Island, ....

River Volcano, " " ...

Kordvin Volcano, Atka Island, ....

Si'tkin Volcano, Si'tkin Island,

Tanaga Peak, Tdnaga Island, ....

Peak of the Seven Craters, Semisopdchnoi Island,

Khustoff Peak, Amchftka Island,

Goreloi Peak, Gore'loi or Burned Island, .

Kiisilvak Mountain, Yukon Valley,

Uliikuk Mountains,

Vesolia Sopka, ... ...

Koyiikuk Sopka,

Peaks of the Romanzoff Mountains, .

Mount Hohonfla,

Mount Bendeleben, Kaviak Peninsula,

Mount Kennicott, Plover Bay, East Siberia, .

Volcano, Wrangell's Land, ....

9,000 feet.

*2,Ss5 "

13,500 "

14,000 "

? 16,000 "

? 5,000 "

11,270 "

12,066 "

?
?

*5,525 feet.

. *8,955 "

5.525 "

• 3.332 "
♦5,691 »

1,000 "

? 3,000 "

. ? 2,500 "

4,852 "

• 5.033 "
? 3,500 "

3,000 "

• 1,873 "

. ? 8,000 "

? 2,500 «

1,500 "

800 "

1,000 "

? 5,000 to 8,000 "

1,000 "

. ? 1,000 "

*2,343 "

. 2,480 "

* All altitudes without an asterisk are only approximate.
19

'ill'l'l'fl

:j I

.")

''1

.11
1 1

1 ;

•iiiiiii'*'!

,.i'iiii*r

!90

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

An-a. — From calculations made by l"^-. Ilaiiemaiin of Gotha,
and reduced to };co};Taplucal sc|uarc miles (in the ratio of i to
21. i6), the following estimate of the superficial area of Alaska has
been computed.

Islands of lierin^ .Sea,
Alt'iilian Isiaiuis.
Kaiiiak and Sluiinaj.i;in Islands, .
C'liiigach and other islands,
Alexander Archipelago,

Total area of islands, .
Area of the mainland,
'I'olal area of Alaska, .

n
(1

. 5,676.3816

1,031.7616

. i4,i4_'.y.'oS

3 I, .'05. 7 100
548,901.6148

580,107.3248

Maps of Alitska. — Tt is hardly necessary to state that the
older maps of the territory are full of error.s, es|)ecially in the
interior. There is probably no part of America, of equal extent,
of which less information is obtainable. A habit has obtained
among ma[)-makers of filling in unexplored territory with a net-
work of lakes and rivers which are solely due to their ardent
imaginations. This is especially notable in Arrowsmith's earlier
maps of Northwest America, in the Russian maps which accom-
pany Tikhmt'iuef's History of the Kussian American Company,
and ill a more recent map of Alaska, published in San JMan-

cisco.

The older maps, exce])t in most of the coast-line, are so uni-
formly erroneous that they neiul not be mentioned.

The only recent maps worthy of notice are the map jiubiished
by the Coast Survey in \'A<\(\ and a second edition of the
same published in May, 1X67; Arrowsmith's map accompany-
ing Whymper's "Travels in Alaska"; a map entitled " I\l:ip
of Russian America, or Alaska Territory, compiled from Russian
Charts and Surveys of the Western Union TiU'graph Company,
San Francisco, 1867, publislu^d by Hritton and Ivi'y"; and one
from information principally furnished by the writer, essentially
agreeing with that which accomiianies this volume, published by
Dr. A. IV'terni.inn in the (uvi^nif^/iisi/uT Mift/uHiiiiLirit for Octo-
ber, 1869.

The first was a compilation from the best obtainable inforniM-
tion, with corrections of many old errors, aiul was still further

GEOGRArilY OK ALASKA.

291

c, arc so iiiu-

improvcd in the second edition ; but, at the time of its publica-
tion, data in relation to tiic interior was inaccessible, and conse-
(liKMitly that part of the map is unreliable.

The second map, by Arrovvsmilh, contains several inexcusable
errors, such as the i)osition of liesborough Island, the Mission,
and Andri'afsky b'ort. He has also been guilty of the stupitlity
of restoring on the general map, which accomp.mies his \'ukon
map, the old error in regard to the delta, which Captain Smith
ilispritved. Correct data, in regard to the coast- line and the
posiiions of the forts on the Lowi-r Yukon, has long been obtain-
able; the carelessness shown in the construction of tlie map is a
warning to future explorers to be careful into whose hands they
put their information.*

The nomenclature of the map is also much confused, Indiana
I and Innuit being conlountled.

'file Sail l""rancisco map is here noticed oidy because it pre-
tends to be the result of the Western Union Telegraph explora-
lioiis, The only points in which it ditlers iVom maps publisln.-d
long before the Telegraph enterprise was organized, are : tlu: ad-
dition of a small accessory chart of Coal l!arl)or, I'nga (from a
survey by Captain C. IM. .Scammon, Lieutenant J. Davison, the
writer, and other members of the expedilicju) ; the gratuitous in-
troduction of a large numbe,- of lakes, generally situated where
iiioiuitains should be ; the remarkably erroneous eourse laid down
lor the \'uk()n ; and the general contradiction in all important
piiinis of the Western Union Telegraph surveys.

Tlu" ma|) which aecom|)anies this volume was derived from the
tolliiwing sources : —

The coast-line, and many particulars in regard to the southern
piiiliuii of the territory, from the I'nilid .Siativs Coast .Survi-y.
The l>ead-waters of the \'ukon, Stikine, ami l.iaid rivers, froni a

a
a

* ll will Ipc olisfivi'il lliat \Vhviii|i(r says (p. 201), "Willi 111. my wiiiiliiins tlic
^I'lui.il iliu'clioii 111 l''i)rt \'iik(in (lioni SaLC.il.iii'int.m) is noillii-.isl iii.i(;m In ." Now, if
this itiiiisi' \)v j.tid (liiwn willi iIr' luics.s.iiy iDiu-ilinu Un' \ ,11 i.ilinn, uiiicli r.ipitlly in-
'II IMS as \\r f;ii I'aslwaid, it will liiinn l''iiil N'liknii lai In llu' iinilli anil casl ni tin;
I'Miitwlicii' it is l.iiil (liiwii on ll\f addinpatn iiit; map. 'I'lu- tdini lions Inr vaiialioii
li.i"c iiiii liitii made Dii Aiiowsmilli's map, vvliii li aicimipaiiiis Wlismpii'^i IkidK ; in-
'liiii, llu- rouise ol the liver, as tlicie (JKirteii, is aluiiil cast, 15" iioiili /i/),\ Iidiii
^lu il.il.int.m, instead <if nciitheast iniii^tidi, ; wliile tlu* variatinn is In the eastward,
•i"il llie Inie comse vai ied from 30" lo 60'' not til o( the inagiiclic cuurso. Smli woik
ii iiuirc tli.m rci)icht'iisil)lc.

292

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

|pl;iiMl:l|ll,,j,

■w iil

•J. 53,

photographic copy of a manuscript map (No. 4) drawn under the
direction of George H. Mumford, Esq., Western Union Telegraph
Company, in November, 1867, from surveys, partly astronomical,
of Messrs. Pope, Butler, Scoville, and other explorers of the
Western Union Telegraph Expedition.*

The course of the Yukon from Fort Yukon to Nulato, from
Ketch um's sketch maps and my own compass bearings and dis-
tances, carefully corrected for variation, and by means of all the
known points. That Fort Yukon is above the Arctic Circle is
determined by the statement of the voyagcurs, that during mid-
summer the sun does not pass below the horizon for several days.
This has been confirmed by later government surveys.

The course of the Yukon below Nulato is from the Russian
Admiralty charts, corrected from my own observations.

The delta of the Yukon, coasts of Norton Sound, and south to
Cape Romanzoff, from the reconnoissance of Captain Smith and
Lieutenant Dyer, with some minor corrections from my subse-
quent explorations. The longitude of the shores of Norton
Sound is not definitely settled, and will need revision. The
Anvi'k portage, from notes of Captain Smith.

The country between Norton Bay, the Koyukuk River, the
Yukon, and Kotzebue Sound, from explorations by Messrs. Rich-
ard D. Cotter and J. T. Dyer, in 1866, and my own explorations
in 1868. The topography of the Kdviak peninsula, from a re-
connoissance by Mr. W. H. Ennis and Baron Otto de Bencle-
leben.

The course of the Kuskoquim, Nushergak, Suchitna, and Cop-
per rivers, from Russian explorations and charts. It is to bo
regretted that astronomical observations were not m^jde on the
Yukon. This arose from circumstances beyond the control of the
Scientific Corps. If any persons who contributed to the explora-
tions here laid down are not mentioned, it is because further
information is not accessible. The map as a whole can be rc-

* Th.it part of the same map relating to the Lower Yukon is very erroneous. Un-
fortunately I am unable to give the specific details of these cxjilorations, .is I liavc
only had access to the unpublished niajis, upon which the results had been delineated
The principal part of the astronomical observations are due to Mr. E. II. Scovillo
That F'rances Lake connects with the Pelly instead of the Liard, as on the old maps
was determined by later manuscript maps, furnished by officers of the Hudson liay
Company to the Telegraph explorers.

GEOGRAPHY OF ALASKA.

293

garded as approximate only, but it is believed that it approxi-
mates far more nearly to accuracy than anything yet published,
and is thus far preferable to a state of total ignorance. All
matter which was merely speculative and without definite au-
thority has been excluded as far as possible. The nomenclature
is phonetically correct, and corresponds with the rules adopted
in this volume for the spelling ol Indian and Russian natne.s.

The field now open to Americans for exploration and discovery
is grand. The interior everywhere needs exploration, particularly
the ii^eat plateau north of the Yukon, the valley of the Kusko-
quim, and that of the Copper River, The Arctic Ocean, north of
Bering Strait, has so far been unduly neglected. Wrangell's Land
offers to explorers a more fruitful field than the well-crodden
shores north of Hudson Bay. It is to be hoped that the lib-
erality which has been extended toward Arctic discovery in
the northeast will find a ready parallel in the requirements of
more western exploration, and that American enterprise, there
as elsewhere, may successfully cont-nue to emulate that of Eu-
ropeans.

NoTK. — While these sheets are passing through the press, additional information
(from the original reports of the explorers on the Siiivine, which were not previously
acccssil.'lc^ shows that Fort Mumford and Lakes Kennicott and Ketchum arc more to
the northwest than they arc jilaccd on the accomjianying map. Ilcnce the upper
forks of the Tiihco ar , somewhat shorter than here represented, but otherwise they
a'o correctly laid down.

Information from Mr. Davidson also shows that the Chilkaht River enters Lynn
Canal on the west instead of the cast .side of Observatory Point, and that the river
of the Indian Portage enters the Tahco below instead of above Lake Lebarge.

CHAPTER II.

A chronological history of the progress of exploration and trade in Alaska and the
adjoining territories, from 1542 to 1868.

iniiiliiiiji

tf!l'lli!""t4

^^Pl'l'lllilllllijj

ill

. .■ ■.*■,

liiiiili

THE history of Northwest America is, almost without excep-
tion, the history of exploration and trade. Controlled for
eighty years by a despotism in the shape of a trading company,
politics have until recently had no part in its affairs. The au-
thorities from which this chronology has been compiled will be
found in the Appendix.

1542. Voyages of Coronado and Juan Rodriguez de Cabrillo,
northward from Mexico.

1579. Sir Francis Drake, in a schooner of about two hundred
tons, refitted in a harbor — probably that of San Francisco
— in the month of July.

1592. Apostolos Valerianos, commonly known as Juan de Fiica,
sailed from Mexico, and is supposed to have entered the
Straits of Fuca and the head of Puget Sound.

1602. An expedition under Sebastian Vizcaino, sailed from Aca-
pulco and examined the coast as far north as Cape Mendo-
cino.

1646. The Russians, who had pushed their explorations oast-
ward in Siberia as far as the Kolyma River, actuated by the
spirit of trade rather than that of discovery, in this year
attempted the first voyage east of the Kolyma. Several
small vessels, under ihc direction of Isai Ignatief, found a
shallow channel between the grounded ice and the .sliorc,
and reached a bay where they obtained walrus ivory by bar-
ter from the Chukchees, after which they returned to the
Kolyma.

1647. This success in trading induced others to follow Igna-
tiefs example, and in June of the following year four small I

|l:||;

IliliWi

I.: I

HISTORY.

295

1 Alaska and the

1647. half-decked vessels sailed eastward from the Kolyma. An
officer was needed to accompany them in order to look after
the interests of the crown, and the Cossack Simeon Desh-
nefF volunteered for this duty. One object of the voyage
was to discover the Anadyr River, of which the Russians
had received vague reports. The same year Michael Stadii-
kin was sent by land to explore an unknown river called the
Pogi'tcha, and endeavor to persuade the natives to acknowl-
edge themselves subjects of the Russian crown, and pay
tribute. This undertaking was not successful. The expedi-
tion by sea was obstructed by the ice, and obliged to return.

1648. Not disheartened by the failure of the previous year,
seven vessels left the Kolyma on the 20th of June. Four of
them were disabled on an island off the mouth of the Koly-
ma. Three, commanded by Simeon DeshnefT, Gerasim An-
kiidinoff, and Feodot Alexieff, respectively, passed on without
accident. The season was uncommonly open, and the shal-
lops successfully rounded the northeast extremity of Asia and
entered Bc'ng Strait. Ankiidinoft's vessel was lost on East
Cape, but his men were taken on board by the others. On
the 20th of September they had a difficulty with the Chiik-
chees, in which Alexieff was wounded ; soon after, the two
boats were separated by the wind and saw each other no
more. Driven by storms until October, Deshneff was finally
wrecked, some distance southwest of Anadyr Bay, on the
coast of Kamchatka. After wandering about for ten weeks,
he arrived on the banks of the Anadyr, and his party sup-
ported themselves during the winter by the chase.

1649. On the return of summer they ascended the river, and in
the fall built the post of Anadyrsk. Stadukin again un-
successfully attempted to find the Pogi'tcha River.

1650. Information was received from the natives tliat showed
the identity of the Anadyr and Pogi'tcha, and during the
summer an expedition under Simeon Motora, and another
under Stadukin, arrived at Anadyrsk by land, guided by na-
tives.

1651. Boats were constructed at Anadyrsk, and Mot6ra was
killed in a battle witli the natives. Stadukin went toward
Penjinsk Gulf, and was heard of no more.

<i I

ri
I'll

296

HISTORY.

ii!iihrM8il
IliiiiiiNiii

ite

1652. Deshneff descended the Anadyr in his boats, and discov-
ered a sand-bar, called the Korga, at the mouth.

1653. This year he built a vessel, in which he proposed to send
his tribute from Anadyrsk to Yakutsk by sea.

1654. On making another trip to the Korga. he found a Cos-
sack named Seli'verstoff, who had arrived from Yakutsk,
by land, to collect tribute. It was afterwards ascertained by
Deshneff, that his companions in the voyage of 1648 had
landed on the coast of Kamchatka and died of scurvy, or
been killed by the natives. About this time, according to a
tradition (first recorded in 17 10), a merchant named Taras
Stadukin sailed from the Kolyma, and made a portage across
the neck of East Cape with his vessel, being unable to double
it on account of ice ; he then sailed, following the coast of
Kamchatka, doubling the peninsula, making the first discov-
ery of the Kurile Islands, and finally arrived in safety at Pen-
jinsk Gulf.

1696. The country of Kamchatka had long been known by
report to the Russians, who had visited Anadyrsk ; but in
1696, Lukas Simeonofif Moroscovich, with a party of fifteen
men, penetrated as far as a day's journey from the Kam-
chatka River, bringirg back with him certain Japanese pa-
pers, which he found in the village on the Kamchatka River.

1697. Vladimir Atlassoff followed his example, and built a winter
house (cc/nozvi) on the Upper Kamchatka River. The Kam-
shadales for several years revolted against the tyranny of the
Cossacks, who easily subdued them by their superior arms.
The Cossacks lost no opportunity of inciting to hostilities,
and then butchering, the unfortunate natives, so that in forty
years the Kamshadales were redrced to a twelfth of their
original numbers. They were loaded with taxes, and the j'ds-
sak, or imperial tribute, was often raised tenfold by the avarice
of the conquerors, who retained the surplus for themselves.

1701. The Yukagirs, a nomadic tribe, demanded assistance from
the Russians against the hostilities of the Chukchees. An
expedition was fitted out and hostilities commenced, but the
Russians were unable to force this brave people to pay trib-
ute, deliver hostages, or acknowledge allegiance to the Rus-
sian crown.

Hiii

d discov-
d to send

id a Cos-
Yakutsk,
•tained by
1648 had
scurvy, or
rding to a
ned Taras
age across
! to double
e coast of
irst discov-
ety at Pen-
known by
■sk; but in
y of fifteen
I the Kam-
lanese pa-
itka River.
L a winter
The Kani-
uiny of the
rior arms,
hostihties,
lat in forty
th of their
nd the jds-
the avarice
em selves,
itance from
bees. An
cd, but the
o pay trib-
the Riis-

H I STORY.

297

171 1. In January a Cossack named Peter Iliiinsen Popoff was
sent to East Cape to endeavor to induce the Chukchees to
pay tribute. He failed in his object, but brought back an
account of islands (the Diomedes) which lay beyond East
Cape, and of a continent (America) which the Chukchees re-
ported beyond these islands. In the same year the Russians
first invaded the Kurile Islands, and visited about the same
time the uninhabited Shantar Islands in the Ochotsk Sea.

1713. The first sea-going vessel was built at Ochotsk, and the
following year she made a voyage to the west coast of
Kamchatka.

1720. Other vessels were built, and voyages were made, includ-
ing one under Jevrinotf and Lushin, to the Shantar Islands
in 1720-21.

1725. Scientific men, desirous of further information in regard
to the extension of Asia and America, turned the attention
of Peter the Great to the matter. He took great interest
in it, drew up the instructions for an expedition with his
own hand, and delivered them to Admiral Apraxin, with
orders to see them executed. A few days afterward, in
January, 1725, he died; but the Empress, desiring to carry
out all the plans of her deceased husband as closely as pos-
sible, ordered their execution. Captain Vitus Bering was
nominated commander of the expedition, and Lieutenants
Martin Spanberg and Alexie ChirikofT for his assistants.
They were confirmed by the Empress and Senate, and left
St. Petersburg on the 5th of February, but the men and
equipment did not reach Ochotsk until the 30th of July,
1727.

1728. Two vessels, the Fortuna and the Gabriel, were built,
and on the 20th of July, 1728, Bering sailed from the mouth
of the Kamchatka River. He coasted along the shores of
the peninsula, and on the loth of August passed an island
which they named St. Lawrence. Sailing through Bering
Strait on the 15th of August, he arrived at Cape Serdze
Kamen, where the coast trends to the westward. Here he
considered that he had fulfilled his instructions and proved
the separation of Asia and America. Being naturally timid,
hesitating, and indolent, he determined to go no farther for

t^l

298

HISTORY.

•|!l!iM.«|||»l

1728. fear of being frozen in, and returned through the Strait —
strange to say — without seeing the Dioniedcs or the Ameri-
can coast, reaching the Kamchatka River on the 20th of
September.

1729. He wintered at Nizni Kamchatka, and set sail eastward
from the mouth of the river, June 5, 1729. His object was
to discover the coast of America east of Kamchatka. Moot-
ing with contrary winds, he turned back after sailing some
sixty miles, and reached Ochotsk on the 23d of July, without
having definitely fulfilled a single article of his instructions.

1730. He arrived at St. Petersburg, via Ochotsk and Yakutsk,
March i, 1730.

Meanwhile the chief of the Yakutsk Cossacks, Athanasius
Shestakoff, had volunteered to subdue the Chukchees and
Koriiiks, His offer was accepted, and Captain Demetrius
Pavlutski, with a squad of four hundred Cossacks, was or-
dered to join him. A quarrel took place between them, and
each departed on the enterprise separately. In 1729 Shesta-
koff took possession of the vessels which had been used by
Bering, and sailed, in September, in the Fortuna, but was
driven ashore by the winds. He continued on his way with
only one hundred and fifty men, and on the nth of March,
1730, he sent orders to a Cossack, Tryphon Kriipishcff, at
Taviskoi Fort, to equip a vessel, double the peninsula of
Kamchatka, and sail for the Chukchee country, taking with
him the navigator and civil engineer of the expedition,
Michael Gwosdeff. After sending these orders he had a
battle with the Chukchees near Penjinsk Gulf, March 14,
1730, in which his forces were routed and he was killed.

A boat was constructed out of the wreck of the Fortuna,
and in September, 1730, Gwosdeff reached Anadyrsk. Here
orders were received from Pavlutski to go to the mouth ot
the Kamchatka River and obtain provisions, which they
were to take to the Chukchee coast, where he expected to
meet them.

173 1. In the spring Pavlutski fought his way through the
Chukchee country to Cape Serdze Kamen, and thence re-
turned to the Anadyr, without, however, inducing the in-
domitable Chukchees to pay tribute. Meanwhile, Gwdsdefi

U'. 'II'

!:• "iffl

HISTORY.

299

1731- liad sailed to the Chiikchee coast, but saw nothing of the
Cossacks. They remained at Cape Serdze until a gale drove
them eastward, where they found an island, and beyond it
the shores of the continent of America. They met a native
in a kyak, and sailed two days along the coast without being
able to land. A storm came up, and they returned to
Kamchatka. This completed the exploration of Bering
Strait, which had been commenced by Deshneff and his
companions.

1732. The information brought back by Bering excited great
interest, and he was promoted to be a commander and his
lieutenants to be captains. A second expedition was or-
ganized, and several scientific men volunteered to accom-
pany him.

1733. In the spring the marine officers left St. Petersburg.
The objects in view were the verification of former discov-
eries, the extension of navigation between Archangel and
Kamchatka, and the exploration of the American coast east-
ward of the latter peninsula.

1738. It was late before anything was ready at Ochotsk for
a voyage, and in June of this year Spanberg sailed with
three small vessels to examine the Kurile Islands, and win-
tered in Kamchatka.

1739. The following year he sailed on an expedition to Japan,
all of which much delayed the American expedition. Two
vessels, the St. Peter and the St. Paul, were built at
Ochotsk, and on the 4th of September, 1740, they sailed
for Avatcha Bay.

1740. The previous autumn, Ivan Jdagin, Bering's pilot, had
been sent to Avatcha, and there built barracks and store-
houses on Niaki'na Cove, calling the little settlement after the
vessels, Petropavlovsk. Wilhelm Steller * and Louis de Lisle
dc la Croycre joined the party at Ochdtsk in 1740, the for-
mer as surgeon and naturalist.

1741. They passed overland to Avatcha, where they arrived in
the spring of 1741. Spanberg had returned to St. Peters-

* Georg Wilhelm Steller, born at Winsheim in Franconia in 1709, arrived at S'
Petersburg in 1734, was sent to examine the natural history of Kamchatka in 1738,
accompanied Bering in 1741, and died of a fever, or was frozen to death, according
to some accounts, in the town of Tiumen in Siberia, in November, 1746.

300

HISTORY.

•••lH!|i||,

|i ::r'iiniin|

1 74 1, burg. Bering, with Steller, in the St. Peter, and Chfrikoff
in the St. Paul, with Croy^re, sailed from Avatcha on the
4th of June, 1 741, in search of the American coast. On the
20th of June the vessels were separated by a storm, and did
not meet each other again. On the 15th of July, Chfrikoff
anchored off the American coast, near Cross Sound. The
mate, Abraham Demc^-ntieff, and ten well-armed men were
sent ashore in the long-boat. As they did not return, on the
2ist of July, Sidor Saveleff was sent, with several men, in the
small boat, to their assistance. He also did not return, but
on the next day two canoes came out filled with savages,
who fled with loud cries to the shore as soon as they saw the
Russians on the vessel's deck. Chfrikoff had no boats, and,
a west wind arising, he was obliged to put to sea again, and
on the 27th of July sailed for Kamchatka. He saw the
coast of various islands on the 20th of September. On the
8th of October they saw land, and on the glh they entered
the Bay of Avatcha. Of seventy men, Chfrikoff had lost
twenty-one, among whom was the naturalist, Louis de la
Croyere, who died of scurvy on the loth of October.

On the 1 8th of July, Bering saw land. On the 20th he
anchored under an island. Between two capes, which he
called St. Elias and St. Hermogenes, was a bay where two
boats were sent for wa^^er and to reconnoitre. Steller was
in one of these, and during his examinations he came upon
numerous traces of the natives. With characteristic imbe-
cility, Bering resolved to put to sea again on the next day,
the 2 1st of July.

Sailing to the northward, the commander was confused
among the various islands, and sailed hither and thither, occa-
sionally landing, but making no explorations, and showing
his total incapacity for the position he occupied. He took
to his bed, and Lieutenant Waxel assumed the charge of the
vessel. On the 29th of August he discovered the Shumagin
Islands, which were named after the first of the ship's com-
pany who died and was buried there. Driven by storms,
perplexed by ignorance and anxiety, reduced by scurvy and
bad water, they welcomed the sight of land on the 31st of
October, and on the 6th of November, Waxel and Steller

ChMkoff
ha on the
t. On the
n, and did
'. Chfrikoff
lund. The
men were
urn, on the
men, in the
return, but
th savages,
ley saw the
boats, and,
I again, and
-le saw the
er. On the
hey entered
)ff had lost
Louis de la
ber.

the 20th he
s, which he
! where two
Steller was
; came upon
eristic imbe-
le next day,

ras confused
-lither, occa-
nd showing
He took
harge of the
Shumagin
ship's com-
n by storms,
yj scurvy and
the 3 1 St of
and Steller

HISTORY.

301

1741. went ashore on Bering Island. They decided to take up
their winter quarters there, and the crew, sick and well, were
landed, and the vessel left at anchor. On the 29th of No-
vember she was driven on shore by a storm. Bering, from
age and disease, had become totally incompetent, looking
upon every one as his enemy. Shelter was provided in the
gullies of the watercourses near the shore, and on the 8th
of December Bering died.* The survivors sustained life on
the flesh of the marine animals which were found on the
island.

1742. The following spring a boat was constructed from the
remains of the vessel. On the loth of August they set sail,
on the 25th they saw land, and entered the Bay of Avatcha
on the 26th, casting anchor in the harbor t..e next day. The
same spring, Chfrikofif had cruised in search of Bering with-
out success. He then returned to Ochotsk, and by way of
Yakutsk to St. Petersburg, where he was made a captain
commander, but died soon after.

1743. Bering's party returned to Ochotsk, and Waxcl reached
St. Petersburg in 1749.

The furs and skins which had been brought back ' y the
sailors of Bering's company caused various expeditions to be
fitted out in Kamchatka by the Russians resident there, in
the hope of obtaining more by barter with the natives or by
hunting. These traders were called, in Russian, Promish-
Icniks. Their vessels were small, many of them constructed
of planks lashed to the timbers, and calked with moss. They
were therefore called sJiitiki or sewn vessels. The traders
were men of no education, who sailed usually by dead reck-
oning, and who were governed only by their base passions
and the love of gain. Nevertheless, their voyages added
much to the general knowledge of the islands between Kam-
chatkn and America.
1745. Emilian Bassofif discovered the island of Atti'i, and
another small one near it. On the 17th of September in
the same year, Michael Nevodtsikofif, a native of Tobolsk,

* Veil (Vitus) Bering was born at Horscns in Jutland. Sailed to the East and
West Indies, and afterward joined the Russian service. Me was made a lieutenant in
1707, a captain-lieutenant in 1710, afterward promoted to be captain and commander.

302

HISTORY.

ti. iiliili

J;i':l«8«lilli

'til ,1

MBllWl

U,ji.|iny!i!-,j

1745. sailed from the mouth of the Kamchatka River in the
shitik Eudoxia and discovered three islands.

1747. He returned to Kamchatka July 21, 1747.

1748. Rybfnski explored the Nearer Islands.

1749. Niki'for Traptisnikoff sailed in August from the Kam-
chatka River and discovered a new island.

1750. A Cossack named Yiigoff obtained the monopoly of hunt-
ing on the Commander's Islands from the government, on
payment of the tribute and tithes. The effect of this was
to urge other traders to the eastward.

1753. Trapesnikoff returned August 16, and sailed again in
August, 1754, having discovered another unknown island.

1757. Trap^snikoff returned from his second voyage, and Ivan
Nikfforoff sailed as far eastvvard as LJmnak.

1758. In September, Simon Krasflnikoff and the indefatigable
Trap^snikoff sailed in two vessels from Kamchatka.

1759. They reached Goreloi Island in September the following
year, and wintered, in different parties, on the islands of
Amlia, Sftkin, and Atka.

1760. In September, a vessel called the Andrean and Nathalia,
fitted out by Andrean Tolstoi and commanded by Maxim
Lazcroff, sailed from Kamchatka, and wintered at Bering
Island. Piishkareff sailed in the sloop Gabriel, from Bolshoya
River, Kamchatka, July 31, 1760. He afterward joined
fore .-s with Krasi'lnikoff, who had lost a number of men in
hostilities with the natives, in June, 1760.

1761. During the winter they all hunted on Scguam Island, and
in the spring of 1761 Krasi'lnikoff returned to Kamchatka,
while Piishkareff pushed on to mnak, where he met Trapes-
nikoff's vessel. These voyagers had committed many atroci-
ties, and the long-enduring natives were already beginning
to retaliate. In 1761, Lazeroff explored the islands which
have since borne the name of Andreanoffsky, from the owner
of the vessel.

Having passed tlmnak, Piishkareff wintered in False
Pass, Aliaska Peninsula. He was the first to winter on the
continent.

1762. In January, Piishkareff lost several men, and others soon
after fell under the weapons of the outraged natives. These

IMil

HISTORY.

303

the Kam-

y of hunt-
•nment, on
)f this was

I again in
vn island.
, and Ivan

defatigable
tka.

e following
islands of

d Nathalia,
by Maxim

at Bering
n Bolshoya
ard joined

of men in

Island, and
amchatka,
let Trapes-
any atroci-
beginning
mds which
the owner

in False
Iter on the

)thers soon
es. These

1762. hostilities were excited by the outrages committed. In June
they sailed for IJmnak, where they took two islanders as
guides. Driven westward by tempests, they reached the
coast of Kamchatka out of provisions. They had torn
from their homes some twenty-three natives, mostly women.
Some of these were sent ashore to dig roots for the party.
One of them, on returning to the vessel, was killed, for some
fancied offence, by a sailor named Gorelin. Overcome by
anguish and despair, many of the other women threw them-
selves into the sea, preferring death to a life of such misery.
By order of Pushkareff all the remaining natives, except the
interpreter and a boy, were then thrown overboard. The
perpetrators of these atrocities finally reached a small bay near
Avatcha, September 25, 1762. In this year a vessel named
the Trinity, commanded by Korovin ; another, the Zacharias
and Elisabeth, under Drusenin ; one in charge of Medvedeff,
with fifty men, and a fourth under Stephen Glottoff, with
forty-six men, sailed from Kamchatka on trading voyages to
the islands. Medvedeff reached Umnak, where he and his
crew were killed by the exasperated natives.

1763. Drusenin and all his men, except four (who reached Kor6-
vin in 1764), met the same well-deserved fate on Unaldshka.
Korovin reached Unalashka August 15, 1763. Here his
men were divided into hunting-parties, many of which were
cut off by the natives.

Glottoff had wintered at Copper Island and sailed July
26, 1763. He passed dmnak and discovered the island of
Kadiak.* Here he wintered, but was obliged to use great
caution, as the natives, less pliant than those to the westward,
evinced many symptoms of hostility.

1764. In March the four survivors of Driisenin's company, after
great suffering, reached Korovin. The party of the latter
was reduced to twelve men, six of whom were Kamshadales.
He lost his vessel, and proceeded in a bidarra to Umnak.

Glottoff left Kadiak in May, 1764, and arrived at Umnak
July 3d. Here he found the bodies of a party under Pro-
tosoff, who had all been killed by the natives, whom Glot-

* Originally called Kaniag by the natives, who called themselves Kaniagist or Ka-
nidgmut. Kadi.-ik is a corruption of Kaniag.

nil

111
iti

304

HISTORY.

ii '

ill

i' "

1764. toff attacked and defeated. lie was soon joined by Koro-
vin'.s boat, and they wintered in L'mnak, exploring it pretty
thoroughly.

During this year a secret expedition, under Lieutenant
Synd, was organized at Ochotsk, by order of the lunpross
Catherine. Lazcroff arrived in Kamchatka. On the 25th
of August, Ivan Maxi'movich Sohnioff sailed from the Kaiii-
ch.c;tLa River in the Peter and Paul. He reached l'mnak
September i6th, and there learned that a compact had been
entered into by the chiefs of the natives on Umnak, Akutan,
and Unalashka to unite in driving the Russians from the
islands, or to destroy them all.

1765. At l'mnak, Soloviofl" was joined by Korovin, who loft
Glottoff in the spring of 1765.

1766. They proceeded to Unalashka, where tlicy wintered, ex-
ploring and hunting, and returned in July, 1766, to Kam-
chatka. Glottoff reached home about the same time.

This completes the list of the discoveries of the ricmishlc-

niks. While we cannot but admire the undaunted encn

■y

r i'

with which these voyages were prosecuted, we must admit
with abhorrence that they were prompted only by lust and
avarice, and were accompanied by many cf Ih.e most horrible
and inexcusable atrocities which have ever disgraced the
name of humanity. These outrage?, i:nfortunaiely, did not
end with the Promishleniks, but characterized the wliole
Russian administration of the territory imtil (he recall of
Baranoff, They were contrary to the express instructions
of the government, but, as the Russian proverb has it,
"Heaven is high, and the Czar is distant."

1767, The wreck of the government vessel at OciiPtsk delayed
Synd's expedition. In 1767 he left Kamchatka, sailed toward
Ikring Strait, passed St. Matthew and St. Lawrence, wliirh
he supposed to be many small islands, saw the Diomcdcs,
and landed on the coast of y\merica south of Cape Prince
of Wales. He then returned along tlu; Kamchatka coast,
and reached Ochotsk in 1768,

1768. On ,'"''•''-■ 1768, Captain Krenitzin in the gal. ,)t .St.

' A unjust 4. ' ^ i «^

Catherine, and Lieutenant Lcvasheff in the hooker St.
Paul, sailed from the Kamchatka River to explore the Pox

1 77 1.

'//

P-

|il' i^

y Koro-
it pretty

outcnant
luiipross
the 25th
he Kaiii-
[ I'mnak
had been
, Akutan,
frorii the

who left

tcrcd, ex-
to Kani-
imc.

'rcmishlc-

:cl energy

list achiiit

y hist and

it horrible

raced the

v, did not

he wliolc

recall of

Istructions

b has it,

ice, WllU'll

!)ioniiili's,

al. ,)t St.

the I'ox

HISTORY.

305

1768. Islands, by order of the I^mpress. Krcni'tzin, after touch-
ing at Bering Island, wintered at False Pass, and explored
somewhat the coast of Aliaska.

1769. Th.e St. I'aul wintered in Unalashka, and after fi.xing
many points for the first time by astronomical observation,
both vessels returned to Kamchatka in the fall of 1769.

Spanish settlements were made during this year at San
Diego, and an exploring party by lanil reached San I'ran-
cisco Hay.

1771. In Maya number of Polish exiles, under Count Maurice
dc Benyowski, overpowered the garrison at Holsheretsk.
Kamchatka. They escapeil to sea i'l a vessel vvliijh lay in
the harbor, hoisted the Polish ilag, and visited many parts
of Bering Sea and the islands. With the furs whicli they
had collected they finally arrived at Canton.

In this year Samuel llearne made his explorations on
the Coi)per-Mine River.

1772. Stephen Zai'kotif visited .^.liaska, wintering in I'alsc Pass,
and remained among the Fox Islands until 1778.

1774. The S[)anish ensign, Juan Perez, sailed on an exploring
expedition from Monterey on the i6th of June. On the
18th of July he discovered Queen Charlotte's Island, and,
on the 9tli of August, Nootka Sound.

1775. Captain Bruno Ileceta in the Santiago, and Juan i\c
Ayala in the Sonora, sailed northward iVoin San l^las on
the Californian coast in company with the schooner S.m
Carlos, jor Monterey, March 15, 1775. Lieutenant Juan
Frai. iicj de la r-xlcga y Ouachi was .«oon put in chargt"
of the Sonora, and Ayala took cliarge of the .San Carlos
whose captain was disabled. L( ,iving the schooner, the two
exploring vessels proceeded northward to a small roadstead
north of Cape Mendocino, where they anehori'd, calling it
Port Trinidad. After leaving this point they sailed north-
ward and anchored off Point Grenville, where .seven men
beloQging to the .Sonora were killed by the natives. .Soon
after the vessels vvere separated in a sforni, .iiid Ileceta
seized the opportunity to return to Monteri:y, wiiile BcKlega
kept on his way.

Ileceta discovered, on the 15th of August, the mouth

?iil

I p

3o6

HISTORY.

I ■'.■;

'[l»»iH|:

riaea,.'

1775- of the Columbia River. He arrived at Monterey on Au-
gust 30th. Bodega and Maurellc in the schooner advance<l
northward. On the 15th of August they saw hind, and
soon after discovered Mount Edgecumbe, which they named
Mount San Jacinto. After making various explorations
they sailed southward, discovering Dixon's Entrance, which
they named Perez Inlet, explored Bodega Bay, and finally
arrived at San Jilas on the 20th of November.

i7'/6. On the 12th of July, Cai)tain James Cook in the Resolu-
tion, and Captain Charles Clerke in the Discovery, sailcu
from riymouth, England, on a voyage of discovery in the
North Pacific. Among the officers who accompanied this
expedition were King, Bligh, I:5urney, Gore (of Virginia),
Vancouver (as midshipman), and John Lcdyard, of Connecti-
cut, who was a corporal of marines.

1778. SolovioiT, Bragin, and others trading among the Aleutian
Islands, committed many enormities among the natives.

Near the end of March, Cook anchored in Nootka Sound.
Proceeding northward, he saw the mountain called San Ja-
cinto by Bodega, and named it Mount Edgecumbe, which
name it still retains. On the 4th of May he saw and named
Mount St. Elias, and during the month explored Chugach
Gulf and Cook's Inlet. Touching at Unalashka, he entered
Bering Strait in August, and traced the coast northeastward
to Icy Cape;, where he turned back. On his return he ex-
plored part of Norton Sound rnd Bay. On the 3d of Oc-
tober he touched at Unala.shka again, and then proceeded to
the Sandwich Islands, where he was killed by the natives 011
the 1 6th of February, 1779.*

1779. Captain Charles Clerke, in command of Cook's Expedi-
tion, left the Sandwich Islands and reached Petropavlov-k
on the 29111 of April, 1779. He soon afterward sailed for
Bering Strait, but the great accumulation of ice prevented
any progress to the eastward. He returned to Kamchatka,
and died of consumption, on ')oard his vessel, off Avatcha
Bay, August 22d. Lieutenant John Gore then took com

* Cantain James Cook, born at Maiton in Yorkshire, October 27, 1728, ma<:
Master R. N. in 17SQ, Lieutenant in 1768, Conimantlei in 1771, and Captain in 1771
One oCthc most ilistingui.slicd and accurate Knglisli navigators.

1785
i
I

1786,

* Jean

»M . lost ,

HISTORY.

307

lun in I77S-

1779. mand, and it was determined to return to Encjland. The
expedition left Kamchatka for lilngland, via Canton, in Oc-
tober, 1779.

In this year Catherine II. issued a ukase, ordering the
Aleuts to pay tribute {ydssak), to assist all Russian trading
companies, and to sell furs to them only.

On the 7th of February, 1779, a Spanish expedition, under
Arteaga and Hotlega, sailed from San l^las, visiting Port Bu-
carelli and Chngach Gulf, from which they sailed on the 7th
of August for San Bias.

1 78 1. I'otan Zaikoff visited and explored in detail Chugach
Gulf, and wintered on Bering Island. Nagaieff discovered
the mouth of the Copper River. Ivan (iolikoff, Gregory
Shelikoff, and other fur-merchants of .Siberia and Kam-
chatka, formed an association for the more effective manage-
ment of their business.

17S3. Three vessels equipped by them sailed in August, 1783,
from Ochotsk, under the command of Shtlikoff. lie occu-
pied, in the name of Russia, several points on the island of
Kadiak, and erected the f.rst factory there. A vessel called
the St. Alexius, commanccd by Alexieff Popoff, .vas attacked
by the natives ii Prince William's Sound or Chugach Gulf.
Zai'koff explored Captain's Harbor, Unalashka, July--, I7<S3.

1785 The expedition of La Perouse,* planncrd by Louis XVI.
in person, left France for the Pacific. James Manna, from
Marao, traded at Nootka .Sound.

1786. In jUne, La i'erouse saw M'nmt St. IClias, and anchored
afterward in Lituya Bay. Here he lost two boats and
twenty-one men, in the bore at the entrance, July 13, 1786.
He described this liay in detail, and tlien sailed south-
ward to Monterey, and left the American coast forever.

In this year, James Hanna made a second trading voyage
to the northwest coa'.t. Me desired to establish trade be-
tween Macao and Kamchatka, and ser.t Captain Peters in
the brig Lark to Petropavlovsk, wnerj an arrangement was
made with Shelikoff to exchange furs for Ciiinese and lui-
ropcan goods with ihe English. On her rctu n the Lark

* Jean Kranfois dc Gallou]) elf la Porousc, lioin in I-angiicflnc, August 22, 1741,
was lost at sea on this c.xpccliiioii in 17U8. He was i;ust heard fium at Holjuy Bay.

''ii

U4'

308

HISTORY.

J 1':

1786. was lost oil Copper Island, with nearly all on board, and the
project was not carried out.

Several Iradinj^ vessels from China, nK)stly manned by Eng-
lishnien, bnt under the fa;; of the ICast India C"om|)any,
visited the northwest coast in 1786. Among them was one
under Captain John Meares and another under Cap.'.ain
Tipiiing, from (.'alcutta. Captains- Lowrie and (iuise, from
lionihay, sailed from Nootka to Clui;^ach and back to Macao.
Meares and Tipping visited the Aleutian Islands and Chu-
gach (iulf. Meares wintered here, and lost many men by
scurvy and lack of pr(A'isions. Tipping sailed, but was
never heard from afterward.

The King (l<:orge's Sound Com])any, a mercantile associa-
tion for fur-trading, fitted out the shij)s King (ieorge and
Queen Charlotte under Captains I'ortlock and l)i:;on, who
left ICngland in August, 17M5. They reached Cook's Inlet
in July, 17S6, and wintered in the Sandwich Island.s.

1787. I.ebadeff Last(')ciikin and (ierasim I'n'byloff discovered
the island of .St. Paid on the 29th of June, and the suc-
ceeding year the latt>.'r discovered the island of .St. (ieorge.
lie named them the Suboff Islands, but they are more gen-
erally known as the I'n'byloff Islands. .Samoyloff took charg<'
of the factory at Three .Saint.s' I5ay, Kadiak ; and .Shelikoff
sailed for Ochotsk.

In the spring of 1787, I'ortlock and Dixon visited Cook's
Inlet and Chug;ich again. They found Meares at the latter
place in very bad condition, with more than half his men
dead of scurvy. Di.xon then proceeded to Nootka, exploring
as he went. I'ortlock passed the trading season between
Chugach and Mount St. IClias, and rejoined Dixon in
C^anton.

Secret orders were sent from St. Petersburg by Lieuten-
ant-General John Jacobi to Captain Delareff, Samoyloff, and
others, in relation to taking possession of any new discov-
eries in the name of Russia.

In tliis year. Captain Berkeley, of the ship Imperial Eagle,
discovered the Straits of Fuca.

Shelikoff, luiving arrived at Irkutsk, found tliat one of
the Gulikolf brothers had been defrauding the association.

HISTORY.

309

lid the

npiiny,
as one
"aptain
l;, from
Mucao.
.1 Chu-
icn l)y
Lit was

issocia-
■gc and
jn, who
's Inlet

covered
;he siic-
fk:orgc.
^rcn-
c cluir<;c
,helikoir

1 ( "ooU's
V. lallcr
lis n)i;ii
xploriiii;
)ctwei;n
ixon in

^ii'iilcn-
;l<jir, and
discov-

;d l''asi;lc,

t C)!1C of
iociatiou.

1787. A rc<;ular commercial bureau was therefore organized.
On ^'l^^u'xi^i'^^f Shelikofit" and (l(')likoff received medals and
portraits from Catherine II. in acknowledgment of their
services. Shrlikoif had bct.'ii for nearly five y(,'ar.s etigaged
in uninterrupted e.vplorations and the establishment of trad-
ing-posts. During the whole of ihis period he had been ac-
companied by his wife Nathalia Shelikolt, a woman of re-
markable intelligence and energy. Gregory Slu'Iikolf, of
Rylsk in .Siberia, was a man of great energy, and thoroughly
acquainted with his calling, but unscrupulous and grasping,
never hesitating at any falsehood ur outrage which would
advance his interest.s.

1788. On ihe 1st of January, John Meares and William Doug-
las, supercargoes, sailed from Macao in the Felice and Iphi-
genia, I'ortuguese vessels, with captains of the same nation,
but really under the sole charge of j\h:ares. The Iphigenia
sailed to Cook's Inlet, and passed the summer trading there
and to the .southward. Meares, in the I'"elice, went to .Nootka
where he erected a ouihling, fortified it against the natives,
and left part of his crew th<;re to build a small vessel, while
he proceeded to the Straits of Fuca. I'rom that point he
sailed in search of the Columbia I'v.iver, which he failed to
find. He then returned to Nootka, where the Iphigenia had
arrived, and, taking all the luis, sailed to Canton, leaving the
brig and the small vessel, which had been named the North-
west-America, to winter at the .Sandwich Islands. Before
Meares departed, the ship Washington, fitttid out by a com-
pany of Hoston merchants, enti:ied Nootka .Soimd on the
17th of .September, in charge of Captain Robert (iray. .Soon
after, the sloop Columbia of the same e.\peditioi\ reached
Nootka, in charge of Captain John Kendriek, with Josej)h
Ingraham as second offic.-r. The two American vessels win-
tered in the .Sound.

The .Spanish authorities, who claimeil the sole right to
navigate the I'acific on the northwest coast of America,
became aware of the visits of the various traders, and for
further information (icspatchetl vessels from .San Bias, Cali-
fornia, in charge of listevan Martinez and (ion/alo Maro.
This expedition left San Bias March 8, 17S8, and (Milered

' i;-

^ I

;<ll

-r

f'l

i\i

•I

••Mik,'..-

'*X'<J\

310

HISTORY.

178S. Chugach Gulf on the 25th of May. In June, Haro visited
Kadiak and obtained the desired information in regard to
the Russian tra.lers from I*^. Delareff, who had been left in
charge there by Shelikofif. Haro rejoined Martinez in July,
the latter having meanwhile explored the Gulf They then
sailed for Unaliishka, remaining there until September l8lh,-
when they returned to California.

T>vo vessels were sent in this year, under Ismyloff and
l-echaref*", as far south as Mount St. I<21ias, and a Russian
redoubt and trading-post was established at the mouth of
the Copper River. Delareff determined astronomieally the
situation of Three Saints' Bay, Kadiak. Three thousand
sea-otter skins were obtained by him in Cook's Inlet.

An earthquake caused a tidal wave, which passed from
Aliaska to Sanak Island, and created a great inundation
in the island of Unga, during which many natives lost their
lives.

On the j- October, 1788, Shelikofif received from the Rus-
sian government the monopol)' of the fur trade in the
Catherina Archipelago.

1789. The reports of the outrages committed by Glottoff and
Soloviofif having reached St. Petersburg, an expedition for
inquiry and exploration was organized in 1785. This was
put in charge of a timid and incompetent I-lnglishman,
Joseph liillings, who had acted as assistant to Bayly, the
astronomer of Cook's expedition. Dr. ("ail Merck, "a man
combining an almost puerile timidity with extraordinary
intelligence," accompanied him as naturalist. They arrive' 1
at Pctroiiavlovsk from Ochotsk in 1788. On the 9th ut
May, 1789, they sailed from that port to Unalashka, and
afterward as far as Kadiak, where they wintered. Martin
Saur, a German who acted as secretary of the expedition,
collected much information in regard tO the country and
the natives.

Early in the year the Spaniards, determined to put an
end to the encroachments of the English and other traders,
cc|uipped Martinez and Haro, who entered Nootka .Sound
May 6, 1789. Here they found the Columbia and the
Iphigenia. Martinez immediately informed them of his in-

y * ;

'A,

lis
'S '

!l,

HISTORY.

311

1789. tcntion to take possession of the Sound in the name of
.Spain, and, landiiij^ materials and artillery, built a fort on
a small island near Friendly Cove, to enforce his instruc-
tions. Trouble arose between Martinez and Colnctt and
Hudson, two captains who had been sent from Macao by
Meares under the ICnglish flag * Finally, their vessels, the
Princess Royal, the Argonaut, and the Northwest-America,
were seized by Martinc.?- He sailed, with the vessels, car-
goes, and some of the prisoners, for San Bias in November.
Some of the prisoners were put on board the Columbia, to
be taken by that vessel to China.

The American vessels had not been disturbed by the
Spaniards. The Washington explored in June the whole
east coast of Queen Charlotte's Island, which had not been
visited by white men before, though Captain James Duncan
had sailed through the strait which separated it from the
mainland, in 1788. In a subsequent excursion from Nootka,
the Washington explored the Straits of Fuca for fifty miles.
Gray then returned, and met the Columbia bound for China,
and made an arrangement by which Kendrick took charge
of the sloop and remained on the coast, while Gray sailed
for Macao and Canton f with the Columbia. Kendrick im-
mediately returned with the sloop, and more thoroughly ex-
plored the Straits of Fuca, and made the first passage
through them. In November, 1789, the .schooner Fair
American, Captain Metcalf, reached Nootka, and was seized
by Martinez, but aflerwa: 1 released.

In this year Mackenzie descended the river which bears
his name.

1790. Slulikoff organized a company, under the title of the
Shelikotl Com[)any, at Irkutsk, for the management of the
fur trade and monopoly.

By a uka.se, Catherine II. orderctl the Aleuts to send a
certain number of bidarnis every year, to hunt, and to sell
all furs to Slielikoff's company, in consideration of which

* For particulars see Greenhow's History of Oregon and Cr.litbrnia, Chaii. \'III.

I Gray reached Canton December titli, and took un hoard a cargo of tea, witli
which lie arrived in Boston .\ugust lo, 1790, having carried the l.'nited Slates Hag
round the world for the lirst time.

**!

^ .:

,j^«;lri||

312

HISTORY.

1790. the yassak, or tribute, was renounced by the Russian gov-
ernment. 1'^ Delareff", a Greek, who had been long at Ka-
diak, was made Chief Director of affairs in the colony ; and
Alexander Baranoff, a sailor who had shown great energy
in the service, was put in charge of the Kadiak and Cook's
Inlet trading-posts. Haranoff had accompanied Shelikoff in
1783, and was a man of indomitable energy, destitute of
scruples of any kind. lie received secretly, August ~l, in-
structions as to the treatment of the natives and the occu-
pation of new territory. He was appointed one of the
board of directors for the colonies.

Billings left Kadiak* July 31, 1790, and sailed southeast
as far as Chugach Gulf, where he was threatened by the
natives. He then returned to Kamchatka, where he arrived
October 14th.

The Spaniards sent an expedition under Lieutenant Sal-
vator Fidalgo to establish a permanent post at Nootka and
explore the coasts to the northward. He reached Chugacli,
and spent several months exploring there and in Cook's
Inlet, returning to San Bias November 14, 1790. Lieuten-
ant Quimper, in the sloop Princess Royal, explored the
Straits of Fuca for the Spanish government. He returned
to San Bias in August.

On the return of the Columbia the merchants of Boston
fitted her out .'or a new voyage to the northwest coast, under
Captain Gray. The brig Hope was also despatched in
charge of Joseph Ingrahani, former mate of the Columbia.
These vessels were followed by the Hancock, Captain Crow-
ell, the Jefferson, Captain Roberts, and the Margaret from
New York under Captain Magee.

1791. On the 29th of June, Ingraham anchored in a harbor
in the southeast part of Queen Charlotte's Island. He spent
the summer in trading and exploring, and sailed in the fall
for China. In the summer of 1791, Kendrick, in the Wash-
ington, purchased from the natives larf^c tracts of land near
Nootka Sound, and sailed for Macao. The Columbia' ar-

* I have followed S.niychcfrs version. As the expedition w.is a secret one, the
accounts differ, some saying th.at the c.xpediliou first sailed iu 1790, but SarychctT'.s
narrative is probably the correct one.

179I.

!IL.

I ■!'

HISTORY.

313

an gov-
at Ka-
iiy ; and
cncrf^y
; Cook's
likoff in
itutc of

St zi, in-

[ic occu-

of the

outheast
I by the
i arrived

ant Sal-
3tka and
"hugach,
1 Cook's
l.ieuton-
prcd the
returned

Boston

;, under

ched in

olumbia.

n Crow-

et from

harbor
c spent
the fall
c Wash-
md near
nbia' ar-

;t one, the
3arychctT'.s

1791. rived in the Straits of Fuca in June, 1791. Gray explored
much of the coast, includinj^ the I'ortland Canal, and re-
turned to Clyoquot, near the Straits of Fucn. Here the
crew built a small vessel, called the Adventure, and a post,
which they named Fort Defiance.

On the 2d of June, 1791, Captain Alexandro Malespina,
an Italian in the service of Spain, arrived on the coast near
Mount Edgecumbe with two vessels. They explored the
coast between Chugach and Mount I'^airweather, and estab-
lished a few points on the coast to the southward, returning
to Nootka August 13, 1791.

The French ship Solide, Captain I'^tienne Marchand,
visited Norfolk Sound and other parts of the coast in this
year, and left the Straits of Fuca for Canton in the fall.

Shelikoff's first vessel, the Ivan Predecha, was wrecked
on St. Paul Island during the summer. He visited the isl-
and of Kadiak, and reported a population of 50,000, to
enhance the supposed value of his discoveries. Explora-
tions were made by Chaedikoff in the Aleutian Islands.
JJecheretf explored more thoroughly the Peninsula of Aliaska.
Baranoff built a vessel called the I'enie, in Chugach Gulf,
but she was not launched for three years.

April 16, 1791, Billings and Sarycheff sailed from Petro-
pavlovsk, visiting Unahishka, St. Paul, St. Lawrence, Aziak,
and the Diomedes. They touched on the American coast
near Cape Prince of Wales, and then anchored in St. Law-
rence Bay on the Asiatic side. Saur gives an amusing ac-
count of the harsh treatment he received from the natives
on account of his diminutive size. Billings and Saur left
the vessel in charge of a Captain Hall, and pursued their
journey overland to the Kolyma, August 4, 1791. A boat
expedition was sent round to the Kolyma by sea to examine
the shore, but we have no record of their success. Sarycheff
and Hall sailed for Unahishka August 1,3th, and wintered
there, returning to Kamchatka in the following spring.
\'()2. The viceroy of Mexico equipped three vessels, in the
spring of 1792, to continue the explorations. These were
the corvette Aransasu, Lieutenant Jacinto Caamano; the
schooner Sutil, under Lieutenant Dionisio Alcala Galiano ;

I J'
1

' i /j

'. i-k«t

■ il;tl

i I' 1 1

314

HISTORY.

pi«ttr;'|i|||j

IP*' I! II Ij

liw«j||;iiii

1792. and another named the Mcxicana, in cliarp;c of Lieutenant
Cayetano Valdcs. These vessels arriv(Ml from San HIas at
Nootka in May, and departed ; the corvette to look for the
mouth of the supposeil Rio del Reyes, and the others to
explore the Straits of [•"uca. Captain Modega y (Juadra
also went to Nootka to treat willi Vancouver,* who had
been sent out from England to settle the difficulties al
Nootka.

Vancouver, in the ship Discovery, with Lieutenant Rol)cit
B'-ouj;hton, in the brij; Chatham, sailed from ICnj^land in
January, 1791. He w^as instructed to explore the Straits
of b'uca, survey the northwest coast from the 35th to tlu'
Coth i)arallel, and determine, with the Spanish Commissioner,
what indemnity should be made to l'ji<;lish subjects on
account of the Nootka difficulty. He reached the west
coast April 17, 1792. .Sailed northward, and jiassed Cape
Flattery without discovering the mouth of the Columbia.
On the 29th of April he met Captain Gray in the ship
Columbia, and after an interview he proceeded to survey
the Straits of I'uca. At the same time, Gray sailed to ex-
amine the Columbia River, the mouth of which he had pre-
viously noticed. On the nth of May he entered the mouth
of the great river which he named after his ship. He sailed
up stream about fifteen miles, and left the river on the 20tli,
after filling his casks. He then proceeded to Nootka, where
the Hope had also arrived, and after communicating his dis-
covery to Captain Quadra the two vessels sailed for Canton.
Vancouver meanwhile surveyed the archipelago to lat. 52° 18',
meeting the two Spanish schooners in Admiralty Inlet after
his return to the Straits of Fuca. Together they continued
their ex[)lorations, antl Vancouver passed into the ocean
through Dixon's Entrance and returned to Nootka. Men
he found the store-ship Dxdalus, which brought his in-
structions from I'jigland, in charge of Lieutenant New.
After some fruitless negotiations with the Spaniards (for
which see Greenhow, Chap. XI.), he i)roceeded to the month
of the Columbia, which was entered by the Chatham, whieh

* Captain George Vancouver, born aliout 175S, served on Cook's Expedition, sui-
vcycd the western American coast as related, and died, worn out with his labors, i"
May, 1798, before his report was quite finished.

HISTORY.

Lieutenant
■ian Bias ai
look for tlic
e others to
L y Oiiadra
* who had
ffieulties al

lant R()l)t:it
ICiighuKl ill
the Straits
35th to tho
iiiiniissioncr,
subjects on
;cl the west
massed Cape
J Cohunhia.
in the ship
lI to survey
;ailecl to c.\-
he had prc-
:1 the mouth
He sailed
on the 20tli,
lotka, where
tinj^ his (lis-
for Canton.
)lat. 52°i8'
y Inlet after
ly continued
the ocean
otka. Here
^ht his in-
cnant New.
•aniards (lor
o the mouth
tham, which

KxiKxlition, siii-
h his labors, in

315

179J. found there the hrig Jenny of Bristol, which had left Nootka
a few days hefoie, Vancouver sailed to San Francisco Bay,
where the Chatham afterward joined him.

In Octoher, 1792, Mackenzie started on his journey across
the continent.

l-'uslratus Ivanovich Delareff, Chief Director of the colo-
nies, resifrned his position to Baninoff, wlio had shown him-
self well fitted for the j)ost. A settlement was made on St.
Taul's Bay, Kadiiik. A company of Russians, untler Stepan
Zaikoff ami Lebedeff Last(')chk'n, established themselves in
Cook's Inlet and Bristol Bay, claiming; that this territory was
not embraced in the j;rant of the Shelikoff Comi)any.

i;93. Vanc.'Uver reached Nootka May 20th from the Sandwich
Islands and the southern coast. He s[)eiit the summer in
careful explorations from the 51st to the ^C>ih parallel. He
saileil for .San Francisco on the icjlh of October.

Mackenzie descended the l*"razer River, reached the head
of the (iulf of Georgia July 20, 1793, and wrote in vermilion
on the cliff, " Alexander Mackenzie, from Canada by land,
the 22d of July, 1793." He returned by the route over
which he came.

Myu> '793> ^ »l<ase was issued by the Empress of Russia,
authorizing the introduction of missionaries into the Ameri-
can colonics, and the shipment of convicts thither to teach
the natives agriculture! Thirty of these agriculturists were
settled on the peninsula of Kenai by Baninoff. Baninoff
and Ismyloff were attacked by the natives when exploring
the Gulf of Chugach ; the latter were repulsed. The Rus-
sians lost eleven men in this encounter, of whom nine were
Aleutians.

A serious conflict arose between Baranofifand the L6be-
deff Lastochkin Company concerning the right of hunting in
Cook's Inlet.

1794. Vancouver, returning to his explorations, rediscovered
Chirikoff Island, and entered Cook's Inlet April 12, 1794.
He left it, after a thorough survey, in May, and explored
the coasts and islands to the southward, reaching Chatham
Strait, and finishing his work. He sailed from Port Con-
clusion August 22, 1794, and touched at Nootka and on

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HISTORY.

1794. the California coast on his way home. The explorations
which he carried out have not been excelled by any other
navigator, and were faithfully and thoroughly pcrfornicil.
The contending parties at Nootka abandoned the contrc-
versy, and in 1795 withdrew their forces, leaving the Souml
to the natives and traders.

Archimandrite Joasaph, Kldcr of the Augustin friars, was
invited to settle in the colony by Ivan and Michael Golikotf
and Gregory Shelikoft", who had returned to Siberia.

May "j, Shelikoff was ordered to settle twenty convicts
and their families near Cape St. IClias. In conseciucncc,
August ^, two vessels sailed for Kadiak from Ochcitsk. The
first had one hundred and ninety emigrants, two overseers.
and eleven monks on board. The other carried sixty hunt-
ers, two overseers, and a valuable cargo. There was j^rcat
mortality among the colonists after their arrival. Shelikotf
engaged seventy more men in Siberia, who were sent to the
colony.

Baranoff sent an expedition to examine Bering Bay, which
returned with 2,000 sea-otter skins.

The newly arrived monks and missionaries were obliged
to work for their living, the Company refusing to support
then* in idleness. This state of things is said to have con-
tinued for nearly twenty years. On ^'^^^^,y, an arrangement
was made to open a trade with China.

In this year the first complaint regularly entered by a
native in his own name was made against the impositions
and cruelties of the Company. The cries of the unfortunate
Aleuts reached even to St. Petersburg, and on the death of
Catherine II. the Emperor Paul seriously contemplated the
withdrawal of the franchise from the Shelikoff Company.
The expedition of Billings, in every other respect a failure
from the inrompetency of the commander, produced one
good efi'ect, which was the ventilation of the abuses prac-
tised by the traders.

1795. The Company extended its operations. Shelikoff forwaroal
thirty colonists. The settlement of New Russia was estab-
lished on Bering or Yakutat Bay. Two small vessels, the
Dolphin and the Olga, were built in Resurrection Bay. Rev.

e explorations
by any other
ly perlbrmcd.
d the contrc-
ng the Sound

3tin friars, was
chad Golikotf
ibcria.

k^enty convicts
consequence,
Dchotsk. The
two overseers,
ied sixty hunt-
ere was great
/al. Shelikotf
ere sent to tlie

ng Bay, which

1 were obliged
ing to support
d to have con-

n arrangement

entered by a
he impositions
he unfortunate
1 the death of
itemplatcd the
voft" Company,
spect a failure

produced one
e abuses prac-

ikoffforwarucd
3sia was estab-
lall vessels, the
ion Bay. Rev

HISTORY.

3'7

1795. Father Joasaph complained oflficially of BaranofT's conduct
to the missionaries. He furthermore reported the conver-
sion of 12,000 natives, which remarkable statement was natu-
rally received with doubt at St. Petersburg

The Company received a great blow in the death of its
founder, Gregory Shelikoflf, at Irkutsk, in the fall of 1795.
His heirs carried on the operations without cessation, and
his wife, Nathdlia Shelikoflf, acted several years as President
of the Company. As she could neither read nor write, she
signed by her son, Ivan Shelikoflf, as proxy. In the winter,
the first census of Kadiak showed about i.^JO adult native
males, and the same number of females.

1796. The government having authorized a fort to be built on
Yakutat Bay, a post and fortifications were erected, and
a number of convicts, assigned by the Czar, were .settled
there. Shuitz explored Lituya Bay and the head of Lynn
Canal for the Company. An expedition under Sam6yloflf to
the Copper River was cut oflf by the hostile natives. Kadiak
was designated as the principal depot of the Company.
Mount Edgccumbe is said to have emitted fire and smoke
for the last time.

July i2, 1796, Father Joasaph was made a bishop by ukase.
Father Juvenati attempted to put down polygamy among
the inhabitants of Kenai. He was afterwards killed while
preaching to the natives near Iliamna Lake. The first Rus-
so-Greek church was erected in Kadiak. A vessel called
the Three Saints, commanded by MedvcdnikotT, was wrecked
in Bering Bay. Solomin, a native, complained to the Archi-
mandrite of the breaches of faith and extortions of the
Company.

1797. A company in opposition to that of Shelikoflf was organ-
ized by Mylnikoflf ^£~, 1797 ; by consent of Mrs. Shelikoflf
the two were consolidated. Archimandrite Joasaph had re-
turned to Irkutsk to receive his consecration as bishop.

1798. The Shelikoflf United Trading Company organized at
Irkutsk, adopted, January -J, a scries of regulations, and dis-
tributed them to interested parties. A new company, called
the Atka Company, was formed by Ladygin and others, in
opposition to the United Company. Khwostoflf explored

''f

318

HISTORY.

1798. Admiralty Bay. Last6chkin visited the Copper River wiili
great caution. A factory was erected at Niichck Harbor.
A Siberian trading vessel, in charge of Kfssileflf, saw an island
between lat. 43° and 44°, and Ion. 160° and 165°. Various
parties of traders interfered with the operations of the Shc-
likoff United Company.

1799, The ICmperor Paul, at first strongly opposed to it, was in-
duced to take the trading company under his protection
A charter for a new company was drawn up at St. Peters-
burg for the term of twenty years. This charter was issued
on the 8th of June, 1799. It gave to the members of tk
old Company, under the name of the Kussiati Avnrican
Company, the control of all the coasts of America on tlu
Pacific north of lat. 55° N. They were required to organizi
settlements, promote agriculture, commerce, discovery, and
the propagation of the Greek Catholic faith, to extend the
Russian territory and influence on the Pacific as far as they
could without trespassing on the territory of any foreign
power. The capital of the Company was fixed at 98,000
silver rubles. The Aleuts were regarded as the servants or
slaves of the Company. They were obliged to hunt and
work at the command of it** officers, and each adult \va<
obliged to spend at least three years in the actual service
of the Company. They were also forced to sell all their
furs to the Company, at whatever price the latter chose to
pay for them. The natives of Kenai and Chugach were
obliged to pay an annual tribute of furs, though not to enter
the Company's service, lianinoff was placed in charge of
the operations of the Company in the colonies. The govern-
ment of the territories was confided to the Chief Director in
th^ colonies. No appeal could be made from him except to
the Directory at Irkutsk. All regulations and appointments
were made by the latter, and all questions decided by it, with
the approval of the Imperial Department of Ccmmerce. Ah
persons and things in the territory were under the control
of the Chief Director, who resided in Kadiak ; other distriet<
were ruled by inferior agents, chosen from among the Pro-
mislleniks, and accountable only to the Chief Director. The
general regulations were just and humane, but the enforce-

HISTORY.

319

1799. ment of them was intrusted to men with whom justice and
humanity were always subservient to interest and expedi-
ency. HaranofT maintained lor twenty years an ab.solute and
despotic sway over the colonies. The orders of the Direc-
tory were often unheeded by him, and it was almost as easy
for complaints to reach the Directory from another planet as
from Russian America. He was a man of iron energy and
nerve, coarse, unfeeling, shrewd, and enterprising. Among
his inferior agents were men far more intelligent and hu-
mane than himself, but they were obliged to submit to his
authority ; any proposed improvements were in vain, if in
his judgment they conflicted with the interests of the Com-
pany. The morale of the Company's servants may be judged
from Krusenstern's account, which says, " None but vaga-
bonds and adventurers ever entered the Company's service
as Promishlcniks," "it was their invariable destiny to pass a
life of wretchedness in America," and " few had the good
fortune ever to touch Russian soil again." His remarks
coincide in every particular with my own observations,
though among the Creoles, naval officers, and general officers
of the Company at Sitka it was my good fortune to meet
many gentlemen of refinement, intelligence, and a high sense
of honor and justice.

The Company's vessel Fenie (Phocni.x), with the newly
consecrated bishop Joasaph, eighty-eight passengers, and 1
valuable cargo, in charge of Captain Shultz, was lost with
all on board. Most of the ecclesiastics were on this vessel,
and it is said that from this time to i8io only one monk
was left in the colonies.

The Company's vessel St. Demetrius was built in Res-
urrection Bay. Khwostoff explored the Alexander Archi-
pelago, and obtained a large number of sca-ottcr skins.
The same good fortune attended an Aleutian party who
visited George's Strait. .

In consequence of their reports, Baranoff visited Sitka
Hay in the Olga, with a large fleet of Aleutians in their
kyaks, from Kadidk. Here one hundred and fifty of them
died from eating poisonous mussels. Baranoff made one of
the natives of the bay a chief, under the name of MedvOd-

320

HISTORY.

1799. nikofl", and set about the construction of a fortified factory,
which he called Fort Archangel Gabriel.

1800. This was completed in the following spring, when l^ara-
nofT took formal possession of the territory in the name of
Russia. This proceeding was approved of by the Uirccl
tory. He then returned to Kadiak. luiglish and Amcri|
can vessels visited the colony with assorted cargoes, whit!;
the Russians were obliged to purchase altogether, good audi
bad as well, in order to prevent independent trade.

On the i2, October, 1800, the Emperor Alexander ordered I
the general Directory to be tran.sferred from Irkutsk to .St
Petersburg ; only a secondary bureau was left at Irkutsk.

1 801. An issue was authorized of 7,350 shares of stock, each
valued at 500 silver rubles.

A scarcity of provisions compelled the Chief Director to I
purchase supplies from English and American vessels. An
American trader arrived at Kadiak in May. The vessels!
Petropdvlovsk and Alexander Nevski were built in the col-
ony. Troubles arose from among the natives. The Thlin-
kets met on one of the islands of the archipolago, under |
their chief Kaniagin, to devise means of driving out the
Russians. Baranoff was received with hostility by the ii.i-
tives of Kenai.

1802. The Emperor, Empress, and (irand Duke Constantiiiel
became shareholders in the Company "^J;"^.^"', 1802, to the
extent of twenty shares each. The incon.o of this stock
was devoted to charity. In August, the Loan Bank of St
Petersburg was directed by a ukase to advance 250,0001
silver rubles to the Company, at legal interest, for eight |
years.

The vessel Zacharias and Elisabeth was built in the col-
ony.

An expedition under Khw6stoff and Davidoff began scion
tific researches among the Aleutian Islands. The monopoly
of the Russian and Siberian fur trade was secured by the
Russian American Company. Active hostilities were com-
menced by the natives. In May the assembled Thlinkcts
of Sitka, under the chiefs who had been appointed by the
Russians, attacked the Fort Archangel Gabriel and drove

HISTORY.

32!

rtificd factorv

c Constantinc

lilt in the col-

1802. out the inmates. All the officers and thirty men were killcHl.
Two (lays after the ICnglish captain Harbour arrived, and
saved eighteen women, two Russians, and two Aleutians,
who were hunted by the savages in the woods. He also
appropriated the furs which remained unharmed in the
storehouse, and demanded an e.xorbitant ransom from the
Russians for the men. A few days after the American cap-
tain Ebbets arrived, and assisted the colonists against the
natives. May 22d, Kiiskoffs party of four hundred and fifty
Aleuts, in their kyaks, was attacked in Yakutat Hay by the
Thlinkets, who were repulsed. One Russian was killed
and five wounded. June 20th a fleet of ninety kyaks, under
Urbanoff, were attacked by the Thlinkets in Kake Strait.
Only UrbdnofT and twenty-two Aleutians escaped.

The American ship Atahualpa, of Hoston, discovered the
mouth of the Stiki'ne River.

1803. An expedition under Kriisenstern and Lisiansky was
organized in St. Petersburg, and sailed in the ships Xa-
dcshda and Neva in August. In March, the Imperial Fi-
nancial Hureau was ordered to supply the Directory of the
Company with 100,000 silver rubles, on demand, in such
sums as might be required.

In the colony, Hazanoff explored the Copper River for a
short distance. An expedition under Petroff made further
explorations near Yakutat Bay. An American named Owen,
of the bark Eclipse, suggested to Haninofi' the extension of
the fur trade to California. Owen secured the right to pur-
chase all the furs. In pursuance of this project an ex-
pedition under .Swctzoff and Terak.inoff was sent to the
coast of Oregon, and returned with a valuable cargo. The
Slavanissi Colony, on Yakutat Hay, was destroyed by the
natives.

1804. On the loth of June, 1804, Captain Kriisenstern, in the
Nadeslula, left the Neva under Lisiiinsky, at the Washing-
ton Islands, and sailed with Resanolt", the Imperial Com-
missioner, to Kamchatka, where he arrived in July. They
attempted to open an intercourse with the Japanese, but
failed, and returned to Kamchatka.

The Neva arrived in Kadiak July 13, 1804 Lisiansky

322

HISTORY.

1804. found that Raranoflf had sailed for Sitka in the spring with
four small vessels, one hundred and twenty Russians, and
about eight hundred Aleutians in their kyaks. He there-
fore determined to sail to his assistance, and while detained
by contrary winds at Kadiak made various surveys in the
vicinity. He left St. Paul August 15th, and arrived in Nor-
folk Sound on the 20th. BaninofT arrived on the 19th, from
a hunting expedition to Yakutat Hay, in the Yermak. It
was determined to attack the Thlinkets, who had fortified
themselves on a rock near the old settlement, and now-
defied the Russians. On the 1st of October the Neva fired
upon the fort, and, no reply being received, Haranoff and a
party of Russians and Aleutians attempted to storm it.
They were repulsed with some loss by the natives, who
.sallied and drove them to their boats. Haranoff was wounded
in the arm. The ne.xt day the Neva opened fire on tlic
fort with heavy guns, and on the 3d of October the natives
hoisted a white flag. The fort was not surrendered, how-
ever, but was evacuated by the natives on the night of
the 6th. They are said by Lisiansky to have killed a num-
ber of infants and dogs, lest, by making a noise, they .should
give the alarm. The garrison was estimated to have been
about eight hundred ; the walls of the fort were so thick
that the shot from the Neva had not penetrated them. It
was defended by two cannon, and evidently evacuated be-
cause the occupants were out of ammunition. On the 8th
of October it was burned by order of liaranoft". The Rus-
sians had ten or twelve killed, and several wounded.

On the loth of November, Lisiansky sailed for Kadidk,
leaving Baninoff at .Sitka. The Neva ancnored, November
1 6th, in St. Paul Harbor, where she wintered. This vessel
brought the first supply of medicine which reached the
colony.

ResanoflT, the Imperial Commissioner for the redress of
grievances and the better regulation of the colonies, arrived
from Kamchatka and wintered in Kadiak. The St. Deme-
trius was wrecked near Umnak. Three vessels — the Maria,
the St. Mary Magdalene, and the cutter Constantine — were
built in the colony. On the 8th of October, Baranofif laiil

HISTORY.

323

Asians, and

1804. the foundations of the new fort at Sitka. He calls it the
Fort Archangel Michael, and the settlement received the
name of New Archangel. It was placed on the rocky point
which had been so well defeniled by the natives.

1805. Lewis and Clarke descended the Coiiimbiu River, and
wintered near the mouth of it.

On the 14th of June, Lisiansky sailed frotn Kadiak for
Sitka, where he arrived on the 22d, and whence, afli-r mak-
ing various e.xploration.s, he .sailed, September ist, for Canton.
A hunter named Hukadoroff, employed by the Company
among the inlands, was attacked by the natives. The ex-
periment of planting treei on the Aleutian Islands was tried
this year. An expedition under Demiankoff was obliged to
leave Yiikutat Hay by the hostile natives ; in the storm
which followed, thirty Aleutians were lost in their bidarkas.
The natives attacked a settlement on the bay, and massa-
cred the inhabitants ; out of forty persons only thirteen
escaped. At this time four hundred and seventy Russians
were employed in different capacities by the Company.

The Imperial Chamberlain and Comniission<;r, Count Ni-
kolai I'etrovich Resanoff, maugurated many useful reforms in
the colony. Notwithstanding the unjust slurs of the usually
accurate Greenhow, Resanoff was a man of unusual capacity,
intelligence, and humanity. He organized a school at Ka-
diak under the name of the "House of Henevolence of the
lunpress Maria." His reforms and instructions much im-
proved the prospects of the colony. He suggested a court
in the territory for the trial of minor otfences, and ordered
that the Aleutians shoulil receive their pay in money, and
not in merchandise, as formerly. I'riiitetl parchment, with
the Company's seal upon it, was used as a medium of ex-
change in the colony instead of coin.

In the autumn, Resanoff, urged by the .scarcity of provis-
ions, purchased the American ship Juno, of Rhode Island,
and her cargo. This alone prevented a famine in the Rus-
sian settlements. He embarked in the Juno and sailed to
San Francisco, where he hoped to make arrangements with
the Spanish authorities for an annual supply of provisions.
He examined the coast for a suitable locality for settlement,
on his wav.

324

HISTORY.

1805. lie was at first received with coolness by the Spanish
Governor, Don Luis dc Arj;uello. The latter had a dau<;hter
named Donna Conception, who was remarkably beautiful.
The polished manners, manly beauty, accomplishments, and
intellif;ence of Resanoff did not fail to make an impression
on her. Resanoff was ecpially struck by the beauty, inno-
cence, and simple grace of the Spanish maiilen. lie did not
conceal his love, and they were betrothed. After this, it
may be imagined that the old (iovernor listened to Resa-
noffs plans with more complacency, and an arrangement
was entered into as he had proposed.

1806. lie sailed for Sitka in June, 180C, leaving his betrothed
with the assurance of his return as soon as he could obtain
the imperial consent to the marriage. He arrived at Sitka
safely and concluded his business. Too impatient to wait
for the provision ships, and undertake another voyage
around the world, he sailed for Kamchatka, intending to
make the journey overland, through Siberia, to St. I'eters-
burg.

Baranoff, who had looked with contempt on the reforms
which Resanoff had instituted, lost no time in restoring, as
far as he could, the old condition of things ; and the same
exactions and injustice continued to mark his whole admin-
istration. He concluded an agreement with Charles Camp-
bell to share in a hunting expedition to California, which
proved very successful. Several similar cxj)edilions were
fitted out, and among them one in the American vessel
Windship. The first vessels were built at Sitka during this
year. The volcano of Joduita I'^ogosiova (St. John the Theo-
logian) rose from the sea on the ist of May.

In St. Petersburg the Government Financial Bureau was
ordered to credit the Company to the extent of 200,000
silver rubles, A special Hag (the Russian mercantile flag,
with the addition of a double-headed black eagle) was
granted to the Company, and naval officers were permitted
to enroll themselves in the Company's service.

Simon I-'ra/.er, of the Northwest Company's service, estab-
lished a trading-post on Frazer Lake, in lat. 54''.

1807. Resanoff, overcome by the exposure and fatigue of a Si-

HISTOKV.

325

1807. bcrian winter journey, died March isf, at Krasnoyarsk in
Siberia, on his way to St. IV-tcrsburg. So ended the hfe of
the most inteUigent and skilful reformer wlu) had yet visited
Russian America. It is related that his betrothed, who did
not know of his death, at least for many years continued
constant and expectant, refusinj; many offers of marria>;e.
Many years after, when Americans first settled in Califor-
nia, and she had become an oUI woman, she was still fiithful
to her love, and daily scanned the CioUlen Gate for his ap-
proaching vessel.

The sloop of war Diana, in charge of ("iol()fnin and Ricord,
left Cronstadt on a voyage to Kamchatka and Japan. The
brig Sitka was built in Norfolk Souml by an .American
named Lincoln. The American vessel Derby, Captain Swift,
arrived at Kadiak from Canton.

Seventy kyaks, in charge of ICremin, sent to Chatham
Strait, were driven away by the Thiinkels.

The Company's ship Neva, Captain Ilagenmeister, arrived
at Kadiak from OchcUsk with provisions.

1808. Timothcus Tarakanoff and Hiilegin visited the northwest
coast in the Company's sloop St. Nikolai.

The frecjuent complaints which were made against Hani-
noff induced the Directory to send out Koch to succeed
him as Chief Director in the colonies ; but Koch died in
Kamchatka in 1808, while on his way.

The Company's tender, Avos, was lost near l^ialashka.
Kuskoff was sent, with two vessels loaded with rum, to trac'"
at the mouth of the Columbia. In returning, the Kadiak
arrived safely at Sitka, but the St. Nikolai was lost. Captain
Krse, of the Mercury, made a contract witii Haninoff to
carry a hunting and trading cxjiedition to the same place,
and returned with a valuable cargo. In March an expedi-
tion of one hundred bidarkas, escorted by two armed vessels,
endeavored unsuccessfully to induce the Thlinkets to trade
with the Russians.

A conspiracy, headed by Naplakotr and Popoff, was di-
vulged by Lcshi'nski. The plan was to kill Haranoff, take
one of the vessels and provision her, and sail with a number
of women to some of the South Sea islands. The conspir-

326

HISTORY.

ilKl

iiiiii

1808. ators were arrested, and two years afterwards Raranoff re-
ceived instructions to judj^e them in the colony, without any
public demonstration. It may well be doubted if his justice
was tenjpered with mercy.

A proposition was made to Spain, by the Directory, to
purchase a small piece of land in California, suitable for an
agricultural colony. It was, however, rejected.

1809. A new conspiracy among the natives to destroy the Rus-
sians was revealed by a native woman. An application was
made to the Directory by thirty-seven Russians, who desired
to settle permanently in the colony. VVasilieff described the
west coast of Baranoll Island, and several of the adjacent
islands.

Peter Shydekin, a native, renewed the protest against
the exactions of the Company. The Thlinkets attacked a
hunting party among the islands. The Discovery, 306
tons, and the Chi'rikoff, 120 tons, were built by Lincoln at
Sitka.

1810. John Jacob Astor forme/i an association in New York
under the name of th'j Pacific Fur Company, and fitted out
the ship Tonquin, Captain Thorne, for the mouth of the
Columbia River. He had the previous year despatched the
.ship Enterprise, Captain Ebbets, whicli arrived in Sitka in
July, 1810.

Captain W'asili M. Golofnin reached Sitka in the sloop
of war Diana, June 10th. He brought a priest, the first who
had arrived in the colony since the wreck of the Phtcnix.

A ship and brig were built at Sitka, making seventeen
vessels constructed in the colony since 1799-

In May an expedition, under Kiiskotlf, among the islands,
was obliged to return, from the hostility of the natives,
who were assisted by Captain Gale, of an American trading
vessel. Eight of the Aleutians were killed. The govern-
ment vessel was allowed to take the furs to Ochotsk from
the colony. A party of Russians on St. Matthew Island were
nearly all starved to death during the winter, by the disappear-
ance of the sea animals, on which they relied for subsistence.

Ricord and Khlebnikoff explored and named the She-
likoff Strait, between Alidska and Kadiak.

HISTORY.

327

i.Sii. In Janunry, Mr. A.stor despatched the second detachmeiU
of traders, under Wilson 1'. Hunt, to descend the Cohnubia
River. On the 24lh of March tlie Toiuiuin arrived at the
mouth of the Cohuubia, and the settlement of Astoria was
built. In October the ship Mcaver, Captain .Sowles, left New
York with another party of traders for Astoria. An a;;ent
was also sent to .St. Petersburg to negotiate with the Direc-
tory of the Russian American Company.

In January, Kuskoff, on the second expedition to Cali-
fornia, was refused water by the Spanish authorities at San
I'rancisco. He therefore removed his vessel to the north-
ward, and bought a small tract of land from the natives on
Hodega Hay. A river f.dling into the bay was named the
Slavianka, October ~, a convention between John Jacob
Astor and the Russian American Company was a|)pro\ d
by the ICmperor Alexander I. Astor agreed to furnish ,yro-
visions and supplies li fixed prices, and to take pay in furs
from the Company. They were to mutually assist each other
against smu„„iers, and respect each other's hunting-grounds.
Astor was to take the Company's furs to Canton at a fixtxl
price for freight, and sell them on commission. Hoth agreed
not to sell intoxicating liquors to the natives. This arrange-
ment was broken up by the subsequent war between ICng-
lanil and the United .States. The shipTonquin was attacked
by the natives near the .Straits of Fuca, and blown up by
those on board.

David Thompson, of the Northwest Company, descended
the north branch of the Colund)ia to Astoria.

1812. David Stuart, of the Pacific Fur Company, accompanied
Thompson on his return, and establishetl a trading-jiost on a
branch of the Upper Columbia. The Heaver arrived at
Astoria on the 5th of May.

Hunt and his party, after great suflerings, nached Astoria
early in the year ; many of them had perished frt)m desti-
tution and privation. Hunt sailed for .Sitka in the Heaver,
and concluded negotiations with l^aninoff. which were some-
what interfered with by the potations of the la; jr. Hunt
then sailed for the Sandwich Islands, and the Heaver pro-
ceeded to Canton.

•HI

III

•\

n m

m ^^^ '

i Hll

728

HISTORY.

18 1 2. TIic first Russian settlement in California was made on
Bodega Bay by Kiiskoft! This was done with the concur-
rence of the Spanish Government, though against the wishes
of the Roman Catholic missionaries. On the 30th of August,
Kiiskoft" removed the settlement to a hill one hundred and
ten feet high, near the Slavianka River. This was named
the Russian (Koss) Settlement, and the inhabitants were
principally devoted to agriculture and drying the meat of
the wilil cattle. Wheat was raised here and sent to Sitka,
and a small trade was carried on with the natives. The
Spaniards regarded it with a great deal of hostility, and inter-
fered with the operations of the Russians as much as possible.

i8!3. Robert Stuart, who had left Astoria when Hunt sailed
for Sitka, reached New York in the spring, after a severe
journey across the continent. In June the ship Albatross,
of Boston, arrived at the Sandwich Islands, bringing the
news cf the war with Great Britain, and also that the Beaver
was blockaded in Canton by a British vessel. Hunt sailed
in the former for Astoria, and then proceeded again to the
Sandwich Islands after a vessel to convey the Pacific Com-
pany's property to a place of safety.

Meanwhile a British squadron had been sent to destroy
the settlement at the mouth of the Columbia River, ami
Mactavish, of the Northwest Company, arrived at Astoria
to meet it. A sale was effected by the agent of the Pacific
Company, by which the property was transferred to the
Northwest Company for $58,000, on the i6lh of October,
1813. A short time after, the British sloop of war Raccoon
arrived to destroy the American post, and, finding it was
sold, formally hoisted the British flag and changed the name
to I'ort George. The ship Lark had been despatched to
Astoria in March, but was wrecked on the Sandwich Islands.
Baranoff's star still continued in the ascendant. The
ship Neva, Captain Podushkin, from Ochotsk, was wrecked
near Sitka on the -^, of January. But twenty-five of the
crew were saved, while Barono-wolokoti, who had been sent
to supersede Baninoff, was lost with thirty-seven men. The
Company's vessel, Alexander Nevski, was wrecked on the
Kurile Islands, but no lives were lost. The Thlinkets, while

. ^

■ 1

HISTORY.

329

I was made on
ith the concur-
linst the wishes
30th of August,
hundred and
his was named
(habitants were
ig the meat of
[ sent to Sitka,
: natives. The
tility, and inter-
luch as possible.
;n Hunt sailed
after a severe
ship Albatross,
s, bringing the
that the Heaver
1. Hunt sailed
h1 again to the
le Pacific Coni-

sent to destroy

bia River, ami

'ed at Astoria

of the Pacific

isferred to the

ith of October,

war Raccoon

finding it was

ngcd the name

desi^atchcd to

ndwich Islands.

cendant. The

V, was wrecked

nty-five of the

had been sent

^cn men. 1 he

recked on the

lilinkets, while

4
i

■ \\

1S13. endeavoring to excite other natives against the colony,
were attacked and defeated. The Company's vessel Suwar-
row arrived with the annual supply of provisions from St.
Petersburg, in charge of Michael Petrovich Lasareft".

1814. In February, Hunt, in the brig Pedler, arrived at Astoria
from the Sandwich Islands. After closing the concerns of
the Pacific Company he embarked for Canton. On the 24th
of December the treaty of peace between the United States
and Great Britain was signed at Ghent.

A special commission for the examination of the affairs
of the Russian American Company was ordered at St.
Petersburg.

Paninofr, preserving in his old age the audacity of his
joiith, was, however, already less fortunate in his under-
takings. He pmchased three American vessels, — the He-
ring, the Trevor, and the Ilmen. The Trevor proved unsea-
worthy. An.xious to establish a trade with the Sandwich
Islands, and well aware of their growing importance, Hara-
noff sent the Bering to negotiate with the native monarch,
at his invitation. The vessel was lost on Atuia Island of
the Sandwich group.

1815. On the i8th of July, 1815, Mr. Monroe, Secretary of
State, announced to the British representative at Washing-
ton that the United States intended to reoccupy imme-
diately the post of Astoria, in virtue of the first article of
the treaty of Ghent.

The brig Rurik was fitted out by the liberality of Count
Romanzoff, Counsellor of State. She sailed from St. Peters-
burg early in the year, in charge of Lieutenant Otto von
Kotzebue,* accompanied by Choris, Ivscholtz, Chamisso, and
other savcxiis.

An expedition in the Discovery induced the Thlinkets to
trade for the first time since the massacres. The price paid
for furs was raised in Kivor of the hunters, tlie old rate
being very low. Intercourse with the Sandwich Islands
was again attempted. Dr. l-llliott, an American, sent on
the Ilmen to the Ross .Settlement, was seized and held pris-
oner as a Russian spy, by the Spanish authorities.

• Son of .August l''ric(lii(.h Fcrdinaiul von Kot/cl)Uc, tlic cclebr.itcd .luthor. lie
wa>Uin at Ucvcl, Dcceiuber 19, 1787, and died there February 13, 1S46.

330

HISTORY.

Ki^r

I'i .'

it 'f!

tli:l

;;

III

'"! iiili

1816. Kotzcbue left Pelropavlovsk, in the Rurik, July i8tli,
landed on St. Lawrence Island July 27th, passed through
Bering Strait on the 31st, and on the 3d of August entered
and proceeded to explore the Sound which bears his name.
He left it on the 14th, passed a little way to the north-
ward, and then sailed for Unalashka.

The hunting during this year was unfortunate and un-
profitable. Explorations north of Cook's Inlet were ordered
by the Company. The vessel Mary Magdalene was wrecked
near Ochotsk, but the cargo of furs was saved. Uaranoft
sent the vessel Isabella on a voyage to the Philippine Isl-
ands. Father Solokoft' arrived at Sitka from Moscow, and
took charge of the colonial churches. The keels of ei<;b'i
vessels were laid during the year. Hagenmeister sailed
from Cronstadt with two vessels, September 3d, for the
colonics.

18 1 7. Captain Biddle, in the sloop-of-war Ontario, was sent to
the mouth of the Columbia. Kotzcbue visited the Aleutian
Islands. The schooners Platoff and Baranoff were built
in the colony. i

On ''""'"■' -, the fourth expedition from St. Petersbur
with provisions arrived at Sitka in the Kutusoflf and Suwar- [
row. Baninoft", feeling that the chills of age were cooling
the current of his blood, worn out with twenty-seven years
service to the Company, voluntarily offered his resignation
in December.

Golofnin's second expedition with Liitke, Wrangell, and
l*tolin, was organized in St. Petersburg.

Camille de Rocquefeuil entered on his journey round thi
world, in which he visited many parts of the northwest coast f.

October 6th, Astoria was delivered to J. B. Prevost, agent
for the United States, by the captain of the British frigate t
Blossom. Alexander A. Baranoff sailed for Batavia fron;!;
Sitka in the .ship Kiitusoff.

1818. January -, Captain Leontius Andrianovich Hagenmeister
assumed the duties of Chief Director of the colonics. Febru-
ary 20th he ordered that the hunters should receive an an-
nual salary instead of being paid in merchandise as formerly.
He was obliged to use severe measures to restrain the dc|>

HISTORY.

331

Lurik, July i8th, B81
, passed through
f August entered
bears his name,
ay to the north-

nrtunate and un-

nlct were ordered ]

lenc was wrecked :

saved, liaranoli ?

ic Philippine Isl- i

rom Moscow, and j

he keels of eight ^

gennieister sailed :
mber 3d, for the

tario, was sent to
sited the Aleutian
iranoff were built \

m St. Petersburg f §8 1
tusoff and Suwar- r
age were cooling i
vcnty-seven years ■
ed his resignation

ic, Wrangell, ami

ourney round thi.
e northwest coast
B. Prevost, agent
le British frigate
for Batavia froir,

ich Hagenmeistcr
colonies. Fcbru-
aid receive an anp
mdise as formerly
restrain the dcp- f

8. redations of the natives. An American vessel was bought
and named the Golofnin. June £, Vasili Michaelovich Go-
lofnin, Imperial Commissioner for the redresi^ of abuses, ar-
rived in Kadiak. On the 3d of December, Hagenmeistcr
resigned in favor of Lieutenant Janoffsky, and returned to
Russia. Golofnin was instructed to report on the state of
tiic Russian territories in America.

I'stingoff, Kcirsakofil", and Kolmakoff were sent to examine
the shores of Bristol Bay. Korsakoff crossed Aliaska from
Cook's Inlet on foot, examined the coast northeast of it,
left a party at Nushergak and travelled along the coast
until he met Ustingoffs vessel, which took him round Cape
Ncwenham, and into Kuskoqiiim Bay. Winter coming on,
he returned to Nushergak, where Kolmakoff had built a
furl, which has been kept up ever since. Here he wintered.

In this year the spirit of enterprise, dormant in England
since the day of Cook and Vancouver, appeared to awake.
The Arctic expeditions of Ross, Franklin, Parry, Richard-
son, and Back are too well known to need explanation.
None, however, visited the North Pacific.

9. The exploring vessels Discovery, Good Intent, Western,
and Peace, fitted out at St. Petersburg for a voyage of dis-
covery, under Wasfiieff, Shi'shmareff, Bellingshausen, and
Lazereff.

Klimofisky attempted to explore the Copper River. I'^s-
tingoff described Goodnews Bay. Janoffsky made official
visits to Kadiak, UnaUishka, and the Pri'byloff Islands. A
brig called the Biildakoff was built in the Californian set-
tlement. The Spanish scnooner Fortuna, discovered ashore,
with seven natives of the Sandwich Islands on board, was
taken as a prize by the Company's vessels. On the f^
A[)ril, Captain Alexander Andreavich Baninoff died at Ba-
tavia on his way home to Russia. He was about eighty
years old, and is said by Denys to have died without leav-
ing any property, in spite of his long and active career.

Golofnin's report having reached St. Petersburg, the Em-
peror determined to put an end to the mismanagement of
the colonies, and curb the exactions of the traders. On
the 8th of July, regulations were put in force by which the

ill!

Mil,

■'}^

332

HISTORY.

1 8 19. Chief Director became directly responsible to the crown t •
any misdemeanor, and the condition of the colonies \v„
greatly improved. The death of Har;inoff rendered the intn-
duction of these reforms less difficult, and the subseqiicr
direction of the colonies has been generally committed t
honorable and enlightened officers, under whose guidaiu
the abuses, formerly prevailing to so great an extent, hav:;*
been removed or much abated.

In 1819 the Company had settlements on five of ti,:
Aleutian Islands, four on Cook's Inlet, two on Chugach (in;;.
and one on Haranoff Island, Sitka Hay.

1820. Captain Muravietil' succeeded Janoffsky as Chief Directc
of the colonies. The liorodino arrived at Sitka under Captai:,
I'onafidin with merchandise from Russia. Schmidt was ap-
pointed Director of the Ross Colony. The bay of Bode-:
had received the name of Roman/off, from the Russian>
The Ross settlement, according to Helchcr, presented a quae
rilateral of twenty-five metres in length. It contained housci
for the Director and officers, an arsenal, a barrack for [h
men, storehouses, and .1 Creek chapel surmounted with .

, cross, and provided with a chime of bells. The stockati;
was four metres in height, pierced with embrasures furnished
with carronades. At opposite corners were two bastion-
two stories high, and furnished with six pieces of artillcn
The gardens were very extensive, and large quantities c:
wheat were raised, and sent to the northern establishments.
Kolmakoff explored the Kuskoquim River. The e.xpd;
tion under Wasi'lieflf arrived in the North Pacific. The Ui-
covery went to Petropavlov.sk ; the Good Intent visited tl
Aleutian Islands, afterwards passing through Bering Stra;
as far as Icy Cape, and, returning, described the island c:
Nunivak. Dokhteroff sailed for the colonics from Cronstai!;
The first regularly resident physician was settled in tl;.
colony. In this year, Wrangell and his party commence:
their explorations in northeastern Siberia.

182 1. ;'^<"'™i"-' the charter of the Russian American Comijanv
was renewed for twenty years by the order of the Empcro:
The Senate, by ukase, reorganized the Company. The Km-
peror also issued a ukase, in which the whole west coast of

;

HISTORY.

333

on five of thj

[821. North America, nortli of the 51st parallel, and the east
coast of Asia north of 45° 50', was declared Russian territory,
and foreigners were prohibited from approaching within one
huiulred miles of the coast, except when in distress. The
British government protested against this decree as soon as
it was issued, and the United States did the same as soon
as official information of it was received from the Russian
government. The Russian authorities sent cruisers to en-
force the ukase, and the brig Pearl, of Boston for Sitka, was
seized. The result was the convention between the United
States and Russia in 1824. The vessels sent to the west
coast by Russia were the sloop of war Apollo, under Tulii-
bieff, captain of the first rank ; and the brig Ajax, under Phi-
latoff, captain of the second rank. The Ajax was wrecked
on her way out, and, Tulubieff dying, the command of the
Apollo fell upon Lieutenant Krushchoff (or Krutzoff).

The brigs Rurik and l*}lisabeth, under KlochkofT and
Kislakoffsky, arrived in the colony, with merchandise from
Russia, on the 5th of September. They brought three eccle-
siastics.

|S:2. The exploring expedition under Kramchenko, Pttolin, and
Wasilieff sailed in the ships Golofnin and Baninolf. They
examined the coasts of Norton Sound, Bristol Bay, and the
island of Nunivak, describing Golofnina Bay and Golovi'n
Sound. The expedition continued during two years. Sha-
bclsky visited the colonies. Captain-Lieutenant Andreas
IVtrovich Lazerefif and M. P. Lazereff, captain of the second
rank, sailed for the colonies and the Californian coast in
the frigate Cruiser and the .sloop Ladoga. They returned to
St. Petersburg in 1824.

I823. Lieutenant ^''^•^o Von Kotzebue sailed on his second
journey round the world in the sloop Enterprise.

The Nearer Islands, which, under the name of the .'^tka
District, had been included in the government of Ochotsk,
were surrendered to the Colonial Direction.

Father Frument Mordoffski was sent as missionary to
Kadiak. The Ladoga visited Sitka in November. Hogs
wore placed on a barren island near the Ch(5rnobour Reef.
Kramchenko visited Yakutat Bay.

334

HISTORY.

III!

illHll
iiiii'l

it!

S-'l

1823. The calling of a convention, to settle the boundary cjucv
tion between Russian and American territory on the wi.
coast, was made the occasion, by the President of the Unite
States, for a declaration of the Monroe doctrine, which dt
laycd a settlement.

1824. The convention between the United States and Riis;.
was signed at St. Petersburg, April ^, 1824. It provid.;
that the North Pacific should be open to citizens of be
nations for fishing, trading, and navigation, except that t:
trading-posts of either of the contracting parties should 1.
be visited by subjects of the other party without the consc:
of the officer in command. The Russians were not to niali
any settlements south of latitude 54° 40', nor the America:
any north of that parallel. It was provided, that, at the cr
of ten years, the liberty to navigate the Russian waters ar: ]
trade with the natives might be abrogated by Russia, and ;
no case were arms, ammunition, or liquor to be sold to !'
natives. The brig Pearl was released, and the owners i:;
demnified. Lieutenants Chi'stakoff and Murdvieff sailed
the Company's ship Helen from Cronstadt for the colonit
Kotzebue reached Sitka August i?, in the Enterprise. Mk
and Blanchard, American traders, arrived at Sitka fro:
Boston. Kriishchoff explored in the Alexander Archipcla:
Father Innoccntius Veniamfnoff, the noble and devoted ni:-
sionary, was sent to Unalashka, and began his labors amor
the Aleuts.

1825. February 1^, a convention between Great Britain and R:
sia was concluded. It recognized the southern boundary i
the Russian possessions as the parallel of 54° 40 . Othcrwilji
it resembled the previous agreement with the United State

Franklin undertook his second journey westward from t;
Mackenzie River.

May 19, 1825, Captain F. W. Beechey, in H. M. S. B!(
som, sailed from England to co-operate from Bering Str:
with Parry and other eastern expeditions. Lieutenant CIi;.-
takoff succeeded Murdvieff in the direction of the colonic
He transferred the principal depot of the Company froi
Sitka to St. Paul, Kadiak. Father Jacob Netsvieloffw
sent as missionary to the Aleuts of Atka.

182C

18:7.

i8j8.

V
V

t
t(

5.
¥

n
S

HISTORY.

335

\\S26. Captain Fr, LutkcS in the corvette Senidvine, wltii the
naturalists Kittlitz, Postels, and Mcrtens, sailed on a voyage
of discovery from St. Petersburg. On the 27th of June,
Ikechey reached Kamchatka, and, passing through Bering
Strait, entered Kotzebue Sound in July. He pushed as far
north as the ice would permit, and then sent out a boat ex-
pedition under Mr. Elson, which reached and named Point
Harrow. About the i8th of August, Franklin, coming from
the east, reached Return Reef, his most western point. The
Blossom then left Kotzebue Sound for San Francisco, whence
she sailed for the Sandwich Islands and Macao, in this man-
ner consuming the winter.

Failure of crops in the Ross Colony, during this and sev-
eral subsequent years, reduced the annual contribution of
flour from that point to about 30,000 pounds.

Captain Chi'stakoff removed a number of Aleuts from
.\mlia to Atka Island, at their own request.
118:7. Ih^ Senidvine reached Sitka June 27, 1827. Here she
remained until July 31st. After visiting Unaldshka, the
Pribyloff Islands, and St. Matthew, she sailed to Petro-
pdvlovsk, and then southward for the winter.

The Blossom returned to Bering Strait from Macao, but
accomplished little or nothing, sailing for England October
7, 1827.

l'!tolin brought a cargo of salt inMn California to the
colony.

All the hogs on Chernobour Island perished from the tidal
wave which accompanied an earthquake and eruption of the
volcano on Unimak.

On the 6th of August a convention was agreed upon be-
tween the United States and Great Britain, leaving the terri-
tory west of the Rocky Mountains open to all parties fcr ten
years.
[1828. Captain-Lieutenant Hdgenmeister sailed, in the transport
Kiotky, on a scientific expedition to the colonies. Captain
Stani'nkovich explored and determined many points on the
north coast of Alidska. Kramchenko sailed from the colo-
nies in the Helena. The ninth provision ship arrived from
St. Petersburg. The Company sent fifty-eight tons of salt

IWIH

)t)ll!j

III

r" p

336

HISTORY.

1828. to Kamcliatka for the government. Liitke returned to
Kamchatka in May, and examined that coast as far north
as Bering Strait, returning southward in .September.

1829. The Company determined to pay for foreign merchandis:
in future with bills of exchange instead of furs.

Vasflieff (not Wasi'lielT) explored the coast to the Kusko-
quim. Father Veniamfnofit" visited Nushergak and baptizoi!
thirteen natives. Ingenstrum visited the Andreanoflski hi-
ands and Attii.

1830. Chernoff examined the harbor of Nuchek, Chtagalul;
Island, and the mouth of the Kaknu River. Kolmakc:
renewed his explorations toward the Ki'skoquim. I'ltolin
Wasi'lieff, and others explored more thoroughly the coast;
of Norton Sound and Golovi'n Sound.

On the 2. November the Company took formal posses-
sion of the Kurile Islands.

1 83 1. liaron F. P. Von Wrangell was appointed Director of the
colonies.

The crew and cargo of a small vessel called the Sea-
Lion, vrccked on Atka Island, were saved by the presence
of mind of Ingenstrom, the i)ilot. The Am(,Tican ship Caer-
narvon arrived in Sitka with merchandise from Ent^land
and Brazil. Vasilieff explored the south coast of Aliaska.
Kramchenko sailed for the colonies in the government trans-
port America. Tcbenkofif visited Norton Bay.

1832. Chief Director Wrangell made a tour of the colonics,
especially inspecting Nushergak. The chief depot and capi-
tal of the territory was decided finally to be located at Sitka.
Luke^n was sent across the portage from Nushergak to the
Kuskoquim, where he established a trading-post.

Father Veniaminoff baptized seventy natives at Nush-
ergak.

1833. A ukase was promulgated April f, by the ministers of the
crown, allowing all Russians, under certain restrictions, to
become residents of the colony.

By order of Baron Wrangell, Michael TebenkofT estab-
lished Fort St. Michael's on Norton Sound. Assistant
Director Muravieff introduced important reforms into the
hitherto destructive pursuit of the sea animals. (See Chap-

i'i

HISTORY.

i. (See Cliap-

1833. ter VI. Part II.) An observatory was established at Sitka.
Ivxplorations in the Ale.xaiulcr Archipelago were carried on
by I'ltolin and Zaremba.

1834. The Russian government, under the fourth article of the
convention of 1824, withdrew the privilege of free naviga-
tion of their waters from American traders. This course
was prompted by the sale of fire-arms and spirits to the
natives by unscrupulous traders. The American Minister
protested against the action of Russia, but without effect.
The convention with Great Hritain would terminate the
following year. The insatiable Hudson l^ay Company, ever
ready to extend their traffic by force, or fraud if necessary,
conceived the audacious idea of establishing a fort on the
Russian territory before the term expired. They fitted out
the vessel Uryad with colonists, cattle, and arms, and de-
spatched her to the mouth of the Stikfne River.

liaron Wrangcll was informed of the project, and de-
spatched Lieutenant Dionysius Zaremba, in the arnTcd brig
Chi'chagoff with the schooner Chilkaht, who built I'ort Diony-
sius on a small harbor near the mouth of the .Stikine, and
thus checked the encroachments of the I'nglish, who were
not suffered to land. The latter were very indignant, and
declared that ;^ 20,000 had been spent in fitting out and
loading the vessel, which was, no doubt, a gross exaggeration.
Remonstrances were useless, and they were obliged to return
to Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River, \vhcrc they
had been fitted out. This matter was immediately brought
before the English government, who demanded satisfaction,
through their agents, for an alleged infraction of the treaty
of 1825.

The Suchi'tna River was explored by IMiilakoff. The
incompetency of an overseer in the Pn'byloff Islands par-
tially frustrated the measures adopted by Muravieff for
the preservation of the seal. I"\ither Wniami'noff was pro-
moted to a bishopric, and transferred to .Sitka. John
McLeod, a trader from Liards River, discovered the head-
waters of the Stikinc.
1835. An imperial ukase removed the restrictions, and allowed
all Russian subjects to settle in the colonies.

338

HISTORY.

iiiii'iii

? ,

:. i

1835. In this and followinf; years, GlasunoflT explored the deltas
of the Yukon and Kuskoquim rivers, ascending the former
to Anvi'k. Captain Tebenkotf sailed for the colonies from
Russia, in the Company's vessel Helena.

The crops failed in the Ross Colony, and this caused a
scarcity of provisions in the settlements.

1836. liaron Wranj-jell was succeeded by Captain Kuprianoffj
in the General Direction of the colonies. The tenth pro-
vision ship Helena arrived, April ^, at Sitka, in charge of{
Tebenkoff.

Redoubt St. Michael, attacked by the natives, was success-
fully defended by Kurupanoft'. The crops failed again in
the California settlement. In July the Hudson Hay Com-
l)any organized the expedition of Dease and Simpson.

Small-po.x appeared at Sitka. Kulmakofif ascended the|
Kuskoquim with bidarras. VVoronkoffsky explored the south
coast of Aliiiska.

Dupetit Thouars sailed on his voyage round the world, in
which he visited the northwest coast.

Captain Sir Edward Belcher, sailed on his voyage round I
the world.

1837. The dispute between the Hudson Bay Company and the
Russian American Company was compromised. The strip
of mainland from the southern boundary to Cape Spencer
was leased for ten years to the Hudson Bay Company, who
were to pay an annual rental of furs, and furnish a certain
amount of provisions annually at fixed rates. This arrange-
ment was concluded in Hamburg, and Fort St. Dionysius]
passed into the hands of the ICnglish.

July 9th, Peter Warren Dease and Thomas Simpson left I
the mouth of the Mackenzie River in two open boats, to
explore the Arctic coast to the westward. On the 24th they|
arrived at Return Reef, Franklin's farthest point in 1826.
August 1st, Simpson left the boats in the ice, and reached
Point Barrow on foot August 4th. On the 17th of August
they reached the mouth of the Mackenzie on their return.

Sir I'Ahvard Belcher visited the coast in the Sulphur.
He touched at various points on the coasts and islands be- 1
tween Sitka and Kadiak. Captain Berens, with the Com-

HISTORY.

339

orcd the tlclta-i
linj; the fornur
a colonics from

i this caused a

ain Kuprianoff
The tenth pro-
a, in charge of

^es, was success-
failed a<;ain in
idson Kay Com-
1 Simpson,
ff ascended the
:plored the south

nd the world, in

is voyage round

inipany and the
ised. The strip
) Cape Spencer
r Company, who
irnish a certain]
This arrange-
t St. Dionysius]

as Simpson left
open boats, to|
n the 24th they
point in 1 820.1
ce, and reached
17th of August I
their return.

Bi the Sulphur,
and islands be-
with the Com-

1837. pany's vessel Nikolai I., arrived, August 17th, at Sitka.
Schooner Chilkaht, with Woronkcjlfsky on board, was wrecked
near Aliaska. Provisions, whiskey, rum, and a steam-engiue
arrived at Sitka from Hostun. During this and several fol-
lowing years ihe sma!l-po.\ raged among the natives of the
coast, slaying thousamls. The shamans discouraged vacci-
nation, and it spread everywhere.

The Company provided for three native schools. The
Thlinkct chief Kuat-he voluntarily freed his slaves. Rev-
erend h'ather Germain, the oldest missionary in the colonies,
died on Spruce Island near Kadiak, soon after he hail fmislied
a mausoleum in memory of Archl)ishop Jtkisaph.

icSjS. • Kushevarotf e.\[)lored the northern coasts as far as Point
Harrow in the brig Potifar. Lind(;nherg continued the re-
searches among the islands near .Sitka. Me particularly
examined Lynn Canal and the Chilkaht River. A colony
of Aleuts were placed on Amlia Island, in consequence of
the great increase of the blue foxes which had been intro-
duced there by the Company.

Father Golovfn bai)tized one hundred and five natives of
Nushergak.

Malakoff ascended the Yukon to Nuhito. He left a force
under Notarmi to build a trading-post. These men returned
for want of provisions to the Redoubt in the fall. During
the winter the Indians plundered and burned the buildings
which had been erected.

The United States P'xploring Expedition, under Lieu-
tenant Charles Wilkes, was organized. The sloops of war
Vincennes and Peacock, store-ship Relief, brig Porpoise,
schooners Sea-GuU and I'lying-Fish sailcil from the Chesa-
peake, August 19, 1838, and passed around Cape Horn. The
unfortunate Sea-Gull was lost with all on 'joard.

1839. ^he Hudson Bay Company agreed to furnish the Russian
American Company annually with 560.000 lbs. wheat, 19,920
lbs. flour, 16,160 lbs. pease, 16,160 lbs. barley, 36.880 lbs.
bacon, 19,920 lbs. beef, and 3,680 lbs. ham, at fi.xed prices.

The Company's vessel Nikolai I., Captain KadnikolT, sailed
for the colonies, carrying the preparator of the Academy of
Sciences, Elia VVossnessensky, to make collections, and obser-

340

HISTORY.

,,|ll|

liui , '

, ;;i:

lilt

1839. vations on natural history on the northwest coast of
Anu'rica. MiinishcfV examined Kupriilnolf Straits and tin;
Kadiak Archipelago.

I''athcr VeniaminofT presented a j)lan for the more cflicient
organization of the colonial missions.

Mount St. l''lias is recorded for the first time as having
emitted smoke. The sloop Aleut, under Kashevaroff, was
wrecked near Kadiak. Robert Campbell's l-'ort Drew, on
the I.iard's River, was plundend by the natives. Tart of llit
inhabitants cscapetl to I'ort Halkett.

1840. Kupriiinoff was succeeded by IClolin as Chief Director of
the colonies.

A new contract was entered Into with the Hudson Hav
Company, leasing; the strip of coast already referred to. A
Hudson IJay post was established at the head of Glacier
Arm of Stephen's Strait. The Taku (not TiUico) River wa>
ascended by Douglas for thirty-five miles. Captain Kadni-
koff arrived with the twelfth provision ship, May 1st, from
Russia. The hierarchy of the colonies was rcorganizc(' 1
conformity with VenianniK)fr's recommentlations and detac !
from the tliocese of Irkutsk. A trading-post was built at the
mouth of the Unalakli'k River, Norton Sound. The snuill-
pox disappeared from the colonies.

1841. The coast of Northwest America was visited by Wilkes's
Exploring Expedition. On the 27th of April the Vincenncs
visited the mouth of the Columbia and the Straits of I'uca,
and sent several exploring parties into the interior. The
Peacock was lost at the mouth of the Columbia, July iSlh,
In the autumn the expedition sailed southward.

The thirteenth provision ship, under Lieutenant D. E. Za-
remba, reached Sitka April 3d, with Lieutenant Zagoskin,
L R. N., on board.

The government transport Abo, Captain Junker, visited
Ochotskand the colonics. Sir George .Simpson visited many
points on the coast. De Mofras visited California and Green-
ough the Columbia River. Captain Kashevaroff explored
the coast of Bering Sea, north of Bristol liay. Lukeen's
Fort on the Kuskoqiiim was partly destroyed by the Indians.

l'!tolin established a periodical fair for the natives around

iiii

IlISTOKY.

341

more (.'fllciiiit

icf Director of

rcorganize(

1841. Sitka. The post at NuI.itD on the Vukon \va<? rebuilt by
Der.ibiii, who rt'iiiaiiu-d in coinniand 'liie Ross settlement
in California was sold to Captain John Sutter for 830,000.
I'art of this was paid in cash, and Si 5,000 was afterwards
paid to the Company's aj;ent in San I'rancisco, a Mr. Stew-
art. Stewart abscomled with the money. In consequence of
this ami the expenses of prosecution a deficit appeared on
tiie Company's books of 37,4^4 rubles, 50 kopeks.

1.S4J. In December Mr. Linn, M. C. from Missouri, brou^dit a
bill before the Senate of the United Slates for the occupa-
tion of Ore{;()n. This bill was passed by the Senate near the
close of the session. Negotiations were entered into soon
after by the United States and Great Hritain to come to a
conclusion in re,i;ard to the western territories of America.
Lieutenant /ai;(')skin visited the valley of the Yukon, and
reacheil Nulato in the autumn.

Creoles were cpialified for entering the church as priests.
Michael Kutkan, a Christian native, was made a tyone or
chief of the Sitka Thlinkets.

1843. Zag(')skin ascended the Yukon to Nowikakat. A party
scut to explore rhne/hnoi Lake were unable to make their
explorations on act ount of the hostility of the natives.

I'"remont started 01 his journey to the Rocky Mountain

region.

1844. The charter of the Russian American Company was re-
newed tor twenty years by the ICmperor Nicholas I. This
dated from the 1st of January, 1842.

Malakoff examined the Suchitna, anil Gregorieff renewed
the attempt to explore the Copper River. Kashevaroff con-
tinued his investigations on the shores of Hering Sea.

I'^tolin consolidated seventy-five Aleutian settlements on
Kadiak into seven regular villages. The fust school was or-
ganized for the natives at Sitka.

1845. The Company established a factory at Aian on the
Och6t.sk Sea ^;"''"-. March -, l-^tolin issued strict instructions

July.) .1'

as to the manner in which employes should treat the natives.
No servant of the Company was allowed to strike a native
except in defence of his life.

May p, the brig Chichagoff was run on shore on Copper

-fTTW

1\]\:^'

^i!:l

llll'i

lUi

342

HISTORY.

1845. Island to save her from foundering, by Captain Martin
Klinkofstrom, who wintered there with his party, l^tolin
was succeeded by Captain Michael D. Tcbenkoff as Chief
Director of the colonies. Harder ascertained the astro-
nomical position of the volcano of St. Paul in Aliaska.

1846. In April, war was declared between the United States
and Mexico. Before this was known in California some
trouble arose there, and the Mexicans attempted to expel
the American settlers. Commodore Stockton arrived at
Monterey with the news of the declaration of war. The
Mexicans, under General Castro, retreated, and Stockton pro-
claimed the sovereignty of the United States over the terri-
tory. Several battles followed in January of the next year,
in which the Mexicans were routed, and, by the treaty of
peace which soon followed, California was ceded to the
United States for fifteen millions of dollars.

The long-deferred question of the northwestern boundary
of the United States, which had been omitted in the Ash-
burton treaty of 1842, now came up for settlement. The
United States claimed all the territory south of 54° 40' on
the Pacific Coast, and Great Britain claimed all that between
54° 40' and the mouth of the Columbia River. Both parties
compromised on the parallel of 49° north latitude as the
dividing line between their territories.

The Company's commercial transactions with the Sand-
wich Islands for the first time proved profitable. The ves-
sel Sitka, Captain Conradi, sailed from Russia for the colo-
nies. The Thlinkets attacked, and took possession of, the
fort at the mouth of the Stiki'ne River. Bcnzeman explored
the islands north of Kadiak, and determined their astronom-
ical position.

1847. McMurray descended the Porcupine River, and built Fort
Yukon near its mouth. A general earthquake was felt on
the northwest coast. It was very severe at Sitka. Mounts
Baker, St. Elias, and St. Paul in Aliaska, showed signs of
eruption.

1848. The Company's vessel Atka sailed from St. Petersburg for
the colonics, under Captain Riedcll. She brought the
mining engineer, Doroshin, who examined Baranoff Lsland

I'm

HISTORY.

343

1848. and Cook's Inlet for mineral wealth, ind also visited Califor-
nia. Serebrannikotif and two other Russians, with six Aleuts,
ascended the Copper ^liver. His profligacy excited the hos-
tility of the natives, who killed him and three of the party,
but delivered up his papers. Woivvodsky succeeded T'iben-
kotf as Chief Director of the colonies.

. ellt and Archimandritoff determined, astronon/jally,
many points about the peninsula of Kenai. The transport
Ikikal, Captain Nevelsky, sailed from Ru<:sia for the colo-
nies.

Captain Sir John Franklin having sailed in 1845, with
Captain Crozier, in the Erebus and Terror, in search of a
Northwest Passage, and no news from them having b'^en re-
ceived since the 25th of July of that year, the go' > rnment
of Great Britain determined to send out three expeditions in
search of the missing vessels. This inaugurated the most
flourishing era of arctic exploration. Only such as visited
the Pacific will be noticed here, but many expeditions, pub-
lic and private, were fitted out by England, P'rance, and the
United States for the same purpose. Although unsuccessful
in finding any survivors, these f.xpeditions have added very
greatly to our knowledge of the northern regions ; the cour-
age, energy, and endurance shown by those engaged in them
can never be too highly praised. The Plover, Commander
Thomas E. L. Moore, sailed from Sheerness January i, 1848,
to join the Herald, Captain Menry Kellett, C. B., at Panama,
whence they were to proceed to Petropavlovsk and Bering
Strait, and co-operate with expeditions from the Atlantic and
the Mackenzie River. The Plover was a slow sailer, and (her
plan being changed) she did not reach the Sandwich Islands
until August 22(1, too late for investigations in the region of
Bering Strait. She proceeded to Plover Bay, and, deciding
to winter there, was laid up in an arm of the bay, called
Emma Harbor by Captain xMoore.

In the summer of 1848 the first whaler ventured through
Bering Strait. This was the American ship Superior, Cap-
tain Roys. He was rewarded for his enterprise with a full
ship in a very short time ; the report of his success spread-
ing, he was imitated, the following season, by one hundred

III iji'iii

^l liil

W\ il'l

I ■ I

344

HISTORY.

1848. and fifty-four American whalers, and the whale fishery
was thus permanently established north of the Strait.

1849. In February of this year, gold was discovered on Captain
Sutter's farm in California. Special explorations were made
in the vicinity of Resurrection Bay, by the orders of the
Company.

In June the Plover left her winter quarters and sailed for
Kotzebue Sound, arriving near Chamisso Island on the 14th
of July. The next day she was joined by the Herald and
the yacht Nancy Dawson, owned by Robert Sheddcn, Esq.,
who had volunteered to assist in the search. July i8th, the
vessels left the Sound. Two whale-boats, under Lieutenant
PuUen, were despatched to examine the coast to the north-
ward. On the 17th of August, land was seen, and the same
day Captain Kelletc landed on an island, which he named
Herald Island, after his ship. At the same time high peaks
were seen, probably those of Wrangcll Land. The boat ex-
pedition reached Point Barrow in company with the yacht.
which returned from that point. The boats kept on, reach-
ing the Mackenzie River on the 25th of August, and For:
Macpherson on the 5th of September ; from which poiii:;
they made their way home by way of Norway House, Yori^l
Factory, and Hudson Bay. The Plover wintered in Kotzt
bue Sound, while the Herald returned through Bering Stra;*!
and sailed for Mazatlan.

The Company's vessel Atka crri' ed in the colonies, undi:
Riedell, for the second time. A vessel loaded with old ar
worthless goods was sent to California, and realized lar,
profits. Subsequent attempts of the same kind were not -
successful.

1850. On the 9th of September, ( alifornia was admitted to li
Union as a State.

On the 20th of January, Captain Richard Collinson ar
Commander Robert S. LeM. M'Clure, in the Enterpr;
and Investigator, sailed from Plymouth. They were to i
deavor to reach the Plover in Kotzebue vSound in July. Cc
linson sailed eastward from Bering Strait, after leavini
Lieutenant Barnard and Surgeon Adams with one man
St. Michael's Redoubt, Norton Sound, to prosecute their n

HISTORY.

345

admitted to tlij

prosecute their rj

1850. searches in the Yukon Valley. He could not pass Point
Barrow on account of ice, and returned to winter in Hong
Kong.

M'Clurc, who arrived earlier in the season, passed Point
Barrow, examined the coast of America to Cape Parry, dis-
covered Prince of Wales Strait, Prince Albert and Baring
Islands, and M'Clure Strait. He wintered in Prince of
Wales Strait. The Plover reached Cape Lisburne, meeting
the Investigator there August ist, and wintered at Grantley
Harbor.

Captain Mitkoff disposed of colonial timber at Guaymas
very profitably. From this date, cattle were successfully
bred at Kadiak and Cook's Inlet. A whaling company
was organized by the Russian goveriiment, and the first
vessels employed in the fishery sailed December ]^

During the winter Captain Bedford Pirn made explora-
tions between Norton and Kotzebue Sounds and Grantley
Harbor. Barnard went with Dcrdbin to Nulato in the
winter, leaving Mr. Adams at the Redoubt.

185 1. Collinson returned to Bering Strait in the spring, passed
Point Barrow, reached Melville Sound, and, returning, win-
tered in Walker Bay.

M'Clure, finding the southern extremity of Prince of
Wales Strait closed by ice, passed along the west and
north coast of Baring Island, and anchored in Mercy Bay in
sight of P.Ielville Island. Here he wintered.

Meanwhile the Koyukuns had attacked Nulato in Febru-
ary, 185 1, as elsewhere described. Barnard was killed, and
Adarns, after burying him near the fort, returned to St.
Michael's. Captain Pim sailed for England in the Plover.
Fort Selkirk, established by Robert Campbell on the Upper
Yukon, was plundered by the Indians and burned, but the
inmates were not injured.

During this and the two following years the Company's
vessels supplied the government posts in Kamchatka with
provisions.

1852. M'Clurc was held by the ice all summer in Mercy Bay.
Collinson surveyed Minto Inlet and Prince Albert Sound ;

passed through Dolphin, Union, and Dease Straits ; and win-
tered in Cambridge Bay, Victoria Land.

Tn— ni

i :

lairi

I'll

iitlf)

iiii

346

HISTORY.

1852. Captain Tebcnkoff prepared a hydrographic atlas of the
colonies.

The scarcity of ice, which had previously been sent at
great expense from Boston around the Horn to San Fran-
cisco, induced some San Francisco merchants to send to
Sitka to obtain a supply. The vessel arrived in February,
1852, and took on board 250 tons, for which the Company
received about $18,000, at $75 per ton. In October an
agent was sent from Sitka to California, where a temporary
arrangement was made by the Company to furnish 1,000 tons
annually at $ 35 a ton. The Company which agreed to take
the ice was called the American Russian Trade Company,
and the contract was binding for three years only.

The S'tka-kwan (or Sitka Thlinkets) murdered forty
Stiki'ne-kwan (Stiki'ne Thlinkets) who came to hold a coun-
cil with the Russians at Sitka. The hospital at the Sulphur
Springs near Sitka was destroyed by the natives. The
Amphitrite, Captain Charles Frederick, and the Plover,
Commander Rochefort Maguire, sailed from England for
Bering Strait, wintering at Point Barrow. The Resolute,
Captain Henry KcUett, sailed from England from the Atlan-
tic to Melville Island, and wintered near Dealy Island.

1853. M'Clure, being fast in the ice, made arrangements for
sending the weaker part of his crew to the Hudson Bay
Company's posts on the Mackenzie, and for proceeding over
the ice with the more able men to Lancaster Sound. To
their great joy and surprise, Captain Bedford Pim, whom
they had left near Bering Strait, appeared with a sledge party
from the Resolute. Pirn had found a note left by M'Clure at
Winter Harbor, Melville Island, and reached the Investiga-
tor in the spring. The crew of the latter were transferred to
the Resolute, on board of which they wintered. By walking
over the solid ice from Mercy Bay to Dealy Island, tliey
made the northwest passage. ,

Captain Colllnson returned through the straits by which
he had come, and, doubling Cape Bathurst, wintered in Cam-
den I^ay. Maguire, in the Plover, wintered at Point Barrow.

Commander Trollope, in the Rattlesnake, wintered in Port
Clarence, Bering Strait. Commodore Perry, who had started

HISTORY.

347

ic atlas of the

1853. in November of the preceding year on the United States
Japan Expedition, reached Yeddo Bay in June, 1853, where
he wintered. The North Pacific I^xploring Expedition, in
charge of Cadwalader Ringgold and Captain John Rodgers,
reached China. Captain Ringgold, being out of healt'.i, was
obliged to refirn, and Captain Rodgers took charge of the
expedition.

The Russian American Company took possession of Saka-
lin Island, north of Yesso, in the Japanese Archipelago.

1854. The crews of the Investigator and the Resolute were
transferred from the latter vessel to the North Star, Captain
Pullcn, at Beechey Island, and returned on board of her to
England in the month of October. Collinson left Camden
Bay July 20th, passing Point Barrow and Bering Strait, and
reaching I'^ngland with the Plover in the spring of 1855.

Commodore Perry concluded the treaty with Japan in
March, 1854.

Commodore Rodgers, having divided his forces, carried on
explorations among the Aleutian Islands, on the coast of Kam-
chatka, in Bering Strait, and in the Arctic Ocean north of the
Strait.

The P^rench and English forces attacked the town of
Petropavlovsk, but were routed by the Russians and Kam-
shadales with a loss of one hundred and seven men. The
English Admiral Price committed suicide in the shame which
he felt at the result ; he was buried on the shore, and the next
day, August 29th, the fleet left the Bay of Avatcha.

The Company's vessels were gratuitously placed at the dis-
posal of the Imperial government during this and the next
year. The settlements were supplied with provisions chiefly
by American vessels. The President ot the American ."lus-
sian Trade Company, armed with letters from United States
officials and the Russian Minister at W^^shington, went to St.
Petersburg and obtain-^d ^n audience from the lunperor,
opening negotiations in iciation to the ice contract.
'855. He succeeded in obtaining an Imperial order dated Octo-
ber, 1855, on the Russian American Company, requiring
them to sell ice at the original cost in the colony, and to fur-
nish it in sufficient quantities to supply California, Mexico,

348

HISTORY.

""1

iiii'ii

' I ll

•■

1855. and the Sandwich Islands. They were also to supply coal,
timber, and fish for twenty years, and in return to receive
half of the net profits.

The exploring expedition under Commodore Rodgers
reached San Francisco on its return.

In May the allied forces returned to Petropavlovsk, whicli
had been evacuated by the Russians. They captured an old
Russian whaler, burned the government buildings, broke all
the windows in the town, robbed and injured the Greek
Catholic Church, and razed the old abandoned earthworks.
After this child's play they left Avatcha. The Company's
brig Ochotsk, chased by the allied cruisers, was wrecked
near the Amoor River. The Thlinkets again revolted at
Sitka. They took possession of the Indian chapel, killing
two Russians and wounding nineteen. Woiwodsky subdued
them, killing sixty of the ringleaders.

The Kwikhpagmuts attacked Fort Andr6afsky, killing two I
Russians, the only occupants.

1857. The fall of Sebastopol and the ensuing peace relieved the
Company from the alarms and contingencies of war.

1858. The Thlinkets voluntarily proposed to open trade with
the Russians, and tendered, as a neutral ground for trading,
a point near the Stiki'ne River.

1859. T^^ President of the Ice Company in San Francisco 1
proved to be a man of no capital. He could not build the !
necessary houses to receive the ice in San Francisco, and
the fish and ice arriving from Sitka were spoiled for want of
storage. Misunderstandings arose. The bank failed in which I
the Ice Company kept their funds, and the President ab-
sconded with the money. At last Captain Furuhelm was
sent from Russia to California to annul the contract and
make a new one. He succeeded in doing this without resort
to legal process, but the proceedings were not consummated |
for several years.

The Hudson Bay Company's lease was renewed for the I
second time, for four years. The annual rental was two
thousand sea-otter skins. The contract was originally made
June I, 1840, renewed in 1849, again in this year, and vvas|
to expire June i, 1862.

HISTORY.

349

odore Rodgers

fsky, k'Uing two

1859. A new fort was built at Nuldto on the old site. Volcanic
action was felt in the colonies.

i860. Woiwodsky was succeeded by Fiiruheltn as Chief Director
of the colonies. The Kadiak was wrecked near Spruce Isl-
and. Robert Kennicott passed the winter at Fort Yukon,
where Mr. Lockhart was in command.

The Imperial Chamberlain, Paulus Nikolai-evich Golov/n,
was ordered to the colonies to investigate and report on
their condition, pending the petition for an extension of the
charter of the Russian American Company.

1861. Kennicott descended the Yukon to the Small Houses.

The pilot, Michael Kadin, lost the steamer Nikolai I. in
Kake .Strait. The natives saved the crew and entertained
llicm hospitably until a vessel arrived in search of them.
Colovi'n arrived in Sitka. His report, which was received
in St. Petersburg in the same year, and published the follow-
ing year (in Russian), contains many important statistics,
the most interesting of which are given below, with a few
from Grewingk.

The original capital of the Company was 98,000 R. s.*
After 1818 the stock was watered by making the shares 500
R. instead of 150 R. s. In 1844 the reserve capital, exclu-
sive of property and the original capital, was about 450,000

• R. s. In 1862 it stood as follows: Original capital, 660,511
R. s. Reserves, 737,745 R. s. Insurance, 174,372 R. s. Total,
1,572,628 R. s. The original investment paid from six to ten
per cent, clear of all expenses, annually, beside the pickings
and stealings of the employes and officers, which were a by
no means insignificant item. Dividends, on each share of
about )52i, were from 1841 to 1851 about $3.00; from 1851
to 1858, $3.60; from 1858 to i860, $4.00. From 1841 to 1851
the Company paid two million rubles taxes to the Imperial
government. The gross income of the Company from 1841
to 1862 was 20,305,681 R. s. January, i860, the balance of
capital on hand, including property, was 5,907,859 R. s. The
total amount of dividends from 1842 to 1859 was 2,103,004
R. s. The average annual dividends amounted to 142,000 R. s.

• R.s. = silver rubles, each worth about seventy-five cents. R. = paper rubles,
now worth about twenty cents.

Ilri

III

III) ii:

II •<

vl I

350

HISTORY.

i86r. About 40,000 R. s. were issued in the form of marki, or]
parchment bills, stamped with the Company's seal, for cir-
culation in the colonies.

The government was exclusively in the hands of the Chief
Director, who was bound by oath to support the interests of
the Company. He was elected by the Directory at St. Pe-
tersburg. This system was prolific in abuses. There was I
no law in the colonies, except the by-laws and regulations of
the Company. On this ground the colonial officials were
obliged to discharge from custody a foreigner who wa^
caught smuggling, as there was no law by which he could be
punished, as he was not a servant of the Company.

The territory was divided into six districts. Kadidk had a
special bureau to itself, but the others were governed by
officers called Uprovalisha. The districts were : I. Sitka,
from Mount St. Elias south ; II. Kadiak, from St. Elias to
Bristol Bay, and west to the Shiimagin Islands ; III. St. Mi-
chael's, including Norton Sound, the Yukon, and the Kits-
koqiiim ; IV. Unalashka, from the Shiimagins to the Priby-
lofF, and including the Fox Islands ; V. Atka, comprising
the remainder of the Aleutian chain and the Commander's
I.slands ; VI. Kurile, 'ncluding the Kurile Islands.

In the early days of the Company the Aleuts were sub-
jected to the most horrible outrages. The names of Glot-
toff and Sol6viefif make them shudder to this day. Thou-
sands perished under sword and fire. Long after these
enormities were checked, the Russians considered the
Aleuts as beasts rather than men. No one thought of
ameliorating their condition ; on the contrary, dissension
and quarrels were intentionally stirred up in their principal
villages for their destruction. It is well known that Bara-
noff regarded the life of an Aleutian as of no value ; hun-
dreds of these poor creatures perished in forced voyages
between Sitka and Kadiak in their frail kyaks. Their
numbers were diminished from 10,000 in 1799 to 5,238 in
1808 (ResanofT's census), and to about 1,500 at the present
day.

The Aleuts were the slaves of the Company. They were
obliged to attend all hunting expeditions, and sell all furs to

1861

HISTORY.

351

n of marki, or
s seal, for cir-

Is of the Chief
he interests of
:ory at St. Pc-
:s. There was
regulations of

officials were
;ner who wn-
:h he could be
•any.

Kadiak had a
: governed by
ere : I. Sitka,
n St. Elias to
3 ; III. St. Mi.
and the Kiis-
3 to the Pri'by-
;a, comprising
Commander's
ids.

uts were sub-
ames of Glot-

day. Thou-
g after these
)nsidercd the
thought of
ry, dissension
heir principal
/n that Bara-
3 value ; hiin-
irced voyages
yaks. Their
) to 5,238 in
t the present

They wore
ell all furs to

1 86 1, the Company for whatever the Company chose to give, in
goods. On the latter the Company charged 42 per cent
freight in trading and 33 per cent on all sold to em-
ployes. The price for groats was $ 1. 00 per pood of 36 lbs. ;
for white flour, $ 2.00 per pood. The yearly imports were
400 tons. At Sitka, all servants of the Company whose pay
was less than $ 200 a year drew from the public kettle and
bake-house at $ i.oo a pood for bread. The fare consisted
principally of fish ; bacon and wild goats' flesh were rarely
obtained. They were also allowed eight cups of rum per
annum. Married men who did not wish to eat at the public
table could draw the value of the food in cash, and purchase
their own provisions.

The hierarchy of the colonies had its head-quarters at
Sitka. There were seven missionary districts ; namely,
Sitka, Kadiak, Unalashka, Atka, Kenai, Nushergak, and
Kwikhpak. The churches were supported by voluntary
offerings. Their accumulated capital amounted in i860 to
50,000 R. s., bringing five per cent interest. The Com-
pany contributed, toward the support of four churches,
the sum of $6,600 per annum. The Holy Synod paid
3,085 R. s. toward the Kenai mission. The income from can-
dles in the churches amounted to 5 1,100. There were 11
priests and 16 deacons in the colonies. A church was
established for the natives at Sitka, but they were seldom
seen there. When they did enter they looked bewildered,
squatted down and smoked, and went out apparently much
relieved. In 1846 there were 531 Christian Thlinkets. In
1854 the number was diminished to 38, and in 1859 there
were only 42. The Aleuts appear zealous Christians, but if
the Government ordered them to become Mohammedans
they would as readily comply. They were utterly crushed
by the early traders.

The first school was established by Shclikoff in Kadiak
to teach the natives to read ; the traders were the teachers.
The second school was also in Kadiak, and the pupils re-
ceived instruction in the Russian language, arithmetic, and
religion. A few years after, a similar one was opened at
Sitka, but until 1820 it was very poor. In that year a naval

II l''"^l

HISTORY.

1861. officer took charge of it until 1833, when it fell into the
hands of I'!tolin, who made it quite efficient. In 1841 an
ecclesiastical school was opened in Sitka, and in 1845 it wa>
raised to the rank of a seminary. This, as well as the other |
schools, was in a very bad condition. In the latter, pupil:
received instruction in the Russian language, religion, arith|
metic, geometry, navigation, trigonometry, geography, his-
tory, bookkeeping, and the English language.

In the ukase of November ';, 1859, ^ pkin for a general I
colonial school was approved. It was opened in i860 with
twelve pupils; eight of these were educated for the Coni-|
pany's service, and four were the sons of priests. A few day-
scholars were admitted free. After five years' study the Com-
pany's students were obliged to serve the C( nipany for fifteen I
years, at a salary of $ 20 to $ 70 per annum. (It is to be hoped
that the announcement of these facts vill enlighten those
philanthropists who have declared, since the purchase, tliat|
the United States were depriving the natives of the advan-
tages which the Company had afforded them of a free!
education. The only free schools in the territory were thosel
of the missionaries, and in them were taught little beside the!
religious observances of the Greek Church, and the art ot
reading the Sclavonic or ecclesiastical characters.) The an-|
nual cost of this school was $5,800; in 1862 it contained 2]\
pupils, of whom only one was a native. Only nine studieiij
navigation. In 1839 a girls' school was established for chi]
dren of servants of the Company, and orphans. In 1842 itl
had 42 pupils ; in 1862, 22 pupils. The instruction was prin-j
cipally in sewing, washing, and other housework. In 182
Father Veniamfnoff established a school in Unalashka fori
natives and Creoles. In i860 it contained 50 boys and 4:|
girls. A school on Amlia Island in i860 had 30 pupilij
The priest at Nushergak in 1843 had 12 pupils. A school-j
house was built on the Lower Yukon, but there were nc|
pupils.

The expenses for medical treatment were $9,000. Therel
was a hospital at Sitka of 40 beds, and one at Kadiak of icj
beds. In i860 there were entered at Sitka 14,000 patientsl
of whom 22 died. At Kadiak there were 550 entrijes and i-j

HISTORY.

JDJ

it fell into the
it. In 1841 an
:1 in 1845 it \va>
veil as the other
the latter, pupils
I, religion, arith-

geography, his-

;e.

in for a genera!
led in i860 with
;d for the Com-
csts. A few day-
;' study the Com-
mpany for fifteen
(It is to be hoped

enlighten those
lie purchase, that
ves of the advan-

them of a free
rritory were those
tit little beside the
h, and the art ot
•actcrs.) The an
i2 it contained :;
')nly nine studie
lablished for ch'.
bans. In 1842 i:
truction was prin-
sework. In i>'^-:
in Unalashka lo:
d 50 boys and 4;

,0 bad 30 pupil;

)upils. A school

ut there were iv

re $9,000. Therel
at Kadiak of Kj
10. 14,000 patient.-!
550 entjixis and ij

<H6\. deaths. A hospital for skin diseases was opened at Sitka,
near the sulphur springs. The water contained sulphur, iron,
chlorine, and manganese, and had a temperature of 122^ I'ah-
rcnheit. There was an asylum for the infirm and poor, and
throe or four old servants of the Company received pensions.

In 1838 the treaty with the Hudson Hay Company proved
beneficial. Previously the Russian American Company had
lost by it. This treaty excluded arms, ammunition, and spir-
its from the trade with the natives. But in March, 1851,
the Hudson Hay Company's steamer visited the islands, and
told the natives that they would sell any amount of the pro-
hibited articles at their trading-posts. This killed the Rus-
sian trade with those tribes which inhabit the Alexander
Archipelago. Hostilities were frequent, and the Russian
Com\iany's steamer was obliged to remain at Sitka to guard
against an outbreak of the natives. In i860, Furuhelm or-
dered her to resume her trii)s among the islands, but no trade
was eftected. Since 1850, traders from the Sandwich Islands
visited the Chukchecs and tribes on the northern coast, and
provided them with liquor, arms, and ammunition. The na-
tives of the interior of Siberia now received supplies through
the Chukchees, who would not trade for other articles.
Traders even landed on the Aleutian Islands, in defiance of
the rights of the Company. The trade with the towns in
Kamchatka was worth little since the government had with-
drawn the garrisons. At the mouth of the Amoor, Amer-
ican and German traders competed with the Company suc-
cessfully. Golovi'n was justly indignant at the sale of liquor
by the traders, and proposed that the Imperial government
should send a cruiser to stop their traffic, or that the Com-
pany should be allo\ved to trade liquor in opposition to them.
From 1852 to i86o there had been 20,554 to"^ of ice, valued
at $ 122,000, exported from the colonics. The fish and tim-
ber trade had not been successful, on account of there being
no Company's storehouses in San Francisco. Golovi'n con-
cluded with a sharp rebuke of the lazy and inefficient mis-
sionaries who had succeeded Veniami'noff, and finished by
numerous recommendations of much needed reforms.

His Report was published in the Official Naval Journal
33

nil

Hllf;

!■<

iiilHi

11 =

...I '

,i.l

354

HISTORY.

1861. (Morskoi Sbornik) in 1862, aiul the general tone of it was
favorable to the C'ompany. Kashevarolf, a Creole, resident
in St. I'etersburs. prepared a reply ; but as Ciolov/n diid
in March, he modified it, that he nii^dit not be accused ci
attaekiiifjf a dead man. A flippant reply, reflectinf; on his
parentage, appeared in the Naval Journal. This was fol-
lowed by a letter from Haron Wrangell, who said, that
though he was prejudiced in favor of the Company, and
Mr. Kasheviiroff appeared to incline the other way, still he
must indorse Kashevaroff's statements as being, from his
own observation, more literally true and patriotic than any-
thing before published in regard to the country.

1862. The result of this ventilation of the abuses prevalent in
the colonies, was, that the new charter was not granted and
the old charter of the Russian American Company was not
renewed. From this time forward the Company had no
rights or privileges in the colonies except on sufferance,
The property of the Company still belonged to it, but it had
no rights or privileges that were not common to all Rus-
sian subjects, and none, except the interest in their movable
property and real estate actually in use, which they had any
power to convey to any other company or persons from
that time forward. Their operations, it is true, a.A far a^
trading was concerned, '"^nt on without cessation, but thi>
was only pending the geneia. ..' -''ng up of the concern.
The schools were all stopped, expenses curtailed, many
posts abandoned, and the General Direction of the colonics
was put in charge of an officer appointed by the Imperial
government. This officer did nca p.rrivj immediately, and
the post was filled during the inter; cgnum by subordinate
officers of the Company.

Golovi'n, having returned to Russia, died in St. Petersburg
on the 17th of March, aged thirty-nine years. Michael Kut-
kan, again elected tyone by the Sitka Thlinkets, was au-
thorized by an Imperial ukase to settle the difficulties be-
tween the natives and the Russians, December 2d. A
serious disagreement with the Hudson Bay Company arose,
caused by the continued sale of liquor by that Company to
the natives.

•-

1863.

ti
K

P
tl

til
Pi

1864.

b)
th

St
of
idt
Ui
Th
an
ex]
lat^
pli:

I86v

the
ley
Sitl
the
offi,
Cai
Rol

HISTORY.

355

1863. Strachan Jones, Hsq., descended the Yukon to Nowikdkat.
Ivan Simonscn Lukeen ascended the Yukon to I'^orl

Yukon, and returned to St. Michael's, Norton Sound.

The new ice contract was finally arranged by Captain
l''uruhelni. The Russian authorities were to furnish 3,000
tons of ice annually at $ 7 per ton, delivered at Sitka or
Kadiak ; but not to any other than the San Trancisco Com-
pany, on the coast of Oregon, California, or Mexico, at less
than 5 25 per ton. Sitka having too mild a climate to form
good ice, or in sufficient quantities, the depot of the Ice Com-
pany was fi.xed on Woody Island near Kadiak.

An expedition under Commander Hassarguine ascended
the Stikine River in boats. They were accompanied by
Professor William P. lilake.

1864. rWruhelm was succeeded by Maksiitoff, the first Imperial
(iovernor of the colonies. The plan for building a line of
telegraph from San Francisco to Bering Strait, and crossing
by a cable, to meet the Russian government telegraph at
the mouth of the Amoor River by a line built from Bering
Strait overland, was organized by the enterprising Directors
of the Western Union Telegraph Company. The original
idea was mainly due to Perry M'D. Collins, Esq., formerly
United States Consular Agent it the mouth of the Amoor.
The co-operation of the Russi.- government was insured,
and the command of the expedition to make the necessary
explorations was intrusted to Captain Charles S. Bulkley,
late of the United Slates Army Telegraph Corps, an accom-
plished electrician.

1865. The principal event of the year was the inauguration of
the Western Union Telegraph ICxpedition. Captain Bulk-
ley, in the United States revenue cutter Shubrick, visited
Sitka early in the spring. On his return to San Francisco
the expedition was organized on a military basis. The chief
officers were Captain Charles S. Bulkley, Kngineer-in-Chief ;
Captain Charles M. Scammon, U. S. R. S., Chief of Marine;
Robert Kennicott, Chief of Scientific Corps; Scott R. Chap-
pel, Quartermaster; George M. Wright, Adjutant; and
Frank L. Pope, Assistant Engineer. Commissions were
given to the various officers ; flags and badges served to dis-

K '-

I ' '■'

'i !■: I

iiii'i

I ill

J56

HISTORY.

1865. tinguish the tlifforent branches of the service. A steamer,
three barks, and a schooner were purchased for the use of
the expedition, and, by permission of the Secretary of the
United States Treasury, two revenue officers. Lieutenant
John Davison and Lieutenant Russell Glover, accompanied
Captain Scammon on the flag-ship, which was permitted
to fly the revenue flag.

On the 17th of May, ]\Lnjor Frank Pope, Dr. J. T. Roth-
rock and party, with Edward Scoville, Esq., as astronomer,
left San Francisco for British Columbia with the intention of
penetrating from the head-waters of the Frazer to those of
the Yukon.

On the 3d of July, Major S. Abasa (Gentleman of the Red-
chamber to the Emperor of Russia), with George Kennan,
James A. Mahood, and Richard J. Rush, sailed for the mouth
of the Amoor in the brig Olga, Captain Sandtmann. Their
efibrts were to be directed to exploration of a line on which
the telegraph might be built, from the mouth of the Amoor
to the Anadyr River, around the Ochotsk Sea,

On the 12th of July the steamer George S. Wright ami
the bark Golden Gate, flag-ship of the expedition, sailed
from San Francisco, with most of the officers and men.

The Wright, Captain Marston, touched at Victoria and
New Westminster. Here Frederick Whympcr, Esq., \va5
added to the expedition as artist. The steamer then pro-
ceeded to Sitka, where she met the Golden Gate. From tlii>
point the schooner Milton Badger, Captain ILarding, sailed
for the Anadyr River, with a party under Lieutenant McRae,
who were to co-operate with Major Abasa's party. Tlw
bark Clara Bell, Captain Sands, was at Sitka with telegraphic
material, having made a remarkably quick passage Iroiii
New York. iM-om this point she repaired to New Westmin-
ster. The Wright, Captain Marston, and the Golden Gate
Captain Scammon, after a .short stay in Sitka, sailed in com-
pany for Unga Island. There they spent a day in the north
harbor, and then sailed for St. Michael's Redoubt, Norton
Sound. Here Major Robert Kennicott and party were leti
to conduct the Yukon explorations. A toy steamer, whici!
afterward proved worthless, was left to assist in ascendin;.; ih'

HISTORY.

357

ice. A steamer,
1 for the use of
Secretary of the
;er~., Lieiilciiant
'cr, accompanied
was permitted

Dr. J. T. Roth-
,, as astronomer,
I the intention ol
azer to those ot

eman of the Bed
George Kcnnan,
ed for the mouth
iidtmann. Their
f a Une on which
ath of the Amoo:
ea.

e S. Wright am;

'xpedition, sailoi

cers and men.

at Victoria am!

mpcr, Esq., wa-

earner then pio-

ate. From tbi^

Harding, sailed

eutenant McRac,

sa's party. Tlic

with telegraphic

passage froiv,

New VVestniin-
he Golden Gate
a, sailed in corn-
day in the north
Redouht, Norton I

1 party were let!|
y steamer, whicli

in ascend in IT the

icS65. Yukon. The Golden Gate and the steamer next touched
at Plover Bay, where the bark' Balmetto, Captain Ander-
son, had arrived with coal. The latter sailed for San Fran-
cisco, and the steamer went to the mouth of the Anadyr,
and then to Petropavlovsk, where the Golden Gate rejoined
her. After a long stay in this the principal port of Kam-
chatka, both vessels sailed for San Francisco, arriving there
November 30th. Pope's party wintered at Tatla Lake, British
Columbia.

Abasa's party explored a route for the line from the
Anadyr to the Amoor.

Kennicott's party crossed the portage to NuUito. Baron
Otto de Bendeleben ami W. 11. ICnnis explored the line be-
tween Norton Bay and Port Clarence. J. T. Dyer and
Richard D. Cotter made a very hazardous and successful ex-
ploration of the country between Norton Bay and the mouth
of the Koyi'ikuk River on the Yukon.

In this season, M. Gustave Lambert, a French hydrogra-
pher, passed through Bering Strait on a whaler.
1866 On the 13th of May, INLajor Robert Kennicott, a well-
known and indefatigable Arctic explorer and naturalist, died
at Nuhito of heart disease brought on by excessive privation,
hardship, and anxiety. His body was taken to the Redoubt
by a party under Charles Pease. I'rank K. Ketchum, Mi-
chael Lebarge, and Ivan Simonsen Lukethi carried out Ma-
jor Kennicott's plans, explored the Yukon from Nulato to
I'^ort Yukon, and returu'-.l, crossing the portage from \'akutz-
kakitenik to Unalaklik and thence 1)V sea to the Redoubt.

Explorations by Major Pope and party were extended to
the Stiki'ne River.*

The bark Rutgers sailed from Puget Sound to Plover
Bay. The bark Onward sailed to Petrop.lvlovsk and the

njuist

op
Ochotsk Sea. The bark Clara Bell sailed for IV
Culf The bark Golden Gate sailed for Plover Bay. The
Wright wen'. ' Petropavlovsk, where the Russian corvette

anas:

wen

was awa
cisco

iting orders. The flag-ship Nightingale left
San Francisco July nth, for Plover Bay, The United States
steamer Saginaw sailed for Petropavlovsk. The bark l-'velyn

l'iii<' anuitcly I am without ilata to siiCLif) the c. act LXteut of these explorations.

t 'I

ill iiiiiiHi 'i
I!';; 111.:::

358

HISTORY.

1866. Wood f niled with material from Victoria to Plover Bay. The
Nightingale, Captain Scammon, with two small stcrn-wheel
steamers on deck, arrived at Plover Bay August 14th, finding
the Rutgers there. The Wright left Petropavlovsk, touched
at the Anadyr, and reached Plover Bay August 18th. The
Golden Gate arrived on the 27th. A party under Mr. Bush,
who had come on the steamer to Plover Bay, left for Anadyr
on the Golden Gate. A party under Mr. Kelsey was left at
Plover Bay. Another, under Mr. Libby, sailed for Grantley
Harbor on the Rutgers. The Wright and Nightingale left
for St. Michael's, where the latter arrived on the 24th of
September. The subsequent explorations in that vicinity
are narrated at length elsewhere. The vessels returned to
San Francisco, with the exception of the Golden Gate, which
was nipped by the pack in Anadyr Bay and lost. The nego-
tiations for the sale of Russian America began in this year.*

1867. The Western Union Telegraph Company, finding that the
Atlantic Cable had proved a success, at an expenditure
which made competition impossible, decided to abandon an
enterprise which had already cost in the neighborhood of
three millions of dollars. Michael Byrnes (who was explor-
ing the Tahco) and other explorers were recalled, the Night-
ingale and the Clara Bell were sent to bring back the more
remote parties at the Anadyr, Grantley Harbor, and St.
Michael's.

The route was ill chosen for the proposed line. Had it
been over the well-trodden paths from St. Paul, Minnesota,
through the Hudson Bay Territory to Fort Yukon, and then
down the Yukon, there is reason to believe that the line might
have been built at a less cost than the amount wasted on the
west coast, in the mountainous region and dense forests of
British Columbia. The Hudson Bay route was recommended
by Mr. Kennicott, but other counsels prevailed. Of other
causes which tended to obstruct and defeat the intentions ot
the Company it is not in my province to speak. The line
which was put up in British Columbia, with the exception

* There is a story, witli I know not how much foundation, that a company of citi-
zens applied to Mr. Scwanl to assist them in purchasing the country to carry <m J
fish, fur, and timber trade, and that he, finding Russia willing to sell, secured the I"
ritory, not for the private company, but for the nation.

I 1

HISTORY.

359

lover Bay. The
lall stcrn-whcel
ist 14th, finding
vlovsk, touched
just 18 th. The
inder Mr. Bush,
left for Anadyr
;lsey was left at
ed for Grantlcy
Nightingale leli
on the 24th of
in that vicinity
sels returned to
den Gate, which
lost. The nego-
m in this year.*
finding that the
an expenditure
d to abandon an
neighborhood of
(who was explor-
;alled, the Night-
o; back the more
Harbor, and St,

ed line. Had it

Paul, Minnes-^ta,

Yukon, and then

lat the line might

nt wasted on the

dense forests ot

as recommended

ailed. Of other

the intentions ol

;neak. The line

h the exception

liat a company of ciii'

country to carry mi a

sell, secured the I"

1867. of the very small portion in use, is said on good authority
to be already out of repair and quite useless. That which
was erected on Norton Sound was so poorly built that in the
fall of 1867 not a single pole stood erect and perpendicular.

In the failure of the commercial part of the enterprise it
must still be a matter for congratulation that the liberal policy
of the Directors of the Company enabled much geographical
and scientific information to be obtained without any large
additional expense. For this liberality the thanks of all
scientific men are due to these gentlemen.

On Ihe 30th of March the treaty of sale was agreed upon.
It was ratified by the United States May 28th ; exchanged
in.' proclaimed by the President of the United States, June
. . -67. On the 6th of September, 1867, General Jefier-
son C. Davis, U. S. A., was appointed commander of the
military district of Alaska. On the iSth of October the
territory was formally surrendered by the colonial authori-
ties to General Lovell H. Rousseau, U. S. A., who had been
appointed, August 8th, United States Commissioner to re-
ceive the territory.

NOTES AND DOCUMENTS ACCOMPANYING THE TRANSFER.

[A.]

By /'. ' 1 nslJcnt of the United States of America.

A PROCLAMATION.

Whereas, a tr^ Jv oetween the United States of America and his
Majesty the Empen ■ c*" ill the Russiiis, was concluded and sij;ned by
their respective plenipotentiaries at the city of Washington, on the thir-
tieth day of March l.st, which treaty (being in the English and Erench
languages) is, word ''or word, as follows: —

Tiie United Str.tcs of America and his Majesty the Emperor of all
tlie Russias, beinj, desirous of strengtliening, if possible, the good under-
standing whicii exists between them, have, for tiiat purpose, appointed
as their jil'' ii tcntiarics : the President of the United States, William
11. Seward, !^ ;t'ry of State ; and his Majesty the Emperor of all the
Russias, the i.^ y Cou.isellor EdwaM de Stoeckl, his envoy extraor-
dinary and minister plenipotentiary to the United States.

! lijl j|

ill

i|:|il

i!iin>'

360

HISTORY.

And the said plenipotentiaries, having exchanged their full powers,
which were found to be in due form, have agreed upon and signed the

following articles;

Article I.

His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias agrees to cede to the
United States, by this convention, immediately upon the exchange of
the ratifications thereof, all the territory and dominion now possessed by
his said Majesty on the continent of America and in the adjacent is!
ands, the same being contained within the geographical limits herein set
forth, to wit : The eastern limit is the line of demarcation between the
Russian and the Br.'b'i possessions in North America, as established
by the convention bet' f ;ssia and Great Britain, of February 28-16,

1825, and described in les III and IV of said convention, in the

following terms : —

" Commencing from the southernmost point of the island called Prince
of Wales Island, which point lies in the parallel of 54 degrees 40 minutes
north latitude, and between the 131st and the 133d degree of west lon-
gitude (meridian of Greenwich), the said line shall ascend to the north
along the channel called Portland Channel, as far as the point of the
continent where it strikes the 56th degree of north latitude; from this
last-mentioned point, the line of demarcation shall follow the summit of
the mountains situated parallel to the coast as far as the point of inter-
section of the 141st degree of west longitude (of the same meridian);
and finally, from the said point of intersection, the said meridian line of
the 141st degree, in its prolongation as far as the Frozen Ocean.

" IV. With reference to the line of demarcation laid down in the
preceding article, it is understood —

" ist. That the island called Prince of Wales Island shall belong
wholly to Russia (now, by this cession, to the United States).

" 2(1. That whenever the summit of the mountains which extend in
a direction parallel to the coast from the 56th degree of north latitude to
the point of intersection of the 141st degree of west longitude shall prove
to be at the distance of more than ten marine leagues from the ocean.
the limit between the British possessions and the line of coast which is
to belong to Russia as above mentioned (that is to say, the limit to the
possessions ceded by this convention) shall be formed by a line parallel
to the winding of the coast, and which shall never exceed the distance
of ten marine leagues therefrom."

The western limit, within which the territories and dominion con
veyed are contained, passes through a point in Piering's Straits on the
parallel of sixty-five degrees thirty minutes north latitude, at its inter-

full powers, R

1 signed the ■[

) cede to the I

exchange of H

possessed by f

i adjacent isl i

lits herein set K

HISTORY.

361

section by the meridian which passes midway between the island of
Kriiscnstern for Ignalook, and the island of Ratmanoft" or Noonarbook,
and proceeds due north, without limitation, into the same Frozen Ocean.
The same western limit, beginning at the same initial point, proceeds
thence in a course nearly southwest, through Bering's Straits and Bering's
Sea, so as to pass midway between the northwest point of the island of
St. Lawrence and the southeast point of Cape Chukotski, to the merid-
ian of one hundred and seventy-two west longitude ; thence, from the
intersection of that meridian, in a southwesterly direction, so as to pass
midway between the island of Attu and the Copper island of the Koman-
dorski couplet or group in the North Pacific ocean, to the meridian of one
hLindied and ninety-three degrees west longitude, so as to include in the
territory conveyed the whole of the Aleutian islands east of that meridian.

Article II.

In the cession of territory and dominion made by the preceding
article is included the right of property in all public lots and squares,
vacant lands, and all public buildings, fortifications, barracks, and other
edifices which are not private individual property. It is, however,
understood and agreed, that the churches which have been built in the
ceded territory by the Russian government shall remain the property of
such members of the Greek Oriental Church resident in the territory as
may clioose to worship therein. Any government archives, papers, and
documents relative to the territory and dominion aforesaid, which may
be now existing there, will be left in the possession of the agent of the
United States ; bul rai authenticated copy of such of them as may be
required will be, at all times, given by the United States to the Russian
government, or to such Russian officers or subjects as they may apply for.

Article III.

The inhabitants of the ceded territory, according to their choice,
reserving their natural allegiance, may return to Russia within three
years ; but if they should prefer to remain in the ceded territory, they,
with the exception of uncivilized native tribes, shall be admitted to the
enjoyment of all the rights, advantages, and immunities of citizens of the
United States, and shall be maintained and protected in the free enjoy-
ment of their liberty, property, and religion. The uncivilized tribes will
lie subject to such laws and regulations as the United States may, from
lime to time, adopt in regard to aboriginal tribes of that country.

Article IV.
His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias shall appoint, with con-

362

HISTORY.

vcnient despatch, an agent or agents for the purpose of formally deliv-
ering to a similar agent or agents appointed on behalf of the United
States, the territory, dominion, property, dependencies, and appurte-
nances wiiicli are ceded as above, and for doing any otlier act which may
be necessary in regard thereto. But the cession, with the right of imme-
diate possession, is nevertheless to be deemed complete and absolute on
the exchange of ratifications, without waiting for such formal delivery.

Article V.

Immediately after the exchange of the ratifications of this conven-
tion, any fortifications or military posts which may be in the ceded
territory shall be delivered to the agent of the United States, and any
Russian troops who may be in the territory shall be withdrawn as soon
as may be reasonably and conveniently practicable.

Article VI.

In consideration of the cession aforesaid, the United States agree to
pay at the treasury in Washington, within ten months after the exchange
of the raiifications of this convention, to the diplomatic representativi
or other agent of his Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, duly
authorized to receive the same, seven million two hundred thousand
dollars in gold. The cession of territory and dominion herein made is|
hereby declared to be free and unincumbered by any reservations,
privileges, franchises, grqnts, or possessions, by any associated com-
panies, whether corporate or incorporate, Russian, or any other, or by I
any parties, cxcej:)! merely private individual property holders ; and the
cession hereby made conveys all the rights, franchises, and privileges,
now belonging to Russia in the said territory or dominion, and ap
purtenances thereto.

Article VII.

When this convention shall have been duly ratified by the President of
the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate on
the one part, and on the other by his Majesty the Emperor of all the Ru
sias, the ratifications shall be exchanged at Washington within three
months from the date hereof, or sooner, if possible.

In faith whereof, the respective plenipotentiaries have signed thi;
convention, and thereto affixed the seals of their arms.

Done at Washington, the thirtieth day of March, in the year of oiii
Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven.

[l. s.] WILLIAM H. SEWARD.

[l. s.] EDOUARD DE STOECKL.

_tkm

HISTORY.

3<53

formally deliv-

of the United

and appurtc-

act which may

right of imme-

tnd absolute on

mal delivery.

of this conven-
e in the ceded
States, and any
iidrawn as soon

1 States agree to
ter the exchangi:
ic representalivi
he Russias, duly 1
undred thousand
1 herein made is
any reservations,
associated com-
any other, or by I
lolders ; and the |
s, and privileges,
)minion, and apl

ythe President of
: of the Senate on
;ror of all the RusI
ton within tlireel

have signed thi>

n the year of oui|

SEWARD.
)E STOECKL.

And whereas the said treaty has been duly ratified on both parts,
and the respective ratifications of the same were exchanged at Washing-
ton on this twentieth day of June, l)y William H. Seward, Secretary of
State of the United States, and the I'rivy Counsellor Edward de Stocckl,
the envoy extraordinary of his Majesty tiie lunperor of all the Russias,
on the part of their respective governments,

Now, therefore, be it known that 1, Andrkw Johnson, President of
the United States of America, have caused the said treaty to be made
public, to the end that the same and every clause and article thereof
may be observeil and fulfilled witli good faith by the United States ami
the citizens there f.

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand, and caused the
sea! of the United States to be affixed.

Done at the city of Washington this twentieth day of June, in the
year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven, and of
the independence of the United States the ninety-first.

[l. s.] ■ ANDREW JOHNSON.

By the Presiilent :

William H. Seward,

Secretary of State.

Mr: Seivard to Mr. de Stoeckl.

Department of State,
Washington, March 23, 1867.

Sir : — With reference to the proposed convention between our re-
Ispective governments for a cession by Russia of her American territory

to the United States, I have the honor to acquaint you that I must insist
[upon that clause in the sixth article of the dr.aught whicli decla'es ihe
Iccssion to be free and unincumbered by any reservations, privileges,
[franchises, grants, or possessions by any associated companies, whether
icorporate or incorporate, Russian or any other, iS:c., and must regard it
las an ultimatum ; with the President's approval, however, I will add two
pundrcd thousand dollars to the consideration money on that account.
I avail myself of this occasion to offer to you a renewed assurance

of my most distinguished consideration.

WILLIAM H. SEWARD,

Secretary of State.
Mr. EmvARD de Stoeckl, &c,, &c., &c.

!'!l

♦ 11:11 W

1,1111

I'd :l''

) n.

364

HISTORY.

[C]

Mr, de Stoeckl to Mr. Seward.
[Translation.]

Imperial Legation of Russia to the United Statfs,
Washington, Marcli 25, 1867.

Mr. Secretary of State: — I have had the honor to receive the
note which you were pleased to address to me on the 3d March, 1867,
to inform me that the Federal government insists that the clause inserted
in article si.\th of the project of convention must be strictly maintained,
and that the territory to be ceded to the United States must be free
from any arrangement and privileges conceded either by government or
by companies.

In answer, I believe myself authorized, Mr. Secretary of State, to
accede literally to this request on the conditions indicated in your
note.

Please accept, Mr. Secretary of S te, the assurances of my very
high consideration.

STOECKL.

Hon. William H. Seward,

Secretary of State of the United States.

[D.]

Mr. de Stoeckl to Mr. Seward.
[Translation.]

Washington, March 17-29, 1867.
Mr. Secretary of State : — I have the honor to inform you that by
a telegram dated 16-28 of this month from St. Petersburg, Prince
Gortchakoi'f informs me that his Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias
gives his consent to the cession of the Russian possessions on the
American continent to the United States for the stipulated sum of seven
million two hundred thousand dollars in gold, and that his Majesty the
Emperor invests me with full powers to negotiate and sign the treaty.

Please accept, Mr. Secretary of State, the assurance of my very high
consideration.

STOECKL.
Hon. William H. Seward,

Secretary of State of the United States.

': ' '

HISTORY.

365

es of my very

STOECKL.

[E.]
Mr. Seward to Mr. de Stoeckl.

DEPARTMr.NT OF STATE,

Washington, May 13, 1867.
Sir : — I have the honor to inform you that Brigadier General Lovell
H. Rousseau has been appointed by the President the commissioner
on the part of the United States >o receive, from the commissioner ap-
pointed on behalf of his Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, the
territory ceded to the United States by the treaty of the 30th of March
last. A copy of the instructions which have been given to General
Rousseau for his guidance in executing that trust is herewith communi-
cated for your information and that of your government.

I avail myself of this occasion, sir, to offer to you a renewed assur-
ance of my most distinguished consideration.

WILLIAM H. SEWARD,

Secretary of State.

Mr. Edward de Stoeckl, &c., &c., &c.

[F.]

Mr. de Stoeckl to Mr. Savard.

[Translation.]

Washington, August 13, 1867.
Mr. Secretary of State : — I have the honor to remit to you
herewith copy of the instructions given to Captain Pestchouroff, com-
missioner of the Imperial government for the transfer of the territory
wiiich formed the Russian colonics of the northwest of the American
continent.

Please accept, Mr. Secretary of State, the assurance of my very high
consideration.

STOECKL.
Hon. William H. Seward,

Secretary of State of the United States.

Translation of Instructions given to Captain Pestchouroff, Commissioner on
the part of the Imperial Russian Government, for the delivery of the
Russian American Colonies to the Government of the United States.

I. Captain Pestchouroff has been directed to proceed to Washington
and enter, through the medium of the Secretary of State and the Russian
minister, into communication with the commissioner appointed by the

■'i I

366

HISTORY.

United States government to receive the said colonies, for the purpose
of establishing an understanding as to the said transaction.

2. On the arrival of the two commissioners at New Archangel,
Sitka, Captain Pestchouroff is directed to proceed, in the fust place, to
thj formal transfer of the territory under mutual national salutes.

3. All the forts and military posts will be delivered at once to the
American military forces that may follow the United States commis-
sioner. Captain Pestchouroff will take the necessary steps to send
home the Russian troops as early as convenient and deliver the bar-
racks to the use of the American soldiers.

4. The public buildings, such as the governor's house, the buildings
used for government purposes, dock yard, barracks, hosjjitals, schools,
public grounds, and all free lots at Sitka and Kadiak, will be delivered
by Captain Pestchouroff to the American commissioner as soon as prac-
ticable.

5. All the houses and stores forming private property will remain
to be disposed of by their proprietors. To this same category belong
smiths',joiners', coopers', tanners', and other similar shops, as well as ice-
houses, saw and flour mills, and any small barracks that may exist on
the islands.

6. The two commissioners, after making the division between the
property to be transferred to the American government and tliat left to
jjrivate proprietors, will draw up a protocol, and the American com-
missioner, on the documents furnished by the local Russian authorities,
will deliver legalized certificates to the owners of said property in order
to enable them to possess that property or otherwise to dispose of it.

7. The churches and chapels remain, according to the stipulations
of the treaty, the property of the members of the Greco- Russian com-
munity. The houses and lots of ground which were granted to these
churches remain their property.

8. As the Russian American Company possess in the colonies large
stores of furs, provisions, and other goods, at present distributed in
Sitka, Kadiak, and other stations on the continent and islands, they wi'l
require a certain lapse of time to collect, sell, or export their properly.
For that purpose the company will leave an agent or agents charged
with the duty of settling finally their affairs.

It is hoped that the Federal government will allow the Russian
American Company to settle finally their business, without subjecting
their property or their agents to any taxes for a period of eighteen
months, or at least one year, considering that the same property has
never been taxed heretofore, and that the company, under the present
circumstances, will have to dispose of their property at a loss.

HISTORY.

367

9. In the settlement of all the affairs in connection with the trans-
fer of the territory, Captain Pestciiouroff is directed to proceed in tlie
most amicable way, and the Imperial Russian government hopes that
the authorities of the United States will be guided by the same liberal
views, in order to avoid any difficulties and to complete this transaction
in the spirit of the friendly relations existing between the two govern-
ments.

[G.]

Department of the Interior,
Washington, 1). C , October 26, 1867.

Sir : — In reply to your communication of the 24th instant in relation
to attempts of American citizens to acquire pre-emption rights to lands
at Sitka, in the newly acquired Territory of Alaska, I have the honor to
enclose for your information a copy of a report this day made to me by
the Coir-^issioner of the General Land Office upon the subject of your
inquiries. Such claims and settlements are not only without the sanc-
tion of law, but are in direct violation of the provisions of the laws of
Congress applicable to public domain secured to the United States by
any treaty made with a foreign nation ; and, if deemed necessary and
advisable, military force may be used to remove the intruders.

This department has no officers at Sitka, nor in any other part of
the " Russian purchase," and must rely upon the State Department to
cause the necessary orders in the premises to be communicated to our
authorities there.

I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

O. H. BROWNING, Secretary.
Hon. William H. Seward, Secretary of State.

[H.l

Department of the Interior,
General Land Office, October 26, 1867.

Sir: — I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of the depart-
ment letter of yesterday, enclosing a communication of the 24th from
the honorable Secretary of State, by which the department is advised
that citizens of the United States are attempting to make claims and
settlements at Sitka within the " Russian purchase " under the town
site and pre-emption laws, and I have the honor to state that such set-
tlements are illegal and contrary to law. See act of March 3, 1807,
Vol. II., p. 445, United States Statutes.

In the absence of specific legislation by Congress providing for the

368

HISTORY.

organization of land districts witliin the " Russian purchase," and the
extension of our system of surveys over the same, settlements and
claims under the town site and pre-emption laws are unlawful, and
cannot ue recognized under existing laws.

I am, sir, very resp'^ctfuUy, your obedient servant,

JOSEPH S. WILSON,

Commissioner.
Hon. O. H. Rrownino,

Secretary of the Interior.

[I]

Mr. Seivard to General Grant.

DlU'ARTMF.NT OF STATE,

Washington, October 28, 1867.
Gi'NERAL : — In the absence cf specific legislation by Congress for the
organization of land districts in Alaska, claims of pre-emption and set
tlements are MOt only without the sanction of law, but are in direct vin
lation of laws applicable to the public domain. Military force may Ix-
used to remove intruders if necessary. Will you have the goodness tn
instruct Major Cieneral Halleck to this effect by telegraph, and request
him to communicate the instruction to Major Cieneral Rousseau v.
Sitka?

I have the honor to be. General, your obedient servant,

WILLIAM H. SEWARD.
Gensrai, U. S. Grant,

Secretary of War ad inkrim.

I J]
Mr. Seward to Mr. de Stoeckl.

Department of State,
Wa.shiiigton, October 29, 1S67.

Sir : — I have the honor to enclose for your information a copy of.i
letter of yesterday to General Grant, the Secretary of War ad iiitoim.
embodying an instrujiion which the President has directed to be sent
by telegraph to Major General Halleck, by him to be promptly com
municated to Major General Rousseau, at Sitka, with a view to prevent
ing premature and illegal attempts to occuj^y land in Alaska.

Accept, sir, a renewed assurance of my very high consideration,

WILLIAM H. SEWARD.

Mr. Edward de Stoeckl, &c., &c., &c.

HISTORY.

369

(Kl

DKI'ARTMF.NT ov Stait.,
Washington, September 6, 1867.

Generai- : — In relation to the despatch of Major (Jcncral HalUvk,
of tlic 2(1 of September, inslant, in wliicii he re(iue>ts that the President
will by proclamation declare the newly acciuired Russian territory an
Indian territory in order to prevent the introduction of ardent spirits
among the Indians there, I am instructed to say that the President will
retain the same for further consideration. At the same time he desires
thu Major (leneral Halleckwill confer with Cleneral Rousseau upon that
suhjei t, to the end that the matured views of those oiticcis n>ay be sub-
niitled to the President as early as practicable.

I'or the information of the War Department, I communicate a copy
of an opinion of E. Peshine Smitii, Esq., K.\aminer of Claims in this
(l.inrtment, wiiich sets forth a view of the laws of the L'nitetl States
ijcariug upon that question, whicli view is adopted by this department.
I have the honor to be, General, your obedient servant,

WILLIAM II. SEWARD.

' KRAL U. S. Grant,

Secretary of War ad interim.

Official :

R. WILLIAMS,

Assistant Ai/Jntant- General.

Bureau oi.- Claims, Scpicmbcr 5, 1867.

Proclamation that the territory ceded by Russia is Indian territory :

Su -h a proclamation is recommended by General Halleck in order
to prevent the introduction of whiskey among the Indians.

Tiie act of 1834(4 Stat. 729), "to regulate trade and intercourse
with the Indian tribes," provides that " all that part of the United
dilates west of the Mississippi, and not within the States of Missouri
and Louisiana or the Territory of Arkansas, * * * * for the purposes of
this act be deemed and taken to be the Indian country."

The (lueslion is, whether the provisions of that act in respect to
trade and intercourse with Indians are to be restricted to their operation
in the Indian country which was within the United States at the time of
the passage of t/ie act, ox whQih&r they take effect and apply to new ter-
ritory acquired by conquest or treaty, without any further legislation
giving them such extension.

I think this question has been settled by the Supreme Court of the
24

!jt!l

1^ :;j'^.:

V B

370

HISTORY.

United States in the case of Cross vs. Harrison (16 Howard's R., 164.
199). The question there was, vvhether upon Mie ratification of the
treaty for the cession of California the existing several laws came into
operation so as to regulate the rate of duties on imported goods without
any act of Congress declaring their will in thai respect, and creating col-
lection districts. The court held that the ratification of the treaty mmle
California a part of the United States, and that so soon as it became so
the territory instantly became subject to the acts which were in force to
regulate foreign commerce with the Ignited States.

The argument was urged in that case that the revenue laws applied
only to the territory under our jurisdiction when they were passed, until
Congress, by creating collection distric'^ in the new Territory, or some
other act of the same nature, had manifested its will that the laws should
be thus applied. That argument was overruled by the court, and it
would, therefore, be overruled in respect to Alaska and commerce with
the Indian tribes.

I think, therefore, that the new territory became a part of the In-
dian country on the 20th June last. A proclamation by ihe IVesidcnf
is only necessary for the information of persons going into the territory
of the restrictions to which they are subject in their intercourse win
Indians. I think, however, the treaty itself may work some change .n
the existing law. For instance, one of the provisions is that no license
to trade with the Indians shall be granted to any persons except citizens
of the United States. The third article of the treaty provides that the
inhabitants of the ceded territory, reserving their natural allegiance, may
return to Russia within three years, but if they prefer to remain in the
territory they (with the exception of native uncivilized tribes) shall be
admitted to the enjoyment of all the rights, a(l\antages, and immunities
of citizens of the United States. While it may be that they cannot
acquire the full rights of American citizenship until their election lias
been evidenced by remaining three years, it seems to me it would be
a liarsh constiuction, and one to be avoided, if possilde, which should
postpone for that period their right to receive a license to trade with
the Indians. It can hardly be the intention of the treaty that they
should lose any privileges by the incorporation of their territory with
the United States. The provision should be deemed an enabling and
not a restrictive one. If doubt remains on this point, as it may, it
should, I think, be removed by Congress.

K. PKSHINE SMITH,

Exivnimr.
Official :

R. WILLIAMS,

Assistant Adjutant- General.

HISTORY.

[M.]

371

DErARTMENT OF STATE,

Washington, January 30, 1S69.

Sir: — I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your Icttei
of the 27th instant, enclosing extracts from a communication from Mr.
M. !■'. Smith, Jr., concerning the alleged habitual encroachment of the
agents of the Hudson's Bay Company upon the trade and territory of
.\hiska, with a request for my views upon the subject.

IJy the si.\th article of our treaty with Russia of March 30, 1867, the
cession of territory and dominion therein made is " declared to be free
;uid unincumbered by any reservations, privileges, franchises, grants, or
possessions by any associated companies, whether corporate or incorpor-
ate, Russian or any other, or by any parties except merely private
individual proi^erty holders.

Article 5 of the treaty between Great Britain and Russia of February
j8, 1825 {3 Hertslet's Treaties, 364), which was revived and continuetl
by the 19th article of the treaty between the same powers of January 12,
1859(10 Hertslet, 1063), provides that "no establishment shall be
formed by either of the two parties within the limits assigned by the
two preceding articles to the possession of the other ; consequently
British subjects shall not form any estal)lislunent, either upon the coast
or upon the border of the continent comprised within the limits of the
Russian possessions." The articles referred to established the boundary
linos between the British and Russian possessions on the northwest
coast of America, the same adopted in our treaty of cession with Russia.

Tlie provisions above cited are conclusive against the right of the
Hudson's Bay Company to establish or maintain such an establishment
as I'ort Yukon is described to be in the communication from Mr. M. 1*\
Smith, Jr. I understand the decision of the Supreme Court of the
United States in the case of Harrison 7'^-. Cro.ss (16 Howard, 164-202),
to tleclare its opinion that upon the addition to the L'nited States of new
territory, by conquest and cession, the acts regulating foreign conmien:i
attach to and take eflect within .such territory ipso /(Uii) and without .t^y
I'rcsh act of legislation expressly giving such extension to the pre-e.vist-
ing laws. I can see no reason for a discrimination in this res|)ect
between acts regulating foreign commerce ami the laws regulating in-
tercourse with the Indian tribes ; there is, indeed, a strong analogy
between the two subjects. The Indians, if not foreigners, are not
citizens, and their tribes have the character of depe,-:»lent nations under
the protection of their government, as Chief Justice Marshall remarks,
delivering the opinion of the Supreme Couri in Worcester rvf. The State

iili

Bs ■ ,fi

-6 iiii

mm^

372

HISTORY.

of Georgia (6 Peters, 557), " The treaties and laws, of the United States
contemplate the Indian territorj' as completely sepi.rated from that of
the States, and provide that all intercourse with th<^m shall be carried
on exclusively by the government of the Union." The same clause of
the Constitution invests Congress with power "to regulate commerce
with foreign nations, * * * * and with the Indian tribes."

The act of June 30, 1834 (4 Stat, 729), defines the Indian country
as, in part, " all that part of the United States west of the Mississippi
and not within the States of Missouri and Louisiana, or the Territory of
Arkansas." This, by a happy elasticity of expression, widening as our
dominion widens, includes the territory ceded by Russia.

That act provides that no person shall trade with any of the Indians
(in the Indian country) without a license ; that any person, other than
an Indian, who shall attempt to reside in the Indian country as a trader,
or to introduce goods, or to trade therein, without such license, shall
forfeit all merchandise offered for sale to the Indians or found in his
possession ; and shall, moreover, forfeit the sum of five hundred dollars ;
that no license to trade with the Indians shall be granted to any per-
sons except citizens of the United States ; that a foreigner going into
the Indian country, without a passport from tiie War Department, the
Superintendent or agent of Indian affiiirs, or the officer commanding the
nearest military post on the frontiers, shall be liable to a fine of one
thousand dollars ; finally, that the Superintendent of Indian affairs, and
Indian agents, and sub-agents, shall have the authority to remove from
the Indian country all persons found therein contrary to law, and the
President is authorized to direct the military force to be employed in
such removal.

These provisions seem to be all that can be necessary to prevent the
encroachments of the Hudson Bay Company, alleged by Mr. M. K
Smith, Jr.

Of the practical difiiculties in the execution of these provisions yuii
have better means of judging than has this department.

I have the honor to be, sir,

Your obedient servant,

WILLIAM H. SEWARD.

Hon. John M. Schofield,

Secretary of War, Washington, D. C.

United States
from that of
lall be carried
me clause of
ite commerce

ndian country
le Mississippi
e Territory of
iening as our

)f the Indians
)n, other than
ry as a trader,

license, shall
- found in his
ndred dollars ;
:ed to any per-
ler going into
epartment, the
mmanding the

a fine of one
an affairs, and
5 remove from
) law, and the
; employed in

to prevent the
jy xMr. U. 1'.

provisions }

SEWARD.

;uu

CHAPTER III.

Aboriginal Inhabitants of Alaska.

THE aborigines of North America are naturally divided into
two great groups. One of these comprises the natives
universally known under the name of Indians. For the other
(to supply a term long needed in generalization, to distinguish
thj tribes of Innuit, Aleutians, and Asiatic Eskimo from the
natives comprised under the first head), in a paper read before the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, in Sep-
tember, 1869, I proposed the term Ordrian* in allusion to their
universal coastwise distribution. The pertinence of this appella-
tion will be better appreciated if the reader will take the trouble
fo lay down on the map the boundaries of the territory actually
occupied by the members of this group. He will see that it forms a
belt or girdle along the north and west coasts of America, ani^ the
extreme east coast of Asia, rarely interrupted, as on the nort, Acst
shore of Kenai ; sometimes produced inland near a great water-
course, such as the mouth of the Yukon or Mackenzie ; but no-
where attaining any great breadth, and everywhere interposed be-
tween the Indians, who occupy the interior, and the sea.

Our knowledge is yet insufficient, and the scope of this chapter
is too limited, to admit of the discussion of the question of the
original identity of the Indian and Orarian stocks. It is an easy
matter, however, to show the most salient points of present diftcr-
encc. Another and more interesting question, that of the origi-
nal derivation of the natives of America, is also too wide for dis-
cussion here, while the facts on which to ground any hypothesis
are very limited in number.

To the overshadowing influence of Indo-Iuiropcan study in

* Kroin ora, a coast. I shoukl liave preferred a term of native derivation (c. g.
Iminit) iiad there been any of sutticicnt scope ; failing in that, a classical term was
adopted.

lllllf ;

ill*,
lift

'Mi ■? '

374

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

philological science, and partly to the Semitic traditions which
have become so thoroughly ingrained in Christian theology, may
be principally attributed the unphilosophical manner in which
many ethnologists have taken the theory of the population of
America from Asia or Polynesia for granted. While I do not
intend to discuss the question, or express a decided opinion on it,
here, yet it is certain that the most eminent students of Ameri-
can ethnology are becoming more and more unwilling to accept
this theory until more facts, upon which to base it, are brought
forward. I propose to attempt to show that .some of the facts
which have been used in support of this hypothesis are suscepti-
ble of quite another interpretation. I refer to the existence of
tribes of Orarian stock on the coast of the Chiikchee Peninsula.
There are abundant data on record in regard to our North Ameri-
can Indians, which show how little physiological characteristics
can be relied upon, as proofs of affinity or identity of origin,
among the aborigines.

The accompanying vocabularies (see Appendix F) will assist
the student in determining the affinities of some tribes previously
but little known.

Omrian Group. — This great stock is confined to the northern
and western shores of America, the islands of the vicinity, and
the adjacent shores of that part of Eastern Siberia known as
the Chukchce Peninsula. They may be divided into three lesser
groups, of which the most important is that of the laintii. The
others are the Aleutian branch, and that which, for want of a
better name, I shall designate as the Tuski branch.

The Inniiit. — These comprice the Grcenlanders, the northern
Eskimo of the arctic voyagers, the Western I'^skimo of Seemann
and others, the Innuit of the islands in the vicinity of Bering Strait,
and those of the west coast of America, south to Mount St. Elias.

TJie Aleutians. — These comprise the inhabitants of Aliaska, west
of the i6oth degree of longitude, and the Aleutian Islands.

The Tuski. — This branch is composed of the Orarian tribe or
tribes which occupy the coast of the Chukchee Peninsula from Ko-
liuchin Bay on the north to Anadyr Gulf on the south. We do not
know satisfactorily the name by which they call themselves, but
as Hooper says positively that they call themselves Tuski, I have
provisionally adopted his name. Some fragments of historical

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

375

records, ana the traditions of which I received some account,
while pursuing my inquiries among them in 1865 and i866,
tlirow new light on their origin. While we leave untouched the
question of original Orarian emigration from Asia, we are able
to determine pretty certainly that the Orarians now on the Asi-
atic coast were originally from America, and that their emigra-
tion has taken place within three hundred years.

At Plover Bay I was informed by Nokiivi, a very intelligent
Tiiski, who spoke English, that the inhabitants of the country
were of two kinds, — "deer men" (i.e. true Chiikchees) and "bow-
head men " (Tuski or Orarians). The " deer men " were the
original inhabitants, and the " bowhead men," to which class he
belonged, had come, long ago, from the islands (the Diomedes) to
the northeast. lie said that the reason they came was because
there was war between them and the people who wore labrets.
The latter proved the stronger, and the former were obliged to
come to the country of the "deer men." * The latter allowed the
"bowhead men" to settle on the barren rocky coast, and formed
an offensive and defensive alliance with them against the invaders
from the eastward. On interrogating one of the "deer men"
who frequently visit the village, he confirmed the above, as iden-
tical with the Chukchee traditions. Noticing in many places the
remain > of stone houses, similar to the Innuit topeks of Norton
."^ouiid, I asked Nokum who made them. He replied that that
was the kind of house which his people lived in very long ago,
so long that his grandfather only knew of it by tradition ; but
that, wood being" scarce, they had adopted a mode of building their
habitations which was like that practised by the "deer men," and
which was much better adapted to the country. So much for
tradition.

In 1648, when Simeon Deshneff sailed through Bering Strait,
he found natives upon the Diomedes, wearing labrets, who were
at war with the Tiiski. This report was confirmed by Shcstakoff
in 1730, and more fully by Peter Popoff, who had been sent to col-
lect tribute from the Chukchees. At the time of the visit of the
latter, in 171 1, the Tiiski were living in "immovable huts which

* So called because they subsist principally on the flesh of their tame reindeer,
ttliilc the Tiiski, or " bowhead men," gA\n their living by pursuing the seal, walrus,
and bowhead whale. There are also some impoverished tnic Chukchees who have
btiii reduced to the Ti'iski mode of life in order to obtain a subsistence.

ill

376

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

they dig in the ground." He also found among the Tiiski ten
of the islanders wearing labrets, who had been taken prisoners
of war.

Saur, in his journey from St. Lawrence Bay to the Kolyma
River, saw Ti'iski still living in the ancient underground houses,
which were built of driftwood. According to later travellers,
these huts on the northern coasts are now entirely abandoned,
and have formed subjects for speculation in more than one worli
on the Polar regions. It may be mentioned in this connection
that there is no doubt that the Aleutians originally emigrated to
the islands from the American continent, driven by hostile tribes.
Their original name signified " jfic/i of the cast" and every known
fact in regard to them adds confirmation.

It has been frequently remarked that the Tiiski and Innuit
tribes have a Mongolian cast of countenance. This, upon an
actual comparison, will be found to be much less than is usually
supposed. The real points of resemblance are principally in the
complexion, which is somewhat similar, and in the eyes. But the
eyes of the Innuit are not oblique, as in the Chinese. They have
an apparent obliquity, which is due to the peculiar form of the
zygomatic arch, but the eyes themselves are perfectly horizontal.
The prominent characteristics of the Orarian skull are the strong-
ly developed coronary ridge, the obliquity of the zygoma, and its
greater capacity compared with the Indian cranium. The former
is essentially pyramidal, while the latter more nearly approaches
a cubic shape.

The mean capacity (in cubic centimetres) of three Tiiski skulls
from Plover Bay, according to Dr. Wyman, was 1,505 ; that of
twenty crania of northern Eskimo, according to Dr. Davis, was
1,475, ^"^l '^'"'^'^ of fo'-"' Inii"it crania of Norton Sound was 1,320;
thus showing a wide variation. The mean capacity of twenty
West-American Indian crania was only 1,284.06. The mean
height of all the Orarian skulls above referred to was 13C.55
mill., against a breadth of 134.47 mill., while the height of the
Indian skulls was 120.14 mill., against .'v breadth of 100.025 mill.
The zygomatic diameter of the Orarian crania was 134.92 mill.,
while that of twelve Indian skulls was 134.C5 mill. The Orarian
skulls were most dolichocephalic, :tnd the indian most brachy-
cophalic. The latter averaged 378.71 cubic cent. less capacity

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

Zll

le Tuski ten
en prisoners

the Kolyma
ound houses,
:r travellers,
r abandoned,
lan one work
is connection
emigrated to
lostile tribes,
every known

and Inniiit
liis, upon an
an is usually
;ipally in the
es. But the

They have
form of the
y horizontal.
2 the strong-
oma, and its

The former

approaches

Tuski skulls
05 ; that of
Davis, was
was 1,320;
J of twenty
The mean
was 136.55
ight of the
00.025 mill.
34.92 mill,
"he Orarian
ost brachy-
2SS capacity

than the former. The average height of the Orarians, except
among the stunted tribes of the extreme north, will average
as great as that of their Indian neighbors. The strength and
activity of the former far exceed that of any northern Indians
with wl jm I am acquainted. They are much more intelligent,
and superior in every essential respect to the Indians. The lan-
guage of the western Innuit differs totally in the vocabulary from
that of any Indian tribes, while there are many word'^ common to
the Greenlanders and the Bering Strait Eskimo. On the other
hand, the words of the language of the Aleutians are in very large
part quite dissimilar to those of the most adjacent Innuit. There
is more difference in this respect between them and the Innuit of
Kadiak than exists between the Grcenlandic and Bering Strait
dialect. Nevertheless, the Aleutian language is clearly of the In-
nuit type, and is only entitled to rank as a branch of the Orarian
stock.

The Orarian dialects differ from the Indian languages of
Alaska v.\ the following particulars, according to Veniami'noff : —

The Orarians have three kinds of numbers : nouns or abstract
numbers, adjective or qualifying numbers, and a plural form of
each number. In some dialects, as in the Aleutian, there is a dual
number. These dialects hav'e indefinite and possessive ca.ses, all
form.cd by changes in the termination of the words, so that there
are some fifty cases for the same word ; the conjugation of . ibs
in number and person is effected in the same way ; the adverbs
have numbers, and the idea of negation is expressed by a change
in the termination of the noun, and not by the use of the word
"no," except when the latter is used in answer to a question
without other words. The Orarian dialects are deficient in some
sounds which are common in the Indian languages, and the
former, as a rule, are much more harmonious and less guttural
than the latter. Phrases are exprr-,scd by a grammatical ar-
rangement of words, while generally the Indians use a single
word to express the same ideas.

The Intlian languages of Alaska have only two kinds of num-
hcrs, singular and plural. There are only three cases tc the
nouns; the conjugation of verbs is expressed by changes in the
beginning or middle of the ^"ord, and not in the termination ; the
adverbs are invariable ; the words are, as a rule, harsh and gut-

378

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

tural ; the number of words is less than in the Orarian dialects,
and their general structure is more arbitrary and less gram-
matical. Both stocks have only one gender, or rather no change
to express gender in the words. The Indians can rarely count
more than two hundred, while some Orarian dialects have a
regular succession of numbers up to ten thousand.*

T/w Tuski Tdt£S^ — These tribes are estimated by different
authors at from one to five thousand souls. Their origin has
been described. They have occupied the coast from Koliiichin
Bay in the north to the Gulf of Anadyr on the south, but during
the winter, at least, are at present confined to a narrower extent
of country. Like all Orarians, they do not penetrate the interior
to any great distance. They are on good terms with the Chuk-
chees, and there are several villages of the latter composed of
individuals who have lost their deer, become impoverished, or
from some other reason have adopted a sedentary life. There is
reason to believe that there was originally a jargon, containing
words of both languages, in use in communication between tlic
men of the two races, as is at present the case near Norton Sound,
between the Innuit and Indians. Communication is constantly
kept up between the Chukchees and Tiiski, and our knowledge
of the language of the latter is still too meagre to enable us to
say whether among themselves they yet speak a pure Orarian
dialect, but it is probable that i is become, from constant inter-
course, permanently mixed with Chiikchee words.

Coming, from a country where driftwood was abundant, to a
district where it is very scarce, modifications have been necessary
in the mode of life of the Tiiski, of which we have, as already
shown, some historical record. At present the method of con-
structing their houses, sledges, and many other articles, is very
similar to, though not quite identical with, the mode of the Chuk-
chees. They have no reindeer, however, and use dogs to draw
their sledges. The summer houses of the Tiiski are made of wal-
rus-skins, spread over a light frame. These are divided by hang-
ing hides into various compartments where the inmates sleep and
work during the day. They fill sealskin bags with moss and lay

* This subject will be i lore fully trcr-lcd in a work in preparation for the Smith-
sonian Institution by Dr. George Clibbs and the writer. This work will also contain
a large number of hitherto unpublished vocabularies.

in dialects,
less gram-
no change
arcly count
:ts have a

ly different
origin has
Koliiichin
but during
ivver extent
he interior
the Chuk-
mposed of
erished, or
There is
containing
^tvveen tlic
ton Sound,
constantly
knowledge-
able us to
■e Orarian
itant inter-

idant, to a
I necessary
as already
od of con-
es, is very
the Chuk-
js to draw
ide of wal-
1 by hang-
1 sleep and
)ss and lay

ar the Sniitli-
1 also contain

I >;-

if!''

li.

ADOKI'-.INAI. INHABITANTS.

J7^>

vjvcr thi-rn lor hcls. Tlicii t^iUs at Plover Pay wen

he pebbles near ll.o beach. They bum ino^s souk. < I

1 IS placed in an earlliea fit.'^h wiih u 'tcl^c on cn'.h

a rull jf niu.-.s seives l<.r a wie'-: Thi^ with . larger

'Uv^ over, is uiie<i lo ligiit and warm the t^ iitM in

vairn themselves ihey sciuat dirccllv ovtr i:u Iani| ,

t',..tM:.<'lveb :iiid it witli a mantle of skin Tlicir ibod is

he llesh and blubber ol' the walrus, seal, and wi\al'-.

, -t h uf i! ra-.v, but iHiidly -iteu- lh< ]e.uicr parts.

. I'v. round-lealfd aorrel aU''. semvy grass or watcr-

•,,,ake a kind of .salad, vvhieh i.-^ al'.nwcd to t'-iine it

•leii. '['hey also eat the b-'vies oi-M c- heit^ {/iw

•v/w;. -and obtain salmon trout ! ^u: i i..Ue e^

" latter, as well as the leop -.' .1
Thov ii.He slit^.g: with {.,'c:it.
I'-Kiws ;>nd d.ut'j ot waliu;i n
'", i"oiv halt is as 'd' in llie
■ .- bill very dimir.iitive {]o.\^, vv!.'

' e^ . ;■ liikJ

»a .,!,'- !t( a

•.iti ' •»• /J

- • . ., i

1 l-:>k:iiu>, but diiVer from tli..^ Kanu^hidal' lU-^.i.

. .;h an- ficiiv eiteii, as I saw mystlC on s'-vra! iK-

1 \. - and bears ire rarely ((btcuned aid u.,ed .is luoii.

b .: i.-. comprised of .'ioal and deci >kins, the laller nb-

i. : '-r troll, ii\L Clu'ikVhces. .They wv:av nn i t "T shiit ot

km. .\ "'h bieecbes and .socks of the same ; "ut idv.- la'tiu'st,-.

erv loo.se, W'ith wide slt;<'Nt:s. u tlaj' uii-i'T the chin

><-d, wiihoul l.li!^^,!ni';.,^ hul cap: i;.I>.' (jf V,ein;4 thMwa

.Is. .-nuuth of a bag, aroun.i ih : faci: \)\ a sti-in;; m.serted

>: t . , rh'Mc T, no uv;;f-k!n Iri'nm'.ai;, .is iii tiie pArk^.s

!'. . <A \ M'.un Si'.Mul Tile .Kit i, ■•< inctimrs trimmed

!-.'■.. Thesi' p^ikies, bc.n.c m. )'■ <:' the t-r.ne reindeer

II'' i a moiiicd with whit." ^^ H \:uio is deii "aie shad' s o

J • !■ '..ater bi'i;ch'>s are mhu'- of 5;':ai.-ki'- wiih the l.air

■I out 1 hi.ir booi- if lonr ai' <-'f.id.: of 'he .same material

■ d at ;'u: knee, * r, if ;d)oi 1 ;' i'.' ndsle, Th. y are o'nU'

p'O'Jt. rh<- si'.ort ones au' -.':■. ■jimus .-a'ep,, liiniuii •

. : u- d-.-ri-,kin. oi; embroi.K'ieu wan sniew euluf-d r< d \> •

bp-l:. 'IT..-, parka, or outer e.ic: in* ludinp; thi how;
M?r;ef> is made in ,)\^c piee--. Ti.. \' s^^et n,to u at th'
.nlr.-, whie.il is l.iced or !i<'l up idt-a-vartls. 1 h-: v,- v , • e,

C IV-

<a^f^'*-'<r

U'l

-^Tf

•'WW'M"^

C" . - -3:

t.f*.,

.■.■:•

■'t

t,-^

'., j:.

1.,

■''1 ,

(

;■

Autv. .

':&

JjMMni '

■ '

1
i

";n ,

''■C .^'''

■■f?;i

!-#

■■,^!«^..

i
j

i
1

•

AllORIGINAL INHAIHTANTS.

379

soft skins over thcni for bids. Their tt-nts at Plover Ray were
plnctHl on tlu- pebbles near the beach. They burn moss st)ake(l
in uil, which is placed in an earthen dish with a ledj^e on lach
side, where a roll of moss serves for a wick. This, with a larj;er
one for cookinj; over, is used to lij^ht and warm thv, tents in
winter. To warm themselves they squat directly over the lamp,
ami cover themselves and it with a mantle of skin. Their fooil is
principally the llesh and blubber of tlic walrus, seal, ;.!id whale.
Tlicv eat much of ii raw, but usually stew the leaner parts.
They chop up the round-leafed sorrel and scurvy grass or water-
cresses, and make a kind of salad, which is allowed to ferment
before it is eaten. They also eat the berries of the heath (/:'w-
pciniiii nioriiiii), and obtain salmon trout from a lake near the
villa-c. Th latter, as well as the leopard seal, is caught in a
rawhide net. They use slings with great dexterity, and also
thrce-siilcd arrows and darts of walrus ivory. A harpoon of
slate with an ivory haft is used in the whale fisliery. They
have numerous but very diminutive dogs, which resemble those of
the American T-lskimo, but differ from the Kamshadale dogs.
These animals are freely eaten, as I saw myself, on several oc-
casions. Foxes and bears are rarely obtained and used as food.
Their drss is composed of seal and deer skins, the latter ob-
tained in trade from the Chukchces. They wear an inner shirt of
reindeer skin, with breeches and socks of the same ; outside of these,
a pcirka, made very loose, with wide sleeves, a flap under the chin
ami a square hood, without trimming, but capable of being drawn
up, like the mouth of a bag, around ih^; firee by a string inserted
in the edge. There is no wolf-skhi trimming, as in the pArkies
of the Innuit of Norton Sound. The skirt is sometimes trimmed
with beaver. These pdrkies, being made of the tame reindeer
skins, are often mottled with white and various delicate shades of
brown. Their outer breeches are made of sealskin with the hair
turned out. Their boots, if long, are made of the same material
and tied at the knee, or, if short, at the ankle. They are quite
water-proof. The short ones are sometimes prettily trimmed
with white deerskin, or embroidered with sinew colored red with
willow bark. The ])arka, or outer dress, including the boots, of
the women is made in one piece. They get into it at the back
by a hole, which is laced or tied up afterwards. The very loose,

■- il

i ■■ ■?

38o

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

baggy manner in whicli these pdrkies are made gives them a
very hidicrous appearance, especially when made with the hair
turned in. They also make fine strong kamlaykas of walrus
guts. These are worn in their kyaks or during bad weather.

The deerskii.s are obtained by barter from the Chukchees,
They are paid for with oil, walrus-skins, ivory, whalebone, and
ready-made boats. They are tanned with the inner bark of the
willow and alder, are as soft as a glove, and of a beautiful red-
brown. They bear wetting much better than the skins which are
prepared by the Innuit to the eastv.'ard.

Their winter houses are built on the most exposed spots, so that
the wind may drive away the snow.

Whale ribs are erected in a circle, while turf is piled up around
them for two or three feet, and the whole is covered with walrus-
hide. The latter is oiled until translucent, and no windows arc
required. These huts are divided by hanging skins, as before
described. Their kyaks are very small and light, and quite de-
void of ornament. Their oomiaks are of the ordinary descriiv
tion, but are provided with flaps, which are usually rolled up out-
side of the gunwale. In stormy weather these are crossed over
the boat and strongly laced, so that the cargo is kept dry. Two
or three sealskins are inflated, and attached to the gunwale as
floats, so that it is almost impossible for the boat to be swamped.
With these boats they make long voyages, frequently visiting St,
Lawrence Island. Here the frames of the boats are made from
wood which grows much larger on the island than any on the
Tuski coast. They told me that the frames were made according
to an invariable rule, and that the price of a frame was seven
deerskins. They are tied up with whalebone, are sometimes cov-
ered v»ith skin at the island and sometimes at Plover Bay. Tliey
arc very well proportioned, strong, and light. Their sewing is
done with whale and walrus sinew. Their whale line is made of
double-twisted walrus-hide. There does not appear to be any
notion that the oomiak is a " woman's boat' any more than a
man's boat, ac ])oth se.xes use oomiaks and kyaks without distinc-
iioPi. Their paddles are roughly made, and often very poor, as
wood is so scarce.

The Tiiski do not wear labrets. This distinguishing character-
istic was noticed by Deshneff and all subsequent voyagers. Both

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

381

^ives them a
with the hair
cas of walrus
weather.
e Chiikchees.
lalebone, and
r bark of the
beautiful red-
ins which arc

spots, so that

led up around
I with walrus-
) windows are
ins, as before
and quite de-
inary descri[>
rolled up out-
; crossed over
;pt dry. Two
le gunwale as
) be swamped,
tly visiting St
re made from
,n any on the
ade according
nie was seven
Dmetimes cov-
r Bay. They
leir sewing is
me is made of
;ar to be any
• more than a
ithout distinc-
i very poor, as

line: character-

yagers.

Both

sexes tattoo very extensively, not only on the face, but all over
the body. The blue color is derived from berries. The women
always have perpendicular lines on the chin, but this is omitted
by the men. The former braid their hair on each side, while the
men practise the tonsure, though not universally.

They are hospitable, good-humored, but not always trustworthy.
They will steal, and have sometimes attacked small vessels in the
Strait. On one occasion they attempted to take a small schooner,
commanded by a captain of my acquaintance. A bloody fight
ensued, in which the sailors were finally successful. An extreme
degree of endurance, ferocity, and contempt of pain was shown
by the Tuski, One of them was pinned to the mast with a har-
poon during the fight, but uttered no cry, and employed his last
breath in spitting in the face of his assailant. After this conflict
the Tuski came to the conclusion that the whites were hard to
kill, and no further attempts of the kind have been made of late
years.

Their complexion is light, like that of all Orarians. The
Chiikchee are rather darker. They are of moderate height, but
look short, from their baggy parkies. They have no chiefs, but
their most wealthy men have the greatest influence. They some-
times have as many as five wives, but one or two is the usual
number. They are not prolific. If a man's wife bears only
i;irls, he takes another until he obtains a boy, but no more.
Hoys stay at home and work, while the girls are married very
early and go away. There is no marriage ceremony, but the
parents exchange presents, and a feast is usually given by the
bride's father. During childbirth, delivery is expedited by press-
ure on the fundus. The woman is delivered on her hands and
knees. The custom of assisting in the delivery may be the cause
of the curiously misshapen heads which are common among
them. They are almost universally diseased from constant inter-
course with the whalers. I noticed several Kanaka words which
they u.sed while talking wih the whites, which were probably
from the same source.

They have no laws, but the .sentiment of the community is
opposed to serious crimes. Nokum, from whom I derived most
of my inform:,tion in regard to their customs, told me that a man,
who committed murder while drunk, was hunted by the whole

: i

t\^\

382

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

tribe ; when found, he was taken to the house of the murdered
man, and the flesh was cut off from his cheeks, breast, arms, and
thighs, and he was left to die in misery. No murder had since
occurred. Drunkards have been taken in canoes, while drunk,
and set ashore a long way from home, to find their way back as
best they might. Incorrigible thieves were sometimes banished
from the village.

Drunkenness is a common vice among them. They have an
uncontrollable passion for alcohol, which is plentifully supplied
lO them by whalers and traders, in exchange for oil, bone, ivory,
and suph furs as they may have obtained. There is also a large
trade in guns, ammunition, hardware, &c. They hate the Rus-
sians, and will not trade with them.

Their customs in regard to the treatment of the old and infirm
are, from a civilized point of view, exceedingly cruel and inhuman.
I should not venture to record the facts, had I not obtained
them directly from the natives, with partial confirmation from
my own observations and those of the traders.

Those who die a natural death are carried out through a hole
cut in the back of the hut ox yardiig. This is immediately closed
up, that the spirit of the dead man may not find his way back.
1 he bodies of good men are burned, or rather broiled, with oil,
moss, and driftwood. Women are not usually burned, on account
of the scarcity of wood. Bad men are simply exposed to rot.
An oval, about four feet long and two in diameter, is made of
large stones. The interior is filled with moss. Here the body is
laid and tied to poles which are passed under the stones. The
innumerable dogs of the village often consume the greater part of
the remains. They are aided by the crows, foxes, and bears.
The place where the bodies were exposed at the Plover liay
village was a level spot on the side of the rocky hill, above the
sandspit. This was abundantly strewn with bones. I counted
several dozen of the stone ovals referred to. On the top of the
hill, large fragments of rock were erected on end in circles. I
asked Nokum about them, and he said each stone represented a
dead man. lie said they did not bury the dead, because the
bears would certainly dig them up again.

When troubled with rheumatism, they sacrifice a dog to ap-
pease the evil spirits. Their religion, if it can be so called, re-

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

383

: murdered
, arms, and
■ had since
hile drunk,
•ay back as
;s banished

sy have an
ly suppHed
jone, ivory,
ilso a large
e the Rus-

and infirm
;] inhuman.
)t obtained
ation from

)ugh a hole

itely closed

; way back.

d, with oil,

on account

sed to rot.

s made of

the body is

3nes. The

Iter part of

and bears.

^lover Bay

above the

I counted

top of the

circles. I

resented a

jcause the

;log to ap-
called, re-

sembles that of the other Orarian tribes elsewhere referred to.
They believe in a future state, but not in a system of reward and
punishment. They also believe in many evil and some good but
feeble spirits. Good men are supposed to go up into the air,
and bad ones down into the earth. The custom of exposing the
dead is common to many Orarian tribes.

They have shamans who celebrate rites in honor of the dead.
One of these was there during our visit. The natives took a deer
and went up to the place of the dead. The shaman had longhair,
but dressed like U 3 other natives. He kindled a fire, and took the
fat from near the deer's heart, and put a small piece on each of
the upright stones before referred to. This ceremony was accom-
panied by a great deal of gesticulation, flourishing of knives,
oroaning, and mumbling by the shaman. He danced until he fell
from exhaustion, and then remained perfectly quiet for some time.
Meanwhile the others scorched the flesh of the deer and ate it.
He then rose and made a harangue to the spectators, and the
ceremony was over. According to Nokum's account, old, sick, and
useless persons are put to death. He said that vvhen an old per-
son was sick for more than seven days, the others nut a rope
around his neck, and dragged him by it, around the house over,
the stones, for half an hour or so. If this did not kill or cure, the
sick person was taken io the place of the dead before described.
Here the individual was stored or speared, and the body left for
the dogs to devour, the latter being themselves eaten by the natives.

.Sometimes a sledge, household utensil, or weapon is broken and
left by the side of the body. Occasionally a more decorous
method is adopted. Old and useless people frequently ask to be
put to death, and the ceremony is as follows.

The victim is taken to the place of the dead, and the oval of
stones is built as described. The cavity, which is only a few
inches deep, is filled with moss. A large headstone is placed at
one end, and another large stone at the foot ; under these two
poles are laid, with thongs attached. A deer is killed, and the
hlood allowed to flow on the headstone. The victim is then
placed on his back. The legs and arms, of course, extend over
the stone oval and are tied to the poles, so that motion is impos-
sible. He is then asked if he is ready for death. If the answer
is affirmative, his nostrils are stopped up with u substance (of

)*l

11, -1

I-

Bf '

ill

.11 •

384

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

which more hereafter) which stupefies him. The carotid is then
cut, the heart is pierced, or the large vein of the arm is opened,
and the victim allowed to bleed to death. Good men are killed
by their friends, and bad ones by women. If a good man, .small
sticks, moss, and grease are placed over, around, and under him,
and the body is thus burned, but is very rarely consumed. It is
to be feared that a negative answer to the question is not always
heeded, but if it shou'd be, the deer meat, which is otherwise
eaten, is burned as a kind of atoning sacrifice. All the bones of
the deer are carefully crushed.

On the 3d of September, 1866, we were informed by Nokum
that a ceremony of this kind was in progress, and we made all
possible speed to the spot to witness it, as j^reviously we had
hardly believed in the truth of the story. When we arrived
everything was ready. The women and children were cutting up
the deer meat, and the blood was on the headstone. The victim,
a blind but not decrepit old man, was sitting in apparent uncon-
cern by the headstone, and the others were squatting in a circle
around him. He was the father of a wealthy native, but had been
blind for five years. Th;.., with the death of his wife and younger
son, had made him rather childish. Nokum said that he was con-
stantly weeping for his child, and finally requested to be killed.
The natives were much disturbed at our approach, and, fearing
interference, refused to go on until our vessels had left. So we
were not able to witness the ceremony, which, indeed, we did not
regret. The truth of the statements made by Nokum hardly
need further confirmation. I saw on the hill the festering re-
mains of a lame native, for whom our carpenter had made a crutch
on our visit in 1865. It was said that he had been disposed of in
the same way. I saw the fragment of a lance still remaining in
the thorax. Vet some of the natives, who might have been afraid
of retribution from us, declared that he had been frozen to death
during the winter. The lance-head told another story.

The stupefying agent may perhaps be prepared from the wild
fiftx vo7iiica which grows to the westward. Nokum said that it
was obtained from the "deer men"; that it was soft and black.
If applied to a weak man's nostrils it would throw him into a
swoon instantly. Strong men were obliged to swallow a little,
which was followed by the same effects. A small portion was

rotid is then
m is opened,
en arc killed
d man, small
:i under him,
umcd. It is
is not always
is otherwise
the bones of

d by Nokum
we made all
ously we had
1 we arrived
:re cutting up
The victim,
)arcnt uncoil-
ing in a circle
but had been
; and younger
it he was con-
to be killed.
\, and, fearing
left. So we
, we did not
okum hardly
estering re-
adc a crutch
isposed of in
■emaining in
e been afraid
ozen to death
ry.

from the wild
said that it
ft and black.
V him into a
How a little,
portion was

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

385

often placed in a fresh deer liver, which was then left exposed to
the air for two months. It then became a very strong poison to
any animal or man when eaten. Bears were sometimes killed
with it, but their flesh was uneatable.

The Tiiski look upon this custom of killing infirm people,
rather as a species of philanthropy. " It saves them from pain
and us from the trouble of taking care of them," was the reason
assigned by Nokum, in rather more broken English.

These natives have also been called Sedaitary Clinkclurs, Na-
viollos, &c. Their tribal names are unknown, but a body of them
living on Chukluk Island, Seniavine Strait, called themselves
Chuklukmnt, according to one of the traders.

Tlic Aleutian Tribes. — The etymology of the word Aleut will be
found in the Glossary. The original name of these people, ac-
cording to Humboldt, was Kagatdya Kouiigiis or " People of the
East." They are evidently of American continental origin, and
at the time of their earliest discovery were engaged in active
hostilities with the Kaniagmuts of the continent.

Since the time of their f it intercourse with the Russians,
their character, habits, mode of life, and even their very name,
has been totally changed. Originally they were active, sprightly,
and fond of dances and festivals. They were of a less determined
character than their neighbors, the Kaniagmuts, but were by no
means devoid of courage. Their mode of worship partook more
of the character of a religion than that of any of the tribes
which have still remained unchanged. Ground into the very
dust by the oppression of ruthless invaders, their religious rites,
gay festivals, and determined character have all passed away.
A shade of melancholy is now one of their national character-
istics. Whatever of good is ingrained in their characters may be
in great part traced to the persevering efforts of one man. This
person was the Rev. Father Innocentius Venianii'noff of the
Irkutsk Seminary, since Bishop of Kamchatka. He alone of
the Greek missionaries to Alaska has left behind him an un-
dying record of devotion, self-sacrifice, and love, both to God and
man, combined with the true missionary fire. To him also we
owe the first detailed account of the modern Aleutian character
and mode of life. The number of Aleutians was originally
estimated at ten thousand, but at present there are not more
25

< '

is h

386

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

than fifteen hundred. Many writers have confounded the Ka-
niagmuts with them, but they are quite distinct.

The Aleutians, properly so called, are divided into two tribes,
the Atkans and Unakishkans. The former belong in the wt stern
part of the archipelago, and the latter were originally coniined to
the eastern portion. Arbitrary transportation of whole villages
from one point to another, of late has greatly tended, with the
constant admixture of Russian blood, to destroy or obliterate
these distinctions. The chief difference between the two dialects
consists in the method of forming the plural of nouns. The
Atkans form it by adding s or s/i, and the Unalashkans by adding
7i^. The diminutive words of the former end in kiitshak, those of
the latter in dak. Many of the words are more or less different
in the two dialects.

The construction of the Aleutian dialects is nearly the same as
that of the Kani.-igmuts, but the Aleutians count by the decimal
system up to ten thousand, while the latter can only compute two
hundred, using the number five as a basis. The words, almost
without exception, are quite different in the two groups.

The Aleuts are light and nearly .he same color as the Inniiit
of the northwest. Their features, pi^rhaps from the great admix-
ture of Russian blood, are more irtelligent and jileasing. The
hair is usually coarse and black. The mustache and beard are
always very sparse and of the same color as the hair. Their
stature is about the same as that of most civilized races ; if any-
thing, above the middle height. The habit of constantly sitting
in their bidarkas, which are very contracted, has given most of
them a stoop, and their legs are usually ill formed. The women
are shorter but better proportioned, and many of them are pleas-
ing in appearance.

The national dress of the Aleutians, when first observed, was a
long shirt or parka without a hood, but having a straight collar.
This dress had tight sleeves, but the body was long and loose.
They wore no breeches, and their boots came up to the knee.
The parka was made of the skins of fur animals, or of birds, siieh
as the puffin and the diver. Over this, when in his boat or in
bad weather, the Aleut wore a kamlayka with a hood which
covered the head. These kamldykas, or water-proof shirt.s, are
most beautifully embroidered, fringed with feathers, among which

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

387

ided the Ka-

ma)' be noted especially those white feathers which appear on
the cormorant durinjj; the breeding season. The shirt is made of
tlie entrails of the sea- lion, as elsewhere me.ntioned. On his head
the Aleut wore a peculiar hat made of a very thin piece of wood,
bent and painted as in the following sketch. This hat was either
painted, or ornamented with thin sheets or strips of bone curiously
carved. A small bird, or other carving, usually adorned the apex.
At the back a fringe stood out, composed of the stiff bristles or
whiskers of the sea-lion {Eunictopias). In front the brim was pro-
longed, so as to shield the eyes from the glare of the water and
the sun.

The clothing of birdskins was peculiar to the men, that of furs,
to the women. Their houses were dug in the earth, lined with
upright poles of driftwood, and roofed with planks covered with
turf. They entered through holes in the top by means of ladders.
The smaller dwellings had two or three, and the larger from five
to six, entrances of the kind. Several hundred persons would
occupy one of these houses. They were divided by partitions of
stakes, each space being appropriated by a family. No fires

Aleutian hat.

were made in these yoiirts, and they were lighted by oil lamps
made of hollowed stones. They were generally so warm that the
inhabitants sat nearly naked in them. They slept under grass
mats, and their {larkas. " When they wished to warm themselves
in cold weather," say the old voyagers, " they made a fire of dry
i,Tass and stood over it" ! The men practised the tonsure, while
ihe women cut their front hair off in a line parallel with the eye-
brows, and tied the rest in a knot on the top of the head. Tat-
tooing was practised ; the men made three holes in the under lip
and one in the cartilage of the nose. Both sexes wore a short
bone cylinder in the nose, placed so as to distend the nostrils. In
the middle incision below the mouth they wore a rounded or flat

t 1

.4'\

388

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

UijH^l

piece of bone or stone. In those at the corners of the mouth
they wore a peculiar labret. These labrcts were exactly the shape
of the article which a sailor calls a "cleat," somewhat like a letter
T very much depressed and elongated at the sides.

Some of the men wore their beards, others pulled them out bv
the roots. They also pierced the ears and wore bone ornaments
in them.

The most respected and influential were those who were most
successful in the chase. The great ambition of the Aleut was tn
be a great hunter. Those who were unsuccessful were looked
upon with more or less contempt. The number of wives was not
limited, except that the best hunters had the greatest number.!
This seldom exceeded four. These women were at the clis- 1
posal of visitors or travellers, guests of the husband, and were
sometimes bartered away for anything which was greatly desired
There was no marriage ceremony. The women made their
needles of the bones of birds' wings. The weapons of the men I
were bows and arrows, lances and darts, which they threw skil-
fully to a great distance, by means of a hand-board. Both dart-
and arrows were feathered ; the shafts were often of several picct-
of wood, neatly joined. They were tipped with slate or flint, some-
times with bone, and afterward with iron, which they obtained
from the Russians. No metal except native copper was foiiiKl I
among them. They also usjd stone hatchets and chisels, and
made a kind of shield of wood and sea-weed, which they used in
war. They caught cod and halibut with bone hooks and scalskir.
or sea-weed lines. They were improvident, and often suffered
severely from hunger. Their food consisted of the flesh of the
sea-otter and fur seal, the blubber of the whale and sea-lioa
fish, wild parsnips, frittilaria, berries, snake-root, shellfish, and
some kinds of fucus or sea-weed. These were generally eaten |
raw, or sometimes were cooked over a fire, between two hollowed
stones cemented with clay.

They were not uncleanly in their habits, though their idea^j
of modesty were very different from ours. Both sexes bathtdf
together frequently in the sea. Young children were usually ted
with raw meat. If an infant cried, even in winter, it was carrieJl
to the seashore and held naked in the water until it bccaniej
quiet. This made them hardy and insensible to cold, and theyl

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

389

of tiic mouth
:tly the shapf
it like a Ictli :

, them out 1)}
inc ornaments

ho were most
; Aleut was to
1 were looked
wives was no!
latest number,
e at the di-
and, and were
jreatly desired
;n made tlieii
ns of the me:
hey threw skil
d. Both dari-
f several pieces

or flint, some-

they obtained
iper was found
id chisels, and
;h they used in
ks and scalski:.

often suffered
he flesh of tk
and sea-lion,
shellfish, and

generally eaten
n two hollowed

vh their idea^
sexes bathed

ere usually fe^'J
it was carried

intil it bccaniel
cold, and they

went barefoot throughout the winter without inconvenience.
Tiicy were fond of dances and festivals, which were kept up
through the month of December. Whole villages were cnter-
taiiHxl by other villages. Successive dances of children, naked
men beating drums, and women who were curiously attired, were
usually followed by the incantations of the shamans. This was
foHowed by feasting, and then the ceremony was over.

If a whale was cast on shore, the natives assembled with joyous
and remarkable ceremonies. They advanced and beat drums of
different sizes. The carcass was then cut up, and a feast was held
on the spot. The dances had a mystic significance. Some of
the men were dressed in their most showy attire, and others
danced naked in large wooden masks which came down to their
shoulders, and represented various sea animals.

They had religious dances and festivals in December. During
these, images or idols were carried from island to island, and
strange ceremonies, of which we have only dim traditions, were
performed in the night. Some of these apparently resembled the
Eleusinian mysteries. Hundreds of women, wearing masks, are
said to have danced naked in the moonlight, men being rigidly
exchidod and punished, even with death, on intrusion. The
men had similar dances. An idea prevailed, that, while these
mystic rites were going on, a Spirit or Power descended into the
wooden idol. To look at him was death or misfortune ; hence
they wore large masks carved from drift-
wood, with holes so cut that they could not
see anything before or above them, but only
on the ground near their feet. After the
dances were over, idols and masks alike were
broken up and cast away. A further illus-
tration of the same idea was shown in the cus-
tom of placing a similar mask over the face of
a dead man. These masks were held by a
erossbar between the teeth and a loop passing
round the head. The above sketch is taken
trom one which was found in a cave on Una-
liishka. It is, without doubt, eighty years old, for since the ad-
vent of the Russian priests these relics have been destroyed by
them wherever found. They also destroyed all records of the
ancient rites as far as possible.

Aleutian mask.

* ■ !

390

ABORIGINAL INHAIilTAxVTS.

The method of burial among the Aleuts was as follows
Poor persons were wrapped in their clothes or in mats, and laid
in clefts of the rock, with a mask over the face. The bodies
of the wealthy were placed, with their clothing and arms, in a sort
of boat or cradle made of driftwood. The cradle, or coffin, was
sluny to a horizontal pole, which was supported by two uprights,
and it was left hanging in the open air. Much grief and long-
continued lamentations occurred after a death. It is even re-
! ted that mothers sometimes placed the bodies of their dead
infants in a carefully carved box. This was sometimes kept near
them in the yourt, and the mother would watch it with the
greatest tenderness, wiping away the mould and adorning it with
such ornaments as she could procure.

Fire was obtained by striking together two flints, which had
been rubbed with sulphur, over lint strewn with the same sub-
stance in powder. It was obtained from the various volcanic
peaks. They were very fond of amber, which is found in the
lignite beds, and used colored earth for pigments.

These customs are now almost entirely passed away. The
Aleut usually dresses in clothing obtained from the Russians,
and they no longer use their underground houses. In sonic
places they have cultivated potatoes since the beginning of the
century, but their food continues to be in great part composed of
the flesh of sea animals. All speak some Russian, and many of
them can converse fluently in that language. They are all
nominally Greek Catholics, but there is very little knowledge of
the true principles of Christianity among them. Veniami'nofi"
established schools among them, but his successors have not been
so faithful, and of late years the schools have been much if not
entirely neglected. Hence, while most of the adults can read the
ecclesiastical characters used in the books of the church, the
children are ignorant of them. While farther advanced than any
other native American tribes, they are far from civilized, except in
dress, and require careful guardianship and improved methods of
education to preserve them from the rapacity of the traders. They
are greatly addicted to the use of snuff and of liquor, when ihey
can obtain it. For the latter, they would sell themselves as
slaves, or dispose of all their property. While somewhat dull or
stupid, they are excessively obstinate, and exhibit little emotion

i_-._

AliORlGINAL INHABITANTS.

391

/as as follow?
mats, and laid
z. The bodies
arms, in a sort
, or coffin, was
y two uprights,
grief and long-
It is even re-
i of their dead
imes kept near
:h it with the
doming it with

nts, which had
the same sub-

arious volcanic

; found in the

d away. The
the Russians,

ses. In sorr^e

gmning of the

t composed ol

, and many of

They are all

: knowledge ol

Vcniaminoft'

have not been

n much if not

ts can read the

le church, the

need than any

ized, excejit in

ed methods ot

traders. They

lor, when ihcy

themselves as

iiewhat dull or

little emotion

of any kind. They are very obedient and sensitive, and would
r.ather commit suicide than receive a blow. Crime is almost un-
known among them, but there is a strong sensual element in ^
their characters. Their ijrineipal occupation, beside obtaining /
food, is hunting the sea-otter and k lling the fur-seal. The
former is found at some dist ncc from land, and is hunted by
large parties in their bidarkas. They follow the animal with
these boats, striking it with lances until, wearied out, it becomes
an easy prey. The following account of the character of the
modern Aleutians is condensed from Veniaminoffs description.
It is marked by a partiality which he openly confesses, and which
is mainly due to his own goodness of heart and love for the peo-
ple whom he had labored so long to instruct and elevate above
their previous melancholy state of degradation and ignorance.

The reality of their devotion to a religion which they do not
comprehend may, however, well be doubted, and is distinctly de-
nied by Golovin and other Russian authorities. Much must be
allowed for the religious enthusiasm of the writer.

"The Aleutians arc remarkably uniform in character ; those who ex-
hihit any striking differences, on inspection, invariably prove to i)e of
mixed blood. If we consider that all the Aleutians togetlier do not
number over fifteen hundred souls, and that they are widely scattered
on distant islands, often not seeing their neighbors in a lifetime, this
uniformity is the more remarkable.

"It is to be noticed among even these half-breeds, that the character
of the mother is ever the stronger, almost always effacing the traces of
the foreign father's blood among the Creoles. Their most conspicuous
point is their piety and their attachment to their religion. Their original
Pantheism has entirely disappeared even ; their songs and dances are now
quite dit'ferent from those described by the early \oyagers. The idolatrous
custom of dancing with masks on, in their secret rites, has passed away.

"The Aleutians fulfil all (church) duties imposed on them with pleas-
ure, punctuality, devout humility, and the fear of (Jod. During my ten
years' stay among them I never met one who was an exception. I do not
mention fiisting, for they are accustomed to fasting from childhood, and
their attention during service is untiinching, though tliey </(> not iiiufer-
staiid a 7C'ori/ o{ the whole rite. But nothing has touched me more than
their zeal, I might say their hunger, to hear the word of God.

" It may be said that the Aleutians became Christians through timid-
ity and credulity, and because converts were exempted from three years'

Iff i

'■'■>t:

.192

AIJOKIGINAL INHAHITANTS.

tribute ; ihniigh this might have prevailed on them to become converts,
it would not have made them sucii faithful and zealous followers of all
the precepts of the church. It must also be said that tlie new relij^ion
must have seemed rij^id and harsh, limiting them in their dissipations,
and prohibiting polygamy. Ik-sides, their neighbors, the Kaniagmuts, had
also a religious belief, and still retain it, giving it up only with reluctance.

''It is the custom of the Aleutians for the successful hunter or lishcr,
particularly in times of scarcity, to share his prize with all, not only
taking no larger share, but often less than the others ; and if he has for-
gotten any one at the distribution, or any one arrives too late, he shares
the remainder with him. All those in need of assistance hasten to meet
the returning hunter at the landing, and sit down silently by the shore.
This is a sign that they ask for aid ; only the infnm or orphans send
jiersons to represent them, and the hunter divides his prize without e\
pecting thanks or restitution. He rarely receives other thanks th.an the
expressive 'ach' of the recipient. Ifanyoftho.se on shore obtain berries
or roots (which are never divided), such persons do not go to the land
ing. that they may not be counted among the needy. 'I'his generosity
evidently comes from the heart.

" During my ten years' stay in Unalashka not a single case of murder
has bajjpened among the Aleutians. Not an attempt to kill, no fight,
nor even a considerable dispute, although I often saw them drunk.

" It is a remarkable thing, almost unparalleled, that among fifteen hun-
dred people (the minimum) in forty years (equal to si.Kty thousand in
one j'ear) there has not occurred a single capital crime ! This is the
case with the Aleutians since the introduction of Christianity.

" If any one is injured or offended he never uses force to defend him-
self, and rarely complains, but leaves the offender in silence. His only
revenge is to fi.x on his persecutor some apt nickname, but he never will
reproach him. I-'ven when the children get into dispute among them-
selves (a rare occurrence) they do not fight or scold each other, but re-
j)roach each other with the shortcomings of their parents.

"One reason may be, that they have no oaths or seriously opprobrious
epithets in the language. Nothing oftends an Aleut so much as an un-
deserved epithet, especially when in Russian. It is regarded as an
extreme disgrace. The .\leuts show no tendency to theft. This is
proved by the total absence of locks of all kinds ; everything with them
stands open. It must not be saiil that they never steal, almost everyone
confesses to it, but their stealing is so trivial that it hardly deserves the
name. An Aleut might take a few leaves of tobacco, he would prob-
ably also take brandy if he could get it, rarest of all he takes food, but
never any other object, be it ever so tempting.

AHORir.INAL INHAniTANTS.

393

" I l)jlieve the honesty of the Aleut is owinp; to the fact that he is '\
ahvays contented, no mutter what his position may jje. -^

"The most ohvions trait in tiie Aleut is his patience, — a patience bor-
(k'linf; on insensibility. Hardly any oppression or hardship will move
liiin to complain. In Aimine it is nothing to him to be without food for
three or four days. Kven then he manifests neither by word nor sign
that he suffers. When interrogated, no word crosses his lips, at the
utmost he smiles! If the famine continue, he thinks more of his small {
children than himself; everytiiing he can find is for them. Kven the I
children show at such times a most modest patience. One would
think that an Aleut, after several days' fasting, would fall upon food witli
the greatest greediness. On the contrary, after having finished what he
has to do, he puts the first morsel into his mouth, as one who, after a
comfortable breakfast, sits <lown quietly to his dinner.

" When sick, even the most vehement pain does not produce a coni-
plniiil. Sometimes when hunting he will himself be caught in some
hidden trap. In such a case the barbs can never be withdrawn. The
stick to which they are attached must be removed, and the barb pushed
////w/i,'// the tlcsh. To this he submits without a murmur, or even, if
alone, performs the operation himself without Hinching. Such wounds
generally heal readily under a treatment of perfect quietness and absti-
nence from food lor several days, which is tiieir invariable remedy.

"On long journeys afoot, or on the sea, the Aleut is slow and de-
liberate, but, on the other hand, he keeps in motion all day, or even
till he sinks from fatigue. In some cases they will travel from seven-
teen to nineteen hours, or even over Uventy-four hours by sea, without
rest. Before they start on such a journey they eat nothing in the morn-
ing ; as they say, that they may not be thirsty or short-wintled. h'or-
mcrly the Aleutians, like the Koloshes, were in the habit of bathing
their cliildren in the sea, to inure them to exposure, even in winter ; but
since 1795 this custom has gradually disappeared.

" The .\leut is very susceptible to joy and sorrow, though he accepts
the former with great equanimity, wliiie he bears the latter with patience.
He is never known to sigh or groan or shed tears. The latter, even
among the women, is almost unheard of.

'■ He never will show inuuoderate joy ; no surprise or sudden fortune
can move him to it. A certain feeling of comfort, it is true, appears on
his face, but he remains quiet, moderate, and grave.

"But are they then quite insensible and incapable of emotion? Cer-
tainly not, the opposite is shown, by their tender l^ve for their children,
and the fact that a look of contempt can offend in the highest degree.

1 I

' i

394

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

"They nre quite as indifferent in regard to gain as in other desires.
Contented with very little, they desire only such things as are useful,
and beyond that hey care not to accumulate.

"Their mannci of conducting a commercial transaction deserves
notice. The Aleuts never transact business with each other person-
ally, but always through a third person, wlio is called 'faydnak, and is
generally a young person. Whoever wishes to sell anything sends it
by this agent into another house (yourf), particularly if strangers are
present.

" The agent, in coming into the house, says, ' Here is the tayak '
(salable objuctj, without mentioning the owner. 'l"hc buyer looks at
the object, asks what is wanted m return, keeps the article, and sends as
much as he likes of the article required in return. The agent takes this
to the seller, and if he is satisfied the bargain is concluded ; if not, he
projjoses a new exchange, or an additional quantity of tobacco or other
•ware, to boot. If the buyer does not agree he returns the article, and
some one else makes an offer. They never bid over one another, and,
however long the barter may last, the buyer and seller never know each
other's names.

"This custom of buying and selling among the Aleuts is of great : go,
and has been preserved without change. The women never trade,
either among themselves or with the men.

"The unselfishness of the Aleut is proved by his conduct in the
chase ; for instance, otter-hunting. It is almost an impossibility for one
hunter, or even one boat-load, to kill an otter, unless by a lucky chance
the animal is hit exactly in the eye ; for which reason the association of
several bopts {bidarri) is absolutely necessary. The animal, according
to an old custom, belongs to the hunter who first hit it ; or, if several at
the first shot ma\- have wounded it, it belongs to the one \>hose niissih;
struck nearest the head.

" The otter is found at sea, at some distance from land. A num-
ber of bidarras — six at least, and generally more, sometimes fifty-
form a large circle, remaining perfectly cjuiet, often out of sight of land
or enveloped in fog. The otter rises, perhaps is struck, dives, and
all are expectation to discern him on his reappearance. One otter often
rises many times before he is killed. After he is once struck, however,
the others gain nothing by his death ; only the hunter who first wounded
him can claim the skin. The others get nothing unless they need and
ask for a little of the flesh, which is exceedingly tough, strong-flavored,
and almost uneatable. The Aleut takes great pleasure in hunting, and
is perfectly satisfied if he can kill a wounded animal, though he can

\i'

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

395

her desires,
are useful,

n deserves
her person-
'luxk, and is
nsi sends it
trangers arc

the taydk '
ycr looks at
md sends as
nl takes this
I ; if not, he
icco or other
i article, and
inother, and,
•r know eacli

of great : ge,
never trade,

uluct in the
b'.lity for one
lucky chance
ssociation of
al, according
, if several at
those niissile

nd. A num-

jtimes fifty —

sight of land

i, dives, and

nc otter often

utk, however,

irst wounded

hey need ami

onc-tlavored,

hunting, and

iough he can

claim no share in it. It often happens that an Aleut who has killed
several otters gives one or two to some sick or poor person, or to some
one v.ho has killed nothing, asking no return for it.

" No one is esteemed among them because of his wealth, only as a
more daring, skilful, and courageous hunter. Any one who does not
possess these qualifications, be he ever so wealthy, is mocked by his
companions.

" The Aleut is extremely tenacious of purpose, even to obstinacy.
If he decides to do anything, physical impossibility only can deter him;
ne reckons not loss of health, nor the fact that he will gain nothing by
it ; neither flatteries, promises, nor expectation of reward y''. move him.
Absolute orders from a superior, it is true, will be heeded, but slowly
and with the greatest reluctance imaginable. The Aleut is very cau-
tious in binding himself in any way. He does not flatter nor make
empty jjromises, even in order to escape reproof But if he has once
promised a thing, one can count with certainty upon it. He promises
and gives away without expectation of reward, 'f he makes a wealthy
person a presc it, he never expects a return. If he receives a gift, he
accepts it, saying, ^ Ak/i !' which means thanks. He is satisfied if he
receive nothing, especially if he is thanked ; but he never asks for any-
thing in return. If he promises anything, he regards it as no longer
his property, and he does not make use of it, even in oases of great
necessity.

"Visiting the island of Umnak, an Aleut, by the name of Taraxanoff,
gave me a pair of dried flounders. Although there was no want of
provisions, I accepted them ; for to refuse a gift, al)ove all, .1 small one,
is an offence; he would consider himself despised, or, as h(; says, 'not
loved.' As there was .tjundance oi' provision, my oarsmen forgot the
fish ; but, after we had gone, Taraxiinoff found and kept them, in order
to return them when we met again. Up to January there was no oppor-
tunity. In the mean time he and the whole settlement were starving in
November and December, so that the whole village was supported by a
single bidarra leader. Notwithstanding my Aleut had to support a
numerous family, he did not touch the fish, and in January conscien-
tiously sent them to me. Such cases are not rare among the Aleuts,
they ilo not consider them anything remarkable.

" Although they express no great gratitude for favors, and are chary
iif expressions of thanks, they do not forget kindness, and endeavor to
express their thankfulness by deeds. If any one assists an Aleut, and
alfCrwards offends him, he does not forget the former favor, and in his
mind it often cancels the offence.

,;i.i*

396

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

??-'-

±.1.

" With all their caprice the Aleuts are very tractable, obeying their
superiors blindly, though certain death awaits them.

" The following instance affords proof of the above statement : —

" In 1795 the captain of a bidarra, named Vasaroff, a Russian, had
been on Amak Island, nenr False Pass, hunting sea-lions with some
Aleuts. After finishing his ousiness he wished to cross to the niaiih
land, when the old Aleuts told him that be might put to sea, but that the
surf would not allow him to land in Aliaska. He did not mind their
warning, either because he was in haste or because he did not believe
them, but resolved to put to sea, and allowed only the free Aleuts to
remain behind with their boats.

" Those who were in the C'ompany's service took leave of their coun-
trymen like men who never expect to see one another again ; and they
made some disposition regarding their property, until Vasaroff, annoyed
by the crying of the women in tiie v. ther boats, called out that they were
cowardly, superstitious, and stupid. What followed bore out the fears of
the Aleuts. The bidarra, at the distance of three quarters of a mile
from the very flat coast, was swamped by the surf, and all on board
drowned.

" These people detest lying, and never spread false rumors, although
they are credulous and fond of repeating stories which have been told
them, but without adding to thcin. They are very much offended if any
one doubts their word.

" They are also very averse to speaking of things which should bo
kept secret, or vvhich they consider should not be told. For this reason
it is impossible to ascertain anything at present about their former re-
ligious customs.

"On the other hand, they are very fond of relating events to each
ether which strike them as ludicrous.

" They never boast of their exploits, and despise hypocrisy in every
lespect.

" The Aleut knows nothing of what civilized nations call modesty.
He has his own ideas of what is modest and proper, and adheres to
them ; while we should consider thrm foolish. He is bashful if caught
doing anything unusual among his people, or when he fails to kill an
animal under favorable circumstances. He is ashamed to step into the
centre of a large circle and dance, even if he is an adept at it. He
does not like to address his wife in the presence of strangers, nor to ask
her for anything, even if he needs it badly. He is bashful if he muM
buy or sell anything for himself, or when praised in the presence of a
person whose opinion has any value for him. Uut he does not blush

ABORIGINAL INHABITANiS.

397

jeying their

ent : —
Russian, had

with some
:j the main-
but that the

mind their

not beheve
ie Aleuts to

" their coun- '>
n ; and they
oft* annoyed
at tliey were
the fears of
rs of a mile
dl on board

)rs, although
,'6 been told
"ended if any

1 should be
r this reason
ir former re-
mits to each
risy in every

all modesty,
adheres to
ful if caught
s to kill an
step into the
: at it. Hi
i, nor to ask
1 if he mu>i
esence of a
s not blush

when bathing among strangers, as is the universal custom, even among
women, nor at appearing without clothing among people. 'I'he women
are ashamed if they cannot sew or dance ; they blush to caress their
husbands, or even to address them before strangers ; but they bare the
breast for their children without hesitation, and bathe with all the
inhabitants of the village.

"The Aleuts are not inhospital)le, but they practise hospitality in their
own way. They meet every stranger at the landing-place, though rarely
saluting them by word or sign, except where they have learned the cus-
tom, daily becoming more universal, from the Russians. If the stranger
lias a relative or intimate friend he goes to him ; it" not, no one will
invite him, but all are ready to receive him ; he can choose his quar-
ters himself. Then he is entertained in the best manner ; the woman
of the house takes care of his clothing, mends his kamlayka or whatever
stands in need of repair ; but she is not obliged to receive him, as was
formerly customary. Tiiey never think of asking their guest for any-
thing, let him stay as long as he may ; they evti-? provide him with food of
every kind when he departs. Those who have come in contact with the
Russ". have become used to invite each other on festive occasions, —
birth( ^ . ud the like. At such times everythmg is put upon the table
that can be had. Stores collected with the greatest trouble and fatigi :
disappear in an evening, and even if the host has not a mouthful for the
morrow he esteems himself fortunate to have had so many visitors.
ParentP.l ami fdial '"'"';rtion are strong traits of this people.

"The children are often well fed and satisfied, while the patents almost
perish with hunger, 'he daintiest morsel, the best dress, is always kept
for them. A child has i jvcr been known to injure its parent. On the
contrary tney often give up the most advantageous positions, that they
may see them again, or take care of them, in old age.

"Two of the mo.st intelligent Aleuts, who had been taken to St.
Petersburg, who were beloved by their superiors and comrades, and
making much money by exhibiting theii- skin boats on the Neva, left
everything, that they might see their aged mother apin, and take care
of her in her old age. One of diem, i'ors nikoff, wiio had become
much attached to Russia, has lived with her since 1820. and tries to
insure her every possil)le comfort, in the nwst tender mr.nner. He is
now (1834) fifty years old, and with his wife bears with exemplary patience
all the discomfort caused by an old, sick, blind woman. Such instances
are not rare. I only mention this because his tender, tiuly jiious care
of iiis mother has otten moved me to tears.

" The Aleut is emphatically undemonstrative, no politeness must be

i i'.

Ilil :l i

398

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

•1

looked for from him ; a bright look> zeal in performing a service, and a
peculiar intonation of his 'akh,' alone show his attaciiment to a person.

" They are slight talkers, even keeping silent for a whole day, or oven
longer, particularly if dissatisfied in any way. Still, in the long even-
ings they recount their hunting adventures of the day, often not leavins;
even the slightest item untold. In transacting important business they
use few words ; tiie toyon or elder explains the matter to them, a short
yes, or no, and the matter is settled.

" They are naturally timid, punishment of any kind being unknown
among them. Their former mode of war showed that there was very
little ' fight ' in tlieir composition, being a secret conspiracy, carried
out through an ambush or sudden surprise, which, if not successful, was
followed by a speedy retreat.

"They never dispute, not even when convinced tliey are right; it
doubt be expressed they are silent, or answer only, ' I do not know ; you
are certainly better informed.'

"They are credulous in regard to things which they do not under-
stand, but they are apt to read a braggart better than he can tell ; al-
though they never express disbelief to his face, yet they make meny
over him in his absence. Naturally inclined to be just, the Aleut feels
deeply an undeserved injury, and 1 am inclined to agree witli some trav-
ellers who say the Aleuts were a very revengeful people. The wars
raging before the advent of the Russians, and the frequent attacks to
which the latter were subject, show this to be true. Now it is quite
different; since the introduction of Christianity no instance of revenge
has been known. The only satisfaction they allow themselves is an
absolute silence toward the offender, till that person has repaired the
wrong.

" The Aleuts are ver>' dirty, tiiough they wash daily, and are fond of
bathing. Dirt is piled up close to the yourt ; they prepare their food
very carelessly ; the household utensils are never washed. The children
are usually dirty, with unkempt hair, and the women are very disorderly,
dirty, and careless. Their poverty, it is true, does not admit of much
cleanliness. A man who has only one parka, which he uses at once for
clothing, bed, and blanket, cannot keep always clean. He who h;is
eaten sour, fermented ftjod from his childhood, with tlie disgusting smell
of which he is perfectly familiar, cannot hate dirt. I believe that their
olfactory organs must become quite obtuse. Many Aleuts, however,
particularly those who have been much in contact with the Russians^,
form praiseworthy exceptions, and have improved their dwellings so tliat
strangers may enter without disgust.

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

399

•vice, and a

a person.
lay, or even

long even-
not leavinsT
isinoss they
lem, a short

ig unknown
re was very
acy, carried
cessful, was

re right ; ii
know ; you

not under-
;an tell ; al-
nake nieny

Aleut feels

1 some trav-
The wars

t attacks to

it is quite

of revenge

elves is an

epaired the

are fond of
r their food
he children
disorderly,
lit of niucii
at once for
e who has
isting smell
e that their
s, however,
Russians,
inirs .so that

" They are bad housekeepers, lavish when food is plenty, and in
consequence starving in spring. Some have commenced gardens, but
this also they follow negligently. February, in their language, is the
'hunger month.' Their improvidence is partly owing to their chief
dependence being (he sea, which always ofters them something, or the
tundras, which furnish them with roots. If both fail them, there remain
only patience and resignation.

" Yet there are some exceptions, and particularly one settlement in
Aliaska, called Pauiosk. They use their provisions with a praiseworthy
economy, and hence seldom suffer from want. They were the first to
learn from the Katliak missi<jnaries the cultivation of the potato, which
they have carried on so well since the commencement of this century that
they plant annually, and have always saved the seed. They have more
leisure to themselves than most Aleuts, as there are nj Russians in the
settlement.

"They are universally reproached with la/.ines.s. It has been even
said that an Aleut will lie and suffer from thirst for hours, unless some
one sends him after water. I do not doubt the truth of it in some cases.

"It must be remembered that their indolence depends on circum-
stances, and that they are as active and busy when the hunting season
conies, or they are at work carving, as they are indolent at other times.
Their indolence while working for the Company is as great as their
activity when working for themselves ; so that under ditferent circum-
stances they appear like different individuals. Tho.se who have lived
among the Russians are great drunkards, and they are all passionately
addicted to the use of tobacco.

" They incline to sensuality. Before the teachings of the Christian
religion had enlightened them, this inclination had full sway. T'he
nearest consanguinity only, put limits to their passions. Although po-
lygamy was general, nevertheless, there were frequent secret orgies, in
which all joined. The strange guest shared all marital rights with his
host, 'i'he bad example and worse teachings of the early Russian
settlers increased their tendency to licentiousness. The introduction
of Christianity abolished many of these customs (some of which had
a religious significance) with polygamy ; but still ■secret orgies were held,
and the births were very much fewer than they should have been up to
1.SJ5-1827. Child-murder is very rare, tije belief still being that it
brings misfortune on the whole village, ami that the murdered babe is
heard crying every night.

" However, I am able to declare that the tendency to dissipation de-
creases day by day, the number of births has almost doubled, notwitb-

400

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

fk. it

[!}!>■

MJ)|

standing there are only one fourth as many illegitimixte ones as formerly;
and I believe that dissipation in future, if not entirely eradicated, will
be confined within very narrow bounds.

" It is to be regretted that those who have most imitated the Russian
custon^is have always become, gradually, the most worthless and in-
dolent, apparently losing their native virtues and acquiring foreign
vices, while the dark side of their character grows rapidly darker. It
may be said, however, as i consolation to the well-wishers of the Aleuts,
that these individuals are very rare, and confined to the chief settlement.
In such cases their patience and fnmncss degenerate into stubbornness
and obstinacy. If, in addition, they liad the means of readily obtain-
ing strong liquors, they might easily become insufferable, or even dan-
gerous.

" The Aleuts learn readily, ahnost without teaching, not only mechan-
ical things, but those which require thought, such as ];laying chess.
There are found among them very good joiners, carpenters, coopers,
locksmiths, blacksmiths, and sailors.

"A certain Ustiakoff was considered an excellent navigator. His
charts of several districts, including Nushergak, are considered ])retty
correct to this day (1834).

" Many Aleuts, particularly those of the Prfbyloff Islands, are excel-
lent chess-players.

" The adults are eager to learn to read, but only for the purpose of
reading the ecclesiastical books of the (ireek Church, although they
understand hardly anything of their contents.

" It is to be regretted very much that their talent for drawing and
painting has never been promoted. I am convinced that they would
become artists above mediocrity. They are very skilful workers in
ivory (walrus-tusks) without instruction. I saw in the possession of
Baron Wrangell a number of characteristic representations of anima's.
They are very fond of cutting caricatures of the Russians, and off en
make an excellent likeness of the person intended, though
very grotesque. This shows that they havi vivid imagi-
nations and faithu;! memories."

The talent for carving above alluded to, is ex-
emplified by the accompanyini; sketch of an image,
or caricature, of one of the sailors of Wilkes's Ex-
pedition. The sailor's shoes, pea-jacket, and mode
of wearing the hair, are accurately represented, and
the general effect is very comical, as was doubtless
Aleut carving, intended by the artist.

as formerly ;
xdicaled, will

the Russian
iless and in
tiring foreign
y darker. It
of the Aleuts.
ef settlement,
stubbornness
eadily obtain-
or even dan-
only mechan-
playing chess,
nters, coopers,

avigator. His
isidered pretty

ds, are excel-

the purpose ot
although they

f I.

hawing and
.at they would
tul workers in
: possession of
3ns of anima"s.
ans, and oficn

nded, though
vivid imagi-

ed to, is ex-

cf an image,

Wilkes's Kx-

:et, and mode

)resented, and

was doubtless

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

401

The Innuit Tribes. — The Innuit of Alaska extend everywhere
along the coast, from Mount St. Elias northward to Point Barrow,
and eastward to the Mackenzie.

The Ugahihmuts. — Beginninj,^ at the southward, this is the
first Innuit tribe on the west coast of America. Their hunting-
grounds extend from Icy Bay nearly to the mouth of the Atna or
Copper River. We only know of their existence and mode of life
by a vocabulary obtained by Mr. Gibbs from the Russian traders,
and by the statements of the latter, that they form a body of
some two hundred families, who chiefly live by fishing. Between
tliem and the next tribe the Indians of the Copper River have
forced their way, and hold a small portion of the coast.

'Tlie CJiHgnchignutts. — These Innuit occupy the shores and
islands of Chugach Gulf, and the southwest coasts of the penin-
sula of Kendi. They are few in nimibcr, compared with the
large extent of territory which they occupy, but are described as
active and warlike. They have on several occasions successfully
(kfiL'd the Russian traders, and have never been obliged to
render personal service or tribute. The gap between them and
the following tribe, comprising the north shore of Kcnai and the
opposite coast of Cook's Inlet, is occupied by Indians.

TIic Kauidgmiits. — This, the largest and most powerful tribe
of Innuit on the Alaskan coast, occupies the island of Kadi.Jw
(formerly Kanidg) and the greater part of the peninsula of
Aliaska, from Iliamna Lake to the 159th degree of west longi-
tude. They were confounded with the Aleuts by the early voy-
agers, and called by the same name. They were a much more
energetic and indomitable race, meeting force with force, and re-
fusing to give up their ancient customs at the behest of Russian
priests. Although time and constant intercourse with the Rus-
sians far more than a century have changed them, still the change
is much less than that which has taken place among the Aleuts.
Lisianskw who visited them in 1805, has given a full account of
^ their iormer manners and customs, and irom it I have obtained
■ much of the following information.

The Kanidgmuts are of middle stature, and a complexion
more reddish than that cf the Aleiiiians or more northern riiiu! t.

They

are stoutly buill, with large, broad faces, and their hair is

coarse, black, antl straight.
26

-M

!! m

402

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

The tonsure was rarely practised among them. The women
cut their hair short in front and wore it in a sort of club behind.
The men sometimes cut their hair very short all over the head.
The dress of both sexes consisted of kamlaykas and parkies,
the latter shorter than those worn by thj Aleutians, llie men
wore a belt with a kind of apron hanging down in front to the
middle of the thigh. The women used a broad sealskin belt,
without the apron. Both sexes wore caps made of the skins of
sea-birds, or hats plaited from spruce roots painted and decorated
with grotesque carved figures. They went barefoot, except while
travelling, when they wore sealskin boots. Both sexes were very
fond of beads and other ornaments. The labrets were of the
same description as those worn among the Aleuts. The women
wore strings of beads suspended from the lower lip, and had the
ears pierced all round for the same purpose. They also tattooed
the chin, breast, and back. They were exceedingly fond of amber,
upon which they placed the greatest value.

For provisions they relied mainly on fish and the blubber of
the whale. The latter was a prime delicacy even when putrid.
Shell-fish, roots, and berries also formed part of their fare. Much
of their food was consumed in a raw condition.

A young man desiring to take a wife was accustomed to visit
the parents of the girl he desired, taking his most valuable treas-
ures with him. If they were satisfied with him, he made them
presents until they said, " Enough." If he did not please them, he
returned home with his property. There was no ceremony at-
tending marriage; but, when food was plenty, the father-in-law
usually gave a feast. The next day the husband prepared a hot
bath, which is the custom of purification for him and his wife.
He always lived with his wife's parents, and was obliged to serve
them. This custom is still in vogue among the Aleuts. Po-
lygamy was formerly much practised. The most revolting of the
ancient customs of the Kaniagmuts (also common to the Aleuts)
was that of keeping s/ni/>a>is, or men who were dressed and
brought up like females, and supplied their places. These un-
natural beings so nearly imitated the manner and appearance of
women, that strangers would frequently take them for such, ami
tic Kadiak priest once nearly married one of them to a toyon oi-
chief who came in for the purpose. Fortunately, an interprcler

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

403

he women
xh bcbiiid.

the head,
d parkics,

The men
ont to the
.Iskin belt,
tie skins of
1 decorated
jvcept while
3 were very
/ere of the
rhe women
nd had the
so tattooed
id of amber,

blubber of
hen putrid,
fare. Much

ed to visit
able treas-
made them
ise them, he
eremony at-
ather-in-law
pared a hot
id his wife,
ed to serve
IXleuts. To-
ting of the
the Aleuts)
ressed and
These un-
pearance of
r such, and
o a toyon or
\ interpreter

came to the priest and informed him, before the ceremony was
finished, that the couple he was joining in marriage were both
males.

The bodies of the dead were formerly buried in the ground.
They were wrapped in furs and sealskins, and large stones or
pieces of wood were piled over the grave. The spectators went
home as soon as the interment was over, but the parents of the
deceased waited near the spot until sunset. A slave was for-
merly killed over the graves of the wealthy, broken beads and
pieces of amber were strewn over the grave, and high poles some-
times erected. The weapons of hunters were buried with them,
and the frame of a kyak placed over the spot. The relations
were loud in their grief for the dead, and e.xhibited their mourn-
ing by blackening the face and cutting the hair short. The sur-
vivor of a married couple retiree, for a certain period to another
settlement. When a child died, the mother secluded herself for
ten or fifteen days in a small hut built for the purpose.

The same custom prevailed when a child was born, and for
twenty days the mother was considered so unclean that no one
would touch her, and her food was given to her on the end of a
stick. When the twenty days were over, the mother and child
took a warm and then a cold bath, and were then v^onsidered clean.
At this time the incisions for the labrets and in the nose of the
child were made. The same custom was observed by women at
certain periods, and they were not considered clean until after the
usual ablutions. The huts to which they retired were built of
reeds and grass, and were only about three feet square.

The principal pursuits of these Innuit were hunting the seal,
whale, sea-otter, and fur-seal. They also caught auks, divers,
and puffins, in nets ; from the skins they made clothing, and con-
sumed the flesh. Fish were also obtained in nets, and with the
hook and line.

Their weapons were spears, harpoons, and arrows. The tools
used in carving and working in wood were stone adzes, sharp-
ened fragments of shell, which have been surperseded by crooked
knives, a polishing-stone, and a tooth fixed in a wooden handle and
Used as a gouge.

The art of carving has somewhat declined from its ancient per-
fection, but they still practise it.

^ illi;

404

AUORIGINAL INHAIHTANTS.

I H'

n !^ I

vk.

iF'*'

The woman were only surpassed in tlieir needlework by the
Aleutians. They were great gamblers, and had several games,
one resembling diee, and another which consisted in throwing
flat pieces of wood at a painted skin. These counted according
to the part of the skin on which they fell ; the game was one hun-
dred and twelve points.

The single and two-holed bidarkas have been in use since the
discovery of the country. The three-holed bidarka is an inven-
tion of the Russians. All the Orarian tribes, except the Aleu-
tians and Kaniagmuts, have single bidarkas or kyaks. The
festivals and dances of these natives resembled those of the
Aleutians.

Those who attack the whale, were considered by their coun-
trymen, during the fishing season, as unclean, though otherwise
they were held in high honor. They only attempted to kill the
smaller species. A singular custom obtained among the whalers,
of stealing the bodies of dead hunters who had been successful in
the chase, and secreting them in caves. This was thought to ren-
der the possessor of such trophies prosperous in his fishery; and
these caves, with their contents, were bequeathed from father to
son, until the number of bodies sometimes amounted to twenty.

The houses were composed of a single large room, which an-
swered the purposes of a store-room, work-room, and dance-house,
resembling the casinos of the more northern Innuit. Into this
room opened the doors of the excavations in which the different
families lived and slept, and were even sometimes buried. These
were called jupaii. Blocks of wood ornamented with sea-otter
teeth served for a pillow, and separated the space on which the
natives slept from the rest of the room. Fires were built in
winter in the jiipan, and they were very warm. Sealskins and
dry grass served for a bed. The natives were fond of hot baths,
which resembled those of the Norton Sound Innuit.

Shamanism was much practised by the Kaniagmuts, and fre-
quently large presents were made to the shamans, while those
among the Aleuts did not receive payment for their services.
Other wise men, called kasi'k, taught the children the different
dances and superintended the public festivals. They were re-
garded as second only to the shamans.

The Kaniagmuts trace their ancestry from the offspring of a

.'t

iiii,

III

ABORIGINAL INHAniTANTS.

405

k by the

games,

throwing

iccorcUng

one hun-

sincc tlic
an invcn-
Ihe Alcu-
iks. The
so of UK-
heir coun-
otherwisc
to kill the
le whalers,
iccessful in
ght to ren-
ihery ; and
n father to
) twenty,
which an-
ince-house.

Into this
10 different
cd. These
sea-otter

which the

e built in
alskins and

hot baths,

ts, and fre-
while those
;ir services,
le different
ey were re-

Ispring of a

dog, and assert that the island of Kadiak was separated from
Aliaska by a large otter, who pushed through from Cook's Inlet.
At present many of them profess the Greek Catholic religion, but
retain at the same time their old superstitions. Many of their
habits arc very dirty, while in intelligence and morals they fall
far behind the Aleutians.

The Oglaniits. — This tribe inhabits the north coast of Aliaska
from the 159th degree of west longitude to the head of Bristol
l?ay, and along the north shore of that Bay to Point ICtolin.
Tiieir habits are essentially the same as those of the last-men-
tioned tribe, while their vocabulary differs somewhat from that of
the latter. They live princijially by fishing and hunting the wal-
rus, seal, deer, and fo.xes ; they are few in number. They are the
Aglci^unit of Molmberg.

The Xiishergdgmnts. — These people inhabit the coast near the
mouth of the Nushergak River, and westward to Cape Newen-
ham. They arc similar, as far as known, to the more northern
Innuit in most of their customs. Their sledges differ from those
of Norton Sound by being lower, shorter, heavier, more gayly or-
namented, and often lined with fur. They particularly excel in
carving ivory, and most of their weapons and tools are made of
ivory or bone. The annexed sketch represents an
ivory knife used for .skinning animals and cutting up
fish. They are represented as very active and ener-
getic, fond of festivals and dances, and travelling a
great deal in winter with dogs. They rely principal-
ly on deer and fish for their food. They are particu-
larly fond of small white beads and tobacco. vSome
of their casines, or dance-house.s, are said to be among
the largest structures of their class in Russian y\mer-
ica. They call themselves Nushergagmut, and are
the Kijataignint of Ilolmberg.

Tlie Knskivogmnts. — These inhabit both shores of Kuskoquim
Bay, and some little distance up that river. They differ little
from the last-mentioned, except in their vocabulary. Baer has
stated that some of the more southern tribes of Innuit have inter-
married with the Indians, and that an intermixture of words has
taken place between the two languages. The first statement is
quite unsupported by the facts, and the latter is probably due to

Ivory knife.

111

lAAAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

1.25

UiKA |2.:

|50 "^ ■■■

^ 1^

2.0

LA. 111.6

Photographic

Sdences

Corporation

«3 WIST MAIN STRUT

WltSTIR.N.Y. MSSO

(716) «73-4503

4o6

ABORIGINAL INHAIilTANTS.

a miscomprehension of his informant, who probably mistook the
trading jargon, in use among all western Innuit who have any
trade with the Indians, for the true language of the former. At
all events, I have so far found no traces of Indian words in the
numerous Innuit vocabularies which I have examined, nor vice
versa. In regard to this tribe he also makes some assertions
which are not borne out by the accounts which I have received
in regard to them, from Russian traders who had spent years on
the Kuskoquim, especially Ivan Lukeen, who is elsewhere men-
tioned. I refer to the statement that all the adult able-bodied
males sleep in the casine, or dance-house, and that the only women
who are admitted to the same place during festivities are those
who have been especially initiated. I have good reason to believe
that the customs of this tribe closely resemble those of the Nor-
ton Sound Innuit, which are elsewhere described, and that the
information on which Von IJaer's statements are founded must
have been untrustworthy. These natives call themselves Kus-
kwogmut, and are the Kuskutchcioak of Haer and Richardson,
and the Kuskokivigmnt of Holmberg, who has also confounded
them with parts of other tribes, especially the following.

The Agnlmuts. — This tribe extends from near Cape Avfnoff
nearly to Cojje Romanzofi". There are also a number of settle-
ments of the same tribe on the island of Niinivak. They are
comparatively little known. The information which I have been
able to gather would infiicate that they are very shameless and
lilthy, extremely fond of tobacco, and remarkable for the beauty
of their workmanship in ivory. Their clothing is largely com-
posed of fox.skins ; their kyaks, while ^larger than those of the
more northern tribes, are well made and attractive in appearance.
Foxes, oil, and ivory arc their principal articles of trade. A kan-
tdg or wooden dish, which was obtained at Niinivak by Captain
Smith, was neatly carved and inlaid with lozenges of white stone,
resembling gypsum. They wore labrets of the same material.
Their food was principally fish and seal, and they appeared tn be
very destitute of iron and other articles introduced by traders.
Their ivory weapons were of great beauty, and some specimens
of hollow carving would tax the resources of the most skilful civ-
ilized workman to equal. They should not be confounded with
the Oglemuts of Bristol liay. Holmberg gives their boundaries
incorrectly.

ABORIGINAL INHAHITANTS.

407

The Miigcmuts. — These inhabit the vicinity of Cape Roman-
zoff, and reach nearly to the Yukon-mouth. '1 hey lesemble their
southern neijjhbors more nearly than they do those to the north
of them. The peculiar labrets worn by the women are elsewhere
described. They are tall, finely formed, and have very fair com-
plexions. Blue eyes arc not unknown among them, but their hair
is black and their beards are very light. They are fond of orna-
ments, especially large glass beads. Tobacco is greatly esteemed,
especially the Circassian variety. Deer are uncommon in their
district, and they live prmcipally on fish and birds. I'o.xcs and
mink arc the most abundant furs among them. They celebrate
their dances and festivals with great pomp and display. Some
of their festivals last for weeks. They call themselves Magemut,
meaning "mink people."

Wood is Very scarce in the M:igcmut country, and is an article
of trade. Holmberg calls them also Magagiiuit, and fixes their
boundaries wrongly.

The T.kogmnts. — These inhabit the Yukon delta from the
Kipniiik to PasttSIik, and ascend the river as far as Mankf, some
(listaiico above the mission. Their habits and customs are else-
where described. Those who inhabit the Kwiklipak slough call
themselves Kivikhpdgmui, a name sometimes applied to the
whole tribe. A noticeable feature in many of them is the ex-
treme hairyness of their persons. Many have very strong black
beards and hairy bodies. They include the Kzcikhliidgaiiut and
Kxi'ikhpdgmut of Holmberg.

The Uiialigmuts or 6Wr/. — These occupy the coast from
l'ast(Mik to Shaktolik. They are elsewhere described at length.
They include the Tschnngmitt and PastoUgmiit of Holmberg.
The latter is only a local name, the former is of very cpiestionable
authority, and not in use among any of them. They have also
been erroneously called ArJdgmut.

The Mdhlemuts. — These Innuit occupy the coast of Norton
Sound and Bay north of Shaktcilik and the neck of the K.iviak
Peninsula to Selawik Lake. Their most eastern village is Atten-
miit, and their western boundary the river which flows northward
into Spavarieff liay, Kotzebuc .Souu''. Their mode of life is fully
described in the first part of this volume. They are the Afalieg-
mut of Holmberg.

4o8

AHORIGINAL INHAIUTANTS.

The Kaviagmiits. — These occupy the Kaviak Peninsula an 1
Sledf^e or A/.iak Island. They have also been previously tK -
scribed. Many of them pass the winter in the southern part of
Norton Soui.d, and there is a larj^c Kaviak village at Unalakli'k.
Their principal C)m;iylik or chief is Katnokiii, well known to
many Arctic voya[;ers. Their principal villages are Nookmut at

ARROWS AND LANCES.

14 1 1

A KkciRmut bird spe.ir. K. Aleut har|)Oon-Uncc.

I). SimI sjiear cif norlhorn Inmiit. K. Mahleimil .irrow,

(i. Alvut arrow. 11. Kaviak arrow. I. Aleut fish arrow.

C. Nusliergngmut leal spear.

K. 'I'unki arrow.

J. Uiialcet bird arrow.

Port Clarence, and Knik-(iii;;mtit on Golofnma Hay. They call
themselves Kaviagmut ; they are the Aiilii^niiits of Holmber^,
and the local name, Asid^mitt, of the inhabitants of Aziak Island

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

409

iBniul «eal spe.ir

(who travel extensively) has been applied to other tribes. Amonf;
the members of this tribe, as we go northward, the tendency to
thcfi and violence appears more stron|;ly, and maybe due, in part,
to the introduction of alcohol by unscrupulous traders. The In-
luiit of Norton Sound and to the southward exhibit this tendency
in a much smaller degree.

The Okc-i'\^ninis. — Tiiis name is universally applied by the
Innuit to the small but active and energetic tribe who inhabit
the islands of Hering Strait. They are essentially the same as
the Kaviagmuts. Thiy carry on the trade between the two con-
tiiiciUs. and visit the island of St. Michael every year for the pur-
pose. I have also heard the same name applied to the inhabitants
of St. Lawrence Island.

T/ic W'lStirii F.skiiiio. — This name has been very generally
npiilicd to the Innuit who inhabit the coast from the mouth of
the Mackenzie westward to Point Harrow, antl soutli to Kotzebuc
Sound. In the absence of accurate knowledge I have preferred
to retain it, rather than use the local designations which are
1,'ivcii by Simpson as tribal names. Parties of Kaviagmuts and
M.'ihlcmuts visit l\)int Harrow nearly every season, and may have
bocn confounded with the indigenous Innuit by the few explorers
who have travelled in that direction. Richarilson says, that from
the Mackenzie River to Harter Reef they call them.selves Kaiig-
mali-Inniiiu. Among the Innuit of Norton Sound most other
names are derived from names of places ; the tribal designations
appear to follow a similar rule. Tiius, most of the geographical
names enil in ik or ak\ as Kavi-i-ak, a tr.actof country. I'rom
this we have Kavitii^mnt (noun), a town or village in that country ;
Kir,'i-(i:j(tk (noun), a river passing through it ; Kavuia^^cnint (adjec-
!ive singular), the tribal name of an individual from that country ;
Kiivi(i:^)iiiiiii (adjective plural), a number of individuals from that
ciumtry ; and finally Kdvidi^imit Iiiiiiiif, the people of the country.
Culled ively. The c which follows the ^i^ in the adjective is frc-
(lucnlly slurred so as to be hardly noticeable. Kiiuk, F.iiyiik, or a
Wold ^)\ the same derivation, means a " man ' ; Jiiiyiiin means
"several men"; Iiiiiiiit means "people" collectively. The termi-
nation unit in a substantive sense means a village at the place or
on the river to the name of which it is added. In an adjective
[Sense it means the people of that village, as we would say Indiana,

ITT I

410

AIJORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

Indianapolis, Indiauapolitan. It is generally very local in its
meaning, although it is also added to the tribal names. Kn'cck,
meaning river, compounded with some adjective, usually forms
the name of any river, and the same may be said of Kikhtuk, an
island.

The Point Barrow tribe are said by Richardson to be called
Ninviiitgmiun. This is the plural of Xookmut, which is the local
designation of the Kaviagmuts of Port Clarence, who annually visit
Point Harrow. These northern Innuit are very few in number.
They are said to be treacherous and addictei to theft. Simp-
son mentions that their thumbs appeared to be disproportionally
short. The same may be true of the Norton Sound Innuit ; at all
events, no white man can wear one of their mittens comfortably
until the thumb is lengthened. The northern tribes are not so
proficient in embroidery as those of Norton Sound, and their gar-
ments are much more plainly made and deficient in trimniini;.
The former still use many articles of stone or flint which the lat-
ter have rejected for bone or iron. Simpson, on the Arctic coast,
saw dishes made from the tusks of the fossil elephant, and the
Innuit of Back's Great Fish River are noted for their stone dishes
or kettles.

The Innuit formerly extended much farther up the ^lackeiizio
than at present, and have been driven out by the Indians wilhiii
historic times.

Dr. Otis, of the United States Army Medical Museum at I
Washington, who has handled as many aboriginal American
crania as any modern ethnologist, says that the skulls found iii|
the northern mounds have the same peculiarities which distin-
guish all Orarian crania, and that both are instantly distinguish-
able from any Indian skulls.

The Norton Sound tribes have various names for the vvhitc\|
one of which means "men with white eyes," and another "itic:i
who wear hats." The common designation of the Russians lil
Kossdk, which is evidently derived from Cossack. The Ameri-
cans are usually called Aincricdiii. Some Kanaka words are in uscj
in the jargon through which barter is carried on with the trader-
who employ many Sandwich-Islanders as sailors. Some of theH'j
and also some Russian words, have found their way into recently
published vocabularies, which arc also inaccurate in other re.spccts.1

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

411

luiiitvi Stocks {Stiimmc) — There are two stocks in the terri-
tory of Alaska. Tlicy arc the Thlinkcts aiul the Tiiimh. The
former are confineil to the coast, and the latter occupy the greater
part uf the interior.

The Thlinkcts. — '^his stock comprises the Chimsy.ins, the
Ky^iVii or Hdidahs, the true Thlinkcts or so-calleil Koloshcs, and
the Yiikntats or tribe which inhabit the vicinity of Bering Bay.
There are perhaps other tribes of the same stock to the south,
which, as well as the Chimsyans, are outside of the limits of this
work. The l^galcnscs have also been referred to this stock by
some authors.

The Kygiini. — These Indians have their head-quarters on
Queen Charlotte's Archipelaj^o, but there are a few villages on
the extreme southern part of Prince of Wales and the adjoining
islaiuls. They are a very fierce, treacherous race, and have not
been imjjroved by the rum and fire-arms sold to them by the
Iludson Hay Company at Fort Simpson. They are noted for
the beauty and size of their cedar canoes and their skill in carv-
ing. Most of the stone pipes, inlaid with fragments of Maliotis
or pearl shells, so common in ethnological collections, are their
handiwork. The slate quarry from which the stone is obtained
lis situated on Queen Charlotte's Island. They are frequently
I called Ilydahs or HdidaJts.

The Thlinkcts or T'linkcts. — These are divided into two
[tribes, whose customs are almost identical and whose vocabu-
laries differ but little. Their tribal names are indicated by the
appellation of the district, to which is added the syllable kzudn,
meaning people. 'T'linkit means a man, according to Wrangell,
Ibiit this does not appear by the vocabularies.

The Stakhin-kxvan. — These are the inhabitants of the main-
lland near the Stikine River. The latter name has been modified
Iby I'Jiglish mouths from Stnkhin, the native designation. Their
Inianiiers and customs are identical with those of the inhabitants
jut" the archipelago, but they consider themselves a distinct tribe,
laiiil the two have had frequent wars. The Stakhin-kwan do not
Ipcnctrate far into the interior, but extend northwest as far as
jl.ynn Canal, and south to the Portland Channel. Here they are
IbouncK'd on the south and east by the A'assc Indians and the
Y-liimsydus.

412

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

The Sltka-ktvan. — This incluclcs the inhabitants of Sitka Hav,
near New Archangel, and the neighboring islands. They have
coarse black hair., small eyebrows, and fine large eyes. Their com-
plexion is dark, teeth white and good, hands and feet soft and small.
They are indolent by nature, but fond of dress, and exert them-
selves to hunt and trade in order to be able to dress well. Thcv
have generally adopted a style of dress somewhat civilized in
appearance, and it is now impossible to find any of them dressed
in their original style, which is quite forgotten. At present men
and women wear much the same clothing. It consists of a Ion;'
shirt or chemise and a blanket ornamented with buttons, which
covers the whole body. Some of them weave variegated blankets
which display some artistic taste. Those at .Sitka have more
variety in their apparel than others who are farther from a trad-
ing-post. They always go barefooted in their uncivilized con-
dition, and the moccasins which they offer for sale are purch -etl
by them from the Tfnneh tribes of the interior. They all paint,
and, while naturally not ugly, become fearfully so in consequence
Lampblack or vermilion mixed with oil is rubbed over the whole
face, and the color is removed by small brushes, leaving patterni
on tne skin. The rich paint every day, while the poorer natives
renew the paint only when worn out. They perforate their
noses, wearing a ring adorned with feathers. They make a
succession of perforations all around the edge of the ears, which
are ornamented with scarlet thread, sharks' teeth, or pieces oi
shell. Each hole is usually the record of a deed performed era
feast given, by the person so adorned.

On arriving at the age of puberty the girls are considered as un-
clean, and are strictly confined to a small hut, formerly for a year
but at present near Sitka the period has been shortened to three
months. Only the girl's mother and a female slave can carry
food to her while secluded, and she wears a broad-brimmed hat
to protect the sky from pollution. At this time the lower lip i-
pierced, and a silver pin shaped like a nail is inserted. The broad
head prevents the pin from falling out. This is a sign of freedom:
the poor slave girl has no right to such an ornament. The gait
of the women, kept imprisoned at this critical period of their lives,
is weak and unsteady, forming a striking contrast to the proud.
erect bearing of the men. On releasing a rich Thlinket girl, a

ABORIGINAL INHAniTANTS.

413

of Sitka Bay
s. They havi'
5. Their corn-
soft and snia
id exert them-
ss well. They
It civilized in
f them dressed
A present men
isists of a ion;'
buttons, which
f;ated blankets
ka have more
cr from a trad-
ncivilized con-
are purcb -eii
rhey all paint.
n consequence
over the whole
LMving patterns
poorer natives
perforate their
They make a
the ears, which
1, or pieces ot
performed era

nsidcred as un-
lerly for a year I
rtcned to three
ave can carry]
d-brimmed hat I
the lower lip is
cd. The broad
on of freedom;
ent. The- gait I
d of their lives.
t to the proud, I
rhlinket girU

great feast is given. She is richly dressed and placed on a divan
of otter-skins, while the slave who waited upon her during her
confinement is usually freed, and all her old clothing is destroyed.

Tiie Thlinkets migrate with the season, according to the preva-
lence of game or fish. The latter is their principal .source of
tbod; it is smoked in their houses, not dried in the sun, as is the
custom fiirther north. Shtd-fish are eaten raw. Vkh and cuttlc-
lish ((^t/c/O. which are common, are always cooked. The spawn
of the herring in a putrid state is reckoned a great delicacy, and
eaten raw or dried. Fucoid alga: are also eaten. They do not
eat whale blubber, as the whale is one of their totems, but use
that of the porpoise and seal. They make water-proof baskets, in
which food was fornn rly cooked with hot stones. Fish abounds
ill such quantities that hunger is never necessary.
I'addling among the schools of herring the na-
tives beat the water with a pole, in which nails arc
fastened like the teeth of a comb, and it is rarely
that every nail does not catch a fish. They fish
for halibut with wooden hooks barbed with bone,
and a long line made from the giant kelp. Vlikon
(a kind of smelt) is caught in basket nets of
wicker-work. These fish ascend the Nasse and
other rivers about the 20th of March in prodigious
numbers. The first fish is carefully handled, ad-
dressed as a chief, and a festival given in his
iionor. After this is over the fishing goes on,
and lasts for a fortnight or longer.

The principal animals which are hunted are the

hleer, mountain sheep, and mountain goat. Of

the horns of both they make ladles and spoons ;

the latter are often curiously carved, as in the

I annexed sketch of a goat-horn spoon-handle.

riicy use the wool of the sheep to weave their

I blankets.

There are about sixteen settlements in the
[archipelago, which form their dwelling-places dur-
ing a great part of the year. Their winter houses
pre massively built of large squared logs. They
serve both for dwellings and purposes of defence. Tiiinkitt spoon immUe-

414

ABORIGINAL INHAIUTANTS.

t H

The walls arc several feet thick, six or eight high, and sometimes
forty feet square. The roof is of bark ; there is a round hole,
reached by steps, for a door, and a square one, to let out the smoke,
in the roof. Tiu-y rarely have openings for windows. Some of the
houses are floored, and have an air of tlurability and comfort.

A very strong trait in their characters is their respect for (heir
ancestors. The Thlinkets are divided into four totems: the raven
( Yc/il), the wolf {K/ittui'd-/i), the whale, and the eagle {Clutlil)
The first is the beneficent sjjirit ; while, among the Ti'nneh, the
raven is considered to be the most depraved of all birds. Thf
emblems which to them represent the totems are carved on every
house, paddle, household utensil, and frequently on amulets or
plates of native copper, which they preserve with groat care, and
consider to be of the greatest value. Tiiey also wear dresses on
festive days which are made to resemble, wholly or in part, tiu
animated form of the totem. High posts curiously carved arc
frequently erected before each house. Sometimes they are placed
directly in front, so that an entrance is made through the block
or log, which is often of enormous size. These carvings repre-
sent the successive ancestral totems, and are usually capped with
that of the builder. They are frcipiently painted of various
colors. The wolves arc the warriors, and bear the title of AV
khdiithcn.

They derive their origin from Yehl and Khanukh, whose chill
dren lived in huts on the mountain-side, near the Nasse River, i;i
the interior. Their descendants dispersed, reaching the coa<t
near Queen Charlotte's I.sland, and retaining the name of theirj
parents. Their ancestral names are preserved with the grcatci!
care.

Opposite totems only can marry, and the child usually takes the I
mother's totem. The child receives, at or soon after birth, a name
derived from that of its mother's ancestors. This name is con-
ferred without any ceremony. Afterward he receives another
from his father's side. The last is always conferred with great
solemnity and festivity. Poor Thlinkets, who have no means o![
giving a feast, sometimes retain the mother's name through life
A rich chief may give his name to his son at birth, but he niustl
afterwards celebrate a feast in honor of his paternal ancestors. .\
father of a son who has distinguished himself is called after hi-

ol* ail in
loiic of
oriianici
nro of
around

AIU)1<IG1NAL INHAIJITANTS.

4>5

1(1 sometimes
I round hole,
ut the smoke,
Some of the
comfort,
pert for their
ms : tlic r.ivcn
iglc {C/uthl')
c Tiiinch, the
\ birds. The
rved on every
)n amulets or
;roat care, aiiil
:ar dresses m
)r in part, tlu
dy carved arc
hey are placed
u^h the block
:arvings rcpre-
ly cajiped with
ed of various I
le title of /vi-

vh, whose chil-

^\'isse River, in I

in^ the coa^

name of tluirl

1 the greatest

uially takes the
r birth, a name
; name is con-
ceives another
red with giea'.
re no means o!
c through life]
h. but he mustl
1 ancestors. Al
called after Iw

son. A distinguished chief at Sitka, having two paternal names,
was h.iptized, thus adiliiig another. If he had had a son, he would
have been called after the child, but as he was without children,
the other Thlinkets called him after his favorite dog !

I'tilygamy is common among the rich, but the first wife has the
precedence and authority. One of the Nasse chiefs was said to
have hail forty wives. A lover sends to his mistress's relations,
asking for her as a wife. If he receives a favorable reply, he sends
as many presents as he can get together, to her father. On the
appointed day he goes to the house where she lives, and sits down
with his back to the door.

Tile father has invited all the relations who now raise a song, to
alliiie the coy bride out of the corner where .she has been sitting.
W'licn the song is done, furs or pieces of new calico are laid on
the floor, and she walks over them ami sits down by the side of
the groom. All this time she must keep her head bowed down.
Tlien all the guests dance and sing, when tired, diversifying the
eiiterlaimnent by eating. The pair do not join in any of tlie
ceremonies. That their future life may be happy th^y fast for
two (lays. Then, taking a little food to sustain life, they fast for
two (lays more. Four weeks afterward they come together and
are then recognized as man and wife. A similar course of fasting
and reflection might be advantageous in some civilized communi-
ties in this era of hasty and ill-assorted marriages.

The bridegroom is free to live with his father-in-law or return
to his own home. If he chooses the latter the bride receives a
tivusscait ecpial in value to the gifts received by her parents from
1 the lui.sband. If the husband become dissatisfied with his wife,
he can send her back with her dowry, but loses his owi. gifts. If
a wife is unfaithful he may send her back with nothing, and de-
mand his own again. They may separate by mutual consent with-
out returning any property. When the marriage festival is over,
the silver pin is removed from the lower lip of the bride and re-
placed by a plug, shaped like a spool, but not over three quarters
pt an inch long, and this plug is afterward replaced by .i larger
pile of wood, bone, or stone, so that an old woman may have an
prnament of this kind two inches in diameter. These large ones
are of an oval shape, but scooped out, above and below and
larouiid the edge, like a pulley-wheel. The annexed sketch of a

L.-

4i6

AIJOKIGINAL INHAIMTANTS.

mask or rather carvin-; of a female luail, cut by a Tlilinkcl work-
man, shows the position of the phi;; in the lower
lip. Wlieii very lar;;e a mere strip of flesh ^^oc.
roiiiul the kaliis/ikit (little troii;;li) as the Alcii-
tiaiis called it. This (lis;;iistin;; practice is sin)ilar
to one in vofjue amon;; the Hotokiuios of I'.razil, I
and somethin;; resembling,' it was anciently wcirii
by the Aleutians and Kani.igmuts. I-'mm tli.

Thiinktt n..«k. „.j„,^. ^v|,ij.|^ ti,^. Aleuts gavc the appendage when
they first visited Sitka, tlie nickname Kolosh has arisen, and
been a|)plied to this and allied tribes.

Veniaminoff says that a certain Sicilian custom was ancicntiv
in favor among the Thlinkets, and the cavalier was usually tin
brother of the husband. When a husband dies, his brother or hi-
sister's son must marry the widow. The omission of this custom
has occasioned bloody feuds. If thc.c are no male relations oi
the husband, the widow may choose for herself.

A seducer rarely escaj)es the dagger, but, if he .should be s
fortunate, he must render a sufTicient payment in goods to the in-
jured husband.

The \von;en arc treated with little kindness dining childbirlli
They arc excluded from t'.ic house and placed in a temporary lin'
or even left without shelter for ten days as unclean. When tli
child is some weeks old it is tied to a board and padded wjlh]
moss, which is removed and rejilaced by a fresh supply daily
It is weaned when about a year old, and fed on seal or porpoise!
blubber at first. As soon as it can walk it is bathed in the sca|
daily.

They consider corporeal punishment as a great disgrace, aiiiil
only chastise the child who refuses to take its daily bath.

Theft is not considered as a crime, but the loser may demami
restitution if the thief is discovered.

Murder demands blood for blood ; if not that of the actiix
murderer, at least one of the tribe or family to which he belongs.

Family feuds arc not uncommon, and sometimes result in diul-
The tluellists are dressed in armor of raw moose or bear hide, (:
thin strips of wood laced together. They wear heavy wooclcnl
helmets painted or carved with their totemic emblem.s. Tluf
combat is carried on with knives, and accompanied with songs by

them>

.•>a:iic

lives

sin.,' ii

with

killed

After

cuts a I

tribute

The
of the

The

kcts h;

tration
are of
natives

AMORKIINAL INHAIJITANTS.

4>7

ilinkcl worV-
in I he IdWtr
of flcsl) i;i)c.^
as the Alcu-
lice is similar |
Jos of r.razil.
icieiilly worn I
;. I'rom tlk
)en(la^e when
i arisen, and

was ancientlv|
;is usually tin
brothel or hi<
){ this custom I
Ic relations oi

should be S'
ooils to the ill-

infC chiUlbirtli

luporary hir

. When th

patUled \vitli|

supply daily

al or porpoise I

ed in the sea

disf;racc. ami
bath,
may demanil

of the actua',
eh he belongs,
result in dutl«
)r bear hide, o'
heavy wooden
:niblcms. Tbf
with songs by

thi; bystanders. At a conclusion of peace, cither between two
liihes or two niend)ers of a family, hostaj;es arc exchanged.
Tluse arc oblii:{ed to cat with their left hands for a certain
period, as they had carrieil weapons in the riyht hand during;
ihe combat. lOach hostage has two companions of equal rank
assij;ned to him by the tribe which holds him.

Their method of war is an ambush or surpri.sc. The prisoners
are made slaves, anil the dead are scalped. The scalps are woven
into a kind of j;artcr by the victor. Durin-; war they use red
paint on their faces, ami powder the hair with red earth anil the
down of birds.

The bodies of the dead are disjointed by a person who is as-
sii,'ned to this special duty, and the act is performed in solitude.
The remains are then burned near the house of the v. '-.eased.
I'oor |)eople take their dead in a boat to some distant .pot ami
burn them there. The bodies of the shamans on'", are init in
boxes on four poles by the sea-shore. The bodie of slaves nre
thrown into 'h< ,ea. Some time after the death of a Thlinket the
niL'inl)L'rs of tlie family who belonj; to other totems n- j invited to
a Tea . The body is put on a funeral pile before the relations,
and burned. The guests accompany the ceremony with dismal
cries. They sometimes burn their hair in the fire, or cut it ofH",
and smear themselves with ashes. Among the Kygani they cut
tluMiiselves with knives and stones. The guests who an; of the
same totem as the wife then enter the house, while the near rela-
tives come in, disfigured and leaning on long staves, and weep or
sin„' in the middle of the floor. These ceremonies last four days,
with short intervals for eating. Several slaves were formerly
killed, the nund)er varying with the wealth of the dead man.
.\ftcr four days the relations wash and paint their faces. Pres-
ents are made to the guests who have assisted, and food is dis-
tributed, which concludes the ceremony.

The next heir is the younger brother or sister's son. The ashes
of the dead are placed in curiously painted boxes near the house.

The talent for carving in wood and bone possessed by the Thlin-
kcts has long been a matter of remark. The accompanying illus-
tration shows the general style of their carving. Their canoes
are of less beauty than those of the more s nithern tribes, and the
natives resident at Sitka, from the demoralizing etVect of liquor
27

4i8

AlU)Kli;iNAI. INHAmTANTS.

Stntir .Txr .uiil skimlrossiT.

ol)t;iinc<l at the aljiux-iit trading-post, liavc imii-h dcjjciKTatiHl in
this kiuu ot" work, hut those more remote are still prolieient in it.

Helore tiic intnuhietion of iron hv the
Russians they wcri" unae(|uainte(I with
it, hut used tools ol stone or native eop-
|)er. I'he annexetl eut shows an aneieiit
stone axe and skindresser, as lormerly in
use. At pnsent many
of tliem have some
knowledm' of workinj.^
in iron. Thev pur-
ehase lar};e lilesol the
traders, of whieli they
make peeuliai haNo-
net - shapi'd ki\ives.
Ihose el native eop-
per Wire ot similar
loiin, and hoth are
lii'(|iiently ornameut-
I'd with toti-mie em-
l)li'ms. They are (oiid of silver ami
other white metals, wiiieh they prefer
to brass or ^old. Tlu'y wiar ear iiiiL;s
and other ornaments of their own maiui-
faefure from silver hail-dollar.s.

H()ws and airows .seem to have disap-
peari'd, as they liave been well supplied
for years, by the traders, with iron spears
or pikes aiul flint-Kiek ^uns.
. Their festivals consist of ilaneitij;,
The daut-es and son;;s are all end)KMnatii',
and the Thlinket prides himsi-lf above all on his profieii:niy i"
these accomplishments. 'I'he souf;s are remarkable tor tluir
rhvthm. 'I'he principal authors who have deseribe<I the Thliii-
ki'ts an* W-niaminoH and \Vran,L;ell, from whose works the greater
part of these facts have bei-n e.\liactt-il. h'estivals are f;iven mi
ereetini;- a new house, on the nan»in<; of children, deaths, mar-
riages, etc.

Among their more important festivals are those calleil "t/r,\i(-

'riilinki-l ('(Hill),

sinjLijin}^, and feast in^^

AIK)KU;iNAI, INIIAIUTANTS.

419

r anil skimlri-vMf.

ini^ t/w ifi'dif" oil whiili occasiims tlu-y v\\\\ miMuinicnts in their
honor. Such loslivals arc r.irc. on at:ii«iml of their i-osthncss.
(iiicsts ail- invitc-d even from distant si'ttionu'iits, ami not unfiv-
(|iiontIy thi' host i;ivi-s awav not only his oww proin-ii)', hut that
which his wife hron,L;ht him, and hvcs afterwards in abject pov-
( rtv, retaininj; only the honor and };Iory of the ccK-hralion as a
reward lor the respi-ct paid to his ancesiois' nu'mory.

l''rei|uenily a wlu>le lamilv, and evi-n a whole settlement, take
|iart in snch lesiivals. Invitations are sent, lonL;" beforehand, to
liu- most remote viiia;;es. Women and children treipu-ntly atti'iul.

The honse or lodi;i.' where the leslivitii-s are to taki' placi- is
thoroughly cleansed, or even a new one is erected, with the inner
and outer walls covered with end)lematic painlin;;s, partiiularly
of the totems.

Daiu ini;' ami sim;inq; eomnu-nce with the arrival of j;nests, the
more distin^^uished amt)nL;' whom are selected to take part in the
openini;' ceremonies. Tlu'si; last commence with the relatives
onlv, on the fust morniiiL;" alU'r the quests ha\e aiiived and Liter
a solemn meal. This is succi'cdi'd by ihuues and son;;s, in which
the women ilo not i).irticip.ite, which are all end)lematie or syin-
holic ; they arc kept up without intermission, e.xccjjt fi)r eatin-;,
as m.my days as the host can allonl.

On the I'veniiii;- before the close i>f the I'eslivities tlu' host, };i'n-
cially a chief, retires with a slave to a small hut or room, wheri-
he puts on a sin,i;ular costume, lieipienlly an heirloom, handi-d
ilown with tlu' i;ifatest veneration Irom manv j^encrations, and
only used on such occasit)ns. it is dilferent in diflen-nt i.unilies,
Init always represents the totem o\ the lamilv, either in part or
complete. It is also ornamented with huni.m teeth, lib.imls. er-
luiue skins, and t)tln'r things valued by the owner. The sl.ivt'
who dressi-s his master in this m, inner is selected a lorn; time in
adv.iiue, and is always set free alloi it is ovi-r.

Dressed in this manm-r, on leaving; his pi, ice of concealment,
surrounded by -laves, lu- is •;ree;v'd bv a member oi the lamilv
with a cry resemblim; that of the anim.il denoted by tlu* totem.
V \M\\ the na*iin\' of the erv, which is in.ide in a st.iU'd in. inner,

ilv-pcnd the lives of several slav(

If iinlavorable tluv are inn

ili.itely executed, and the hosts bej;in to sinj^ tlu'ir l.imilv suni;s,
rcl.iliny; the deeds of their ancestors, and the oiii'.iii of the family.

420

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

The host scats himself, and the presents are brought forth and
distributed. They are given in proportion to the rank and wealth
of the receiver. Slaves are also given away. This, if any other
families participate in the festival, is followed on the ne.xt day by
a similar proceeding in another house, till the number of the
hosts is exhausted. The latter are entitled on these occasions to
assume the name of some deceased paternal ancestor.

Another class of festival, also very costly., and considered among
their more prominent ones, deserves mention. It is given in
honor of children. A new house is always built for its express
celebration, in which both the guests and members of the tribe
receive presents, while at other times only guests receive them.
After the dancing and singing are over, slaves, to the number of
the children for whom the celebration is given, receive their
liberty. The children are then brought forward, according to
their age, and the holes before mentioned are made in their ears
with an awl. Meanwhile the bystanders utter a hissing sound,
probably to drown any outcry on the part of the children, after
which food and presents are distributed, and the festival comes
to an end.

The Thlinkct slaves are either captured in war, bought from
other tribes who may themselves have captured them, or the
children of female slaves. The wars between the tribes, being
now of rare occurrence, the supply of slaves is kept up by barter
with the more southern tribes, and hence many of the slaves are
Flatheads from Oregon. The slaves of the Thlinkets, as former-
ly the case with other slaves nearer home, have no rights that
the master is bound to respect. A slave cannot acquire property,
nor marry, except by consent of his master, which is rarely given.
Manumitted slaves have the rights of common Thlinkets. When
in a state of slavery they are seldom killed, except at festivals as
above mentioned, as they are valuable property and hard to re-
place. If the selected victim makes his escape, and hides himself,
he may, after the festival is over, return to his master's house
v^ithout fear of punisl.ment. Opportunities are often furnished
for favorite slaves to escape in this way. As a rule, only old,
sickly, or obstinate slaves are sacrificed. After their death the
bodies are committed to the tender mercies of the sea, so that
they do not obtain rest, even in their graves.

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

421

orth and
lid Nvcallh
any other
xt day by
er of the
casions to

•ed among
, given in
its express
' the tribe
cive them,
number of
:eive their
xording to
1 their ears
•,\ng sound,
ildren, after
itival comes

ought from
cm, or the
ribes, being
p by barter
c slaves are
;, as former-
rights that

are

property,

veil.

ets. When
It festivals as

hard to re-
lides himselt,

Ister s

house

furnished

|.de, only old,

death the

that

lir

sea, so

The Thlinkets, like all American Indians, do not believe in a
Supreme IJeing, for good or evil. Their feeble polytheism pre-
sents no features worthy of the name of religious belief Yehl, or
Vayhl, is the maker of woods and waters. He put the sun, moon,
and stars in their places. He is generally well behaved, but on
occasions brings misfortune upon men, generally for very trivial
reasons. Wrangell's account of him is mingled with superstitions
derived from the Russian priests, and, consciously or uncon-
sciously, applied to the aboriginal myth. Yehl lives in the east,
near the head-waters of the Nasse River, whence the Thlinkets
say they originally came. He makes himself known in the east-
wind, " SsdiKikhct/i" and his abode is " Xasss/iak-yc/il."

There was a time when men groped in the dark in search of
the world. At that time a Thlinket lived who had a wife and
sister. He loved the former so much that he did not permit her
to work. She sat the whole day doing nothing. Eight little
red birds, called Kiin by the Thlinkets, were always around her.
One day she spoke to a stranger. The little birds flew and told
the jealous husband. So when he went into the woods to build
a canoe he shut her up in a bo.x. He killed all his sister's chil-
dren because they looked at his wife. Weeping, the mother
went to the sea-shore. A whale saw her, and asked the cause of
her grief, and when informed told her to swallow a small stone
from the beach and drink some sea-water. In eight months she
had a son, whom she hid from her brother. This son was really
Vclil. As he grew he became a great exi)crt in shooting with a
how and arrow. It is said the mother made herself a mantle out
of the skins of humming-birds which he had brought down.

He killed birds of large size, and, dressing himself in their
skins, flew about to different places, having many adventures.

The only one worth relating is the most glorious of his deeds,
— that of putting the light in its place. At that time the stm,
moon, and stars were kept by a rich chief in sejiarate boxes,
which he allowed no one to touch. Yehl heard of it, and desired
to have them. This chief had an only daughter, whom he loved
and spoiled to such a degree, that he examined everything she
ate and drank before he would allow her to partake. Yehl saw
that only a grandson of the old chief could obtain the light ; and,
in the form of a blade of grass, he was swallowed, and made his

iii'
■i

422

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

next appearance in that character, and was soon beloved even
more than his mother. Once Ychl commenced wecpinfj, and
nothing would appease him but the boxes in which the luminaries
were kept. After a long siege of crying the grandfather gave
him one of the boxes to pacify him, and he went out of the house
playing with it. Seeing he was not observed, he opened the box,
and, lo ! there were stars in the sky. Great were the lamenta-
tions of the old man over the loss of his treasure, but he loved
his grandson too well to scoUl him, and actually permitteil him-
self to be cheated out of the moon in the same way. But with
the box containing the sun he was more careful, and only after
refusing food and making himself sick diil Yeld succeed in im-
posing on the affectionate old man. That was finally given to
him, with the strict injunction not to open it. Hut, turning him-
self into a raven, he flew away with it, and, on opening the box,
light shone on the earth as it does now. lUit the people, aston-
ished by the unwonted glare, ran off into the mountains, woods,
and even into the water, becoming animals or fish.

Yehl was al.so said to have brought fire from an island in the
ocean. I'resh wat r was also wanting. Khannkh, the wolf,
watched incessantly over the only well in the world. Khanukh
was older and more powerful than Vchl, and is the malign spirit
of the Thlinkets. Yehl finally succeeded in obtaining the water
by a stratagem. The many stories told of him probably owe their
origin quite as often to the imagination of the individual, whose
fancies crystallize around Yehl as a centre, as to any definite
tradition. After arranging everything for the comfort of the
Thlinkets, Yehl disappeared in his abode, where neither man nor
spirit can penetrate.

There are immense numbers of minor spirits called lV/7/, who
are invoked by the shamans. Each shaman has his own familiar
spirits, who do his bidding, and others on whom he may call in
certain emergencies. These spirits are divided into three classes:
Khiyckh ("the upper ones"), Tdkhi-yckli ("land spirits"), and
Tckhi-yckh (" sea spirits "). The first are the spirits of the brave
killed in war, dwelling in the north. Hence a gn at display of
northern lights is looked upon as an omen of war. The second
and third are the spirits of those who died in the common way.
and who dwell in Taklian-kJiou. The ease with which these last

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

423

US, woods,

nach their appointed place is apparently dependent on the con-
duct of their relations in mourning for them.

Too many tears mire the road, but the sufficient quantity just
lays the dust, and makes the road hard and even.

The Tdkhi-yckh appear to the shamans in the form of land
animals, but Tckhi-yckh in the form of marine animals. With
regard to the latter there is some doubt, some of the Ihlinkets
savin,:jj that they are the spirits of marine animals themselves,
and not human spirits. Beside this, every one has his Yckh,
who is always with him, except in cases when the man becomes
exceedingly bad, when the Yekh leaves him. These spirits are
said, with questionable truth I presume, to be fond of cleanliness,
and only permit themselves to be conjured by the sound of a
drum or rattle. The last is usually made in the shape of a bird,
— hollow, and filled with small stones. These are used at all fes-
tivities, and whenever the spirits are wanted.

The Thlinkets believe in immortality and transmigration, but
not in the transmigration of human souls into animals, only from
one human body to another.

It is not uncommon to hear a poor Thlinket say, when speak-
ing of a wealthv or prosperous family, ' If I should die, I should
like to be born into that house," or even, ".\kh, were I dead, I
might perhaps return to the world in a happier condition !"

Those whose bodies are burned, are supposed to be warm in
tlio other world, others to suffer from cold. Those in whose
honor slaves were sacrificed, need not work there.

Tiieir traditions tell of a general deluge, in which a few were
saved on a raft. The waters receding, the raft broke in two ; on
one side were the ancestors of the Thlinkets, on the other tho.se
of all other nations of the world. Hence the ditilerences of lan-
guai/e and customs. In tlie beginning of this flood a brother and
sistn- were separated. The brother's name was Clwthl ; the sister's
was A/i-i^is/i-iiii-(ik/io!i (" woman under the world "). As they were
torn asunder. Chethl' said to his sister, "\o\\ will see me no
mniv, but as long as I live you shall hear my voice." Then he
put on the skin of an immense bird, and disappeared in the
southwest. The sister ascended Mount Kdgecumbe, near Sitka,
which opened and swallowed her up, of which the crater remains
in evidence.

B>! '■

424

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

Descending beneath the earth, she devoted herself to sustain-
ing the world (which is buckler-shaped, according to the Thlinkets)
upon a pillar, above the waters which had so lately surged over it.
Spirits hating mankind endeavor to drive her away, to overturn
the pillar, to destroy the earth and its inhabitants. The pil-
lar sometimes is made to tremble, producing earthquakes, during
these battles ; but Ah-gish-dn-akJion is strong and faithful, and
the earth is safe. Chethl', in the form of the bird Kiinita-knt-cth,
frequents the crater of Edgecumbe, feeding on whales, which he
carries there in his claws. Rising from his eyrie with the com-
ing storm, true to his promise, thunder is the rustling of his wings,
while lightning flashes from his eyes.

Our information goes no further. Wrangell says nothing of
the totems of the whale and the eagle, of which last Chethl' is
probably the originator, and only inci''entally mentions the wolf,
Khaniikh. He says the Thlinket code of morals is, " As Yehl
lived and acted, so should we live and do " ; but this is vague,
unsatisfactory, and probably erroneous. It is well worthy of
notice that among these myths there is nothing pointing toward a
Supreme Being, any system of reward and punishment, or any law
of moral responsibility ; nor, contrary to the popular notion, have
I found among any of the savage tribes any such beliefs whatever,
except where clearly traceable to the teachings of the whites.

Sorcery, " medicine," or shamanism appears to be inherent in
the minds of all uncivilized nations, and an inevitable concomi-
tant of a low stage of mental development. Its essential char-
acters arc the same in the Indian, the Eskimo, the native African,
the Koriaks and Tungiises on the frozen steppes of Siberia, and
the Fijians on the green islands of the tropical ocean. In its de-
tails it differs, taking its shades of development generally from the
psychological peculiarities of each nation, consequent on its sur-
roundings and mode of life.

Some authors, losing sight of essential points of agreement in
the differences of detail, would restrict it to the northern nations
only ; or perhaps would apply only to the closely allied forms of
superstition current among those nations, the term " shamanism,"
which is derived from a Yakut word meaning " holy," but has
been adopted into the English language by lexicographers * from

♦ See Webster'- Unal>ridged, &c , where it is incorrectly accented.

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

425

to sustain-
Thlinkcts)
cd over it.
overturn
The pil-
ces, during
ithful, and
'.na-kdt-ctli,
, which ho
h the com-
f his wings,

nothing of
; Chcthl" is
IS the wolf,
"As Yehl
,s is vague,
worthy of
ig toward a
:, or any law
lotion, have
fs whatever,

hites.

nherent in
concomi-
ential char-
ive African,
Siberia, and
In its dc-

ly from the

on its sur-

reement in
ern nations
ed forms of
hamanism,"
but has
Dhers * from

cnted.

the Russian, as we have no word in our language to express it.
It is always closely interwoven with the aboriginal polytheistic
myths, and is iii fact a natural offshoot from them.

The words and actions of the shaman, or sorcerer, are con-
sidered infallible by the Thlinkets, and believed implicitly by
them.

A shnnian must have the faculty, not only of calling " spirits
from the vasty deep," but also the power to make them come
when he calls for them, or at all events to appear to come. The
office is often hereditary, a grandson or son inheriting the para-
phernalia, drums, rattles, masks, etc. of the shaman ; but if he
(Iocs not possess certain mental or psychological peculiarities
beside, all this availeth nothing.

The aspirant for shamanism goes for some time into the forest,
or upon a mountain, in solitude, — situations calculated to call forth
a sort of mental fervor, and to e.xcite the imagination to the high-
est pitch. Here he remains, subsisting exclusively on the root of a
wild [jlant {Panax horridiim), and avoiding the company and hab-
itations of men. The length of time depends on his susceptibility
to mental excitement. In their own relations of the event, they
say that one of the foremost of the spirits sends a river-otter to
them, in the tongue of which lies the whole secret, power, and
force required in the profession of shamanism. When the otter
meets the shamln, both stop The man kills the animal, crying
aloud four times as he does sm. The otter falls on its back, stretch-
ing out its tongue, which the shaman cuts out and preserves in a
small cover, made for it with the greatest care, hiding it with the
utmost precaution, as an uninitiated person finding it would im-
mediately lose his senses. The skin of the otter is taken off,
and preserved by the shaman, as a sign of his profession. The
tlcsh is carefully buried, and, previous to the Russian occupation
of Sitka, no Thlinket dared to kill an otter. At present, from
luve of gain, and experience having shown no evil results, that
superstition has become nearly extinct.

If solitude and a low diet do not bring the desired boon, the
aspirant repairs to the grave of some shaman of repute, remains
overnight near the body, taking a tooth or a finger from the
corpse in his mouth, the more readily fo compel the attendance
of the expected spirits, and the required otter. Haggard and half

<• i

I.I

426

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

V 1

' j

insane, the neophyte returns to his kindred, wliere his new-
powers are immediately put to the test.

The honor and respeet with whieh a shaman is regarded de-
pend on the number of spirits under his control, who, properly
employed, contribute largely to his wealth. For every one of
them he has a name and certain songs. Sometimes the spirits
of his ancestors come to his assistance, and increase his power, so
that it is believed he can throw his spirits into other people who
do not believe in his art. Those unfortunate wretches to whom
this happens, suffer from horrible fits and paroxysms.

When the shaman is sick, his relations fast to promote his
recovery. I lis command is law. The shamans long since for-
bade the eating of whale's flesh and blubber, one of the greatest
delicacies among the neighboring tribes ; and to this day it is
regarded with abhorrence by the Thlinkets.

The shaman has a large amount of paraphernalia. This in-
cludes wooden masks, one for each spirit, carved and carefully
painted. These are distinct from the masks used by all the Thlin-
kets in their dances and festivals.

The hair of the shaman must never be cut. After his death,
as was mentioned previously, his body is not burned, but depos-
ited in a wooden bo.v on four high posts. For the first night he
remains lying in the corner where he died ; but on the following
day he is removed to the opposite corner, and this is continued
until the body has visited each of the four corners of the house.
All the inmates of the house fast meanwhile. On the fifth day
the body, dressed in the garb of his profession, is bound to a board.
Two ivory or bone wands, which the shaman used in his perform-
ances, are placed, the one in the cartilage of the nose, and the other
in the hair, which is tied together. The head is covered with a
piece of basket-work, and the body is carried to its final resting-
place, always on the shore. Every time a Thlinket paddles bv
the remains he throws a small offering, as a little tobacco, in the
water, that he may by this means find favor in the eyes of the
dead man.

One example of the manner in which shamanism is practised
will suffice. On the day appointed for the exhibition cf hi<
power, his relations, who act the part of a chorus of singers, are
obliged to fast. Nay, more than that ; they are obliged to use a

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

427

feather as an emetic, and free themselves entirely from such gross
iiKiti-rial substances as food.

Tiic performance commences at sunset and lasts till sunrise.
All who wish to participate assemble in the lodj^e or hut of the
shaman, where they join in a song, to which time is beaten on a
ilnnn. Dressed in his paraphernalia, with a mask over his face,
tiic shaman rushes round and round the fire, which is burning in
the centre of the lodge ; he keeps his eyes directed toward the
opening in the roof, and keeps time to the drum with violent mo-
tions of his limbs and body, These movements gradually become
more convulsive ; his eyes roll till the whites alone are visible.
Suddenly he stops, looks intently at the drum, and utters loud
cries. The singing ceases, and all eyes are directed toward him,
and all ears strained to catch the utterances which are sup-
poscil to be inspired. These ceremonies comprise the whole art
of shamanism among the Thlinkets. The spirits of the dilVerent
classes appear to the .shamdn in different forms. By changing
the masks he places himself cii rapport with the spirit to which
each mask is dedicated. It is believed that this spirit inspires
for the moment all the utterances of the shaman, who is for the
moment unconscious. After the ceremonies are ovi-r, first to-
bacco and then food are distributed to those present, and all is
concluded.

The Si'tka-kwan have now a large infusion of Russian blood.
Many of the half-breeds are fine-looking, and some have married
Russians. Diseases are very prevalent, but less so than before
the establishment of the Russian hospital. Licentiousness is
universal among them, and much of their present degradation is
due to the sale of liquor to them by the Russians and Hudson
Bay traders. Smugglers, many of them Americans, have carried
on a successful but dangerous traffic with them for years. They
are, without doubt, the most dangerous of the tribes in the terri-
jtory Many of them are professed Christians of the Greek faith.
Some have been repeatedly baptized for the sake of the presents
which accompany that ceremony. It need hardly be said that
their Christianity is totally unworthy of the name, and only
served the purpose of promoting the so-called missionaries to
hij^her positions in the church they disgraced. It is more than
I probable that the only missionary, beside Veniaminoff, who has

i\l

428

AHORK'.INAL INHABITANTS.

1 ;i:

really done much to elevate the Indian tribes on the west coast,
is the Rev. Mr. Duncan, of Meta-k;itla.

The Ydkittats. — This tribe includes the natives who occiipv
the coast from Mount I'airweatiier to Mount St. I'dias. 'I'licv
are of the Thlinket stock, but do not wear tiie kalitslik-a or lip-
ornament, arc .said not to adopt the totemic sy.stem, and eat the
blubber and flesh of the whale, which the last-mentioned tribe
reject. They live in great part by fishing, and are few in num-
ber. This concludes the list of the Thlinket tribes, in the terri-
tory of Alaska.

The Tiniich Stock. — This great family includes a large num-
ber of North American tribes, extending, from near the niout!;
of the Mackenzie, south to the borders of Mexico. The Apaches
and Comanches belong to it, and the family seem to intersect the
continent of North America in a north and south direction, prin-
cipally along the flanks of the Rocky Mountains.

The tribes of this stock in the north extend westward nearly to
the delta of the Yukon, and reach the coast at Cook's Inlet and
the mouth of the Copper River. I-lastward they extend quite c:
nearly to the mountains which divide the watershed of Hudson
Bay from that of the Mackenzie and Athabasca. They are the
Thnaina or Keiiaizcr o{ Holmberg. They have been called (////•
pa.vyans (pointed coats), from the shape of their parkies, aiiJ
Athabdseniis, from the district some inhabit ; but their own na-
tional designation is Thineh, meaning " people " in a colleclivi;
sense. Though some tribes evidently of this stock have other
designations, I propose, with Messrs. Ross and Gibbs, to adopt it
as preferable to either of the above-mentioned names.

The northern Ti'nneh may be divided into three natural groiiiK
These are, first, the Eastern Tiiineh, who form their tribal name
by the addition of " tend" an evident modification of the same
word. Next come the Knteliin tribes, who principally occupy the
Yukon and its tributaries above Nuklukahyet. They form their
tribal name by the addition of the word Kntehin, which has the
same meaning as Ti'nneh. Lastly, the Western Tinneh, who
occupy the region west of the Yukon and the banks of that river
below Nuklukahyet. They form their tribal designation by \k
add'Mon of the word " tdna," another modification of Ti'nneli,
They are bounded everywhere on the coast by the Innuit tcrri
tory. These three divisions will be considered collectively.

i M(

AUOKlCilNAL IMIAIJITANTS.

429

west coast,

vho occupy
,lias. They
s/ika or li])-

aiul cat the
loned tril)c^
few in mini-

in the tcrri-

large niim-
r the mouth
rhc ApacliL>
intersect tin;
rection, prin-

arc! nearly to
k's Inlet and
;tend quite or
d of Hudson
They arc the
\ called (■////•
larkies, ami
cir own 11a'
1 a collective
have other
js, to adopt i;

atural groups
r tribal name

of the same
y occupy the
cy form their
hich has the

Tiunch, who

of that rive:
nation by \\a
w of TiuiH'b.
c Innuit terri-

itively.

T/ii' Xi/id unci's. — ]?e^innin<;, for the sake of unity, somewhat
hcvond our boundaries, the rej^ion which iuehules the Lewis, or
Taluo, and I'elly rivers, with the valley of the Chilkaht Kiver, is
ficcupied by tribes known to llie Hudson Hay voyaj^eurs as Ne-
haunees. They are as yet quite a primitive people ami some of
the tribes are djscribed as deeply sunk in ilirt, ignorance, and
harharism. They can be warlike, but are generally considered as
idwardly and treacherous. Those wiio inhabit the valK.-y of the
I'hilkiiht are said to call themselves Cliitkaht-tiiui. They are u
bold anil enterprising people, great traders, and of a high degree
(if intelligence. They carry Russian goods over the portage,
iiulicated in the map (as laid ilown by one of them), to the tribes
living on the Yukon. They are said to have had a hand in the
burning of Fort Selkirk.

Those on the I'elly and Macmillan rivers call themselves Abba-
to-tciiii, and are a much lower grade of Indians. Those on the
I'ppcr Yukon are little known, few in number, and .saiel to be
very low in the scale of intelligence.

Some of them near Liard's River call themselves Dalio-tciid, or
.\cluto-tciiii, and others are called Sicdiiiis by the voyageur.s.
Those near Frances Lake are also known as Maiivais Monde or
Slavi' Indians. About I'ort Selkirk they have been called Ccns
Is Fonx. They live on the moo.se and deer, beside fishing. They
obtain many furs, and dress moose and deer skins for barter with
the I'jiglish. They wear the national pointed coat, like the
Koyi'ikuns, have the nose pierced, and practise embroidery with
|)orcupine quill.s. They are migratory in their habits, following
[the moose and deer, building no permanent dwelling.s, and living
jin skin tents throughout the year. In most respects their cus-
[tjius agree with those of the tribes below on the river.

Ihc Tntchonc Kntcliin. — These, also called Xehaunee by the
Itnulers, occupy the country on both sides of the Yukon about

I'oit Selkirk. They are .sometimes Mlled (icns dcs 1-oux, Caribou,

ir Mountain Indians. Their own name, translated, means " Crow

Indians."

The All-tend. — South and west of the last-named, on the upper
Ipirt of the Atna or Copper River, are a little-known tribe of the
I'll'ove name. They have been called Atnaer and Kolsliiiux by the

Russians, and Yclloiv Knife, or Nehdunee, by the English.

430

AIIORIGINAL IMIAUITANTS.

The Ci^nli'iitsi. — A small tribe, called by this name amonR the
Russian traders, arc said to hold their winter festivals on K.lyak
Island, and to fish dnriii;; the sununer on the banks of the Copper
River, near the mouth. They have been considered as an offshoot
of the Thlinkets by some authors; but, judj^inj; from a vocabulary
in the possession of Mr. (iibbs, they are more properly grouped
with the T/nneh.

I /ic Kiuai-liiid. — These Indians inhabit the country near
Cook's Inlet, and both slu>res of the Inlet as far south as Cluiga-
chik I5ay. 'I'hey are the "trite J'/iiiaiiin" o{ 1 lohnberg, and arc
called by the \'ukon tribes Tclianiti-Kulchin. Their customs arc
similar to those of the other Indian tribes of the vicinity, as far as
we know. Lisi.insky says that they use birch canoes, and biirv
their dead in wooden boxes, piling stones above the dead. TIkv
express their lamentation by smearing their faces with black pain:,
singeing their hair, and lacerating their bodies with knives. Tiny
are more intelligent than the neighboring Innnit tribes, and
live by hunting and fishing. They kill large >nnbers of the
mountain goat, and clothe themselves partly ilh the skiiir
Those near the coast use bidarkas, which they purchase from
the Innuit. Iheir language is extremely guttural when com-
pared with that of the Innuit

The Ilan-Kiitchin. — These arc found on the Yukon, next be-
low the Crows, and bear the name of Cens des Bois among the
English. They are few in number. They arc sometimes calla!
Kolshina by the Russian traders, who apply that term to all In-
dians they are not familiar with.

The TukkiUh-Kutehin. — These occupy the country south ot'
the head-waters of the Porcupine or Rat River.

The Viiiitd-Kutchin. — These inhabit the territory north of tlK|
head-waters of the Porcupine, somewhat below Lapierre's House,
which is in the territory of the last-named. These are sometime-
called Loi'ieheiix or Quarrcller.s, and their name signifies "Ra;|
people."

The Naichc'-Kiitchiii. — These extend on the north bank to the 1
mouth of the Porcupine. Like all the Tinneh tribes hithcrti
mentioned, they are migratory, and their customs much resemble
those of the following tribes. Their name means "strong peo-
ple " ; the English call them Gens de Large. The first syllable

c amoiiH the
s on K.lyak
f the Copper
s an olVshoot
a vocabulary
;rly grouped

ountry near
th as Chuj^i'i-
icrg, anil arc
customs arc
lity, as far as
cs, and burv
dead. Tluy
1 black paint,
nivcs. Tluy
; tribes, and
libers of the
li the skin>.
iirchase from
, when com-

kon, next be-
is among the
ctiuics called
rm to all In-

itry south of

north of tlii;
ierre's House
ire sometime'^
ignifies " Rat

h bank to the
ribes hitherto
luch resemble
; " strong peo-
irst syllable is

\ ■

i i

mmm

ABOKIGjXA.'. INilAhlT.NNTS,

•imt.-, spell:-! .\>i!s//. They at\: :i!;n cailc.l Ij.U'-h ax. '1 'i .

ailli tiu- liiiiiiii wi" llic iioilhcru 'uu-t. thiiii ;li t''^ b.irier i>

inlcfiui^i.xi l>v I'.'jUilintJS. Ji.'-v 'IV Ml.!', i i^r (he h.ibichc

\ ihcy m.inut".i':iu!\:. 'I'licy i.. in-ra!>!S, 1 vv i'n iuii>il)'i.

'y-c by .L't r-binitin;;.

• ,■ A'.'/A-iv Kut.liJi. — This tril>.' ■( 1 .u !u":\ 'dvr f.^Ki,.' in thr

t;-y iKMi- t!>'' |\iiut;nn ot'thi; l'"i'- >[>'.:■< nv.i i;'C N'tiivoji. 1 Mi'ir

> ,'ii'- iuIK .locnb.' I in llv: lirsT par', f lni> •.obmic. '] !i« ir

iiir.n-; •• KAvl,in>l people." 'I'hcy iui tiv-tly :! luiiijd ihr

:i r.iiv (hi<~. ai >'joii iii ihc: .--kclch »> .ki . ■ 'v'>:l l!lc 11..M

till r.;l,i.liis til.: p'iiiit'-!l cn:it>.

l\ii.ii:-Ki<:,-inn. — Thi-;, the b..' . ^ ■ hst i^l K.il.hiii

oi-.cupir-; 'in i:(.>iiir:i-y dr-iiii'-'i b;. '.h- i'.i.i. .ih Ivi-'i'. 1 Iw y

,..:.';i ni-iou-Iv u^'^'-ribc'l, \v x\ ' •■ M;',.- «iith-'i' Mivti-

1 ibc w inu i .!;\ (liU'l^c>^, doiii^' ai' , ■■>( a. i'.^' l.M..i • ^
.itur.iib .;(-!,•.■ 1-1'). Jr. iiv.;, ;ire soon iii.i.i' • A'tcuvi;. in . 1 , '■■. ::
.\\ lilV;. I'll!:-, 't^ Mill Ihc case 11 i :)'.,. n.; 1110 \\ - • ■ ; I ii!;r'-
--, whcr.-- Ill-- woincii do only ^i '-if -n.ir^; .1 '' '^i 1

■ i powrrb;! \n:.;c in m 'St ;!.ui;rs. Tii.T. \v.r.. i;';Mi. , ; . \
. ol' iiiiii.in!; Ijotu'vcn the nr.>u!:iS-or lii^ I'-r, ,,i,i;v .in.! i .n.i-
u llii. VuL^.n. \»u. liivy h,..-e l)Ccn s>\rpl :i,v;iy i)\ ' lilcl
. TJK.-v \V(.:i.; 'li^ /(;v.7;'''-AV,, ■'^<v-' o'- !'ir;.h 1 tidiail.. C/iV/ . .A'
;//.i-; u;.d tin: / .'/.^■//■-A ..'/(■/'■.■/
>. l'Hnklu->-!.iK<i --Tni-c Inliiu' livr i.m ih-: Vuk'.ii Iv.'l'.nv
. ..ahvu ' ill. Koyiikiik Rr a. Tbcv ivv. •-, i:l,'r! \ illa.ves.
',!d htiii... s, tlKi.'..;!i l'!'\- ir.n' :h 1.1 duiii;^ iho hii.iM:;., .-oa-
I hey li.-\\'' '■»':'-ii i'.'ll'.' (lcs( r:li.('. ■ i-r'.vh.Mo. i Iv \ .r.--o oil
■•a\.."-, .IS Wi'li .1 i-iio-;; of i!ic: .'tl", r !;■'''>' - \vl .1 .'.ivc d.i itu.-
■. Vitl^''i!k!;.o-.:i.\,. i.f "nrai ..f i.f \' I'c-^n.'" Th- rtlui
n..ans ' lar-hi" tj.'oi.'-' 1 h -■ 1 ■ 11 ■• ' .'^ /,■•.'. r v'^ '^'///z '-I

A.')'

■ihil-.

-r? Vf<.

;iaik Kivi

vi.unn'.

11. • ,' ail' i:

;c .";ii- ^

Til) ■•■ .< y '•
.' }',v. "'.•■.' ■.'./'■^'t

1' , liiCl.t.i ■

iivin,.. O'

:n .1:1. '1 n.- r piu
Ib'Iii'b.a--, -n.

thr KdU'h K"(Ji;n ^A \\

A . a 1

I I ..1 .■ V('\ 1;! ai-
•' pr^ pK' I

Vlv,.an only a', r pu^-t 1 h.- a i:r.. .--a .m
I ilk Kivir
i:di\nii-l:liotd>ia. — '1;u'.m-i: ■ 'ny I'a'lydc.vcrib -l ' !-i a\1i

■rnp',' bcitli bank.- o

fiho l..nv^-r \

a, U'-ariv

\\\i- .s\

■':: I (

, i h

''»■'

'i^'

^fe •■.

n "i

-IK'

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

431

..*•".

\'' :

sometimes spelled XiitsiL They are also cilled Loucheux. They
ti;ule wilh the Iiiiuiit of the nortiieni eoust, thou;4h the barter is
often interrupted by hostilities. They are noted for the babi'che
whieh they manufueture. They are migratory, few in number,
and live by deer-huntini;.

Tlic Kiilclui-KntcJiin. — This tribe of Loueheux are found in the
country near the junetion of thi; I'oreupine and the Yukon. Their
habits are fully deseribed in the fust jjart of this volume. Their
name means " lowland [)eople." They have mostly assumed the
Hudson Bay dress, as seen in the sketch opposite, while the next
irihe still retains the pointed coats.

The Tcndit-Kutchin. — This, thr last of the list of Kutchi'n
tribes, occupies the country drained by the Tananah River. They
have been previously described. In all the tribes hitherto men-
tioned the women are ilrudi;cs, doing almost all the hard work,
aiul, naturally good-looking, are soon made extremely ugly by their
mode of life. This is not the case among the Western Tinneh
tribes, where the women do only a fair share of the work, and
have a powerful voice in most alkiirs. There were formerly a few
haiuls of Indians between the mouths of the Porcupine and Tana-
nah, on the Yukon, but they have been swept away by scarlet
tcwr. They were the Tciniuth-KnUhiii or Birch Indians {(jcns dc
P'Oiih-aiix) and the Tatsdh-Kittchin.

The Uiuxkho-tdna. — These Indians live on the Yukon below
Xiiklukahyet to the Koyukuk River. They have settled villages,
;i;h1 build houses, though they leave them during the hunting sea-
>o;i. They have been fully described elsewhere. They also call
themselves, as well as most of the other tribes who live on the
Yukon, Yiikoiiikho-tdna, or "men of the ^^lkon." The other
name means "far-off people." They are the Jnuiiaihotaua of
llolinberg.

Tlie Koyukukho-tdiia. — These arc sedentary Indians living on
the Koyukuk River, and described as Koyukims in another part
it this volume. They are the Jniniakachotajut of Ilolmberg, and
piThaps the Ketli'k-Kiitehin of the Hudson Bay voyageurs, who
kno\v' them only by report. The name means " people of the
Koyukuk River."

The Kdiyuli-kJio-tdiia. — These are very fully described elsewhere,
3i)(l occupy both banks of the Lower Yukon, nearly to the Mission,

432

ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

the valley of the Upper Kuskoqiiim, and the country between the
two rivers. They are known to the Russians as Iii^iiliks, a naiivj
of which I have not been able to trace the orij^in, but which i>,
perhaps, their Innuit appellation. It is the largest tribe in tlic
territory, and while I have some doubts about a tribe on the head-
waters of the Kuskoquim, called "Kolshina" by the Russian
traders, yet there do not appear to be any divisions in all this
extent of country of tribal value. They understand one another
perfectiy, but cannot converse with the Kutchin tribes, althouj;h
the dialects are very similar, as is evident from the vocabularies.
They comprise the Iiiki/ikai, Uiii/^-iii^iiiiits, 'ra/,:oJakscn, Jn^i^cl-
uittai, Inkalicliljitatcti, Tliljcgonchotdna, &c., of Ilolmbcrg. Tiic
names which he uses are most of ihem of only local value, and
not tribal names. The " Iiiiioka" " Thljcgonl' and " Tatschcgno "
rivers, of which Zagoskin wrote, are, in name at least, emanations
from his own imagination. He never visited them, and no white
man has ever been where they are laid down on the map. In \\\\<
respect they resemble the Colvilc, Xunatok, Kikoak, and other
rivers, of which the mouths alone have been seen by the whites,
yet which are spread over nine degrees of latitude, and eight
of longitude by many modern geographers ; probably for the pur-
pose of filling up the blank spaces on the map, and thus disguis-
ing our ignorance of them.

This completes the list of the native Innuit and Indian tribes
of Alaska and the territory immediately adjacent.

twecn the
[•s, a nanvj
; which i>,
ibc in the
I thehcad-
e Russian
in all this
le another
s, althoii;4h
)cabularies.
sc/i, Jiii^il-
berg. The
1 value, and
ratschcgno "
emanations
k1 no white
ap. In thi<
and other
the whites,
, and ci^^bt
,for the pur-
hus disguis-

idian tribes

CHAPTER IV.

Climate and Agricultural Resources.

ALASKA may be divided agriculturally into three districts ;
each diftering from the others in its climate, vegetation, and
physical characteristics. The first and most northern district,
which I have termed the Yukon Territory, is bounded on the
south by the Alaskan Mountains, on the east by the British
boundary line, and on the north and west by the Arctic Ocean
and Bering Sea.

The second or middle district, which may be called the Aleu-
tian District, includes that part of the peninsula of Aliaska,
and all the islands west of the one hundred and fifty-fifth degree
of longitude.

The third or southernmost, which will be designated as the
vSitkan District, includes all our possessions on the mainland and
islands south and east of the peninsula of Aliaska.

The Yukon Territory. — The character of the country in the
vicinity of the Yukon River varies from low, rolling, and some-
what rocky hills, usually easy of ascent, to broad and rather
marshy plains, extending for miles on cither side of the river,
especially near the mouth. There are, of course, no roads, ex-
cept an occasional trail, hardly noticeal)le except by a voyageur.
The Yukon and its tributaries form the great highways of the
country.

The rocks vary, the great"- proportion being conglomerate,
sienite, quartzite, and sandstone. Trachyte and lava abound in
particular districts The superincumbent soil also differs, in some
localities being sandy, and in others clayey. In the latter case it
is frequently covered with growth of sjjhagnum, which causes a
deterioration of the soil below it. Over a large extent of coun-
try it is a rich alluvial, composed of very fine sand, mud, and
vegetable matter, brought down by the river, and forming depos-
28

. I

I' i

434

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

its of indefinite depth ; and in some such localities fresh-water
marl is found in abundance.

The soil is usually froz- n at a depth of three or four feet in
ordinary situations. In colder ones it remains icy to within
eighteen inches of the surface. This layer of frozen soil is six or
eight feet thick ; below that depth the soil is destitute of ice,
except in very unusual situations.

This phenomenon appears to be directly traceable to want of
drainage, combined with a non-conductive covering of moss, which
prevents the scorching sun of the boreal midsummer from thaw-
ing and warming the soil.

In places where the soil is well drained, and is not covered
with moss, as in the large alluvial deposits near the Yukon-
mouth, I have noticed that the frozen layer is much farther
below the surface, and in many places appears even to be en-
tirely wanting.

I have no doubt, that, in favorable situations, by draining and
deep ploughing, the ice could, in the course of time, be wholly
removed from the soil. *

A singular phenomenon on the shores of Escholtz Bay,
Kotzcbue Sound, was first observed and described in the voy-
age of the Rurik by Kotzebue and Chamisso, and afterward
in the Appendix to the Voyage of the Herald by Buckland and
Forbes.

It consists of bluffs or banks (30 to 60 feet high) of apparently
solid ice, fronting the water, which washes on a small beach
formed by detritus, at the foot of the bank. These continuous
banks of ice, strange to say, are covered with a layer of soil and
vegetable matter, where, to use the words of the renowned bota-
nist. Dr. Scemann, " herbs and shrubs are flourishing with a lu.v
uriancc only equalled in more favored climes."

Kotzebue's account is exaggerated and highly colored, as is

* Alton (Tre.itise on Peat Moss, &c., see Ed. Ency., Vol. XVI. p. 738) has ascribed
the cold and rainy climate of Scotland partly to the accumuKations of sphagnum.
"Thirty-two and a half ounces of dry moss soil will retain without fluidity eighteen
ounces of water ; whilst thirty-nine ounces of the richest garden mould will only
retain eighteen and a half ounces. Moss is also more retentive of cold than any other
soil, /''rost IS oftai found (in Scotland) to continue in deep mosses until after the middU
of summer. Hence the effect of mossy accumulations in rendering the climate
colder."

5h-\vatcr

■ feet in

3 within

is six or

e of ice.

want of
)ss, which
Dm thaw-

t covered
; Yukon-
;h farther
to be en-

lining and
be wholly

loltz Bay,

:i the voy-

afterward

:kland and

llored, as is

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

435

everything he has written ; but the facts were confirmed by Dr.
P)uckla"ul and his companions, although Captain Hecchcy had
previously reported * that Kotzebue had been deceived by snow,
drifted against the face of the banks, and remaining while that in
other localities had melted away.

Dr. Ikickland and his party not only examined the face of
these bluffs, but at various points on the top of the bank, more or
loss removed from the shore, and found in every instance ice,
nearly pure or mixed with vegetable matter, at a short distance
below the surface.! They report also that the water in the bay
is becoming more .shallow, by the fall of the detritus, as the ice
melts away, and the formation is rapidly disappearing. As no
explanation has been offered of this singular phenomenon, I
venture to suggest that it may be due to essentially the same
causes as the subterranean ice layer, which is found over a great
part of the Yukon Territory.

It is quite possible to conceive of a locality depressed and so
deprived of drainage that the annual moisture derived from rain-
fall and melting snow would collect between the impervious clayey
soil and its sphagnous covering, congeal during the winter, and
be prevented from melting, during the ensuing summer, by the
non-conductive properties of that mossy covering, which would
thus be gradually raised ; the process, annually repeated for an
indefinite period, would form an ice layer which would well
deserve the appellation of an " ice-cliff," when the encroachments
of the sea should have worn away its barriers, and laid it open to
the action of the elements.

The lesson that the agriculturist or political economist may
learn from this curious formation is, that a healthy and luxuriant
vegetation may exist in the immediate vicinity of permanent ice,
bearing its blossoms and maturing its seeds as readily as in situ-
ations apparently much more favored. Hence we may infer that
a large extent of territory long considered valueless may yet
lunush to the trader, fisherman, or settler, if not an abundant
harvest, at least an acceptable and not inconsiderable addition to
his fare of fish, venison, and game.

" Xair.ntive of the Voyage of the Blossom to the Pacific and Behring Strait. Lon-
don, I S3 1

t Sec Narrative of the Vcyage of the Herald, also the Appendix. London, 1845-
1S51. Also Osteology of the Herald's Voyage, by Prof. E. Forbes.

436

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

The climate of the Yukon Territory in the interior (as is the
case throughout Alaska) dilTers from that of the sea-coast, even
in localities comparatively adjacent. That of the coast is tem-
pered by the vast body of water contained in Ikring Sea, and
many southern currents bringing warmer water from the Pacific,
making the winter climate of the coast much milder than that of
the country, even thirty miles into the interior ; this, too, with-
out any high range of mountains acting as a l)ar to the progress
of warm winds. The summers, on the other hand, from the quan-
tity of rain and cloudy weather, are cooler and less ple;i nt than
those of the interior. The months of May and June, however,
and part of July, are delightful, — sunny, warm, and clear. To
quote Scemann again, on the northern coast "the growth of plants
is rapid in the extreme. The snow has hardly disappeared before
a mass of herbage has sprung up, and the spots which a few
days before presented nothing but a white sheet are teeming
with an active vegetation, producing leaves, flowers, and fruit in
rapid succession." Even during the long Arctic day the plants
have their period of sleep, — short, though plainly marked, as in
the tropics, and indicated by the same drooping of the leaves and
other signs, which we observe in milder climates. The follow-
ing table shows the mean temperature of the seasons : At St.
Michael's, on the coast of Norton Sound, in lat. 63° 28' ; at the
Mission, on the Yukon River, one hundred and fifty miles from
its mouth, in lat. 61° 47' ; at Nulato, four hundred and fifty miles
farther up the river, in lat. 64° 40' (appro.ximate) ; and at Fort
Yukon, twelve hundred miles from the mouth of the river, and
about lat. 66° 34'.

Means Tur St. Michael's.

Mission.

IJulato.

1
Fort Yukon. ,

Spring . . . ' -t-29°.3
Summer . . ' -4-53 .0
Autumn . . . -t-26 .3
Winter . . -f 8 .6

-1-19° 62

-*-S9 -32
-1-36 .05

-fo .95

+ 29O3
-f 60 .0 ?
-t-36 .0 ?
— 14 .0

-t-I4°.22

+59 .67
+ 17 -37
-23 .80

Year . . . +29°.3

-4-260.48

-f27°.S

-l-i6°.92

The mean temperature of Unalakli'k, on the east shore of
Norton Sound, lat. 63" 42' was, for the winter of 1 866 - 67, -i-o°.33 ;

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

437

is the
;t, even
is tem-
loa, and

Tacific,

that of
10, with-
progrcss
ne quan-

nt than
liowcvcr,
:ar. To
of plants
ed before
ch a few
; teeming
d fruit in
the plants
ked, as in
leaves and
[he follow-
5: At St.

8' ; at the

miles from
ifty miles

k1 at Tort
river, and

Fori Yukon.

-59 .f'?
+ 17 -37

2^, .So

.i6°.92

St shore of
67. -i-o'^oS'

hut for that of 1867-68 it was much higher, probably about
-j-9^.0. The mean annual temperature of the Yukon Territory,
as a whole, may be roughly estimated at about -fJ5"o- The
greatest degree of cold ever known in the territory was seventy
below zero, of Fahrenheit ; but such cold as this is very rare, and
has little effect on the vegetation, covered with six or eight feet
of snow. Open water may be found on all the rivers in the
coldest weather, and many springs are not frozen up throughout
the year.

The real opportunity for agricultural enterprise in a country
cannot be deduced from annual mean temperatures alone, but is
dependent on the heat of the summer months and the duration
of the summer.*

At I<'ort Yukon I have seen the thermometer at noon, not in
the direct rays of the sun, standing at 1 12°, and I was informed,
by the commander of the jKist, that .several spirit thermometers,
graduated up to i20°.o, had burst under the scorching sun of the
Arctic midsummer; which can only be thoroughly appreciated
by one who has endured it. In midsummer on the Upper
Yukon the only relief from the intense heat, under which the
vegetation attains an almost tropical luxuriance, is the brief space
during which the sun hovers over the northern horizon, and the
voyageur in his canoe blesses the transient coolness of the mid-
night air.

The annual rainfall cannot be accurately estimated from want
of 'data. At Nulato the fall of snow from November to the end
of April will average eight fe(^t, but often reaches twelve. It is
much less on the seaboard. Partly on this account, and also be-
cause it is driven seaward by the wind, there is usually in spring
very little snow on the coasts near Norton Sound. In the interior
there is less wind, and the snow lies as it falls among the trees.
Toward spring the ravines, gullies, and brushwood are well filled
or covered up, and transportation with dogs and sleds is easy and
pleasant. The warm sun at noon melts the surface of the snow,
which soon freezes, forming a hard crust, rendering snowshocs
almost unnecessary.

The rainfall, as has been previously remarked, is much greater
in summer on the coast than in the interior. The months of May,

* More extended data in regard to the meteorology may be found in Appendi.x.

■ t.'

'' i

438

CLIMATE ANO AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

I I

June, and part of July, brinj; sunny, delightful weather; but the re-
mainder of the season, four days in a week at least, will he rainy
at St. Michael's. October brings a change. The winds, usually
from the southwest from July to the latter part of September,
in October are mostly from the north, and, though cold, bring fine
weather. They are interrupted occasionally by gales, the most
violent of the season, from the southwest ; piling the driftwood
upon the shores, where it lies until the succeeding fall, unless car-
ried olil" by the natives for fuel.

The valley of the Lower Yukon is somewhat foggy in the
latter part of the summer ; but as we ascend the river the climate
improves, and the short summer at I'ort Yukon is dry, hot, and
pleasant, only varied by an occasional shower.

The climatic law which governs t\v distribution of trees also
seems to limit the wanderings of the aborigines. The Eskimo
extend all along the coast and up the principal rivers with the
tundra. The Indians populate the interior, but seldom pa«s the
boundary of the woods. Neither perform any agricultural labor
whatever, unless we so designate the work of picking wild berries,
which form their only vegetable food, excepting the half-digested
food of the reindeer ; the roots of Ilcdysarum Mackcnzii, the
" liquorice root " of the trappers ; Polygotium vivipixntm ; a spe-
cies of ArcJuingdica, or wild parsnip ; and the leaf-stalks of a
Rinncx, or wild rhubarb.

The few Russian settlements in the Yukon territory, pursuant
with the charter of the Russian American Company enjoining
them to "promote agriculture," were formerly provided with
small gardens ; but little interest being taken by the officers of
the Company in such matters, especially during the last governor-
.ship, none of them, during the time of my residence, were culti-
vated, with the exception of those at St. Michael's and the Mis-
sion. These were due to the procuring of .seed, through private
hands, by the Uproval/sha Sergei Stepanoff and Father Lar-
riown, the missionary, and not to any assistance from the Com-
pany. The employes of the Company had too little energy and
knowledge of agriculture to attempt anything of the kind.

The first requisite for habitation, or even exploration, in any
country, is timber. With it almost all parts of the Yukon
Territory are well supjilied. The treeless coasts even of the

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RLSOURCKS.

//, the

a spc-

Iks of a

lursuant
oining
;cl with
ticers of
:overnor-
;rc culti-
Ihc Mis-
privato
icr Lar-
ue Com-
ergy and

439

Arctic Ocean can hardly be said to be an exception, as they arc
bountifully supplied with drifiwooil from the immense supplies
brou,i;ht down by the Yukon, Kuskoqi'iim, and other rivers, and
distributed by the waves and ocean currents.

The larj^est and most valuable tree found in this district is
the white spruce {Abies a/l'o). This beautiful conifer is found
over the whole country a short distance inland, but larj^est and
most vigorous in the vicinity of running water. It attains not
unfrequently the height of fitty to one hundred feet, with a
diameter of over three feet near the butt ; but the most common
size is thirty or forty feet and twelve to eighteen inches at the
butt. The wood is white, close, ami straight-grained, easily
worked, light, and yet very tough ; much more so than the wood
of the Oregon pine {Abies J)oii^i^/iisii). For spars it has no
superior, but is usually too slender for large masts. It is quite
durable. Many houses twenty years old, built of this timber, con-
tained a majority of sound logs; but when used gieen, without
proper seasoning, it will not last over fifteen years. These trees
decrease in size, and grow more sparingly near Fort Yukon, but
are still large enough for most purposes. The northern limit of
this tree, according to Seemann, whose observations were con-
fined to the coast, is 66" 44' ; but it is, doubtless, found to the
north of that latitude, in the interior, on the banks of some of
the northern tributaries of the Yukon. It is abundant at I'^ort
Yukon in lat. GG" 34' (appro.ximate). The unexplored waters of the
Tananah River bring down the largest logs in the spring freshets.
The number of these discharged annually at the Yukon-mouth is
truly incalculable. The freshet does not last more than three
weeks, yet sufficient wood is brought down to supply the shores
of the Arctic coast, Bering Sea. and the numerous islands.

Logs of all sizes are cast up in winrows by the October south-
westers.

The tree of next importance in the economy of the inhabitants
is the birch {Bctiila giaiuiithsa). This tree rarely grows o\-er
eighteen inches in diameter and forty feet high. On one occasion,
however, I saw a water-worn log about fifteen feet long, quite
decorticated, lying on the river-bank near Nuklukahyet on the
Upper Yukon ; this log was twenty-four inches in diameter at
one end and twenty-eight at the other. This is the only hard-

440

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

! I

wood tree in the Yukon territory, and everything needinj; a hard
and t()iij;h wood is constructed of birch. The l)lack bircli is also
found there, but does not grow so large. Unfortunately for the
rising generation, there arc no schoolmasters to make use of its
pliable twigs.

Several species of poplar {Popitlns Inxlsamifcra and /'. tirmu-
ioiji's) abound, the former along the water-side, and the latter
on drier uplands. The first-mentioned species grows to a very
large size, frequently two or three feet in diameter and forty
to sixty feet high. The timber, however, is of little value, but
the extreme softness of the wood is often taken advantage of
by the natives with their rude iron or stone axes, to make
small boards and other articles for use in their lodges. They
also rub up with charcoal the down from the seed-vessels, for
tinder.

Willows and alders are the most abundant of trees. All sizes
of the former may be found, from the slender variety on the Lower
Yukon, which grows seventy or eighty feet high, while only si.\
inches in diameter at the butt, and with a mere wisp of straggling
branches at the extreme tip, to the dwarf willows of the Arctic
coast, crawling under the moss with a stem no bigger than a lead-
pencil, and throwing up shoots only a few inches high. "About
Norton Sound, willows {Salix spcciosa) are abundant. The alder
{Aliiiisviridis) «. "' • '^s far as Kotzebue, where, in company with
willows, it forms a low oii,„! v.od. With the Arctic Circle the al-
der disappears. Willows {S. spcciosa, Ricliardsonii, and villosa)
extend their range farther, but are only al)lc for a short distance
to keep their ground ; at Cape Lisburne (lat. 68" 52') they are,
in the most favorable localities, njver higher than two feet, while
their crooked growth and niimerous abortive leaf-buds indicate
their struggle for cxistcrict ." (Scemann.) The above remarks
must be understood as applying especially to the coast. A wil-
low measured by the botanists of the Herald was found to be but
twent} feet high and five inches in diameter ; yet the annual rings
showed that the tree had reached the age of eighty years. The
Arctic coast is reported by Dr. Seemann to be a vast moorland,
whose level is only interrupted by a few promontories and isolated
mountains. Willows are almost invariably rotten at the heart,
and are only good for fuel.

; a hard

1 is also

for the

36 of its

•. tmnu-
ic latter
a very
ikI forty
iluc, but
ita^e of
to make
;. They
ssels, for

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. 44 1

The inner bark is much used for making twine for nets and
seines by the Indian women, and the ICskimo of IkriiiL; Strait
use willow and alder bark to tan or color their ilresscd deer-
skins. It produces a beautiful red brown, sonic what like Russia
Iciither.

The other species .ising to the rank of trees in this district are
the larch {Larix liavitriia .^), which is found of small size on roll-
ing; prairies, another birch {Intiila nana), and several alders (./.
vindis, iinaiia, and rubra). A species of pine indij^enous in Kam-
ch:ilka {Pinits ccmbra) has been erroneously referred to as from
Kotzebue Sound. Piiins contorta is found near I'ort Selkirk at
the junction of the Lewis or Tahco River with the I'elly River. It
(Iocs not ascenil the Yukon any farther northward. The Hud-
son Hay men at Fort Yukon call the white spruce " pine. '

The treeless coasts of the territory, as well as the lowlands of
the \'ukon, are cove, .d in spring with a most luxuriant growth
of grass and flowers. Among the more valuable of these grasses
(of which a nearly complete list may be found in the Appen-
dix) is the well-known Kentucky blue-grass {Poa pratcnsis),
which grows luxuriantly as far north as Kotzebue Sound, and per-
haps even to Point Barrow. The wood meadow-grass {Poa nnno-
ralis) is also abundant, and furnishes to cattle an agreeable
and fattening pasturage. The blue joint-grass {Calainoi^rosiis
Canath'iisis) also re;, es the latitude of Kotzebue Sound, and
},Mows on the coast ot Norton Sound with a truly surprising luxu-
riance. It reaches in very favorable situations four or even five
feet in height, and averages at least three feet.* Many other
grasses enumerated in the list of useful j^lants grow abundantly,
and contribute largely to the whole amount of herbage. Two
species of FJymns almost deceive the traveller with the aspect of
^Main fields, maturing a perceptible kernel, which the field-mice
lay up in store.

Grain has never been sown to any extent in the Yukon Terri-
tory. Barley, I was informed, had once or twice been tried at
I'ort Yukon in small patches, and had succeeded in maturing
the grain, though the straw was very short. The experiment was

* I'or the determination of these and other species of plants, I am indebted to the
report of Dr. J. T. Rothrock, Professor of Uotany in the Agricultural (Joilc^e of
Pennsylvania, and late botanist of our Scientific Corps.

ii^

■\-

442 CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

never carried any farther, however, the traders being obliged to
devote all their energies to the eolleelion of furs. No grain had
ever been sown by the Russians at any of the posts.

Turnips and radishes always ilourished extremely well at St.
Michael's, and die sp.me is said of Nul.ito and Fort Yukon. I'o-
tatoes succeeded at the latter place, though the tubers were small.
They were regularly planted for several years, until the .seed was
lost by freezing during the winter. At St. Michael's they did not
do well.

Salad was successful, but cabbages would not head. The white
round turnips grown at St. Michael's from lunopean seed were
the best I ever saw anywhere, and very large, some weighing five
or si.x pounds. They were crisp and sweet, though occasionally a
very large one would be hollow-hearted. The Russians preserved
the tops also in vinegar for winter use.

There appears to be no reason why cattle, with proper winter
protection, might not be successfully kept in most parts of tlic
Yukon Territory. Fodder, as previously shown, is abiuulant.

A bull and cow were once sent to Fort Yukon by the Hudson
Bay Company. They did well for some time, but the cow, while
grazing on the river-bank, was precipitated upon a rock, by the
giving way of the soil, and killed. Due notice was given of the
accident, but for several years, in the annual supply of goods for
Fort Yukon, the small quantum of butter usually sent was with-
held, on the ground that there were " cattle '" at that post. Final-
ly, the commander killed the bull, determined if he could not have
butter that he would at least have beef!

It must be borne in mind that this trading-post is north of the
Arctic Circle, and the most northern point in Alaska inhabited by
white men.

There are, as might be supposed, no tree fruits in the Yukon
Territory suitable for food. Small fruit abounds in the greatest
profusion. Among the various kinds may be noted red and blaek
currants, gooseberries, cranberries, raspberries, thimbleberries, sal-
mon berries, killikinick berries, blueberries, bearberries, twinher-
ries, dewberries, service berries, mossberries, and roseberries. The
latter, the fruit of J\oxa ciiiiiamoinca, when touched by the frost,
form a pleasant addition to the table, not being dry and woolly, as
in our climate,, but sweet and juicy. All these berries, but ' pc-

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. 443

cially the salmon berry or morosly of the Russians, arc excellent
anli-scorlnitics. l''rom many of them the most piciiiant and deli-
cious preserves are prepared by the Russians, and they form a
very acceptable addition to the eternal diet of fish, bread, and tea,
usi':d in the country.

T/ic Aleutian District. — This comprises the Aleutian Islands,
ami part of the i)en insula of Aliaska. I'^rom the presence of
trees, the island of Kadi;ik and those adjacent to it belong rather
U) the Silkan District. These islands contain many high moun-
tains, many of them volcanic, some still evincing activity by
smoking or emitting steam. Between theni and the sea arc roll-
ing and moderately inclir.jd hills and meadows. The soil is much
of it rich, consisting of vegetable moulil and dark-colored clays,
with here and there light calcareous loam formed of decom-
posed rocks, rich in tertiary fossils. In many places the growth
of sphagnum, indicating insulficient drainage, prevails over the
perennial grasses natural to the soil, but the remedy is self-
evident. In some places the soil is composed of decayed .olcanic
products such as ash and pumice ; this is much of it rich and
productive.

The climate of the district is moist and warm. The snow line,
according to Ciiamisso, is 3,510 feet above the sea. The greatest
cold recorded (on the island of Unalashka) by Father Veniam-
iiiofl" was zero of I'ahrenheit. The highest point reached by the
mercury during the same period was seventy-seven. The follow-
in^;- abstract will show <^he range of the thermometer, and the rela-
tive frecpiency of good anil ba.l weather during five years, includ-
ing- 1.S34: —

Means ok tuk Tukkmomftfr, vor Fivf. Ykars.

^.•,^r.

7 A. M,

I I'. M.

36 ! 40
.V) I 4-^
38 I 4'

Avi'ianc lor \
live. . ( -'7

405

1'. ft.

.?4
36

3<'

—

I'.x. hfat.

I'.X. C(

f>4

'/7

K.\iiKf

77
57
70
71

V' '\

i I

444 CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

Wkatiiuk, Average ov Seven Years.

1 )avs.

All clear .
Half clear
All cloudy

Jan. Kcb.

Mar. Apr.

May.

n ()

3 4

1 1 1 86

112 104

105

95 >03

102 102

104

June. July. Aug. Sept.

6 ; o j 5 2

95 118 lof) I 107

109 yy 106 ; 101

( )cl.

Nt)v.

Pec.

'Iota I.

6
116

53
I2(M

100

119

.^35

These observations were made at Iliuluk, Unalashka, by the
Rev. I'ather Innoceiitius Veniaini'not'f. He states that from Octo-
ber to April the prevalent winds are from the north and west, and
from April to October from the south and west. The therniom-
eter is lowest in January and March, and highest in July ami
August.

The greater number of clear and pleasant day.s occu: in ' "
ary, February, and June, and usually follow a nortlnv '
The barometer ranges from 27,415 to 29,437 inches, and on tlu'
whole is highest in December and lowest in July, rising with a
north and falling with a south wind.

At this point it may not be irrelevant to make a comparison
between this portion of Alaska and a very similar country, which
has, however, been for centuries under cultivation. It will serve
to show what human iiuhistry, aided by careful application of ex-
perience, may do with a country more barren, and nearly as cdIcI
and rainy as the Aleutian District of Alaska. I refer to tiic
Highlands of Scotland and the adjacent islands, whose Scotch
mists have become proverbial.

Dr. Graham, of Aberfoyle,* referring to the western district of
Scotland, says that Ayreshire is very moist and dai.tn, \»-:iIi a mild
and temperate climate. Renfrewshire is visited with frec|iiciit
and heavy rains. Dumbartonshire has the same character. Ar-
gyllshire is considered the most rainy county of Scotlaiul.

" The vapors of the ocean are attracted by its lofty mountains,
and the clouds discharge tluMiiselves in torrents on the valk vs.
The winters are for the most part mild and tem|)erate, but the
summers are frequently rainy and cold. The climate of the /ct-
land Islands resembles in most •.espects that of the Orkneys.
Though the sky is inclement and the air moist, it is far from ir
healthy. The rain continues not only for hours but for day.s, nay,
even for weeks, if the wind blow from the west," &c.

• Sec £(lii)l)urgh Encyclopxdia, art. Scollaiul, \\>\. XV i., j). j^^ifsK/.

4
r

i "J

:e3.

ov.

Dec.

'I'dTAI

116

5.;

1 2h i

-3.S

hka, by tlio
t from OctD-
11(1 west, and
he thcrmonv
in July ami

:cu. i:>

U l!

•the

, and on the

rising with a

I companson

mntry, which

It will serve

eat ion of cx-

early as eokl

refer to the

hose Scotch

rn district ot

. v»''lii a niiUI

ith frec|iicnt

iracter. Ai'-

ind.
y mountains,
> the valleys.
:rate, but the
'. of the /et-
he ()rkiuv\

far from n- ^

1 r

or ilays, na}, gj.

7 j8 ,7 .-„/.

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

445

This description would answer very well for the most rainy
])ortion of Alaska.

The mean annual temperature of Northern Scotland varies from
42' to 48°. That of Alaska in the Aleutian District, from 36° to
.|0 . Orkney and Zetlaml differ considerably, both in mean tem-
perature anil in amount of rainfall, the Shetland Islands having
a less genial climate and a greater degree of humidity. The fol-
lowing abstract shows the mean temperature of Inverness on the
cast coast of Scotland. This is one of the most sheltered and
protected points in Northern Scotland. Its latitude is precisely
that of Kadiiik.

Year.

Anm1.1l.

Winter.

39°59
3944

Spring.

44''93
47.22

Summer.

55-34
57-79

I'.ill.

4()<)0
47-59

1821.
1822.

47''^3
.tS.02

The following shows the annual means of temperature in the
Orkneys, also the means for each season, the barometer, and the
hygrometer, taken from observations extending over seventeen

years.

S|.ring.

-;7-.^7

Summer.

5433

Autumn.

47.62

Winter. 1 Vc.ir.

li.iromcter. K.iinf,ill.

39° 2 1 46.26

29.762 in. 36.66 in

Tic annual rainfall at (llasgow is forty inches; of Ayreshire,
i. itv iv/o; Whitehaven, forty-eight; Rest wick, si.xty-scvc 1 ; and
V.d: ':wn te, eighty-si.\ (ICnc. Hr.). At Drymen, in Stirlingshire,
on th: west coast of Scotland, two hundred and five davs during
the \ ear were found, in an average of fourteen years, to be more
or l.'ss rainy. In Unalashka. in seven years, the average, from
\'> niaininoff s observations, is one hundred and fifty days, on which
1,0 states only twenty-seven inches of rain fell. This is probably
U/i) low, and, judging from the amount of rain falling in other
r:irts of Alaska, I venture to estimate the probable rainfall at
' 'ut forty inches. The average rainfall in Stirlingshire is about
orty-three inches ; in Inverness, on the cast coast of Scotland,
there are about one hundred and fifty rainy days, and the aver-

U-i

II V

446

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

age rainfall is about thirty inches, while in Hute, on the west
coast, an average of seven years gave over forty-six and a half
inches.

Let us now examine the productions of this country, which
agrees so nearly in temperature and rainfall with what wc know
of the Aleutian District. It may reasonably prove an approxi-
mate index to what time may bring to pass in our new territory.

On the opposite page will be found statistics of the agricultural
productions of the Highlands and adjacent islands of Scotland
These formed the principal support of over two millions of stock
beside the farming and other population.

These figures show notably, that the quantity of potatoes, and
also the quantity of wheat, is small, when compared with tlic
othc crops or cereals.

The • 1 Highland cattle are well known, and, like the small
Siberian stock, admirably suited to such a climate and country.
They produce tender, well-flavored beef, and extremely rich cream
and butter, as I can testify from personal observation.

The climate of Scotland furnishes a very complete parallel
with that of the Aleutian district of Alaska. The eastern coast,
defended from the vapors of the Atlantic by its sheltering moun-
tains, is m.ch drier, and the extremes of heat and cold are more
marked, than in the western portion or the islands. This eastern
coast resembles the eastern part of Cook's Inlet in this respect,
and the interior of Alaska generally.

The inhabitants of this district, principally Aleuts, are faithful
and docile, but indolent and improvident. They make good sail-
ors but poor farmers ; and their attempts at farming have been
principally under the direction of Russian masters.

There is no timber of any kind, larger than a shrub, on those
islands ; but there is no prima facie reason why some trees, if
properly planted and drained, should not flourish. A few spruce
were transplanted from Sitka in 1805 to Unakishka. Most of
them lived, but were not cared for, and the situation was unflivor-
able, so at the time of Kotzebue's visit they had not increased in
size, and were looking very poorly, according to Chamisso.

The grasses in this climate, warmer than that of the Yukon
Territory, and drier than the Sitkan District, attain an unwonted
luxuriance.

t/1

iCES.

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

447

on the west
IX and a half

iuntry, which
'hat we know
: an approxi-
icw territory.
s agricultural
of Scotland,
lions of stock

potatoes, and
red with the

ke the small
and country,
ly rich cream

>lete parallel
lastern coast,
:cring moun-
3ld are more
This eastern
this respect,

are faithful
;e good sail-

\ 3

. n'

; have hecn

y of S

lb, on those
lie trees, if

few spruce

L. Most of

as unflu'or-

ncreased in

isso.

the Yukon

I unwonted

Argvll, .

1 Arran, .

Caithness,

Inverness, .

f )rknev and

Zetland,

Ross & Cromarty,

Sutherland,

Arran, .
Caithness,
Inverness, .
Orknev and
Zetland.

Ross & Cromarty,
.Sutherland,

1.^

i-i CO M ^ui -■ 0>
4* .^ OJ 0\4* O '^t 10
•I Uj vO 10 O 4* to O

i-< oo to vitn « On
4* viOJ On4- 0<./< to
n Oj O 10 nO 4> to O

44U

104^ u 4^ 4k 4^ 4*

1'
4^

u
to

o o ■^* -f" ■** >*

"^ "^ >-. ut On^j C^

c/:vi 00 vj 4. ^1 .-,

Oj oj 4» oj Ul

L/l

1.)

4» >. - 4» to 4. ^

oc'jj '^' y -f^ V''

00 b OJ CO On C\Ci
00 - NO --i OOnO
OtT CO Ul 4' VI So4»

oo Oo X to

00
in

3 [
i" 1

t^ ON NO <-"

^4- tJ^ Oj « pN

^ ^ ^I N- u» ^O VI
Co ■-• to Q 4» VI NO
On to VI NO 4-

to
00 On 4^
yi 4» M 4- >I CN
VI 4-. VI ON On"cO
<-n -N 4* L/i I-. .-.
vO VI On VI \0 NO NO

:>3

C8
•<

C>J 10 to
N lyi ^I •-/! OnvO Ln CO

•-I to
OO 1- to ^ 10 c\

00
Kn

F ;

On to 4!« VI 50
NO to Oj oj 4* 4^ Q
Oj P OD VI oco pN
On VI 'ji to « Oj
Oj Oj to CO »> oj
VI Ul 00 4* Ul NO Ul

Ol
4-

i-i n -. OO Ul IJl

In
•~>

4^ to uo On VI

MS Ul On - 4»
00 C/) 0,* Uj to Ul

— b VI - .ii - Co

<.*o 4* CO ^I 'O Ul VI
On to NO OvnO 4» Ui

M
Ol

o
h

M n M Oo
OO VO 4>- IJ> >0 OJ 0\

i bs to o Cj b c '-1

Oi 4* Oj wi — 4* c 'J»
C\ •-< to 4* Oj oj to M

i '

a:
9 !

^ lovO On
ON ON On to 004*

Ul 4» 00 004» on$;

^
"<
P

.-1

ON
10

10
o

So
b

M n H 4>.

^ P pC4» 00 10 p

i. i. m to 1o b <ii Co
4» »0 OJ \0 10 ^ CO O

tOUl Ul

u p^ Ul JO On 4-

bN-^ Ul ToToONb
NO On to NO Ul NO
UO VI U 1 ON to Ul UJ

00
tJI

4^ to w to CO

vO i. 4» 4.. ooCj l>i
-" M Oj CO O 3n -•
4» 4» ^j iji ii ^ to

!i!

O 1

00 M 4» ul

lo 00 Ul ^ '-

VI 4» VI 4*

UO to to Uj VI

ft
p

Co
Oj

u\
(^

t.n

do
VI

?
VI

tvl to

t-t Ul Oo .-«

— 00 "to Ul On
~ Oo 10 to 4*
4» 4» VI Oo -<

>-t to w On

t*J ON^" CO J- 4^ Oj P
ON t., Ig 1, o On b OJ
4* nO u\ to OnUi ^ ^4

Tooooo-ooco

,2'

(^» 4* oj cy. -

'JO

MM U\ CO

O 00 i-i On On to "
p oo'y> p ^ P V" "f*
Cn b 00 00 'ONf. On O
Ln "H 4» -1 O 4- 'jj to
C/o ^1 c/i ',n 4* ^^ O nO

U Cn -f- ^ "J ,

•vi C/3 Ul \0 -^I Oj 4*
Oj Oj 4* Cr.i* E

N< ^ Cv _p\ 00 p

4; 00 Oj ^ - ^
- ».» ^ »-» 4*

►-I 0^ tii <-n "^ ON
OS bo u "hh ^ 4* 4*
Oj ^i ON ^4 u» -0 -^
t^ ON «« 0\ « Ul w

4^ y ^ '^ ^
Ui Cn Ui On ^ OJ 4^
t-r\t-nuiC^ ON4* ON^^
O^ O^-^nO O CO

o -< to vo eofo So

u\ '^j ^ to ^ p \0 4*
Ov U ii t- vb b ^>j oo

O ONt.^ vo ^ 5 4» M

00
in

M M h) ro M

Ul 00 u 00

00
Ul
Ul

S|.i
"^1

M M M UJ

n
a

>
23

o
rtl

X
M

a
tfi

75
n

r
>

H
S
M

n
z

r
>
z
o

1 I !
1 ife :

ill!

44S

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

l*'or example* " Unak'ishka, in the vicinity of Captain's Harbor,
abounds in grasses, with a climate better adapted for haying than
that of the coasts of Oregon. The cattle were remarkably fat,
and the beef very tender and delicate, rarely surpassed by any
well-fed stock. Milk was abundant. The good and available
arable land lies chiefly near the coast, formed by the meeting and
mingling of the detritus from mountain and valley with the sea
sand, which formed a remarkably rich and genial soil, well suited
for garden and root-crop culture. It occurs to us that many
choice sunny hillsides here would produce good crops under the
thrifty hand of enterprise. They are already cleared for the
plough. Where grain-like grasses {Elymus) grow and mature
well, it seems fair to infer that oats and barley would thrive, pro-
vided they were fall-sown, like the native grasses. This is abun-
dantly verified by reference to the collections. Several of these
grasses had already (September) matured and cast their seed be-
fore we arrived, showing sufficient length of season. Indeed
no grain will yield more than half a crop of poor quality (on
the Pacific slope) when spring-sown, whether north or south."
(Kellogg.)

The Russians affirm, with confirmation by later visitors, that
jjotatoes are cultivated in almost every Aleutian village, and
Veniaminoff states that (up to 1837) at the village in False Pass
or Isanotski Strait they have raised them, and preserved the
seed for planting, since the beginning of this century, without
interruption ; the inhabitants of this village, by so doing, having;
escaped the effects of several severe famines which visited their
less provident and industrious neighbors.

Wild pease grow in great luxuriance near Unahishka Ray, and,
according to Mr. Davidson, might be advantageously cultivated.
This species, the Latliynis mayithnns of botanists, grows as far ]
north as latitude 64°.

The productions of all the islands to the westward resemble
those of Unalashka. In September, says Dr. Kellogg, the turnips
here were large and of excellent quality ; carrots, parsnips, and
cabbages lacked careful attention, but were good. Wild pars-
nips (ArcJiangclica officinalis) are abundant and edible through allj

* See Report of Dr. Kellogg, Botanist to the United States Coast Survey Explor-
ing Party. Ho. Ex. Doc. 177. \L. Congress, II. Session, p. 218.

ES.

,n's Harbor,
liaying than
arkably fat,
;sccl by any
id available
nceting and
vith the sea
, well suited
, that many
)s under the
ired for the
and mati'.ri
:1 thrive, pro-
rhis is abnn-
:cral of these
their seed be-
;on. Indeed,
r quality (on
th or south."

visitors, that
village, and

in False Pass

preserved the
tury, without

Idoing, havini;
visited their

Ihka Bay, and,
]ly cultivated,
crows as far

lard resemble
|g, the turnips
[parsnips, and
Wild pars-
lie through all I

1st Survey Explo''

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

449

these islands. At the height of 2,450 feet above the level of the
sea, according to the Chamisso, most vegetation ceases. From
the reports of Dr. Kellogg and others, there appears to be no
doubt that cattle may be advantageously kept in the Aleutian
District, provided competent farmers will take the matter in hand.
The winter climate is as mild as that of the Highlands of Scot-
land, or the Orkneys, where stock has been successfully kept from
time immemorial.*

Indeed, even in Iceland, where the temperature in winter some-
times gets as low as thirty-five below zero, we learn from Sir
(icorge Mackenzie that four fifths of their entire population of
eveiity thousand derive their maintenance from agriculture.
Grain does not mature, but the grass lands (with their fisherie )
are their greatest wealth, as they pasture their flocks of sheep
and cattle, which form their chief means of subsistence and most
important articles of commerce. The number of sheep in Ice-
land is estimated at 600,000; there are about 25,000 cattle and
30,000 horses. The export of wool in 1864 was 2,229.504 pounds,
besides the amount consumed in the country! After this, in
the y\leutian District, where the cold is never greater than zero,
wc may look at least for results as favorable.

Golovi'n states that at one time, being called upon by the terms
of their charter to " promote agriculture," the Russian American
Company proposed to supply the Aleuts with stock, gratis, hop-
ing also to prevent the famines caused by taking them off to hunt
sea-otter during the fishing season.

The Aleuts, totally ignorant of the management of cattle, did
not succeed very well. Confined at night in the low buildings,

♦ While tlie.se sheets .ire p.issing throiii^h the ))ress, I am pleased to he ai)le to
record the complete confirmation of the above oiiinion, by practical tests. The .agent
"fone of the trading companies upon the Island of St. I'aul, Heiing Sea (160 miles
north of the Aleutian chain), in the fall of 1S68. introduced cows, sheep, and goats.
The Aleuts hail been recjuestcd to provide hay, but, not knowing iiow to cure it, the
whole was spoiled. On the arrival of the cattle, early in the winter, there was nothing
lor them to eat. They were, therefore, as the only resort, sheltered at night, and
turned out to shift for themselves daily during the winter. They found abnnd.ant
forage in the native wild barley (Elymiis), and not only were well fed, but became (on
ilie authority of an eye-witness) exceedingly sleek and fat The calves and lambs did

I «(.ll. The stock is now considerably increased, and has every prospect of flourishing

I in future.

t See Report to United States State Department, on the Resources of Iceland

[and Greenland, by B. M. I'eirce. Washington, 1868.
29

lili
lil

P
i

III ■

450

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

where the dry fish is hung up, the cows knocked it down and
trampled on it, while their new masters did not know how to mil!;
them. The hogs committed depredations in the garden jjatchcs,
and annoyed the women hy their grunting and squealing. The
summer residences of the Aleuts consisted chieHy of tents, and
the goats appeared to take pleasure in jumping upon and knock-
ing down these tents in the night, to the great discomfort of the:
sleeping family ; so they were very soon tired of them, and ghul
to get rid of them. In Cook's Inlet the natives were more intelli-
gent, or had more experience, and their cattle did much better
Hogs were placed on a low island near the Churnobour Reef, in
1825, and multiplied exceedingly, living on the wild parsnips
and other native plants ; but they were destroyed by a tidal wave
which swept over the island during the eruption of the volcano
on the neighboring island of Unimak, two years after.

T/ic Sitkati District. — This district extends from the southern
boundary, including the mainland and islands, to the peninsula of
Aliaska, and also K iiak and the adjacent islands.

The surface of this part of the territory is rugged and moun-
tainous in the extreme. The northern part alone furnishes any
appreciable amount of arable land, level and suitable for cultiva-
tion. Small patches occur in the southern part here and there,
where small farms might be located ; but as a rule the mountains
descend precipitously into the sea with their flanks covered with
dense and almost impenetrable forests. These rise to an altitude
of about fifteen hundred feet above the sea. Here and there a
white streak shows where an avalanche has cut its way from the
mountain-top, through the forest, to the water-side ; and occasion-
ally the shining front of a glacier occupies some deep ravine, con-
trasting curiously with the dense foliage on either side.

The canals and channels of the Alexander Archipelago form
the highways of the country, and so intricate and tortuous are
they that they afford access to almost every part of it without the
necessity for setting foot on shore.

The soil is principally vegetable mould, with substrata cf gravel
or dark-colored clay. The soil of Cook's Inlet and Kadiak is of
a similar character ; but, from an admixture of volcanic sand
thrown up by the waves, and abundant sandstone strata, it is
lighter, drier, and better adapted for cultivation.

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES,

451

The climate of the southern portion of the district is very mild,
hut intolerably rainy. The annual rainfall at Sitka varies from
si.xty to ninety-five inches (wiiich is, however, about the same as
at the mouth of the Columbia), and the annual number of more
or less rainy days varies from one hundred and ninety to two
lunnlreil and eighty-five. In UnaUishka the annual number of
rainy days is about one hundred and fifty, and the annual fall
of rain and melted snow is nearly forty inches. This last estimate
is probably not no low for the island of Kadiak, and the eastern
part of Cook's Inlet.

The annual means of the temperature about Sitka arc by no
means low, in spite of the rainy summers. The following table
will indicate the means for the .several seasons during the year
ending October 31, 1868, from the report of the United States
Coast Survey observers : —

Meteorological Aiistract, Stika.

Season.

Mean lemp.

Kaiiifall.

Fair days.

Cloudy days.

Kainy days.

33
36
44
21

Snowy days.

Sprinj; . .
Summer .
.\ Ml limn .
Winter. .

42°.6
55 7
45 -9
31 -9

in.
14.64
10.14
28.70
1459

6807

22
21
I<)

44
106

70
71
7^
47

5
6

V'car . .

44.07

260

134

The minimum temperature for the year was 1 1°, the maximum
71", giving the thermometer a range of si.xty degrees. It will be
noticed that the average temperature of the winter is hardly below
the freezing-point, the greatest degree of cold being eleven above
zero. The average of many year.s' observation places the mean
K'///Av' temperature about thirty-three Fahrenheit, which is nearly
that of Mannheim on the Rhine, and warmer than Munich,
Vienna, or Berlin. It is about the same as that of Washington
((,095 miles farther south), and warmer than New York, Philadel-
phia, or Baltimore.* The cloudiness and rain of the j//w;//^ 7- .sea-
son, however, prevent it from being nearly as warm as at any of
the places above mentioned. Very little ice is made at Sitka ; the
snow, or rather slush, lies only for a few days in the street, and a

* See Report of Professor Lorin Blodgctt in the Report of House Committee on
Foreign Affairs, XL. Congress, IL Session, p. T,C>ctsi-q.

']•

452

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

small species of humming-bird {Sclns/>/ionis nifiis) breeds there in
abundance.

The Indians inhabit the Alexander y\rchipclaf;n and the coast
nearly to Prince William Sound. North of this the Innuit are
found on the coast and the Indians only in the interior. The
former have made some progress in agriculture in Cook's Iidet and
on Kadiiik and the south shore of Aliaska. The remainder of
the native population perform no agricultural labor whatever, ex-
cept in collecting indigenous roots and berries for food.

In the southern part of this district there is little beside the
timber, from an agricultural point of view. Near Fort Simpson,
and at Sitka, Dr. Kellogg describes timothy, white clover, and med-
ick, or burr clover, as flourishing in great luxuriance. Dr. Roth-
rock says the same of the native grasses in the interior ; but south
of Prince William Sound there is so little lowland or prairie that
there is no good opportunity for raising fodder, and the climate
would render its preservation extremely precarious. The cl.arac-
ter of the country is so rugged that it would hardly be advisable
to keep many cattle, and cereals, on acccount of the moisture, arc
not to be thought of.

At Sitka some vegetables do very well. Turnips, beans, pease,
carrots, beets, lettuce, and radishes are successful. Potatoes arc
small and watery, from want of sun and excess of moisture. Cal)-
bages are thrifty, but will not head. Cereals fail. Some few cat-
tle are kept. The milk and cream are very good. I'ork has a dis-
ageeable flavor from being fed on fish entrails, &c. There was, in
1865, one old horse who had evidently seen better days. Poultry
has not succeeded well. Liitke says that the crows, who are ex-
tremely rapacious, devour all the young chickens, and also deprive
the sucking pigs of their tails !

To the northern part of this district the above remarks do not
apply. Kadiak and Cook's Inlet, northeast of I'ort Alexander,
have comparatively colder winters and drier and warmer sum-
mers than the islands and coast to the west or south of them.
Haying can be successfully carried on, the native grasses being
valuable for fodder, green or dry. Barley and oats have been suc-
cessfully raised near the settlement of St. Nicholas on Cook's
Inlet.

There is no want of wood, while it does not encroach on the

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

453

lowlaml, which is clear of underbrush ami trees. Amon^ the an-
nual productions of the colony, in the official report of the Com-
mittee on the Colonies to the I^mperor of Russia (St. Peters-
burg;, 1863) are enumerated ioX,ooo pounds of salted meat, 170
casks of potatoes, 150 of turnips, and 180 casks of berries. Dr.
Kclloj;;^ says of Kadiak : " Various herbs and grasses clothe the
mountains to their summits. The summer climate here, unlike
that of Sitka, is sufficiently fine for hayinj;. We saw many mown
valleys, from which a good supply of hay from the native grasses
had been secured. The cattle were fat, and milk was abundant.
The butter was yellow and appeared remarkably rich, though of a
disagreeable flavor, which might be owing to the manner of mak-
ing." The potatoes were better than at Sitka, but do not attain
a very large size. It has already been mentioned that the cattle
distributed to the nativjs by the Russian American Company
ditl very well in Cook's Inlet. The Inlet freezes in winter as far
west as the mouth of Chugachik Bay.

The great agricultural staple of the southern Sitkan district is
timber. I enumerate the forest trees in the order of their value.

Ycl/o'iU Cedar {C. Xiitkatciisis, Spach.). — This is the most valu-
able wood on the Pacific coast. It combines a fine, close texture
with considerable hardness, extreme durability, and pleasant fra-
i;rance. " For boat-building it is unsurpassed, from its lightness,
toughness, ease of workmanship, and great durability." (Kel-

The forests of Puget Sound, which have been mentioned as
more accessible than the Alaskan timber, are rapidly falling under
the axe of the woodsman. Most of the more adjacent timber
is already cut, and logs have now to be hauled some distance to
the mills. The Puget Sound timber, as ship-building material, is
far inferior to the yellow cedar. The latter is peculiar to Alaska,
and the only good ship-timber on the Pacific coast. The h;-:h
rates and short terms of insurance, on vessels built of Orr.'-
pine, show its inferiority better than any amount of argument.
The cedar somewhat resembles boxwood in texture and color, and
has an agreeable odor. It is familiar to many, under the name
of "camphor wood," in the shape of Chinese boxes.

" After ascending for some distance the mountain-side of the
island of Sitka," says Mertens, the botanist, in a letter to a friend

if!

454

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL KKSOURCLS.

at St. Pctcrshiirf;. "the wood, wliich appears in incrcasiMl dciisc-
ncss before us, consists particularly of a noble cedar. This is the
timber most valued here. It occurs farther down, where the more
predominant spruce-trees conceal it from view ; but here it con-
.stitutes almost the entire timlxT." From its aj^reeable perfume,
it is known to the Russians :\s " diis/iiiik," or scent-wootl. This
is the wood formerly exported to China, and returned to us famous
for e.xchulinj.; moths, &c. In repairing; old I''ort Simpson, a stick
of this cedar,'' aiponji the spruce timbers used for underpinning,
was found to be the only soimd log, after twenty-one years' trial.
A wreck on the beach at Sitka, originally constructed of this
timber, thirty-two years after is as sound as the day it was built ;
even the iron biOts are not corroded. A piece of this wreck is
now in the office of the United States Coast Survey, at Washing-
ton.

Sitka Spmcc or White Piitc {.lines Sitkcnsis, Bong.). — This
tree is well known in the lumber trade of the coast, attains a
large size, and is noteworthy from its straight and tapering trunk.
The wood is not so durable as the last-named, but is ava''able for
many purposes. It is found near the water's edge in t pro-

fusion throughout the Alexander Archipelago.

Hemlock' {Abies Merteiisiana, Bong). — Tiie timber of this
species is often confounded with that of the preceding and more
durable spruce, by lumber dealers, who style them both " Sitka
pine." It is much larger in its growth than the next species, but
has been considered a variety by some botanists.

Balscvh Fir {Abies Canadensis, Michx.). — The timber of this
tree is almost valueless, but the bark, with that of the last-
named, is used in tanning, and the balsam in medicine and the
arts.

Scrnb Pine {Pinns couiorta, Dougl.). — This pine seldom
grows more than forty feet clear trunk, and eighteen inches in
diameter. It passes north in the interior only to the junction ot
the Lewis or Tahco and the Pelly Rivers.

Otlicr trees, such as the juniper, wild pear, and the like, mriv
be of some use, but from their small size or scarcity are of little
economical value.

* This cedar sometimes reaches a diameter of eight feet, but a common size is tliicc
to five feet.

i'Uc'.;

•.s.

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RliSOURCKS.

455

■ii-d donse-
riiis is the
L- I he more
lerc it con-
le perfume,
ooil. This
) us famous
;on, a stick
lerpimiing,
years' trial,
ed of this
was built ;
is wreck is
t Wayhing-

g.). — This
t, attains a
;ring trunk,
va'^ahle for
J t pro-

r of this

and more

oth "Sitka

pccies, but

Dcr of this

if the last-

ne and the

nc seldom
1 inches in
junction ot

,e like, m;iv
are of little

Dii size is tliict

In Kadiiik, Dr. Kello<fn; found the growth of timber (./. Si/-
/,u''/sis) confined to the eastern valleys ami slopes of the island.
The larj^est seen were three feet in diameter and ninety to one
hundred fi-et high. In the governor's yard were masts and
spars over one hundred feet in length scarcely tapering two
inches in thirty or forty feet ; these were from Kadiak, but
many arc brought in rafts from .Spruce Island, ten or fitlcen miles
off. The wooded district comprises the whole Alexander Archi-
pelago and the mainland north to Lituya liay ; from this point to
Prince William Sound little is known of the character or quan-
tity of the timber, but in the latter locality. Cook's Inlet, and the
entire interior, timber abounds, extending westward on to the
peninsula of Ali;iska antl Kadiak and other islands of the Kadiak
Archipelago.

(iiiic)\il Siimimvy. — While in the Yukon Territory we can-
not look for self-supporting agricultural districts, nor reasonably
expect any one to obtain a subsistence by farming alone ; still, the
settler called there to develop the resources o' the country, be
they lumber, fish, or furs, may have milk in his tea, and fresh
vegetables on his table, if he possess the energy and knowledge
to make the most of his opportunities. It will not be necessary
for him to rely on the products of the chase alone, if he will but
take the necessary care to provide shelter for his cattle, and to
cut and gather for their winter fodder the perennial gras.ses which
cover the prairies and lowlands.

In the yVleutian District is situated the larger proportion of the
arable land of the territory of Alaska. In this and in the north-
ern part of the Sitkan District the climatic conditions are the
most favorable for agriculture in the territory. Their resem-
blance to the conditions which prevail in Northwestern Scotlantl
and its islands has been already demonstratetl at length ; ami the
cap;'.bility of this district for agriculture may therefore be reason-
ably inferred. Oats and barley, possibly wheat and rye, may suc-
ceed on these islands. Their abundant capacity for producing
root crops of good quality, except perhaps potatoes, may be con-
sidered as settled. That cattle will do well there, there is no
doubt, and the Pacific slope may yet derive its best butter and
cheese from the Aleutian and northern Sitkan districts. .Sheep,
goats, and swine have not been thoroughly tried as yet, but the

iiiil

456

CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES.

;•

inferencvi is that they also would succeed. Most of the berries
found in the Yukon Territory are also common to the Aleutian
District, and the climate, unless from its moisture, presents no
obstacles to tiie success of '^ome kinds of fruit-trees. It is to be
hoped, at least, that some one will try the experiment.

These islands, Kadiak, and Cook's Inlet are unquestionably the
best agricultural country in our new possessions.

The resources of the southern Sitkan District lie apparently
entirely in its timber. This is unquestionably needed on the ]'a-
cific coast, and a most valuable acquisition. No better lumbering
district can be imagined, with water transportation everywhere,
and mountain-sides so steep that a slide — easily made, of the least
valuable timber — will conduct the logs directly to the water-side.
Some vegetables, in the future as in the past, will be raised, and
some stock kept in this part of Alaska, but probably never to
any great extent.

Many reports may be found in circulation, even in official docu-
ments, in regard to Alaska, having very little foundation. While
Massachusetts, since her settlement, has never exported any pro-
ducts of her soil except granite and ice, we may look in less than
two hundred and fifty years to receive from /Jaska suj^plies of
ship-timber, butter, cheese, wool, mutton, and beef; and perhaps
more palatable fruits may take the place of the well-flavored cran-
berries which have already found their way to San Francisco
markets.

! II

i III

'■^i»m

CHAPTER V.

Geology and Mineral Resources.

T TNTIL a very recent date all ihe known facts in regard to the
v^ geolojijy and mineralogy of Alaska were presented in the
admirable work of Grcwingk, and were due to the researches of
the naturalists connected with the various exploring expeditions,
or to the collections of Doroshin, Wossnessensky, and others em-
ployed by the Russian authorities. Owing to the recent investi-
gations of Whitney, Newberry, Heer, Kennicott, and the Scien-
tific Corps of the Telegraph Expedition, our knowledge has been
much increased, though a wide field still remains open lor further

uivostigation.

Much light has been, and doubtless will continue to be, thrown
on the geology of the extreme northwest, from explorations in
more southern latitudes, as a considerable parallelism must exist
if we assume the coeval elevation of the northern and the southern
portions of the different ranges.

Most geologists agree in referring the elevation of the Rocky
Mountains to the Tria-^sic period. There seems to be no reason
why the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges should not be in-
cluded in this generalization.

On the banks of the Porcupine River, near the boundary line,
Robert Kennicott and the Rev. W. W. Kirkby obtained fossil
corals and molluscan remains, referred by Mr. F. B. Meek to
the Devonian age (Hamilton group). On the /vrctic coast the
.summit of Cape Lisburne alford<.'d 'J'nbiporil .md F.ncrinitcs,
referred to the Carboniferous age by Auckland Cape Thompson,
on the sami; authority, contained madrepores and other corals,
polyzoa, Proditctus, and other molluscan remains. The Carbon-
itcrous limestone from this locality, according to Grewingk, is al-
most entirely composed of the encrinites. At Cape Heaufort a
vein of true Carboniferous coal v/us discovered near the shore. In

•I;

i| i; A:

I.; ...
liil'l

:•;: -i

ill-

1 -

458

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

the Bay of Katmdi, on the south coast of Ahaska, Wossnessdnsky
obtained Jurassic ammonites and fra;^ments of belemnites. It is
possible that the sulphuret of copper, reported from the north
shore of Aliaska, may be contained in rocks of similar age. This
completes the list of known localities of rocks older thun the Cre-
taceous in Alaska.

Early in the Cretaceous period the Cascade Kanges and their
analogues to the north were washed by the washes of the great
Cretaceous sea. Later in the same epoch the Coast Ranges were
uplifted by plutonic force. To the immense convulsions which
elevated the great volcanic peaks of these ranges is probably due
that immense system of canals, islands, fiords, and inlets which are
so conspicuous on the northwest coast. Most of the Aleutian
Islands are probably of later elevation.

Some portions of the sea-bed, having been simultaneously
elevated, became covered with dense forests. From these the
important beds of Cretaceous lignites on the west coast were
formed. Gradual elevation of the coast continued. In the early
Miocene (I'^ocenc .-' of Foster, Mississippi Valley, p. 322) the
climate of Greenland, Spitzbergen, the Arctic Islands, the north-
ern part of America and Europe, was genial and temperate.
Immense forests of trees, now confined to far more southern
latitudes, existed all over the north. In the valley of the Yukon
sycamores {J^idtdNiis) were abundant. On the shores of Cook's
Inlet, pines {Pinits), redwoods {Sajiioin), elms {Uliniis), four species
of oaks {Onariis), three of walnuts {Juglaiis), ilex, maple, liquid-
ambar, taxodium, and many other trees of the temperate zone,
beside Myrica and Spiroca, grew in profusion. From this locality
fifty-two species of fossil plants arc described, of which twenty-
two are common to beds of the same age in Northern ICuro oc,
and a smaller number to Northern Asia, Greenland, Spitzbergen,
Vancouver Island, and Oregon. Species of Sequoia, Coryliis, and
Pccoptcris, have been obtained from Kake Strait. The debris of
these forests forms the great lignite beds of Fort Union, Nebras-
ka, as well as most of the beds of northern lignite. A depression
of this part of the continent then began ; the sea covered the site
of the sycamore groves of the Yukon, and in the highest rocks
(the brown sandstones of Nuhito) of that valley we find the re-
mains of Ostrca and other marine shell-fish. The last and still

3sness6nsky
litcs. It is
the north
• age. This ■
m the Cre-
ss and their
)f the great
Ganges were
Isions which
•robably due
ts which arc
he Aleutian

nultaneously
n these the
t coast were
In the early
p. 322) the
s, the north-
1 temperate,
are southern
the Yukon
es of Cook's
four species
naple, liquid-
perate zone,
this locality
lich twenty-
ern Europe,
Spitzbergen,
Coiyhis, and
he lirbris ot
lion, Nebras-
A depression
ered the site
lighcst rocks
find the re-
ast and still

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

459

uninterrupted era of elevation then commenced, probably at-
tended at first with great volcanic activity. It is to this period
that the elevation of many of the Aleutian Islands must be re-
ferred. In the Tertiary beds, which lie horizontally on their
flanks, shell-fish, still living in the adjacent waters, are abundant.
A colder era then set in, during which the arctic vegetation
spread far southward of its present limit. For this change of
temperature science has yet found no satisfactory solution. One
of the most novel of the many theories proposed is that of Dr.
Oswald Ileer, who has, more than any other naturalist, inves-
tigated the fossil flora of the temperate period.

It is known to astronomers that the solar system passes
through a vast orbit around some distant centre, and that it is
constantly entering new regions of space. We come from the
unknown, and plunge into the unknown ; but so much is cer-
tain, that at present the solar system is in a region thinly
peopled with stars. There is no reason to doubt that it may
once have wandered through one of those celestial provinces
where, as the telescope reveals, constellations are far more dense-
ly clustered. But, as every star is a blazing sun, the greater or
lesser number of these heavenly bodies must evidently have a
proportionate influence upon the temperature of space, and thus
we may suppose that duruig the warm Miocine period the earth,
being in a populous sidereal region, enjoy, d the benefits of a
higher temperature, which clothed even its poles with verdure.
In the course of ages the sun conducted his herd of plinels into
more lonely and colder regions, which caused the warm Miocene
era to be succeeded by the glacial period, and finally the sun
emerged into a space of an intermediate character, which deter-
mines the present condition of the climate of our globe.*

At the commencement of the cold period, huge animals, covered
with hair to resist the severe temperature, sprung into being.
The elephant roamed over the tundri of North America and
Asia. Later the reindeer and musk-ox followed the arctic
vegetation as it spread southward. The northeastern portion of
the United States was covered, as Greenland is now, with a near-
ly, if not quite, continuous glacier sheet. I'^rom the evidences be-
fore us we are unable to declare that this " general " ice sheet
extended to Siberia, Alaska, or the entire west coast of yXmerica.

* See IFartwig, Polar World, ]). 14

460

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

The causes which produced the extinction of the elephant arc
unknown, It is more probable that it was due rather to the
increased cold of the climate beyond what they were fitted to
endure, than to a change for the warmer, as has been suggested
by some authors. In the latter case, migration northward would
have been open to them, and they would hardly be found pre-
served entire in masses of ice, as has been the case in Siberia. It
is probable that the musk-ox and reindeer were long posterior to
the elephant in their appearance on the earth. In the Yukon
Valley the remains of the elephant are everywhere found on the
surface, except when recently buried by fluviatile action ; yet they
are thoroughly fossilized and destitute of animal matter, except in
the very interior of the tusks. On the other hand, the remains of
the musk-ox found in similar localities still preserve an animal
odor, and sometimes even slight remnants of the sinews.

During the period of most intense cold, large glaciers were
formed in the gorges and ravines of the Coast Ranges. As the
climate grew warmer, they diminished in size, and most of the
more southern glaciers disappeared entirely. Whitney says,*
" The explorations of the Geological Survey of California have
demonstrated that there is no true Northern Drift within the
limits of this State. Our detrital materials, which often form
deposits of great extent and thickness, are invariably found to
have been dependent for their origin and present condition on
causes similar to those now in action, and to have been deposited
on the flanks and at the bases of the nearest mountain ranges, by
currents of water rushing down their slopes. While we have
abundant evidence of the former existence of extensive glaciers
in the Sierra Nevada, there is no reason to suppose that the ice
was to any c'xtent an effective agent in the transportation of the
superficial deposits now resting on the flanks of the mountains.
The glaciers were confined to the most elevated portions of the
mountains, and, although the moraines which they have left as
evidences of their former extension are often large and conspicu-
ous, they are insignificant in comparison with the detrital masses
formed by aqueous erosion. There is nothing anywhere in Cali-
fornia which indicates a general glacial epoch, during which ice
covered the whole country, and moved bodies of detritus over the

* Proceedings California Academy of Natural Sciences, Vol. HI-, p- 272.

* It is
scoop out
duL' to th
f;reatcr ai
very loost

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

461

surface, independently of its present configuration, as is seen
throughout the Northeastern States."

The same is eminently true, as far as we know, of Alaska.

For opportunities of studying the phenomena of glaciation,
American students need no longer turn to the Alps. From Bute
Inlet to Unimak Pass almost every deep gorge of considerable
size between the high mountains, for which this coast is so re-
markable, has at its head a glacier, or the remains of one. Some
of these glaciers are of extraordinary size and grandeur. The
ice, broken from their overhanging terminations, has given rise to
such names as Icy Strait and Icy Bay ; and smaller fragments,
concealed by the adherent mud and stones, have in several in-
stances been taken for permanent rocks by the earlier navigators.
The question naturally arises, To what extent have the glaciers
aided in producing the extraordinary system of fiords which char-
acterizes this coast.' Or is that system entirely due to other
causes, and are the glaciers merely incidental ?

If the excavation of these innumerable channels and inlets be
due to glacial action, we shall naturally look for unmistakable evi-
dences of the fact in the grinding and polishing of the harder
rocks which remain, the denudation in great part of the softer
and more friable ones, the transportation of large quantities of
material, and its deposition off the present coast-line, in sub-
marine moraines, of which the soundings should give evidence.
The ice power which would excavate a channel fifty fathoms deep
would leave no uncertain or dubious evidences behind it.*

If, on the other hand, we do not look to glacial action for a
solution of the problem, we may suggest the hypothesis, that the
same power which raised the Coast Ranges to their stupendous
height, which lifted up the peaks of Criilon, Fairweather, and St.
Elias, at the same time upheaved the strata on either side of the
main line of elevation, and nearly parallel with it, thus producing
p deep incised valleys and precipitous mountains, gorges, and ra-
vines, of which the submarine portion, by its position, became an
archipelago ; while that above the sea, cf a similar character, in a

* It is probable that glaciers seldom cxiaTntc. They erotic and deniidc, but rarely
scoop out material. I can find no record of any excavations more than two feet deep
due to the action of ice alone. The torrents which flow from under glaciers do a far
{;reatcr amount of excavating than the ice itself. The term " excavate " has been
very loosely used in connection with ice.

<;, !

. ii!!:;

111 I

462

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

latitude and under climatic influences which produced a greater
deposition (in the form of snow) than evaporation, became, through
its physical conformation, the nurse of glaciers.

The weight of available evidence does not seem to support the
first view of the case. The lower summits of gneiss, granite, and
dolorite, which must have been covered in past time with the
superincumbent ice sheet, if it existed, and to which one would
look for such evidences as polishing, striation, and grinding uown,
offer none. Their outlines, and the rocks of which they are
composed, are sharp, and exhibit no evidences of abrasion or ero-
sion.

The absence of terraces, of any extent, has been noticed by
Professor Blake, in his account of the glaciers of the Stiki'ne
River. Wossnessensky describes none, nor does Whymper, in his
description of the immense glaciers of Bute Inlet. Nor in my
own observations in the vicinity of Sitka, and the peninsula of
Alidska, have I met with any cases of this most characteristic
phenomenon of general glacial action. If the glacier field once
extended over the entire coast, previous to the formation of the
archipelago, we may conclude that the more northern portions of
the ternto-y, north of the Alaskan Mountains, would not have
been exempt from glacial action. Three years' exploration, with
a strong disposition to develop the facts of the case, failed to
obtain on the shores of Norton Sound, or in the valley of the
Yukon, any evidence whatever of such action. Once only were
polished rocks met with, and they proved on examination to be
"slicken-sides" ; while no instances of transported materials,
scratches, boulders, or moraines, were anywhere met with. The
rolling and moderately elevated character of the country does not
favor the development of local glaciers, such as now exist on the
more southern coasts of Alaska.

Thomas Simpson esiiecially remarks the absence of drift boul-
ders on the Arctic coast, west of Return Reef of Franklin. These
most characteristic evidences of glacial action, which a child could
not overlook, are quite absent in the valley of the Yukon.

The soft Tertiary strata everywhere, though broken, contortcJ,
and sometimes meta^norphosed, are not denuded, except from the
evident local action of local glaciers.

We may assume that, first, the general course of a continental

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

463

or continuous coast glacier will be parallel with the general slope
of the coast, irrespective of local topography to any material
extent. Second, that as the excavations, rock, scratches, trans-
portation of material, and so on, of course, will trend in the same
line, consequently the terminal and other moraines, if any exist,
will be found to cross the line of general movement at right
angles. Third, it has also been noticed that the smaller hills, or
mountains, which lay in the path of the New England glacier
sheet, according to Vose and other geologists,* always have the
side of the longest slope facing the direction from which the ice
sheet came.

Glancing on the chart of the Alexander Archipelago, let us
examine this assemblage of islands, inlets, and canals, which, by
superficial observers, has been referred to the action of ice.

We find the first assumption directly contradicted. The line
of "excavation," if we still feel disposed to use that term, is at
right angles to the watershed, to the general slope of the coast
mountains, and to the course of many of the existing local
glaciers.

Assuming against reason, for the sake of argument, that this
was the line of movement of the glacier sheet (as it must have
been, if any existed), we should, under the .second assumption,
look to find across the canals, at intervals, or at least in solitary
instances, bars or submarine moraines, composed of the detritus
from the glacial sheet, at a time when the rate of melting was equal
to its rate of progress, the termination and noint where the detri-
tus was deposited consequently remaining «. early stationary. If
any such exist, which under the circumstances we may reasonably
doubt, the soundings would give unequivocal evidences of it. It
is, perhaps, needless to say, that as yet we have no such informa
tion. In regard to the third point, Mr. Davidson mentions in
his report the fact that the abrupt side of the mountains is
almost invariably the east or northeast side, which excludes the
idea of a glacier sheet from any direction, except from the sea,
but agrees well vviLU the hypothesis of '.n upheaval coeval and
parallel with that of the Coast Ran'- .s.

It has already been mentioned that the deposition of detritus,
in the form of shoals, off the lai'gest known glaciers of this coast,

* Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History.

m i

liii

m I

i i!

464

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

is very small, especially when contrasted with that deposited by
even the smaller rivers. The excavation of such immense inlets
and channels by ice action would necessarily form large quanti-
ties of eroded material, which must, by its specific gravity, have
been deposited somewhere near the coast.

It is therefore considered unnecessary to pursue the subject of
a general glacier sheet any further, and it only remains to discuss
the indications by which we may determine the former extent
and amount of influence of the local glaciers.

But little has been learned so far in regard to the rate of mo-
tion, and other circumstances connected with the magnificent
glacier system of the coast ranges of British Columbia and
Alaska. A road, built across one of the glaciers of Bute Inlet
by Mr. Waddington, of Victoria, was noticed to have moved
some ten feet out of line during the winter season, when the road-
builders returned in the spring. No regular observations have
been made, however.

That the majority of the glaciers are decreasing in size, and
hence that the climate is becoming drier or warmer, is evident.
The glaciers of Bute Inlet and the Stiki'ne have notably receded,
leaving their tracks unmistakable. The erosive action of the
glaciers is comparatively small ; from some of them issue streams
of water nearly pure,* and they do not give rise to any very
extensive shmls off the coast.

The ca.se ih quite dififerent with the rivers. The Stiki'ne, the
Copper, the Suchitno, all bring down quantities of detritus, annu-
ally altering, to some extent, the coast line in the immediate
vicinity of their embouchments.

North of the peninsula of Aliaska this river action is going
on in a far grander manner. The Nushergak, Kuskoqiiim, and
Yukon rivers annually discharge from their mouths immense
quantities of earthy matter, which is deposited in fine mud, and
replaces, in Bering Sea, the black volcanic sand which comes
up on the lead, when south of the islands. This mud has formed
the largest submarine plateau (with so slight a depth of water) in
the world, covering two thirds of Bering Sea, and even extending
for an indefiinite distance through and beyond Bering Strait. A
de;p sea valley exists, however, on the west side of Bering Sea,

* See Whymper, p. 27.

going

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

465

between the Alaska plateau and the shoals of Anadyr Gulf, cul-
minating in the mouth of Plover Bay, Eastern Siberia.*

When the spring freshets of the Yukon come down, the water
is laden with blocks of ice, each of which transports its share of
pebbles, earth, and sand ; the current, twelve to twenty fathoms
deep, in places, tears away with resistless violence alluvial banks
formed years before, and carries them along, depositing them
little by little, thus changing annually its channel and depth of
water, cutting away islands and fo'^ming new ones, and lessening
slowly, but surely, the depth of water in Bering Sea. I have
noticed, on exposed banks, one hundred and thirty annual layers
of earth and vegetable matter, in a depth of alluvium of only six
feet.

There can be but little doubt that the whole of the peninsular
portion of Alaska, west of the 150th degree of longitude, is under-
going gradual elevation. This is accelerated occasionally by
volcanic action in localities of limited extent. A single instance
is known in Chalmers Bay, Prince William Sound, of subsidence
of a low point formerly covered with trees, whose stumps are
now far below the lowest tide level. But this, in the absence of
further information, must be regarded as a merely local phenome-
non. The coast of Eastern Siberia is also undergoing elevation.

The facts in support of the above hypothesis are many. On
the neck of land between Norton Bay and Kotzebne Sound the
shores are strewn with driftwood piled in winrows by the fall
storms, and derived originally from the spring fresl.ets of the
Yukon and the Kuskoqiiim. Far above the level v/hich the
most severe storms and the highest tides now attain, lie regular
rows of wood, much decayed, but still preserving its shape, and
evidently brought there by the waves. This may also be noted
on the southeast end of St. Michael's Island, Norton Sound. In
the mouth of the Canal, or passage between St. Michael's and
the mainland, not far from the fort of the trading company, lie a
cluster of basaltic rocks, full of amygdaloidal cavities. The
upper portion of these rocks is at least fifteen feet above the
level of high water, and a little grass grows there, but in t'ne
cavities can still be found, /;/ situ, portions of the shelly covering

* Captain Fish, of the whaling brig Victoria, reports here ^^^ '" *'^^ mouth of the
bay ; and -gj was obtained farther in, by the Western Union Telegraph Expedition.
30

niif!

466

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

of a speciof. of barnacle {balanus), which must have lived there
when it was daily covered by the tide. The flanks of the Aleu-
tian Islands in many localities bear nearly horizontal Tertiary
strata, which contain fossil shells, undoubtedly identical as to
species with living forms now abundant in the waters which
surround them, showing that they have been elevated within a
comparatively short (geological) time.

The lagoon of Isanotski, long marked from French surveys in
the last century as a navigable though dangerous passage, is now
an impassable cul-de-sac. This, however, may be due to imper-
fections in the original survey, and not to subsequent elevation.

Captain Riedell, of the bark Constantine, states that in the
inner portion of the south harbor of Unga Island, one of the
Shiimagins, where he had previously obtained four fathoms,
muddy bottom, after the slight earthquake shock of May, 1868,
he sounded, obtaining only four feet in the same place. The
lower portion of the harbor retained, however, abundance of
water. Careful and exact charts of given localities are needed
to determine with accuracy the rate of the gradual elevation.

Should the elevation of the land and the annual deposition of
earthy material continue, geologically the time is not far distant
when a great part of Bering Sea may become dry land, and Asia
be joined unto America.

Plutonic forces have been more or less active in Alaska since
the end of the Miocene period. Their violence appears to have
diminished during historical times. Many formerly active vol-
canoes have become quiet or extinct, earthquake shocks are less
frequent and less violent than formerly, and no remarkable erup-
tion has taken place for many years. The following information
in regard to igneous action is derived from Grewingk.

1690. A crater was formed on the mountain called Khaginak in

the island of Unimak.
1700 to 1 7 10. The volcano on Amak Island and two others were

active. (At present Amak volcano is entirely extinct.)
1 74 1. Iliamna volcano became quiet.
1760. Adiikh, Goreloi, Chech I'tno, and Atka volcanoes smoked for

the first time in history. Koniushi Island rose.
1762. Pavloff volcano on Aliaska showed signs of activity.

S(
1768.

ar
1770.

1772.

1774-

1776. i

1778. :

1784. ^

the
1786. i
res:
emi
acti
cea
1788. /
Shi
nak
Fro
790. A
wen
occa
mak

1791. Ir

1792. G
Onl

795- A
and
tendi
ilierc

1796. Ec
histo
arose
very

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

467

^hdginak in

1763. Tanaga Peak became active, and continued so until 1770.

Solfataras appeared upon Kanaga.
1768. Two volcanoes were active on Unalashka. Mcdvicdnikofif

and Walrus peaks on Aliaska became active.
1770. Aniukhta volcanoes became quiet.
1772. S6mi-sop6chnoi Islands lost their activity.

1774. One of the islands of the Four Craters became active.

1775. Mount Caldcr, on Prince of Wales Island, became active,
and one of the Unimak volcanoes emitted fire occasionally
until 1778.

1776. Sitignak emitted flames in July.

1778. Iliamna resumed and has since kept in a state of activity.
Shishaldin smoked.

1784. Vsevidoff volcano smoked. An eruption took place from
the Chechi'tno peak in July.

1786. Seguam and Amiikhta volcanoes became active ; the former
rested in 1790, and the latter the following year. Kanaga
emitted flames. The northern crater of Pavloff Peak became
active. It fell in, and after a violent earthquake its activity
ceased.

1788. An earthquake, attended with a tidal wave, visited the
Shumagins. On the 27lh of July the water overflowed San-
nak Island, destroying the hogs which had been placed there.
From this point the inundation extended to Aliaska.

;790. Akutan smoked. Vsevidofl", Kanaga, and Semi-sopochnoi
were active. Makushin on Unalashka had active periods
occasionally from this time to 1792, and Shishaldin on tJni-
mak until 1825. An eruption occurred near Chi'igach Gulf

1791. In June, Tanaga and Kanaga smoked.

1792. Great Sitkin and Goreloi emitted fire until the end of May.
On the 1st of June Semi-sopochnoi smoked.

1795. A small volcano on the southwest end of Unimak exploded,
and fell in with a fearful noise. The phenomenon was at-
tended by dense clouds of white ashes. West of that point
ihere are hot marshes.

1796. Edgecumbe is said to have smoked for the only time in
history. On the ist of May, according to Baranofi", a storm
arose near tJmnak, and continued for several days. It was
very dark all this time, and low noises resembling thunder

;i':Hii

468

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

1796. were continually heard. On the third day the sky became
clear very early, and a flame was seen arising from the sea
between Unahishka antl IJmnak. North of the latter, smoke
was observed for ten days. At the end of this time, from
UnaUi-shka a round white mass was seen rising out of the sea.
During the night fire arose in the same locality, so that ob-
jects ten miles off were distinctly visible. An earthquake
shook Unahishka, and was accompanied by fearful noises,
Rocks were thrown from the new volcano as far as rmiuik.
With sunrise the noises ceased, the fire diminished, and the
new island was seen in the form of a black cone. It was
named after St. John the Theologian {yodnita Jhygosldva).
A month later it was considerably higher, and emitted flamiv
constantly. It continued to rise, but steam and smoke took
the place of fire. Four years after no smoke was seen, and
in 1804 the island was visited by hunters. They found the
sea warm around it, and the soil in many places too hot to
walk on. It was said to be two miles and a half around, and
three hundred and fifty feet high. The soil emitted an odor
of bitumen. It is forty-five versts, or nearly thirty -four miles,
due west from the north point of Unahishka. In 1806 l;na
flowed from the summit into the sea on the north side. Fis-
sures appeared, lined with crystals of sulphur. Veniamfnoff
says that it ceased to enlarge in 1823, when it was of a py-
ramidal form, and about fifteen hundred feet high. There arc
many strong currents about it, and a reef extends from a rock
west of it to Umnak.

From this time to 1800 the Four Craters remained active.
The crater of Amak was unquiet.

1802. Makushin emitted flames with great vigor. Shocks of
earthquake were felt in Unalashka,

18 1 2. The Sarycheff volcano in Atka was in violent eruption.
The earthquakes were most violent, and terrified the in-
habitants.

181 7. Yunaska smoked in April. Upon Umnak a tremendous
earthquake occurred, with a violent southwest storm. One
of the north peaks emitted clouds of ashes and smoke.
At daybreak the ashes covered the soil, from twelve to
twenty inches thick. A small river near the factory was

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL KESOURCES.

469

1817. filled with them, and contained no more fish for a year.
Some of the ashes, and stones even, are said ♦o have
reached Unahishka and I'nimak. A village on the northeast
end of Ihnnak, near Deep Hay. was covered by immense
stones and ashes. The inhabitants were fortunately absent
at the Pri'byloff Islands. They built a new villaj:;e on a
spot which had been under water before the earthquake. A
previously navigable channel was filled up with the stones
ejected during the eruption.

1818. An earthquake occurred in the vicinity of Makushin, and
great changes are said to have taken place in Amatignak.

1 8 19. Mount Wrangell emitted fire, and the Redoubt volcano of
Cook's Inlet smoked.

1820. Uogosl6va smoked.

1824. Shishaldin emitted flames, and a mighty eruption took
place on Yunaska.

1825. On the loth of March subterranean detonations were
heard in Unimak, and as far as Unahishka. On the north-
east side of Isanotski a new crater broke forth. In five
or six places flames and smoke poured out. At noon the
darkness of night reigned, even in Walrus Village forty-five
miles away. Black ashes covered the peninsula of Aliaska
as far as Pdvlofl" Bay. At the same time a torrent of water
burst out of the south side of the mountain, carrying pumice
and ashes with it, and covering a strip of country ten miles
wide ; even the sea continued muddy until late in the
autumn.

1826. Further disturbances took place en T'Tnimak, and ashes fell
on the nth of October. In June two earthquakes shook
Unahishka.

1827. From this time until 1829, Shishaldin and Pogrumnoi
volcanoes emitted fire. Koniushi and Kanaga smoked, while
in June an earthquake was felt on Copper Island.

1828. Little Sitkin, Akhiin, Akutan, Tanak-Angunakh, Atka,
Koniushi, Goreloi, and Shishaldin smoked. The same dis-
turbances continued for two years.

1830. Korovi'n and Atka smoked. ' An eruption occurred on
Yunaska and the southwest end of Umnak. In November
a fearful noise was heard through the fog on Unimak.

i, i\

\ ^

isii

a If

:. f

: K- C

i ih
1 ,11

470

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

1830. When the mist cleared away, Isanotski was black, all the
snow had disappeared, and flames shot forth from fissures on
the north, west, and south. On the north side, the flames ap-
peared three times a minute, followed by a stronger burst ot
flames and smoke. In March, 1831, the fissures had closed,
except the northern one, where a mass of red-hot lava was
long visible. Bilberry bu:.'.cs, before unknown, are growing
in the stratum of ashes thrown out by Pogriimnoi. After
the eruption, fish floated dead on the water, and shell-fish
disappeared. Since that time other craters, formerly active,
have become quiet.

1836. An earthquake occurred on the Prfbyloft" Islands, on the
2d of April. The shock was so severe that people could not
stand erect, and was preceded by a lord noise. The rocks
were split and broken in many places, and the same phe-
nomena occurred with less violence in August.

1838. Shishaldin emitted fire, and smoke arose from three points.
The Four Craters, Makushin, Akutan, Mount Veniami'noff,
and lYivloff volcano smoked.

1843. On the 23d of November, Mount St. Helen's broke out.

1844. Korovin and Makushin smoked lightly.

1854. Light shocks occurred in the Kaviak peninsula.

1862. Similar disturbances were reported by the natives,

1865. When the vessels of the telegraph fleet passed through
Ihiimak Pass in September, Shishaldin was smoking, and
light was observed at night in the direction of Akhiin, and
Akutan. Makushin was also active.

1867. In August a shock of earthquake occurred on the Lower
Yukon, and was felt at the Mission. Amak Island had lost
its activity entirely.

The records of these phenomena are exceedingly incom-
plete ; but that they are less frequent and less severe than
formerly, there can be no doubt.

The coal-bearing strata of Queen Charlotte's Island, about
which some doubt has existed, are proved, by fossils in the pos-
session of Professor Whitney, to be of Cretaceous age. Tlic
same formation doubtless extends northward into the Alexan-
der Archipelago, and its extent has not been determined. Tiic

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

471

ick, all the
fissures on
flames ap-
r burst ol
lad closed,
t lava was
c growing
loi. After
1 shell-fish
irly active,

ids, on the
; could not
The rocks
same phc-

irec points,
eniami'noff,

oke out.

es.

through
ving, and
chiin, and

the Lower
id had lost

gly incom-
evere than

md, about
n the pos-
agc. The
e Alexan-
[led. The

rocks near Sitka are clay slates, argillite, grauwackc, and a hard
conglomerate or grit. In Noquashi'nski Bay finely crystallized
white marble occurs ; sienitic granite is found near Deep Lake,
and in St. John's Bay Mr. Blake found fine black shales and
friable sandstones, with fragments of bituminous c(jal, among the
detritus. Near the northwest end of Deep Lake are springs
with a temperature of 120° h'ahrenheit. They contain carbonate of
lime and sulphur in considerable quantities. The rocks of Mount
Vostovia are sienitic. On the shores of Barlow's Bay, Admiralty
Island mica schists, with a vertical dip, enclose quartz veins con-
taining iron pyrites. At the head of Lynn Canal fragments of
finely crystalline white marble were found with sienitc and slate.

Granite and metamorphic rocks arc abundant along the coast
from Cape Spencer to Cape St. Elias. At the former point
Tertiary strata have been reported.

The southeast shore of Kenai is metamorphic. The shores
of Chugachik Bay and Cook's Inlet on the east side, as far as tlie
Kiiknu River, are Tertiary, containing beds of coal. North of the
Kaknu River, clay slates with veins of gold-bearing diorite occur.
In the alluvium of that river gold has been detected. The rocks
of Kadiak are chiefly metamorphic, trachytic, and chloritic slates
with veins of quartz. Tertiary sandstones also occur with fossils.
Volcanic and metamorphic rocks, porphyry, black Jurassic shales,
and Tertiary beds, occur on the adjacent shores of Aliaska. Far-
ther west the Tertiary rocks are more extensive, and frequently
contain lignite and fossil wood. They have been noted upon
I'igalda, Akhun, Unahishka, I'-mnak, 7\mchilka, and St. Paul's.
The islands of Akutan, Bogosluva, Four Crnters, Yunaska,
Amukhta, St. George, Semi-sopochnoi, Kecska, Amak, and
Agattu, are supposed to be entirely volcanic. Unalashka, Amlia,
Atka, Amchi'tka, and Attu also contain metamorphic rocks or
porphyry. L"ttle Si'tkin is the most western volcano. The Com-
ni inder's Isla-ids are volcanic and metamorphic ; native copper
has been found on the more eastern, from v.diich it takes its
name. The St. Matthew group ami St. I.nwrence are volcanic
and metamorphic. Granitic rocks arc known to exist on the
Kuskoquim. Marine Miocene strata occupy a small basin on
the Yukon near Nulato. In one place near the Shaman Moun-
tain is a small outcrop of lignite and shale much metamorph.osed.

!?;i;

•;»**

472

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

ill!

^^m

Underneath these He gray Miocene sandstones with vegetable
remains extending to the sea-coast. All these rocks are much
bent, contorted, and metamorphosed in some localities, from
the intrusion of trachytic and basaltic rocks. Quartz veins cut
the strata in many places. Underneath the sandstones arc
metamorphosed quartzites which compose the greater proportion
of the strata in the Yukon Valley, below the mouth of the Porcu-
pine. That portion of the country near the delta is mostly
alluvium with metamorphic rocks. From St. Michael's Island,
which contains an extinct cater, to the Yukon, extends a belt of
basaltic rocks containing olivine, and of recent (geological) age.
The natives have a tradition that St. Michael's has been thrice
submerged.

Cape Denbigh is said to be porphyritic. The rocks near
Grantley Harbor are quartzite and granitic. In Kotzebue Sound,
basalt, metamorphic rocks, granite, and alluvium are the preva-
lent strata. Granitic rocks occur only once on the Yukon near
the Rapids. Obsidian is occasionally found, and conglomerate
beds exist in one or two places. The character of the Arctic
coast has already been mentioned.

Any account of Alaska would be incomplete which did not
include a mention of the remarkable hot and mineral spring
which are so n dimerous. Those of Sitka have been already men-
tioned. Whitby records the existence of hot saline springs be-
low high-water mark near Sitka. In Parenosa Bay, opposite
Linga Island, on the south coast of Aliaska, are several hot
springs. Others are situated on Amagat Island, near Aliaskn,
and still others in Port Moller, on the north side of the peninsula.
A lake of water containing sulphur in solution exist."- on I'nimak,
Hot marshes are found near Pogrumnoi volcano. Numeroib
boiling .springs on the northeast side of Akutan form a small
rivulet, and an extinct crater is filled with water of a bitter taste.
On a small island southeast of Akhun, hot springs are found
between tide-marks. In Unahishka, near Captain's Harbor, a
thermal spring exists, with a temperature of 94° Fahrenheit, con-
taining sulphur in solution. Noises which sound like the reports
of cannon are often heard, and have been mistaken for coniinj:;
ves.scls. The natives have a tradition that long ago the moun-
tains fought with each other, and Mdkushin remained victor.

these

water

Near

to luk

them.

Upc

of som

hat at

tempei

I upon ]

at the

[ hottom

Sulphi;

[ steam,

and wi

tween '

the wa

rich, an

contras

i'lg. th(

iuva ro

Ther

in;j^ spr

Aleuts

ing con

highest

\'ery

A lal

stroiif^l)

As w

their ve

plutonic

in the w

r.coiio

tioned k

In it are

reiiorted

known 1

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

473

Many hot springs exist in a small valley of Umnak. One of
these rises two feet and falls again, four times an hour. The
water is boiling, and there is no perceptible opening in the soil.
Near Deep Bay are several springs ranging from 212"^ Fahrenheit
to lukewarm. The Aleuts are accustomed to bathe in some of
them.

Upon the island of Atka many such springs occur. The water
of some of them contains lime and sulphur, but is less bitter than
liat at Sitka. These are five miles from Korovin Bay, and their
temperature is about 167" Fahrenheit. At a greater altitude,
upon Koni volcano are found mud craters two feet in diameter
at the top, of a funnel shape, diminishing to five inches at the
bottom. They are frequently full of mud in a state of ebullition.
Sulphurous odors and subterranean noises, like the escape of
steam, are always noticeable. If a stick is thrust into the ground
and withdrawn, sulphurous vapors arise with great force. Be-
tween Korovin and Klucheff volcanoes is a verdant valley. Here
the warmth arising from the hot springs renders the vegetation
rich, and this, with the aljundance of flowers, presents a marked
contrast to the bare and sterile flanks of the volcanoes. Ascend-
ing, the traveller leaves perpetual summer for bare aixd forbidding
lava rocks and eternal snow.

There are nany hot springs upon the island of Adakh. Boil-
ing springs on Kanaga have been used for cooking food by the
Aleuts from time immemorial. Goreloi consists of a vast smok-
ing cone eighteen miles around. It is supposed to be one of the
highest in the archipelago.

Very active hot springs e.xist on Si'tignak Island.

A lake on Beaver Island of the Pn'byloff group is said to be
strongly impregnated with nitre.

As we may turn to the coasts of Alaska to study glaciers, at
their very sides we may also give our attention to exhibitions of
plutonic force and volcanic activity which are almost equal to any
in the world.

F.cououiic Geology. — The most valuable of the previously men-
tioned formations, from an economic point of view, is the Tertiary.
In it are contained those beds of coal which have been so often
rcjiorted on the northwest coast. The following is a list of the
known localities up to date of writing : Port Gardner; Hood's

1*,

< !t * t 3 S; S

I! iii'^

474

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

Bay, Admiralty Island (good, bituminous, used by the Saginaw
in 1868) ; Hamilton Harbor, on the east side of Kake Strait (a
vein of good bituminous coal opened here in July, 1868) ; Kriiz-
noff 13ay, Admiralty Island; Kuiu Island; KuprianofV Island;
Port Camden, Kake Strait (a six-inch vein reported in hard rock,
with a southerly dip of 35") ; St. John's Bay, Baninoff Island,
(fragments in debris of a glacier ; recent reports state that the
vein has been discovered, and the coal successfully used on a
United States steamer) ; Coal Harbor, Unga Island (examined
by the writer in 1865 ; the coal is of poor quality, in thin veins,
much mixed with slate and silicified wood ; quite valueless) ;
south coast of Aliaska (" Black lignites," Krman) ; Cape Beau-
fort, Arctic coast (a small vein of true Carboniferous coal) ; Akhiin
(coal said to occur by Lutkc) ; Unalashka (near Captain's Harbor,
small lignite veins, according to Veniami'noff) ; Atka (lignite of
poor quality found near Sand Bay) ; Amchitka (lignite, Grewingk) ;
Wrangell Harbor (coal reported, of good quality, by General
Hallcck) ; and finally Cook's I-ilet. In the latter locality arc
found ilie most promising deposits. North of Cape Stari'chkoft",
the coal is found in two parallel layers. They are variously re-
ported as from eighteen inches to seven feet in thickness, and
are found from thirty-six to sixty feet below the top of the
bank. Farther to the north a third layer appears. They con-
tinue nearly to Cape Nenilchik, with a north-northeast dip, and
appear again on the northern side of the cape, and then con-
tinue, first with a south-southeast dip, and afterwards horizon-
tally, to the mouth of a small stream. The coal is Tertiary ;
and, like most Tertiary coals, is inferior to the Carboniferous
coals both in quality and thickness of seams. The annexed
table will show at a glance the comparative value and compo-
sition of the coals of the different formations on the west coast
of America, and the best Carboniferous coals of Pennsylvania and
England.

The table shows at a glance, better than any description could
do, the superior quality of the Cook's Inlet coal, not only over all
the Miocene coals, but also over all the Cretaceous coals of the
Pacific slope.*

* The analyses of the Alaska coal are due to Professor J. S. Ncwberrv of the School
of Mines, Colunibia College, New ^'ork, and State geologi^st of Ohio. I'rofLSSur
Newberry is excelled by none in his knowledge of the Tertiary coal-bearing depnsits

ic Saginaw
vc Strait (a
68) ; Kriiz-
lolV Island ;
1 hard rock,
iioff Island,
Ltc that the

used on a
1 (examined
1 thin veins,

valueless) ;
Cape Beau-
oal) ; Akhiin
ill's Harbor,
a (lignite of

Grewingk) ;

by General

locality arc
; Stari'chkoii",
variously rc-
ickness, and

top of the
They con-

ast dip, and
then con-

ds horizon-

s Tertiary ;

arboniferoib
ic annexed

and eompo-
west coast
ylvania and

iption could

only over all

coals of llii;

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

Analyses of Coal.

475

Locality of the coal.

2-34
4.00
2 00

2-34
0.99

Fixed
carbon.

Volatile

combustible

matter.

Ash.

a,
p

0.23

Character.

liituminous.

Hitmninous.

Cannel.

.Anthracite.

Hituininous.

u
^

riftshiirg, Pennsylvania .
Ornisby, IVimsylvania .

Kentucky

i.eliigli. Pennsylvania .
.\e\veastle, England .

55.82
66.56
5601
88.05
61.70

34-31

26.93

37-S9

2.94

33-55

7.16
2.50
4.10
6.66
3-75

n
v

•J

Nanaimo, Vancouver Island
Hcliingham Hay

Moiuit Diahhn Calilornia, best
" black diamond " .

2. 98
8.30

14.69

2009
j 11.60

1 9-45
1.25

46.31

45-(«)
46.S4

32.16
33-26

33-89

iS-SS
1266

4-58

>
p

I.ignitic.

Lignitic.

I.ignitic.

Coose Hay, Oregon . . .
t'arbon Stali(jn, | ■,■, .^ ,, ., ,
Weber River, ( I'^^cihc Ka.lro.ad

Cook's Inlet, Alaska .

41-98
51.67
26.21
49.89

32.59
27.68
58.32
39-S7

5-34
6.17

364

7 82

2.90
2.40
1.20

I.ignitic.
I.ignitic.
I.ignitic.
Lignitic.

Anthracite has been several times reported from various parts
of Alaska. It is probable that the specimens collected may owe
their quality to local metamorphism of the rocks by heat rather
than to the general character of any large deposit. The Cook's
Inlet coal, it will be noted, contains only 0.37 per cent less com-
bustible matter, and only 0.66 per cent more ash than good Pitts-
burg bituminous coal, which difterence is fully made up by the
1,09 per cent more water which exists in the latter. The amount
of sulphur is less than in either of the two best Tertiary coals on
the line of the Pacific Railroad, and the amount of moisture is less
than in any other American coal tabulated.

The discoverers of these outcrops of coal must recollect, how-
!ver, that the value of coal is not due to its quality alone. Com-
mercially speaking, a vein of coal less than three feet thick (of
clear coal) is of very little value, except for local use. 'I'he dip of
the strata, its fault.? or foldings, the solid or crumbling character
tifthc superincumbent strata, tne distance from a market, and the
facilities for mining, shipping, and transportation. — all these are
as important in determining the value of a deposit as the char-
acter of the coal itself.

rvof the School ■ ilthc United States, and says : " This coal is fully equal to any found on the west
)hio. rrolcssoi H iMjt, nut excepting those of Vancouver Island and Hellinghain liay." Fur the use
icaring deposits | "I the analyses 1 am indebted to the Smithsonian Institution,

; !

Ill

'aa

476

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

"■i

1 I 'f

The existence of deposits of coal of permanent value, in Alaska,
though very probable, can only be determined by a thorough ex-
amination, and is yet to be proved.

Amber occurs extensively in these beds associated with lignite.
It is common in the lignite deposits on the peninsula of Aliaska,
and I have obtained it from the alluvium in the delta of the
Yukon. It is also found in the vicinity of most of the Tertiary
coal deposits on the Fox Islands, and is an article of ornament
with the natives, who carve it into rude beads. Grewingk says that
the natives collect it at Amber Bay, Aliaska, and sell it to the
Kadiak traders. It is also found in the Tertiary strata of Kadiak,
A small lake among the mountains of Unalashka contains an
amber-bearing island. On the island of Umnak, near Yagorkoti-
ski Village, is a steep bank of friable material. The natives
spread a walrus-skin between two boats at the foot of the bank
and dislodge the earth, which falls upon the skin, and from this
ifSris much amber is obtained. It is also said to be found on
the Kuskoquim.

Among the other mineral products of Alaska, probably of this
age, is petroleum. This is found floating on the surface of a lake
near the bay of Katmai, Aliaska Peninsula. It is of the specific
gravity of 25° (Bi^aume),* quite odorless, and in its crude state
an excellent lubricator for machinery of any kind.

The beds of white marble near Sitka and in Lynn Canal, if
uniformly of as good quality as the specimens obtained by the
United States Coast Survey officers, will prove of great value.
The natives have long been in the habit of carving images,
labrets, &c., of this material.

Gold and silver occur in lit .'ted quantities in Alaska. The
latter is sometimes associated with native copper.

Talcose and chloritic slate, with veins of quartz, abound in the
island of Kadiak. An analysis of specimens of these rocks by
Dr. Newberry shows only about $ i per ton in gold and silver.
He says in regard to them, however : " These specimens come
from a system which at other points is probably much richer.
The mineralogical character of the specimens is precisely that ol
the most productive gold-bearing veins known, although silver
will not be found in quantity in such an association of minerals."

* Ncvvliony, Report on Alaska Minerals to the Smithsonian Institution.

t .;

Itisn

first c

rocks,

j4-atioii

I \-ial w

aflorck

I of gol

lead a

The

territo

to ex is

Tahco

miners

found':

vium

been \>

Gold

arc situ

cents t(

was on

foot of

(Hans li

Times,

Nativ

been ob

oecurs i

The ori

natives,

a worn

metal e:

iloiibt.

noil", an(

Island ci

bonate c

the snip

form of (

Archipe

in the pc

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

477

.le, in Alaska,
thorough ox-

. with lignite.

la of Alidska,

delta of the

the Tertiary

: of ornament

ngk says that

sell it to the

ata of Kadiak,

I contains an

:ar Yagorkoti'-

The natives

t of the bank

and from this

• be found on

-obably of this

rface of a lake

f the specific

ts crude state

ynn Canal, if
tained by the
great value,
rving images,

Alaska. The

bound in the
icse rocks 1)}'
d and silver.
;cimens come
much richer,
xisely that ol
though sih-cr
of minerals.

Institution.

It is not impossible that the gold-bearing alluvium of Cook's Inlet,
first examined by Doroshin, was originally derived from similar
rocks, especially as the island of Kadiak is apparently a prolon-
gation of the peninsula of Kenai, on which the gold-bearing allu-
vial was foiuid.

Another analysis of this quartz, by Dr. John Hcwston, Jr.,
afforded ;p4. 15 in silver per two thousand pounds, with a trace
of gold. These specimens were associated with sulphurcts of
lead and iron.

The gold deposits of the Stiki'ne River are all situated in British
territory. They are only worked in the placers, but gold is said
to exist in quartz veins in the vicinity. The head-waters of the
Tahco River have afforded coarse gold to the few enterprising
miners who have penetrated there. Gold in small quantities is
ibiind'in the sands of the Yukon, near Fort Yukon. The allu-
vium of the Kaknu River is a yellowish clay, and has not yet
hecn worked by any practical miners.

Gold has been found in the bay on which the Taku villages
are situated, and in the streams of the vicinity. It averages five
cents to the pan in scales or small nuggets. The richest deposit
was on the main stream, four or five miles from the bay. at the
foot of a waterfall, said to be one hundred feet high. The In-
dians here were " Kakes," and said to be unfriendly. (Alaska
Times, September 25, 1869.)

Native copper, occasionally associated with silver, has long
been obtained from the natives of the Atna or Copper River. It
oeciHS in rounded masses sometimes weighing thirty-six pounds.
The original locality is unknown and carefully concealed by the
natives, with whom it is an article of trade. The specimens have
a worn appearance, as if from the bed of a stream. That this
metal exists in large quantities in this vicinity, there can be no
doui)t. Metallic copper is reported from Unalashka by Veniami-
noft", and has been obtained from the north end of Admiralty
Island and from Unga Island by the Russians. The blue car-
bonate occurs on the Kuskoquim and near Cape Romanzoff, and
the sulphurets on the north coast of Aliaska. Mercury, in the
form of cinnabar, exists in the Cretaceous strata of the Alexander
Archipelago. The locality is unknown, but fine specimens were
in the possession of the Russians.

\.\

V '

ill

ii. III

1, ,

> II

I ill I:

478

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

Lead, in the shape of galena, is reported from Whale Bay, about
twenty miles south of Sitka, and near St. Paul's, Kadiak. It has|
been found only in small quantities.

Iron exists in many parts of the territory, but no valuable de-l
posits, fit for working, have yet been noticed. The titanic and
magnetic oxides, in the form of sand, have been reported from the
island of St. Paul. The micaceous oxide is used as a pigment by
the Yukon Indians. A red ferruginous clay is used by the same
tribes in decorating all wooden articles.

Graphite, or plumbago, is reported from Kadiak, Seguam, Ka-
chi'daguk Point, Aliaska, and by La Perouse from Litiiya Bay.

Black oxide of manganese has been received from the Kusko-|
quim.

Next to copper and coal, sulphur is probably the most valuable
mineral of the territory. It has long been in use as a means otl
obtaining fire by the coast tribes, and is reported, with great
probability, to exist in large quantities in connection with the I
numerous volcanic peaks and craters of Alaska. It has beeii|
reported as existing in solution in most of the hot and mineral
springs elsewhere referred to, and in a solid form in the following
localities : near the craters of the Aliaska volcanoes, on the isl-
and of Kadidk (?) ; in the fissures of Shishaldin on Unimak, an(l|
in large quantities near Pogriimnoi Village on the same island;
in a small crater on Akutan ; in quantities on a small islandl
southeast 01 Akhi'in, near the summit of Makushin volcano; in
the mud craters of Atka; and finally on the volcanic peaks of
Kanaga.

In case of war, when the supply of Sicilian sulphur might be I
cut off", or for the manufacture of blasting-powder for the miners |
of California, these deposits may prove of very considerable value.
The waters of a small lake on Beaver Island, of the Pribyloiil
group, are said by Veniami'noff" to be strongly impregnated \vitii|
another ingredient of gunpowder, namely, nitre.

Kaolin occurs on Amchi'tka, but the amount and exact locality |
are not recorded.

Boulder Island produces, according to Grewingk, "earthcream {'\\
or edible earth, consisting of pure gypsum without infusoria.'
This statement needs explanation.

Upon Umnak a good quality of fire-clay is found near Yagor-I

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

479

:, Scguam, Ka-I

koffski Village. The exploration of the mineral wealth of Alaska
has hardly begun.

In regard to precious stones we have very little information.
Amethysts are not uncommon in veins of quartz. Zeolites are
abundant in the amygdaloid rocks of the Lower Yukon. Tour-
malines and garnets are reported from Kotzebue Sound. Garnets
arc abundant near Fort Simpson, in mica schists. Spinel oc-
curs in a bed of whitish decomposed volcanic rock on St. George's
Island. The crystals are large, but usually dark and full of im-
perfections. Agates and carnelians are abundant in numerous
localities, especially Cnga and the valley of the Lower Yukon.
I Diamonds have erroneously been reported from I'nga.

Among Indian carvings I have seen several made of beautifully
variegated marble, with streaks of red, black, and cream-color.
Hypochlorite, a rich green ore of bismuth, with delicate streaks
of difterent shades, is commonly used for ornaments by the natives
of the coast from Bering Strait to Sitka. It somewhat resembles
jade in appearance, and has been referred to as malachite by
ignorant explorers.

Wild and exaggerated stories have found a place, even in offi-
cial documents, in regard to fossil ivory. This is not uncommon
in many parts of the valleys of the Yukon and Kuskoquim. It is
usually found on the surface, not buried as in Siberia, and all that
I have seen has been so much injured by the weather that it was
of little commercial value. It is usually blackened, split, and so
fragile as to break readily in pieces. A lake near Nushergak, the
Inglutdlik River, and the Kotlo River, arc noted localities for this
ivory. It has also been found on the shores of Kotzebue Sound
and the Arctic coast.

Ice has long been an article of trade with the Russian Ameri-
can Company. The history of this trade is given elsewhere. The
first cargo was sold for $75 a ton. It was soon found that it was
impossible to procure ice of good quality or in sufficient quan-
tities in the latitude of Sitka. The establishments were therefore
removed to a small island near Kadiak, where they still remain.
At various times vessels have loaded with ice from several of
the glaciers to the southward. The value of the ice imported
into California in 1868 was $28,000. The demand for it has not
id near Ya'^or-B Si^eatly increased of late years, yet it seems as if, when once in-

d exact locality

I li 111

^ +

II I

iiilillli'

''■i: II.

480

GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES.

troduccd into Mexican, Soutli American, and Asiatic ports, that a
profitable trade might be carried on. At present ice is taken
from New England to India and China, a much greater distance,
requiring a longer voyage through hot latitudes, and of course
necessitating a large waste while on the way.

Our knowledge of the geology, minerals, and rocks of Alaska is
extremely meagre. It is to be hoped that our energetic traders
and trappers will enable us to increase it by collecting and trans-
mitting specimens from clearly identified localities. In this way
our stock of information may be rapidly enlarged, and the growth
and prosperity of the new Territory promoted.

BBl

Drts, that a
e is taken
;r distance,
I of course

)f Alaska is
Stic traders

and trans-
In this way

the grow til

CHAPTER VI.

Fisheries, Fur Trade, and other Resources not previously mentioned.

EXTENSIVE fisheries have always been considered by all
nations as among the most jiroductive sources of wealth
and prosperity.

The annual value of the British fisheries is estimated at twenty-
five millions of dollars. Those of the I rench produce three
millions, and the catch of American vessels on the northeast
coast has an annual value of two millions.

The abundance of fish on the shores of Alaska has been a
matter of wonder since the voyages of the earliest navigators.
IJillings, Cook, La Perouse, Lulkc, Lisiansky, Belcher, and Sir
George Simpson, have all borne credible witness to the myriads
of cod, salmon, halibut, and herring, which are fourd on the
northwest coast. Eish have always formed the largest part of
the food of the native population, and while the fisheries, from a
commercial point of view, are still in their infancy, yet there can
be no question as to their immense value and extent.

The principal marine fish of the Alaskan waters arc cod, hali-
but, herring, tomcod, lilikon, and mullet.

The cod are the most abundant and valuable of these fish.
They arc found principally on soundings of about fifty to twenty-
five fathoms. The most northern j^oint reached by the cod is
determined by the floating ice line of Bering Sea. This passes
between the St. Matthew and Pribyloff groups of islands and
touches the mainland in the vicinity of the mouth of the Kusko-
quim River. North of it there are no cod. They extend south-
ward to the vicinity of the Straits of Fuca, but arc most abun-
: (lant from Yakutat Bay north, and west among the islands of the
Kadidk and Aleutian Archipelagoes. The cod-banks are gen-
krally in the vicinity of land, but off-shore banks have been found,
though the fishermen endeavor to keej) the locality of any such
31

482

FISHERIKS.

!l, ;l!

i''

discovery to themselves. The fisheries extend clear across the
Pacific, and abuiuhiiice of cod arc found in the Ochotsk Sea.
In searching for cod-banks, fishermen may generally take the
trend of the adjacent land or groups of islands, and the banks,
if any, will probably be found in the line of that trend or in lines
parallel with it. The known banks are of greater extent than
those of Newfoundland. The best, as far as known, are near the
Shumagin Islands.

The best Ochotsk banks are near Sakhalin Island, or on the
west coast of Kamchatka. The round voyage to the Och6tsk
averages 170 days. That to the Shiimagins is usually about
1 10 days, a saving of two months, and 2,000 miles in favor of
the latter, to say nothing of the saf^^ harbors close at hand and
the greater facilities for obtaining fresh provisions, wood, and
water.

The importation of Atlantic cod into the markets of San Fran-
cisco averaged about 500 tons in 1863 and 1864.

The product of the Californian fishermen hitherto has been as
follows : —

120 tons, or

523 " " 249,000

1,614 " " 706,200 "

2,164 " " 947.264 "

The immense catch of 1867, of which more than one half was
from the vicinity of the Shumagins, temporarily overstocked the
market, and in the spring of 186'^ only twelve vessels were en-
gaged in the fisheries against twenty-three the previous year,
In the quarter ending December 31, 1868, eight vessels of 2,44:
tons, employing 237 men, were engaged in the fisheries. It is
much to be regretted that since the purchase of the territory no
record of imports of this kind has been kept, as they came under
the head of coastwise trade. This has rendered it impossible to
obtain full statistics of the fisheries.* For the quarter ending
June 30, 1868, 470 cwt. and 17 bbls. of fish, were exported from
San Francisco to New York. The value of cod obtained from
foreign waters during the same period was $119,127, which

* The catch for the autumn of 1869 is just reported as one million and eighty-two
thousand fish. This, at the low average of three pounds and a half each, would
l)e worth, at five cents a pound, $ 189,350 in gold.

Sll()\

can
port

AllL

both

rule,

ittci

I vessel,

1864,

? "

1865,

18 "

1866,

23 "

1867,

40,000 fish.

, qu;ili
\ The
and I
than
The .^
I u'liia
No
Naved
were
:.[r. IJ
obtain
iiitlht.
The
cisco, ;
ITS ha)
near tl
shell-fi:
< t" Coa
ring ai
f' inimem
The
have n
pound.
Iwhcrm
if it doe
ti>herie!
which i
graphic
Cisco. J
reports

FISHERIES.

4S3

of San Fran-

to has been as

shows abundant room for the extension of the fisheries in Ameri-
can waters. The total amount of fish from foreign waters im-
ported into the United States during the eight months ending
August 31, 1867, was 994,988 lbs., and for the same period in
i.SrJH, 927,540 lbs.

There appear to be two kinds of cod in the Pacific fisheries,
hoth of which are distinct species from the Atlantic cod. As a
rule, the heads are larger in proportion to the bodies than in the
litter. The first of the two kinds referred to is small, but of good
(luality, and appears to frequent the banks during the entire year.
The other antl larger species arrives on the banks about May loth,
and leaves them about September loth. These are a I'.ttle smaller
than the Ochotsk fish, but dry heavier, averaging about four pounds.
The Shumagin fish are the best in quality, and most of the Cali-
I tiiian fishermen have abandoned the Ochotsk for these fisheries.

No tongues and sounds, and but little cod liver oil, has been
sived by these fishermen as yet. Ten thousand gallons of oil
were reported in 1866. The Shumagin fishermen, according to
Mr. Davidson, from whose report many of the above facts were
obtained, are in the habit of running into Coal Harbor Saturday
night, and remaining there during Sunday.

The supply of bait has been sometimes taken from San Fran-
cisco, at a cost of about $100 for a onc-hundred-ton vessel. Oth-
ers have relied on halibut and sculpins. There are many places
near the banks where the dredge would bring up abundance of
shell-fish excellent for bait. This is the case in the shallow part
of Coal Harbor, and in the harbor of St. Pauls, Kadiak. Her-
ring and other small fish in their season might be obtained in
immense quantities at slight expense for the same purpose.

The prices of salt codfish of first quality, in San Francisco,
1 have ranged from thirteen cents to seven and a half in gold, per
pound. It is not probable that they will continue so high. These
fishermen, like other Californians, are in haste to make money, and
if it docs not come in as fast as they wish, arc apt to disparage the
lishcries. They arc not content with the small and steady gains
which satisfy Eastern fishermen. I saw recently in the tele-
j graphic column of a newspaper the following item. " San P'ran-

cisco. Arrived, schr. with 35,000 codfish, and discouraging

[reports of the fisheries " ! Prudence and care arc not extensively

> I

il\ \

-«»'£

^ lii

484

FISHERIES.

consulted ill business on the West Coast, and great expectations
arc the rule.

Cod have been taken at Nootka, Sitka, Litiiya Bay, Yakutat
Bay, Chugach Gulf, Cook's Inlet, through the whole Aleutian
chain, liristol Bay, and the Pn'byloft' Islands. In 1865 and 1866
the Western Union Telegraph vessels obtained abundance of fine
end in Coal Harbor, Unga Island, and off Unimak, in August.

The weather on the fishing banks from June to the middle of
August is rainy and foggy, with southeast winds. From that time
until the latter part of September northwest winds and fine weather
are usual. Lat^jr in the season heavy southerly gales occur.

The halibut are smaller than those of the Eastern fisheries, but
near Sitka and along the coast they have been taken from three
to five hundred pounds in weight. They are not found north of
the ice line in Bering Sea, except, perhaps, in summer.

The herring, which resemble those of the North Sea of Europe,
arrive in incalculable numbers in June on the shores of Bering;
Sea, as far north as the Straits. The fishery lasts but a fortnight,
and is over by the 15th of June. They are caught in seines by
the natives, and kept until half putrid, especially in Kamchatka,
when they are reckoned a delicacy. They are also found at Sitka
and -along the southern coast, but I have not been able to fiiu;
out at what season they arrive. They are caught in immense
numbers by the Indians, who have only a lath with three nails
driven tiirough it and sharpened. With these they beat the
water, which is so ."uU of fish, during their season, that it is rare
not to sec a herring on every nail. They fill their canoes easily
in less than an hour. Their method of fishing for cod and hali-
but is mentioned elsewhere.

The " mullet " is not known to me, but Sccn.ann mentions it
as replacing the salmon north of Kotzebue Sound along the coast.

The tomeod or waukhiii of the natives is a permanent resi-
dent of the more northern coasts. It is more plenty in the fall
than at other seasons. It is caught with an ivory hook without
bait or barb, especially just as the ice begins to form along shore,
in Norton Sound. Boat-loads are obtained, as the bite at the
white ivory hook as fast as they can be pulled up. I saw immci.^e
quantities of them in Avatcha Bay. They would be well suited
for bait.

^g»

-m

FISHERIES. 485

The ulikon has long been tlie subject of remark iVom those
who have visited the part of the coast where it abounds. It
is a small silvery fish, averaging about fourteen inches long,
and resembling a smelt in general appearance. The most im-
portant of the native fisheries is on the Nasse River in British
Columbia. Th(>. spot is named Kit-ldk-a-hxks, ami there was a
mission situated there. Many tribes come to these fisheries,
which begin about the 20th or 25th of March. The first fish
is addressed as a chief, with appropriate ceremonies. After
these are over, the fishing goes on for a fortnight or three weeks.
The fish are caught in a sort of l\'"-ket made of wicker-work.
They are the fattest of all known fish, and allbrd a superior oil
when tried out. The amount of fat is so great that it is impos-
sible to keep them in alcohol for scientific examination.

Dried, Ihey serve as torchc'- ; when a light is needed, the tail is
touched to the fire, and they will burn with a bright light for
some time. No description can give an adecpiate idea of their
numbers when ascending (he river ; the water is literally alive
with lliem, and appears as if boiling. Wild animals draw from
the stream with their paws sufficient for all their needs. I have
not heard tiia.t these fisheries have been utilized, except by the
natives.

The fresh-water fish of Alaska are principally salmon, white-
fish, losh, or burbot, pike, and suckers.

The salmon are of many sjKcies. Those best suited f ^r food
ar^; called by the Russians iluyivichcc {Sdlino oriciitalis ^), koibiUka
{Sa'i- ' protcHS?), :\^^(\ jwlfsc/i {Saliiio n/piiins?). On the Yukon the
rcdfish {Sii/iiio S(u/^ 'iui'iis?) is also a favorite. Other kinds, with
large head ; and many bones {S. dcriuatiiuis and coiisintiis), arc
(Irictl for liie use of the dogs. The nundxr of salmon annually
consutT)ed by the natives of Alaska cannot he less than twelve mil-
lion, at the lowest estimate. At the single Russian fishery near
Deep Lake, Baranoff Island, 84,159 fish were ribtained dining the
scaion, of which two thirtis were salted. At the fisheries on
Kadiak and Cook's Inlet, 465,000 salmon were caught annually.
Among the articles sent by Baninoff to the Sandwich Islands
were 4,344 casks of salted salmon, which realized the sum fif
93,161 R. s. At the mouth of the Yukon not less than two n)il-
Hon salmon are dried every summer, and probably double that

; ! J

fMW^

i: I'iiJiM.i!

ill ili

!' '■ !

, »:■

[m- ■

' i ',

■' ^'-1

■i'!

4S6

FISHERIES

number. Words fail to describe their alnindance. The weak
and injured fish, which die after spawninr;, I have seen jiiled three
or four deep in winrovvs, on llie banks of the Unalakh'k River, in
the middle of October. The fishing on the Yukon begins in
June, and, except near the sea, is over by the middle of September.
Farther up the season is still more limited ; at Nuklukahyet it
lasts not more than two months. Above Y\nvik their abiuuhuicc
is not so noticeable. The sloughs of the Yukon-mouth and tlic
smaller rivers, which empty into leering Sea, hav; j)roportionate-
ly more fish in them. The chowi'chee of the Yukon is the kin^^
of saluKju. Laid in a little water, to prevent burning at first, a
slice ')f this fish will more than cover itself in the pan with its own
fat. A number of barrels were annually sent from St. Michacr.s
to the governor at Sitka, and by him even to St. Petersburg, as a
rare delicacy. None of the more southern salmon can compare
with it in flavor. It is particularly plenty on the Kusilvak, and
the largest, weighing sixty pound.s, can be bought for a single
leaf of Circassian tobacco. A Russian established a fishery in
Kazarn Bay during the season of 1SC8. I'^rom the 1st of ': '\' to
the end oi' August be put up two hundred barrels a we ' , :.m\
could have trebled it had he been supplied with casks and salt in
sufficient quantity.

IC.xamples might be indefinitely multiplied, but sufficient ha<
been said to give an idea of the value, extent, and importance ul
this branch of the fisheries.

There are no salmon north of the Buckland River, Kotzeljiu
Sound, but they are replaced by ihe "mullet," according to Dr,
Seemann.

The whitefish (Coirifoui), espcc'iaWy in the north, arc nearly as ahuii
dant as tlie salmon, but with one exception they are much smalkr.

The iiclima of the Russians is found four feet long, and nf
delicious flavor. In the ^^Ik()n there are eight species of
whitefish. 'I hese fish are in many respects superior to 1 he sal-
mon, as many who have ta.sted the Lake Superior whitefisli, in
perfection, will admit. They are more difficult Ui preserve, how-
ever, the skin and flesh being very tender and delicate. In tlv
Yukon Valley they usually form the chief reliance of the trader-
in winter, when there are no salmon. The)' |)ossess one virtue,—
that of not cloying by long use, as salmon always does.

FISHERIES.

487

;. The weak
en piled throe
klik River, in
kon begins in

of September.
NiikUikahyet it
eir abuiKkincf
iiouth antl th^
proportionate-
on is the king
ning at first, a
an with its own
11 St. Michael's
'etersburg, as a
n can compare

Kusilvak, and
ht for a singk
ed a fishery in
e I St of 'i-ilv to

els a we:

asks and salt in

X sufficient ha-
importance ul

-liver, Kotzi;l)iK'
xording to Dr.

e nearly as abuii-
e much smaller.
t long, and nf
gilt species nt
rior to the sal-
or whitefi-^h, in]
preserve, how-
.dicate. In tlv
c of the trader-
ss one virtue,— I
does.

The losh, celpout, or burbot (Lo/a inacnlata), is also abundant in
all the northern rivers. They grow to a very large size, — some
I have seen were five feet long, — and form an acceptable dish in
the absence of whitcfish. Their flesh is hard and white, and their
chief value is for the liver. This, when broiled, is an exceedingly
rich and delicate morsel, and affords a rich sweet oil, used by the
Russians for cooking. The liver of a large losh will produce
nearly a pint r)f oil, which perhaps would form an acceptable sub-
.stilute for cod-liver oil. They are very abundant, especially in the
nutumn, and are an exclusively fresh-water fish. The skin is
(hied and used in trimming their dresses by the Innuit, and serves
for windows in I'.astern Siberia. The pike {Rsox cstur) abounds
in all the ponds and lakes. The flesh is dry and inferior to that
of the other fish. The roe and heads of the Yukon suckeis
(CiUostouii) afford a rich souj), and the same is true of the spawn
of the losh.

Shell-fish (except oysters), crabs, and mussel.s, can be obtained
almost everywhere north of Dixon's Entrance, and form a large
part of the food of the natives.

Turning from these, we (ind other sources of wealth, also known
as fisheries. The pursuit of the whal", seal, and walrus has al-
ways formed a large part of the commerce of the United States
and Great Hritai?''. The right-whale fishery of the North At-
la.uic, carried on by hundreds of vessels of all nations, is annu-
;il!y becoming less profitable. l''or some years the larger part of
the ri'dit- whale and bowhead oil and bone has been obtained
from the North Pacific.

In 1848, the shi]) Superior, Captair. Roys, passed through
Hcring Strait, and this, the first eflbrt of the kind, was rewarded
by a full cargo in a very i^hort space of time. The report spread,
and in the following season the example of Captain J^oys was
followed by one hunt red and fifty-four American whalers.

The ])rodiieis of the American u'hale fisht;ry for the tpiarter
'jnding June 30, I.S68, were 1,483,083 gcdloiin of oil (other than
sperm) and 526,566 pounds of baleen or whalebone, of whieh the
total value was $ 1,661,922. The greater i)art of this came from
th<: vicinity of Ik-ring .Strait.

fhe ravages of the pirate .Shenandoah in 1864, struck a serious
bluw to th.e American whule fisheries in this region. Nevcrthe-

i I

I Si <

M I

u ■

il'i fi

i:i:! 1

488

FUR TRADE.

less, the business has rallied, and at present not less than seventy
iXmerican whalers visit Ikrinj^ Strait, obtaining annually an
average of 1,200 barp-ls of oil and 20,000 pounds of bone.

The vv'liales of this vieinity are known a^; the bowhead, the
right-whale, the sulph'.u--bottom, humpbaek, and " Californi.i
gray." The first two furnish the best quality of baleen, though,
the short baleen of the other spucies has recently been made
available in certain manufactures. Much oil and bone is oli-
taincd from the l'^;kimo whalers by barter. The Russian Amci i-
caii Company obtained a large amount of baleen in this way
every year.

Previously American whalers were debarred from refitting in
the ports of Alaska, except in cases of the utmost necessity. At
present this difficulty has been obviated by the change u'i rcgijnc.

Whales are abundant, not only north of Hering Strait, but also
all over Hering Sea, especially in the neighborhood of Bristol
I'ay. They are also common in the Gulf of Ala.«ka. The Cli^
boiralis, a minute mollusk which forms the principal food of the
wliale in the North Atlantic, is wanting in Bering Sea. Careful
and rei)eatcd observations have failed to detect any such molhisk
nortli of the Catherina Archipelago. The principal food of tlic
whale in these waters is the so-called "brit," a reddish scum which
covers the surfaci; of the sea for miles, and is composed of minute
crustaceans. The sperm whale, attracted perhaps by the abun-
dance of cuttlefish {Oc/opi) is said to visit the Alaskan coast
occasionally. Multitudes of small whales are found about the
Aleutian Islands, and the hunting of the beluga or white whale
j'n the various inlets near Norton Sound has elsewhere been
described.

Mr. Davidson suggests the employment of smaller vessels,
manned by Aleutians, in the whale fishery. These might be
laid up in winter in some of the numerous liarbors of the islands,
while their cargoes might be sent south in larger ships. This
would, doubtless, dei;rease the amount of e.xpense, and at least
deserves a trial.

Another great source of revenue now demands our attention,
The fur trade of Alaska has been widely known for a century.
Its history is almost a history of the country. The furs were thi
princijial, if not the only objects which led to its exploration an^l

''\\

FUR TRADE.

489

, than seventy
annually an
1 of bone,
bowhcad, the
1} " California
jaken, thoui^h
ly been matlc
.1 bone is ol)-
Lussian Ameri-
n in this way

)m refitting in
necessity. At
mge uf rc;giine.
Strait, but also
ood of Bristol
Lf^ka. The Clh
pal food of llv;
r Sea. Careful
ly .such moUusk
lipal food of the
ish scum which
)osed of minute

by the abun-
Alaskan coa.st

nd about the
or white w'hale
;1 sew here been

mailer ves.scls,

lese might be

of the islaiuls,

r ships. This

, and at least

s our attention,
for a century,
ic furs were thi
;jxploration am!

.settlctr.cnt. The fur trad; is the only branch of Industry which
has been fully developed in y\laska, and all otheis have been
forgotten in the enormous profits which have attended its sncccs.s-
ful [)rosecution. While still offering abundant opportiniitics for
anui-ising wealth, yet it is, in some ijf the branches foi nierly most
|)roiitable, evidently on the decline. Nevertheless, it stands only
.second in importance to the fisheries, and, properly restricted,
nlfcrs large returns, not only to individuals, but to the govern-

ment. From a pecuniary point of view it is at present the most
important business in the l« .ritory.

It may be divided, for cuuvenience in discussion, into two
Blanches. The first of these comprises the cai)ture and preser-
vation of the marine fur-bearing animals, and the second, of all
lither fur animals.

There are two specie^ which furnish the most valuable of the
furs of Alaska. These 2.Te the sea-otter * {Enliydm marina, Flem.)

* Tiio sca-ottcr i.s well represented hv one of .Viidiibon's platen, and also by a very
I H'iiitcd drawing hy Wolf, in the I'roc. Zoiil. Soc. of London.

St i.' ■

n^jtj

i-iU

490

FUR TRADE.

and the fur-seal {CallorJiinus ursinus, Gray). The former is called
the sca-bcavcr by the Russians, and the latter the sea-cat {K6iik)\
it has also been called the sea-bear by many authors, perhaps
from the clumsiness of its motions, for there is no other point
of resemblance. The foregoing sketch was taken from life and
corrected by careful measurements. If it has a fault, it is that
the bodies appear a little too thick, but they are correct by tlu
measurements.

The sea-otter is a very large animal ; the fur is soft and black,
while long hairs tipped with white add to its beauty. When
properly skinned the pelt is of an oval form. The tails are always
cut off and sold separately. The hair in a first-class sea-otter
skin should be nearly even in length all over it, and of uniform
color. The length of a full-sized skin is about six feet, and it-
breadth nearly four feet.

The sea-otter is solitary, and almost exclusively marine in its
habits. It is said to come up on solitary rocks or islets to brin^
forth its yowng. At other periods it seldom visits the land. I:
often sleeps on the surface of the water, floating on its back,
and is said to clasp its young with one arm in an almost human
way. It has black or dark brown eyes. The teeth are remark-
able ; those in front are not unlike those of a cat, while the grind-
ers are rounded, bossy, and broad, suitable for crushing bones or
the shells of bivalves. It is said to live principally on fish.

The manner of hunting the sea-otter is as follows. In Alaska
the Aleuts or other natives are the otter-hunters. A large num-
ber of bidcirkas take provisions for a day or two, and when thi
weather is calm, put out, often out of sight of land. When ar-
rived on the banks most frequented by these animals the bidarka^
form in a long line, the leader in the middle. They paddle softly
over the water so as to make no disturbance. It an Aleut seL>
an otter's nose, which is usually t^-e only part above the surface,
he throws his dart and at the same time elc\ ates his paddle per-
pendicularly in the ail. The ends of the line dart forward, so as
to encircle the animal in a cordon of bidarkac, and evory one i>
on the watch for the second appearance of the otter. The .'■ami
process is repeated until the animal, worn out with diving, lii~
exhausted on the surface, an easy prize for his captors. The skin \
belongs to the hunter who first struck it, or to him who struck

FUR TRADE.

491

nearest the head. If two wounds are inflicted at the same dis-
tance from the nose, that on the right side has the preference.
Guns arc not used, as they arc said to scare away the otters. The
skin is stretched in a hoop, and the tail is skinned without a longi-
tudinal incision. The sea-otter was formerly very abundant, from
the Kamchatka coast along the islands as far as the coast of Lower
California. A few are aiinually taken on the coast of Kamchatka,
rive or six thousand among tlic islands of the Catherina and Alex-
ander archipelagoes, and a very few to the southward. Those
taken by the Russian Americaii Company were sent to Irkutsk,
whence part of them were taken to St. Petersburg and part to the
Chinese frontier, where, at the trading town of Kiachta, they were
sold for tea and silks.

The skins of the sea-otter were formerly worth in Europe from
two to five hundred dollars, but they have much declined in
value. At present the best quality bring only fiom eighty to one
hundred dollars. The Aleuts receive for first-class skins about
twenty dollars in gold or goods.

Owing to The peculiar manner in which the sea-otter is hunted,
it would be difficult, if not impossible, to place any restrictions on
the trade. They form a much smaller item in the list of peltries
than they did once. It is a curious fact, that there has always
been a large difference between the number of tails and the num-
ber of skins purchased by the Russian American Company, al-
though the Aleuts were forced to sell all their s.'<ins to the officers
appointed by the Company o receive them. The sea-otter trade
was inaugurated by the sailors of L'ering's second expedition, and
proved so profitable- that the Russians dared shipwreck, starva-
tion, scurvy, and the hostilities of the natives, for many years in
the prosecution of it.

The fur-seal fishery, formerly less important than that of the
sca-otlcr, has of late years far exceeded it in value. A short re-
view of the history of this fishery may not be out of place. At
present fur-seal are almost exclusively obtained on the islands of
St. Paul and St George in Bering Sea. A few stragglers only

e obtained on the P'alkland Islands and the extreme southwest
^oast of South America. The case was formerly very different.
Many thousands were obtained from the South Pacific Islands
and the coasts of Chili and South Africa.

t : . « \:

'■ \ !■: a }

i.X

. i

%>■

492

FUR TRADE.

The Falkland Island seal {Antophoca Falklandica, Peters) was
at one time common in that group and the adjacent seas. The
skins, worth fifteen Spanish dollars, according to Sir John
Richardson, were from four to five feet long, covered with red-
dish down, over which stiff gray hair projected. They were hunt-
ed especially on the Falkland Islands, Terra del ]''uego, New
Georgia, South Shetland, and the coast of Chili. Three and a
half millions of skins were taken from Masa Fuero to Canton
between 1793 and 1807.

Another species {Arctoccplialns Dclalandi, Gray) formerly
abounded on the coast of Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope.
Their fur was the least valuable of the different kinds of fur-seal,
and the species seems to have become extinct. They were smaller
than the other kinds, and said to be of a reddish-brown color.

Of the Arctic or Bering Sea species {Callorlnnus ursiiius, Gray)
not less than si.x million skins have been obtained since 1741.

Cajitain Benjamin Morrell, about the year 1823, found fur-seal
on the Lobos, Galapagos, St. Ambrose, and St. Felix islands of
the coast of Chili ; he also obtained them from Kerguelen's Land,
Bouvctte's Island, Staten Land, the Falklands, Tristran d'Acunha,
Masa Fuero, and the Auckland Islands. lie gives the followiii;;
particulars in regard to their habits, which apply particularly to
the Falkland species.

The seal come ashore in the month of November for the pur-
pose of bringing forth their young, remaining until May. The
old males were called " wigs " by the scalers ; the females, " clap- 1
matches" ; tiiose two years old, " dog-seals " ; and the very youiii;
ones, " pups." The term of gestation is ten months. The pu]
are born blind, and remain so for several weeks. At three or four I
weeks old they are taken by the mothers into the water, as a cat
carries her kittens, and taught to swim. They seldom have more
than one young one annually. The pups, after learning to swim,
spend most of their time in the water. They are easily tamed
and Morrell had two for several months. These seal are said to I
live on the squid {Loligo), and to attain an age of thirty years.
They arc very active, often jumping six or eight feet out of the
water, which is never done by the hair-seals. They swim with
great swiftness. Tlu'y will fight hard for their young and for the
possession of the females, but are timid in other respects. The

I; ..i

FUR TRADE.

493

■:a, Peters) was
;nt seas. TIk;
to Sir John
crcd with reci-
ley were hunt-
;1 l'\iego, New
Three and a
lero to Canton

}ray) formerly
3f Good Hope,
inds of fur-seal,
ey were smaller
•rown color.
,• nrsiniis, Gray)
since 1741.
5, found fur-seal
[^elix islands of
irguelen's Land,
stran d'Acunha.
cs the foUowiii;;
particularly to

ber for the pur-

ntil May. The

females, " clap-

the very youn^;

Lhs. The pupJ

At three or four

; water, as a cat

Idom have more

earning to swim,

re easily tamed

seal are said to

of thirty years.

feet out of the

"hey swim willi

)ung and for the

respects. The

young seals do not approach the females. They arc polyg: ous,
each old male having a herd of eight or ten females. Their hear-
ing is very acute. At the end of February the pups go ashore to
shed their coats. About the 1st of May all leave the land until
the month of July, when they appear and disappear about the
shore for some unknown reason. About September, first the
young seal, and afterward the old ones, repair to the land as be-
tbre. La-ge males reach seven feet in length, and females about
five feet.

The fur-seals and sea-lions are closely allied, forming the
family Otariidce. They are well distinguished from the hair-
seals {Phocidic) by their external ears and long flippers desti-
tute of hair, and with only three nails. The hair-seals have no
external ears, and their flippers are broad, short, and covered with
hair, having five nails on the hind ones.

The Alaskan fur-seal formerly extended from the ice line rf
Bering Sea to the coast of Lower California. At present a few
stragglers reach the Straits of Fuca, where five thousand were
said to have been killed in 1868, but the great majority are
confined to the Pn'byloff Islands. They have never been found
in Bering Strait, or within three hundred miles of it. They
arrive at the islands about the middle of June, a few stragglers
coming as early as the end of ]\Iav. They leave on the approach
of winter, usually about the end of October. They are supposed
to spend the winter in the open sea south of the Aleutian Islands.
The pups are born about the middle to the end of June. They
arc about a foot long and grow very rapidly. Each female has
only one pup. These young seal are easily tamed and very play-
ful. The bulls approach the females about a week after the
young are born. The period of gestation is therefore nearly
twelve months. The young seal are kept away from the females
by the old bulls until they are three years old. When born the
pups are covered with fine black hair without down. At the
age of three months this down begins to appear, and about six
months later the black hair is replaced by a stronger hair tipped
with white or brown. At three months the milk-teeth are
replaced by the permanent set. The eye is black and liquid
and large in jiroportion to the size of the animal. When con-
tracted the pupil is horizontally oval, not perpendicular, as in the

v- I

I 1:

I'll 1 i- i :•'

491

rilK TKADE.

cals. riicy ;i|i|)c;ir lo fi'fd on lisli, l)ut will rcni.iin in.iny days mi
slioi'i; williutil 1(1(1(1. Ndthiii;^ is roiliid in tin; sloinac.h, 'I'licy
sleep ill Ihc w.itci on iheir sides, willi llie upper llippeis out ol
watei', and icceivt; tlie liulls iit the same position. 'I'liey have
tliie(; (lies, a kind ol roar, like that ol a youn;^' tall, wliieh iii-
dieates aiij;cr ; a mildi-r ery, which they use in callin;^ to one
anotiier; and a kind of piping; whistle wlw.-n they are hot or
tired. They e.oiiie up in droves of many thousands on the hill-
sides near tlu: shore, and literally blacken the inlands with then
nnmhers. 'I"hc rocks, which they have scrambled ovi-r lor aj^es,
an; polished and rounded. Tin; '^idimd whic h they rrcipicnt is
avoided by the sea-lions, and is i|nilc destitiilu of herbage. The
vicinity h.is a sironj;' and disa.^rceablo odor. They f;el alonir
rather awkwardly on land, i;{)inf.j at :i kind of j^Mllop, both himl
nippers movinj^ to(;i'lher. 'I'hey can ascend almost perpendicular
rocks, as tlu; skin which covers tlu; llippers is harsh and j^rami-
latcd, lookiuj^ like shagreen, 'I'hey ri;.;ht desperately amoii^'
lhenisi;lves, each bull having live or si.\ lemales which he tli:rcii(ls
with the greatest courage, while they look on comi)lacently, or
encourage; him with their cries. Tlu: female seal has lour teals,
but they are almost invisible except when suckling. They have
a shorter tail and more reddish-brown on their bodies than tin;
male. 'l"he latter has a mane, which is absi;nt in the females.
In the fore llippers there are no visible toes, but the hind flippers
are very long and thin, with strips of skin ext(;nding sevi;r;it
inches beyond the l)(Mies of the toc;s, which are connected by a
web. A favorite attitude, when on land, is sitting with tlu; head
bi;nt sideways, tin; mouth open and thrown up, finning them-
selves meanwhile with t)ne hind Hipper. Wlu'ii swimming, llu;
palms of the two latter are placed together and ext(;n(l behind,
performing the office of a tail. They often scratch th(;mselves
with the long nails on these members. Tht; testi;s are retractile,
The manner of conducting the fishi;ry is as follows.

A number of Aleuts go along the water's edge, and, gelliDi;
between the animals and the water, shout ami wave their sticks.
The seal are very timitl, and always follow each other like slieep;
yet, if brought to bay, they will light bravely. A man wIkj
shoukl venture into the midst of a herd woultl doubtless be turn
in pieces, for their teeth, though small, are exceedingly sharp.

KUK IKAlJi:.

495

nany days on

^^^vh. 'I'licy

ippcis out ol

Tlicy Iiavc

alf, wliicli iii-

illiii;; l<» oiii:

/ aic hot nr

< oil llic liill-

(Is with ihcir

ivtT for a^cs,

y rn;(|iiciil is

;il)agc. The

7 <;t;t aloiij;

)|), hdth liiiid

jcrpciuhiiilar

;h and };raiHi-

•ati'ly anion;;

h lie dcii'iuls

iil)laccnlly, <ir

las lour teats

I 'l"hi:y have

licH tliaii the

the fi'inalcs.

hind dippers

ulin;^ scvi.Tal

nncctcd hy ;i

vith th(; iieail

nniiii;' them-

Miiunin^', tin:

ctcaid Ijchiiul,

1 thcaiisclvei

uc rctraclilc.

;in(I, getliii.i;

their stit:lvS.
r Iii<e shei^p;
f\ man who

less be torn
ly sharp.

A l)ody of foiir or five hundred liaviiig heen separated, as
iihove, hom the main asscniMy, they ran ht; (hiven very sl(»vvly,
hy two men, into the interior ol' the island, exactly as a shepherd
vvoiild drive his sheep. Their docility depends on cinaimstaiiees.
If the sun is out, and the ^^lass dry, they cannot he diiveii at all.
11 the day is wet, and the ;;rasH suCficiciitly moist, they may he
(liiven several miles. I'Acry two or thret; minutes they must lie
;ill()W(,'d to rest. Those who Ix^come tired arc; killed and skinned
(111 the spot hy the drivers, as it is of no use to attempt to drive
llicni. They would ;it once attack the driver, and perhaps seri-
ously injure him. When the seal liavi: hern hioni'.ht to a siiilahle
place, diey art; left with some one to w.iteli thiMii imlil it is de-
Mird to kill them, 'i he skins ofold males are so tlii(k as to he
iisi li'ss. 'I'ht; Kiissians restricted the killini^f solely to )(jiiii;; iii.des,
less than five years and iiKtie than one year old.

No Cemales, pups, or oKI bulls were ever killed. This was a
necessary provision, to i^rcvenl their e.\tcrminati(jii. The seal are
killed hy a blow on the back of the head with a heavy sli.irp-
(■(l;;e(l club. This fractures the skull, which is very thin, and lays
llieiii out stiff, instantly. 'I"lu: Aleut thc'n plun^M;s his sharp knife
into the heart, and with woiuha'ful dexterity, by a few sweeps of
hi-, loll}; weapon, separates the skin from the blubber to which it
is attached. The iios(; and wrists are cut around, and the ears
anil tail left attached to the skin. When the opeialion is over,
llic skin is of an oval shape, with four holes where the extremities
indtnidcd. These skins are then taken and laid in a larj^^; pile,
with layers of salt between them. After bectjiiiiiif; thoroughly
salted, they are doiK; up, two to^^ether, in s(piare bundles, and
tied up with twine. They are then packed for transportation to
I,(mk1oii. No f.,aiiis are used in killing- these seal. Indeed, guns
a"-c not only unnecessary, but injurious, for a hole- in the skin
(liiiiinishes its value one half. All the fur-seal skins are dri'ssed
in London. They were worth in the raw slate, in iH^S, about
seven dollars each in gold. A machine has been invented by
which the skin is shavcil very thin ; the roots of the stilt hairs
arc cut off, and they may then be brushed away. The tlown,
which does not Dcnetrate the skin to any distance, remains, and
is dyed black or a rich brown. This is the stale in which we sec
ihc skins at the furrier's.

>.1^.

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

1.0

I.I

l^|28 |2.5
•^ 1^ 112.2

1.8

1.25 1.4 III 1.6

^%.

/'^^

^^*>**

^v**
^

Photographic

Sciences

Corporation

23Vf?;5T ".•,*'?* iVMIT

WUSTIR.N.Y. MSSO

(716)S73-4503

1%^

496

FUR TRADE.

The Aleuts were formerly paid only ten cents each for these
skins, in condition for shipment, the salt being furnished; but the
work of preparing them was not otherwise paid for. In 1868
they received thirty-five cents apiece, in gold or goods, under the
same conditions.

At first the fur-seal were killed in immense numbers by the
Russians. At one time three hundred thousand skins were
destroyed, in order that the market might not be overstocked.
It was only when their numbers were very greatly diminished
that the number annually killed was limited, and the other pre-
viously mentioned restrictions were imposed. Of late years not
more than fifty thousand fur-seal were allowed to be killed annu-
ally. Of these, five or six thousand were from the island of St
George, and the remainder from St. Paul. The price has gradually
been rising, and is now higher than for many years. At one time
the Russian American Company had a contract to deliver twenty
thousand skins annually to a New York firm for $ 2.50 each.
Now the skins may be estimated as worth at least five dollars
each in gold in the London markets. Of this, in 1868, the poor
Aleuts got only thirty-five cents. The price of the salt and the
freight deducted, the rest remained for the traders. It may be
said that thirty-five cents is enough for the work they do, as a
skilful Aleut will skin fifty in a day. This is to some extent
true, but there is a very large margin of which a reasonable pro-
portion should go toward paying the interest of the debt incurred
in the purchase of the territory. This is not only feasible, but
proper and just. Familiarity with the subject is my excuse for
suggesting the necessary legislation.

First, a monopoly, properly restricted, offers many advantages
to the government. Those who might receive the grant should
give large and satisfactory bonds, and pay a tax of not more than
two dollars a skin for the annual catch of not over one hundred
thousand, of which not more than twenty-five thousand should be
killed on the Island of St. George. The number of the seal had
greatly increased up to 1868, but in that year not less than fifty
thousand were killed on St. George's, and one hundred and fifty
thousand on St. Paul's, by the traders. At this rate they would
soon be exterminated or driven to the Kiirile or Commander's
Islands. Yet it is probable that one hundred thousand might be

FUR TRADE.

497

:h for these
led ; but the
ir. In 1868
s, under the

bers by the

skins were

overstocked.

' diminished

e other pre-

te years not

killed annu-

island of St.

las gradually

At one time

iliver twenty

$ 2.50 each.

; five dollars

168, the poor

salt and the

I It may be

hey do, as a

some extent

isonable pro-

ebt incurred

lasible, but

excuse for

f advantages
grant should
3t more than
3ne hundred
d should be
the seal had
ss than fifty
red and fifty
J they would
Commander's
nd might bo

safely killed. But, in case a monopoly be considered as incon-
sistent with the spirit of our institutions, the following restrictions
should be enforced, if it is desired to preserve the fishery and
obtain an income from it.

I. The killing should be entirely restricted to the Aleuts born
or now residing on the I'rfbyloff Islands.

II. Trading companies desirous of purchasing skins from the
Aleuts should be required to give good and sufficient bonds to
pay their taxes to the officer appointed to receive them, to refrain
from trading or giving liquor to the natives, and from violence
toward them or other traders.

III. A tax of ... . dollars a skin should be imposed (to be
fixed, in the form of a stamp of lead or other suitable material, to
each skin, or to be paid upon the delivery of the pelts), and col-
lected by an officer, who should reside on the islands and supervise
the killing, salting, and shipping of the skins. This officer might
also serve as Indian agent, and the islands should be declared an In-
dian reservation. The buildings which have been illegally erected
on the islands should be forfeited, and traders who infringe the
regulations should forfeit not only their bonds, but their vessels and
furs, and be forever debarred from receiving another license to trade.

IV. The killing should be restricted to one hundred thousand
annually, of which twenty- five thousand should be taken from St.
George's, and seventy-five thousand from St. Paul's.

V. American citizens only should be allowed to receive licenses,
and the salary of the Government agent should be sufficient to
put him above bribery. He should have an assistant on St.
George's, but all other work could be done at an infinitesimal
cost by the resident Aleuts. No settlements should be allowed
upon the PrfbylolT Islands, and the law against the sale of liquor
should be most rigidly enforced.

Hy measures such as these, the rapacity of unscrupulous traders
would be curbed, the Aleuts protected, the government remuner-
ated, and the trade put upon a secure business foundation. The
number allowed to be killed might be increased or diminished
annually, as experience showed to be necessary.

The flesh of the fur-seal and sea-lion serve the Aleuts for food,
and their blubber for fuel. The flesh of the fur-seal forms but a
small portion of the body. The greater part is blubber, and this
32

! 1^

4o8

FUR TRADE.

I ?'

is more noticeable because of the thousands of bodies of seal
which are scattered over the islands. If these were composed in
large part of muscular fibre, as is the case with the walrus, the
decaying bodies would breed a pestilence. As it is, the odor is
sufficiently perceptible, though a month or two shows the skele-
ton nearly clean.

The flesh of a young fur-seal, placed in running water over-
ni^.;ht and then broiled, is far from disagreeable. In fact, it tastes
almost exactly like mutton-chop. The young sea-lion is said to
be even better eating, and both present a marked contrast to the
fetidity of the flesh of the hair-seal {Phoca) of Norton Sound.
The Aleuts make boot-soles, which are very durable, of the skin
of the flippers. The fat cut from the nearest carcass serves them
for fuel. The blubber of the fur-seal makes oil of the first quality,
and is worth about two dollars a gallon ; yet for many years hun-
dreds of barrels have fertilized the hillsides, for want of some one
to preserve it. Each seal will make half a gallon, which would
give for one hundred thousand seal about a thou.sand barrels of
oil, worth at least sixty thousand dollars, which has always been
wasted. In fact, the oil is worth as much as the skin at the islands,

The second branch of the fur traile now demands our attention.
The principal fin-benring animals, which are not marine in their
habits, are the fox, marten, mink, beaver, otter, lynx, black bear,
and wolverine.* Heside these, the skins of the whistler, marmot,
reindeer, mountain sheep and goat, wolf, musk-rat, and ermine,
have a certain value, though hardly to be classed as fur.s.

The foxes are of several varieties. The stone fo.xes are blue,
gray, and white ; the red fox is found of various colors, known as
silver, black, cross, and red foxes.

The white stone foxes are the most valuable of the varieties of
that species at present. They are found in the more northern
part of the territory, especially in the Kiiviak peninsula, on tlic
Arctic coast, and near the Yukon-mouth.

The most common variety is the blue fox. It is of a slate
color with a pur]ilish tinge, and very abundant on the Pn'hyloft"
and Aleutian islands. Tliey have been introduced upon most ol
the islands by the Russian American Company, and only a ccr-

* 'I'licse animals arc ninstly caught in dcad-fiill trajjs by iIk natives
white trappers and very tew steel traps in the vicinity ot the Yukon.

There arc no

FUR TRADE.

499

;s of seal
n posed in
•alms, the
)e odor is
the skclc-

atcr ovcr-
t, it tastes
is said to
rast to the
on Sound,
f the skin
:rves them
rst quality,
years hun-
r some one
lich would
barrels of
Iways been
the islands.
- attention.
ne in their
)lack bear,
r, marmot,
nd ermine,
■s.

:s are blue,
1, known as

/arictics of
e northern
ula, on the

of a slate

Pribyloff

on most ot

only a cer-

Ihcic arc no

tain number were allowed to be killed annually. The earliest
voya{;ers found tame foxes on the larger Aleutian Islands, and
it is not improbable that they were all originally introduced from
the continent by the hand of man. They are very prolific, having
from twelve to fourteen cubs at a birth. They have exterminated
all the small animals, if any existed, on the islands, and feed on
sea-birds or the carcas.ses of seal abandoned by the natives.

The gray stone foxes are the white ones in their summer dress,
and the skins are nearly worthless. Black and silver foxes arc
abundant in many parts of the territory. Those from UnaUishka
were formerly considered the best. Many are annually obtained
at Fort Yukon. These were formerly among the most valuable
of furs, but at present are not so much in favor. Fifty dollars
will buy one of the best quality, while formerly they were valued
as high as three hundred dollars. Cross foxes, which are much
more common, are of proportional value according to the quality
of the particular skin. Red foxes are found all over the north-
ern part of America, and are very common in most parts of
Alaska. The marten, known also as the stone-marten, fitch, or
American sable, is very abundant in the Yukon Valley, especially
in the wooded district. The mink, which prefers the more open
country, is at present one of the most valuable small furs. They
can be obtained near the mouth of the Yukon in great numbers,
and many of them of the finest quality. The price is usually five
nnisket-balls.

The beaver, as elsewhere described, is found in great numbers
all over the northern part of Alaska; it is the standard of value
among the Yukon Indians. A beaver skin is worth twenty balls
or two fathoms of strung beads. I'our mink, two marten, or two
white fo.xes are ecpial in value to a beaver. A first-rate otter is
worth three beaver, a lynx also three, a good red fox is equal to a
beaver and a half. This tariff is cpiite different from the com-
mercial value of the fur, but it is that by which all trade is carried
on with these natives. A double-barrelled percussion gun is
worth ten beaver, yet a single-barrelled flint-lock will bring
twenty. These old customs cannot be overridden, although they
ni;iy appear absurd. The fixed prices, at which the old trading
companies have held their goods, doubtless tended to confirm the
practice.

. • (■'.

I,*

500

FUR TRADE.

. JJ'

il.i

Ottet and lynxes are very common on the Yukon. The wol-
verine is rare, and its skins, as well as those of the wolf, brin^
hij;h prices from the natives, who use them for trimming their
dresses. A first-rate wolverine skin will bring twenty marten or
forty mink skins.

The skin of the black bear is valuable in Russia, although not
much esteemed with us. The ermine is usually of poor quality,
except that from the Kaviak peninsula. The skins of Parry's
marmot are used for parkies in the territory. They were domes-
ticated by the Company on Chirikoff Island, a.nd the skins were
prepared by persons who were sent there as a punishment for
slight offences. The hides of the deer and moose, wild sheep
and goat, are, if in good condition, quite valuable. They may be
obtained in immense quantities in some localities, and in others
are an article of trade with the natives. Near the Yukon-mouth
a deerskin is worth three martens. The muskrat have only
been trapped within a few years, yet abound in immense num-
bers in the northern par*- of the territory. A black variety has a
Very beautiful fur, fur surpassing the marten or even the best
mink. An albino variety has been founil on the Kuskoqiiim.
The sifflcnr, or whistler, is distributed over the territory, but
nowhere common. Its skin is of little value except for rugs or
blankets. Its Russian name is trabtii^oii.

The prices paid by the Russian American Company for furs in
the District of St. Michael were substantially as follows. The
trade was carried on by barter entirely. To the original cost of
the goods in Hamburg or St. Petersburg, from forty-two to sev-
enty-five per cent was added for expenses. A marten was worth
one paper ruble, or twenty cents. A mink was valued at ten
cents ; fo.xes, from thirty cents to five dollars ; stone-fo.xe.s, ten
cents ; lyn.x, at si.xty cents ; beaver, at forty cents ; the castoreum,
at five cents a pair ; otter, from forty to eighty cents ; black bear,
at sixty cents ; and muskrats or walrus-tusks at one cent each.

But in many respects the natives did not receive even the
whole value of this insignificant tariff. Ihe goods were delivered
at their appraised value to the bidiirshik of a trading-post. All
expenses of winter journeys, of native servants in the fort, and, in
fact, everything except the cost of constructing the buildings and
the wages of the Russian workmen, must come out of the trading

bur

FUR TRADE.

501

rhc wol-
If, hr'uvf
ng their
larten or

3Ugh not
quality,
f I'arry's
c tlonics-
Lins were
ment tor
\d sheep
y may be
in others
an-moutli
ave only
use num-
icty has a
the best
iskoquim.
tory, but
r rugs or

:)r furs in
The
al cost of
o to sev-
as worth
at ten
oxes, ten
istorcum,
ick bear,
each,
even the
clelivcrcd
ost. All
t, and. in
ings and
c trading

goods. Hence, while the Company's price of a pound of Circas-
sian tobacco was thirty cents, and the bidarshik was expected to
balance his account with the Uprovalisha of his district by re-
turning, say, three mink for the tobacco ; yet the native received
nothing like a pound for three mink skins. The tobacco comes
done up in small bundles called papooshki. There may be from
two to six of these in a pound ; yet for each one, large or small,
the native must give a marten skin or two mink skins. Again,
the Compr-.ny's price for lead was twenty cents a pound. Their
bullets were about thirty-six to the pound. Yet the native only
received ten balls for his marten, or five for a mink .skin. In the
season of 1867-68, there were collected in the District of St.
Michael, by Stepanoff, sixteen thousand martens, according to
the Indian mode of counting. During the same time, not less
than fourteen thousand found their way to the traders at Kotze-
bue Sound and Grantley Harbor, and ten thousand to T'ort
Yukon. This makes a total of forty thousand, which may be av-
eraged to be worth at least two dollars and a half each. In their
purchase, not over twenty thousand dollars v/ere expended, in
every way. The profits of such a business are evident.

At present, competition has raised the value of the martens at
St. Michael's from twenty to fifty cents each, but in the interior
they are still less costly.

The furs annually purchased by the Russian American Com-
pany were disposed of in this way.

ikaver to the number of two thousand were sent to Irkutsk
and then sold at Kiachta on the Chinese frontier. The surplus
over that number were sent to Shanghae for tea, and to America.
The castoreum went to St. Petersburg. Otter were sent to
Irkutsk and Kiachta. Some foxes went the same way, and others
to Shanghae. White stone foxes went to San Francisco, and
the blue to Irkutsk. lilack bearskins went to St. Petersburg.
1-ynxcs were formerly sent to .Shanghae and afterward to Irkutsk.
Martens were sold in Sitka, Shanghae, and Irkutsk. Muskrats,
mink, and Parry's marmot {fvrdshka), were sold in Sitka for u::e
or exportation. Of the fur-seal, 20.000 went to the United States,
8,000 to Irkutsk and China, a few to Shanghae, and the greater
portion to St. Petersburg. Walrus-tusks were sent to St. Peters-
burg, sea-otter tails to Irkutsk and China, and, finally, wolf and

ii;

i, i

502

FUR TRADE.

wolverine skins to the District of St. Michael, where they were
traded with the natives for other furij.

Since if<5", traders from the Sandwich Islands, have visited
Kotzebue Sound and Grantley Harbor every spring. These
traders are usually small vessels, brigs or schooners. They load
at Honolulu with ammunition, double-barrelled Helgian fowling-
pieces, hardware, and rum or alcohol. They follow up the melting
ice, and usually reach Hering Strait in the latter part of June.
Their tariff of prices amounts to about fifty cents apiece for
martens, in goods. They are usually provided with whaling im-
plements, and manned by Kanakas. A single whale will pay the
expenses of the voyage, and leave the profits of the traile clear.
The large quantities of liquor which are obtained in this manner
by the natives have a very demoralizing effect. The chances ui
capture by a revenue-cutter are so small that the risk is not very
great, and the profits are very large. Since the purchase of '",e
territory, smugglers, loaded with liquor from British Columbia,
have also carried on a thriving trade. It is also said that opium
and Siberian sables have found their way to San Francisco, via
Alaskan ports, without paying iluty. A smart revenue-officer,
with a light-draft swift-sailing cutter, could soon materially dimin-
ish this traffic. The dilliculty has been, hitherto, that the vessels
sent to Alaska have been so large as to be unfit for entering the
shallow harbors in the northern part of the territory ; and they
have usually made their appearance in the north about the month
of August, when the spring trade is over, and the smugglers have
already returned to the Sandwich Islands with their cargoes.

The late treaty with Russia has thrown open the trade with
the natives in the Ochotsk Sea ancl en the coasts of Siberia to
American ves.sels for ten years. These have not unfrequenlly
loaded with iicpior, and cleared for the Siberian coast, afterwards
disposing of part of their cargo in Alaskan waters. The atten-
tion of the government shoukl also be called to the illicit trade
carried on by the Hudson Hay Compaiiy at Fort Yukon, and to
the fact that vessels loaded principally with liquor have cleared
for a trading voyage in Alaska without opposition from the
oflficials at Sitka. One of these visited St. Michael's in June.
1868; and another touched at St. George, leaving men and liquor,
though ostensibly bound for the coast of Eastern Siberia. The

FUR TRADE.

503

rcvcniic-cuttcr passed St. George's without landing or disturl)ing
these smugglers, who proceeded to slaughter some thirty-five
thousand seal, which were afterwards shipped to the Sandwich
Islands. Time, and a more thorough knowledge of the territory,
will doubtless put a stop to these abuses.

A wonl on the organization of the territory may not be out of
place. At present the number of Americans in Alaska is less
than five hundred, excepting troops. These are all connected
with trading companies. The great majority of the traders are
lorcigners. If a territorial government should be organized at
present, the effect would be to throw the whole power into the
hands of a few individuals, mostly foreigners, who direct these
companies. The esult would be that the stronger companies
would use their power to crush the weaker ones, and to continue
the sale of liquor, and thus defeat the intentions of the govern-
ment. The military government is far better, in spite of its
many defects. It is an unquestionable fact that the aborigines
would sell themselves body and soul for liquor, if they could find
a purchaser.

The statistics of the fur trade given, from the most trustworthy
sources, in the Appendi.x, are, beyond question, far below the truth.
The number of furs obtained in the colonies, according to the an-
imal reports published at Sitka, is always greater than the number
stated in the annual report published for the stockholders of the
Russian American Company in St. Petersburg. The discrep-
ancies cannot be reconciled, and show a great carelessness in the
manner of keeping the accounts. There was a leak somewhere,
and the Russian officials alone could tell where It is probable
that strict probity did not always characterize the colonial
ofticials. Beside the amount of furs thus disposed of, the traders
and the Hudson Bay Company doubtless obtained a large annual
sup|)ly. which is nowhere recorded.

Sufficient has been said to show a])proximately the value and
extent of the Alaska fur trade. It may not be superfluous to
repeat that the Company paid annual taxes to the Russian
Crown, which averaged two hundred thousand rubles. Other
sources of revenue remain to be noticed.

The sea-lion (Iliiinctopias Stcllcri, Mull.) and the walrus {Ros-
manis obcsns, 111.) have long furnished hides, oil, and ivory to the

!i ' il

'ill

)

504

OTHER RESOURCES.

inhabitants of Alaska. Tlic quantity of walrus-tusks annually
obtained will avcraj^c one hundred tliousand pounds. These
animals are most abundant near Port MoUer in Jiristol Hay, and
on the more northern coast and islands. They feed principally
upon shell-fish, which they swallow whole, and the shells, which
remain after they have digested the contents, are found in large
numbers about the localities which they frequent. The hide has
been successfully used for belting and covering skin-boats. The
oil is a well-known article of commerce. There is no doubt but
that the annual supply might be largely augmented.

The sea-lions are abundant on most of the rocky islands. They
appear in May and remain until late in the fall. They come
ashore to breed and often remain in one spot for weeks. They
appear to subsist mainly on fucoid alga) or sea-weed, and many
stones are found in their stomachs. The males often weigh two
or three tons. Their hide and oil arc used for the same purpose
as tliose of the walrus, though inferior in quality. The whiskers
of the sea-lion are as large as a quill, and sometimes fifteen inches
long. They are exported to China, the Chinese paying a high
price for them to use as toothpicks. The gall is also disposed of
in China, being used in the manufacture of silk.

Many casks of ducks and geese were annually salted down by
the Russians. They form a very agreeable addition to the winter
fare. The quantity of game of this kind in Northern Alaska is
so great, that the time may come when eggs, salted birds, eider
and swans down, may occupy some space in the commerce of
Alaska.

The fashion (set centuries ago by the Innuit) of wearing tiio
beautiful skins of the grebe, loon, and diver, as furs, may open a
new branch of commerce. Milliners may obtain thousands of
wings and breasts of the most delicate colors and rarest beauty,
from the northern marshes. From the same source, the luxurious
sleepers of the west coast may fill their beds and pillows.

The immense fields of kelp, which fringe the greater portion
of the northwest coast, have been the wonder of navigators from
the time of the earliest voyages.

The manufacture of carbonate of soda and iodine from this
fucus is a business of no little importance in the Old World.
These sea-weeds are dried on the shore and carefully burned

OTHLR RLSOL'RCLS.

505

innually
These
iay, and
incipally
s, which
in large
hide has
ts. The
oubt but

s. They
ley come
s. They
nd many
reigh two
e purpose
; whiskers
:en inches
ig a high
isposcd ot

I down by
the winter
Alaska is
irds, eider
nmerce ot

in an oblong kiln. After the whole is burnt, the mass gradu-
ally softens, when it is stirred with an iron bar until it reaches
a semifluid consistency. It is then allowed to cool, and when
broken up is ready for the market. According to the I'.tny-
(loptdia Anicruaiut, small fanns in the Orkneys which formerly
rented for ^"40 a year have now risen to ;^ 300, on account
of their kelp shores; and so much importance is attached to this
branch of business, that, along sandy shores, stones have been
placed within the flood-mark, on which the sea-weed soon collects.
Many thousand tons are thus manufactured annually, and bring
from £7 \.o £ 10 per ton. The alkali is consumed in the manu-
facture of glass and in all hard soaps. It is from incinerated kelp
that iodine is obtained in large quantities. The solution of kelp,
from which all the alkali has been crystallized, by a chemical pro-
cess aftbrds iodine through distillation. This branch of manu-
facture might be carried on in almost any part of Alaska to any
desired extent.

The resources of the new territory having now been pointed
out, it only remains for the irresistible energy of American citi-
zens to hasten their development. Time alone can prove their
ultimate value.

r 11

earing the
lay open a
)usands of
St beauty,
luxurious

r portion
ators from

from this
)kl World.
Uy burned

CHAI'TKR VII.

Adjacent Territories and their Iniiahitants.

BRITISH COLUMHIA is too well known in America to
require much notice here. It is probable that the mines
of coal or fjoUl, the only wealth of that colony, extend northward
into Alaska. l*'urther exploration in the southern portion of that
narrow strip of coast is necessary to determine the localities where
the above-mentioned minerals crop out ; but that they exist there
is little doubt.

The colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia have
been recently united under one government, with the capital at
New Westminster. The costly machinery of two Hritish colonial
governments prcfVed too heavy a burden for the slender resources
of the coionisis, anil necessitated the chan;j;e. There can be little
doubt but that annexaticn to the United States would be hailed
with joy by the majority of the inhabitants of this rcfijion, who
have already taken to celebratinj^ the I'ourth of July with a
heartiness not surpassed by the citizens of the United States on
the atljacent shores of I'upjet Sound.

Victoria, \^ I., formerly a thriving town of some twenty or
thirty thousand inhabitants, is now comparatively depojnilated
After the placr mines of liritish Columbia had become worked
out, and quartz r.iills became a necessity, the population dwin-
dled. I'or some time, as a free port, it invited .some conmieree,
and was a noted base for snni,i;';;lin,L; operations. The consolida-
tion of the two colonies, and the imposition of import duties, still
more reduced its prosperity, and lonjjj lines of deserted houses
stand in evidence of the fact that mineral wealth alone will never
make a prosperous country. The fi.sheries of British Columbia
have been ne<;lected, her timber is in p;reat part inaccessible, and
she has no farming land, except in small isolated patches.

Lakes Kennicott and Ketchum, the sources of the Yukon, are

A UJ AC K N T T K l< R I TO R I LS.

507

ncrica to
lie mines
orllnvard
)n of that
ics where
xist there

il)ia have
cai)ital at
h colonial
resources
n be link
be hailed
;i()n, win)
with a
States on

wcnty or
opulated
worked
on d\vii\-
oninierce,
onsolida-
utics, stilt
houses
■will never
Columbia
siblc, and

in Hritish Columbia. The e.\|)l()ration of this part of thvj terri-
tory is mainly due to the employes of the Western Union Tele-
j;raph Company. T;ihco Lake was reachetl in August, \^C)j, by
Mr. Michael iJyrnes, a miner, well known in Caribou, lie hatl
been temporarily empioyeil as an explorer by the Company.
The object which tempted him to leave the nolil-tields of Caribou
was more the hope of findin;; gold than the love of e.\|)loratioii.
rnaccompanied, except by a few Indians, he made his way over
iiiils, down narrow canons and dilficult rapids, until he Ii;;liled his
;)i|)e and built his camp-tire on the beach of 'IVihco Lake. In
June of the same year, Ketchum and Lebai};e had visited I'ort
Selkirk, or rather the spot, distinguishcil by two rubble-built
liiimneys, where the fort hail stooil before it was burnt by the
Cliilkiihts. One hundred and twenty miles, two .' lys down
stream, easy travel, — nay, hardly a day and a half in ilu-ir swift
birch canoes, and the explorations would have Ik'-mi finished, and
he would have earned the honor of comple ^ them. That
evening a r;i-ioe with two Indians .arrived in hast<', with the
news that tin; enleri)rise was abaniloned, and Mr Kyrnes iiii;^ht
It n, ;is the Company would not re(piire his ser\ ices as ex-
plorer any loiij^er ; the succi-ss of the Atlantic Cable reiKkrin;^
the failure of this audacious but poorly executLtl enterprise no
lon<;er a matter of doubt.

Mr. Hyrnes returned, moody and silent, refusing; to converse
on the subject. It is said he has returned to the wilderness, still
in search of ijold !

The Yukon, from I'ort .Selkirk to the mouth of the I'orcupine
River, w.is, I believe, first descended by Mr. CamplKli of the
Hudson Hay Company's service. Me was in charj;e of I'ort
Selkirk, and learninj; from the Indians that there were no ob-
structions to navigation, he supposeil, correctly, that it would be
easier to trans|)()rt their furs and supplies by the way of the
Porcupine and Tecl Rivers, than by tin- more laborious route
I'leviously employed. After the first trip this v.-as thoroughly
demonstrated, and that route was followed for several years.

One day, however, in 1S51, the Chilk.ihts. instigated it was said
W the Russians, api)earcd before the fort in force. Mr. Camp-
bell and two men who held the fort sa-^ it was of no use to ex-
asperate them, and, like the coon in the story, came down and

rl!

508

ADJACENT TKKRITORIES.

let tliom ill. No violence was oflered them, except that they were
tied while the Indians plundered the storehouse. Mr. Campbell
aiterv :ril said, that it maile his blood boil to see the },'ou(ls,
broii|;ht so far at the cost of so much hard work, carried off with
perfect SiV/i;--/roit/ hy these ^ood-for-nothin<; Indians. Prudence,
however, kept him quiet, and after the Indians had had their fill
of ])lunder, they allowed him and his men to depart in jieace.

/. *"tcr their departure the Indians amused themselves by mak-
ing; a bonfire of the fort, as they had j leviously of Telly Hanks
l*'ort and the post at I-'rances's Lake. The two blackened chim-
neys alone were found by Messrs. Ketchum and Lebarge on their
visit in 1867.

This spot is interesting to practical men as being the head of
navigation, anil to botanists as being the most northern point
where true pines arc found on the Yukon. The trees are small,
but bring cones to maturity, and from them it has been deter-
mined that the tree is the J^itms cotitorta of botanists. All the
so-called pines on the Yukon north of this are spruce {A. alba).
The scenery in the vicinity of the Stikine, Tahco, and Lewis
rivers is mountainous. The mountains do not attain any very
great height. Near Fort Selkirk they are moderately high, hut
increase in grandeur as we descend the Yukon. Toward the
Alaskan boundary the river cuts its way through a high aiul
mountainous country. The gn-at Rocky Mountain or Chip-
pewyan Chain, trending with the coast-line of the continent, does
not, as represented on many maps, form an unbroken line to the
Arctic Sea, but bends with the coast-line, and finally merges into
the Alaskan Range, which forms the backbone of the peninsula
of Aliaska, arnl farther west the chain of the Aleutian Islands.

On the river, according to Captain Ketchum, the rocks are
principally metamorphic cpiart/ites and black and gray slates.
The Yukon cuts through this chain at its broadest part in the beml,
about latitude 64" N. Here the river is narrow and dark, runnini;
with the greatest impetuosity, though without rapids, for many
mile!j. The current is such that it is only a four days' trip drift-
ing from Fort Selkirk to the mouth of the Porcupine River, in the
month of Julv. Later, when the water is very low, it is less rapid.

\Vraiii:;iU l.iXiui. — Haron Wrangell and Dr. Kyber in 1820-23
made e.vplorations in Eastern Siberia, and recei\ed information

I -i

ADJACENT TKRRITORIES.

509

ihcy were
C;impl)oll
he «,fooils,
.-(1 oil" with
rrutlcncc,
(1 their fill
|icacc.
;s by niiik-
clly Hanks
-ncd chim-
ge on their

he head of
hern jiuint
s are small,
)een deter-
s. All the
e {A. allui).
and Lewis
11 any very
\,' high, hut
oward the

I hi};h ami

II or C!iip-
inent, does
line to the

nerges into

from the natives of high peaks visible in fine weather from
tape \'akan. In 1S49, from the vieinity of Herald Island, Kel-
lett saw high mountains, whieh were probably the same. On
the old Russian maps land is laid down in this direction.
As yet no explorers have landed upon these shores. The
latest and most circumstantial account of W'rangell Land is de-

Theodore L

)f th

rived Irom an .\merican wlialer. Laptain 1 lieoilore Long, o
liark Nile, reports having seen, August 14, 1S67, in Ion. 180"
hit. 70" 45', land distant about sixteen miles ; along which he
held his course for three days. It extended east aiul west appar-
ently about three degrees of longitude. Several high peaks, one
supposed to be volcanic, were observed, and the eastern and
western capes were named by Captain Long respectively Cape
Hawaii and Cape Thomas. There was abundance of ice between
the vessel and the shore, and Captain Long did not consider him-
self justified in risking his vessel tor the pleasure of landing on
the unknown coast. The passage between it and the Siberian
coast has been named Long Strait.

The reports of whalers from the Arctic Sea would seem rather
to point against the proi)ability o'i an open I'olar .Sea as under-

slood bv Kane and W'rangell. WhiK

arm currents |)assin<

iKirthward through Hering aiul Davis Straits woulil doubtless
tend to keep open, I'ven in winter, large sheets of water (such as
exist, during the most extreme cold of winter, in the more rapid
jHirtions of the \'ukon River), still it seems imj)robable that any
y extensive portion should remain permanently free from ice ;
strucled, as is the ease with much of the I'olar .Si-a, with islands
1 shoals, each gathering its girdK' of ice al>out it. That por-

\er

aiu

tion of the .Arctic Ocean north of Herini-- .Str.iit has hitherto be

uiu

Inly lu'glected. It offers many inducements lor more thorough
exidoration.

In Juiu', 1647, Michael St;idukin, a Cossack, was sent from
Nijni Kolymsk to discover an island, or land separated from the
c>iiitinent, which was reported as being visited bv the Clu'ik-
(iiees. with reindeer in winter, over the iee. He returned iinsiic-
lessful. This reported land may have been W'rangell Land, but
was more probr.bly the small islands otV the mouth of the Kohina
Kiver ; still, if tin; latter was the case, it seems singular that he

(111

1 not reach them without difficulty,

'I I'i i

I! I; I :i

'■IlLi:

i !

510

ADJACENT TERRITORIES.

There are traditions among the Chiikchccs of implements nf
wood and bone washed ashore on the northern coast, of a fashion
differing; from those of Chukchee manufacture, and from tli;)hc
made by the Innuit to the eastward, with whom they are well
acquainted.

There are also stories told how years ago, yet in the meinorv
of Chukchees now living, one very cold winter, strange men,
speaking a different language from Chukchee, Innuit, or Russian,
came from the north over the ice, landed on the Siljerian shore,
took many of the Chukchee reindeer, and went back, no one
knew whither. A few years later the incursion was repeated,
the Chukchees rallied to protect their proi)erty, a bloody fight
ensued, many Chukchees were killed, and the strangers retreated
to the northward, and have never since been seen.

This legend may be due to the aboriginal imagination, or it
may be founded on a fact ; I give it as it was told ; future ex-
plorers may find confirmation, or determine its mythical nature.

'J'/w Chi'ikchcc Peninsula. — That portion of Eastern Siberia
which is known under this name is situated east of the vallev
of the Anddyr River, Chaun liay, and Anadyr 15ay. It has never
been thoroughly explored, and is a desolate waste of tundra and
low mountains, with small trees along the Anadyr River, and
elsewhere only the moss and grass on which the reindeer feed
The argali, or mountain sheep, is said to exist in the mountains,
while immense herds of wild reindeer roam over the tundri.

This peninsula, forming the western boundary of Bering Strait.
and part of Hering Sea, is of interest from its near approach tc
our territory.

The coast, from Cape Serdzc Kamcn (Heart of Stone) to Eri\
Cape, and thence to Cape Bering in Anadyr Gulf, is generally
high and rocky. Granitic hills rise sharply from the water, cov-
ered with keen -edged fragments detached by the frost, ai:!
broken by the same agency to the size of a man's fist and \\\-
wards. Snow may always be found somewhere on them, if note:
the summits, at least \\\ some of the sheltered fissures of the moun|
tain-sides.

There arc no watercourses, as water filters through the ir.
mense masses of broken stone, far below the surface ; and is on'y|
to be obtained near the base of the hills.

The |)
low, bar
I'arthcr c:

Just
lower an I
the main
\vhose \-cj
long (Ictc
Iwy have
line to til
and rt'cen

emcnts of
f a fashion
Voni those
y arc well

nc memory
angc men,
ar Russian,
rian shore,
ck, no one
LS repeated,
)loocly figlu
rs retreated

lation, or it
; future cx-
:al nature,
tern Siberia
)f the valley
It has never
" tundra and
River, and
indecr feed,
mountains,
undri.
oring Strai;,
approach to

tone) to Ea^
is generally

c water, cov-
frost, ai..
fist and up-

lem. if not o:,
of the moun

ugh the iv
and is on'

ADJACENT TERRITORIES.

Had Eugene Sue ever visited these shores, he would not have
described the stunted birch-trees sighing in the wind, while the
Wandering Jew and his partner in misfortune conversed with
each other across licriiig Strait ! That forty-mile-wide expanse
of blue water never reflected the stem of a growing tree as large
as a lead-pencil. Richly colored mosses and lichens adorn the
ungrateful rocks. Grass, chickweed, and creeping willow are
ibiiiul sparingly in the most ^xvorcd localities and fertile gravel.
A tasteless, seedy, heather berry is the only fruit, if indeed it
deserves the name. A more forbidding, desolate, and cheerless
shore does not exist.

Wandering Jews are not unknown here, by the way ; but they
appear to have degenerated from the ancient stock, and have a
I sharp eye for business ; buying of the greasy Tuski their stores
of whalebone, oil, and walrus-tusks, and making them happy with
tobacco, powder and ball, guns, knives, kettles, and the vilest of
alcoholi': concoctions.

Notwiihstaniling the rock-bound aspect of the coast, it abounds
with good harbors, where the whalers and traders resort for water,
rest, and that delectable occupation known to the initiated as
"gdiiiDii//:^." For the benefit of those who have not been aboard
of a whaler, I will remark that the English for the above-men-
tioned term is " making calls."

The best of these harbors, or, rather, a series of harbors, one
within another, is known to the whalers as Plover Bay. The
riovcr wintered here in 184.S-49, hence the name. It is often
marked on the charts Port Providence, which I believe was the
name given to it by Captain Moore.

The point to the eastward of the mouth of the bay, as it is rather
low, bare, and round, goes by the name of l)ald Head ; somewhat
farther east is the cape known to the Russians as ChuktUski Nose.

Just inside of the heads a sandspit makes out, forming the
lower anchorage behind it. Several smaller bays diverge from
the main one, among the rest Emma Harbor, named so by Moore,
[whose vessel lay there during one winter. Notwithstanding the
long detention here of regular exploring ships, the charts of the
ibay have hitherto been exceedinglv erroneous. A new chart,
due to the officers of the Western I'nion Telegraph Ilxjiedition,
and recently published by the Unitetl States Coast Survey, gives

i f

f t. f i

'T "

t t 1

I'X

III'

■;■>

M i

in
■!'l '

ill!' I

III ■■ ,!■

w •

512

ADJACENT TERRITORIES.

a fair view of the harbor for the first time. As a haven of rcfuj;c
for whalers, traders, and other vessels in these waters, its value
cannot be estimated. There is abundance of excellent water,
ballast by the million tons, all ready for shipping. Fish, and
occasionally tame reindeer meat, can be obtained from the native
settlement on the sandsi)it, where several of them speak fair luig-
lish. IC.xcellent anti-scorbutic grass can also be procured in
j:)lenty near the beach.

The middle of the bay is very deep, one hundred and t\v(
fathoms, without bottom, being reported. The lower anchorage

MiiUiit Kt'iiiiicolt, I'Idvci' r>.\y.

has rather deep water, except close in ; and in a norther a large
vessel would need plenty of chain and good anchors, as the bot-
tom is hard in some spots, and there is a slight liability to dra;
The small bays farther in, however, are perfectly protected, aiu!
have the best of holding-ground. The end of the sandspit in tlit
lower harbor is in lat. 64° 22' 25", and Ion. 173° 30' 32", accord-
ing to the report of the United States Eclipse Expedition under
Professor Asaph Hall, in 1869.

The mountains around the bay, though steep and rugged, arel
low. I measured several with a mercurial barometer, and namcJ
the highest and most prominent Mount Kennicott, after tha;

ADJACENT TERRITORIES.

513

I of refuge
s, its value
unt water,
Fish, ami
tlie native
k fair Etig-
rocured in

tl and two
• anchora'Ti

irthcr a large
|s, as the hot-
)ility to drag.
l-otected, am'.
Indspit in the
32", acconi-
Idition under

ll ruRgcd, are
r, and name:
tt, after ihi:

intrepid explorer, who even then, unknown to us, had passed
away from his labors. The exaet hci<;ht of this mountain is
2,316 feet. Danger Peak, just north of Snug Harbor, in the
upper end of the bay, was 2,roo feet, and i,8co feet may be
taken as a fair average of these peaks, which might be called
the Chukchec Hills,

The inhabitants of the peninsula are of two races, — the Chuk-
chees proper and the Tiiski, a branch of the Innuit stock, who
have been elsewhere described.

Tlic Chi'ikchas and Koridks. — The extreme western limit of
these wandering tribes may be described as a line drawn from
Gijiga to Ni'jni Kolymsk on the Kolyma River. Their south-
ern boundary is about the fifty-sixth degree of latitude. The two
tribes of similar stock and habits may be considered together.
Tlie Koriiiks never go north of the Anadyr River, while bands
of Chukchees may occasionally be found to the south of it. Both
arc distinguished by physical characteristics from the Tunguses
and other adjacent tribes. The Chukchees arc a fierce and
determined people, and have successfully resisted all the efforts
of the Russians to impose tribute upon them, while the Koriaks
have abjectly submitted without any resistance. The features
of the former are prominent, their hair is black and harsh, and
their eyes are large and dark. Their complexion is light yellow.
The Chukchees call themselves Tsiitsiii, from which the word
Chiikchee, with its various modes of spelling, is evidently derived.
They live during the entire year in round lodges covered with
deerskins. These lodges are divided into comi^artments, called
I in Russian pologs. They are accustomed to sleep without cloth-
ing. Their parkies are of deerskin, with the edge trimmed with
the skins of beaver or otter, and the hood ornamented with the
skin of the dog's tail. Men ami women wear ear-rings, and prac-
ti.sc tattooing. The men adopt the tonsure, while the women do
up ''--ir hair in two braids, which fall nearly over the eyes; the
remainder is left in a tangletl and unkempt condition. They
eradicate the beard as far as possible, but wear a light mustache.
The bodies of the dead are burned after cutting open the breast,
while a dog or deer is sacrificed iluring the ceremony. ICach
head of a family performs the office of a shaman. Auguries arc
drawn, while killing animals, from the manner and direction in

ill

'ij

I i

I'li
!■!■'

514

ADJACENT TERRITORIES.

which they fall. They are said to make sacrifices to invisible
spirits, of whom they also make figures or idols. The Koriaks
are very similar in these respects. Aquiline noses arc not un-
common, presenting quite a contrast to the flat faces of the
Tiiski and other liskimo tribes. Some of the Koriaks, like .some
of the Chukchees, are sedentary. Their language is said to be
harsh, but of very limited vocabulary.

Hoth tribes are noted for their herds of tame reindeer, upon
which they depend for their subsistence. They go with their
deer wherever there is forage, and their wanderings are greatly
determined by its abundance or scarcity. The deer are carefully
herded and always watched by men appointed for the puri)ose.
They are obliged to exercise great care that the tame deer shall
not find opportunity to stampede with the immense herds of wild
deer which sweep across the country in the spring. The do-
mesticated animals are piebald, and sometimes even pure while.
Their skins are soft and of great bv.auty, far surpassing those of
the wild deer. The Chukchees tan them with the inner bark of
the willow, and thus color them of a beautiful red brown.

They are indefatigable traders. They exchange their deerskins
and articles obtained from the Russians for oil, ivory, walrus-
skins, and whalebone with the Tuski. The latter (not the Chiik
chees, as stated by Ilartwig) cross Bering Strait and trade with
the Innuit, and at Plover Hay with the American traders. The
Chukchees obtain some American goods from the Tiiski, but the
major portion of their tobacco, calico, &c., is purchased at a fair
held on an island in the Anui River every year. This is called
the Island Fair {Ostrovnoi). It is held in the spring, and at-
tended by hundreds of nomads of other tribes. It is superin-
tended by a government agent, who collects a small market-tax
for the Crown.

The Russians celebrate a mass after all preliminaries have been
arranged, and the hoisting of a flag on the tower of the Ostro^'
announces the opening of the market. At this sign, the Chuk-
chees, armed with spears, bows, and arrows, advance, and form a
wide semicircle around the fort. At the tolling of a bell the
barter commences. The furs sold by the natives are foxes, lynxes,
wolverine, otter, beaver, and American martens. They also sell
mahout, walrus ivory, bone sledge-runners, bearskins, and deer-

n visible
Koriiiks
not un-
; of the
kc some
id to be

er, upon
ilh their
; greatly
carefully
purpose.
,eer shall
Is of wild
The do-
ire white.
; those of
r bark of
vn.

deerskins
r, walriis-
ic Chuk-
rade with
Icrs. The
i, but the
.1 at a fail-
is called
and at-
superin-
larkct-tax

liave been

|ic dstro;4

he Chuk-

ADJ.VCENT TERRITORIES.

515

skin clothing. The Russian traders bring kettles, knivcr., an J
other iron ware, calicoes, and especially Circassian tobacco.
During the fair, foot-races, dances, and other festivities, are in-
dulged in by the natives. The Cluikchees arc fond of all ath-
letic sports, and despise a weak, small, or deformed person. Of
this, Saur, who was a little man, gives a comical account in his
description of Hillings' journey. The Chukchees handled him so
roughly, on his first visit to them near St. Laurence Hay, that he
letiri. 1 in otfendeil dignity to the shij:), where he remained until
the journey began, ovr-rland to the Kolyma.

The Chukchees are said to kill all deformed children and aged
or infirm people, and human sacrifices are not unknown among
them. They carry their tents or iinniits with them wherever
they go, and sometimes travel in caravans of fifty or si.xly fami-
lies. They are exxeedingly fond of tobacco, and liquor which is
obtained from the trailers on the coast. They are said to num-
ber twenty thousand, and the Tiiski ten thousand, yet this is
probably an exaggeration. The Koriaks are estimated at about
lour thousand five hundred souls. Thi^y are said by Muller to
have lived in huts elevated on four posts above the ground, enter-
ing by means of a ladder from below.

KainclidtkiX. — This peninsula diviiles the waters of the Och(')tsk
Sea from those of Hering Sea. The climate is colder than that
of the opposite shores of the latter, which is partly due to a cold
current wiiich, at least during a jiart of the year, flows southward
from the St/ait along tb coast. It is noted for the number,
height, and grandeur of its volcanoes. Their rugged sides are
covered with a luxuriant vegetation. Along the banks of the
numerous streams, a dense forest is sustained, while the meadows
which occur among the valleys are remarkable for the vigor and
richness of their herbage. The pasture -grounds are so luxuriant
that grass is often cut throe times during the season. The woods
abound with scpiirrels and the most valuable sables. On the
mountains, bears, wolves, argali, reintleer, and stone foxes are
found. Fish, especially salmon and herring, abound in incteili-
l)le numbers. In a small cove of the Bay of Avatcha, two white
men, with the help of a few women, pre])ared six hundred barrels
)f salmon for shipment in the season of 1865. The dogs, wiiich
arc used for draught, are fed solely on dry fish, and their daily

I-'''.

516

ADJACENT TERRITORIES.

ration is a single salmon. When in good condition they will
travel on good roads from si.xty to one hundred miles in a day.
There are two kinds of sledges in use, of which one is long and
low, used only for carrying goods or c" long journeys, while the
other is high, shaped much like a child's rocking-horse, and is
used for short journeys. The dogs are guided by the driver's
voice, aided by a crooked stick calletl an " ostle," which he throws
at them, and which requires much dexterity to pick up when
travelling rapidly. Five dogs will carry three persons and sixty
pounds of luggage on a large sled. The principal rivers of Kam-
chatka are the Bolshoya, the Avdk/ia, and the Kaimhdtkii. There
are sixty-three volcanoes, of which twenty are active. Warm
and mineral springs are not uncommon. The mineral wealth
of the peninsula has not been in^'estigated. The princijjal har-
bors are those of Lower Kamchatka at the mouth of the river of
the same name, and Petropavlovsk on Niaki'na Cove, Avatcha
Bay. The latter is a most magnificent haven, which might con-
tain the navies of the world. It is subject, however, to small
whirlwinds, or " woolys," which sometimes render navigation in
small boats dangerous. Petropavlovsk is the capital of Kamchatka,
and is a town of some five hundred inhabitants. It is principally
noted as a rendezvous for traders and for the defeat of the Allies
in 1854. When there was a garrison here, the population num-
bered fifteen hundred, but the removal of the troops to the mouth
of the Amoor River in 1855 was a serious blow to its prosperity.
There are only some two hundred Russians in the peninsula.
The remainder of the inhabitants are Kamshadales, Yakuts, and
half-breeds. To the north the Tungusi or Lamuts occupy a laisc
extent of territory with their herds of deer. At the mouth of the
Avatcha River is a small settlement, which I visited in 1865.
Here are numerous herds of small cattle, which give abundance
of rich milk. Potatoes are raised, though not of very large size,
yet in considerable quantities. These, with a little barley, tur-
nips, lettuce, &c., compose the agricultural products. Ikrries
are abundant. Many ducks were seen in the Avatcha delta, and
auks, divers, and murrcs abound on the rocky cliffs of the coast,
The Kamshadales arc expert in procuring their eggs by suspend-
ing themselves over the precipice and drawing themselves in by
means of a crooked pole.

A I)J ACE N T Ti: K K 1 TO K I liS.

5>7

hey will
n a clay,
long and
^vhilc the
;, and is
! driver's
le throws
up when
\\u\ sixty
of Kam-
(?. There
. Warm
\\ wealth
:ipal har-
2 river of
Avatcha
light con-
to small
gation in
inichatka,
rinciiJally
the Allies
ion num-
le mouth
rosperity.
)eninsiila.
iiits, and
ly a larj;c
nth of the
in 1S65.
hundance
arge size,
irley, tur-
Bcrries
delta, and
the coast,
suspcnd-
ves in by

The Kamchatkan lily {Fritillaria savnxiui), or Sarnina, has a
tuberous root, which is an article of diet with the natives. A
species of fungus called mmhauior afVords a kind of stimulant, and
is also an article of trade with the more northern tribes. The
roots of the wild parsnip {Anliaiigilica) are distilled, and a kiml
of spirit made from them. The population of the i)eninsula is
about seven thousand.

The KavislunhUcs. — The original inhabitants of the peninsula
are much reduced in numbers since the Russian contiuest. \'io-
lence, disease, and the presence of a superior race, have swept
them away in large numbers. Their characters are much changed
by contact with the Ku.ssians. Those in the vicinity of Penjinsk
have preserved their language with the least corruption of any.
The name Kamchatka is derived, according to some authors, from
the Chukchee " Krc-kainchatKwi" meaning demons.

The Kamshadales are broatl and stout, but of medium height.
They have prominent cheek-bones, broad and projecting jaws,
small noses, full lij)s, and black hair. Their complexion is light
yellowish, with much color. The women are said to purify their
complexion by sticking, with fish glue, gut parchment, made
from the intestines of the bear, upon their faces. They also rub
their cheeks with a red sea-weed in place of rouge. They are
remarkably healthy, and attain a good old age. Some of the
girls whom I saw were well formed, pretty, and attractive. They
keep their houses very clean, and are neat about their persons.
The men gain their living by fishing and trapping sables. I'or
the latter they obtain, at Petropavluvsk, from eighteen to twenty
dollars apiece in goods. The traders are frequently obliged to
advance tea, sugar, tlour, tobacco, and brandy to the natives in
the summer, and to keep a bright lookout lest the cunning Kam-
shadiile sell his furs, during the winter, to some one else. They
pay their taxes, and obtain the above-mentioned articles, with
clothing and utensils, by the i)roduct of their traps. l'\ir other
fotjcl they rely on the fish aiul game, for few of them nrc suf-
ficiently active to keep cattle or cultivate the ground. All of
them arc baptized, but, as usual among Greek converts, they
retain many of their old superstitions. They are intelligent, good-
natured, hospitable, and witty, but indolent, and not always honest.
The snowshoes worn in Kamchatka are made on the Norwegian

\f-

:,1J

5'8

ADJACENT TEKRITOKIES.

pattern, covered with sealskin, and esteemed as very valuable.
There are a few horses at I'etropavluvsk, but most of the travLJ-
linj,' is done with boats or dogs. The women are noted for their
fine needlework, and some of the Kamshadale parkies are of great
beauty and no little value. The embroidery is usually done in silk.

The Tmii^usi or Lami'its. — These tribes range over an im-
mense e.xtent of territory, reaehing from Lake Baikal to Kam-
chatka and the mouth of the Amoor, and from the shores of the
Arctic Ocean to the Ochotsk i-'ea and the Chinese borders. They
take their name from the Tunguska or Ang;ira River, where
they were first met with by the invading Russians in 1640.
They are, of course, nomadic, and arc distinguished as Reindeer,
Morse, Dog, Forest, and River Tungiisi, according to their mode
of life and domestic animals. Most of them have tame reindeer,
but horses and cattle are not uncommon. They arc said to number
thirty thousand, and were formerly much more numerous, but are
yearly declining from diseases introduced by the Russians. The
unfortunate Tunguse who may lose his reindeer by wolves or
sickness is reduced to a most miserable condition. Nothing is
secure from these outcasts, who have sometimes been reduced to
cannibalism, and are hunted down like wild beasts by their more
fortunate countrymen. The Tungiisi are noted for their wit,
jovial manner, and good temper. They are exceedingly intelli-
gent, hut malicious and deceitful. They arc vain, and fond of
beads and other ornamcnt.s. While hunting the reindeer they
dress in deerskins, laying aside their finery, and wear water-proof
boots to keep out the dampness of the tundri. They are expert
with gun and sling, or in the use of the bow. They veil their
eyes from the snow glare with a black horse-hair net. They are
extremely bold and courageous, meeting the bear in single com-
bat with only a knife.

The nomadic Tunguse uses a tent of .skins or soft, pliable bark,
which is easily transported. The house of the sedentary Tun-
giise is very small, and heated by a fire built on a stone hearth in
the centre. Their food is obtained from their herds, or consists
of fish, berries, and game. A favorite dish, as with the Norton
Sound Innuit, consists of the half-digested contents of the rein-
deer's stomach, mixed with fat and berries. Many of them use
the " brick " tea, which they obtain from the Chinese.

loi;ical

ADJACKNT TKKRITORIICS.

519

'aluablo.
l; travcl-
for their
of groat
;; in silk,
an iin-
o Karn-
es of the
s. They
-, where
in 1640.
Icindeer,
nr mode
reindeer,
) number
;, but are
ns. Tlie
/olvcs or
othinj; is
,'duced to
leir more
heir wit,
y intelli-
fond of
cor they
tcr-proof
re expert
veil their
They are
igle com-

iblc bark,
ary Tun-
hearth in
r consists
e Norton
the rcin-
thcm use

They dress the dead in their best clothes, and hang them in
large chests between two trees. The weapons of the deceased
are buried under the body. A reindeer is sacrificed during the
ceremony. Their religion consists of a belief in shamanism, and
hut few are even nominal Christians. They anciently worshipped
wooden idols called L)itl-i\.<ait. They purchase their wives for
twenty or a hundred reindeer from the parents, or serve, like
Jacob, many years for them. They excel in athletic exercise,
ckmcing, and chess-playing. They are the best of travellers,
and arc the usual companions of a journey in Eastern Siberia.
Tliey visit annually the fairs which are held in all the Siberian
towns. They are of medium height, Tartar features, and light
yellow complexion.*

7'/if Vii/xiii^iri. — The tribe commonly known by this name
are said by Saur to call themselves Aiidon tiomiii and are about
eight hundred in number. They occupy the country between the
Chukchecs and the Yakuts, especially on the Kolyma River.
They arc believed to consist of the remnants of some of the
l)riniitivc Siberian nations. They have been greatly reduced by
the small-pox, and also by their frequent wars with other tribes.
They have black eyes and hair, pale and regular features. They
are said to carry the bones of their deceased relatives about with
them, especially when hunting. In manners and customs they
much resemble the Tungusi. They formerly were entirely sup-
ported by their deer, but many of them, who have lost their
herds, live by hunting and fishing. With them are included some
small bands known as C/tinuiiifscs.

The Yok-iits. — The traditions of this great Semitic colony
point to an origin near Tunguska River and Lake Baikal. At
present they occupy the territory about the Lena, as far south as
the Aldan, eastward to the Kolyma, and westward to the Yenisei.
They are nearly two hundred thousand in number, and form
ahiiost the entire population of the Yakutsk District. Tiicir
language bears a near relationship to the Turkish, while they
are said to be of "Mongolian" features. This is one more item
in the long list of fiicts which show the worthlcssness of physio-
logical characters as evitlences of relationship between nations.

Their capital is at Yakutsk. They arc an essentially pastoral

* Most of these details in reference to the Tungusi and V.iii.'its are from Ilartwig.

Ill

5^0

ADJACICXT Tr.RRIT(^RIF.S.

people, and live on the products of their hcnls of cattle and horses,
though sonic of the more northern bands are reduced to herdin;,'
reindeer.

Those whom I have seen were remarkal)le for their small eyes
and noses, exceedingly prominent cheek-hones, stilll"])lack hair, and
diminutive size of most of the nicnd)ers of the body. Their civ-
ilization is of a high character in the cities, but many of the
lower classes are little above the other northeast Siberian nomads
in intelligence. They are of a reserved and somewhat gloomy
disposition, but hospitable and generous. Many of their villages
are very small, and to the north the solitary huts are many miks
apart, so that the nearest neighbors see each other perhaps only
once in several years. In summer the herdsmen live in conical
tents made of birch-bark spread over light poles. Their principal
occupation during this season is haying. In winter they live in
yourts, or low, pyramidal log huts covered with turf and with slabs
of pure ice for windows. As the weather grows warmer, these
are replaced by the translucent bladders of fish, or oiled paper.
The floor is generally below the surface of the ound ; the fire is
built on a stone hearth in the middle of the yi t, and the smoke
escapes through a hole in the roof They buiitl stables for their
horned cattle, but in very cold weather the more valuable cows
may find refuge in the family yourt.

Their horses, though of small si/ce, have great powers of endur-
ance, and remain without shelter during the most severe weather,
feeding on the dry herbage which they dig with their hoofs from
under the snow. These animals travel thirty or forty miles with-
out rest, and arc admirably suited to the country. The Yakuts
make excellent mechanics, and are hard to excel in driving a
bargain. They are, as a rule, saving and industrious, and some-
times amass large fortunes, at least large for that part of the workl.
Their nationality is exceedingly energetic, and not only do they
retain their own language and customs almost unchanged, but
the Russians long resident among them, many of whom have
married Yakut women, have also adoj^ted their national tongue.
In ingenuity they surpass all other Siberian nations, and their
leather-work and some of their manufactures of iron would do
credit to the most skilful European artisan. Long before the
Russian conquest they manufactured their own knives and axes

ADJACENT TERRITORIES.

Sai

1 horsLN,
herding'

lall eyes
liair, anil
luir civ-
y of the
iioiiKuls
j;lc)()niy
• villaj^os
iny miles
laps only
n conical
principal
cy live ill
vith slabs
icr, these
L'd paper,
the fire is
he smoke
; for Iheir
ible cows

of endiir-
weathcr,
oofs from
cs with-
Yakuts
rivinj,' a
(1 some-
nc worlil.
do they
nged, but
om have
tongue.
and their
would do
)cforc the
and axes

from the ore found on the Wilna These articles, cither from the
tiiiighness of the metal or the method of manufacture, sustain the
greatest cold without that liability to break which marks the l-'.u-
ropean iron and steel. Their leather is perfectly wa'er-tight, and
the carpets woven by the women arc even exported to iCuropc.
They arc excellent hunters and trappers, and untiring in the
chase. Many of them arc great gluttons. Sir George Simpson
mentions an instance where two of them devoured seventy-two
piuuuls of beef and thirty-six of melted butter at a sitting. One
was old and experienced, the other young and zealous. At first
the latter had the advantage, " I lis teeth are good, but witii the
assistance of my patron saint," said the old man, crossing him-
self, "I will soon come up with him!" It is saitl that at the
Yakut weddings some of these professional gormandizers are in-
vited for the amusement of the guests. Their favorite food is
horsetlesh, and sour mare's-milk, called kooniiss, is their favorite
beverage. A favorite dish called .vr?/(/w<i/ is composed of a mix-
ture of rye flour, koomiss, the inner bark of the larch, fat, dry
fish, and berries.

They make clothing of the skins of their horses, and nets from
liorscb lir. They catch fish in ctipor^, or fish-traps, much like
those of the Yukon Ingaliks. They are inveterate drunkards
when the can procure liquor, and devoted to the use of tobacco.
Kast of the Lena, they are the universal carriers, and travelling
in this part of Siberia would be almost impossible without the
Yakut and his horse.

They arc tough and enduring, and fear no amount of cold
or exposure, while they support the pangs of hunger with the
utmost fortitude. Their powers of vision are remarkable, and
some of them have been said to be able to distinguish the
satellites of Jupiter with the naked eye. Their memory is
wonderful, and every bush and hillock on the journey is remem-
Iiercd as a guide for the future. They wear many ornaments.
Their parkies are adorned with fringes, beads, and embroidery.
They are fond of music, but their songs are melancholy and
usually devoted to the objects of nature around them or some
of their national superstitions. IMany of them are nominal Chris-
tians, but the belief in shamanism is nearly as strong as ever.
The spirit of the woods is called Lics/ii, and the Yakut is accus-

r ^■j*"'^

'■'

ii!

ADjACKNT ti:kkitorii:&

tomcd to propitiate him by nttarhiii;; a few hairs from his horse's
maiic to some sohtary tn-e. The use of the };iin has not en-
tirely siipi)lai)te(i tlial of the l)vtw, ami th(;y curry a weapon hke a
si:ythe hlatle, attached to a straight pole. They are a carnivorous
race ; thouj^h wheat matines near Yakutsk, they si)ciul Uttlc
time in euUivatinj; the j^round.

They were said by Miiiler to call themselves Ziii':.iik/iii, from
the name of one of their ancient princes. Tiu-y did not worship
wooden idols, hut made a stufled doll which they luni}; on a tree
and regarded as an impersonation of an invisible spirit. Their
shamiins were called />'///////, and very anciently they killed or lunied
alive the servants of their important chi(;fs after the death of the
latter. Some of their dead wi-re left exposed or covere<l with a
hide, some were put in a l)o.\ elevated on four jiosls, and others
were buried. They boU[;ht tluir wives from the parents, ami
allowed poly}j;amy. They weri- dividi-d into eij;ht tribes, each ol
which hail some bird or animal which they re};arded as saircd,
and would not eat. Their new year be^an in Apiil, at whiih
time tlu-y were accustomed to sacrifice horses or cattle, hanj;iiiij
the heads and skins upon trees. Most of these ancient customs
have lon;^ since passed away.

ere were man

y \'akuts amon^- the servants of the Russ

tail

Ami-rican Company in Northwi-st America.

'I'ltc Maiiilu'ios. — These are a Tartar people who live on the
bar.ks of the Anioor and aloni^ thi- borders of .Siberia. They arc
closi'ly allied in laii^ua^c, maniu-rs, and customs to the Chinese.

The (iltlliidx. — These are also a Tartar race whp iid.abit pul
of the country near the mouth of the Amoor and on Sakli.ll
Island. They are n-presentcd as a very intelli<;ent |)eopli' \vl

III

fir

havt! readily adopti'd Russian manneis and ei\'ili/.atiou. 'I'll
l;ni};uaj^e is almost monosyllabic. 'I'hey are said to livt; almosi
exclusively on fish, but arc also j^ood hunters. They lall tlniii
selves iiliilicn or Kilcii, and thiir appearance reseud)les that c!
other Tartar tribes.

Ai-(iii. — This is a small territory on tin- west coast of the
()ch(')tsk .Sea. It was formerly under the control of the Uussi.ui

American Coin[)any. It had a };overnor ap|)ointed by the Cr
and is one of the best ports on tlu; ()chi')tsk .Sea. It is noted
the (piality of the sables which are obtained there.

own,

lor

Tin- J

fldlll till
iif the i
lias beei
Till')' ai(
railed )
llie colli
I'loin
iiierly ob
///<• . /.
ili'e<l ii.iti
iiiirlliern
liiiiiicily
jaji.nicsc
"",1 11. c.
is very ini
Minil.ir to
Mielil 'I'a
Sieixilil s;i
llie llei^li
llie Tim;;!!
Tin- .\i,
laille kiio\
I'eeil subje
■111(1 those
■lllese, who
They a I
I'load f.n-e
The check
llieiV luM\'
I he sc,i!|) ,11

* I'hiM (lie
>'"'ll'lll.iiv, su

I-Mic ,,(■ ,|„,

' 'il'lv (.( Ill,

ilKilnl, even ;1

I'^l-i.llC (lUIIIIK
' ■>. K.llll^ll.|
I ' ill'l, Inii,^ |,|,„
'l'"Min||.lii|f ,Si

ADJACKNT TKKKITOKIK.S.

5 •■'3

Tlw Ki'irilt' hlntufs. — '! lu-sc islaiuls form a chain, c.\ti'i\(lin^
fiiim tin- cxtii'iuity ol" the pciunsula of Kamcliatka to tlu- viiinity
III' tlu: island of Vcsso, of the Japan aiihipflago. The nanjc
has hccn said to be iK rivrd iVoin the kuss'an Xv/z/n/, to sinoki-.
Tluy arc mostly of small si/.e, and without tin-.;. I'hc laij^cr aw.
cilK'd Y('fiivf>, Yiiriif', and J\iriviiiis/iir. 'I'l^-y wore also uniler
till' control ol" the late Russian American Company.

I'lom tluin some bear, fur-seal, and sea-'.)ttcr skins weie lor-
mcily obtained.

T/iv Ahii'S. — The Kurile Islands are inhabited by a lew hun-
iliiil natives belon;^inj;' to a nation wli.eh is also found on the
northern point of Sakh.ilin Island, on the island of Vesso, and
fniinerly on the southwest coast of the K niichatkan peninsula,
l.ip.inese historians made mention of ihis people' in tlu; year
(>(i^ II. c. Thrv call themselves.////// or .lino. Their lan^uaj;e
is very inipi'rieetly known, yet some authors have stated that it is
Miiiil.n" to that of the nortlu'rn inhabitants of \'esso or to the ad-

.1(1

nt i'artar trilu's, such as the Manehi'ios and (ihiliak

(in

.SuhoKl says th.it the roots of the l.mj^ua.m: dilfer from those of
the nei};hborinj; dialects, and he delinitely separates them iVoni
till- 'run[;usi and Kams.hadales.

riic .\inos have ^;reali)' diminished in numbers sinre they be-
uiuu: known to I' uiopi-ai.s. Tho.se on the Kurile isl.mds have
Ihiii subjeel to Riissia since 17,^6. Those on thi; isknul of Vesso
■iiiil those on .S.d<li.ilin were Ion;.;' siuii- eoncjuered by tl>e Ja[)-

aiU'se,

who titatcd ihcm with j'reat severit

)•

Thiy are of li;;hl comiilexion, with hori/ontally placed eyes,
I'load fu:es, prominent noses, I.ui^e ears, and a medium mouth.
The cheek-bones are not [)rominent, and they aie remark. d)le for
ihiir he. ivy beards and p;reat development of hair, not only on
ihc sc.ilp and e^i blows, b.il all oxer the body.*

* Ihiii llic .iliii\c' 1 li.ii u Ii-ii''!ii •< ii'.V/r, «illiniii .1 kiiiiw liil^;f nl llio ^;i,imiu.ii or
I'i'.il'iil.ii V, suii, • illii»i>l(i|.'i>il.H Im\c imii|it(l 111 ihi- ^l.iitliiig miiiiusiuh lli.'.l lluy
I' .Uv.iiii! 'I'lic li.iiiiiicss III iiiiily, llii>iiy',l> nut i|iiilf sii k'^''I'> '^ luiliiil .iiiiolig

'iiu' III till- Iiuuiit nil

Its 11! Ihi

n ill II. I, wliili' ,111)1111^ iillicr trilii's, iiiii|ii('s

"ii.iMv III till'

oiiL'iii, iliii'i llv .ul|.ii ml .UK

III .iliiiii~.i iili mil .1

'■iili'it, fvin !lif I'.iii^t.ii lif Is nut (li\i.lii|uil. \\\v iiiniiiiMi'iit iiumi'i .>i

1(1 liiin/iiii

t.il

lus .in- t iiiiiilliil\ .11111111^ till' Ililii'S III Ni)itlu'.l->liill .Silui i.l, t-NlKi i.ilK till' iMir ( liiik-

K.iinili.iilAli

Vi.k,

^illlil.ll iiililM' III Ir.l-Mijlill^, on ill

nil

lll'.^ Il

l.licil lllf \ .ikuls (ImW klliiWi. ti

I IK' 1 III:

siK .illinl til lllf 'I'm ks .mil 1 ' nil-

•|iiLhiiiMi.iiili' .Semitic tiii^in) .iinong llic Mungoi.s wiili tlic fi|n.illN di^iiiivi WiU.igirit

\ ■.:

J "

i^l

' '

524

ADJACENT TERRITORIES.

The women tattoo the upper lip, and sometimes the lower one.
They pierce the ears, and wear beads or silver rings in them.
They sometimes wear their hair uncut, and sometimes cut it off
in front. They dress in furs, sealskins, and the bark of trees,
which is twisted into strings for the purpose. They bury the
dead on their backs, at full length, enclosed in boxes. They weep
and grieve for the dead very bitterly, even to the little children.

The name of the djad person is never mentioned ; such an
act would be considered the greatest rudeness. The husband's
younger brother marries the widow, either for life, or until some
one else asks her in marriage.

A widower may marry again in a month, but a widow is ex-
pected to remain single somewhat longer. There are no mar-
riage ceremonies. The husband does not purchase his wife, but
serves her parents. They have from one to three wives. They
think little of matrimonial infidelities, yet, according to other au-
thors, such give rise to duels fought with clubs, or the transgressor
pays for his faalt by such restitution as the husband demands.
Until childbirth the wife remains in the family ; after delivery,
she lives apart for a month. They reckon time by moons or sea-
sons. When sickness occurs a dog is sacrificed, as among the
Chiikchees. Their religion is probably a belief in shamanism, as
among the adjacent tribes. They travel with dogs in winter, and
also eat them. The dog is their principal domestic animal, as
they do not keep cattle or cultivate the ground.

They catch rats in trap: , but do not eat them. The Japanese
have introduced cats amc.ig them. They are accustomed to tear
the cubs of the bear, and when full grown to make a feast, kill,
and eat them.

They have but recently acquired the use of iron tools and weap-
ons. Formerly they used implements of stone or bone. They
use the root of the edible lily, and eat eggs and fish. They de-

and other tribes, simply because they had small eyes and projecting cheek•bone^
The words of Whitney are api)licable, when, speaking of the Scytliian family, ho s.iy.-,
" It is to no small extent those who know least in detail of the languages of the f.ini-
ilv who are most ready to assert and defend their historical connection " ; and, agaii;.
in reference to the so-called " Turanian '' family, " Such a sweeping and whoksa't
conglomeration, at the present stage of progress of linguistic research, is wholly ui:
scientific, and of no authority or value. It represents only a want of detailed knowl-
edge, and a readiness to give way to loose and unscrupulous theorizing, on the par:
of its authors."

ADJACENT TERRITORIES.

525

pcnd in great part on the latter for food. The above facts refer
to those living upon Sakhalin Island. There are said to be about
two thousand five hundred cf them.

The houses of the Yesso-Ainos are rectangular, with a porch
about eight feet broad in front. They are built of small poles,
fastened with strips of bark and covered with straw. Under the
eaves are holes which serve as windows. They generally consist
of one room, but they are sometimes divided by partitions. There
are no floors, but the sand is covered with mats, and there is a
platform on one side where the inmates lounge or sleep. The
fire is made in the centre, and there are usually fish hung up
over it to smoke. Altogether the huts much resemble the Tun-
gi'isc yourts, but are less solidly built. They store their fish in a
cache not unlike those in use among the Yukon Indian.

Fish are caught in nets made of twisted bark. The twine
made in this way is woven into a kind of cloth, of which clothing
is made. Young children go naked, and older ones are only pro-
vided with a long jacket.

They are fond of bear-hunting, and preserve the skulls as
trophies. Their arrows are made of wood and reeds pointed
with bamboo, and they are said to poison them. They consider
it as a disgrace to part with their weapons. They carry short
knives, but rely principally on their bows and arrows in hunting
the bear and deer. They use snowshoes, which are made with a
wooden frame and covered with deerskin. The lips of the women
are tattooed after marriage. They also tattoo the back of the
hands and other parts of the body. They cultivate millet and
potatoes, an art probably learned from the Japanese. They use
deerskin dresses. They have many deities, but address most of
their prayers to fire. They do not buy their wives, but make
presents to the parents. Their only feast is at the beginning
of the new year, when they make offerings to all their gods. A
man can have only one wife, but any number of concubines, each
of whom lives in a separate house. When a wife dies, the house
in which she lived is burned. The body of a dead man is clothed
in white and buried in a sort of box in the ground with the head
tJ the east. They have no written characters, but are said to
convey information by means of notched sticks. They have no
notion of a future state. They keep fowls and eat wild birds, but

IH.

'i-

526

ADJACENT TERRITORIES.

'Illtl

i i'

!l!ll

not eggs. They average about live feet two inches in height,
are broad-chested, well made, and have a fine appearance com-
pared with the Japanese. Their eyes are always black, and tiiei:
hair is of the same color. They are active and fond of work,
seldom suffering from sickness. The Kiirile-Ainos are very few
in number. They live almost entirely on fish, and are fond of
travelling from island to island in their boats. They are noted
for their mildness, quiet manners, hospitality, and general good-
will toward strangers and each other.

The little knowledge * which we do possess with regard to this
interesting people makes us regret that we know no more. They
have probably adopted many customs from their Japanese con-
querors. Without a grammar or vocabulary of their language,
any theories in regard to their origin are mere speculation. The
Japanese consider them to be descended from the original inhabi-
tants of the islands, who, according to the Japanese records, were
conquered by the former about the year 600 of the Christian era.
Many of their habits and customs appear similar to those of the
northeastern races of Asia.

A^ikoldiffsk. — This town is situated near the mouth of the
Amoor. It owes its principal importance to the trade of that
river and the garrison which was transferred there from Petro-
pavlovsk by the government in 1855. American and Sandwich
Island traders monopolize most of its commerce. Owing to the
difficult and dangerous character of the navigation of the Amoor,
from the constantly changing sand-bars which obstruct the chan-
nel, most vessels carry their cargoes to De Castries Bay in Sak
halin Straits, whence it has been proposed to build a railroad to
Nikolaiffsk. The population of the place is estimated at twelve
thousand, and the trade is principally in lumber, liquors, fancy
articles, and breadstuffs.

It has been proposed to form an ice company here, for the
purpose of supplying the Chinese ports ; but it is doubtful if the
enterprise would pay for many years, as the market is very
limited at present.

This concludes the list of points or people of interest in the
foreign territories adjacent to Alaska.

• Most of Uic above facts are from a paper by Professor A. S, Bickinore, in Silli
man's Journal, 1868.

n height,
nee coni-

and laci;
. of work,
; very few
e fond of

are noted
eral good-

ard to this
Drc. They
mcse con-
language,
tion. The
nal inhabi-
;ords, wore
ristian era.
hose of the

Lith of the

idc of that

-om Petro-

Sandwicli

,'mg to the

le Amoor,

the chan-

ay in Sak

raih'oad to

at twchc

.lors, fancy

re, for the
)tful if the
et is very

APPENDIX.

Flas of the Scientific Corps.

MEMBERS.

Robert Kennicott,
\V. 11. D.\Li., II. W. Eluott,

ii. m. ban.nister, j. t. rothrock,

Ferdinand Hischoff, Charles T'ease.

■.i i

rest in the

more, in Silli-

[I >!

\llW

iii!

FRO.A
pou

nctic tran:
much con:

Many i
alphabet
twenty-fiftl
soft, as in
when not
lect of thi;
The twent
representee
C H as in

I'iie spe
rhonetic v
will cndea\
i^ as gross
"oiild be
kchurtsch, ;
.ilmost invn

This Glo
venient in t

Alaska. —
is a corr
the early
by the n
T'his was
now kno

APPENDIX A.

GLOSSARY.

FROM ignorance of the true piionetic value of the Russian com-
pound consonants, and from literal transcription, instead of pho-
netic translation, of the German rendering of Russian and native names,
much confusion has arisen.

Many writers persistently represent the third letter of the Russian
alphabet by W, writing Romdiwui instead of Romanoff, iS:c. The
twenty-fifth letter is also frequently rendered T S C H instead of C H
soft, as in church, which fully represents it in English. The Russian O,
when not accented, should be rendered in English by A ; from the neg-
lect of this we have Kbdiak instead of Kadidk, and many similar errors.
The twenty-second letter of the Russian alphabet should i)roperly be
represented by K H in English ; it has the exact value of the German
C H as in wclchcr.

The spelling throughout this volume has been made as simple as the
[honetic values would allow. It is to be hoped that authors in future
will endeavor to follow up this reform, especially when they learn that it
is as gross an error to sjiell Kamchatka, for instance, Kaintschatka, as it
would be for a foreigner to represent the Flnglish word church by
tschiirtsch, and so on. The letter U in Russian and native words has
almost invariably th,; sound of U in Luke.

Tliis Glossary has been added to explain, more fully than was con-
venient in the text, the meaning and derivation of some words.

.\L.tsK.\. — This name, now applied to the whole of our new territory,
is a corruption, very far removed from the original word, ^\'hen
tiu' early Russian traders first reached Unalashka, they were told
by the natives that to the eastward was a great land or territory.
This was called by the natives Al-dk-shak or Al-dy-ck sa. The island
now known as Unalashka was called Na-gutt-aiayeksa or " the land
34

\A\

530

APPENDIX.

flW

near Alayeksa." TVoni Alayeksa the name became, by corruption,
A/Jksa, Alashka, Alidska, and finally Aldska. Alaska is an English
corruption j the Russians never used it. In all the later maps the
name of the peninsula is spelled Alidska, and this spelling has been
preserved in this volume, as affording a convenient distinction be-
tween the general and the specific names. In the same way, Na-
giin-aliiyeksa became Agiin-akiksa, Agi'm-a/dshka, and finally Uualdsh-
ka. The term Unaldska has no authority, is not known to either
Russians or Aleuts, and I have not employed it, as it has no grounds
for preference. We have, then, Alaska for the territory, Aliaska for
the peninsula, and Unalashka for the island ; all ' rived from the
same root, meaning a great country or continent.

AleUt, or Aleutian. — This term is now universally used to designate
the inhabitants of the Aleutian Islands. Its origin is obscure. Some
of the early writers state that it was derived from one of the East-
ern Siberian dialects, and meant originally servant or slave. It is
certain that it is a word foreign to the language of the islanders, wlio
called themselves originally Kagatdya Koutig'iis, meaning " men of the
east," their traditions indicating an eastern or continental origin. The
Kaniagisti or Kanidgmnt of the island of Kadiak, quite a different
branch of the Orarian stock, were also called Aleuts by the early
traders.

Aliaska, a corruption of Aldycksa. See Aldska.

AvAcHA, or .^vAicHA. — The name of a river in Southeastern Kam-
chatka, and also of the noble ba^ into which it falls. Originally
Su-wdcha, it was soon corrupted into Avacha by the Russians, and
is well known by the latter name. Ignorance or stupidity has clone
its worst in the different methods of spelling this clear and simple
name. On Niakiiia Cotc, one of the numerous small harbors in the
bay, is situated the town of Petropavlovsk.

Babi'che. — The term applied by the French Canadians of Hudson Bay
to a fine rawhide line, formed by removing the hair from the reindeer
skin, soaking, cutting into line, and finally stretching and drying the
latter. It is used by the voyageurs for the netting of their snow-
shoes, and lashing their sleds, or any use to which twine might
be applied. A similar line is made from sealskin by the Innuit.
and is generally known among the voyageurs as rcmni. It is ex
ceedingly tough and strong, and is used for the same purposes, on
the coast, that are served by hab'iche in the interior. The raiml
according to my experience, is the better of the two.

GLOSSARY.

53>

•ruption,
English
laps tlu'
h;\s bLcn
;tion be-
way, Na-
C '/icr/iis/h
to either
) grounds
liivska for
from the

designate
re. Some

the East-
Lve. It is
nders, who
men of the
igin. The

a different
y the early

,tern Kam-

Originally

issians, and

y has done

and siiTiple

bors in the

ludson Bay
le reindeer
drying lli>;
their snow-
wine niiglit
the Innuit.
It is ev
lurposcs, on
The /■'■"""'

HarrXbora. — The Russian term for the Innuit winter houses or tbpeks.
The word yonrt is frequently used to express the same idea, but a
true yourt differs in many respects from a topek. Ivan's barrabora
means simply John's house. It is perhaps derived from a Russian
word which means a pigsty, or a confused, disordered heap.

Bkrinc. — The name of the commander of the first Russian exploring
expedition in the sea which bears his name. A facsimile of his auto-
graph, in a biography of the Russian admirals, proves incontestably
that he spelled his name in this manner. It is generally written
Bf/iring, and sometimes Bccri/ig.

BinARSHiK. — A Russian term used to indicate the commander of a
small trading-post, one of several which are under the command of a
Director or Uprovallsha. It is probably derived from bidar ox bidarrd,
and originally meant the captain of a large skin boat, or of a hunting
party in such boats or bidarras.

Casin'k or Kas{ne. — Derived, perhaps, from casino, an assembly room,
or from casdrmer, a barrack. It is used by the Russians to denote
the dance-houses of native villages, which the Innuit call Kai^iis-
keemi (or Kagi at Davis's Strait). Richardson says that it is an Innuit
word ; but the Innuit of Norton Sound do not use it or recognize it
as other than a Russian word. Kazbne is the Russian for a cabin.

Esquimaux. — This word, which would perhaps be better written Eskimo,
is derived from a word indicating a sorcerer, or shaman, in the lan-
guage of the northern tribes. Forster says, that " in the language of
the Abenaki, Eskhndntzik means "eaters of raw fish." This may
also be true, but the northern Ti'nneh use the word Uskeemi with
the above signification, and apply it to the Esquimaux. From
this the word Husky (meaning Esquimaux) is derived, and is univer-
sally used by the Northern Hudson Bay voyageurs. It is also found
in the Broken Slavt5 jargon with the same meaning. The Innuit
name Kag-uskeemi, or house, where the shamans conduct their dances
an>." incantations, may be derived from the same root. In the diction-
aries we find Esquimau (singular), and P^squimaux (plural), defined as
a " tribe of Indians," &c. Sufficient has already been said to indicate
the erroneous character of this definition. It would be much better
to employ the single term Eskimo in a collective, and also an indi-
vidual sense, as the etymology of the word is obscure, and the pro-
nunciation Eskimos is not in common use, although to be found in
the dictionaries. Their own word Innuit is vastly preferable, and
should properly take the place of the disputed term. The Davis's
Strait Eskimo call the Greenlanders ''Aski."

532

APPENDIX.

:'!il!

.ii I

i: m

I'll

Nil
I] ''

'"'ill

lil

IdLdo or IolO. — The name is applied by the Ksquimaux to their tem-
porary ice houses, not, as asserted by Richardson, to their winter
houses, which are built under ground. The latter are known as
td[)eks. The igloo is peculiar to the Arctic coast, where it is usually
built as a shelter while travelling. The Norton Sound Innuit are
familiar with the word, and on showing one of Hall's pictures to nnu
of them, and inriuiring if he knew what it was, he immediately re-
plied that it was an igloo, but that they were only used as above do
scribed, and never necessary on Norton Sound, where the villages are
close together. In Davis's Strait A'/^/t means a tent.

Innuit. — The name (meaning people) applied to themselves by all the
Orarians, except the Aleuts and perhaps the Eastern Siberian natives
of the same stock. It is in use from Greenland to Bering Strait, and
thence to the vicinity of Mount St. Elias.

iRKtiTSK. — The capital of Eastern Siberia, situated on the Angara
River, which flows out of Lake Baikal, about one hundred and sixtv
miles from the Chinese boundary line of 17.37. Sometimes con-
founded with Yakutsk, whicl. see.

Kadiak. — The name of the largest island south of Aliaska. It is a
derivative, according to some authors, from the Russian Kddia, a large
tub ; more probably, however, it is a corruption of Kanidg, the an-
cient Innuit name. The inhabitants, according to Coxe, called them-
selves Kanidgist or Kanidgmiit. This name is almost invariably
misspelled by English authors, as Kodiak, Codiac, Codiack, Kixduuk
and in other similarly absurd ways. The above is the only correct
spelling.

Kamchatka. — The native name of the great peninsula which separatee
the Ochdtsk from the Bering Sea. The above is the true phonetic
spelling ; the common method is a gross, unnecessary, and decidedly
objectionable error.

KamlAvka. — A water-proof shirt, made of the intestines of the seal or
sea-lion, and used while travelling in their kyaks, or in rainy weather,
by the Aleuts and Esquimau.x.

Kegikt6wrOk. — The native name of a village on Norton Sound. This
has been variously misspelled, Egictbwit, Iglutowtk, &c. It is de-
rived from kikhtuk (an island), from two small islets which lie off of
the cove.

KfKHTCK. — An island ; in the Innuit tongue. Variously modified, it
stands for different islands, as Khtiikluk, an island on the southern

GLOSSARY.

533

coast; Ki'^^ikht&tsahiik, Whale Island, near St. Michad's ; A'ri;ii/if/t/i
/iii/b, the islets off (lolscWa River; and Kc^ik/ituk, IL-sborouyh Island.

Ki>l.dsHES. — A word applied by the Russians to natives of the Thlinket
slock. The peculiar ornament worn by the married women is else-
wliere referred to. This somewhat resembles a trough. The Aleu-
tian word for trough is A'ti/tlt^a, which, changed to a diminutive in the
Russian, became Kalushka (little trough). I'rom this the name
Kalosh was derived by corrujjtion, and, after long usage, was adopted
as a name for the Thlinkets by the Russians.

K.wiKHi'AK. — .'V term deriveil from K-awk (a river), and />(ik (a suffix,
meaning large), and used by the Innuit of the Yukon delta to desig-
nate one of the sloughs which form the delta. From the circumstance
that the Russians usually entered the Yukon by that slough, they
naturally, in ignorance of any other name, applied it to the whole
river, which is laid down under that name in most Russian charts.

LCVT/(K. — The Russian name applied to the skin of the sea-lion, or
large seal, when prepared for use. It is derived from the Kamshatlale
hiklitakh meaning the large seal (like///t'tv/ jubata) which inhabits
Bering Sea. The Innuit name of the same seal is fniiklok, a word
which is also used by the Russians to designate sealskin.

Mahout or MahwO i'. — A word of obscure origin, used by the Russians
to designate large-sized line, made from walrus or muklok skin, by
the Innuit, and used instead of rope on Norton Sound. It is of
very great strength, but becomes soft and flabby if kept wet for any
length of time. These lines are cut around the skin, and are some-
times two hundred feet long in one piece.

M6-RE. — The Russian word for "sea."

OsERA. — The word meaning " a lake" in Russian.

OsiRoF. — An island. Plural Ostrova, diminutive Ostrovok, plural
Ostrofki, all Russian words.

UsiROG. — The name, of Yakut derivation, used in Russian to denote a
stockaded post or village. All the early Russian settlements in
Eastern Siberia were thus defended, and called ostrogi. Thus we
have Anadyrsk bstrog, meaning the stockaded village or settlement at
Anadyr.

Papoosh. — The Russian name of a bunch of tobacco-leaves, weighing
half a pound, or less, and tied with the stem of one of them, while
green.

' 1

1;
I

"hi

I •

534

APPENDIX.

I'ARKA. — Plural pArki, usually rendered, in P'nj^lisli, f<drkies, A Ru.ssian
word, meaninjj an upper garment of skin or fur, with a hood, and not
open in front. They are used, with various niodifkations, by almost
all northern nations. The Russian worrl for " shirt" is quite dif
ferent.

PoM(5ziiNiK. — From pomoj^ik, the Russian verb, meaning "to assi.st."
The term is usually restricted in Russian America to the secretary or
assistant of the bidarshik, or commander of a trailing-post.

Pool). A Russian standard weight, being thirty-si.x pounds avoirdupois,
and containing forty Russian pounds. The standards of measure arc
the arsinn of twenty-eight inches, and the sarzhin or fathom, which is
seven English feet.

PodkciA. — A Russian word meaning a snow-storm attended with high
wind. It is dreaded by all travellers, and sometimes proves fatal to
those who are so unfortunate as to be travelling without means of
shelter. It is a simoom, with cold and snow substituted for heat and
sand.

PovA'RNiA. — Literally a kitchen, but also applied to houses built for
travellers' shelter on the bleak plains of .Siberia. These houses are
also called zeminoi (from zcmoi^ winter) meaning a winter house or
shelter.

PrAsnik. — A holiday, or saint's day. Tl ere are eighty-six of these, br
sid - Sundays, in the Russian calendar. No good Greek Catholic will
work . — '«nik, except in case of great necessity. They arc a

fruitful cause oi . . -ess, indolence, and vice.

Pratoka. — The Russian name for sloughs, or arms, which leave a
river or other body of water, and afterward re-enter it. They arc
extremely common on the Yukon.

RkkkA. — The Ru.isiin for '"a river," the dimunitive being rkchka, and
the plural recki'e or rccchkce.

Remkn. — Fine sealskin line. Collectively remni. See Bab'iche. ^

ShamAn. — Derived from the Yakut shaman meaning "holy," but now
understood as meaning a sorcerer, or "medicine-man," among tlie
aborigines. This word and its derivatives have been adopted into
the English language by lexicographers, but Webster puts the acceii;
wrongly on the first syllable. It is also in use in German, French,
and Russian. Some authors have mistaken it for an Indian word.

GLOSSARY.

535

S(^i'KA. — A Russian word iiKMniii}; strictly a volcano or volcanic jK-ak,
lull also applied to any solitary peak, in coinmun usage, riso/ta
S,'>pka means " ("hcerful I'e.ik."

SviK. — A Russian word, nieanin;; "north." The Russians have two
sets of words to denote the points of the compass, one of them in
use in the vernacular is given below ; the other has been adopted
bodily from th : (Iciinan, and is especially in use among navigators.
The Slavonic terms are as follows : -

.S'rr/*, North.

Uz/i, South.

Svhiioi vosl'tchuoi^ Northeast.

Uzhni vinti>chnoi, Southeast.

Svfnioi^ Northern.

VosH'chnoi, Eastern.

Voslok, I'last.

/.af'iul. West.

Sirnioi ZitpAJnoi, Northwest.

Ihltni Z(i/>(ti/iitii, Southwest.

I 'z/iiioi, Southern.

Zttpdifiioi, Western.

TvdwN or TvoNE. — This word is as widely distributed as Caesar and
its derivatives, and has much the same meaning. It denotes a chief
or head man. The Vakiit word is toygon ; the Japanese tycoon or
zi;:;oon ; the Tartar K/i<ui is not improbably the same root. Wherever
the Russians have gone, they have carried this word with them, and it
is in common use among the Aleutians and those \'ukon tribes who
trade with the Russians. The Chinook ty/iir may be an accidental
reseml)lance. The Innuit do not use it, as they prefer their own
words with the same meaning, viz. : Otmiylik and Ori'^iiik.

'IVndra. — A rolling, grassy plain without trees, such as are found in
Northeasterr "•beria. There is no corresponding Knglish word. The
plural is tuiuii.. The Russians call the white-fronted geese {A. Gam-
bclin) tiUiiirini. The same word is sometimes applied to wander-
ing tribes, such as the V//Mi;/rs and Koridks.

Unai.akm'k. — \ village, on the river of the same n.ame which falls
into Norton Sound. It has been incorrectly written Unalakleet and
Unalachledt.

Unai.Ashka. — The largest of the Fox Islands. See Alaska.

Ui'ROVALfsFiA. — Literally a director. Applied in Russian America to
a chief trader, or commander of a Redoubt, who generally has also
the supervision of several less important posts or forts {adcnochki),
which are in charge of bidarshiks.

VakCtsk. — The capital of the Yakut Province in Eastern Siberia. It
is situated in latitude 63° north, upon the river Lena, about twenty-

I » i

I 1

l!;!l

! 11

536

APPENDIX.

seven degrees cast of Irkiitsk. Wlieat matures here, though the sum-
mer is very short, and the earth at the depth of a foot is always
frozen.

YiJKON. — The English corruption of the Indian word Ynkonna. This
word, which is conunon to all the Tfnneli who reside on its banks, is
not exactly represented in luiglish by the phrase " great river."
Kakliat means " river " in the same dialect, and Kl'lakakhat means
"small river." The sense in wliich Ytikoiiita is used is more like that
in which wc use the word " sea " when referring to the whole body of
oceanic water. We have no words in the iMiglish which exactly
express the whole idea. We may approach it by saying that it means
"///^,' river, /</;■ <uv<:'//rw<v." It has been freciuently spelled Youkoii, and
also Ytuvii and Youcan ; but Yukon npresents the jjlionetic value
according to the rules which are followed in this volume.

ZaP(5r. ■ — A word used by the Russians to denote the fish-traps, or
weirs, built by the natives on the Yukon, as elsewhere described.
The Yakuts, I am informed, catch fish in a similar manner, but llio
Kutchin tribes do not understand the art.

'<; I

;li the sum-
L is alwa\s

una. Tliis
Is banks, is
rcat river."
•/lat means
re like that
)le body of
ich exactly
at it means
'onkon, and
netic vahic

ih-traps, or

cieseribed,

er, but the

APPENDIX R.

POPULATION OF ALASKA.

Corrected from Russian csli.nates. a,..l, if anythi„«. above rather ti,an l,elow the

actual nuinbor.

Silka

Ki'iniinder of Alexander Archipeiauo .

Siikinc Kiver . . "

Cliiikaht Uiver

\akiitat Hay . .'.'.'.'.

('i>|i|)cr Kivcr

Chiij^.icli Culf . . ..."

Iveniii and Aliiiska IVninsiiJa . " . '

Kailiiik (oimi).

St. Paul I la. I xir . . '.

Otiier Seltlciiiciils .

A(ojj;ii:ik

Woody (!,('snoi) Island . . '

Spnu-o (Vd.Avv) Island . . ' "

([liirikoir Isl.ind (Ukaniok) .

I'nga Island

('atlicrina Arihipelairo.

fl/nakishka . . ...
l/nniak • • . . .
.Ainlia ...

Alka

Aitu . . . ..."

Other Islands .

I'ribyloflr (iroui).

[ St. Paul'.s .......

! St. Oeoige's
Niishcrgi'ik River .
Knsko(|i'iini Delta . . . . *

I'pper Kiiskoipiini

Co.ist from Cape RonianzolTto Stuart Island

toast ol Norton Sound .

K:ivi,dv Peninsula .

Sli'dj-e Island

St. Laurence Island

The IJioinedes .

Arctic Coast .

Vtikon Indians.

Inndiks

Koyi'ikniis ■•...'

I ii.ikhaiana

Ten. in Kulclil-i

Kuiiha Kuteliin

"I her Trihes .

Resident on the Yukon

Total

Kussiaiiii.
349

i.S
483

Russians and Siheri.ms ....

Creoles or half breeds . . . ' '

Native tribes

Auieiieans (not troops) ....''

l'"oreinners (not Ku.ssians) .

Total population
I'lie actually civilized population is about thirteen humlied.

Creoles.

419

'50
cs.?

200
<'5

'25

f'5
55

• 5
5

CS
3

6
10

20
1421"

iNalive.n.

1000
1500
I 300
liSoo

250
1500

()00
1500

450

Soo

3 SO
214
100

\(^

445
roc

'.50
220

C55
«5o

250

<">5
500
250

r soo

3000

1000

1500
ioo
300
"150

1000

2000

500

300

400

250
1 000

Jf.,S.,,j

4.S3

r.4ai

2(.„S.,.,
150
200

2<>.o<)7

•ill

APPENDIX C.

STATISTICS OF THE FUR TRADE OF ALASKA.

'797 to

1821.

Kind of peltry.

1786

to
«797-

1821

1842.

25,416

1842

1862.

Total

Exported. '

sold in the
Colonies.

production
in 76 years.

Sea Otter skins

114,195

86,644

10,392

25.899
25.797

262,546

Sea otter tails .

72,559

71.130

8,411

23.506

201,403

Beaver skins .

428

56,001

15.025

162,034

157,484

390,972

Otter ....

5.039

17.768

2.145

29,442

70,473

124,867

Fur .seal

557.024

1.767,340

377,642

758,502

372,894'3.;)?;.V02

Black and silver fo.\ .

15,046

I5.II2

17,913 ) i "''.'

Cross fox

20,369

24.535

482

26,462

) 1 .; ■ , '. So

Red fox .

20,665

35.456

1,273

45-947

White fox

1. 517

5.130

13,628

} 54,134

■> -.307

Blue fox .

68,361

45,904

55,714

222,113

Marten ....

200

17,921

342

15,666

12,782

46,911

Wolverine .

1,234

1,564

100 2,898

Wolf ....

201

24' 225

Mink.

5.349

15.481

1,872 32.763

Black bear .

2,650

5.355

1,993 999S

Musk rat .

250,000

1,300,000 1,550,000

Hair seal

? 1 27

Wild cat or lynx

1,819

6,927 8,746

Pounds of ivory .

27,792

51,622

2,016

234,040

27.550 343.0-0

Pounds of whalebone

35.172

72.396

4,608

124,390

.'' 236,466

Pounds of castoreum .

281

1.287

879, 2,447

Note. — These estimates are unquestionably below the truth. The Company sv>-
tematically underrated their profits and the amount of the annual production, from
motives of policy. This will be evident to any one who will comiiare the prodiiclicm
of furs as stated in the Reports published in St. Petersburg with fhe amount a.-, given
in the Reports published at Sitka.

The number of musk-rat skins is not to be found in the Reports, but is given on tiie
authority of oflicers of the Russian American Company.

The above does not include the number of skins obtained by the English, Ameri-
can, and Sandwich Island trader, which, in the continental furs, has averaged one
third annually since 1850, in addition to the figures given in the tabic.

Minii

;ka.

Total 1
production I
111 76 years.

262,546
201,403

390,972
124,867

M 3->3 - P'-

V.307
222,113

46,911

2,898

32.763
9.998
00 1,550,000
27

27
50,

79,

8,746
343.020
236,466

2,447

ompany sys-

luction, from

production

r.l a.-, given

given on

the

lisli, Anicri-
iveraged one

539

APPENDIX D.

metp:orology.

Meteorological Observations at St. AfichaePs Rcdoidit, Norton Sound, 1842-43, hy
Lieutenant Za^'dskin, I. A'. N.

July 25th to 31st, 1842. No clear days. One cloudy day. Five rainy days. No
aurora. General average of temperature +57°.o6 Fahrenheit.

Average .
MaxinnnTi
Minimum

8 A. M.

-f-s6°.S9
+62 .50
+50 .00

Noon.

-|-6o°.03
+67 .43
+57 -31

4 P. M,

-f S9°40
-f-64 .62

+55 .69

Midniglit.

+S2°-25
+55 -62

+47 -75

August 1st to 13th and 24th to 31st, inclusive, 1842. (Clear on the 14th.) Eleven
cloudy days. Ten rainy days. No aurora. General average +52°. 76 Fah.

Averagj .
Maximum
Minimum

8 A. M.

+52°-57
+63 37
+43 •«!

Noon.

+57°-78
+67 43
+47 -08

4 P. M.

+53°.93
+65 .18

+44 .93

September ist to 30th, 1842.
rainy days. No aurora.

Five clear days. Twenty-one cloudy days
General average +47° 41 Fahrenheit.

Midnight.

-»-46°8o
+54 -5°
+44 -95

Four

Average .
M.iximum
Minimum

8 A. M.

-)-46°.oi

+56 -75
+38 .18

Noon.

+53°-87
+65 .18

+49 -43

4 P. M.

+48°.93
4-57 80
+42 .12

Midnight.

+40°.87
-4-48 .87
-1-30 .88

October 1st to 31st, 1842. Four clear days. Fifteen cloudy days. Twelve rainy
days. No aurora. General aver.igc +33°.23 Fahrenheit.

Average .
Maximum
.Minimum

8 A. M.

+3i°-35
+43 .25
-+-18 .50

Noon.

+37°- 1 5
+52 .25
+^^5 -Si

4 P. M.

+33°-S5
+43 -81
-1-23 .00

Midnight.

+31°. 16
+41 .00
+ 16 .25

November 1st to 30th, 1842. Three clear days. Twenty-two cloudy days,
rainy or snowy days. No aurora. General average +22°. 35 Fahrenheit.

Six

Aver.-ige .
Maximum
"1' limum

8 A. M.

Noon.

4 P. M.

-|-2I°.0O

+38 -75

-2 .87

+25°.39
+44 -37
+ 7 -25

+2i°.34
+42 .12
— I .19

■CLmber 1st to 31st, 1842. Eight clear days,
niny or snowy days. No aurora. General average -|-o°.77 Fahrc

Fourteen cloudy days,
nneit.

Midnight.
-t-210.74
-1-41 .00
— I -75

Nine

.A .ctage .
.N .tximum
' linimnm

8 A. M.
— o°.62

+30 -87
—23 .68

Noon.

+ 3°05
+30 '^7
—21 .43

4 P. M.

-t- i°.o7

+30 .32
— 22 .26

Midnight.
-+- I°.6l
+29 -75
-24 25

January ist to 12th, 1843. Four clear days. Seven cloudy days. One rainy day.
No aurora. General avemge — 5°. 14 F.threnheit.

.\vcrage .
Miiximum
Minimum

8 A. M.

— 7°-i4
+26 .48

-35 -50

Noon.
— I°.23

-28
-28

.63

4 P. M.

— 6°. 00

+24 -M

—32 .68

Midnight.

— 6°. 20
-4-21 .52
—35 .50

January 12, 1843, observations at St. Michael's discontinued.

■i . .

rlj

\ 1,

1 1.

540

APPENDIX.

Observations taken at Nuldto, 1843, hy Lieutenant Za^dslw'n, I. R, N. Lat 64° 42' 11" A'.

anilLon. 157° 56' 18'' W. G.

Jan. 28th to 31st, 1843. Two clear clays. Two cloudy clays. No rain, snow, or I
aurora. Average — 250. 10 Fahrenheit.

Average ....
Ma.\imum .
Minimum

8 A. M.

— 30O.01
— 22 .00

—33 12

Noon.
-22O.37

-15 -25
—33 -25

4 P. M.

— 23°.49
—16 .93

-32 .12

Midnight.

— 24O.79
— 19 .18
—31 .00

Feb. 1st to 28tli, 1843. Fifteen clear days. Six cloudy days. Seven snowy days.
Aurora in the N.W. and EN.E. (Mag.) from the 6th to 12th inclusive, every
night. General average —2°. 59 Fahrenheit.

Average .
M. \i :Aum

8 A. M.

— 8°.M

+33 ••2
—40 .00

Noon.

+ 7°07
+36 .50
-16 .37

4 P. M.

— oo.io
+29 .75

— 19 -75

Midnight.

— 8°.8i
+24 .61
—35 -50

March > 31st, 1843. Three clear days. Seventeen cloudy days. Eleven |

snou^ :ays. Aurora on the 7th from 8 P. M. to i o'clock. General average i
+220.96 Fahrenheit. I

Average .
Maximum
Minimum

8 A. M.

+ 190.18
+ 38 .18
—18 .06

Noon. ' 4 P. M.

+29O.48 I +250.50

+41 .00 +41 .00

+ 5 .00 ! + 7 .25

Midnight.

+ I7°.67
+37 .06
—17 .50

April 1st to 30th, 1843. Three clear days. Cloudy sixteen days. Eleven snowy
days. Aurora on the 6th. General average +220.10 Fahrenheit.

Average .
Maximum
Minimum

8 A. M.

+270.89
+42 .12

+ 8 .38

Noon.

+33°46
+46 .62

+ 19 53

4 P. M.
+310.2S
+42 .12
+ 17 .48

Midnight.

+ i8°.o8

+42 .12

— 7 -37

May 1st to 31st, 1843. F'^'^ ^^^■^^ days. Seventeen cloudy days. Nine rainy or
snowy days. No auroras. General average +44°. 21 Fahrenheit.

Average .
Maximum
Minimum

8 A. M.

+450.02

+65 .75
+21 .88

Noon.

+49°.oi

+60 .12
+26 .94

4 P. M.
+470.99
+ 60
+ 29

Midnight.

+34O.67
+ 52 .25
+ 17 .4«

June 1st to 20th, 1843. One clear day. Sixteen cloudy days.
No aurora. General average +650,41 Fahrenheit.

Three rainy days.

Average .
Maximum
Minimum

8 A. M.

+620.75
+70 .25
+48 87

Noon.

+ 77O.21
+86 .00

+57 -87

4 p. M.

+760.37
+84 .31

+59 .00

Midnight. '

+51O.30 i

+57 •«? ;
+39 87

June 20th, observations at Nuldto discontinued.

ainy

I
days.

Midnight. !

+5<
+ 57
-1-39

'•30 1

METEOROLOGY.

541

Ohsert'atkins at the FM^^ut Mission, f-nt. 61° 55' JV. and Lon. 161° iS' 56" W. G.,
I'V LiciiteiMitt Zagoskin, 1. A', A\ 1843.

Sept. 13th to 3otli, 1843. No clear days. Eleven cloudy days. Seven rainy dayH.
Pale aurora on the 22d. General average +45°S6 Fahrenheit.

Average .
Maximum
Minimum

8 A. M.

+44°- 1 1
+51 .68

+34 •«!

Noon.
+50°. 15

+57 •«7
-(-42 .68

4 P. M.

+49°.o3
+62 .37
+43 -25

Midnight.

+37°-94
-4-46 .02

+27 50

October 1st to 31st, 1843. One clear day. Fifteen cloudy days. Fifteen rainy or
snowy days. Aurora on the 24th. General average +37°.73 Fahrenheit.

Average .
Maximum
Minimum

8 A. M.

+350.26
+41 .16
+20 .75

Noon.

+40°.9S
+52 -25
+34 -25

4 P. M. ] Midnight.

+39°.98 +34°-83

+ 50 .56 I +42 .12

-f-33 .12 +24 .13

Nov. 1st to 30th, 1843. Two clear days. Twenty-four cloudy days. Four rainy
or snowy days. No aurora. General average -t-i9°.74 Fahrenheit.

Average .
Maximum
Minimum

8 A. M.

+ i8°.54

+38 .75
— 17 .50

Noon.
+22°.I3
+44 -37
—to .75

4 P. M.

+.i2°.38
+42 .12
— 10 .75

Midnight.
— 16°.92
+38 .75
->5 -25

Dec. 1st to 4th, 1843. One clear day. One cloudy day. Two snowy days. No
aurora. General average — 13° 94 Fahrenheit.

Average .
Maximum
Minimum

8 A. M.

— 190.32

+ 7 -25
— 40 .00

Noon. 4 P. M.

— 12°.30 — 12°.86

+ 10 .07 , + 9 .50

—29 -31 —32 -12

I -,

Midnight.
— II°.3I

9 -50

40 .00

December 4th, observations at the Mission discontinued.

Observations at Kolmakoff Redoubt, I.at. 61° 34*02" N. and Lon. 158° 37' 11'' W. C,
by Lieutenant Zagdskin, I. A'. JV. 1843-44.

I December isth to 31st, 1843. Eleven clear days. Four cloudy days. Two snowy
days. No aurora. General average — 27*^.22 Fahrenheit.

Average .
Maximum
Minimum

8 A. M.

— 29°.24
— I .06
—44 -50

Noon.
—26°. 23
— o .50
—41 .68

4 P. M. I Midnight.

—250.89 ' —27°. 69

— 4 .00 — 4 .00

— 41 .68 — 42 .25

Jan. 1st to 31st, 1844. Eight clear days. Thirteen cloudy days. Ten snowy days.
Pale aurora on the 20th. General aver.ige — 00.38 Fahrenheit.

Feb. 1st to 5th, 1844. One cloudy day.
aver.ige +230.95 Fahrenheit.

Four snowy days. No aurora. General

Average .
Maximum
Minimum

8 A. M.
+23°.8o
+.34 -25
+ 7 -25

Noon.

+26°.27
+ 25 .25
+16 .25

4 P. M.

+250.37
+25 .25

+16 .25

Midnight.
+22O.89
+25 -25
+ 2 .75

February 5th, observations at Kolmakoff Redoubt discontinued.

I »3

i Mill

T-i

. ■ :

J ^i

542

APPENDIX.

YUKON TERRITORY.
(Scientific Corps W. U. T. Ex.)

li. ■£

Temperature at

January .
February
March .
April .
May.
June .
July . .
August
September
October
NoTeiiibnr
December

Mean.
—18°

-•3°
+ 150
+270
+46°

1866-67.
NuKAlo.

Max.

Min.

150

38°
49°

74° .-
+65°?,+ 90° .'+40 ?

+6o°?|-|-i20°? -1-40 ?

-49°
-47°
—40°
o

I 1866-67.

I Unalaklik.

Mean. Max.
— 10° +16°

Min.
-45°

1S65-66.
St. Michael's.

Mean.
- 1°

4_.».iO

-21'

1°

-4-27O
+ 40°

+ 51°

+53°

:+55°

, 1+40°?

19° +36° — 1° '+33°

6° +29° —28° ! + 6°

—11° '+ 16° 1—56° ■+■ 3° -4-32° 1-34° 4- 5°

.1.

Max. Min.

-1-32° — 36° 1

39° - 1°

44° - 3°

41° 4- 6°

55° +27°

61° +42°

630 +46°

69° +46° '
60° .' +300 }

47° +20°

26° —19°

35° -3'°

UNALASHKA.

Observations for temperature at Iliiihik,

(VeniamInofk.)

Average for

1830.

1831. '

fi,

r^_

_s_

— =-

^ 1

Old Style.

! ;

o„

0,,

January .

10 31 i

February

«i 37

March

7 34

April .

3«

5°

3«

16 30

May

3t>

27 25

une .

34 24

;uly

39 25

August

5«

39 23

September

32 20

October

3«

23 22

November

28 31

21 19

December .

24 26

4«

14 25

Average .

35,38

57,

-66.
chad's.

IX.

Min. 1

2°

—36° 1

— 1° 1

4°

- .3° i

1°

+ 6°

S°

!h-27°

1°

1-4-42°

3°

i+46°

K)"

-4-46°

>00

'+30°.>

^7°

-4-20°

.6°

— 19°

(5°

-31°

METEOROLOGY.

Obst'rvatioiis at Ilitiluk, continued.

543

1832.

«833.

Average for

. 1

'i'.

' 5;

0.'

Min.
.Ran

0.'

^iJJ_

Old .Stvle.

"a "

J.nnii;irv .

2.S

32 24 4t

7 34

18 21

Fobriuuv

37 }>}, 48

25 23

18 j 24

March .

3«

32 64

18 46

20 39

.April .

37 48

26 22

18 1 20

May

38 62

32 30

37 , 25

June .

46 66

4' 25

43 1 24

July.

49 70

43 27

^. ^l 1

.Aiimist

5«

53 77

42 35

38 ' 36

ScptcinhtT

40 59

26 U

32 1 23

October

3«

35 48

24 24

49 ?n 29

\i)veml)cr

34 48

26 22

37 3«

Ueceniber

30 46

18 28

26 28

39 , 5 1 34

Average

Average for 5 years

38, 77

7 1 70

38 j 41

5 1 71

1
77 ,

Means

18A

37 40-5 36

.Spring. Summer.

.\utninn.i Winter.

36.60 1 51.5

38.70' 36.27

.jI

\ II

! 7

) 1 16

: 27

! ■ 34

■ 39

; 32

i 23

■n

) 21

> 14

7 i 57

SITKA.
Year ENDiNr, Octohkk 31, 1868. U. S. Co.\st Survey.

Mean
Temp.

Rainfall.
Inches.

Fair days.

Cloudy
days.

Rainy

d.iys.

Snowy
days.

January ....

29.3

February .

36.4

4 35

March ....

37.8

572

April. . . .

44-7

J-37

May ....

45-5

7.55

Iiuic ....

55-3

1.93

July ....

55-6

4.20

.\iigust

56.4

4.01

•September

51-9

6.3i

October

49.2

7.27

.N'oveinber

36.6

14.62

December .

30.2

324

^ Annual means

44.07

68.07

106

260

•34

! Ji

544 APPENDIX.

Mkans ok Fourtekn Years' Oiiskrvations at Sitka, 1849 to 1862.

(Russian Observers.)

Spring.

41.3
29.836

55
i3'WS

Summer.

54-3
29.929

66
15.408

Autumn.

44.2
29.749

72
30.814

Winter.

31-9

29.730

57
22.931

Whole year, i

Thermometer, degrees.
Harometer, inches . .
Rainy clays ....
Rainfall, inches . . .

42.8+

29.721

245

83-33

APPENDIX E

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OV IMPORTANT POINTS.

Locality.

I.ntiltiilc.

n / II

37 47 52

l.iiiinitudo.

Aiilliiiiily.

San Francisco, California

1 II
122 23 19

U. S. Coast Survey.

\ictoria, Vancouver Island

48 25 30

123 20 05

ti ti ..

Fort Simpson, H. C

54 3i 42 'j:> 23 46

t« ti II

Village, Tayakhonsity Harbor .

54 46 130 35 Tebcnkoff.

Cape Kygani or Muzon

54 42 132 43 48; U. S. Co.ist Survey.

(iardner Harbor ....

5449 G 131 45 oTi'benkoff.

Anchorage Tiing.is Harbor .

55 03 oJ'3i 25 oJEtolin.

Etolin Harl)or .....

56 31 30,132 20 oZarenib.a.

Mouth Chilkaht River ....

59 14 134 24 lOiTebenkoff.

Mouth Stikinc River

56 40 132 20 Adni. ch. 2431.

Mouth Taku River ....

58 27 133 54 O.V.-incouver.

Mount Edgecumbe, 2,855 feet .

57 02 4S 135 40 i2|Vasilicff

Cupola, Governor's house, Sitka .

57 02 47

'35 '7 0^,^- ^- Coast Survey.|

Mount Vost(Wia, 3,216 feet

57 03 23

135 «2 57

41 11 II

Lincoln Harbor, Noquashinski Ray

135 25 56 "

Cape Spencer

58 12 30

136 34 Vancouver.

South Point, Lituya R.ay

58 34 30

137 i6 La IVrouso.

Mount Fairweather, 14,000 feci

58 57 137 27 V.anc<)uvcr.

South Point, Rering Ray

59 3 J '39 42

Mount St. Elias, 16,000 feet .

60 22 36 140 54 "

Western Mouth, Copper River .

60 30 145 54 Serebranikoff.

Fort Constantine, Port Etches .

60 20 18 146 52 50 Ik'lcher.

Cape Elisabeth

59 09 151 51 Vancouver.

Coal Point, Chng.-ichik Ray

59 37 12 151 22 36 .VrchinianchitolT.

Redoubt, St. Nicholas, Kaknu River .

60 32 12 151 19 18 Heldt.

Mouth of Knik or Fire River .

61 08 150 07 30 Vancouver.

i Mouth of Suchitna River

61 16 30 150 37 oTcbenkolT.

Redoubt Volcano, 11,270 feet .

60 28 01 52 38

1 Iliiinuia Volcano, 12,066 feet

60 05 30 153 07 30

; Cape Douglas .....

58 52 30i:;3 16 Vancouver.

Flag staff, St. Paul, K.adi.ik .

57 47 45 152 20 57 U. S. Coast Survey.

Ice Depot, Woody Island

57 46 57 152 18 37 " "

Three Saints' Harbor ....

57 06 48 153 25 30 Archim.dndritotT,

Katniai Village, Aliaska .

58 02 3(1 154 52 48 \'asiliclT.

House, Coal Harbor, Unga .

55 24 0160 49 Tebcnkoff.

Village, South Harbor, Unga .

55 to 48 160 27 Kashevaroff.

Shishaldin Volcano, 8,955 feet

54 48 163 59 30 Kreni't/.in.

Isunotski Volcano, 5,525 feet .

54 39 164 32

ill

m'V

546

APPENDIX.

iiiir

Locality.

Latitude.
/ It

SJ 25 30

LniiKitiule.
I 06 49

Authority.
Sar^cheir.

Ki)trancc Iliuliuk Harbor, Uiialaslika .

U. S. ('. S. aslr. St. Ulaklita liarlxir

53 53 5S

166 32 47

V. S. Coast Survey.

Miikiisliin Volcano, 5,r><)i lict

53 52 30

166 45

TebenkolT.

Htj^oslova V(jlcano, 1,000 Icct .

53 52

167 39

Krenit/.in.

S. \V. point .Svi'chnikolT l!ay. -Anilia Isl'il

52 02 18

173 10 30

SalanuUoiT.

Anchomnc K. side of Atka l.slaiul .

52 10 30 174 30

((

Village, Korovinsky Day

53 11 54

174 22 30

[ttolin.

Korovinski I'cak, 4,852 feet

52 23 30

174 02

P.ivlotT.

Si'tkin IVak, 5,0.53 feet ....

53 03 30

176 06 24

Ingestroni.

Teak Sca-Ottcr Island, Kanaga

5' 55 ««

'77 30 30

Salaniatoff.

Anchora(j;e, Slavar.assi liay .

51 47

178 OJ

Anch. Kiriloff Hay, Amchitka .

51 25 30 180 45

Gib.son.

Klu'istolV Peak, 1,873 feet .

52 oS iSi 41

((

Cape \Vran)j;ell, Alti'i Island .

52 58 187 34

KlaRsfafl', (.'liichagoff Harbor, Attn

52 55 42 186 47 18

Fort Alexander, Niisiiergak River .

58 57 06 1 58 18 24

Wrangcll.

Fort St. Michael, Norton Sound .

(63 28 if)t 51 54
1 63 28 161 44

Kellett.

Zagoskii

Unalaklik Post, Norton Sound

( ^'3 52 33 'f'O 40
* f>3 53 M "'0 30 'f'

Kashevaroff.
Zagoskin.

Hesborough Island ....

64 06 30 161 07

Khranichenko.

A/iak or Sledge Island .

64 29 30 166 01 30

Heechey.

Cape Rodney

64 39

i66 18

Cape Spencer, Port Clarence .

65 16 42

166 47 48

Cape Prince of Wales ....

65 3i 30

167 59 12

Cape Spanberg ....

66 42

'C'3 34

Cape Lisburne, 840 feet

68 56

166 08

Cape licaufort (coal vein)

69 13

<f'3 34

Icy Cape

70 20

161 40

Point Harrow

71 27

• 5f> 15

•<

neniarcation Point ....

69 40

141 07 30

Dease & Sitnpson.

West Cape, St. George's, Pribyloflf Islands

5^' 38 18

169 44 ArchimandritolT.

West Cape, St. Paul, Pribyloff Islands

57 '0 12

170 01 06 TebenkolT.

Cajie I'pright, S. E. P't, St. Matthew Isl'd

60 18

172 04 Liitke.

Cape lUolin, North Point, Ni'inivak Island

60 31

165 50 TebenkofT.

S. K. Cape, St. Lawrence Island .

62 57

169 24 5 Pavloff.

N. W. Cape, St. Lawrence Island .

63 51 12 171 29 Heechey.

Ukivok or King Island, 750 feet .

64 58 30 167 58 Khranichiinko.

Fairway Rock

65 38 36 168 43 42

Heechey.

Middle of Channel between the Dio-

( 65 48 36 168 56 30

Adni. ch. 2435.

tuedes, U. S. boundary line .

1 65 47 48 168 58 TebenkofT.

End of Sandspit, Plover Hay .

64 22 25 173 30 32 Prof. Asaph Hall.

East Cape of Asia ....

66 03 06 169 43 48 Heechey.

Mouth of .Vn.adyr River .

64 35 40 183 28 10 Russi.an charts.

Cape St. Thaddeus, Kamchatka .

62 40 180 36 20 " "

Amatignak Island. Most southern point

1 51 19 c 179 08 30 Gibson.
1 51 12 017905 .Sahimatoff.

of Alaska Territory .

APPENDIX F

VOCAUULARIES.

The spelling of the vocabularies obtained from other authors has
not been altered. Most of them should be pronounced as in German
In baur's vocabularies "i" is always short, otherwise as in German
Stimi)son's is reduced to the Smithsonian standard as given in the
nislruct.ons in Kthnology and Philology. I„ my own the pronunciation
IS as m Kngl.sh with the following rules: "u" is long as in Z«/v
otherwise as in a,/> ; " a " as in father ; but all vowels followed bv a con-
sonant in the last syllable of words are short, unless otherwise indicated
l-ong "a" in the last syllable is denoted by the addition of the letter
"h"; "ch" as in c/iunh; "kh" like German "ch" in wck/wr; <'g"
always hard ; "th" soft ; and "ng" a rolling nasal, as in French.'

I am under great obligations to iMr. George Gibbs for advice and
assistance in this part of the work.

My own vocabularies were collected with the utmost care, and verified
many times over, before I left the country.

I have j)honetically translated from the Russian, Wrangell's Innuit
\ocabulary of the Kuskoquim, as in its former state it was inaccessible
to many students.

\\h

' i

548

Ari'KNDIX.

Si'otK.
Kamii.v.
Tribe.

OKAKIAN.

Al.KUriAN.

Uii.il.Ukaii.

Woin.iii Aiin.ininiik

Wile jAni'K.'i

Huy Ant'klok

(iir' 'Acli.Klok

(.'hit'' iTiiLinhu

Water | r.in.uh

Snow |K.iiiiL'li

lio Krladi

K.tin Cliii liiadi

Land jChl.'itih

Islaiul .('lianaink
'"'iro Nimiaih

Ui'iiKli'cr Itliayiik

Kisli jKaih
Knife Kaiulich

illKlcl

Macht'fsclik

Had

M.icR'i'iloli-

|kan

lti«

Aiiianach

Little

An};tiiiiia(l.i-

jkalaU

Hot

Akivaksciik

c:oia

Kiiianacli

Tinn

Voil

Tliiiu)

Me, shf,

[,./• it

Inan

\'c.s

Ann

One
Two
Tlircc

Four
l''ivc
Six

Seven
liight

Nine

■'"en
Authority.

Rogtiio

Atakan

Alaili

KaiiUjanrm

Sitcliin

'l\ iiann

Atyoon

Talann
Kanitchin

Sitchinin
Atik.

Saur.

Atknii.

'I'oioili
Aiyagar
Aiyauai
Anekthok

( )gi'nilikin
Toigon

'I'aangak
Kaneek

K ;liak
( 'liiiitakik

nhadak

Noshck?*

Clii'Hak
Taangik
Kinnatli
Itkayi'di
K.oail\
Unga/chi-

|sl,i,,
( lii/dii'lik
.Malciiccsh-
elikan
Tangcicllik Antvadoiik
Angonolokn

Innuit.

Akwin
Agnak

Mik
Kanichteliak

Siliiiadiliik

Niinna

knik

( liii^.tulii);
mill.

Nngidneiik
.\ganaK

Ang.iiyiiii

|gok
.Mik
K.ilagak

KiiiiiAkmiiiI

.Niikalnyak

.Ag.niok
'Nuiiga
I I'anughak

lAggi'.ikak
I'liyiikh

I'angak
Anneg

Akvadiclik

Kinganalik

Ki-cn
Ingaan

Ikoon
Aang
M.isclikan

Allokan

.Xlluk

K.iiikoDn

Shiiiliin

Chang

Attooii

Oinng

Kamt.scliing

Sitcliing

Nasi:k

Saur.

Nglia

Uiiingnia
l.'l)iti

Oiitn

.Ataoiichik

.Aipa

I'innadfik

.Sdit.iinik

Taliniik

Aghvinik

(2 repeat)
(j repeat)

{4 repeal)

I'l li.tgiik 'Tsiliigo
Kitiililoiik Kidak

Nouna

Nu>livrKAK-
null.

Agiim
Agnak

Mik
Kaiinikak

'I'liaclilnk i

Noona Notina

Kiglilak Kiglii.ik

Knakiik Knok Knik

K.inaL't r<)ondi)<> I

I"katlink jl'ikai lilewt JNiinka
Nowgudiak 1 1'.sdiangieik Ulviak

A/igtoak
Asseelrok

Aiiguk

.Vni.slikak
Mikango- Meyuk

Ishak
.Magaklituk

Aiiaditok

Koo-i
Tlpit

I >utu

.\tdiinu"ik

Malgook

I'innagon

Sditain.iu

I'aiiniiii

.\k\viljin

Malchi-iiin
Ininolgin

Konlinujan

lie, rc-|)cat) Koulin

<;ii)

range!

\ogto;

I'Mtznaio.c

Choo-i
Cld'pit

< )ona

Ang

I'edok

Adidnk

.Malogli

I'ingaien

Stamtn

I'alini.n)

Anioak

iN nglia

I Iwigiiia
■l.liit

rkna

Ataoudiik
Aipa
I'inanvak
S'l lianiit
Taliniit

Agowinligin Awinnat
Malchugnii (2 repeat)
Inglugin 1(3 repeat)

Kullcngaien (4 repeat)

Kollen
Saner.

\K<

V,\h\y.

The Russia 1 lor knife is A\iz/iiA:

I'ina

COMrAKATlVK VOCAIUJLAKIKS.

549

OKAKIAN.

Inniiii,
Kiiskwi'iKtnfll'l l''.ki^gniill. t^iuillKHiOl. | M.^liU'iiuit K.ivI.^K'II"! I ('"•''nl.iiiiliv

'I rsKi.

( liii'kliik
mill.

Vunnl iViik |\'rit K'mik I'.'mik llniiuk Viik

Anii.ik <»|,'h,in;ik < )nir;iiiiit (»k'.ini)k < iii'n'mit Am.ik Aii.ik

N\ili);;i Niilikliiih .\iili,i)'kii .^^iilttkii 'NuUt'H.'i Niili.i Niilikcrt

r.iiini.ihi- rraiiini'iwil- I j ... Miiklituk Mnj'ilciat'k'

No/cac

Ivak
juik

Mik
K.iiiik-

|shak
Cliik

Ink

On'g'iuk

Milk
rn'yfik

('lit'ckrik

l'fim'i'^;liiili l'un(i'f;luili , I'linirnlMli

( lili.iktiik ll>i/lii'ikli

! |tuk

.N'liiina Nii'mili

riikusti'ik

Kiiik Kaiii'ik

jTiiiiiii riiii'tiik

Ik.iliiiik N'likiit
I liivi( link ( liiwik

i.. .. I"^""^

Diig'iiik Oiiiaylik

'Milk hii'niik

Sladiliktuk rphiin'

.Scko

.St'k<

Aiii;iylik
Iniiniik

|ak;
Niviarniar- Aniiiiiliac

Inii'k

Kiiiilck
Milk

Kaniktiik (ioviksoak Kaiiig

Si'k.

IroMik Chium)

l^^csikh'tiik Sc'c-iilrik'tuk: iKwannifik Kcipsi'iliik i\(|iciiri{{

Knrii^nag
("lakliiik

Ipak
Oiitoiali-

iKiklu ha-

Iti.t
ll'.ulmak

llwihka
i'l-l'it

I, , .
lamina

Ataiichik

Nu'niH'li NTi'iiiu-li

Ki');iklitiik Kikliliik

'Kiiiik Ik'iilk

'rmi'iiik Tim'irik

l'!ki>l'li'\vit Iki'itlili'uik

Cliiwik t'liow'ik

Asi'ikhtuk
Assci'ttik

Oii'n'fik
Mccknk

Asiklitok
Asci'luk

On'n'iik
Mi'ktik

Nakfi'riik
Asliu'ruk

< iii^'yiuk

Mikitlii'iiik

NTi'iincli

Kikht.ik

Ikiiiik

Trni'luk

I'.ki'illi'liik

Cliiwik

Kritrtu'nt;'- Kusliunguk

Xiiig'liik- Kwiklita- |Allai)aii

I Ink I nail

Hwili Wi'inKa Wi'inga

Ik'lil'wit ilkh'lcpil Ill'Icwit
I

U'na l"na

Iluokali Wall !\Vali

I'cctuk iVcliik ll'tt'ilHik

Nfma N'finna

Kiihtitak Kildict
lM>;iR'k I^I>i;;k

'I'^ikti) Kiiiiiaik

Aiilisl(;ak !

.Sowik (liawik

.N'aku'ruk Ciiksok
Asiunik Assc'tnar- \

|iiiik

< 111 liu'iiik ' Annwdk i
Mik.Mir(')W- Kiilkiuk I
I ink

Kuslifmj^'uk

Allaiuli

\N uiijja
jll'lqiit

iU'na
Wall
tl'o'liik

Kiisapok

Nigltk

Uanga
IMit

< )ina

lAak
'Nagga

( ioiiin
Uoot

I'.n'kau

Al'cah

|At()w'siiiiiik Atausik
iMahlKHiik 'Arlaik

' All liijf
M.icJnik

Ali')Wi'luik .Al('pwsik jAi'Uvsik
Malkhuk JMahliu'kh Malaruk iM.ilrfikt
r.iinaivak I'in^Aicn I'ln^.-iiiik ,1'inyiiM'it , rinyiisfi'iiik I'iii^.ijiiak |l'iiiai-in
TVIianiik iT'stamcn Sc'st.'iiiiat 'Sctcniat Slainiiiik Sissiiiiiat .Si.iiiku h

Talimik Tckniut 'rt'lcmat Tt'lciiial 'rfli'inuiiik '■rflliiiiat ['I'lliiii.ict

Akhvinok Ag\viniilcet|lLlu'iksiit Anliwiiiu- .Ai^invinfi'li- 'Aibinick lArviiigt

I |lc-cl I milk

Amaiikhva- Maloodin- Malfiksip- ■ , ■ [ |

[naiiv |rilit |mili'ii Maliluilitai;h\\iii'ulict .Arlckli Maiai viiif^t

I'inaiviak Pinganulit rinaiiiksip- I'inyiisiiiiil.igliwiiifilcLt Arlnjuik- l'in^;aivin)4t

I [nfilcct IpinyuKut

|C"lilaniiak-
I |vaii.itni
|Kiilliiiik Kfi'linak

liacr

Kulinolit Ki'iliiiolvlii Ki'xjlinotv-

liik

Dall.

Kolliinluct

Koliit

Stamiluclig
Ki)t'Ia

Kgcde. , Hail (part).

Kolin KiM'ikct Kn(^liniik

JJali. I Uall. Dall.

• Same in both dialcct.s. Substantive and adjective forms given.
t Mah-uk (two, noun), Mahlronik (two of anything), /fiarov Ai/>ii (a pair), oflc-n nii.\i(t
ill vocabularies.

!!■ 'i:p

r^jf

ill

II Ml! 1 1

lii. i

IIP.!

^^m:^-.

550

APPENDIX.

STOCK.

INDIAN.

Family.

Thlinkbt.

(MlDDUK OR

Tribe.

KygAni.

Sftkakwan.

Stakhfnkwan.

YAkutat.

Ugaldntsi.
Tagoan

AhteiM.
T'kcehl

Man

Ketling

'ivakh

k'a

'Ka

Woman

I -adder

Shawath

Sh.ihwat

Sha-wut Kaiyalit'hel

Shaat

Wife
Boy

I'tsar
EetHnga-
[hiitzo

lieshel
IKissar.ee

Achshct
Yetekvv'

Sict

Oirl

ladderluit-

Stiaat'k

Shaketsko

Kelikuts-

l/.o

[kuki'

Chief

Ithigata

Ankai)

Ank(')\va

Kriniaiiete Kulyahaityeh

Kaskayuh

Water

Ilunt'l

I lee-en

llehn

Hcin ,Kahyah

T'fi-vou

Snow

Ti)W(jvv

T'lait

Kleht

ILait

Ilet'i

.\ataga

Ice

Kelk

Tceght

Tcekli

Titz

Tetstch

T'ten

Rain

•Talla

Seev-va

Scewh

.Seiw

Kulyeh

Kyaii-yan

Land

Klik

Ta-uk

Khitk'

Flittik

T.stcha

r'tstchesh

Island
Fire

Kwai
Lannu

Tithkaan

Kat'h
K'hann

Tzakutshu
Kun

'l"klmn

Taku.dv

Deer

Kait

Kfcahkan

Kohkan

Natllagc

1 Fyanava

Annahvch

Fisii

*Tscenah

Ahl.aat

Tach

Haat

Tvahychya

T'kluk'yai

Knife
(lood
Had

*Ivutkwan

Lai

Tamer

iriceta
Akai
Klaikoas-
[kai

KIccta
Yck-keh
Klehtloosh-
[keh

Th'lcita

Kutzu-uva

Kushiatu

Hig

You-onc

Atlccn

Alklchn

Aht'layn
Yakulkutz-

Kulaygeh

Talkhak

Liltie

Ehudso

Akwitko

Yehkokcuk

Yakutchkh

Takhfi-

[uncli

Hot

Ilunan

Tahal

Ycttah

Stehfiva ia

Kafiestieh-
jkokl

Xo.ilkhun

Cold

Tut

Tcctsaht

Coo.s'ah't

Coosa-aat

Kjtectl'ka

Atl'iych

♦Tee-a

Khat

Ilutt

Kluitak

r. 00-00

Sciii

Vou

*rah-a

.Mahyeh

Weh

Wav-ch

1,1

Nenn

I le, she,
[or it

*Lah-a

Youta

[looh

Yoota

Vcs

♦Aang
*Kuin
Scjuanson

Aha

.Vo
One

Klekha
Klaikh

Kleh!:
Klchth

Tikh
T-jatlavk

S'tchelkai

T-lkinkeh

Two

Stun

Taiegh

Teh-iich

rec-ukh Loatel

Xatayakiia

Three

Kiunet

Nitgh

.\iisk

Xoutik I'l'atlkoa

Taakcii

Four

Stansicn

Tahkoon

Tahkc'mc

Tahkoan K.ihiKakuya

Tiiinki

Five

Klaith

Kctchecn

KL'Ccliin

K(.'chin iT'soanch

Alchcni

Si.\

Klunitch

Klaitoosec

Klehtoosha

Kleet-ho- Tsin
[sho

Kastaani

Seven

Sekwa

Taghatoo-
fso

T'hi'itoosha

Tuhaatwo- , Latctsin
[sho!

Kontsegai

Eight

Stansioner

Nitghtatu-
[so

Niskatoosha

Nututwo- Katetsin
[sho'

T'kladenki

Nine

Klathsqu-

Kooshak

Koshuku

Koshuk Kutkteh

T'klakolcli

[anson

Ten

Klath

Chinkat

Chinkaett

Yakakh

Plazha

Authority.

Gibbs.

Lisiansky.

Gibbs.

Wrangell.

■"' Skitagitt village.

COMPARATIVE VOCABULARIES.

(Mmi)i.K OB

AliteoA.

T'kcehl
Shaat

okl

Kaskayuh

I'Ti-you

Natiiga

T'tcn

Kyah-yan

T'tstchesh

r'kii'un

Annahyeh

T'klukyai

Talkhak
Talclui-

lunch
Xoalkliun

\triych

Schi

Ncnn

S'tclulkai

Natayakha

Taakcli

TinnUi

Alclicni

Kastaani

Kontscgai

T'kladenki

T'klakolch

Plazha

1. 1 Wrangcll.

55'

INDIAN.

Kl'tchin) Tinnkh.

(Weste

K.iiviihkliat.-in.i»
(L'liikiik).

RN OR Tana) '

I'INNBH.

KenAiteiii,

Teii.-in-kutcli'iii.

KutchAkutch'in.

K,Uyukliat.^na
CNorllicisternV

UiLikluitAna.

N'll.sllL'Il

Tcnah

Tin'jce

Tenahyfi'

Tcnahvu'

Tcn.ih

Kissin

Soltanah

'lrin'i(3h

.Sultana

T'sult

Solt'an

Ote
Chulkoya

'I'tsicah

(He
Vukccoza

( )tc
Sak'hce

( )lc
Kcc-i)S

r»'kanikna

Keiscnkooyah

Tenahkotloh

Necchit

Kohtlyozah
Ty<>nc

Soltanvoza

Kecshka

Tai-(')nc

Kah-keh

Tv<'ine

Tyi'me

Miini

Toij

Chu

Too

lim;ii:l»

Vuh

Zah

XTitiiligah

Nt.afigah

Nutahgah

\lll-lllCC

T'hun

T'tun

T'hun

Than

I'tun

lirkouii

Tatrchiin

T'siii

At'khun

Al'kiinch

At'khun

Alch-nin

X'luih

Wis
Khun

Nun

X'juh

Xoo

IVasii

K'hun

■|-a!isi

'I'ahkoiMia

TahTik'u'

I'atchih

Mitzikh

Vut-zaih

.■\n(')yah

Aiioyh'

Mitzikh

l.uka

iricc-wch

T'thluk

Ntliyuh

Tht'kakh'

.Malnnt'iii

Kvaki

KlahsiU

K'sih

Klahkad('ina

T'kadi'mc

l"lalikad('>na

I'ciliallcn

Ne/.(')on

Nirzih

Ncczix'in

Xfzi()('>n

XahziMM',

I'soohcclta

Klahkdh

Nizikwah

Tsatklahka

Ts'talagha

T'soklahka

Tii;ilnich

N'choh

Choh

X'koh

N'tsooh

N'koh

'I'akliih

N'siitloh

T'sul

Nookootsah

Xooko(')jah

Xookatzah

Al.a

Ilonalkoh

Nccdha

At'klecbah

Ilonalikoh

Alccbuh

Th'kitchan

Ivuniki'ih

Nih'-kudh

Azu'

Atzfi'

Azu'

Schi

Utiin

Sih

N'linn

Nun

Xun

X"neh

X'nch

X'nih

l£niuin

Yohunnch

Yahtun

M'mh'

M'ni'iih

Ah-hah
\"tah-gah

A-h.i
Xo-k\vah

Iloh
X'tvahoh

Ah
X't.ah

lloh
N'tahguh

Silki

Cholhlukt'h

Chithluk

Kavthlukch

Kavtlilukct

Til ha

Nahliehtih'

Nikai

N'tav-kth

X'lavkhnch

N'l.iviihkch

rciiiki

'rahgi'ih

Tic-ik

T.'.kaii

Tiikhncii

Toiikah

Tiiiki

'I'ingah

Tahng

Tcnikch

TiMiikhnch

'I'inkce

•J'.sUihi

Kttudsinala

Clicrlhika'nli

Kctudnala

Kctsinala

Kctuil.siiiala

Koutsiiii

Xikctahgah

Xihkci.ti-ick

Tcnankavt-

Tonankav-

Tonankiivth-

(luka
Tenanotay-

jtlniket

liuket

Kiiitschougoni

Tahtsuntseh

Etschdctsen-

Tonanolav-

Tonanotavu-

(ckai

|kch

Ikch

i.'lakoiili

Ncketi'ingkch

Nikcct.ang

Niltadinkch

Tl'kad'nkay

Xihkadinkch

Lgitschitchou

Mintsuhtl

Mcnchudneh-

IvaytUikuki'il-

Nikozndla-

Kavthlukct-

[kokwa

(la

[knvthluk-
(clikulla

[kill yell

Kli-Diijoun

Chilodeltah

Chithlukcho-

Nikognalah

N i.oznailta

Xcuk(V.iiala

(tcin

Wrangcll.

Dull.

Kcnnicott.

Dall.

* The I'lukiik and northeastern Tngaliks arc among the most widely separated
branches of that great tribe. The latter live near the mouth of the Tanani>h River.

I m

! W

\ 1 .
i ■
1

' i ■ ■■

1} i
mMWM

1 '

III

ll;i Ji'lR

552

APPENDIX.

COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY OF EAST SIBERIAN TRIBES.

English.

Chukchbb.

Ylkagik.

Kamshadale.

TUNUOOSE.

I
Yakut.

Saur.

Authority.
Man

Stimpson & Hall.
Ke-lowl-tee

Saur.
Toromma

Saur.

Saur,

Uskaams

Bev

Kissoe \

Woman
Boy

Na-oois-kun
Nin-kai-kai

Luhunjae

I'ahatsh'

Ogo

Girl

Ni-okuk-ka

Vaiendendi

Ch-tshitshoo

Choorkan

Keesa

Infant

Nin-nai-mukka

Lukoolu

I'ahatshitsh

Kootian

Kutuogo

My Father

En-piiti-iisl;iii

Ktchea

Is-ch

Amai

Agam

My Mother

F.ii-paniuo

.\mea

Na?-ch

Eni

lya

Husband

Oncni'rinkalow

Vadoo

Skoch

Edee

Crim

Wife

Komningnoak

Alwaley

Squa-aw

Akee

Vaghtarim

.My Son

.Viinki

Antoo

I'a-atsh

Oal

Daughter

Howokukah

Marhloo

Sooguing

Ghoorkan

Keesini

My Brother

Esltamatiiitga

Tshatsha

K'tshidzshi

.•\kan

Oobagim

My Sister

Siikctihii^'ii

Pawa

Kos-choo

Ekin

Agasim j

I'eople

Tsuts-tsin

( )mino

Quaskoo

Bevil

Omung 1

Head

[.Ml-a'OOt

lok

T'choosa

Del

Bass

Hair

Keru-g\vee-te

Man.ill.ie

Kotjbit

Xioorit

Assim

Face

Locl-kun

Xeatsha

(^ua-.igh

Itti

Sirai

Forehead

A'li-il

I-oanguitshel

I'shilgua

Omkat

Suis

Ear

Wc-loot

Oononima

E-ew ; e-cwt

Korot

Kugach

Eye

Dil-v;ite

.\ngzsha

Nannit

Kasak

Nose

Vukah

longul

Kaangkaatig

O'got

Mooron

Mouth

Ekuruge

Anga

Kuz-ha

Amga

Aiyach

Tongue

Eleel

Onnor

Nutshel

Lnga

Till

Teeth

Retinta

T(Sdy [bi

Kuppet

Itsh

Tees

Beard

.\alute

.Angenbuguel-

K"ko-ookat

Tshurkan

Buitik

Xeck

Actin

Jomuel

Mitle

Mivon

.Moinung

Arm
Hand

Fingers

.Menyeet
Guer-eelte
Kyi yet
Wcr-oot

N'ungean

Nug:Ul
Pe-enditsh.i

Settoo
Settoo
P'koida

Illi

Gal
Kabr

Nails

Onz-shil

Ko-uda

Osta

Tiugrach

IJodv

Mv-sho

Tshul

Inga'tak

Ettim

Leg
Foot

Oet-got
Ver-oot

Noel

Th-quatshoo

Boodel

Attach

Toes
Bone

Kah-00-note
Ahtam

Isni

.'^mun

T'hamtshoo

Umok

Heart

Leel-ge

Tshi)oenzsha

Nokguek

Me wan

Surach

Blood

Pao-kooroogin

Liopkiil

Messon

Soogial

Ghan

Chief
Friend

Herem

I'mti^ctHiig

.\lnindsha
Aghtnia

Toyou
Doghor

Kalial

House

Vaninga

Xuma

Kisut

Dzsho

Balagan

Kettle
Arrow
Axe

Koo-kcng-oo

May-ar-kum

.\d-doo-at

Kukua

Xoonunidzshi

Kvas(|ua

Tabor

Suijai

Knife

Waal-ye

Tshagoia

Watshoo

liusak ; buh.ik

Canoe

l(boat)
Shoes

Kai-e-wyte

Aktshel

Bat

l(boot)

Grdskut
Aa-vuk

Sky

Kundshu

Kochan

Gi'iolbka

Chattan

Sun

Tee-re-kee

elonsha

Qua-atsh

Nultian

Kuin

Moon

Veel-gin

Kininsha

Begh

Ooi

(lias
Kloh, n
IK.-
iloar

Wolf

FIv

I''c;ither>

Duck

ImsIi

Name

White

Black

Red

r.liie

Vcilow

(Iricii

fiicat

Small

Strong

l_)kl

Ciciod

COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY

553

English.

Authority.

Star

Dav

-Nifjlit

Light

Darkness

Morning

Evening

.Spring

Slimmer

Autumn

Winter

,\Vind

^Thunder

Linhtning

Rain

Snow

Hail

Fire

Water

Ice

The Earth

Land

Sea

River

Lai<e

Valley

Hill, mountain

Island

Stone

Salt

I Iron

Tree

AVood

jLeaf

'Bark

Clrass

Flesh, meat

Dog

Hear

Wolf

Flv

I'eathers

Duck

Fish

N'anie

White

Hlack

Red

lilue

Vellow

(ireen

(ireat

Small

Strong

Did

Good

Chukchee.

Stimpson S: Hall.

Enger-tee

E'-nali

Minkiim

E'gci-oy

Aldriiin

La-lamdrole

\ 'ivgo

Ecl-kowwow

Vcnka-ga-ka

I'ee-na-gee

I-lyle

Pennulia

Lee-me-oo-nut

Tin-tin

Ute.ska

Verigen

Ta-oo-tee

Wav-am

Gcftkiii

Lii-iuigiit

Xup-per-am

EHoer

\V(')0-k\vin

Tau-tah

Kelgwit'

06-te

Wce-'i'ccr

Oo-til'-yeet

Wa-utc'h

Tukiskin

Hyd-tydt

Kai-ing-ha

YUKAOIR.

Saur.

Lerungiindshia

I'ondshirka

Emmel

I'ondshirka

Emmitsh

L'nhaiel

I'oinjuletsk

I'ora

ruga

Nada

Zshendsha

Ulejennie

I-cndu

liorongille

Tiba

Pukoelli

[archandiva

l.otshei

( )nd/shi

larka

Kamshauale. Tungoose.

Saur.

KoJkwa

Osikat
Ining
iGolban

Tek
Moorak

Anganal

Ashdoo

Tapkitan

r.shukatsho()')odan
Iniandra

Pangitsh
Ee-ec ; i-i

Hota

I Moo
jBookus

Levje

Tshohul

Onnong

Jalgyl

I'ondsh(')rkoni

IVa

Onmud

Pea

Logodunshinu

Lundiil

Tshall

.Symt
N'ingI

:Tor
Nam
Okat

Aal
Saniatsh

Pepiun
Quatshoo

Paldshitsha
j Tsangar
iOolega
lEt

Fababa

iT'haltal
Kossa
Kasa

IVa/galdngiii

Een-a

Neel-yuk-ki-

Noo-ki-ing
.Slia-li'ik-ki-inj;
S/iiiy7iJ(ii>v7i'
Pi>yuta-t(i-liii

Nimiyen'ki

Puliikin

Ar-ahmdsin

fitke

Ma-chin'-ka

Nilendoma
'Xontondaul

Pugelbi

jOndzshinonda
iAnnil
!\eve

.'\iniaivi

Kelenni

l.uhan/shanni

'FshaUolonni

JTshakolonni

Tshomoi

Lnkun

Addi

Quaniotiii
N'gach

.Msliingush
Etshoo
Ilagaach
Attagho

I )z,shool
Tak

F.bdernia
Oorta

Oolra
Nin

( )omta
Detle
Xcki
( )lra
( lerbin
Geltadi

Tshaang Koolani

Niichsonne

Tsh'.ilban
Ekzsham
Xukishoo-

Saur.

Solus

Kuin

Tuin

.Sirdik

Kharanga

Erdec

Ke-e.sse

Saas

Sacin ; sovin

Kuissan ; kui-

Kisim (san

Tvil

Eting

Tshagilgan

.Saniir

fhar

Toll on

O-at

Poos

Sirr

Paiglial

Vrri.s

Koel

Cliodu

Seer

.\rre

Faas

Tus

Tiniur

Mass

sasir

Sebcrdak
Chatteuk

Zachsirga '

.Siiinnit

Chanmgatsha

P.alvk i

Aatta '

Irungk

Chara [

Kasil

iKeochtinoo I
Keoch
Keoch
( )()lachan
Kiitshugai

Sagdi

[kan Kittinach

!i b;

I'i

„,ii

554

APPENDIX.

Knglish.

Authority.

Ba.l

Cold

Warm

Thou

VVc

To-day

Yesterday

Fo-morrow

Yes

One

Two

Three

Four

Five

Six

Seven

Eight

Nine

Ten
Twenty

Eating
l)riiii<ing
To riii\
To d^uKC
To sing

Sleep

To speak

To see

To kill
To sit
To stand
To go
To come

Chukchbk.

YUKAGIR.

Stimpson & Hall.

At-kin

Fuk-i-yu'-yurk

Ohio

Ichcin

ITia

En' kail

d'lir-oiit'
Eiiiiai

Ie-u<in

Kr'-go-lct

Sow-soo ; i,

Ta ap

Kn'-ge ; nira

Mecr-er

()o-di)kc

Gcr-ar'k

Midlc-din'ge

Nam-te

Yeranrt-ting

One-asink

Men-eet-ke

Mun-kom-it-too

Mun-cc-inice

MuM-kitchcn-ta

Mun-cc-do-dite

Mcn-tce-pa-ga

Min-yil'-ki

Saur.

I'ondzshetsh

I'ugatsh

Matak

Tat

Tundal

Mitek

Titlak

Pondzshirko-
(ma

Nengandshe
lOngoie
|Tat

Oiley
jlrkcn
'Antachlon
llalon
jlclahton
JEnganlon
jMalghialon
ll'urchion

Malghialach-

I I'o"

Chuniirki-el-

[lendzshien
Kuni-cila
Attachongo-

|niclla
I,angdal (ate)
Ontlzsiiok
Tshuenzshi
l.ongdok
Jagtak

lunzshuk

Mun-*')W-tow-a Aniak

Mun-ce Icci-pit- Umat

Mun-tin-pit-k(j j

Min-wako-mo j

K'ttl-ki'ithivin ( )nj;-hak

Kamsiiaualb.

Saur.

Adkang

TUNGOOSE.

Saur.

Konima
Kiz

Daangoo

Aati

liokuan

Iski

Kcmmis

N'ittanoo

rshus(|uat

Fsaascha

Koonulas

Kilkoas

Ittachtenu

Fshoktenu

Tshaktanak

Komtook
Kaskumtukcr

Iguin

(Ihochsin

Bee

I'.oo

Nongenatshe

Nonganooije

Ellia

Yakut.

Saur,

Atcha

Ooniun

Dzshur

i:ian

Digon

Tongon

Kilkok

l'".tgatanok

Tshokotenok

Tshakatenok

Tshonikotak
Katshat-ko-
I [tako

Koldakoo

Timnce

Ettegas

Min

Ginnc

Huissiga

Issigc

Begun

Bcghassx ■

Sarsin

.\k ; ah ; eh.

Soch

Kascliiutsh I

K'liogdasitch

K'tshcem-

[gutsh

Kahalkan

Kwatsh(|ui-
[kotsh

Ookladai

Kasiclitsliitsh

K'aiiti>-,ili
Kai-ci'-'ni

Ingiicrghodak Kowisitsh
I iKocpiasitsh

Choorli

Bir

Ikke

Ews

Tirt

Bes

Alta

Setti

Ogos

Tagos

On
Surbcy

Assibcn

Issicm

.Suir

Inkullx

Toy

Oomkella (to

[sleep, mi)

Ittai J (speak,

[kap>ir)

Unar, kocr

Tur
Bar

The Cluikchce vocabulary, due to the kindness of fJeorge Gibbs, Esq., was col-
lected on the Ringgold and Rodgers' I';x])loring E.\i)cdition by Dr. William Stiniiismi,
Director of the Chicago .Academy of Sciences, ami has not hitherto been piiblislieil.
Those words in italics are from a vocabulary kindly obtained by I'rof Asaph Hall of
the U. S. Eclipse Expedition in 1869, at Plover Bay. The remainder are by ."^aiir
from Billings's Expedition, a rare and inaccessible work. I have introduced ilium
here for the convenience of the philologist who may wish to compire the languages
of Eastern Siberia with those of Western .\merica ; and also for the bcnefu el the
American trai'.crs who may visit the coasts of Northern Kamchatka, the Ochmsk
Sea, and the Chukchee peninsula.

WESTERN ESQUIMAUX DIALECTS.

555

WORDS TOWARD VOCABULARIES OF THE WESTERN
ESQUIMAUX DIALECTS.

littgliih.

Arm

;Accouche-
I [ment

Arrow
Anns

Axe

Autumn
'Aurora
Ashes
.Vnutlier

[(other)
Alive

Afraid

All

lirothcr

Bear

Heaver
'i!y and by

iioat (skin)
ISoots (decr-

I [skin)

j Beluga
Buy (to)

lirin;; (to)
Buiics

Illdod

l!:ul

Boy

Hoard
liullct

Bcllv
lilack

Bag
lie still

Break (to)

Back (t1ie)
Backbone

Ekigmut-
Takhlik

Khot
Tah'kuh

Kolkab'uk

(JoksiVk

Igi')glii-uk

Aghu'k

Ecminah

Tukunerikh-
[tuk

Kcemi

King'ukshuk

Takokuk

Maluktok
Atdta

On'g'iuk
Kamu'iik

Stu'-uk
Kecpu'chu-
(wuk
Tizhu
Xunokut

Owk

Asseetuk

Tanig(')\viluk

0('ingut
Koh

Oksu'k
Tu'ng'filcra

Stamazfi'tika
Konilorino

Chikumuk

P'kokc
Inarutnuik

Unalig'mut.

rdlect

Etuk

Ali'nga
Kissim'mi

0(')nuguli

Tokrtgidi

Paliiktuk
Atako

Un'g'iriik
Ki'imguk

'T(')kuk

Ti'ziui
Nunow-

[rungiik
Owk
Asseetuk
lUegah

AWihrnut.

Taluk
Iringh'uruk

jKagahrit
Ituk

Kol'habuk

Kavidgemiit'., ChugAchig- KiMg-
" iiiut. tniit.

Teleghuh i Yagatsutik

Kagahrit H'hut
Etuk

Kolhabuk

Ikhuk
(Angry, Ik-
[nitsuk)
Kalkanak

Kikliuyet

Asak

Irigee
Kissim'mi

Arpeeugh-
Luh
O'kiluk

Pobiktuk
Atdta

Oiimiak
Kdmuk

I Seesuuk
|T(')\vksik

IKizu
iS(')\vncrit

Owk

lAshu'ruk
,lllig.at

J0<)meet
Kagahrfik

iTaksibuk

iNaweektuk

Alinokh ]
Kissim'mi i

( )onfievak
Alantak

Ung'(nvrug- Annak

[huh
O'kluk Laklak Oonuvali-

|akh
I'aluklituk "Stneek Kinvuli

N'unako

Oomiak
Kamuk

Seetuuk

Ki'zu
Sownerit

Owk

Aseeuruk

lllcegat

Oomit
Kahgdhruk

( Hay, \a-

[naenak)

I Anyak

Natasiak- Kamiksak
I [iiak ?
' Ootvak

Kepuziyfi

I Tijskiu

(Hank,

ITs'na)
Owk iKavfikak

Ichakhliuk

T'angialu-

I [vak

lOonik

(Hravc,

I riT'K-ik)

'Aksiak

'Tapnikh- (Iklow,

[tuk [At'thimi)

Narweetuk

Naru'tiguh

(lU'lnru,
! [C'hfuiimt-
(pih)
(Hehind,

(Kanfd-
i Ikliuuiu)

556

APPENDIX.

English.

liult

Hotly (the)

lilaii'kct

lied

How

Heads

Hum (to)
Herrics

Carcajou

Cache
Contog
Cry (to)

Ekdgmat. lUnaligimrd.' MAhlemM. | KaviAgmut.^ ^''"mfj"^' i '^"',tl-"r^' !

Topsih j

Oolit :

" (small)
Hoil (to)

Hirch (wood

I or Ixirk)!
Hrccchcs Kfikhlik
Hird
Hrcasts
Hark (of tree

Kappazhu'- Topsih

|tika

Kotigiinka '

Oolik Oolict

Atlckhka

Uokelubuk j IVshgik'-

I [shih
Shung(')w- ,Chim(')wrik
|rik
Kawilsak

Chu'ng'i
Kokhlatuk

Ogigityuk

Chung'()w- (Hluc,

|riik

tVctok)
Tikhlit
C'lmazu I
l.;cnuk I

K;ikolik Kiikhlik

Tiiig'myuk 'ring'myuk Ting'myuk (Jonushak Tinmyiil

Mecluk

Kagit

Ahmeelu-
[ruk

Akpik

Kuftsik

Nutiktuk
Kahsvik

Akpik
Kahwik

Mfim'teguk Shckhi'liuk Mu'pteguk

(Clouds,

NukhtkiUit

Naugat
Clouds,

Katitak
Kuziame

Puhutuk ITihutuk

I I

Kiurung'er Kifirfing'cr

Come (imp.)! Tiyuk

Coming ' Ki'-yuk

Come in

Cut (to)

Cap

Chin

Caps (gun)

Comb

Chain(small)
Chief

Cold
Chew (to)

Nat'cluik

Xrdiyawutut

\as(''ta
Tamilu

On'g'iuk lAmaylik

! , I , . ,

Xingluktuk Kwikhtiina
iTamaluk

Paughter
Dog

Ikhim'ik
Ki'tmuk

Kaghi
Kiaruk

Encsehtuk

Keept'cgali
Nashuk

Kabrdon

Illyahutik

^Titi

Tigut

Nashuk

Kali'murik
Omavlik 'Oniavlik

[Amcdl'-i [Taliguk)
Kok)

(Cojijier, '(Copi)cr,
[Ranugak) |Kanfiklii
(Calm,

I Kfuiik)
(Current,
LChagvak)
Tikina
(Coal,
I Kumaviii
(Cup,

IWalvfiki
Pilvakl'iu
Nachak
(Cousin,

['rrnik.ii

(Castor,

[Alvfiki-

takliki

(Crane,

[Kinatfilii

Allapah

Punceghuh Punceghuh

Allapah

Angaizu-

[gok
Apakhtok

Puneeghuh Panja

jKimukhter Kiyukmuk Kiyiu;muk Pee-ukhta

Deer (rein-) Tu'ntnk
Day Okhluk

Day (ycster-)ilkpukzuk

Day (to-) lOobluk

Tu'ntrd< Trrnti'dv Tri'ntfdv
Oonakfuii Ooblami Oohlami '
Ukw()wuk Ikhpiikhe- Ikhpi'ikhe- i
I jrnk [ruk

Oghanukh- lOi'iblubuk Ooblumee- ]
\\)wk ! [nil

Kana-et
Achnik

(Clay,

IMaga'vuk'

Pignakiitiik

(Cov.MrdIv

jAlaiU.ik'

Panaglia
Annakluik-
|k:,.
Tu'ntu
I'^eghnik

WESTERiN ESQUIMAUX DIALECTS.

557

Kuskwig-
mat.

(Blue, 1
IVctok)
Tikhlit
C'ninazu |
llixiuik I

k 'rinmvak

. 'NvikhlkCuit

jNangal

(Cloiuls, i
ill'-; I'raligCik)
ok)

;ak). IKanukh)
■(Calm,

■ Kunik)
(Current,
[Cliagvak)
'I'ikina

is.um.ivu!

(*'"!'. ,

[NValvukl

Pilvakhu

Na'cliak

(Cousin,

['runkai

(Castor,

[Alvuki-

takhkl

(Crane,

■Rinatulii

:c:iav.

[(rok'lM

lok il'igu

:uia V

uk-

;ikiuok

!(Cov.Mr

(llv

_ Akuit.ik

lPauai;li;i
.iklink-

lk;.>
iTu'ntu
Eeglinik

Lhta ;A"ii

Eii/^lish.

Dav (next)

|l)tcrlat

jDuur

I.)ance

EkigmTit.

U Htilig' iiiiit.

An'mik
Poclri'luit

MAhlemut.

• - .» -. Chtii'ii. hitr-
haviiigmul. ^'J,-^ *

Oonaka Oohlu'kuk Oobl.ikii
ru'nnk Kf'iwniik Kc'iwnuk
lalo 'Taluk ITaluk

Drum Chowyut

Don't know Nutloka

1(1),

il'oclchruk
I

KilviT

Kioine

Lhowyu
Nutloky

Xcwat'i:lii- Ogikhluk

Drill

' l(cotton)] (nuik

I Duck Ooksa'ktuk

;Dc.ul I'lukfi'lcruk

Drink (to) '\iiktuk

Daikness (Joni'ik
D.uKc- Kaglii

[house

Drunk

" Dead "

[drunk

I)ay before |

Ivesterdav,

Muksu'k-

[tuk

Nu'khwah

Eat (to) Tamaluk,

[Nfi'guh
Kye [Eeklika Ktklika
Ears iCheeudik Shcetik
Evel)rj\vs Kumnkava- '

roeleliruk i I'oelehruk
Kionee

rokorik

Kilvukuk
Kiome

Agikhluk

mill.

.(Deep,

ITfdi
'Ka/iaclii-
|kfu

(I )on't wani
[Teeukli
[naktu.i

'Tinniik
Tukrimak
Meekha

"Falkh
Akuniea-
Ival

[and lashes
Enough

jnuk
rah'vviUuu' Tahwatli

Munvit

Tukcuik

Iinnuin'ikh-

[tuk

Dawktuk

Kaguskee- 'Kaguskee-

(me |nie

Euiiktuk [I'aniktuk

Keemik- j

[shi'ikluk!
OuuaUigeni' '

Nugeru'n- Nugerfm'g- I'etoghdl'- Ntega

Iger [er, [yfuia

Isik I'.creegah ll''.engaliak Wetatik

.Shee'un Seetiga !Cluitik (liu-utik
Kabfdot Kabuloot |(I'!agle, Kayaguii-
i|Koiskalak) [fit

Tatneedli Timunilli :(East,

lOonadl'-!

Nu'nnh
Clieekeet

.^takali
Kaniv'i'ik
Kanuk
Ookfik

Manit

Xfi'na

jA'tahkah
Ki'i\ ink
K'nnk
'ITinfik
K'ne

Mfinik
Kshoah

Arunvit

Pcsfi'ktali I

Ching'iag- ;

(haruk
Nfuieii NTi'Muh
Ch. .iiik

•atak)

Katlagak
N'u'nuii

rrukukakh

(Kar-rings,

[Aklatit]

'(Kagie, '
I N'iligovak
, Nfnii
,1'agrilgaK

.Arpugah jAtataghuh Attaga Attn

Kivi'iktuk Kiyuktuk Ka-ukligak Kavvathak
ik'iiik ,1'knuk IKnakhk Knik

(•-.ug
End (the)

i'lvil S|)irit
Enieinte

I'.arlh
I'amine

FailuT

!'"()\ (red)

File

Fai (deer)

Flini-and-

Isteelj I _ I , I _

liirget (to) I Oowukhter I'euktung- Poynk-

I I ! jer 'Itfinger

I ,()o\vukhtid< I'ei'ikhtuk Poyuktuk i

I''.etigi'inka I'A'teegi'ui- lltkuidva Itugi'uika ! i

! / I / |ka _ ! _ I _ !

i.S'tamen lEwaiigun- |Iiui\vutghi Inuwutgha Shwoahi 'Swogat
[ka I I I

TaliwiUun' rlMtnali ilnvektid' Tinimu'lli 1 i'i'awatik

,Nfd<ut Ek.it'lewit Uairhl .k Ekiith'liik EgakhlCdi Ikaiouk

iKeenuk Keenuk K eerivfik iKeenyuk I

iKownuk

I'kne

iKiiwnuk
I'kne

Oghok

Anignakh

Fort;!.' (I)
Feet

Fiiiyers

Finished

Fi.^ll

Face

it:

i 11

Ill !;

i ! r

: I I

558

APPENDIX.

EnglUh.

Forefinger
Second do.

Ekdgmiit.

Uniilig'tniit.

MAhlemiit.

KiiviAgmfit.

Chiigdchig-
miit.

Kuskwigmut.

(151ack fox,

[Tunulgit)
(Blue fox,
[Ikhnikhtu-

1 ....I

Tiihkok
Ahk(ilinak

Third do.

Finger

[(little)
Fawn (rein-
[deer)
Far off

Foot (one)
Feather

Vaksikh-
[tuk

Ekeclipak
Ekit'hl'kuk

Oonasik-

|suk
fishegeet

Nokwiok

Oonasee-

[siuik
Itigi
Shu'luk

Oonasik-

[shuk
As'higect

(White fox,
[Oolcgik)

(Fox cub,
[I'eyag.ik)

( Fresh,

[Xutdkapak)

Iguk
(Fish net,

Kf:;;ya)
Niklikhtok

Tagiakvak

(Fish traj),
[Talpyahk-
[iival)'

(Fly, a -
[Chuyuv.nt)

Fi ozen

Fish

[(salmon)
Fish

[(sm.ill)

Fat (very)

Frightened

Komloko-
[wuk

Takhiyuk-
[puk

Nutagut

Ookilera
Ali'ngu

Takiyuk-
[puk

Takyukh-
[puk

Grouse

[(white)
Gloves
Gun

(;o(i)

Gilt

Good by

Good
Go(jd

[(very)
Girl

Give (me)

(]o (away,

[imp.)
(jim ninote

Oki'iziguk

A'zigak

I'l'.ktuk

Tawi'hueh
' si'ikhtuk

Okanc'iki-

[muk
Tizhu-
[wun'ganuk
Ayee

Arkazi'gi-

[uk
A'gzigite
.Shukpun
hikhtok
Chikeeka

Asikhtok
Nakuiu-

[rumuk
I'uneeghuh

Anee

IlVgiit"

Ting'mynk

Mukecta

Aregut-

[.chiih

Arkaziuk

A'regat
Shukpun
Oloktuk
Cheekee-

[kha
Owloktut

Naku'ruk
Areegah

Agnishuk

I'chulunga

Annisok-

(tuk
Molu'ruk
I'inikhserit
Aychilunga

ringniyuk

Mukeetin

Aregiit-

[ghuh

Arkaziuk

Asigat
Shupun
Chaiu'iksuk
Cheekce-
[kha

.Xaku'ruk
Areegah

Puneeghuh

Anee

I'iuikherit
Aychilunga

Tingmyuk

Mukeeter

Aregiitguh

Keyak
Ting'amet

Mukt'n

Eekhchika
(Grandfather,
[ ApnfigliOkl
(G'lulniothcr,

[Annfigliyui
Knuigiiagkilk

Nozciitchuk

Yaguzhgu

Ayagu

,, 1

Orass (dry) Wukut

(rive {\.Vi\ Poi'k'PP-

Chan'git

[tumka
Tin'g'um-

[yuk
Kun'g'iik

Ikunka

Grave
[(burial
1 place)
Get up !

Hands

Yahguchutik

'Hare

WESTERN ESQUIMAUX DIALECTS.

559

Kuskwigmut.

Hlack fox, I
I'runulnu)
HUic tox,
llkhnikhtfi-

White fox,

[Oolcgik)
Fox cub,
' ll'cyagak)
(Fresh,
[Nutakapak)

Iguk ,

( Fish net, 1

jKC-va)

Niklikhtok j

rragiakvak '

(Fish trap,
I'ralpyahk-
[nyat)

(Fly. a
[Chiiyuvat)

Eekhchika

(Gramll'atiier,

lApm'igliui<)

G'iKhiiother,

[Annugiiyu)

Knuigiiagliuk

Nozctitcliuk

Yagu/hgu

Ayagu

C'han'git

Yahguchutik

I.Hg.'ish. I Jikdgmiit

iHare

Unalig' niut.

ifMemUt.
0(')kulik

KaviAgmut.

0.')kulik

ChugAchig-
mut.

Kuskwigmut.

Kiyu'kth-

! I [iukj I

Hungry Nugi-ukh- ,(I .iin) iNug.ishuk- Nu-iyih

[(to be) [tung'' [Nuhgce (ti'inga

ikad Naslikok i.\usk('igwa \aiik(')wa iNeiikowah

litre Marni Marni |Mariii iMarni

I 1

Hot

Hill (a)

Ing'rcct

Hand (one) Du'mak
! I I (palm)
Hair (long) Nu'yiit
Heavy I

J lair (short, Mulkiit

[or fur)
Hat, or
[head-
[cover
He
jiammer

Husband
.House

[^(native,
' ] winter)
Hcar(imp.)

His

Oona

On'g'un
N'nuh

Neechce-

[wfi'nikin
Emuluh

Ilwik

Cheekuk

Ice

Iron

Indian (an) Attowch

Island

liile
Intestines

Jump (to)

Knife

l(clasp)
K'nces

Know (to)
Know (I)

Know (I

I do not)
Kvak
l(i)idarka)

Tikesti'ik

Ksalcra

Keetunka

Chowic'hi-
Imuk

Nachunle-
[reetuk

Kutzung'
[uk

I'hec-it
Kuhu'*

Oona
N'nuh'

Kushfi'ng'-
[uk
Irgut

A'/Jeg

Kushu'ng-
[uh

A'zeegih

Nu'shak Nushak
Okainy- Okaniy-
[duik I'chuk

Miksect

(Hawk, Nap-

|tak)

(II(jw much ?

[KahitOgat)

Nash-kwa ■

Ilonikho,

(Khwalina
Magakhtok Kikliehatuk

Hatch or (Heat,

(opening, [Kaltok)

[Oolmvak
Aicha ' (Hill, Ingak)

Nusha

Wunga
Scko

Kegikhtuk

Mikseet
Nahshu'n

Oona
Kaksutok

T(ipek

Wunga

Seko

Iknuguwit
U'ngTileet
Kikh'tuk

Erihe-shuk-
[tu'nga

Matli'ikhter

Pccknuk-

[tok
Sitg('iwa

Secsgi'iw-

[kah

Netoka Tushir'uga
Tushirukh

Nashown
Oona

In'nuh

Wunga
Seko

Kikhtak

(Jom

T'na

Ku-ih

Chagiik
Nakhtrdek

Nfivat

High Vukh-
Itrdi
Milkfit

(Hatch or
I [opening,
i [Ocigliuvik)
Ikrini,'ra-una
(Hail, Kak-

[hutat)
Wecna
Ina

(Him, Oo-

I [min)

Oomnia

Hwana,

IHwihka
Chiko
Nilkiiagak
(Inlet, Ikakh)
(It is, I'e-
[tankhtok)

Ezhigliyuk

Sitgowa
Nalu'kiga

Snikha'hi- Kamnkala Snikha'hi-

[tuk I [tuk

Kyak Kyak jKyak Kyak

Kaiiyak

|. V

■Mil

* An asterisk (*) imU/ates a possible derivation Iroin the Russian or some other language.

i I,

560

APPENDIX.

English.

EkdgmM.

Kavak (3

'(holod)
Knilc Chiwik

I (sheath);
Kutilc :G'hun

Kill (I)
Long ago
Laugh (to)

Trikuchcc-
[okuk

Unaug'miil-

Chiwik

Akwownw-
[ghnc

AfdA/emat.

Biclarli-

|mya
Chowik

'^'•-"^"•o'l^"^^'^-

Kiitkviigmul.

Chiwik

Legs Erukha liru'khga

Large Ong'uk On'g'uk

Lie (to) Akloghtut Iklu'ten

Land 'NiTnuh Nu'nneh

Light (not Tankikh-

[dark) [tuk;

Lake jNanimuk ]

Like (simi- lyuka iMuku'chi-

|lar) ! |nuik

Like (to) Chang'w(')h'Iveenkuka

Ikhpukhe
Iruk-g'alc-l
[iikncl
Igiluk- ifgiluk-

[tu'ngal [tu'nga
Nee-u'gha Xcc-ugha

On'g'yruk

Shugalu'-

[rfitcn
Nu'naeh

Anuitna-
Isiinuk

Ong'ydu'-

[ruk
Shugalu'-

[rutcn
Nu'nuh

Anu'itna

(Kettle, Can-
(chavak)
Nowgu- ()()lvak and
[chak* |Cliivitluik

(Kamlayka,

[Iniukhna-
[tiklii
(To kill)
[Chikali/.gyu

(Low, N'fikli-
[kalnau.iki

Xinliakhta

(Lonely, NTi-
i |naiiiluh)
Anishkak Ontouchpak

'ikliuk

N<')una INoiina
( Lightning,, Tankikh'ch-
[Knukhji [tiik

Xannokh Nanvik

Lie down Emikhtuk

l(to)
Lips Kankah

Light (not Ookarmite-
[hcavy) [naratuk
Lamp (oil)

Loon
Mother

Ahki'ik

Man (one) VTit (or)

[Shuk

XTinitikh

Tu-elik

Ah'kah-

[ghuh
Yut

Mink

Moon
Mittens

Mouth

More
Much

Magmu'tic Emugcnui'-
I [tukchuk
Aghi-aluk Ighiiluk
Arektwik Arctlii'h

Kowmari-

[tuk
Nainiuk

Ah'kee-

[ghuh
Inn'uk

Tughiuk-

|puk
Tatkuk
Artkutik

jKahnuk .Kon'ogha

Chilce

Man In'nyuet

[(people)

Mirror j

Morning lOonma-

jkum'
Mine Hwih'pi-
I [kuk

T'selli
(Jmathlnk-
Ltuk
'Yuet

Suli
Omaluktuk

In'nuet

Tagiiktu

Ah'kce'uh
Enuk

Annch

Nuglukhpi-
luk

Emagemu'-
|tiikshuk'
Fakuk Ta.inkuk

Arkatuk

Katkuk

Kanga

srdi

Omilanikh-
|tuk:
In'nuet Nugulpcuk Nilkalnyak
[(2 men

(Long, Tat-
[khlihi
(Lightnini;,

[King'vaki

(L-osh, Mail-

[agnati

(Lead, Khov-

|akak)

(Little, Ikiii-

I tilt I

Annih

Yu'gut

Amagniiitak

Tang'uk
(Mouse,

[Ahwiln.i!
Kanuk,(l'alii.

[iif riversi
Chaii
Amilikhtfik

Tagii'ikh

Wun'gukh

Tangifiguk

(Monlii, Tan-

I.H'aki

(Mow nuidi,

[Kahilfigati

WESTERN ESQUIMAUX DIALECTS.

561

Kuskwigmiit.

(Kettle, (Jan-

Ichavak)

Oolvak anil •

[(.'liivicluik

(Kamlayka,

llimikhna-

ItiUhi

(To kill)

Chikali/.nNri

(Low, Yiikh-
[kalnauak)

Ninliakhta

(Lonely, NTi-

[nanituli)

'Ontouchpak

Ikliuk

Knglitk.

Noi'ina
rankikli'ch-

liiik
Nanvik

(Long, Tat-

(khlihi
(Lightning,

[King'vaki

(Losh, Man-

lagiKU'

Lead, Kl\nv-

jakakl

(Little, Iklii-

I tut I

Annih

Yii'giit
Amagnuitak

Tang'iik
(Mouse,

[Alnvilnat'

ls.aniik,(ralii,
[of rivers)
Chali
Amilikhtfik

k Nfikalnyak

Tangifiguk

(Month, Tail-

l.u'aki

(How nuich.

IKaliitus.:.T'

Ekdgmut. llHitlig' mul. \ MAhlimtit. I KaviAgmUt.

Meat Ki'imniuk

[(flesh)
Marmot Cheekeet

{{S.Parryi)

M()S(|iiit(> Muhko-kih'
Make (to) Choweeze-
[rukhli

Ogh'wo

Checkik

Moss

N'amc (a)
Xose

New

Night

Nails (fin-
|ger& toe)
Never

[mind
None
Neck

Near

1 Needle
Now

Otter

I [(river)

Other

Oil

Only

Open

Old

(-)kl man
Old woman

[Parki
irorciipine

Pipe
Powder
j Kgun-)
; Powder
' [flask

Present (a

Pain

I'addle

Qtiick

Kan'iik

NTitdkiik
Oonuk

Feetuk
Stukuh

Nung'u'tnk
Wce-akiik

Ooguksi-

[khtuk
Min^'kung'
Hwat'ow

Chi'nnikuk

Astlaruk

Tow'kwun
Eegeerasha

Ukiithluk

Atku'k

Kweenyuk
Toeyiikh-

[kuk
Poeyokh-

[kugwik
Checkee-

[kha
Oknikhtuk

Ung'-wah- '
[wung':

Padi'iga-

[muk

Chikarik |Clieekeck

Choweetuk Choweetuk

At'kah

King'cjw'- Kin'g'uk King'i'igha

[cha i

Nutak Nutak Nutak

Uoniikh'- :Oonuk'tuk lOonfik'trik

[tuk' I

Peetuk J'eechuk Peeluk

Shanara- Shanara-

[tuk [ttik

Minku'n' !

I'l'ikniimimi Pukmummi Peeseekak
j I

Pumi-ukh- 'Pumiukh-

[tiikl [tuk

Atla, I'par 'Atlaor lAtla

Ooksook Odhoruk Ookhcruk
Keemi I'vissimmi Kissimmi

Ootukok

L'ng'icluik I'ng'icluik

Ukukhhak Ahkok'tuk

Ateguk 'Artt'gi 'Artegi

|Elank(')- 'Elanko-

I [chikj [chik

Kweenyuk Kunyuk .Kunyuk
jAchara '

Aradnk- :

I [sliawol*!
Chcekee- Cliikeeka iChikeeka

[kha' i

Arrah lArrah Arrah

Kolummuk Koli'immuk Kolummuk

ChugAikig-

mat.
Kumik

Kinga

( )onuk-

[hakh

(North,
(Niaghtok)

Kyukhixik-
(hakak

Kuskwigmkt.

Ahnlkhuk
Kalganakh-

[tnii

Mikuphuk
( l'"ussil Mam-
|niiilh, (ha-
[gi'mik)
Kumagitit
Kwinuk

Oonuk

C'hasliiliik
(Net, Kugy-
|ah)
(Not so,

[Ikliutik)
Khwatuya
(Narrow,
[Igilkinuk)

Minknk

(_)owignilnuk

Ignik

(Owl, Igcha-
[khtugali)

Oochinukh
Aganukhliu-
[vak

Atkuk

(Poplar, Au-
lg"l)

(Pike, Iniakh-
(ping'at)

Akhnakhtu-
[ah

iif^

i '

!»

J,.
1 1 \

mil '

i i,

562

APPENDIX.

EHgluh. I EkigmUt. Unalig'mM. MAhUmM.

Rabb"i Kuyukth- MukiX{;h- lOokala^t

Ktividgmlit.

Ookalavt-

Ch„g.Ukig- \ K,„kwig„,Qt.

met.

Rain

[Ink [wuk jsiuk |siuk

Ibizlu'ikli- ilgcsiklituk Sculfi'Ktuk Igwani'ik- Kitichtouk Kitok ^

River

Rope (or Tapkuk
[rawhide
|iinc)
Rint; (a)
Run (to)

[tuk

Rock
Red

Raven

Sister
Son

Sable

Kwcek
Tii|)kok

Yccmukli Clicen-muk
Kahwikh-

[kukla
Tulfi'kagiik

Anligu't-

(kiiii
Ig-n^-akuk

Kagii'-ish
I (Am.) [uk

Sun (tiic) Ukokhtuh

Star

Aghi-at

Seal (large) ^

Seal (small)'

Sled (dog-) Kamuk

!
Snowshoes Tun'g'yuk

Ship

Snow

Sleep
Sew (to)
Salutation

Sell

Smoke

Sea

Small

Summer

Sit

Steal

Sing

Un'yuk

Chamml

Kuk
Uklc'-nok

Oyagok

Kuk
Nt-uk

[tul:

Ku'lun
Akparo'k-
Ituk

Ku-ik

[t'liliatuk
Kwak I

Xukehakluk

(Rub, to, Mi-
[chak)

Vahmakh
Kawikhtuk Kivagok

Kanneshet

At-luk'hk- Ahkct'a- Ahkowru-
Iguh |gbuh| Ighuh

Kutun'ru- Kectun- |Erin'ugluih
[ghuhl [r(')Wgri-
[ghuhi
Kuft'chik- 'Kavea't'- Kahvit'-

Ichuk! [cheiik Ichu-uk
Mut'chuk ,S' "

|yuk|
Aghzut Ooblu'ge- Ooblu'giukjMittak

[uk
Muklok piuklok Muklok
Nlvuk Ixiksuk Xitsuk

Kumowt Oonayut Oonayut

Kolkaguk
Agnawik

Mukhta- Ig-ny-al-
[chuli:

Matchak

Tun'g'liik

Ung'izukh-
|puk
Slakhlik'-

^ [tuk
(to) Kow-

[ukhtiinga
Minki

Chammf
Akeechuk

Tugeluk Pusu'gc-uk

Oomiak- Oomidk-

[puk [puk

Uphun iKaniktuk

Shfnik

Keeliukh-

[tunga
Chammi

Shi'nik
Keelii'ik-

Kakhcliich-

[uak
Akhtah

Mittit

Makliokh
Isliugwak
Ikamchak

(Sky,
[Aniigliuk)

(Storm, viuV

ItJOW.'l)

(Smell, ( ,
(Naghacliuk)
Annyu, iKanukshak

[Katagak
Innakht'un

(Swan, Oo-
[tunga (kukhpik)
Chammi (South,

[Kanagag-
[tok)

Keepuk- Akeechuk 'Akeechuk Akeechuk
j [huktung'

iAi)'zik f)|)suk lls'suk ;Is'suk

Immukhpik Ti'igasuk Togavuk Ttigaysuk llmmokh
Meekuk M'ikuk Mikidu'ruk M:ksur('>w- jMikong'-
I [ruk' [gashak

Ked-ukh- iOopine- Oopane-

[tuk [rokhpuk |r(')klituk

Kee-uk

Aku'm

Tigalikh-

, ['
Ewahgu

[tuk

Akomi 'Akaweeten Akaweeten

i
Tigalikh- Iktigalik Iktigalik

[tuk

Aht6k

lAhtu'n

Minka

Kecpushnu-
[vak
Punkh
Iinakhpuk
Ikhushfit

(Swan, Kug-
lyfik)

(Sand, Kam':-
Ivak)

(Shout, to,
[Wikhi

MILM-

(l<

WESTERN ESQUIMAUX DIALECTS.

563

uskiviigmiit.

.itok &

IC'liliatuk
Lwak
{ukchakU'ik

Kill), to, Mi'

Ichak)

vivagok
Ivolkaguk

Agnawik
Ig-ny-ar-

Kakhcliich

[uak
Akhtah

Mittit

Makllokh
Isliugwak
Ikamchak !

1( Storm, vmV

I trow.'')

(Smell, I ,
JINaghachrik)
I KamikshaU

Minka

Kccpushnu-

[vak
Tunkh

Imakhpuk ,
Ikhushut

(Swan, KuR-
lyiik)

(Sand, Kagu-
Ivak)

Shout, to,
IWikhpuS-i-
kiinl

English.

Ekdgmlil. UiKi/ig'mBt.

Skin

Smoke (t(
Ihacco, to)
Split (a)
SLJIisii
>ilO()t (to)

Spring
Straight
Sec (to)

Slow

Speak
ISkin l)oat
I I (open)
iS])cctaclcs
j I (snow)

Socks

Scissors

Small
I (very)

Strong
I Stand

Strike

Sorrv
Steel (&

[Hint)
Shot,
[(small)

Soup
Stick (a)
Shaman

Then

That
Take off

Toes

There

Teeth
Tail

Track

Tree

Throat

i Thumb

M'tu'kukh-
llih

MiihItmM.

\K.,.,.ig.,, ^'•"^•f^-

Ah'niuk
Towgah.v

lliinga
Kopcruk

Oopenukh- Upahna-
. |kuk; [kuk

NakhhVti- \

|mut
Tamuklia- Keni'irtega

jkiih
Chugf'if- Shukich'uk

Tkenuk
Apt'kah iOkoktuk

aupe-ga

Ongiuk

Kolcruk

T'huk
Nanukhtun

Tlngilu'-

[ghuk
Kfinu'kuk
Kinect

Ting'am-

lyiik/.huti-

[kat

Yu'khukuk

(Jkrtghwuk

Uoiniak

Naluruk

Kcniangah

Chukich'uk

Ok<')ktuk
Oomiak

lugak

Atulok
Shalishik
Mikiru-
Irummuk

Ilu'dinka

Naput
Kun'geluk

Ungatku'
[otuk

iPik'pun

Im'na

Mctomikh- Itomc-

(layunga [irin'^a
Ewahgun- Infiwutgha

[ka
Tuhmahni Tuhmarni

Ki-u'tik KeegO
I'amnicgu-a Puiu'kok

Yunglitok
Shupcga

Towtuk

Oumiak

(Sky,

IKhl'a

Kuii-ltHlgMlU,

Tu'mi

Tfi'mi
Oakpik

We-ahkote
Ahzoon

Pik'pun

Im'na
M uti'iw-

[lunga
inuwutgha

Tuhmarni

Kaglageh

(Thunder,
[Katlkhek)

Kalkhtik
Anyak

(Shij), Shu-
I l"ak)

Kiplia-unik
.(Short, Nan-
I lilnuk)

'(Sweet, Nik-
; [neekuk)
!(Sour, Agi-

(nak)
'(She, t)ona)
(Send, to,

jAtakh)

Honti ?

Oakpik Nigoga'k-

Tungalkh &
[Analkhtuk

Oonakhwina
I-gazhgiu

Yani, Oong'-
[nani
Iluyutik
('I'liat wav,

[Yavit)
(This wav,

jOokavit)
Nikigwakh-

[tut
(True, Pach-
[ikhpiak)

111

» 1

4'^

t Literally, "to shoot geese."

1 11

irif

lil

:' iii'

564

APPENDIX,

English

Tube (of
[any kind)
Tongue
Tell"
Tippet

Thread

Tliiink you

Tobacco

[bag
Tired

Village

Valley

Vein

Wife

Woman

Wolf

Water

Wood

Walrus
Whale
Wankhne
Work

Walk

Where
Why
When
Winter

Wind

Weather
Whiskers
Wolverine
Warm

DkigmTit. l/Hiilig' miit.

Oolu'ka

Spcsecba

Tag'hwuk

Stamasdu-

iliihlcmut.

Oowa

Shupelu
Okok

KaviAgmut. I ^'"*S<^S''iS- j Kusktvigmut.

Ooiiwuk

Oolwa

Ikn
lokh-

Oovolig'he-
Irukl

Kani'ikhtuk Kani'ikhtuk

Koniashi- '\

[ruk

Koydna
Tahwakh

Muganc
|luktuk

Nu'nut
K 'veef^a
Ewiihluk

Nub'khuh Nuliayka >fulecka
Okh'anak Ogh'anut (ikanok
Kigulu'nuk Ku'lunuk Am'aiiguk

Muk Muk (or

[Tanuk)
Kubu'chuk Ookuk

(none)

I-eekhluk

iXahkhoh
^Chccnt

(jioks'ri'k '

Onakluk
tu

[tuk;

[Ooknuk

Ali'zubuk
(none)
Ek(')tle\vit
Tiguh'ikh-
[tuk

Now'khwa
Sheen
A'kawu
jOoksiVkh-
[tuk

A'nowah

Sclami

U'ng'eet

K<)pshik

Want (I) Pe-uk'htuk'

Want I j

[water (I) ,

Watched ! I

(I)

Whiskey iTah'nuk

[(lit. water)
White

Who

TIakhokoli '

iKeenuh iKcenuh

Im'mik

Ki'ruk

Oogeruk
Ah'gahwah
Kk()thlc\vik
Chowctuk

Kagalu'k-

[tuk
Ndhnii
Shuklu'ten
Maniaghu
Ookc-u'kh-
[tuk
Wurgut
A'nowah

On'mcet
Kopfwik
Onoktuk

Koyana
Tabakh

Nulcega
(.ii'g'nut
A'n.aghiik

Ini'muk

Ki'izuk

Oogerfik
Ah'gahwak
Kkothlcwik
Chowetuk

Pesukhtuk

Nahini
Sfiklu'tcn
Mamaghu
Ooke-u'kh-
[tuk
Wurgut
A'nowa

Oi'iiucet
Ki)]>fwik
( )n6ktuk

(Takc.Tkhu)
Siwoghat ?

(Thick, Oo- !
[kugalgyuh)'
('I'hin, Knni-

I [gilnagak)
'(They, Oo-

I [nut)
(Their, I licit-

! [»ul<);

Plifishga- (Thunder, j
- livaHk);

(Took, j

I [Tkhwahka)i

Nuliga
A'ganak A'gnak

Kaykhli- I '

[nak
Mik (or) Mik

[Mokh
(West, Oo- (Willow,
[agagtok) [Chagatit)

Azvik

Akhwik

Iokto-ai)in
Ininiuru'n- Immuru'n-

[S'l fg'i

Towtukuh

Tah'nuk
Keenuli

Tah'nuk
Keenuh

(Walrus skin,
[Aniakhkakl

Xani
Chahkwa

(Woollen,
[Tunuikhili)

Anfika

Kavchak

Magarakh- i
jtok:

iPecrikluriiKi

(Weep, to,

[(•.,uul!
(Well, ^■u-
1 [guntrivalij
Katakhtu Ongolk,ik

, i(Wlu)se,

I [ K 'will

KuskvSgmut.

(Take.Tkhu)

iSiwoghat ?

'(Thick,' Oo- i
I Ikugalgyuli)
(Thin, Kinii-
Igilnagak)
(They, Oo-

[nut).
(Their, lilcit-
[nuk)
(Thunder,

|Kalik)|
(Took,
[Tkhwahka)l

Nuliga
A'gnak

Mik 1

)- (Willow,
l) (Chagatit)

Azvik

Aklnvik

(Walrus skin.
fAmakbkak)

Nani
Chahkwa

(Wooil'cn, * '•
[Tunulkhih)

Anfika i

Kavchak
Pecukhtriha

(Weep, tc-),
I [k.im'i!

'(WeU. Vu-
I Igiintriyah)
Oogolkak
[(Whose,
I [K'y;"lii

WESTERN ESQUIMAUX DIALECTS.

565

English.

Ekismut. U,.alig>,„ut.\ Mahlcnut. '.KavulgmM.

u'.''^' J;^!>"''^''"h 'Chunuik Chuniuk IChummuk

\\ inc ow 1 1 ahruk Issukhtok ." ""'"'^

('otlge), i I

\^'"fL"'', I ^Ete-aroke

(deep)
Wiiat do {
I lyou call it!

'Vcar (last) Tow'unga 'Utluh'unee'lpdrni

Chiigclchig-
iniit.

Kuskm6g>>tut.

Vcar (next)'
Vfikali I

Voii (thou) Ikhl'wit
Yes jllw(')kah

Voung j

I woman ;

Voung j

[inanj
Voung jNugachli-

|pc-uk
Vcar lOoksu'k-

I (l'i'l<

Xukut

Ik'hlepit
Wah

Iparga

Iparni

Ikolu'i

Iparga
;- .Ikolure-
|wik [wik

rilewit I'llepit

Wah

Okanakne-
[likseok
Eniiknu-
Igatpekak

Wah

Tlcpit

Chaitun \

(White fish. I
iKaluikhtnt)
(Walrus tusks'
rruliuk)
Chastun- \
tpiakh-tkhul
I
(Vour, I

fl-'pitiuk)!
Xihit

''-pit j

{\o\\ pi.

(l-'pinfik)

Chuleyegni OoLsifikh- i
i Itumakl

' Ei

I: If

' \%\

■'X^JWl".

566

APPENDIX.

WORDS TOWARD VOCABULARIES OF THE TINNEH TRIBES.

English.

Arrow
Axe
Awl {also

[ Wooclpeck
Ashes
Autumn
Aurora

Alive

All

Alder

Another

Arm

Anus

Afraid

Angry
Above

Buttocks
Boy

Brother, elder
Brother,

[younger
Beard
Body
Belly
Beaver
Birch (and

[Ijircli hark)
Black
Bad
Boots
Buying
I'.cads (black)
Bring {also

[negative)
Blankets
l!y and by
Bow
Be quiet
Back
I'ackbone
Ihown bcaro'^
Brown bear9(
l]lack bear
Breasts
i I5reak

Bullets
I Belt
il'rown

Nftldto
In'galik.

Uluikuk
In'galik.

'I'anand
In'galik.

Unakhatana . \ Tendn Kutchin. '

K'oh iK'oh iK'oh

Muk'le-klala Mukle'kklala Mk'le-klala
Tikelklala
er)

Khklatz

Santakha

Vo-iki)khte-

[tan
To-ikhklala
Etutsi'm
Kokhtle'
R'tenni
Tenak(')hna
Tenakayet
Nerukiit

Notokhiui

Tenatlut
KeelycJza

Su'gha

Tenat(')gha

Tenazik

Tenam'it

No-yi'ih

K'leh

Ilklatz
Santuh

Tod'kl()hn
JTahklij'n'ih
I Kokhtle'
iK'yu'yah
|Tenaki')hna

Tenakahyet

Tenatlut
Sakhi

Su'gha

Tenatogha

Tenazik

Tenami't

Noyiih

K'leh

Tatle'kLitz Tatle'kK'ih

T'satkliika Stalagha

Kakcnti'ik .Kakaytuk

( )onkat Owudukhat

Scewc'iya
N'tah

Tsudah
Klat
Klikhtun
Ta-lck

Tenanitle'nah
KkUuuh

Ilklatz
Santakha

Tutklu'Kem

■Katena
Tenakohna

iNelukiit

Seewoya
N'tah

Tsu'dah
Klat

Klikhtun
Tahlek

Klahwurah

Tenatsu'-ah
Tnkadaki'it

Vuki-('iza

Sughuh

Sihutlana

Tenatogha
Tenazuk

Noyuh
Kekh

Tatsunzaga
Tsohutklaka

Oonkhat
Tenanitlezih

Tsutah

Klat

Klikhtun

Talek

Tenanunah

K'oh
Klatkleh

Kowo'latziih
Klasantah
Yo-ikokhte-
[tan

Etntsun
Kokhtl'
K'tcnni
Sukoh'na
Sukayet
Mukyahunal-
[h(')hn

-Vo'tuk'hun

Suhklut

Kcc-os

Su'ghuh

S'di'igho

Sitzik'

Scmi't

Kakuh

K'ekh

Kohtle'zuh
F'sohklaka
Kakcnti'ik
Kunkat

N'tah

Tsudah

Klat

Ktil'kas

Talek

Stodsunah

Tenanitle'iu'ih Sunun.ah
Klahwuzuh Kvfi'vah

Yuyuki
Khodat-ceo

Kotk'h Kotkiv 'Kutatluh
K'theth |Kutzndlnkuh Thnlsth
ITrukhckle' '

Tsyonuh
Sus

Sitsu-ah
Takadolchut

Kotlch
K'theth

TutclKinka
Tiihchili

H'kluhyah

Ilohtsun

Yukhoi

Khu'nti
Klohtsek

Sukh'an

Niltsiit

Mahutzuh

Chulkoyah

Munokh'iya

MichiUi

Taughuh
Suht-zutah

T'suli

Ahltoh

Nazunki'iUay :
Ootaskhat 1

Itsohutzoht
Tuhtuh !

Yuterokhtana

Sih
Sfis

Xg'ketcliiti')-

I Willi;

Kuhatluh

', liox

ICap

T«B

VOCABULARIES OF THE TINNEH TRIBES.

RIBES.

tdn Kutchin.

tchonka
hchili

kluhyah

ihtsuii

ikhoi

lu'nti
lohtsek

ikh'an

iltsut

ahiitzuh

hulkoyah

unokh'iya

ichilli

augluih
:iht-zutah

uh
hlK'.h

azrinkiillay
otaskhat

s('ihutzoht
ulUuh I

utcrokhtaiia

;'ketchitn-

[Willi;

.uhatU'ih

567

English.

Niitato
In'galik.

K'en

Bone
Boils (it)
Ijird (small) lYah'tuh
Heads (white) N'tulla
lilood Lukohna

Boat (not jMcdoyah
[skin boat)'

Uin'kuk

In'galik.

lieaver

[(spring).

Bag

lieetle
Had (very)

Breeches
Beads (red)
i Beads (blue)

: Box

Menoholnoi
T'satklaka-

[hulan
Katsikh

, Kohnsitana

Tenadaku'na

ICap

IConie (here)

iCrookcd

Chief

Cloud

Cujipcr

Cold

Call

Catch

iChin

;ciic\v

'Child (bov)
Child (girl)

|Coals (of fire)

Coward

Comb

C'row

iChcek

■Chest (the)

Cut

Caps (gun)

Chain (small)

iCloth

Coining in
! l(Iam)

Canoe (birch)
Chinbone

Dead
Dance
1 )ug

Dog (little)
Don't know

Klakataluona

O'hni
Tidiilzikh
Tyohn (Russ.
[der.)
Sodah'uh
Taslokuthi
Atzu' or Azfi'
Azut'le
Ooneenluh
Tenayahdiih
Teck'ush
T'saki )

Sultayu'rah )

T'ass
Atzik'

X'teekah

K'en

Neelkoh

Klahvudi'ih

X'tulla

Lukhoyna

Tenadaku'na

Klakataluoh-

[na

Oh'ni

Tidulzcekh
Fyiihn

Tananti
hi'galik.

UnakhaUlna. Tendn Kutchin.

K'en

(skinb.) Tsee-
[k6kh

Kokhlematz

Kakoza

Xilkiillay

Mcdciya

Nokhkutla

Tazokuniyoza
Oolodiktuh

Katzikh Katzikh

Tenatluk6zeh|

Tsu-i-uk i

Xilku'-i
Tahneh
Ki-ee, Tlekh'-
[k6h
Tiheelecya

Meeyuhhot-

[kliyah

llutsosklaka

Sitkligeh

.\zu'

Teniyadiih

Nukutsah'

M'tayktuka
Klahwhu'n

Ohni
Ty-ohu
!Voh
Atzu

Tnniyahduh

^'uki()za
I'enahkolloh

T'ass

M'taytluka
Kfilana
Tenanakliih
Tenatsle'nah

Klakatalii-

[ohna
Ko-oh'ni

Tyoh'n

Atzu'

Sihyadi'ih

Keclvi'iza
Xukothtr-

[vi'iza
Klikh '

'I"utcli('ihn

Sinatle'

Stceatlcnah

Ohtziyeh

Vahkutr
Kunikuh

Athlc'chuht
Suhdiyuh

!Chulki'iya
Meckit

Kowo

Dentrastokh

Med()v'

Kentudohyuh
.Kakanraykta
lKow<') and

|Melogutaha
I Dentrastokh

Nfedfiyah 'Medoya
I'enivatrnuh Tcnatl'nuh

Totsuh

Tunt.ikhi

Kowo

Tohn'kloh

Eevoh

Kli'kh'k

Klikhyoza

Tustini

Tl'atlcragh
K'tc')khlay
^Klikhk
Klikhyii'iah

'Aso

Medi'iya j Ki-ee

Sihvairnuh

Tolkloh'n
Krdik
Klikhk
Klikiiyciza
Wiltsusinee-
' |ga

TohnkU'ih

Keekek

Klikhk

Klikhyoza

'I'ohsuhu'h

Solitet'iituk
i'l'oliwcjhiutzoh
IKlankoyah

Shi'ihnoh

i-l

i I-

i f

568

APPENDIX.

English.

Drink (I

[want a)
Duck
Door

Druni(native)
Dressing

[hides (rub
Dressing

[hides (sera
Day
Down

Deer (rein-)
Daughter

[(elder)
Darkness
Dish

[(wooden)
Drink (imp.)
Don't want

Nnidto

In'galik.

UlU'hik
In'galik.

Tukat

Nintal

Kotoneet'ho-
[na

bing)

l'i"g)

K'kit

Kalitahwa

Anoyah

S'tenah

K'takhr
Klok

Tilkat

Die (will) Kladazutl<')h
Driving dogs 'Ilotlugatikhl'
Daughter jS'tlah

(younger) j
Dogs coming Klukazutli

Eye
Kar

Eat
Evening

Ess
Elbow
Enough
Eyebrows

Eyelid
Ermine
Earth
Eating fish
ICat (imp.)
I'^at meat

Eyes shut
Enceinte

Father
Eo.\ (red)
Fo.\ (white)

Forget

Fat

Fawn

Forehead

Foot

Face

Far off

Flesh (meat)

Tenan(')ga

Tenatseragh

Kcehoh

Kutsuntah

Kakah'zuh

Tenatzus

T'sah'ih

Khlatz
Keeh()hn

Tukalah
Kohulkoi

Menoltinah

Kokoh

Kuhk<>ya

Tcnakadi'ih

Tonaki'ih

Tenanah

Neeloht

Nulrina

Tilkat

Nintala
Dotkayt

Shosh
Nogatagus-

[yesth
K'tagastli'ik

Klut

An(')yah
S'tenah

Klok

Tenanoga
Tenatseragh

Etutsun

Il'klatz

Kutasikhtr

Keeh(')hn

Tanani
In'galik.

Tu'ntunu
Nintala

H'lut
Niitowoh
Mitzikh
Tuhyenuh

Tle'k('ihoza
Ivvikhklok

Fohodusnee-

Tukkala
Tass'kerr'tak
Kulzism ih-

jyah
Menoltinah
Kok(')h
Anoyoza
Tcnakadi'ih
Tenakuh
Tenanah
Neehiht

Tenanoga

Kohohn
Ilutzintuh
Ivyo-za
Fenatzu's
Etutsun
Tenanotlc'to-
[huga
Tcnanotaka
Kowozin

Keehohn

Tuhkalah
Koholkoi

Menoltinah
Kok<)h

UnakhatAna.

Tukat
Nintala

H'klut
Mitzikh

K'tahkhr
Klok

Ten&n Kutchin.

Tutsiin

S'tlah

Sunoga

Sutzohr)h

Kcehoh'n

Vekhlerakht

Kakazza

Sitzu's

Etutsun

Sunotii'tla

Sinutaga

Khlatz
Keeshohn
Keehohn
Xulanoish-

[oini
Sinatlusutlc
Hohon'koh

Tukalah
Xahkutla

Menoltinah

Kok(')h

Kuhki'iya

Suhkaduh

Suhkakuna

.Sunan'

Xeek'lt-h

Xulana (hu-

|man, Sinlun)

Tehketsana

Mutzikh
Mitshee

Tutlok

Sintaga

Tcetzc

SihtzuhtJh

Tuh

N'nuh

Metah

T'suhk(')li

VOCABULARIES OF THE TINNEH TRIBES.

569

English,

'Fly! (they)
I Fly (a)
Flour
Friend
I Fingers

; Firewood
I (willow)

Firewood
j (poplar)

, Firewood
! (spruce)

Fire

Fi.sh

In'salik.

Notr'.khr
T'hun
Khlatz
Konnah
Tcnanilot'lu'-
[ka

Iloht'ltah

Tahku'na Tahku'na
Mahmi'ih Mahnu'ih

[(dry) Tclu'bukah

Ulu'kuk
In'gaUk.

In'galik,

Tluin

Mikhlce-(>hn Notokhtl'

Unakhatdna.

Sitzin

Tenanilotlu-
Ika

Ktlatla

Fish (I want) Mahinukat
Fish, salmon- Khololu'suh
(trout;
" small jNeliyuh

I salmon I
" large iKhak

[salmon!
" whitetish.JN'tlagha

[large
" " broad
" " sea
" " round

" " hunip-
[backed

" pike,
[(E. es^' -^

" suckei

" losh

" mudfish
Forehead
Flint (gun)
Freeze
Feathers
Fishing
Fish gullets
Finger (one)

Teliyuh
Telmukkah
Huh'ten
Kolokuh

Ivukiyiih

Sunoyuh

hugush

Undu'k

Tenakaduh

Matsa

T'olV """"'
Katsunilah
K'lagh'h
Tenatl(')t

.Going out (I [Ivlatrastcikh

I jam)!

[('lun
[(live
(;u

(iiind
tire en

|Talt<itla
()()skat
IVehokhtr _
Takadinikoh
K'ton

(loose (gray) iTutsunah
( loose (white) IIohk(')h

(iond

(io away
(iodd to eat
(Irave

Gloves

'Grass

Nazu'n

Anee

Tee-ukuts

Meetagha

Mahnuikiit
Khokalimya

Ilkluguh

Sunovuh

Matsah

renatli'it

Klatrostokh

Tcltu'tla
( )o-oskat
Notrastoi

Kt'on

Tutsunah

llohkoh

Nezu'n

Notrastiiy

Kokohodeni-
Ikhtr
ikhta-

Melodit
Alakhtuk

Than
H'klatz
Konnah
Sinlotliigha

Suzuh

Tahgukhtl'

Stits

Khun
Mahmukat

Tendn h'liichin.

uMahnuih

Totkhakh Kakh

Tclmukka

I Sunoyuh

Mahmuhy(')za Illeeweh

Tenakuh |

Matza i Matsa Klath

Xeekhnukh Kohkutle' Asoht

Taltotla
ShWvkhtovt

Sinlot

Konihah
.Vothiikhtr

Isa
uk

Tutsunah

N'azun

N'otrastokh

'I'c-ukiUz

Aninukhta- ' ,

(khr
To/iswintaga Mintaga

Tutsunah

H()k('.h

N'azun

Ancii

'I'e-ukutz

Kinoh(')i

Tekuh
Kutokhtukhr

Il'kah

Nezun
Xdtrastiikh

Khunveh

11' 1

570

/"'PENDIX.

English.

KUIiilo
In'galik.

Ulu'kuk
In'g.ilik.

H'hah

TananA
In'galik.

Uncikhatdna.

Tendn Kuichin.

Grease

(Jrosv

Grouse

[(white)
Grouse

[(black)

Hair (long)
Hair (short)
Head
Heart

Hand
Hand (palm

|of)
Hand (back

[of)
Heel
He
Hot

Husband

Here

His

House

Hear

Hail

Hungry

Ice

Indian (an)

Idle

Island

Inside

Iron

Jump
Jerk

Knife (small

[sheath)

Knife (clasp)

Knife(sheath)

Know (1)

Kettle

Killing(actof)

Knee

Knuckles

Lips
Leg

Hah

H'hah

H'nah

Neeyakh

Telmukka

Toltoya
K'lfih

Telki'unma
Toltoya

Tenatlu'ghuh
Kl('ighuh (fur)
Tenatlikh
Tenatzaya

Telkiimma
Toltoya

Tenatlu'gha
i'cnattokfi'na
Tenav()ygho
Tenatsayfina

Tenatlowot

Tenanilotod-
[sunah

Teehuh

Suhkoyi'ih
Sitzueetle'-

[nuh
Sihtlowot

Sit-the

Sinl<'>h

Tenanilotala

Tenaniloti'id-
jsunah
Tenakah

Tenanilotah-
[la
Tcnanilotod-
[sfina

Sihnlot(')dsu-
[nah
Sakatutle
No'nish
(Heated,
[Nilukoh)

Vohuniieh |

Nilkoh 1

Ilonalkuh

Tcna
Kfi'see

Ten'ah
Ku'si
(Hill, Set'l)

Kun'noh

Ilot'likhh.ini-
[high
Tatliolhtle'

Kutlukat

Sih

T'un

Tcnahyu

Ko-ikhnJega

U'ash

Kfi-i'in

Nohulu'kfina
Hfitlatlohn

Weeyuh

Nuhhotivch-

(Hill, N'tus- ■■
Ithl'l
Chu-ih-uch-

[klcih:
(Heavy,

N'tokhl')

Kutlukat

Sih
T'un

Kutlukat

Sih
T'han

Tsohutklaka-
[tikahohn

Sih
T'un

Utun
T'hun

Xfi
Vuh

D'ash

Keelikh
Seel'tatsit

Kaziika*

(Intestines,
[KutsAyut)

Xo'kanalkp
lyfimazfi'la
T'kadohna

Nikhni'nAl-

[kuka
Klakadona
Mikhcsunikh
Naloi
Veelkat
Tenaku't

Klakadohna
Mikhlusunikh

Tsiliki'ih
Tcnathi'ka

T'lakad(')hn:i

Vukahsih
Tutlctikh
Suki'it

Klahsih'

Veelkat

Tenanlukiit

Tenati)hman
Tenat'na

Sitowanuh
Sitle'nah

Tenat'na

Tcnatle'ni'ih

Sutl'niih

Musqui
Milk

iMake

Mix

Mink

iMoss

L\Ian

Mill

Man (o
jMan
Man (st

Man (p

'Man

{Man (w

iMothcr

Mittens

..Mirrcjr

\avel
X(it, N(
Nose
Nut no\\
■Xiise (bi
No

'Neck

f.-wywiwwp

iiiin Kiiti hill.

;chuh

t-the
inli'ih

ohunnuh
lilkoh

fuhliotiveli-
- lyuh

Hill, N'tus- !
Ithi')'

;hu-ih-uch-

Ikloll

Heavy,

N'tokhl')

Jtun
["hull

LlahsiVi'

iiitrnuh

VOCABULARIES OF THE Tl'NNEH TRIBES.

571

Eiif^iish

Large
Love (I)

i.ic down

Lie (you) Hoiinsit'
Light (not
; [heavy

Like (similar) .Totonikhtle'
I ,aine

Xutiito
lii'salik.

N'koh

VirH-uk

lii'galik.

N'tsu

llohnsit'
Kantah

Lake
Leaf

Many
Much
Mouth
More (want-
led)
More (on

(hand)
Morning
Mine
Moon
Moose
Marmot

Musquitoes

Milk

Make

Mix

Mink

Moss

Man

Men

Man (old)

Man (small)

Man (stingy)

Man (poor)

Man (one)

Man (white)

Mother

Mittens

Mirror

Moose fawn
I Man (dead)

Men of the
I [Yukon

! _

N'avcl

Not, None
Nose
Not now
Nose (big)
No

Xcck

Tnnanii
Jn'gali/i.

Nutsoghuh
'iM'katcstah,
I [Mkat

I lohnsiht'
Nt'lokhah

Utiakhittduii.

Lo'oh'n
Tcnaloht

rcnekuh

Klih

Mccnrd<i'it
Sumah

Lo-ohn
llrdan
Tenali'iht
Kli-ih'

Ko-un'

Katokhmi'm

Seeyuh

Tukhtfi'n

Tenikc'ih

Kontokii'zza

Klih

K'uh

Koneedeni'kh

Kuhdchuh

Takhmahi

K'lotle'

Tenahyu'

Tenahlo

Sohkee

Tcnayu'za

TenayusUissa

Tenavukala

N'kokhtenah

Khassak*

Nakala

Mintaga

Tutsitscetra

Yukonikho-
I tana

Tenatzuhkit Tenatzukit

M'ki'illa M'kulla

Tenatzih , Tenanitzih

Klatona

Sinket'cluik j

N'tyakliiJ Kakala

Takhmaya

Tenahyu'

'I'enalo

Tenatle'tuh

Tenayfi'za

Tenayuskissa

Tenavrdxala

N'k(')[<htena

Khassak*

Nakala

Meetagha

M'neeiolx')-

[ditohini
Tutsitseega
T'slatlugha

L'ohn

ihitsoh

Tcnah'iht

Hoton'tah
Sih'yuh

Tenckiih

Tugntlc'sikh

Takhniya

Tenayfi'
Tenalci

N'koh
M'katestdh

Tasti'ih

Hohnsit'

N'tlaghah

Etakantah
Kaykuntle-
Itikh

L6-ohn

siiiiVIiu'

Klihih'

Tendn Kutihiii.

N'choh

Vun

Sihldkh

Siyuh

iTeneekuh
Kontoki'izza

Nukala

Penali'i

Sohkee

Tenayfi'za

Tenayuskissa

'Lenayukala

N'k<')khtcnah

Nakala
I Mintaga

Tutsitseega
(Mouse,

[Tcclsuh)
Yukonikha-
Itana

Sahi
Kl'tazoh
Tenejuh
(Month,
(Tikhccsoh)

Ohtsiih

ciiihtsri'i

Tinji'
Tinji'

Mah
Chutz
(Mountain,
[Nt'usthl')

M'kullay

Sitzukit
M'kiiila

Siutzi

N'tvahoh

Tenakiikht'c' Tenakukhtr

SiuketVhuk I

N'tah, N'tva- Xutaga
! [khohl

Sukukhir Sukkhoh

i' 5l

I
hi

iil

If
■ I

■ii 1

57?

APPENDIX.

English.

Nails (finger)

New

Near
Needles

Night
Narrow

Old

Only

Open

Otter

Other

Oil

Park!
People
Pipe (tobac-

Ico)
Pain or sick-
[ness
Powder
Powder-flask
Plenty
I'uU
Paddle
Ptarmigan
Perhap.s

Quickly

Rain

River

Rivulet

River (the)

Rock

Rabbit

Raven

Run (imp.)

Red

Rope or line

ATM/a

In'galik.

Ula'kuk
In'galik.

Tenaniloku'- Tenaniloku'-

Etierokhtikh

Likhkutii

Klotkan

Klectakhle'
Nt'chah'kiih

Kloklikiie

I'^tutsi'in

Unketetzikh

Mckunhna

K'tenni

Ilah

T'ark

Tenaloht

Ku'nyuk

Amah

Kokfi'na
Kohduii
T'sahluh

Toloi

Telkumma

'Rulhay

Ina

ikh

Etlerokht

Ncelkfi'tsa

Toglnvt(Jlee

Tuhkeeyuh

K'tenni

T'ark

TenalcMit
Ku'nyuk

Amah

Kokfina
Kohdi'ih
(N'tsugha
llhrku't
Togiuiliiya
Telkumma
Ilhay

N'tu'ghuh N'tu'wuh

At'khim

Kakhat

Ketakakhat

Vuki'inna

'Lu-oh'na

jr.Tiohneeyah

|N'tcekah

; N'tu'wuh

'1 atluhkuts

Noghalnuh

iMee-ukut
iHi'inhuz
iV'ukcinna
iLn-oh'na
;Nu-ohmyah
iKlahwhu'n
Padlokut
Pat'lukiits

Snow goggles Nokhalun'-
[kl<)K

Socks
Scissors

Snowshocs
Sled

Sable (Ameri
[can \

Smoke (fire-) Ilkhlit
Smoking (to- Kteehohn

[bacco)]
Sealskin Ku'buk

Alokhtigh(')h

Nikhnomen- |

[<)lti
Osh Osh

Tatatanikh- Khotl'

[tle'i
Kahkyoza iKakayoza

[Kanoketoka
Klaterosikh

K'ah

TnHaml
In'galik.

Eturughtigi
Nihlku'tsah
(Now, Ato-

[khoht
Kl'tahah
N'chahkuh

Tenakhl'tah
Etutsun

Melazohn
Kaythukeh

T'ark

Tanalo

Tukak

Amahlan

Koku'na

Toh'iy

Telkumma

'Rulhay

N'tfi'ghuh-
[tukhtan

Ookhl'kohn

Takotcnuh
Vukfinna

K'oii

Tatluku'za

Hotr
Suhkuh

Unakhntilna. • TenAn Kutchin.

Sinloku'na

Etierokhtikh

Nihrku'tsa

Klotkan

Kleetakhr

Oktuhkeeveh Ilutonuh

.Melazh('ina Vusi-ch

T'ark

Fanalo

Tokhak

Amah

Kohku'na

Kohduh

T'kiklah

Toh'yoah

Telmukka

Iril'hay

Kutchin
Setidchi

Avaneela

Tohi'iv
Tahkoh

N'tu'ghuh N'tuguh

Atkhiin

Kakhat

Ketakakhat

Yuk(')nna

Lu-ohna

]5elhulana

Tali-chiihn

N'tu'gah

Tatl'ki'its

No'ghalnih'

Nokhalun'-
[klok

Ohsh
Khotl'

Suhkuh

Flklit
Takunlitah

(Sable trap,
lllahkhl']

Tutl'chan
Hunch

Vuk()nna

Kah "
jTut-choiui
Konikoi

Suchileh

(in Kit/ 1 /tin.

VOCABULARIES OF THE TINNEH xRIBES.

573

English.

Small
IStick (a)
Say, or he
\ [says

'Said (he)
iSaid (it was)
jSon

'Sister, elder
Sister, young-

I [er

Stone

'sky

iSun

I Star

iSpring

jSiinimer

jSea

ISquirrel

|Salmon

Strong

■Stinking

i Steal

ISmell

Spit

Strike

Squeeze

Sorry

Straight

See

Slow

Steel (and

(rtint)
Same (the)

Sit

Sew

Swan

Stand

Shoot

Sell

Shirt

Snow

Slowly

Smoke hole

Shot

Saw (he)
Saw (you)
Soup

NTMto
In'gaiili.

UlR'kuk
In'salik.

Teeth

Tnugue

To-morrow

Tobacco

Tobacco bag

•Talk

Nuku'tsa

Takhiin

M'tcnni

Niznf

M'tokhneh

Stunah

Shodah

Statah

Lu-oh'na

Tatsikh

Talt<')hna

Klu-fi'n

Hfdrikott')hn

Santagha

Tarayuk *

Kli'ka

Kaht'le'

N'kkT

Tatlugut

Klikhtcndikh

Tsutlisi'ih

Tahzutle

Takahiltzuh

Nt'klukht

Ku'luh

Klighot

Honikht'hjht

Il'ghot

Tohnunklikh

Kantah

Seedoh

Tohwah

Ooskh()t

Kow(k'ark

Nutagha

El'ghot

Hohwutlatlen

Nodatsutli

Honikh'lot
Scekhlohn
Tokhr

iNukfija
Ko-iikhs

Nizn{

M'tenah
Mahtuh
Metatzuh

Taltohna

Tuna mi

' /n'x,t/ik.

Kityuza

Khfi'ni

Sohoduh
Statsiih

Luoh'na

Nuhovuh

UnnkhatdHit. ■ Ttniln Kulchin,

Sahn'

Tohghultal

Tsutlisi'ih
Tahzutle'
N'tlzus

N'klukht

Kluh6talah(')h|

Tohnunkiikh

Xukutzd

Takhun

M'tinni

Nizni

M't(ikhneh

S'tunah

S'oluluh

Statsuh

I.uoh'na
Tatsikh
Taltc')hna

Santagha
i(IIe calls it,
i [Untedni
,Klika
Kaht'le'

Kutnukhtikh Dikhtun
Tahiikut
Kcezi'ih
Tolsunanil-
tuts

N'sutla

Mitenah
Metaytoh
, Mahtuh

iUtsih

illoitakha
Sanuh

Soh
S'uhn
Ilrilukut
:Sant'

lIona1ik('ih
N'iaii

N'tlczus
Oontu'n

Kowot'ark

Nutagha

Tagasotle

Hklikhtyet

Kotlayku'tsa

N'gotkla

Tokhr

Kaythluku-

[kantar
Teetoh
Okhtle'sch
Tahmah
Tukulahvm
Okhkaklitr

llghot

Kantah
Seedoh

Ahch
Nutagha

X'lan

Tohwoh
Takalikha 1
K'decnikh- |
ItukhTi
Ooskhdt
Kowot'ark
NTitagha
Tl'ghot
jTIklityet
iElitentetsu-

Ecnenkhlan
' Scekhlohn
Tokhtr

Sutaskat

Vuh
Hwaht

Tenalotloh iTenalotloh iTenawoh Sitlotlu'gho

Tcnatlu'la iTenatlu'la I Sithl'la

Kutohudah Kt'oluluh Khotonuh

Tahku'na .Tahku'na 'Tabaka*

Massudika Stamasduka | Malyu'dika

,K(')niheh ! ... i Khoniiiih'

Yihkohn

) i

574

APPENDIX.

EHglish,

Take

To-day

This

Tree

Tlninclcr

Toes

Thanks

Thumb

Thread

Thimble

Tired

Torn

Travel

Vein (or

llilood-vcssel)

Vilhige

Very hot

Water
Water (I

[want)
Water (l)ring)
Water (he

[drinks)
Water (I

[drink)
Water (you

[clrink)
Woman
Woman (old)
Wife

Wife (my)
Wife (your)
Wife his)
Wait
Walk

Wood
Willow
Wing (a)
White
Warm
Wolvermc
What ?
Why ?
Want

Wolf

Won't wait

Weather

Naldto
JH'ealik.

'I"'sawnuh
K'honih

U/ii'kuk
tn'gaUk.

T'sawnuh
Ka

Nikhk'tfi'nahi

Tenakahvu'- jTcnakalwu'-
[ghuh _ Ighuh

Marseti

TenakiUr
Kowcik

T'niah

Lukohna

Tsatlu'kee

Atlebuh

Tu
Tukat

Tun'tah
Tuku'nah

Tukadeh

Tfikatneh

IMersee

'Tcnaki'itlc'
Kow<'ik
IMenatluh

Kodatee-oh

Lukohna

Soltana

Solt'ana

Sukala .,>...>.oww.

Oht „...

S'oht

N'oht

M'oht M'oht Oitonyoht

Klat

Ilotreehoh-

[tie'

Tseekah I Tseekuh

K'as K'as

M'kohna ]

Th'en jT'hen I

AtzFim'ki'illa Azu'm'kulla Ilonalkoh

Nitzikhtr Nikhtsikhtle' Xiltsikh

Tattnmi
In'siitik,

Nilkhu't

Suwatzuh-
Itusintoh

Kowinestsone
Ilokhanidosc

H'hat

Nuhunul-
[kokhtr

UnakhatAna.

Mulikon('>h

Tsahum'ih

Khohni

Tsowah

Nikhltu'nah

Skalo-idil'ah

Marsee

Suhkutle'

Ttiitkn KuUhin.

Tsah
Tsfi'hwih

Mahsih

Tell him,

I Vfikotsoh onih)
(Little toe, j(Travel, Nota-

Suhkulsim ya) [stokhl'j

Lukc'ihna

Nahuluku-

[nohn
At'klebah

Tu
Tul

Tun'tah

Tukat

Sohkala

Oht

S'oht

N'oht

U'oht

Klat

Tatl'khu'n
Tsutr
M'koh'na
L'kokhtr

Toh ? |T'mah ?

Hokhenee .■'
Kat (a suffix)

Nikohna Nikohna

Chu

Trinj<'ih

T'sutz

Nitsoh

iNikhtsikh

.._ JToh? Kenee?

Keenogun ? Tohnloh ?
Yuhokudast- Kat'

[lohn
Kuhkowu - Yus

[nuh
Noku'nun (What do vou'

I [want? 'N't atsohokat)
Kutiteeya ' ^ ■ . •_;^i^

VOCABULARIES OF THE TINNEH TRIIIES.

575

English.

\Vc, Ours
jWatcIiing
Walrus skin
Wives (liav-

|ing2)
:Walking
Winter
Wind
W()o(l(jicen)
Wild
Where?
Who?
What say ?
What for?

jWeascI

]

\'ou, Vour

\'es

Wstcrday
A'esterday
'I (Day hcfore)
IVoinig

\'ear

Vcar (last)

.Year (next)

Yawn

MiUto
In'g.ilik.

Hwectaghuh

Vllt'kuk
I Jn'galik.

I "' ~

Xcekfin

Ehnruliii
|Tseck(ikli

Nilnckhotayu

Hoti?
Tohtenni ?
Tohghultiil

N'neh
1 1 oh

Kuhti'ihna
Kulonakuh

Klughtogo-

[lugh
Ile-ahghiih

Oghuh

Oghutlah

I N'neh
Iloh

Tiinaml
ln'galik.

UnakluUdHa. \ Tendn Kutchin.

Nakhalii't

T'seeyiih Nohi'in

IIotrceh('itl'

I Ioyd('ih

llocleetsik'h

T'sumah

Nilkiit

Hot(

Tfimah

Kfinih'

Kenoghun

Kyinti
Ilwoi

N'neh N'neh Nun

All Hoh Ahhah

Koht('ihna Kuhtona Kotenneh

Kod(Jnhonot-

[klah
Katas taguli- Atakhlehih

[leh
Ohutlan Ncc-ohodahl- Ilihtah

\ [klut

Oghnuhnot- I

[klai

Kechonotitnl'

[klut
Ist'losh I

\v m

APPENDIX G.

NATURAL HISTORY.
LIST OF TIIL MAMMALIA OF ALtVSKA.

XNSECTIVORA.

Soricidee.

Sorez Forsterl, Rich.
Sorex Cooperi, lUcii.
Sorex pachypus, Haikd, n. s.
Sorex RoBBii, liAiRU, n. s.

I^rge Shrew.
Tiny Shrew.
White-sided Shrew.
Gray Shrew.

CARNIVORA.

Felidse.

Lynx canadensis, Raf.

Canada Lynx.

Canidee.

Canis familiaris, vnr. borealis.
Canis occidentalis, Uaiku.
Vulpes fulvus, Baird.
Vulpes fulvus var decussatua.
Vulpes fulvus var. argentatus.
Vulpes lagopus, Uaird.

Eskimo Dog.

Wolf.

Red Fox.

Cross Fox.

Silver or Black Fox.

Stone Fox.

Mustelidee.

Mustela Penuantii, Ekxl
Mustela americana, Turton.
Putorlus vison, Baird.
Putorius pusillus, A & B.
Putorius noveboracensis, DeKay.
Putorlus Richardsonii, Bona?
Oulo luscus, Saiiine.
Lutra canadensis Sabine
Enhydra marina, Fleming

Ursidae.

Procyon lotor, Storr

Ursus horribilis? Ord.

Ursus Richardsonii, Mayne Reid.

Ursus americanus, Pallas.

Ursus maritimus, Linn.

Fisher.

Marten.

Mink.

Least Weasel.

DeKay's We.isel.

Ermine.

Wolverine.

Otter.

Sea-Otter

Raccoon.

Brown Bear, Grizzly.
Barren Ground Bear.
Black Bear.
Polar Bear.

Phoca Richardl, Gray.
Phoca? Pealil, (iii.i..
"Phoca" nautlcus, I 'all.
Pagomys? larga, I'am..
Eriguathus? equestrla, Pall.
Erignathus barbatus, (). 1"aiir

MA.M.MALIA OF ALASKA.

PINNIPBDIA.
Fhocidee.

577

Callorhinus ursinus, Gray.
Eumetopiaa Stelleri, Gill.

Otariidae.

Hair-Scal.

.Smaller Hair-SciI.

l.iivtak. J,aclitak.

Ncrpa.

ISaiulcd Seal of Cape Romanzoff.

Ijcarclfd .Seal.

Fiir-Scal.
Sea-Lion.

Rosmaridae.

Rosmarua obesus, Illiglr. Walrus.

'Hi

RODENTIA.

Sciuridae.

Scinrus hudsonius, Pallas.
Spermophilus Parryi, Rich.
Arctomys pruinosus, (;.mi.lin.
Castor canadensis, Kuhl.

Muridae.

Hesperomys leucopus, Wagn.
Arvicola xanthognathus, Leach.
Arvicola Gapperi, Vigors.
Arvicola rubricatus, Rich.
Myodes hudsonius, Furstkr.
Myodes gronlandicus. Rich.
Myodes trlmucronatus, Rich.
Myodes helvolus. Rich.

Red Squirrel.
Ivnishka. Afarniot.
Siftleur. Hoary Marmot.
Beaver.

White-footed Arouse.
Vellow-noscd Mouse.
Rcdbacked Mouse.
Western Field Mouse.
Hudson's Lenuninf;.
Greenland Lemming.
Hack's Lemming.
'I'awny Lemming.

Erethizon dorsatus, F. C

Hystricidae.

uv.

Lepua glacialis, Lkach.
Lepus campestris, Bach.

Leporidae.

Porcupine.

Polar H.ire.
Polar Rabbit.

■ , i

Elephas primigenius, Blum
37

PROBOSCIDEA.
Elephantidae.

Fossil Elephant.

5/8

APPENDIX.

UNGULATA.

\^-'..%y-

n^m.

Cervidae.

Alee americanus, Jardine.
Rangifer groenlandicus, Linn.
Cervua columbiauus, Rich.

Cavicornia.

Aplocerus montanus, Rich.
Ovis montana, Cuvii.r.
Ovibos moacbatus, Blainville.
Bob americanus?
Bos priscus? Founi's.
Bos crassiooruis, Forijes.

EquidcC.

Equus foasilis, Forbes.

Moose.
Reindeer.
Black-tailed Deer.

Mountain Goat.
Mountain Sheep.
Musk Ox. Fossil only?
Fossil Buffalo.
F'ossil liison.
P'ossil Ox.

Fossil Horse.

CETACEA.

Balaenidae.

Balaena mysticetus, Linn.
Balaeiia Sieboldii, (]ray.
Balaena cullamach, Cham.
Rhachianectes glaucus, Cope.
Megaptera versabilis, Cope.
Balaenoptera velifera, Cope.
Sibbaldius sulfureus, Cope.

Bowhead.

Japan Whale.

Pacific Right Whale.

California (Jray Whale.

Humpback.

F'inner.

Sulphur Bottom.

Fhyseteridae.

Physeter macrocephalus, Linn. Sperm Whale.

Globiocephalus Scammonii,
Orca ater, Cope.
Orca rectipinna, Cope.
Delphinus styx, Gray.
Delphinus obliqiiidens, Gill.
Delphinapterus borealis, Peale.
Fhocaena vomerina, (Jii.i..
Beluga, sp.

Delphinid^.

Cop ,.

Blackfsh.
Short-finned Killer
Killer
Porpoise-

Bottle-nose Grampus.
Right Whale I'orpoise.
Bay I'orpoise.
White Fish. See-su-iik

Inn.

SIRENIA.

Manatidse.

Rytina Stelleri, Brandt, Sea-Cow. (Extinct.)

ler

ice-su-uk (Inn.)

tinct.)

FISHES OF ALASFCA.

LIST OF THE FISHES OF ALASKA.

579

(The fishes collected by the Scientific Corps are yet tiiidotcrmined ; the list there-
fore only includes the most common species, and the names applied to them by the
natives and Russians.)

Marine Fishes.

Scientific N.ime.

Gadus macrocephalus, Til.
Gadus, sj).
Gadus gracilis, Til.
HippoglosBus vulgaris? Cuv.
Pleuronectea quadi i'-uberculatus,

I'.VLL.

Platichthys stellatus, Ciu.
Clupea mirabilis, Gik.
Clupea sagax, Jen.
Thaleicthys paclficus, f'.iR.
Hexagranima Stelleri, Tii..
Hemilepidotus trachurus, Pall.
Hypomesus olidus, (a nth.
MallotuB villosus, Mull.
Hippocampus ingens? Gir.
Orthagoriscus analis, Avrks.
Eumicrotremus orbis, G until
? _.

Knglish.

Cod.

.Small Cod.
Tomcod,
Halibut.

Russian.

N.itive.

NVaukhni, Ik(')thluk.

Flounder, Kambal.

Spir flounder, Kamb.il.

Ilerni'p;.

Pilchard.

Uiikon,

Sculpin, Golovarti.

Sculpin.

Smelt.

Capelin.

Sca-Horse.

Sunfish.

Globe-fish.

Mullet.

Rock Perch.

Uiikon.

Fresh-water Fishes of the Yukon.

Salmo alpinus? Linn. Salmon Trout, Kolshch,

Salmo purpuratua, Tall. Purple Salmon.

Onchorhynchus orientalis, Pali. King Salmon,

Oiichorhynchus protcus, Pvit..
Ouchoihynchus lycaddon, Pall.
0.1 lOihynchua ; .xnguinolentus,

Pall.
Onchorhyuchus lagocephalus,

Pali .
Coregonus muksun, Pall.
Coregonus nasus? Pall.
Coregonua, s|).
Coregonus, sp.
Coregonus, sp.

luciotrutta leucicthys, Pall,
Thymalis Pnllasii, Cuv.
Eaox eator. Lis.
Lota maculata? Lin.
Catoatomua teres, Much.
Cottua? sp.
Entosphenus. sp.

Salmon,
Dogfish,

Kedli.sh,

Chowichec,
Iloikoh,

Kholotusuh.
K hak.

Nulaguh
Kr.isnoi riba, Ncliyuh.

Kc(.'/.i( li,

.Salmon, Kcc/.uli, Nfit'ghlaghuh.

IJroad Whitefish, MaksO'n, Teliyi'ih
Round Wiiitcfish, Krug, Huh'ten

Sc.i Whitefish, Morskoi sigiia, Telmi'ikkah.

Nul.ito W'liilofish. Cigha,

I[um|)lia(kcd "

CruM Whitefish,

Grayling,

Pike,

Losh.

Sucker,

lil.ackfish,

Lamprey.

Rnrabiili,

iV.iylirna,

Koraski,

.Su'khuh,

.N.ilimc,

Kraskee,

Seegln'ih

Kolokuh.

Nt'higha.

Tclmyah.

Rhukiyuh.

Lri.:ush.

Sunovuh.

Tchornyriba, UndiVk.

I'l

580

APPENDIX.

Kennicott's Owl.

BIRDS OF ALASKA.

The following list of the birds obtained in Alaska by the Scientific
Corps will he of interest to many. Those who desire to pursue tiie
subject further are referred to the publications of the Chicago Academy
of Sciences for 1869.

Italics indicate that the bird is new to science or to North America.

Y. " " " " the Yukon Territory.

t " that the species is common to both.

O. " " " eggs were also obtained.

denotes the locality, as Kadiak ) o-.i -n- .. • ^
■" - Sitka District.

" " " " Sitka )

Duck Hawk.

Pigeon Hawk.

Gerfalcon.

Goshawk.

Sharp sHiNNKi; Hawk.

Brown Hawk.

Falco anatuni. t O.

Hypotriorchis columbarius. t ( >

Falco sacer. Y.

Astur atricapillus. Y. O.

Accipiter fuscus. t-

liuteo insignatus. Y.

BIRDS OF ALASKA.

58'

V the Scienlific
to puriiae llie
cago Academy

ith America.

arius. t ^^^
().

Swain.son's Hawk.

ROUC.H-LEGGKD Haw k.

Marsh Hawk.

CioLDKN Eagle.

]!ali> Kagle.

Fish Hawk..

CiKEAi' Horned Owl.

Katnicotfs Oivl.

Short-eared Owl,

Oreat (Jray Owl.

Sparrow Owl.

Sn<i\vv Owl.

Hawk Owl.

Hairy Woodpecker.

Downy Woodpecker.

'riiREE-TOED Woodpecker.

Golden Flicker.

Rkd-shafted Fucker.

Hummin(; iJiRD.

Kingfisher.

Dwarf Thrucjh.

Oregon Thri'sh. " ■

Olive-p.acked 'J'hrtsh.

(Iray-cheeked Thrush.

RoiiiN.

'^FsiKRN Robin.

Stone cliat.

R'liv crowned Wren.

CiOI.I KN CROW>.ED WrEN.

\\Ari.K Ouzel.
'I'll Lark.
European Wagtail.

(lOLDEN-t ROWNED TlIRUSH.

\V.\rER Thrush.

( )kANGECROWNED W..RI!I,KR.

European Warbler.
\ellow-rump Warhler.
Hi.ack-cap Warhler.
Vki.i.ow Warbler.
Hi .^CK-CAP Flycatcher.
Haun Sw.mlow.

Buteo Swainsoni. Y. O.

Archibuteo lagopus. f O.

Circus hudsoniiis. Y.

Ac|uila canadensis. Y.

Haliaetus leucocepiialus. S. K.

Pandioii carolinensis. t O.

Bubo virginianus. V. O.

Seops Kennicoitii, Flliot, n. s. S.

Bracliyotus Cassini. Y.

Syrniuni cinereiim. Y.

Nyctale Tengmalmi. Y.

Nyctea nivea. Y.

Surnia ulula. f O.

Picus villosus. S.

Picus pubescens. f

Picoides hirsutus. Y.

Colaptes aiiratus. Y.

Colaptes me.xicanus. S.

Selasphoriis rufus. S. O.

Ceryle alcyon. t

Turdus nanus. S. K.

Turdus ustulatus. S.

Turdus Swainsoni. Y. O.

Turdus aliciiv;. t O.

T. migratorius. Y. O.

Turdus n;\;vius. t O.

Saxieola xnaittlw. Y.

Regulus calendula. Y.

R. satrapa. S. K.

Hydrobata moxicana. Y.

Anthus ludovicianus. f

Bittlytes fhvi'a. Y.

Seiurus aurocapillus. Y.

S. noveboracensis. Y. O.

Helniinthophaga celata. Y. O.

riiylivpneuste Kennicottii, Baird, n. s.

Dtndroica coronata. Y.

Dendrolca striata. Y.

Dendroica a'stiva. t O.

Myiodioctes pusilkr. f O.

Hirundo liorreorum. + O.

■m
I' I

r
i

! ■«!

fnrrT

I i

'}\ '

582

APPENDIX.

Eave Swallow.
River Swallow.
Bank Swallow.
Waxwlng.
Great Shrike,
S/. Georges Wren.
Winter Wren,
Black-cap Titmouse.
Red Titmouse.
Hudson Bay Titmouse.
Skylark.

Hirundo lunifrons. Y. O.
Hirundo bicolor. Y.
Cotyle riparia. Y. O.
Ampelis garruliis. Y. O.
Collyrio borealis. Y.
Trog/odytes alascensls Baird, n. s.

St.

T. hyemalis. S.
Parus atricajjillus. f
Parus rufescens. S.
P. hudsonicus. Y.
Eremophila cornuta.

[George':

Pvrrluila var. Cassini.

American Bullfinch.
Pine Grosbeak.
Red Crossbill.
White-winged Crossbill.
Redpoll.

Gray-necked Finch.

Island Finch.
Snow Bunting.
Lapland Longspur.
Painted Bunting.
Savannah Sparrow.
Nootka Sparrow.
Spotted Sparrow.
Lark Sparrow.
Gambel's Finch.

Pyrrhula coccinea var. Cassini Baird.

[V.

t O. St.

Pinicola enucleator. t
Curvirostra americana.
Curvirostra leucoptera.
yflgiothus linaria. Y. O. K., and

var. fuscescens.
Leucostictc griseinucha,

George's. Bon. not auct.
Leucostictc littoralis Baird, n. s.
Plectrophanes nivalis. Y. O.
P. lapponicus. Y.
P. pictus. Y.
Passerculus savanna.
P. sandwichensis. S.
Passerculus anthinus.
Pass, alaudinus. f
Zonotrichia Gambelli.

to.

Y. O.

■&:,

BIRDS OF ALASKA.

583

Golden-crowned Finch.

Oregon Snowbird.

]![,ACK. Snowbird.

Tree Sparrow.

Lincoln's P'inch.

Rusty Sono Sparrow.

Kadiak Finch.

Iox-colored Sparrow.

Oregon Finch.

RusTV Blackbird.

Raven.

Western Fish Crow.

Clarke's Crow.

Magpie.

Steller's Blue Jay.

Canada Jay.

Canada Grouse.

Dusky Grouse.

Pheasant.

Ruffed Grouse.

Oregon Grouse.

White Grouse, Corapatka.

Rock Grouse.

Sand-hill Crane.

Little Crane.

Great Blue Heron.

Golden Plover.

Semi-palmated Plover.

Black-bellied Plover.

Surf Bird.

Oyster Catcher.

rURNSTONE.

Black Turnstone,
Northern Phalarope.
Red Phalarope.
English Snipe.
Rr.n-BREASTED Snipe.

L(l\C,BEAK.

Knot.

Purple Sandpiper.

Red-backed Sandpiper.

Zonotrichia coronata. S. K.
Junco oregonus. S.
Junco hyemalis. Y. O.
Spizella montkola. f O.
Melospiza Lincolnii. Y.
Melospiza rufina. S.
Mciospiza iiisignis Baird, n. s. K.
PassereUa iliaca. Y. O.
Passerella Townscndi. S. K.
Scolecophagus ferrugineus. t O.
Cor\us carnivorus. t O-
Corvus caurinus. S.
Picicorvus colunibianus. S.
Pica hiulsonica. S. K.
Cyanura Stelleri. S.
Perisoreus canadensis. Y. O.
Tetrao canadensis. Y. O.
Tetrao obscurus. S.
Pedi(tcctcs jjliasianellus. Y. O.
Bonasa iimbellus. Y. O.
Bonasa Sabinii. S.
Lagopus albus. Y. O.
Lagopus rupestris. Y. O.
Grus canadensis. Y. O.
Grus var. fraterculus. Y.
Ardea herodias. S.
Charadrius virginicus. f O.
i^lgialitis semipalniatiis. t O.
Squatarola helvetica, f-
Aphriza virgata. S.
Hrematopus niger. S. K.
Strepsilas interpres. Y.
Str. meLinocephala. t O.
Lobipes hyperboreus. Y. O.
PhaLaropus fulicarius. Y.
Gallinago Wilsonii. t
Macroramphus griseus. Y.

Y. O.

Macr. scolopaceus.

Tringa canuta. +

Tringa maritima.

Pelidna rar. americana. t O.

584

APPENDIX.

II- -1

i' Hi

Jack Snipe.
lUiRij's Snipe.

Least Sandpiper.

SANDEKMNd.

Little Sandpiper.

Tei.l-tale.

Yem.ow Lehs.

SuMTAKY Sandpiper.

Tatler.

S "n'TED Sandpiper.

Field Plover.

UUEK-HREASTEP SNIPE.
HUDSC;.S (loDWlT.

European Godun/.

Esquimaux Curlew.

Curlew.

Coot.

American Swan.

Trumpeter Swan.

Snow Cioosr..

White FRONTED Goose.

Canada (Joose.

Western Goose.

Whitf-cheeked (iOOSE.

Hutchins' Goose.

Black Brant.

Empekor (jOOSE.

Mallard.

Pintail.

Green-winced Teal.

Blue-winged Teal.

Shoveller.

Bald-pate.

Great Blackhead.

Little Blackhead.

Canvas-isack.

Golden-eve.

Barrow's Golden-eve.

Butter-Ball.

Harleouin Duck.

Old Squaw, Safka.

Actodroinus maculatus. f
Actodroimis Bairdii. f
Actodroinus minutilla. t O.
Calidris arcnaria. f
Ercunetcs pusillus. f O.
Gambelta melanoleuca. S.
Ganibctta Havipes. Y. ().
Rhyacopliilus solitarius. Y.
Hcterocclt's brevipcs. t
Tringoidus maculaiius. f
Actiturus bartramius. Y.
Trynt^ilcs riifcsccns. f
Liinosa hiidsonica. Y.
Lhnosa uropygialis. Y. O.
Numenius borealis. Y.
Numenius hiidsonicus. t
Fulica amcricana. Y.
Cyginis imcricaiius. Y. O.
Cygnu> buccinator. Y. O. ? S.
Chen liyperboreus. Y.
Anser Gamljclii. Y. ().
Bernicla canadensis, t O.
Bernicia var. occiilentalis. S.
Bernicla leucopareia. Y.
Bernicla Hutchinsii. Y. O.
Bcrni( l.i nigricans. Y.
Chl(L'plia^a canagica. Y. O.
Anas boschas. Y. ().
Dafila acuta, t O.
Xctli)!! carolincnsis. t O.
Querqucdula discors. Y.
Spatula clypeata. Y.
Marec.i aniericana. \ . (.).
Fulix marila. t o.
Tulix affinis. Y. O.
Athya vallisncria. Y. O.
Buccphala aniericana. Y. O.
Bucephala islandica. 1 1^''
Bucephala albeola. Y. O.
Histrionicus torquatus. f
Harelda giacialis. f O.

1!^ (,
.1 '
■.*f. -

BIRDS OF ALASKA.

Steller's Eider.
Spectacled Kider.

Polysticta Stelleri. K.
Tvampronetta Fischeri. Y. O.

585

Lampronetta Fischeri.

Velvet Duck.
Surf Duck,
I,()Nr;-p,iLLED Scoter.

Scr>TER.

I'Acinc Eider.
King Eider.

SlIKLItRAKK.

Rkd-iireasted Mercan' ^.R.

Brilliant Cormorant.

I )i )IIiLE-C RESTED CoRMORAN'T.

Violet-green Cormorant.

Gony.

St. Georges Fulmar.

T'lKK-TAiLKii Petrel.

I-kai.h's Petrel.

Sl.KNDKR-Iill.l.KD PeTREL.

Arctic Skua.
Ska Hawk.

BL'k(;OM ASTER.

Pacific Gull.

Melanctta velvetina. t O.
Pelionetta perspicillata. t O.
Pelionetta Trowbiidgii. S.
Oidcmia anicricana. \'. O.
Somatena V-nigra. Y. <').
Somateria spectabilis. V. O.
Mergus ai..ericanuH. t
Mergu; scrrator. t O.
Graculiis hicristatus Pailas. ^'. K
Graculus dilophus ? S.
Graculus violaccus ? S. K,
Diotncdea nigripcs. S. ( Oixanic.)
Fiitmnnis Roger si. Y.
'I'lKilassidronia furcata. S.
'I'halassidroma Leachii. S.
Nectris tenuirostris Tcmin. \ .
Stercorarius parasiticus. Y. K.
Stercorariiis Piiiffoni. Y.
Earns glaucus. Y.
Earus glaucescens. S K.

586

APPENDIX.

ili

White-winged Gull.
Herring Gull.
Wm IE Gull.
A^ort/icrn Gull.
Short-p.illkd Gull.
Bonaparte's Gull.

KiTTIWAKE.

Kcd-footcd Kittiwakc,
Saisine's Gull.
Arctic Tern.
White-tailed Tern.
Short-tailed Tern.
Loon.

Arctic Diver.
Adams' Diver.
Red-throated Diver.
Red-necked Grebe.
Horned Greise.
Tui'TED Puffin.
White-breasted Puffin.
Lai'.rador Auk.
Horn BILL.
Crested Auk.
Little Auk.
Dusky Auk.
Least A\:k.
Cassin's Auk.

Guillemot.
Foolish Guillemot.
Califounian Murre.
Thick-billed Murre.
Marbled Guillemot.
Wrangell's Guillemot.
Ancient Auk.

Larus leucopterus. Y. O.

Larus argentatus. Y. O.

Larus Hutcliinsii. Y.

Larus borealis. Y.

Larus brachyrhynchus. f O.

Chroicocephalus Philadelphia, t

Rissa tridactyla. f

Rissa breinrostris Brandt not auct

Xenia Sabinii. Y. [St. George's

Sterna macroura. f O.

Sterna aleutica Baird, n. s. K. O.

Hydrochelidon fissipes. Y. O.

Colymbus torquatus. Y. O.

Colymbus arcticus. Y. O.

Colymbus Adamsii. K.

Colymbus septentrionalis. Y.

Podiceps griseigena. Y. O.

Podiceps cornutus. Y. O.

Mormon cirrhata. f

Mormon corniculata. t

Sagmatorrhina labradoria. K.

Cerorhina monocerata. S.

Phaleris cristatella. K.

Phaleris microceros. Y. K.

Phaleris tetracula. Bering Strait.

Phaleris pusilla. Aliiiska.

Simorhynchiis Cassini Coues, n. s.
Ounimak Pass.

Uria columba. f O.

Uria lomvia. K.

Uria californica. S. K. O.

Uria arra. K. St. George's Island.

Brachyrhamphus marmoratus. S.

Brachyrhamphus Wrangellii. S. [S.

Brachyrhamphus antiquus. Aliaska.
The above refers only to the species actually collected. Sundry
others were observed, but not obtained, as the hooded merganser and
the European lapwing ; but it was considered best to catalogue only
those actually brought home. Many of which the eggs were not ob
tained were known to breed. Future collectors may be expected to make
additions, both to the number of known birds inhabiting the country,
and the knowledge of their geographical distribution.

Uu ',

INSECTS OF ALASKA.

5^7

INSECTS.

List of Diurnal Lepidoptera.

Vanessa antiopa Ochs. Nulato, May.
Erebia discoidalis Kirby. Yukon River, May and June.
Erehia ATaminus Douhl. Nulato, May.
Graptaf annus Eclw. ? Yukon River, June.
Mclitim Ifelvia Scudder, n. s. Yukon River, June 15th.
MiUta:a sp. (? M. palla Boisd.). Fort Yukon.
Lyaena Lucia ^Vest\v. Yukon River, June.

Pierh Tcnosa Scudder. Yukon River, June and July, below Nulato.
Authocaris htueolata Boisd. Yukon River, abo\e the Ramparts.
Colias interior Scudder. Fort Yukon, June 25th.
Papilio Turnus Linn. Yukon River, June and July, abundant.
Fapi/io Aliaska Scudder, n. s. Nulato to Hudson Bay, May and June.
Parnassius Eversmannii Menet. Yukon River, June 15th. (Siberian.)
Species were noticed, but not obtained, which may have been other
than those enumerated above.

List of Nocturnal Lepidoptera.

BOMBYCIDiE.

Euprepia caja Linn. St. Michael's, August.

Platarctia borcalis Moschler.

Phragmatobia Dallii l^ackard, n. s. June isth.

Gastropacha alaskcnsis Packard, n. s. Yukon River, June loth.

phai,/enid;e.
AManippe liastata Linn. Yukon, July.
Coremia sp. indet. Nulato.
Hoitnatopis sp. indet.
Anisopteryx sp. indet. St. Michael's, September 20th.

TINEID^E.

Dcpressaria and three other unrecognizable forms.
List of Hymenoptera.

AMD/K.

Bombus pccidmtalis Greene. Yukon Valley.
Bombus flavifrons Cress. Yukon Valley.

5S8

APPENDIX.

Bombiis frii^idiis Smith. Niilato.
liombus hicustris Ocss. Kutlik.
Bombus Kirbycllus Curtis ? Kutlik.

VF.SI'IIJ/E.

I'cspiX arciiariix I'';il)r. Kutlil .

Vispa iiorTCi^iiii l'';ibr. Kutlik.

I'cs/ia tripunctiUd Packard, n. s. Kutlik.

V'espa alaskcnsis Packard, n. s. Kutlik.

I'O.MI'lLin.K.

Pompiliis /iiifiiosiis Cress. Kutlik.

FOKMlCID/li.

Formica licnulaiica Linn. Kutlik.

UKOCERlD.i;.

Urocents flavicornis Fabr. Yukon.

List of Neuroptera.

PERLINA.

Ptcrouarcys bilobti Newman. Nulato.

Pcrla sp. (undetermined). Yukon River.

Pcrla sp. " " "

Pcrla {iVcp/ic/ioii) Dallii, Uhler, n. s. Yukon River.

* Pcrla sencra liagen. Unga Island.

AGRIONINA.

Ag;rion anticxiim Hagen. June 25, near Fort Yukon.
Lestes sp. $ (undetermined). Yukon River.

/KSCHNINA.

.^Esclnia clepsydra Say. July, near Fort Yukon.

* .Eschua silken sis Hagen. Sitka.
*^Eschna juncca Linn. Kenai, Cook's Inlet.

* Added to coin]ilcte the list of known Alaskan species, from Ilagen's Synop^^is oi
the North-American Neuroptera.

USEFUL PLANTS OF ALASKA.

MI!i;i.l,lLI.VA.

Cordulia, like T. icita. Yukon River.

CorduHa Shunkffi Sciuklcr. June, near Fort Vukon, common.

Cordulia cranita Scuclder. June, near Fort Yukon.

Diplax intada Hagen. June 25, near Fort Yukon.

mikv(;am.\a.
*Limuoplulus vastus Hagen. Keiiai, Cook's Inlet.
*Lim„ophUus perjurns Hagen. Kenai, Cook's Inlet.
Limnophilus ? n. s. Nulato, May 1 2tli, one specimen.
tryplot/irix hisulans Hagen, n. s. Nulato.

5«9

LIST OF USEFUL I'LAXTS IXDKW-.XOl'S IN TIIF TEKRI

TORY OF ALASKA.

KANINCILACK/E.

Hepiitica triioha Chaix. Sitka.

Coptis trifolia Sal. "

C. aspknifolia Sal. "

Aconitum Napdlus, van dclphiuifoliunu Sitka, northward.

CKUClFKR.Ii:.

Nasturtium palustrc I). C. Yukon and Unalashka.
Cochkaria fatcstrata R. Rr. Norton Sound, north.
C. obloii}^iJ'olia I). C. " « i<

C. aii^lica L. Kotzehue Sound.

LINA( i:,li.

Lhium pcrame L. Fort Yukon.

LRfil'MIXOS/l!:.

Trifolinm rcpciis L. Sitka (introduced).
Lathyrus maritimus Big. Sitka and northward.
Hedysarum Mackenzii Rich. Wikon.

;en's Synopsis

KOSACK/K.

Rubus spectabtlts Pursh. Sitka, Kadiak.
R. arciicus L. Kotzebue Sound.

* Sec note on preceding page.

III

..1^

IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)

4?^

1.0

I.I

1.25

UiM2.S

■25

^ m
It us

II J£

1.4

III 1.6

«%

Photographic

Sciences

Corporation

33 WEST MA(N STRIET

WMSTIR.N.Y. MS«0

(716) 172-4503

•SS

■ ^

590

APPENDIX.

R. pedatns Cmith. Sitka.

R. chamcemorus L. Sitka and northward.

R. nutkanus M09. Sitka.

Rosa cinnamomea L. Yukon.

Rosa blanda \,. Sitka.

Pyrus rivularis Dougl. Sitka.

P. sambuci/olia Cham. "

GROSSULACEiB.

Ribes rubrum L. Yukon.

R. hudsonianum Rich. Yukon.

R. laxiflorum Pursh. Sitka.

R. bracteosum Dougl. "

R. lacustre Pursh. Arctic Coast.

UMHELLIFF.RiC.

Archangelica officinalis Hofim. Sitka, northward
A. Gmelini D. C. Sitka, northward.

AKALIACE^.

Panax horridmn Smitli. Sitka, Kadiak.

CAPRIFOLIACEiB.

Sambucus pubens Michx. Sitka.

VALERIANACEiE.

Valeriana dioica L. Norton Sound.
V. capitata Willd. Arctif Coast.

COMPOSITiE.

Arnica angiisti/olia Vahl. Yukon. Kotzebue.

A. Chammissonis Less. Unalashka.

A. obtusifolia Less. "

A. unalashkensis Less. "

A. latifolia Bong. Sitka.

Artemisia vulgarii L. var. Tilesii. Norton Sound.

Taraxacum dens-leoni Desf. Arctic Coast.

USEFUL PLANTS OF ALASKA.

ERICACEie.

Vaccinium Vitis-itUea L. Sitka. Yukon.

V. myrtilioides Hooker. "

V. myrtillus L. "

V. Chamissotiis Bong. " Unalashka.

V. ova/i/o/iiim Smith. "

y. parvifolium Smith. "

V. Salicinum Cham. Unalashka.

V. ccEspitosum Michx. Sitka.

V. uliginc'um L. Sitka, northward.

Oxycoccus vulgaris L. Sitka, northward.

Arctostaphylos alpina Spreng. Sitka, northward.

A. uva ursi Spreng. Unalashka, northward.

591

GENTIANACEiE.

Gentiana amarella L. Sitka.

POLYGONACEili.

Oxyria reniformis Hooker. Sitka, northward.

Rumex salicifolius Weinru. "

R. acetosa L. Kotzebue Sound.

R. domesiicm Hartm. Sitka, northward.

Polygonum viviparum L. Sitka, northward.

EMPETRACEiE.

Empetnm nigrum L. Sitka, northward.

SALICACE^.

Salix speciosa H. & A. Yukon. Kotzebue.

.S". Richardsomi Hook. Kotzebue.

S. Barclayi Anders. Kadiak.

S. phyllicoides Anders. Western Arctic America.

S. sitkeusis Led. Sitka.

Populus balsa mi/cm L. Sitka, northward.

URTlCACEiE.

drtica dioica L. Sitka.

592

APPENDIX.

BETULACEiE.

Bctttla f^ltvidtilosa Michx. Yukon.
B. nana I,. Norton Sound. Arctic.
B. Ermaiii Cham. Unalashka.
Almts viriiius D. C. Sitka, northward.
A. rubra Bong. " "

A. incana Willd. Kotzcbue Sound.

MYKICACE^.

Myrka Gale L. Sitka, northward.

CONIFERiE.

Abies canadensis Michx. Sitka.

A. Merteiisiana Hong. "

A. si/kensis Hong. "

A. alba Michx. Yukon Territory.

Larix davtirica Fisch. Kiuliak. Yukon ?

ritius contorta I)ou<;I. Sitka. I-'ort Selkirk, southward.

Cliatiuccyparis nntkatcnsis Spach. Sitka (= Thuja excelsa Bong).

yuniperus communis var. alpina Willd. Sitka. Yukon ?

LILIACE/E.

Fritillaria hvnchatkaisis I<"isch. Sitka, northward.
Allium schicnoprasum L. Yukon.
Veratrum Escholtzii Gray. Sitka.

ORA88BS.

G R A M I N E iG .

Hordcum pratense L. Sitka.
//. jubatum L. Yukon.
Elymus sibiricus L. Sitka.
E. arenarius L. Norton Sound.

E. mollis Trill. Sitka, northward.
Triticum repcns L. Kot/ebue Sound.
Festuca ovina \.. " "

F. rubra L. Sitka, northward.
F. subulata Bong. Sitka.
Bromus ciliatus X,, Kotzebue.

USEFUL PLANTS OF ALASKA.

B. subiihtus I,ed. Unalashka.
B. a/citUnsts Trin. "

B. sitkensh Hong. Sitka.

Poa siauvttha Trin. Unalashka.

P.flavicans Led. "

P. arctUa R. Hr. Sitka to Kotzebue.

P. (cnisia All. " "

P. rotuiuiata I'rin. Unalashka.

P. nemoralis L. Sitka to Kotzebue.

P. annua L. " "

P. pratciisis L. Kotzebue.

Co/podium ftilvr.m Led. Kotzebue.

Diipontia psUosatitha Rupr. Kotzebue.

Catabrosa aquatica Beauv. Sitka. Kotzebue.

C. a/git/a Fries. Kotzebue.
Atropis maritima Led. Sitka.
A. angustata Led. Kotzebue.
Glyceria aquatica Smith. Sitka.

G. glumaris Led. Sitka. Kotzebue.

Hierochloa borealis R. & S. "

//. alpina R. & S. "

Trisctum subspicalum Trin. "

71 sesquijfonim 'I'rin. Unalashka.

7' ceniuum Trin. Sitka.

/4/m acspitosa Trin. Unalashka.

///>vi! var. Bottnica Trin. SitKa.

//. rt/Y/mj! Trin. Sitka, l^nalashka.

A. ahopurpurca Scheele. Sitka. Unalashka.

Calamagrostis alcutica Trin. " "

C.purpurascnis R. Hr. Yukon.

(7. siHi^osa W'ahl. Sitka.

C lapponica Trin. I'nalashka.

r. m-gUrta (}a;rt. Kotzebue Sound.

C. canaiknsis Beauv. " "

C. Langsdorjii Trin. " "

ArctagrosUs latifolia Led. Kotzebue Sound.

Cinna latifolia Led. Sitka.

Agrostis a^qnivolvis Trin. Sitka.

A. exarata Trin. "

A. geminata Trin. Unalashka.

/f. laxiflora R. Br. "

593

594

APPENDIX.

PhUum pratense L. Sitka.

P. alpinum L. Sitka. Kotzebue.

Ahpccnrus alpinus Sm. "

EQUISETACEvE.

Equisctum arvense L. Sitka, northward.

FUNGI.

Erincum rosetim Schultz. Norton Sound.

Several fungi which in warmer latitudes are deleterious are, in tlie
northern portions of Alaska, eaten with impunity (among them Agariais
mutabilis, according to Dr. Kellogg).

ALQiB.

Alaria esatlenta Grev. Arctic and western coasts.
Other species of algte are eaten by both Indians and Innuit, which I
have no means of identifying.

Note. — The greater part of the above list is extracted from the Report of Dr. J.
T. Rotlirock, Botanist of tiie Scientific Corps of the Western Union Telegraph Kx-
pcdition, Smithsonian Report for 1867, pp. 433-463.

APPENDIX H.

LIST OF WORKS CONTAINING INFORMATION IN REGARD TO
ALASKA AND THE ADJACENT TERRITORIES.

AnF.LUNO.

Clcscliichte der Schiffahrten und \'ersuchc vvclche zur Entdcckung
des N. O. Weges nach Japan und China von verschiedcnen Nalioncn

Haliri'^cr" ''"'''^'"' ^'' ^°" ^^'"■'''°'''' ^"'''"" -'^'''■■'""S- 4t°-

Alaska Hkralh, The. Kdited semi-monthly by Agapius Honcharen-
ko. ban Prancisco, March, 1868, &:c.

Aleutian Islands, and their Inhabitants. St. Petersburg, 1845.
(In Russian.) ^ ^•'

Akch..:oloo.a Amkr.cana, by the American Antiquarian Society.
Cambridge, October, 1836. ^

Archives of the Russian Amkr.can Company. Published by the

Directors. St. Petersburg, 1862.
Atlantic Monthly. Boston, June, 1867. pp. 731 to 750.
Bai-.k and Helmkrsen.

Beitriige zur Kenntniss des Russischon Reiches und der anrni izen-
den Lander Asien's. Auf Kosten der Kaiserlichen Al<ad. derV .ssen-
scha ten, herausgegeben von K. K. von Baer und Gr. von Mehnersen
St. Petersburg, 1839.

Baranoff.

Biography of Alexander Andr^avich Baranoff. St. Petersburg
1835. (In Russian.) "'

Harrow.

Chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic Regions. By
John Barrow, V. R. S., isic. London, 18 18. ^

BtECHEY.

Narrative of the Voyage of the Blossom to the Pacific and Behring
Straits. By Captain F. W. Beechey. London, 183 1.
Bei.cher.

Narrative of the Voyage of H. M. S. Sulphur dtiring the years
1836-1842. By Captam Sir Kdward Belcher. London, 1843.

596

APPENDIX.

Belmn.

Remarques sur le Carte de TAmdrique Septentrionale. Par M.
Bellin. Paris, 1754.
Benyowski.

Memoirs and Travels of Maurice Augustus, Count de Benyowski.
Written by iiimself. London, 1790.

Bercih.

History and Chronology of the Discovery of the Aleutian Islands
and of the Russian Fur Trade. By Vasili Bergh. St. Petersburg,
1823. (In Russian.)

The first Voyages undertaken by Russians to discover the Separation
of Asia and America. By Vasili Bergh. St. Petersburg, 1858. (Ip
Russian.)

Blaschke.

Topographia medica, Portus Novo Archangelensis. By Dr.
Blaschke, Surgeon to the Russian Am«.ican Company. St. Peters-
burg, 1842.
Brduohton.

Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and Round the
World. By William R. Broughton. London, 1804. Two volumes,
4to, with Atlas.
Buchanan.

Sketches of the History, Manners, and Customs of the North-
American Indians. By James Buchanan. London, 1824. 8vo.

Bueschixc.

Nachricht v. d. Russ. Entd. zwischen Asien und Europa, &c., aus
dem St. Petershurgcr Hist. Geogr. Kalender fiir das Jahre 1781, iiber-
setzt V. Consistorialrath Hase. And also, Mag. f die neue Hist, und
Geogr. Vcl. XVI. Halle, 1782. 4to. pp. 235-286. Von Dr.
Anton Friedrich Biisching.

BURNEV.

A Chronological History of Northeastern Voyages of Discovery,
and of the early F.astern Navigations of the Russians. By Captain
James Burney, F. R. S. London, 18 19.

BUSCHMANN.

Die Sprache der Koloschen, in Abhandlungen der Konigl. Ak. dcr
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, pp. 376-432. Berlin, 1856.

Campbell.

Voyage Round the World, &:c., from 1808- 1812. By Archibald
Campbell. Edinburgh, 1816. 8vo.

LIST OF WORKS IN REGARD TO ALASKA

597

Chamisso.

Rc'ise um die Welt mit der Romanzoffischen Entdeckungs Expedi-
tion in den Jahren 1815-1818, auf der Urig Rurik, Capt. Otto von
Kotzebue. By Adalbert von Chamisso. Leipzig, 1836.

C'hlebnikoff.

Notes on America, &c. By Alexie ChlebnikofT. (Sec Materials
for the History of the Russian Colonies).

ClIORIS.

Voyage pittoresque autour du Monde, &c. Folio. Paris, 1822.

Chramchenko. (See Kramchcnko.)

Chruschoff. (See Krushchoff.)

Chwostoff. (See Davidoff.)

Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society for 1804.

collinson.

Proceedings of Captain CoUinson, C. B., in H. AL S. Enterprise,
Behring Strait Division of Arctic Search, 1851 - 1854. (Blue Book.)

Cook..

Voyage to the Pacific Ocean in the Years 1776- 1780. By Captain
James Cook. London, 1782, 1784, 1785.

CoxE.

Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and America.
London, 1780. By Rev. William Coxe. London, 1787.

Also by the same, A Comparative View of the Russian Discoveries
with those of Captains Cook and Clerke.

Dall.

Die Telegraphen-Expedition auf dem Jukon in Alaska. Mit Karte.
N. 19. By W. H. Dall. Petcrmann's Geographische Mitthcilungen.
1869. Heft X. Gotha. Justus Perthes.

Remarks, &c. Boston Society of Natural History, Proceedings,
Vol. X. November 4, 1868. Vol. XL 1869.

Note on the Geology of Alaska. Silliman's American Journal of
Science and Arts. January, 1868.

Remarks, October, 1868. Proceedings California Academy of
Sciences. (F>rors of reporter excepted.)

Observations on the Aurora Borealis, read before the National
Academy of Sciences, Northampton, September, 1869.

Note on the Trend of the Rocky Mountains, north oi' Latitude 60°,
and its Influence on Faunal Distribution ; and

On the Distribution of the Aborigines of Alaska and adjacent Ter-

598

APPENDIX.

ritorics. American Association for the Advancement of Scienct-.
Read before the Salem Meeting, August 20, 1869, !)y W. H. Dall.

Report, by W. H. Dall, on the Agricultural Resources of Alask.i,
(in) Report of United States Commissioner of Agriculture for i86>S.
Washington, 1869.

Observations on the (leology of Alaska (in the Coast Pilot of
Alaska. Sec Davidson). Washington, 1869.

First Day on the Yukon. (In Old and New.) Boston, 1870.
pp. 44-4/-
Dam, ANf) Hannister.

List of the Birds of Alaska, with Notes on their Habits and Distri-
bution. By W. H. Dall and H. M. Bannister, A.M. Transactions of
the Chicago Academy of Sciences, 1869.

Davidokk.

Reise der Russischen Kaiserlichen Flott-officiere, Khwostow und
Dawidow, von St. Petersburg (lurch Sibirien nach Amerika und /ii
riick, in den Jahren 1802, 1803, 1804. Bcschr. von Dawidow, uiui
aus clem Russischen iibcrsctzt von Dr. Karl Joh. Schultze. Berlin,
1816.

Davidson.

Coast Pilot of Alaska. (First Part.) Southern Boundary to Cook's
Inlet. By (leorge Davidson, Assistant United States Coast Survey.
Octavo, (lovernment Printing ' Office, Washington, D. C, 1869.
(Published by the Coast Survey).
Dklisi.e dk la CrovMre.

Explication de la Carte des nouvellcs Ddcouvertes an Nord, I've.
par Ph. Buaclie. Par Joseph Nicholas Delisle de la Croyl-re. Paris,
1752. 4to.

De Mofras. \'oyage Around the World in 1841 - 1842. By Dullot dc

Mofras. Paris, 1845.
Den vs.

Les Californies, I'Oregon, et les Possessions Russes en rAmdriquo,

les iles Nouika et de la Reinc Charlotte. Par M. Ferdinand Dcnys

(in L'Univers). Paris, 1849.

Directory for Bkiiring's Sea and the Coast of Alaska.

From Findlay's Directory of the Pacific Ocean, &c. United States
Bureau of Navigation. Government Printing Office, Washington.
1869. 8vo.

Dixon.

Voyage Round the World, but more particularly to the Northwest

LIST OF WORKS IN REGARD TO ALASKA.

599

Science.
1. Dall.
)!" .Mask.i,

for I SOS.

I Pilot of
on, 1870.

ind Distri-
sactions of

ostow uiid
La und /11
kUlow, und
c. Berlin,

r to Cook's

ist Survey.

C, 1869.

Nord, kc.
re. I'aris,

Dullot lie

Xmeriquc,
md Denys

ited States
ashington,

Northwest

Coast of North America. Uy Captains Nathaniel I'ortlock and
(leor^e Dixon. London, lySy.

DOROSCIIIN.

lleobachtungen und Ilemerkungcn iiber das Clohl-vorkommen in
der Hesit/ung der Russ. ,\m. Com. nach dem Russischen des Herrn
I'reimann, iVc. (Krman's Archives, Vol. XXV. pp. 229-237.) Hy
I*. Doroschin.

DovK.

I'eber die Warmc-Abnahme in hohcrcn Hreitcn. Zcitschr. (. .\11-
gcm. Krdkunile, p. 336. Von Herr Prof. Dove. Berlin, 1860.
Dunn.

History of the Oregon Territory and British North .American Fur
Trade, iVc. By John Dunn. London, 1844.
Du I'kiit TUOITARS.

Voyage of the French Frigate Venus. By M. Du Petit Thouars.
Paris, 1 83 7.

Enuei.hardt.

Kussische Mfi.ccllen. St. Petersburg. Vol. I. pp. 28 -69. 8vo.

Krman.

Beitriige zur Klimatologie des Russischen Reiches. Erster ,\b-
schnitt. Vol. I. p. 562, in Archiv fiir Wissen. Kunde von Russland.
Her. von Adolph Krman. Berlin. 8vo. .Also in the same, Vol. VI.
p. 499 et seq. Vol. VII. ; pp. 467-480, iiiid. ; pp. 480-512, p. 613
et seq., ibid. (On Zagoskin's Kxpedition, &c.)

FSI'INOSA.

Memorias sobre las Obscrvaciones astronomicas, &:c., por los navi-
gantes Kspanoles, iVc, orderadas par Don Josef Fspinosa y Telio.
Madrid, 1809. Two volumes. 4to.

Fkdis.
L'Orcgon et les Cotes de I'Ocean Pacifique du Nord. Paris, 1848.

FlNDI.AV.

Directory for the Navigation of the Pacific Ocean. By A. (1. Find-
lay. London, 1851.

Fischer.

Siberische CJeschichte von den Enldeckungen Sibcrien's, &:c. Books
III. and IV. St. Petersburg, 1768. 8vo.

Fleurieu.

Voyage autour du Monde pendent les Anndes 1790- 1792. Par E.
Marchand ; prtJccde d'une Introduction historique, avec Cartes et

6oo

AIM'ENUIX.

Kigurcs. Taris, Ian dc Rep. VI. et VIII. Four volumes. 410.
K«litcd by C. 1*. Claret dc I'leurlcu.

I'ORSTKR.

(Icschichton tier Rcisen scil Cook auf den N. W. und N. O.
K listen von Amerika. Aus dein Englischen, by tleorg l-'orstcr.
Kcrhn, 1791. i'lirce volumes. 4to.

History of the Voyages and Piscoveries made in the North.
Translated from the (ierinan of John Reinhold Forster, J. U. I).
Dublin, 1786. With a Map.

Fkanki.in.

Narrative of a Second Kxpcdilion to the Shores of the I'olar Sea,
from 1835 to 1837. London, 1828. 4to.

l''Kbl>KKIl'K.

Proceedings of Captain Charles Frederick, Commander H. M.
S. Amphitrite, on a Visit to Behring Straits and Vicinity. 1852.
(niuc Hook.)

Freimann.

Uemerkungcn iiber cine Reisc von Sitcha durch die Besitzunge?' ''
H. H. Co., nath deni Russischen des Herrn Freimann. (Erman's
Archives, Vol. VI., pp. 226-340.

FREV(!AM0.

Report to the Naval Bureau. By A. Frcygang, captain of the 2d
rank. St. Petersburg, 1868. Official Document.

(iMEt.IN.

Reise durch Sibcrien. By Dr. Johann Georg Gmclin. Gottingeii,
1767.

Gol.dKMN.

'i'ravels Round the World. (Russian.) By Basil Michaclovicli
Cioldfnin. St. Petersburg, 1822.

Goi.ov{n.

Review of the Russian American Colonies in 1861. By Paulas
Nikolai-evich Golovfn. Morski Sbornik, 1863.

GOVORI.IFKI.

Report of G. Govorlifkt, M. D., for i860. Diary of the Depart
ment of the Interior, Division 2, Book I. St. Petersburg, 1861.

(iREENIloW.

Memoir, Historical and Political, on the Northwest Coast of North
.\merica and the Adjacent Territories. By Robert Grecnhow.
(Senate Document, 174.) Washington, 1840.

LIST OF WORKS IN REGARD TO ALASKA.

601

4to.

History of Oregon and California and the otlier Tcrritorios on the
Northwest Coast of North America. Hy Robert (Ircenhow. Second
edition. iJoston, 1845.

(IKKWINCK.

Beitriige zur Kenntniss der orographischen und geognostischen
HeschatYenheit der Nordwest-Kuste Amerikas niit den anliegenden
Insehi. Von Dr. C. (Irewingk. (\Viti» live Maps.) St. Petersburg,
1850. Svo.

Haki'Kr's NLvcazine. July, 1867, pp. 170-185. Also the same, Vol-
ume XXXVIIL, 1869, p. 589.

Hariwk;.

The I'olar World ; .\rctlc and Antarctic Regions. By Dr. John
Harlwig. London, i86y, and N<'<v Vork, 1S69.

ILvwAilAN Si-KcrAToR. 1838 to J S.io. Tubli-shed at Honolulu, Sand-
wich Islands.

HoKMAN.N.

(icognostische Beobachtungcn, g samuiclt auf cincr Reise um die
Welt. (By) K. Hofmann. Berli i, (Szy. Svo.

Hol.MIIKRC.

Ethnographischc Skizzei. ui)er Volker des Russischen Ainerika.
Von H. J. Holmbcrg. Helbingfors, 1855.

Hooi'KR.

Ten Months among the Tents of the Tiiski, with Incidents of an
Arctic Boat Kxpedition in Search of Sir John Franklin, as far Kast as
the Mackenzie River and Cape Bathuist. By Lieutenant W. 11.
Hooper, R. N. (With a Map.) London, 1853.

Hi MHOI.DT.

Kssai politique sur le Royaume de la Nouvelle Kspagne. Par Alex-
ander von Humboldt et Aime Bonpland. Part HI. Paris, 181 1.
4to. pp. 328-350.
Importations ok rm: Hudson's Bav Company.

Published by the Directors of the Hudson's Bay Company. Lon
don, 1844.

IwAi.in Reuski, No. 266. St. Petersburg, 1S22. (Russian.)
Janokfski.

Articles in the Russian Journal Si'/i Ofcc/ush'd, for 1820- 1821,
1S39, and 1845. By Lieutenant Janoffski.
JoLRNAi, OKS Savan:.-;. Paris, 1817. (Contains documents relating to
the life of Baranoff.)

'1 1

602

APPENDIX.

Journal of the Department of the Interior.

Contains the Annual Reports of the Russian American Company.
Official Documents. 1790? to 1862. St. Petersburg. (Russian.)

Kashevaroff.

Note from A. P. Kashevdroff, in Morskoi Sbontik, April and Sep-
tember, 1862. Also, Articles in the St. Peterslmr^ski Vicdoma/i, 1845,
Nos. 190, 193, and the Sin Otcchcstva, 1839 and 1845.

KlTTLITZ.

Vegetation of the Pacific. By F. H. Von Kittlitz. Translated by
Dr. B. Seemann. London, 1861.

Travels in Micronesia, Russian America, and Kamchatka. (Ger-
mvin, by the same.) Gotha, 1858.

KOSHKIN.

On the Kolosh Method of Hunting, &c. In the Journal of the In-
terior Department. St. Petersburg. (Russian.)

Kostlitzeff.

Notes on the Koloshes. In the same. (Russian.)

KoTZEnUE.

Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Rchring Straits, for the
Purpose of Exploring a Northeast Passage, in 1815 - 1818. By Lieu-
tenant Otto von Kotzebue. Translated by H. F',. Lloyd. London, 1821.

Voyage of the Brig Rurik in the Years 1815 - 1818. By Otto von
Kotzebue. (German.) Weimar, 182 1.

New Voyage Round the World, in the Years 1823 - 1826. By Otto
von Kotzebue. London, 1830.

Kramchenko.

Bruchstiicke aus dem Reise-Journal des Herrn Kramchenko, &c.
(in Krusenstern, Mem. Hydr., 1827, p. 108, and 1835, p. 98).

Krashininikoff.

History of Kamchatka and the Kurilski Islands. By Steven Krash-
ininikoff. Translated by Greve. Glocester, 1764.
Krenitzin. (See Coxe, Appendix, and Pallas, Beitriige, Vol. I. pp. .'4')-

272.)
Kruschoff.

Voyage of the Sloop-of-War Apollo in 1821. (See Journal of the
Navy Department. St. Petersburg. 1847. Russian.)
Krusenstern.

Hydrographic Memoirs and Charts of the Nortn Pacific. Published
at Leipsic, 1819. St. Petersburg, 1824, 1827, and 1835.

Company,
ssian.)

and Sep-
naii, 1845,

islated by
ka. (Ger-

of the In-

lits, for the
l]y Lieu-
don, 1821.
} Otto von

By Otto

lenko, &c,
/en Krash-

:. pp. .'40-

■nal of the

LIST OF WORKS IN REGARD TO ALASKA. 603

Voyage to the Russian American Colonies, ,803 to 1806 IV
Admiral \ on Krusenstern. St. Petersburg, 1812.

KUPFFKR.

Observations Meteorologique. faites .1 I'Academie Imperiale des
Sciences. % A. T. Kupffer. St. Petersburg, ,836. 410.
Langsdorf.

Voyages and Travels. 1803 to ,807. By C. H. v. Langsdorf.
Liondon, 1813. °

Bemerkungen auf einer Rcise urn die Welt in den Jahren ,So,-
1807. Hcrr von Langsdorf. Frankfort, 1812.
La Perouse.

Voyage Round the World. By Jean Pranyois de Galloup de La
Perouse. London, 1799. ^

La Place.

Ca,npagne de Circumnavigation ,1c la Frc'sate I/Artcmis, pnulan,

1 arts, 1054. (Six Parts.)
Lasareff.

Voyage of the Sloop-of War Ladoga, 1822 - ,824. By Captain M
P. Lasareff. St. Petersburg, 1832.

Ledrun.

Abrego de tous les Voyages au Pole Nord. Par M. Lcbrun
Paris, 1 8-?

Lenz.

Ueber die Fluthwasser auf Sitcha. (Erman's Archives, Vol. Ill
p. 361.) Von E. Lenz.

Lesseps.

Journal historique du Voyage de M. de Lesseps. Paris, 1790. 8vo.
(See £a Perouse.)

Levasheff. (See Coxc, Appendix L, and Pallas, Nord. Beitr., pp. 249 -
272.)

LiSIANSKV.

Voyage Round the World in the Ship Neva. By Urey Lisiansky,
Captain, Russian Navy. London, 1814.

LUTKl5.

Voyage autour du Monde sur la Corvette SJniavine, dans les
Annies 1826 to 1829. By Captain Frederic Lutkj. Puis, 1835.

!! !
'. I.
■ t

'ill

6o4

APPENDIX.

Mackenzie.

Voyages from Montreal over the Continent of North America to
the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, in the Years 1 780 - 1 793. By Alex-
ander Mackenzie. London, 1801. 4to. With Maps.

Maguire.

Proceedings of Commander Rochefort Maguire, commanding H.
M. S. Plover, in Vicinity of liehring Strait. And further Report of
Proceedings to August, 1853. Also, Proceedings at Moore's Harbor,
September, 1852, to August, 1853. Also, Proceedings during Second
Winter passed at Point Barrow, 1853-54, (Blue Books.)

Marchan'D. (See Fleurieu.)

Materials for the History of the Russian Colonies. Four Parts. 8vo.
St. Petersburg. 1861. (Russian.)

Mearks.

Voyages from the Northwest Coast of America. By John Meares,
Esq. London, 1790.

Memoirs et Observations Geographique et Critique sur la Situation des
Pays Septentrionaux. Lausanne, 1765. Anonymous.

Moore.

Cleneral Proceedings of Commander T. E. L. Moore, H. M. S.
Plover, through Behring Strait and towards Mackenzie's River, 1848-
1849. Also, Proceedings in Vicinity of Behring Strait, in the Winter
of 185 1 -5-'.

Proceedings of Commander T. E.
September, 1849, to September, 1850.

MuELi.r.R.

Voyages from Asia to America, &c.
London, 1761 and 1764.

Northwesterx American' BorxDARv.

With ^L'lps, ivrc. London, 181 7. 8vo.

Official Documents.

Report of the Senate Committee on the Russian American Colo-
nies, Othcial. St. Petersburg, 1863. (In Russian.)

Pallas.

Nordische Beitriige zur physikalischen und geographischen Erd-
und Volkerbeschreibung, Xaturgeschichtc, und (Ekonomie. By I'r.
P. S. Pallas. Leipzig, 1781.

Neue Nordische Beitriige. (See also Appendix to Pennant's Arctic
Zoology.)

L. Moore, H. M. S. Plover,
(Blue Books.)

By Gerhard Friedrich Miiller.

LIST OF WORKS IN REGARD TO ALASKA.

605

Pamiatnik tradoff provoslavnich blahoviestniskoff, &c. (Memoirs of
the Orthodox Missionaries.) Moscow, 1852.

Pauly.

Description Ethnographique des Peiiples de la Russie. Par ^L T.
de Pauly. Publice h I'Occasion du Jubile mille'naire de I'Empire de
Russie. St. Petersburg, 1862. Folio. (Astor Library.)

Petermaxn.

Notes on the Telegraph Explorations in Alaska. T5y Dr. A. Peter-
mann, LL. D., Geographer. Mittheil. October, 1869. Gotha. (Also
same for 1866).

Phipps.

Voyage toward the North Pole. By Constantine John Phipps
(Lord Mulgrave). London, 1774.

Pleshneff.

Survey of the Russian Empire. Translated by Smirnove. London,
1792.

PORTLOCK,

Voyage Round the World, &c., performed in 1785 -1788. By
Captain Nathaniel Portlock. London, 1789. (See Di.\on.)

Raduga.

A Periodical of Revel, 1833. Articles by Kotzebue, &c.

Reports of the Russian American Company. Published annually (in
Russian) at Sitka and St. Petersburg.

Richardsov.

The Polar Regions. By Sir John Richardson, LL. D. Edinburgh,
1861.

ROUERTSON.

Our Right and Title to Oregon. By Rev. Dr. Robertson. Wash-
ington, 1846.

History of America. By Rev. Dr. Robertson. New York, 1856.

ROCQUEFEUIL.

Journal d'un Voyage autour du Monde pendent les Annees 1816-
1819. By Camille de Rocquefeuil. Paris, 1823. Jena, 18:13.
8vo.

Ro^

ss.

Narrative uf a Second Voyage in Search of a Nortlnvest Passage,
&c. By Captain John Ross. London, 1835. 410. Three volumes.

Notes on the T'nneh or Chippewyan Indians of British and Rus
sian America. By Messrs. Ross, Hardisty, and Jones. Communi-

6o6

APPENDIX.

•;i

cated by Georp;e Gibbs. Report of Smithsonian Institution for 1866.
Washington, D. C.

RusCHKN'IlKRdKR.

Voyage Around the World. Philadelphia, 1838.

Sankt I'etkrrl'rcski Vikdomati.

St. Petersburg News, for the Year 1845. (See Kashei'droff.')

Sarychkkk (davrila).

Achtjahrige Keise im N. O. Siberien, &c., iibersetzt von Johann
Hi'inrich Uusse, niit Kupft. Leipzig, 1805- 1806. 8vo.

Saur.

An Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition to
the Northern Parts of Russia, by Commodore Joseph Hillings, in the
Years 1785 -1794. l>y Martin Saur, Secretary to the Expedition.
London, 1802.

.ScHKMEi.iN. Diary of the First Russian Circumuavigation of the World.
By F. Schemelin. In Two Parts. (Russian.) St. Petersburg,
1816-1818.

Slhi.okzkr.

Neue Nachrichten von den neuentdeckten Inseln in der See zwi-
schen Asien und Amerika, &c. Von J. L. S. Schloezcr. Hamburg
und Leipzig, 1776. 8vo.

ScoRKsnv.

Account of the Arctic Regions, and History and Description of the
Northern \\hale Fishery. By W. Scoresby, Jr. Edinburgh, 1820.

Skkmann.

Narrative of the Voyage of H. M. S. Herald, 1845-1851. Dy
Dr. Berthold Seemann. London, 1853.

Seward.

S[)eeches of Hon. William H. Seward in Alaska, Vancouver's, and
Oregon. August, 1869. Washington, pamph., 1869. 8vo.

ShaiiklsaY.

Voyage aux Colonies Russes dc I'Amerique pendent les Annex's
182 1 - 1823. Par Achille Shabelsky. St. Petersburg, 1826.

Shei-Ikofk.

Gregorie ShelikoflTs erste und zweite Reise von Ochotsk in Siberien
durch den ostlichen Ocean nach den Kiisten von Amerika, in den
Jahren 17S3 - 1789, aus dem Russischen iibersetzt von J. J. Logan.
St. Petersburg. 1793. 8vo.

LIST OF WORKS IN REGARD TO ALASKA.

607

for 1866.

n Johann

edition to
gs, in the
xpcilition.

he World,
etersburg,

• See zwi-
Hamburg

ion of the
1820.

851. By
ver's, and
s Annecs

Siberien
1, in den
. Logan.

Shili.inoi.aw.

Narrative of Arctic Discovery from the Pearliest Period up to the
Present Time. By John J. Shillinglaw. London, 1850.

SlEMKNOFK.

(leographical and Statistical Dictionary. Three Volumes. (Rus-
sian.) St. i'etersburg, 1863 -1867.
Simpson.

Narrative of the Discoveries on the North Coast of .America,
effected by the Officers of the Hudson's Bay Comi)any, during the
Years 1836- 1839. By Thomas Simpson, Ksq. London, 1843.

Narrative of a Voyage .\round the World during the Years !84i -
1842. By Sir (leorge Simpson, Governor of the Hudson Bay Terri-
tory. London, 1847.

SOKOI-OFF.

Narrative of Chirikoff's \'oy.ige. (Russian.) By Captain-Lieuten-
ant A. P. Sokoloff. St. Petersburg, 1849,
Staehli.v.

Account of the New Northern Archipelago, lately discovered by
the Russians. By M. J. von Staehlin. London, 1774. (Translated
from the German.)

Steli.kr.

Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamchatka, &c. By Georg Wilhclm
Steller. Frankfurt und Leipzig, 1744.

Beschreibung der See-reise von Kamtschatka nach Amerika. Georg
Wilhelm Steller. Frankfurt, 1774.

SrRAHI.EN'ltERC.

Description Historique de I'F.mpire Russe. Par M. Ic Baron de
Strahlenberg. Amsterdam, 1757.

SlUCKENBERG.

Studium der Geographic, Topographic, Ethnographic, und Statistik
des Russischen Reiches. Von J. Ch. Stuckenberg. St. Petersburg,
1849. 8vo.
Sumner.

Speech of the Hon. Charles Sumner on the Cession of Russian
.\merica to the United States. Washington, 1867.
Swan.

Three Years' Residence in Washington Territory. By J. G. Swan.
New York, 1857.
Taraikanokk.

Schiffsbuch iiber cine Fahrt der Russiscli-.\merikanischen Com-

6o8

APPENDIX.

pagnie, Sloop St. Nikolai, unter Befehl des Steuermanns Bulaegin an
der N. VV. Kiiste Amerikas, von Timotheus Taraikanoff, in S/. Peters-
burger Zeitung, 1822. X. pp. 22-52.

Tebenkoff.

Hydrographic Atlas and Observations. By Captain Michael Teb-
enkoff. (Russian.) With forty-eight Charts. St. Petersburg, 1848
and 1852.

TiKHMKNIEFF.

Historical Review of the Progress of the Russian American Com-
pany, and its Operations until the Present Time. By P. TikhmeniclT.
Two Volumes. October. St. Petersburg, 1861. (Russian.)

United States Executive Documents.

House, No. 177, Parts I. and H., 1868. Correspondence on the
Alaska Purchase. Communicated by the President of the United
States.

House, 129, 1870. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury on
the Fur Seal Fisheries.

House, 136, 1870. Letter and Report of F. N. Wicker, Treasury
Agent in Alaska.

House, 144, 1870. Report of Vincent Colyer, Secretary Board of
Indian Commissioners, on Alaska.

House, 112, 1870. Report of Captain C. W. Raymond, U. S. A.,
on the Position of F^ort Yukon, Hudson's Bay Company ; &c.

Senate, 32, 1870. Reports of Captain Charles Bryant and H. E.
Mclntire, Treasury Agents in Alaska.

USTINCIOFF.

Hydrographic Explorations in Russian American Company's Annual
Reports.

Vancouver.

Voyage to the North Pacific Ocean. By George Vancouver. Lon-
don, 1801.

Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean, &:c., in the Years
1790- 1792. By Capt. George Vancouver. London, 1798.

Veniaminoff.

Notes on the Unalashka District. By Father Innocentius Ve-
niamfnoff. St. Petersburg, 1840. (Russian.)

VSEVOLOJSKV.

Dictionnaire geographique et historique de I'Empire de Russie,
Par M. U. S. Vsevolojsky. Moscow, 1823.

LIST OF WORKS FN REGARD TO ALASKA. 605

Wappaen's.

Handbuch der Geographic und Statistik von Nord Amcrika, Vol. I.
By Dr. J. E. Wappaens. pp. 293 to 294.
Wheildon.

The New Arctic Continent, or Wrangell's Land, \:c. I5y i.V. \V
Wheildon. Proceedings of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science. Vol. xvn. 1868.

WUVMPER.

Travel and Adventure in the Territory of Alaska, and in various
other Parts of the North Pacific. By Frederick Whvmper. London
1868. ' '

A Journey from Norton Sound, Bering Sea, to Fort Yukon. By
Frederick Whymper. (With a Map.) Journal of the Geographical
Society of London, 1868.
Wilkes.

Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the
Years 1838-1842. By Charles Wilkes, Captain United States
Navy. Philadelphia, 1844. Vol. IV.
\\'rangell.

Statistische und ethnographische Nachrichten uber die Russischen
Besitzungen, an der Nordwest Kiiste von Amcrika. Auf Kosten der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, c\:c., &c. Von Count
Admiral Ferdinand von Wrangell. St. Petersburg, 1S39. (Edited by
Baer and Helniersen, which see).
Vermoloff.

Vrticle in the Nouvelle Annales dcs Voyages. By AL Yer'moloft-
Pari.s, 1846.

Zagoskin.

Travels on Foot, and Description of the Russian Possessions in
America, from 1842 - 1844. By Lieutenant L. Zagdski.i. St. J'eters-
burg. 1847. (Russian.)

Also in German, in Erman's Archiv fur wissenschaftl-che Kunde von
Russland. Vols. \T and VII.

Zapeeski Admiralskavo Departamevta.

Journal of the Naval Bureau of the Russian Government. Vol. V
pp. 219-227. 1844,1845. St. Petersburg.

INDEX.

Abnsa, Major S., sails for the Amoor, 356.
Abba-lo-tcna tribe, 421;.
Abenaki, language of the, 531.
Aberfoyle, in Scotland, 444.
Abo, the transport, 340.

Aboriginal inhabitants of Alaska, 373-432 ; ques-
tions of origin, 374.
Acapiilco, 394.
Acheto-tena tribe, 49J.
Achetotinneb tribe, 106.
Adakh Island, 247, 260 ; hot springs, 473.
Adakh volcano, 4(16.
Adams, the pioneer, 34.
Adams, K., surgeon, 52, 344, 345.
Adams, (leorge R., 240.
Admiralty Islands, 250, 471 ; coal on, 474.
Admiralty liay, 257.
Admiralty Inlet, 314 ; explored, 318.
Afognak Island, 24S, 259.
Agattu Island, 247.
Agricultural College of Pennsylvania referred to,

Agricnltural Resources of Alaska, 433-456.

Agulmnts, tribe of, 40&.

Agunalaska, 530.

Ah-gish-an-akhou, an Indian deity, 424.

Ah-tena Indians, 429.

Aian, 341, 522.

Ainos, ^23 ; different tribes of, 525, 526.

Alton's treatise ; referred to, 434.

Ajax, the ship, 333.

Aklinn Island, 24S, 2'>o, 469-472; coal in, 474,
47S.

Akutan Island, 248; peak, 289; volcano, 467, 470,
471 ; hot springs, 472, 47S.

Al-ak-shak, early name of Alaska, 529, 530.

Alai volcano, 289.

Alasica, value to the United States, 242 ; geog-
raphy, history, and resources. Part II., 243-
526; boundaries, 245; treaty of cession, 245;
ceded to Uuited States, 259; river system, 270-
289; area of, 2<)o; inhabitants of, 373-432; lan-
'^uages in, 377 ; Innuit in, 401 ; climate and
aj;ricultural resources, 433 -45f); compared with

Scotland, 444 - 448 ; timber, 453 ; geology and
mineral resources, 457-480 ; hot springs in, 472-
474; coal, 473-475; gold. 47^ 477; ice-, 47):
fisheries and fur trade, 481 -505; adjacent terri-
tories and inhabitants, 506 - 526 ; origin of name,
529 ; early name, 530 ; population, 537, and see
Appendix for miscellaneous tables, inamninlia,
575; fishes, 578; birds, 579; insects, 586; nuc-
turiial lepidoptera, 586; hymcnoptera, 5S6 ; iieu-
roptera, 587 ; indigenous plants, 588 ; grasses,
591 ; authorities cited, 594.

Alaskan mountains, 286.

Alaskan range, 101.

Alaganik village, 272,

Al-ay-ek-sa, early name of Alaska, 529, 530.

Albatross, ship, arrives at Sandwich Islands, 328.

Aleut, the stoop, 340.

Aleuts, the, civilization of, 115, 334, 339, 350, ^5.^;
descrip:lon of, 374 ; origin of, 376 ; char.icterislics
of. 385-400: seal-catching, 485-495.

Aleutian Islands, 240, 346; area of, 290; explcir.l-
tions in, 313-320; trees planted, 323, 330, 31-',
443-450, 459; fish in archipelago, 481 et si</.,
488; origin of name, 530.

Alekn.agak River, 273.

Alexander Archipelago, 246, 247, 250 ; area of, 2i;o ;
explored, 319, 334, 337, 353, 450, 454, 455, 4'.,;,

470. 477-

Alexander, Fort, 452.

Alexander I., Kmperor, 327.

Alexander Nevski, the ship, 320; wreck of, 328.

Alexieff, Feodot, 295.

Aliaska Peninsula, 289 ; north coast of, 335 ; smitli
co.ist of, 336, 33S; geology of, 458 ft si(/. : vol-
canoes in, 4^7 et scg. ; origin of name, 530 ; dis-
tinguishes from the mainland, 530.

AlikofTs barrabora, 42.

Alsekh River, 271.

Amngat Island, hot springs in, 47a.

Amak Island, 260, 466, 468, 470.

Amber in Alaska, 476.

Amber Hay, 476.

Amchitka Island, 247, 260, 289,471; coal in, 474.
478.

America, the transport, 336.

American traders at Kadiak, 310.

INDEX.

6ll

Amilka, 17, 36.

Amiia Island, 30, 247, 248, 360, ')is<13<>: school

at, 35'. 471-
Amoor River, 353, 355, 516, jiS.
Ainphitrite, sliip, 346.
Amuklita, 148 ; volcano, 467.
Amulets worn by Inilians, 141.
Anadyr Gulf, J46, 2S5, 374, ^yS, 4^.5, 570.
Anadyr River, 385, H)i, 356-358, 510.
Anadyrsk ostrog or village, 533.
Anadyrsk, post of, 395, 3i;8.
Anderson, Captain, 347.
Andon doiniii tribe, 519.
Andreatfsky, iiy: description of, 239, 230, J31.
Andreanotfsky Islands, 347.
AnkudinofT, (icrasini, his voyage, 295.
Anligmuts of tiiilniberg, 408.
Anniak River, 274.
Anthracite coal in Alaska, 473-476.
Antoine River, 380.
Anui River, 514.

Anvik River, 217, 338, 364, 276, 283, 383.
Apache Indians, 428.
Apollo, ship, 333.
Ap|iendix A. (Ilossary, 529.

" II. I'opulalioii, 537.

" C. Kur trade, 53S.

" 1). Meteorology, 541.

" K. Latitude and longitude, 545.

" K. Vocabularies, 547.

" G. Natural history, 575.

" H. Authorities cited, 594.
Apraxin, Admiral, 297.
Archangel, 291).

Archiniandrit<iff 's observations, 343.
Archipelago, Alexander, 246, 24i>, 250; area of,
2.)o; explored, 319, 334. 337. 353. 45°. 454. 455.
4f>}, 470, 477.
Arctic explorations, 331.
Arguello, Don Luis de, 324.
Argyll, statistics of, 447.
Ark-hannok, 129.
Arran, statistics of, 447.
Arrow smith's maps, 290; errors in, 291.
Aryan resemblances, 523.
A>ia, fossils in, 488.
Asiagmut, 40S.

Astor, John Jacob, his fur company, 32^1, 327.
Astoria, settlement of, 327, 328 ; delivered to United

States, 330.
Atahualpa, ship, 321.
Alka Company, 317, 334.

Alka Island, 247, 260, 2S9, 333, 33f;, 336, 344, 350,
351 ; volcanoes, 466, 468-473 ; coal in, 474, 478.
Atkan tribe, 3S6.
All.mlic Cable, success of, 507.
AtKissolT, VladJuir, his exploratioDS, 396.
Aina River, 272.
Atn.Aer Indians, 429.
Aitenmul village, 384,

Attou Island, 346.

Attu Island, 247 ; discovered by Bassnif, 301-336.

Atuia Island, 329.

Auckland Islands, seal fisheries at, 493.

Augustin Island, 258, 373.

Aurora borealis, 59, 60.

Authorities, list of, 594.

Avatanak Island, 348.

Avatcha Itay, 370, 3S5 ; river, 285.

Aziak Island, 138, 36S, 313, 418.

Back's Arctic expedition, 365, 331.

liaer's descriptions of Indians, 406, 594.

Haic de Monte, 357.

Baikal, the transport, 342 ; lake, 51S, 531.

Bald Head Mountain, 27a.

Bald .Mountains, 271, 388,

Bannister, H. M., 6.

Baptist, John, an inleri'reter, 115.

Biaranotf, /Mexander A., recall of, 304, 313, 315 ;

director, 31S, 320, 324, 33S, 329, 467, 485, 594;

resigns, 330: dk-s, 331.
Baranoff Island, 350, 254, 256 ; description of, 336,

333, 34-'. 474. 4*<5-

Baranoff, the schooner, 330, 333.

B.arber, Captain, 321.

Baring Island, 345.

Barley, growth of, 441.

Barlow's Bay, 471.

Barnard, Lieutenant, his search for Franklin, 48;
attacked by Indians, 49-52, 344, 345.

Barono-wolokolT, death of, 328.

Barren Island, 258.

Barrow, Sir John, his narrative, 594.

Barrow, I'uint, 401 : tribe of Innuit at, 410.

Bassarguine, Commander, explores the Stikine
River, 271.

Bassoff, Kinilian, discovers Attu Island, 301.

Biithing, description of, 30-31.

Be.ar hunting, 133.

Bear Island, 249.

Beaufort, Cape, 457, 474.

Beaver, the ship, 327, 328.

Beaver hunting, 213.

Beaver Island, 473.

Beaver Lake, 39, 169, 1N6.

BecherelT explores peninsula of Aliaska, 313.

Beds, Russian, description of, 9.

Beechey, Captain K. W., 594.

Beechey Island, 347.

Belcher, Sir Edward, his description of Ross Set-
tlement, 332. 3tS, 4S1. 595.

Belkofsky settlenv it, 2'k>.

Bellin, M., 594.

Bellingham Bay, 475.

Bellingshausen, the explorer, 331.

Bendeleben, Baron Otto de, 292, 357.

Benyowski, M. A. de, 595.

6l2

INDEX.

Itenzeman'n explorationH, 34J.

Hcrens, Caplain, J38.

Kergli, Vasili, 5'A

liering, Captain, 197 ; cxpctlitioti of, 297 ; rcsulls

of expeditiui), iw, 300; death of, yn, 531.
llcrinK ^c^i 4; bmmdaricn of, 34'! ; river, 171;
straits, 330. 335, 341, 374, 377, 459: W. *">
431. 431. 4''4. 4)1-
neriiiR, the ship, ii<).

Hcsbiiro' Klaiul, 147, 2^7 ; wrongly located, 291.
Ilickmnre, I'rofessor A. S , 52O.
Middle, Captain, 330.
liidarka, description of, 15.
Rihun, or shaman, 5^2.
IlillinRs, Joseph, in charge of expedition, 3<o : ''»

failure, 31^1, 4S1.
Kirch Indians, 431.
Birch Kivcr, 101, 2S0.
Ilirds of Alaska, s^o.
Hl.ick River, i(\\, 275, 285.

HIake, Professor, his account of glaciers, 462, 471.
HIanchard and Meek arrive at Silk.i, 334.
lllaschke, IJr., yfi,
Illivcn, Captain, 250.
Blizhni Island, 247.

Illodgctt, Professor Lorin, his report, 4SI.

Hlossom, the ship, 314, 335 ; voyage of, 433.

Boats, skin, description of, 13.

Bodega Bay, 306, 327, 328, 332.

liogoslova volcano, 2S(;, 41)9, 471.

Bolshoya Kivcr, 302, 516.

Bolsheretsk, overpowered by Polish exiles, 305.

Borodino, ihc ship, 332.

Bostini, 334 ; ice from, 346.

Boston Society of Natural History, 463.

Botokudo tribe of Brazil, 416.

Boulder Island, 247, 47S.

Boundaries, 333 ft seq.

Bouvetle's Island, 4(>2.

Brazil, Indians of, 416.

Bristol Bay, 246, 249, 261, 273, 333, 340, 350, 405,

4''4. 5'34.
British Columbia, 464 ; description of, 50O ct seij.
Briiton and Key's charts, jijo.
Broken Slave dialect, 106.
Broughton, VV, K., 59O ; Robert, 314.
Browning, O. H., Acting Secretary of State, 3fi7-
Buchanan, President James, 596.
Bucklaiid's Voyage, 434, 435.
Buckland Kiver, 284, 486.
Buesching, A. I" , 506.
Bukadoroff, attacked by natives, 323.
Buldakoff, 331.

Bulegin, Ivan, killed by Indians, 49.
Bulkley, Captain Charles S., 6, 355.
Bulwan idols, 519,
Bumey, Captain James, 596.
Burials, description of, 19.
Burning Point, 126.
Burnt Island, 247, 289.

Ruschmann, ;(/>.
Bush, Richard J., 35^ 35"
Butler's surveys, 2^)1

Byrnes, Michael, explore* the Yukon, 177, 33^,
so?.

Caatnano, Lieutenant Jacinto, 313.

Cabrillo, voyage of, 294.

I'achc, description of a, 133.

Caithness, statistics of, 447.

Calder Mountain, 4'i7.

Calendar, the Russian, 59.

California, exiiediiion to, 324 ; purchase of land in,
326; Russian settlement in, 32S; s.alt from, 335;
ceded to United St.ites, 342; admitted to ilic
Union, 344; miners in, 478; Academy of Natu-
ral Sciences, 4(.-o.

Cambridge Bay, 345.

Camden Bay, 34'! ; port, 474.

Campbell, Charles, his expedition to California,
324, 507 ; voyage rounil the world, yfi.

Campbell, Robert, descends the Yukon, 276, 340,

345-
Canadians, the French, 103
Canoes, description of, 126.
Canton, 329, 492.

Cape Anderson, 249.

" AvinolT, 262, 40O.

" Balhurst, 346.

•' Beaufort, 457, 474.

" Bering, 510.

" Chacon, 251.

" Choukotski, 246,

" Chukotsky, 269.

" Const.intinc, 261.

" Dall, 2f.3.

" Dai by, 2^)7.

" Pcnbigh, 137, 267, 471.

" Ilougl.ass, 25S,

" r>yer, 2O3, 2f^4, 275.

" Edgecumbe, 253.

" Klizabeth, 25S.

" Etolin, 262.

" Fairwcather, 25'), 271.

" Flattery, 314.

" Hawaii, 249, so).

" Kamchatka, 24(1.

" Khramchenko, 262.

" Krusenstcrn, 262.

" Kygani, 251.

" Leonovich, 260.

" Lisburne, a()g, 345.

" Manby, 257.

" Mendocino, 294, 305.

" Muzon, J51, 331.

" Nenilchik, 474.

" Newenham, 261, 405.

" Parry, 345.

" Phipps, 256.

" n,

INDEX.

Ciipo Peircc, if't.

•• I'tiiue 111 Wales, ifJ>; i6g, 31}.

" ruijel, V5S.

" KcKlgniiff, ]fo.

" KomniiziifT, 40'i, 407, 477.

" Scrd/e K.imcii, 21)^, 2if), 510.

" Shallow Water, iiy, lyt, 3<t^.

" Smitli. I'M-

" S|>anl)cris, j6S.

" Silencer, 2t,<>, >?'<, 471.

" St. I'.ll.n, 300, 3i(), 471.

" St. llermogcnes, 300.

" St. I'h.iHdeiit, H').

" SlarklikiitT, 474.

" .Strd^oiioff, j6o.

" Suckling, 3J7.

" Thnmas, 24'), 501)

" Tlioinpsim, 457.

" Vancciiiver, j'u, ^75.

" Whymper, jhi.

" Yakan, 50).
Captain's llarlxir, jfo, 471.
Carbon Station, coal at, 475.
Caribon Indian^, 4.<>.
Carnivora of Alaska, 575.
Cascade ran^e, 457.
Casine, description of, 5;t.
Cathcriiia .XrcliipclaK", 24't, 2?8, 41)1.
Caiightin thcKocks River, 9<>.
Cavicornia of Al.iska, 578,
Cervida' of Alaska, 578.
Chakwan liay, 262,
Ihallik River, 283.
Chalmers liay, 357, 4^)5.
Clianiisso Island, 344.
Chaniisso, voyaRe of, 454, 443, 449, 507.
Chappel, Scott R., 355.
Chart of the Yukon, first, 263 : of Coal Harbor,

291.
Charter of Russian American Company renewed,

.m. 34 ■•
Chatham Strait, 250, 252, 315: Russians driven

from, 325.
(.hatham, the sliip, 314.
Chechitno River, 272.
I hcchitno volcano, 4(16, 467.
Cheerful I'cak, 535.
Chernoff, the explorer, 336.
Chichagoff Island, 250; harbor, 2fio.
ChiclLigofT, the brig, 337, 341.
Chigniit Mountains, 2S6.
Children, Indian, 98; treatment of, 3S1.
Chili, 491, 492.

Chilkaht Indians, 100: valley, 429: tena, 429,
Chilkaht River, 100. 252, 271, 339, 429.
Chilkaht, the schooner, 337, 339.
Chiginagak volcano, 289.
Ihinisyan Island, 3S9, 25S, 507.
Chimsyans, the, 411.
China, trade open with, 316. 491, 501, 504. 51S.

Chinese compared with Innuil, ^jf:

ChiniHik jargon, i> (< : tyhee, 533.

Cliippewyan chain, 5uH.

Chippewyans. the, 28, 428.

ChirikofT Island, 24H, 315.

ChirikotT. Lieutenant Alexis, 297, 301. ,

Chirikotf, the ship, )2fi.

ChistakotT, Lieutenant, 334, 335.

I'hiswell Islanils, 25S.

Chlebnikotf, Ins notes on America, 407.

Choris, his voyage, 597.

Chramcheiiko (see A'/iI/mi/i/mj^o), 5<!7.

Chriilian .Sound, 2ju.

Christianity, introduction of, 39}. vfi

I hristmas, celebration of, 58, 178.

Chronology, 294-372

ChruscholT (see AVmA.Vi,^). 597.

Chtagalnk Island, 336.

Chngach C.ulf, 257. 272, 2.>o. 307. 3'3. i\'- 4'7.

484.
Chugachigmul Innuit. 401.
Chugachik liay, 258, 410, 471.
Chugatz Islands, 24S, 258.

Chukchee Peninsula, 2I1); Orarlans on, 374, 510
I'hukchecs, 137, j,/, ; aitacked by Russians, 21)8;

independence ol', 2')\ 353, 375, 378-385, 50>>.

510, 513-515, 519. 5^3'
Chukluk Island, 3H5
Chnklukmut Innuil, 385.
Chukotski Nose, 511.
Church, I'irst Russo-dreek, 317, 351.
Churnobour Reef, 333, 335, 450.
Chnvantses, 519.
Chv,oslofr (see l^nviilnffX 597.
Chy, or Russian lea, I'l.
Circassian tobacco, 81, 4sr,, 515.
Clara Hell, the bark, ii<^; arrives at St. Michael's,

121 ; sails, 122, 35''>, 358.
Clarence, I'ort, 408, 409, 410.
Clark and Lewis descend (.oluinbia River, 323.
Clear River, 84.

Clerk, Captain I'harlcs, his voyage and death, 30^).
Clothing, description of, 21, 82, 83.
Clyoqnol, 313.

Coal, false reports of, 98, 475.
Coal Haibor, 25'); chart of, 291. 474, 483.
Co.ist Pilot of Alaska, 59S.
Co<li,ic, 532.
Collections of Massiichusetts Historical Soc-ety,

597-
Collins, Periy M'P., 355.
Colliiison, Captain Richard, 344. 345, S4^-
Collinson's I'.xpcdition, 4S, '45, 597.
Columbia College, N. Y., 474.
Columbia River, 314, 32S, 330, 337, 340, 342.
Columbia, the sloop, 309,
Colvile River, 4, 432,
Conmiander's Islands, 285, 350, 471, 496.
Company, Russian American, 11.
1 Comptroller's Bay, 257.

6i4

INDEX.

I'nnifira- of Al««ka, soa.

C'linradi, i'jpuiii, 141.

Cnnalinline, llie iiilirr, j>2, 14A, ^f*■. iMrbnr, jj;.

('nnvictsiellled.lt Muiinl Si. Kill*. 1i'>.

C'iKik'* Kxpeditiun, (.'apuin Jimet, jo6, ]i4, 4II1,

5'l7
Cook'* Inlet, 148, JsB, jftj, 171, joll, .115. ^^'>• i^^>

3^1, 14J, 345, 401, 4'!'. 41". H(>< 450-43>. 4S3i

45ft, 45«, 4fK>, 474, 475, 4.S4, 4S3.
Cuoie lUy, 475.

('iip|>cr IhI.iiuI, 14ft, JO), 341, 46<), 537.
l.'i)p|ier Kiver, 157, iji, aS<), mj. 101 : mouth of,

di'Kovered, 507, .117, 31S, 331, 341, 34^, iiS, 4J.),

430, 4».4. 477.
Cordov.1 ll.iy, J51.
Coronailo, voyage of, i<]4.
('(mack, (iriKin iif Kii^si.in deniKnatlon, 410.
Cotter, Klili.ird I) , ii)2, .157,
Com ley, de.itli of, 109.
Coxe'n descriptions, JU'
CreoleH, clur.Klcr of, 45; as citizens, 341: as

cliurcli meniberH, 341.
Crilinn, Moiinl, 461.
Cron<t.tdt, 3 3 J, 334.
Crow Indians, 4J<>, 430.

Croyere, I.ouis Delisle de la, death of, 300, 598.
Croiier. Captain, (43.
Crucifer.e of Alaska, 5.)8.
Cruiser, the frigate, 333.

n.idalus, the ship, 314.

I)all Kiver, 100, jSo, jSi.

Dall, William II., /Passim ; his writings cited, 597,

Dances, Indiaii, 115, ■<)!*.

Dances, Innuit, 149, iit.

Danger I'cak, .si 3.

D.ividoff explores Aleutian Islands, 3J0, 598.

D.ividson, Cflacier, 251, 448, 4')3, 4S3, 598.

Davidson, Mr. ( ieorge, 352, 555, 271, 448, 483, 48S ;
his works cited, ;<)8.

D.-tvis, I'.eiicral JelTerson C, appointed Com-
mander in Alask.i, 339.

Davis Straits, 509.

Davison, Lieutenant John, 291, 356.

Dawson, Nancy, the yacht, 344,

Day's Harbor, 25S.

Dealy Island, 346.

De.ise and Simpson's Expedition, 338.

Dease Inlet, jfy).

Dcase Strait, 345.

De Castries Hay, 526.

Deep Hay, 4619, 473.

Deep Lake, 471, 485.

Deer River, 279.

DclarofT Hay, 360.

Delaroff, K. A , 314.

Delaroff Island, 247.

I)«lphinid« of Alaska, 37!.

Demarcation i'oint, 26<>.

Demenliiff Iprnvalisha, 1711.

DemiankofT dritrn from Vakntal llay, 3>).

De Mofras 340, vi8.

Denys, his account of Har,innfT, v)i : cited, 398.

I )erahin, 4H, 30 : |i<>st cstabhshed by, 276 ; rcbuild.i

It Nulato, 341, 343.
Derabin, Koii, ^ft.
Derby, the American ship, J15,
Dcshneff, his vovage, 293, 2t,i6, 375.
Devil's Slough, ]'>4
Diagram of casine, 127.
Dialects, Indian, 2H.
Diana, the sloop of war, 323, 32A.
Diomedes, the, I4>, 37s.
Directory for Hcring's Sea, Sc . 59S.
Discovery, building of ship, jii<, 331,
Dixon, Captain, 308, 59S.
Dixon's Knirance, 251, 306, 314, 487, 4SS.
Documents pertaining to purchase of Alaska, 339-

.?7»
Dog-driving, iSft.
Dog tribe of Tungusi. the, 518.
Dogs, Russian, 23, travelling with, 13.
Dokliteroff, 332.
Dolphin Strait, 34).
Domestic life, 139, 140.
Doroschin, S'f)'

Doroshin, mining euRineer, 273, 342, 437. 477
Douglas ascends the 'I'aku, 271 ; sail* from Macao,

JO). 340.
Dove, 31)9.

Drake, Sir Francis, 294.
Dry Hay, 271.
Drymen, 443.
Dumbartonshire, 444.
Dunn, 31)9.

Du Petit 'I'houars, 599.
Dyer Lieutenant J. T., »S. ^$< 36; descend-, the

Yukon, 56, 263, 277, 292, 357.

F,arthqH.3ke in 178S, 310.

F-artliquakes, 118, 342.

F.ast Cape, 269, 286.

Easter, celebration of, 68.

F.astern fisheries, 484.

Kastern Siberia, 463. 508, 510.

Ebbets, Captain, 321 ; sails for Astor, 326.

Eclipse K?:pediti<)n, 334.

Eclipse, the ship, 321.

Edgarlown, 277.

Edgecunibe volcano, 467.

Egg Island, 3, 5, 24, 266, 267.

Egg River, 232.

Ekogmut tribe, 223, 227, 228, 407.

Elis.ibetli, the vessel, 320.

Elliott, Dr., taken prisoner, 329.

INDEX.

615

F.ltnn, ll> ' explorer, jij.

I.mma lUrlinr, J7u, 141, 511.

I HKrlli.uill, 5'».

I iikIi'<Ii ll.irl)<>r, 13II.

• iinii, W. H., R, ji)j, 157.

I'.nierprisr, ihe tliip, fitted out by Aslor, \i6, 333,

K(|iil.l,r III .\l.i«l.,i, ;7ll.

I reliiin. Ilie «hip, )43.

I reniin in cli.iri;« ufkyakt, 313.

Ktman, 57H.

I i«e, (.'a|<i,iin, 315.

I^dlolli Inlet, 2'vi: n.iy, 184.

K^kimo ((ir l''.v|iiimaiix), 373, 377, 379, 514; de-

MTilitinn of, 531,
K.spinoia, .vc)

lliilin, tj, 310. 3W. 335 -.«7. 14<». 14». 35»
K.tiilin Sir.iil, 3^1 - i$i ; ll.iy, 375
1 vclyii Wiiinl, the li.irk, 357, 35S.
I vpcilition, orpaiu/aiioii nf I'eleBraph, 355-35S.
KxpliiMliiiii't, pLiiis for, 1 13.
Exploring Lxpcditiun, U. b., 339, 340, 348.

F.ilrw,->y Rock, j^k).

K.iirwcillier Mutinl.iin, 4^1,

Kalkl.ind Isl.inds, 491.

F.ilvf I'.iss, 2(m, 305, 3t)6, 44S

1 .inii.i (if the V'likon Valley, 287.

Fcdis, 5w-

Fenie, the ship, 391.

I'lsliv.iU, description of, 149- 155.

Findl.iy's Directory, 51)9.

Fire River, 25s, 2ji.

Ki>cher, ^99.

Fi^li citthinR, 171, 173, i8o, 19a.

Fisheries, 4S1 -488.

Fishes of Alaska, 579.

Fish River, 284.

FJAthead Indians, 420.

Fleuricii's voyape, 599.

Flying Fish, the schooner. 339.

Fdtbes, Profpssor E., 435.

Forcicr River, 279.

Forster, 600.

Fort Alex.mder, 173 - J75, 45J.

" Andreafsky, 3S3, 291.

" Archangel (labriel, 310.

" Archangel Michael, 323.

" I!.\l)ine, 1 14.

" l)e,ise, 114.

" Defiance, 313.

" Derabin, 46.

" Dionysius, 337, 338.

" Drew, 340.

" Francis, 114.

" Cenrge, 32S.

" Halkett, 340.

" Kennicott, building of, 68, 72, 124.

I Fort l.iikren, 34A

" .Mil'hrrvin, 103, aSo^ 344.

" Nelson, 1 1 a

" Snialo, 34H.

" I'eace River, 114.

" I'rily llanka, 114

" Selkiik, 114, .7'., 277, 279, j8l, a^7, 343. 4»*

507, 508.
" MnipMin, 203, 251, 252, 411, 454.
" St. Michael, 336.
" 'Fongas, 251.
" I'liion, 43H.
" Vancouver, 337.
" Wiangcll, 251.
" Vukiin, 6.), 71, S'), loa ; description of, loj,

192, 27f., 292, 342, 34t. 357, 437, 43), 441,

501, JO,.-.

Fortiina, the ship, 297 ; wrecked, 2')8, 331.

Fossils, hy, 71. j8o

Foster's Mississippi Valley cited, 45S.

Four I'r.iters voliano, 4'7, 4'.^, 4^«).

Fox Islaiid.s. explored, 304, 30^, 350, 47ft.

F" ranees Lake, 278, 429; River, 278, 279, 292, jo8.

Francis, Mr., 25, 3;.

Franklin, Sir John, search for, 4^, 331, 334, 333,

338. 143-
F'raier l„ike, 324 ; River, 356.
F'razer, Simon, 324.
F'rederiik, Captain Charles, 346.
Frederick Sound, 250, 2',2.
Fremont, J. t.'., his Rocky Mountain Expedition,

34'-

F'reiinann, 600.
F'reygang, (kx>.
Fur trade, 4SS - 504.

F'uruhelm, Captain, 34^ : supersedes Woiwodsky,
349i 353. 355 • superseded by .Maksutoff, 355.

("I.ibriel, the ship, 297-
C.ale, Captain, ^3(\
(■aliano. Lieutenant D. A., 313.
Ciallap.agos Island, 492.
(iaine, 201 - 203.

('■ens de Hois, the tribe of, 109, 430.
Gens de Large, io<).
Gens des lluttes, 108, 282.
Gens des F'oux. 109. 429-
Gentianacp.i- of .Alask.i, 591.
Gco:;raphisther MittheiUingcn. 290.
Geography of Alaska, 243 - 293.
George's Strait, 319.
Germain, Father, 339.
(Ihcnt, treaty of, 329.
Gliiliaks, the, 522.
Gibbs. Dr. George. 378, 430.
Glacier Artii, 251, 340.

Glasunoff explores the Yukon, etc., 265, 275. 27^
338.

;:3'

6i6

INDEX.

i ■ '

niossary, 520- 51^-

("ilolliiflf, tlie exiilorcr, ^50.

Olot'cr, Lieiiten.iiil Russell, 35&

Glubokoi Lake, 253.

(Imelin cited, 600.

(iold in California, discovery of, 344.

Cioldon Gate, the bark, 4, 35'>-358.

GolikolT, t; , receives medal from Catherine II.,

(iolikoff, Ivan, 316.

(jolofnin I!ay, 333 ; the ship, 33.3.

Clolofnin, W. .M., in charge of sloop Dian.i, 323,

326, 330, 331 ; his book died, 600.
(jolofiiiiia I'.ty, 2f)7, 26S, 284
Ciolovin, I'ailier, 339.
Oolovin, 1'. N., 34'), 353, 354. 449, 600.
C'loloviii Sound, 267, 333, 33').
(Inlsova Kiver, 20, ij.j, ifio, 267, 2'>~^,
(lood Intent, exploring vessel, 331, 332.
(loodncws Hay, 262, 331.
(lore, Lientenant John, 306.
Ooreloi Island, 247, 302.
Cioreloi, volcano, 289, 466, 473.
Ciovorlifki's Report, too,
tiraniinex of Alaska, 592.
(Irant, LI. S., Secretary of War, 369.
(iranlley Harbor, party at, 4, 61, 120, 147, 216, 2S4,

24". .145. .I5S. 472, 50'. 502.
(brasses of Alaska, 592.
(Jraves, description of, 19; Ing.ilik, 132; Innnit,

I4().
Gray, Captain Robert, from P.oston, 31X; ; carries

United States flag round the world for the fir.st

time, 311, 314.
Great liritain and Ru.ssia, convention between, 334.
Great Net Island, 247.
Great .Sitkin volcano, 467.
Greek Catholics, \f;t.
Greek Church, missii^naries of, 2S, 226, 350-352,

400.
Greenhiiw visits the Columbia River, 340, 5qo, 601.
Greenlanders, language of, 377.
(Jreenough's History of Oregon, &c. cited, 311-

314; error in, 323.
Grcgorieff explores Copper River, 341.
Grewingk cited, 2S8, 457, 475, 47S, 601.
Grossulacc.u of Alaska, 51)0.
Grouse-catching, 17S.
Guaymas, 345.
(Jiigiak Day, 261.
Guise, Captain, 30S.
tinlf Stream of the Pacific, 2S5
Uwosdeff, Mich.ael, engineer, 298.

Hagenmeistcr, Captain, 325 ; assumes duties of

Chief Director, 330, 33,, 335.
Hagenmeister Island, 261.
Hall, Captain, 313, 512.

Halleck, General, 374.

Hamilton Harbor, 253, 474.

Hanemann's calculations, 290.

Han Kutchin tribe, 10;, 430.

Hanna, J-imes, makes trading voyages, 307.

Haider's astronomical observations, 34.1.

Harding, Captain, 356.

Hardisty, William I.., 196.

Harper's Macaiine, Ooi.

Hartwig cited, /iitssim, 519.

Hawaiian ctator cited, Coi,

Hawkin IsLuid, 257.

Hearne, Samuel, explores Copper Mine River, 305.

Heceta, Captain, expedition of, 305 ; discovers the

mouth of Columbia River, 306.
Heights of mountains, 2,S9.
Helen, the ship, 334, 335, 33S.
Hellt, the a^^'ronomer, 343.
Helniersen's lieitrage, 2'i5.
Henry, Mr, in charge of Fort Nelson, 112.
Herald Island, 250, 344, 50;
Herald, the ship, 343.
Hewston, Dr. John, 477.
Hinchinbrook Island, 257.
History of Alaska, 294-372.
Ht)fmann. his work cited, (>oi.
Hohonila, Mount, S4.
Holmberg cited, 42S vt set/ , 601.
Hong K(mg, 345.
Honolulu, 502.
Hood's Hay, 473.
Hooper, his work cited, fioi.
Hooper's opinion (m the name of the Tuski, 174
Hospitals, 352, 355.
Hotham Inlet, 2R4.

Houle, Antoiue, interpreter, S'l, 91, 102.
Houses, description of, 13, 14
Hudson I?ay, 344, 502, 507, 530.
Hudson Bay Company, 91 ; trading with Indian*,

104, III, 112; its policy, 114; diflTicuUies will

Russians, 337 ; compromise, 338 ; lease to

newed, 34S ; imjiortations of, 601.
Hiili'.nak River, 274, 275.
Hunibc.ldt, quoted, 3S5, 601.
Hunt, Wilson P., 327; arrives at Astoria, 329.
Hunting, 201 -203.

Ice Company on Woody Island, 259.

Ice from Sitka, 346 ; negotiations concerning, vi;

348. 35;.
Icy Cape, 256, 332.
Icy Strait, 250, 252.
I,i;ln", 532.
Iglu, 532.

Ignalook Island, 24').
Ignatief Isai, his voyage, 294, 295.
Iktigalik, village of, 2fi, 33 ; expedition starts fur,

35; reached, 37, 157; expeditioti at, 1O8.

INDEX.

617

uuccrning, mi

Iliainnn Lake, 273 ; volcano, 2S9, 466, 467.

IliuUiV 444.

Iliner, the ship, 329.

Iiiiaklit Island, 241).

Indian stocks, 411.

Indians, snpersiitions of, 61 : Tananah River, 83 ;
religion of, 8S ; Lake Superic, 91 ; mode of
painting, 94 ; oraments, 95 ; da.'ces, 95 ; chil-
dren, 9S ; Chilkaht, 100 ; Tananai,, 107, 108 ;
Naiche Kutchin tribe, 109 : Hat, 109 ; Yunt.,
Kiitchin, 109: lljn Kutchin, lu Ingalik tri!)e,
")i< "M • sifkness among, 11)5; music, > /) ;
niensils, 21O, 21S : diiTerenl tribes, 373-452.

Ingalik tribe, 2S ; description of, 53, cranium, 67;
grave, 132; sicds, 1O5 ; habits ol", 193, 194; ca-
noes, 211).

Ingecliuk, 29; as letter-carrier, 34.

Ingenstriim, 336.

Inglutalik, 479.

Inglulalik River, 284.

Ingraham, Joseph, 309.

Inkalichljuaten tribe, 432.

InKiliken tribe, 432.

Innoko River, 282, 432.

liinuit, great family of, 13 : description of the. 18 ;
casine, 127; characteristics of, 136: different
tribes of, 137; habits of, 141-146; trading
among, 143, 144; description of grave. 14*^1;
dancing among, 149; festivals, 149-153: kind-
ness of, 159; drawings on bone, 237; village,
264 ; classification of, 374 ; of Alaska, 401 ;
meaning of name, 532 ; Aleuts, civilization
among, 115; honesty of. 133; Ka\iak tribe, 13S;
Mahlemut, tribe of, 13S : ornaments among, 141 ;
cioiliing of, 141 ; trading among, 143, 144 ; dan-
cipg among, 149, 221 ; festivals, 149-153 ; Kkog-
mut tribe, 221 ; drawings on bone, 237.

Invalid Rcuski, 601.

Inverness, 445, 447.

Investigator, the ship, 344, 347.

Irkutsk, 30S ; company organized at, ,117, 320, 340,
sot. ■i32.

Isabella, the ship, 330.

Lsanotski Pass, 248.

Isanolski Strait, 2f>o, 448, 469, 470.

Isanotski Mountain, 289.

l-au Pavloff, bidarshik, 44. 59 ; rescued, 69, 91.

I (nil's barrabora, 42, 170, 531.

Ivra .Ilka Island, 248.

lacobi, (ieneral John, bis direction as to discov-
eries, 308.
Janotfsky, Lieutenant, 331, 332, f)oi.
Japan current, 285.

.japan Kxpedition, United States, 347; treaty, 347.
Japanese Archipelago, 347.

J.ipanese historians, 523. j

Japonski Island, 254. ',

Jearny's barr.abora, 17(1.

Jelagin, Ivan, liering's pilot, 270, 299.

Joanna Dogoslov,!, volcano ol, 324.

Jo.isaph, Archimandrite, 315 ; complains of Baran-
olT, 316: made bishop, 317; death of, 319, 339.

Johnson, President A idrew, his Alaska proclama-
tion, etc., 359-372.

Jones, Strachaii, Commander at Fort Yukon, 196,
202, 27'i, 355.

Jounial des Savans cited, fioi.

Journal of Department of the Interior, 602.

Jugelnuten tribe, 432.

Junker, Captain, 3.(0.

Junnakacliolana Indians, 431.

Jimo, the ship, 323.

Juvenati, I'ather, attempts to put down polygamy,
3'7-

Kachid.agnk Point, 47S.

Kadiak .Aicliipelago, 259.

Kadiak, group, 246; area of, 190, 303, 313; first
census of, 317, 3ii ; church at, 317; school at,
323, 331. -tU. .V?^. .340. 34'. 342, 345, 350, 351,
352 ; missionaries at, 399, 401, 443, 450, 47O, 477,
478, 479, 481, 4'<3, 529.

Kadiak, the ship, wreck ol", 349.

Kadin, Michael, pilot, 3.,9.

KadnikolT, Captain, 339, 340.

Kagataya Koiing'ns, or " People of the East," 3S5,
530.

Kaiyuh-kho-tana, 431.

Kaiyuh River, 68, 282.

Kake Strait, 253, 321, 349, 45.8, 474.

Kaknn River, 25S, 273, 33(1, 477.

Kalgiii Island, 258.

Kalt.a? village of, 41, 65.

Kamchatka, 313, 3;5, 354, 357. 358, 482, 484, 491,
515, 523, 529, 532.

Kamchatka, I'av of, 258.

Kanichatka River, 270, 2S5, 516, 51S.

Kamlayka, 532.

Kaniokin, 40S.

Kamshadalcs, 516, 517, 523.

Kanaga Island, 247; volcano, 4''7, 469, 473.

Kanaka dialect, 3'<i.

Kaniagmuls, 3S5 ; description of, 385 et scg.

K.ir.igin, the explorer, 249.

Karaginski Island, 249.

KaslievarolT, 340, 341, 354; cited, 602.

Katmai liay, 259, 458.

Kavalay Islaml, 247.

Kavia(.niul.s, 408.

Kaviak Peninsula, 268, 2S8, 289, 49S, 500.

Kaviaks, morals of, 138.

Kaviava /.ak River, 284.

Kayak Island, 257.

Kaz.irn Hay, 251, 48b,

Keeska Island, 247.

Kcgikhtuhliak, 533.

6i8

INDEX.

Kegikhluk, 533.

Kegiktuwnik, cove of, 16-20, 125 ; casine of, 12b,

158, 2(17. 283, 532.
Kellett, Captain Henry, 343, 34'), 509.
Kellogg, Dr., 448, 449, 452, 455.
Kcloey, 358.
Kenai Peninsula, 258, 251), 315; polygamy in, 317,

342, 351 ; natives hostile, 320.
Kenai/.er tribe, 42S.
Kendrick, Captain Jolin, 30(; ; his first passage

through Straits of Kuca, 311.
Kennan, George, 356.
Kennicott Lake, 51)6.
K^nnicutt Muunlain, $12.
Kennicott, Robert, liis experience in the Hudson

Hay Territory, 4 ; death, 5 ; visits Major's Cove,

20; e;jitaph, 70; plans lor explorations, 122,276,

340. 355. 35''. 358. 457-
Kentucky coal, 475.
Ketchum, I' rank E., 8, 14, 18, 23, 43, 56, 116, 277;

ascends Yukon, 277 ; his map, 280, 283-2:^2, 357,

507-
Ketchum, Lake, 506.
Ketlitk Kutchin, 431.
Khannkh, 414.

KhlebnikolT's explorations, 326.
Khwostolf Peak, 289.
KhwostolT explores Admiralty Hay, etc., 317, 319,

320.
Kiachta, 501.
Kikhtuk, 532.
Kilen, the, 52:,.
King Island, 268.

Kipniuk River, 253, 264, 265, 275, 407.
Kirkby, Rev. W. W., 457 ; his travels, 27S.
KirlolT liay, 260.
Kislakot'fsky, 331.
Kitlakalaks, 4S5.
Kitllitz, the naturalist, 335, 602.
Klalkakliatne River, 40 ; head-quarters uf the

Yukon Di- ision, 61, 69, 71; breaking up of,

205.
Kliniofis ,y explores Copper River, 331.
Klinkof.triim, Captain Martin, 342.
Klochkoff, 333.
KluchelT volcano, 423.
Knife, Kutchin, 105,
Knight Island, 257.
Knik iiver, 272,
KniKtagmut, 4'-,-(.
Kuch, appni.ited Chief Director of Colonies, 325 ;

death ol, 325.
Kodiak, 529.
Koliak, Isaac, 21(1.
Kol uchin li.iy, 374.

KolinakdflT, his explorations, 331, 332, 336, 338.
KolmakofT, Kedmibt, 274, 275.
Koloslies, tribe of, 393, 411, 4i(), 533.
Kulshina River, 4^9.
Kolyma River, 294, 313, 376, 509, 513, 515, 519.

Komandorski Islands, 347.

Konaton ...ver, 2S2.

Koni volcano, 473.

Koniushi volcano, 469.

Koriaks, the, 513, 514, 515.

Korovin, 303 ; liay, 473.

Korovin volcano, 289.

Korovinsky Hay, 260.

Korsakoff, his explorations, 274, 331.

Koshkin cited, 602.

Kostlitzeff cited, 602.

Kotelkakat River, 48, 53, 282.

Koteino River, 53, 282.

Kotio River, 280, 479.

Kotzebue, August K. von, 2'')3, 329, 434, 446.

K<il2ebue, Lieutenant Otto von, 329, 330, 331, 3;;.

334-

Kotzebue Sound, 53, 124, 147, 161, 216, 246; dc
scription of, 2f.S, 284, 335, 344, 345, 407, 4ix),
434, 440. 465, 472, 479, 484, 4S6, 502, 602.

Kou-i-u Island, 250, 454.

Koyuk River, 284.

Koyukuk River, 48, 77, 192. 282, 357 : Sopka, 289

Koyukukho-tana Indians, 431.

Koyukun tribe, 48; massacre by, 48 -52; charac-
teristics of, 54, 345.

Kramchenko, 333, 335 ; cited, 602.

Krasnoyarsk, Resanoff dies at, 325.

Kreesa Island, 247.

Krenitzin, Captain, explores the Fox Islands, 304,
602.

Krotky, the transport, 335.

Krugli Island, 247.

Krusenstern, expedition under, 321, 602, 603.

Krusenstern Island, 24'), 249.

KrushchotT, Captain, 333, 334, 602.

Kriunoff IJay, 474.

Kruzoff Island, 254, 289.

Kugalga Island, 24S.

Kuiii Island, 250, 474.

Kuhikak Hay. 261.

Kun River, 263.

Kunguk River, 269, 284.

Kupffer, cited, 6oj.

KuprianolT, Cajitain, succeeds Wrangsll, 33!!.

KupiianolT Island, 25' 1, 474.

Knprianoff Straits, 340.

Kurile-Ainos, 526.

Kurile Lslands, 28S, 296 ; invaded by Russians, ; ); ,
explored by Spanberg, 299, 32S, 336, 330, 4/).
description of, 523.

Kurilla, a Nulato Indian, 55.

KurupanotT, 10.

Kuslievaroff, 12, 339, 340.

Kusilvak I'hannel, 264, 284.

Knsilvnk Momitain, 232.

Kusilvak River, 265, 275, 2R3.

KuskolT, attacked by Thlinkets, 321, 325 ; expedi-
tion under, 326, 327 ; makes settlement in Cali-
I'.irnia, 328,

, 434. 446-

•;. 33°. 33'. 333.

II, 2i6, 246; dc-

. 345. 407. 4f).
50J, O02.

,57 ; Sopka, 289
4S-52 ; durac-

;•

''ox Islands, 304,

, 602, 603.

rigcll. 33fi-

■ Russians, 2)7.
33''. 33°. 4 ''' ■

INDEX.

619

r-'S ; expedi-
Icnient iu Call-

Kuskoqiiim River, 262, 273, 274, 275, 292, 336,
338, 340, 350, 406, 464, 47.y, 4S1 ; bny, 331, 332.

Kuskwogmiits, tribe of, 405 it seg.

Ktitclia Kutchin tri'uc, 42S, 431.

Kutcliin tribes, 42S, 431.

Kiiteino River, 53, 282.

Kiitlilatno River, 2K2.

Kutkan, Michael, 341, 354.

Kutlik Channel, 119, 234, 264, 284,

KutusofT, the ship, 330.

Kwce-ahogemut village, 264.

Kwichak River, 2C0.

Kwiklipak, month of the Yukon, 265, 273 ; identi-
fied with Yukon, 277, 2S3, 351 ; slough, 407, 533.

Kwikhtana, barrabora, 210.

Kwinc'iagak River, 260.

Kyak, description of a, 15, 137, 138.

Kyber, Dr., 508.

Kygani Indians, 411, 417

Ladoga, tlie sloop, 333.
Ladygin, company formed by, 317.
Lambert, M. Gustavc, 357.
Lamuts tribe, 51S.
Lancaster Sound, 346.
Langsdorf, Herr G. H. von, Oo^.
La Perouse describes Litiiya IJay, 256, 271 ; expe-
dition of, 307, 47S, 4S1, O02.
La Pierre's House, 103, 430.
La Place, f«2.
Lark, wreck of ship, 328.
Larriown, 51 ; description of, 52; as a shaman,

I((3, 22fl, 43S

L.isareff, Michael Petrovich, in charge of the Su-
warrow. 329.

Lastochkin, Lebedeff, 318; visits Copper River,
318.

Leather village, 220.

Lebarpe • ike, 277, 279.

Lt-bargc, Michael, 8, 25 : .iccompanies Ketchuni,
56, 240, 2S4, 2S9, 357. 507.

Lebrun, 603.

Lehigh, Pa., coal, 475.

Lena River. 535.

I.en/., K., 603.

Leporid.r of Alaska, 577.

I.eshinski divulges a conspiracy, 325.

Lesnoi Island, 24S.

Levasheff, Lieutenant, explores I'ox Islands, 304.

I.evasheff. (KJ3.

Lewis and Clark descend the Ccihiinbla, 323.

Lewis River, 27'^., 277, 441, 50^.

Liard River, io(., 112. 2c)i, 292, 337, 340, 429.

Lincoln, ships built bv, 326.

Lindenberi;'s re>earchos, 339.

Linn, member of Congress from Missouri, 341.

Lisiansky, expedition under, 321, 323; his descrip-
tion of Indians, 430, 481, O03.

Little Sidorka, 55.

Lituya Day, 251), 307, 478 ; fish in, 484.

Lobos Islands, 492.
I Lockhart, 349.

Lofka, the Indian, 31, 51, 283.

Lofka's barrabora, 210,
I Long, Captain Tlieodore, 250, 509.

Long Strait, 509.

Look-and see-it River, 85.

Looncap village, 224.

Loucheux Indians, 431.

Lowrie, Captain, 308.

Lukcen, Ivan Simonsen, 274, 276; ascends Yukon,
276 ; establishes post at Kuskoquim, 336 ; fort,

275. 340. 355. 357.
Lutke, Captain I'., 230, 335, 481, (03.
Lynn Canal explored, 317, 339, 471.
Lynn Channel, 250, 271, 411.

Macao, 307, 335.

Mackenzie, Alexander, 315, 604.

Mackenzie River, 28, 101, 284, 334, 338, 344, 373,

401, 40r), 428.

Macmillau River, 278, 429.

Mactavish River, 328.

McClure, Robert S. Le M., 344, 345, 346.

McDonald, Rev. Mr., 103, 105, no, 280.

McDougal, J., 103, 105, 206.

McLeod, John, 337.

McLeod, Peter, yi, 277.

McMurray builds I'ort Yukon, 102, 276; descends

Porcupine River, 342.
McRae, Lieutenant, 336.
Magemuts, tribe of, 407.
Maguire, Commodore Rochefort, 34O, fio4.
Mahlemuts, tribe of, 14 ; bidarra, 135 ; morals of,

1 39, 407. 409.
Maliood, James A., 356.
Major's Cove visited by Kennicott, 20, 125, 150,

2(7.
Mak-iutoff supersedes I-'uruhelm, 35";.
Makushin liay, 289; voUano, 4'i7, 4118, 4CK), 470.
MalakolT, 12 ; builds a trading-post, ^f■, 273, 276,

337. 339. 341.
Malcspina, lajitain A., 313.
Mauatido; of Alaska, 578.
Manchoos, tribe of, 522, 523.
Manki, village of, 223, 407.
Mamiheiin on the Rhine, 451.
M.ips of Alaska, 2c>o.

M.ircliaiul, I'aplain Iv, 313, ('0^ ; vide I'leurlcu.
Mavia Louisa River, 2<>^, 275.
M.iria, the vessel. 322.
M.irrnot Island. 24**.

Marri.ige in Russian America, 11, 12, 139.
Marston. Captain, 356.
Marton, birthplace of Captain Cook, 306.
Mary M.igdalene, the ship, 330.

620

INDEX.

5'7-

J4 , descriplion of, 2J7 :
Kumaii Cilliolic, 3-'8 ;

Masa Kiicro Islnml, 4^,2.
Massacre at N'ulato, 33i<
Mailay, a8.
MaA.itian, 344.

Mearus, CafXaiii John, 30S, joq.
Mcares's drcal .Arcliipelago, 250.
Meares's voyages, (104.
Mtdvcilnlkdff coiiimamls the Tlirce Saints,
MedveiliiikofT volcano, 3S7, 467.
Mevk and lilancli.ird arrive at Sitka, 334.
Meek, K. I!., 457.
Meeshka, 28.

MeUuikakat River, 84, 282.
Melville Sonnd, 345 : Island, 346.
Merck, I)r. I'arl, 310.
Mercy Hay, 345.
Merlens, the botanist, 453.
Mexican War, 34J.

Micliaelovski Redoubt, description of, g, 10; at-
tack by the Lnalijimuts, «>; defended by Kuru-

paiioff, 10
Milavanoff River, 231, 2S3.
Milton li.adKer, the schooner, 356.
Mineral springs, 472 et siij.
Minnesota, 3sS.
Minto Inlet, 34s,
Miskuml'kakat River, 282.
Missionary labor, iii.
Missions, iiS, 145, 223, :

at Kkogmnt, 2S3, 2)1

districts, 351.
MiikotT, Captain, 345.
Mock snns, 40

Mongolian featmes, 376, 519.

Monroe, James, Secretary of State, announces re-
occupation of Astoria by the United States, 329.
Montague Island, 257.
Moore, Captain Tbonias K. L., 343, 511.
Mordoffski, Kaiher, 333.
Moroscovich, I.. S , 296.
Morrell, tiaptain llenjaniin, 41J2.
Morse setllemcnl, jOo.
Mor7.ho»i Island, 24S.
Moscow, 330.
Motora, Simeon, 295.
Mount liaUer, 342,

" llendeleben, 28;>

" Calder, 289.

" Crillon, 2S1).

" Devastation, 2S).

" Diablo, 475.

" I'.ilt;ccunil)e, 259, ;S). 30^), 313, 317.

" I'airwealher, 2S9, 428.

" Ilolionila, 281),

" Kcnnicott, 270, 289, 512. :

" Kollo, 280.

" San Jacinto, 254, jod.

" Shishaldin, 2S9.

" St. Klias, 281), 306, 340, 342, 350, 401, 428.

" St. Helen, 470.

Mount St. Paul, 342.

" VeniaminolT, 470.

" Vostovia, 471.

" Wrangell, 289, 4'Kj.
Mountain ranj,es, 280 - 290.
Mountains, height of, 2S9.
Mueller, Ci. K., ^104.
Muganolwik River, 2^3, 275.
Muller cited, 515, 522.
Mumford, (1. H., 292.
Mtniich, climate of, 451.
MurashelT, the explorer, 340.
MuravietT, Captain, Director of the Colonies, 332,

334. 33''. 337-
Murderer's ViiUagc, 220.
Muridx- of Alaska, 577.
Music, Indian, 199.
Mustelid.e of Alaska, ^■;(i.
Myhiikuff organizes a company, 317.

Nadcshda, the ship, 321.

Na-Run-alayeksa Island, 529.

Naknek River, 261, 273.

Nanaimo coal, 475.

NaplakolT, conspiracy of, 325.
[ Nassc Indians, 411.

Nasse River, 251, 270, 415, 485.

Natche Kutchin tribe, 109, 430.
i Nearer Islands, 247 ; explored by Rybinski, 302,

333-
Nebraska, 45S.
Nehaunees, tribe of, 429.
Nerpichoi Islands, i(n.
Netsvieloff, Father, 334.
Neva, the ship, 321.
Nevelsky, Captain, 345.
NevodtsikotT, Michael, his voyage, 301, 302.
New Archangel, 254, 323, 412.
New, Lieutenant, 314.
New Russia, settlement of, 316.
New Westminster, 35^., 506.
New York, climate of, 451.
Newberry, Prolessor J. S., 474, 476.
Newcastle coal, 475
Newenharn, I'ape, 331.
Newfoundland, banks of, 482.
Niakina Cove, 270, 299, 516, 530
Nightingale, the shiji, in Norton Sound, 3; saiU

for Plover Hay, 8, 65, 357, 35S.
Nijni Kamchatka, 2^5.
Nijni Kolyinsk, 270, 51).
Nikolai I., the ship, 339, 341 : loss of, 349.
NikolaiiTsk, 526.
Nookmut, village of, 2(..8, 408.
Nootka Sound, discovered by ."erez, 3t,'! : entered

by American ships in 1708, 3o<j, 313, 484.
Noquashinski l!ay, 471.
Norfolk Sound, 313.

INDEX.

621

North Fork of Siikine River, 271.
Norlli Sl.ir, the ship, 347.
Norton Day, 147.

Norton Sound, ,,;,, ,y,, „; ; Nightingale anchors
in, 3 ; effect of wind on depth of water in, 3,
113, II?; festivities .it. 154, .46, jr,;, 284, jS;,'
193, 340, 344. 345, 350, 355, 337, . ,s, 5j, . |„„„|(
of, 404. 403. 4"8, 409, 4,0. z^;, 440, 405, 4S4,
4'*8. S3-'-
Norway House, 344.
Notarmi, 4S; commands at Nulato, 288.
Niiidkakat River, 100, ;8o.
Nowikakat, village of, 85, 276.
Nowikakat River, description of, S(,, 2S2, 341, 3,5.
Nowikakat Mountains, ;SS.
N'tsoh, vill.ige of, 35.
Nuchek harbor, factory at, 318, 336.
Nukhikahyet, village of, 86, ,,3, if,, 28.', 43S, 442.
Nulato, 23, 40, 43 ; m.ide headquarters, 44 ; de-
scription of, 44-49; I.icut. liarnard arrives at,
4S ; massacre at, 50, 65 ; expedition starts from,
74; distance from to Turt Yukon, 102, 124: ob- '
servations at, .9. ; deiMrlure of Sclenlilic Corps
fron., 207, 276, 282, 2S3. 34,, 34,, 3^8, ,-8. ^7,.
Nulato Rucr, (,, 47. r,(,, (,., ; breaking up of, 205. I
Nulato tribe, attacked by the Koyukuns, 4.J, 50.
Nunarbook Island, 246.

Niniatok River, 432. i

Nunivak, 137, ?4q. 2U2, 332, 406. I

Niishergagmuts, tribe of, 405. !

Nushergak River, 4, 273, 275, 289, 292, 33,, 33,,, I

■IT). 351. 35-. 400, 405. 4'''4. 479.
Nuwungmeun, name of I'oint LSarrow Iribe, 410.

Otter hunting, ^9,c, ef sej.
Ougamok Island, 248.

Obi River, 284.
Observatory at Sitka, 337. 340.
Observatory Canal, 251 ; Inlet, 270.
< kean currents, 2V5.

( )chotsk, first vessel built at, 2 17. 330 ; goveniincnt
I'f. 333. 34> : vessel, 348 ; sea, 356, 482, 4S3, 502 ;
tribes on, 51,8, 522, 532.
Oglemuls, tribe of, 405, 4of).
Oke-ognints, tribe of, 249, 409.
Olga, the brig, -i-^d. ,

One'l'iee C'.mp, i(^.
Ontario, the sloop <if war, 330.
Onug-anngemut village, 2^.4,

Orarian, a name proposed for the tribes of Eskimo
stocl 173 ; on Chukchee I'eninsula, 374 ; in gen-
eral, 37J el sej , 404 ; stock, 520.
Oregon, bill |„r occupation of, 34, ; climate of. 448.
Orinoco River, 284.
Orkney Islands, 103, 445 ; .i.:;ricnlture of, 447, 449,

.'>03-
f)rnamenls worn by Indians, 141,
Oserski I!ay, 253.
Ostrofskoi, 131.
Otis, Dr., on .aboriginal crania, 410.

Pacific Fur Company, organization of, 326, 328
3 -'9- '

Pacific Railroad, 475,
Pallas, Dr. P. .S , (,04.
Pallonoi Point, 158.
Palmetto, the bark, 357.
Papoosh, name for bunches of tobacco, 533
Paramushir Island, 5>3.
Parenosa liay, 472.
I Parry, Arctic expedition of, 331, 334.
I Paspilkoff, 61.

; I'asiol Bay. 147, 264, 265, 266.
I I'astoliak River, jW), 284.
Pasloligmuts, tribe of, 407.

Pastohk, 14, 1,9, ,37; description of, 236, 2C6, 2S4,
, 407-
Paul, the Emperor, protects trading, 60, 318.
Paulosk, 399.
Pavloff, 172.
I I'avloff volcano, 289, 466. 4^,7, 470 ; Hay, 469.

Pavlutski, Cajitain Dcm.'trius, 298.
, Pe.icc. exploring vessel, 331.
i Peacock, the sloop of war, 359, 340.
I Pearl, the brig, 333, 334.

Pease, Charles. 6, 357,
' Peel's Ri\er, 103, 2,So, 2S7, 507.
Peetka. son of Kan, 52.
Peircc. I! M , his report, 449,
IVIly Hanks Fort, 508.
Pclly Lakes, 278, 292.
Pelly River, 278 ; Indians on, 429, 441.
Pemmican as food, 136.
Penjiiisk Gulf, 295, 298, 357.

Pennsylvania, .Agricultural College of, 44, ; coal-
fields of, 474.
Perez Inlet, 306.
Perez. Juan, discovers Queen Charlotte's Island,

3^'5-
Peril Island, 250.
Perry, Commodore, 346.

Peter the Great prepares an expedition to Ameri-
ca, 297.
Petermann, Dr. A , 27S ; his map, 2(jo.
Peters, Captain, 307.
I'elroleum, 259.
Pciropavlovsk, 270, 299 ; vessel, 320, 330, 332, 355,

343. 347- 34S. 357. 35^ 5''' : hordes at, 51S, 530.
Philaclel|iliia, climate of, 451.
PlillalotT, C.iptain, 333.
Philippine Islands, 330.
IMiocid.r- of Alaska. 577.
I'lmiiix. \\i\ck of ship, 326.
I'liyset.-rid.i' of Alaska, 578.
Pikimktalik River, 239, 265, 266, 2S4.
Pim, Captain Bedford, 52, 345, 346.

622

INDEX.

Pinik Islands, Jiq.

Pinnacle liilanci, }<)8.

Pinnipcilia of Alaska, 577. *

Pipes, liibacco, 81.

Pittsburg, Pa., coal, 475.

Pla. i for sciLMiiilic operations approved, 6.

PI;.i<)fT, building of scliooiicr, 330.

Plavc/.linoi Lake, 341.

Plover Hay, 4, JSOi 269, 389, 343, 357, 358, 375, 379,

465, 511, 514.
Plover, the ship, 343, 344.
Plymouth, 344.
I'odushkin, Captain, 328.
I'ogitcha explored by Michael Sladukin, 295.
Point Azia^akak, 264.

" Harrow, 250, 26.;, 335, 33S, 339, 344, 345. 34^'.
401, 409.

" Cornwallis, 253.

" Ktolin, 405.

" Clrenville, 305.

" Hope, 269.

" Nome, 2f)8.

" kodney, 26S.

" KonianolV, 2f>4, 265.

" Woodhnuse, 253.
Polar Sea, 509.

Polish exiles conquer a garrison, 305.
Polygamy in Kenai, 317.
Ponafidin, Captain, 332.
Pope, Krank I,., 355, 356, 357.
Pope's River, 275.
Poplar Creek, 39.
PopotT Island, 259.

PopolT, Peter, 131, 297 ; conspiracy of, 325, 375.
Populati<m of Alaska, 537.
Population of Yukon I'erritory, 224.
Porcupine River, 6, loj, 105, 276, 280, 287, 32S,

342. 430. 43". 47J. 507. 50S.
Porpoise, the bri.i;, 339.
PorsanikofT, the Aleut, 397.
Port Cliathani, 25?.

" Clarence, 26S, 346, 357, 408, 410.

" Conclusion, 315.

" Klches, 257.

" Krancais, 250.

" Cardiier, 251, 473.

" Miiller, 261, 472.

" I'rovidence, jii.

" Trinidad, "03.
Portland Canal, 245, 251, 313, 411.
Portlock, Captain, 308.
Potifar, the brig, 339.
Premorska village, 223.
Prevost, J. n., 330.
Pribyloir Islands, 24S, 30S, 331, 335, 337, 350, 400,

469, 470, 47 3, 47S, 481, 484, 499.
Price, Admiral, suicide of, 347.
Prince Albert Island, 345.
Prince of Wales Island, 245, 250 ; Strait, 345,

467.

Prince William Sound, 248, 452.
I'roboscidea of Alaska, 577.
Proclainatioii of purchase of Alaska, 359.
Progrumnoi volcano, ^(y), 472.
Promishleniks' discoveries, 304.
I'uget Sound, 258, 294, 357, 453.
Pullen, Lieutenant, 344.
Pushkarelf's Lxpcdition, 302.
Pye Island, 25R.

Quadra, Captain Hodcga y, treats witli Vancouver.

3'4-
Queen Charlotte's Archipelago, Indians on, 411.
Queen Charlotte's Island, discovered by I'ere/.,

305 : slate quarry on, 411, 415 ; coal on, 47a

Racoon, the sloop of war, 32S.

Uaduga cited, 605.

Rainfall in Alaska, 437, 43S.

Ramparls of the Yukon, 281, 284.

Rasbinik village, 229.

Rat India:is, lot).

Rat River, 2^0, 32S.

RatmanofT Island, 246, 249, 269; mountains, 289.

Rattlesnake, the ship, 34^).

Raymond, Capl; in, 280 ; his surveys, 283.

Raynor, Captain, 250.

Red Lcggins, Indian Chief, no.

Redoubt Constaiitine an<l I'.lcna, 257.

Redoubt St. Mich.acl's, arrive at, 3, 338.

Red(nibt volcano, 289, 469.

Reid Mouse, 279.

Relief, the store-ship, 339.

Religious views of Indians, ,SS, 89, iii, 145 ; dances,

3^1) et seij. ; superstitions, 391 <7 jiv/-
Renfrewshire, 444.
Reports, medical, 122; scientific, 122; Oolovin's,

353-
ResanofT, Count, 322 ; institutes reforms, 323 .

sketch of, 323 - 325.
Resolute, the ship, 346, 347.
Restwick, rainfall at, 445.
Resurrection l!ay, 25H ; vessels built in, 316, 319,

344.
Return Reef, 355. 462.
Revel, birlliplace of Kot/ebuc, 329.
Rev and Pritton's chart, 290.
Richardson, Sir John, 331, 409, 492, 530, 605.
Ricord, in charge ol the Diana, 325, 3-'().
Riedell, Captain, 240, 342, 344, 466.
Ringgold, Captain, 347.
Rio del Reyes, 314.
River volcano, 28,;.
Robertson. Rev. Dr., cited, fKjj.
Rocquefeuil, Caniille de, cited, 330, f)05.
Rocky Mountain Kxpedition, Fremont's, 341.
I Koduntia of Alaska, 577.

INDEX.

623

159-

li Vancouver,

liis on, 41 1.
:cl by I'erci,
I on, 47a

untains, iSij.

, 2S.V

138.

, 145 : dances,

Golovin's,
■forms, 3^3 ,

in, 316, ji;.

30, 605.

id.

t's, J41.

Romnn rrilliiilic nilssinnarieB, 338.

Ktjin.iiiott, I'oiiil, 1 1<>.

Koniaiuod Hay (see Bodega), 332 ; Cape, 40(1, 407 ;
KaiiBe, 286.

Ronian/iiff, Count, 321), 477.

Koinan^olT Mounl.ilns, 101, 286.

Kosniarid.u of Alaska, 577.

Ross, Arctic expedition ol', 331, 42S, ^5, 606.

Ross, licrnanl R., 112,

Ross Colony in California, the, 274, 3::o. 31' :
Scliniiill director of, s^i, )J5, 338 ; sold, 341.

Ross district in Scotland, 447.

Rotlirock, Dr. J. T., his report, 35^1, 441, 452.

Rousseau, (ieneral I,., arrives at Sitka, 1S4; ofTi-
cially receives Alaska, 351/

Roys, Captain, 343.

Rurik, the brig, sails from St. PelcrsburK, 329.

RusanolT, S. S., commander of Uistrict of St.
Michael, 11.

Rusclienberj;cr cited, 606.

Russia and U- ed .Slates land (picstions, 333 et
seq. ; connection with (ireat iJritain, 334; treaty
with, 50J.

Russian .Xnieric.i, rumor of purchase of, 117, lu);
rumor cunlirmed, iSi ; iiegoti.iiioiis (or sale of,
35H.

Russian American Company, workmen of, 11;
wages of workmen, 12 ; (.harts of, 2(x) ; organisa-
tion of, 318 ; monopolizes fur trade, 320 ; arranges
witli John Jacob Asior, 327, 329 ; its settlements,
331 ; charter renewed, 332, 341, 347 ; diRkulties,
336, 33S ; facts concerning, 349, 350 ; treatment
of Aleuts, 350-353: favors .igriculturc, 449,
452 ; trades in ice, 479, 498, 501, 522.

Russian calendar, 59.

Russian charts, 2(>o, 533 ; explorations, 292.

Russian children, OS.

Russian settlement in Cdifornia 32s.

Rybinski explores the N'e.arer Islands, 302.

.Sacc.italontan, 291.

Saginaw Ii.\v, 252 ; the stc.imer, 357.

St. Ambrose Isl.ind, 492.

in. Chrysostom harbor, 25S.

St. Demetrius, vessel built, 319 ; wreck of, 322.

St. Dicmysius, trading-post, 258.

St. Klias Range, 2Sft.

St. I'elix Island, 492.

St. (jeorge Island, 240, 248, 259, 471, 479, 491, 496,

502.
St. Ifelen, Mount, 470.
St. John, New lirunswick, 277.
St. John's liay, 471, 474.
St. Lawrence I'ay, 37^, 515.
St. Lawrence Island, 313, 330, 3S0, 471.
St. Mary Magdalen.i, the ship, 322.
St. Matthew Islands, 248, 24.), 32!), 335, 471.
St. Michael's Island, 2116, 27O, 4(15, 472, 486, 500.

St. Michael's Redoubt, arrival al, 3, 4, fi ; inmates
of, II ; p.irly al, 121 ; ( i.na Hell arrives at, 121,
22'.. 2(15, 344, 355, 358, 438, 442.

St. Nicholas Kedoubt, 259.

St. Nicholas settlement, 452.

St. Nikol.ii, loss of ship, 325.

St. r.iul, Minnesota, 358.

St. I'aul, the ship, 299.

St. Paul's, 248, 259, 313; settlement at, 314; har-
bor, 322, 334, 342, 44,,, 471, 473, 4H3, 4g|, ^ijO.

St. Peter, the ship, i)i).

St. Petersburg, Hank of, 3.-o.

St. Peter-.b'irg, the Snwarrow sails for, 329 ; expe-
dition from, 3 to; ships from, 335, 34.;, 3(^7, 453,
48(1, 491, 501.

Sakalin Island, 347, 482, 522, 523, 525.

Sakhi'.iti, Indian chief, 107.

Salt from California, 3)5.

SamoylolT, cxpeililion under, 317.

San HIas, 31).

.San Francisco, detention in harbor, 4 ; ice for, 346,

I 347. 3.=i5. 4^3. 50>.
j .Sanak IslamI, 467.
' Sand.s, Captain, 356.
\ Sandlinann, Ciplain, 35''i.

Sandwich Islands, 329, 528; trade with, 342, 343,
353. 4''5. SOi-

Sandy Island, iOj.

Sankt I'elerbmgski VIcdomati, 606.

.SarychtfT, (iavrila, cited, 406.

SarychelT volcano, 4^8.

Sanr, Martin, Seiretary of llillings's Kxpedition,
310; his journey, 370, doO.

Scammon Hay, 2^4.

Scanunon, Captain C. M., 3, 2G4 ; his survey, 291,
355. 35<' - 35'''-

Schemelin, !•' , cited, 6c/).

Schloc/er, J. L. S., cited, (Jo6.

.Schmidt, Director of Koss colony, 332.

.SclKilield, John M., .Secretary of War, 372.

Schools, 339, 341, 351, 352.

Scientific Corps of Telegraph Expedition, 4, 457,

527-
Sciurid.r of Alaska, 577.
Scoresby, VV., cited, (<oC>.
Scotland, climate of, 445 <7 sef.
Scoville, Kdward, his surveys, 292, 356.
Sea Cull, the schooner, 339.
Sea Lion, wreck of, 3 id.
Seal fisheries, 492 et seq.
Seal Island, 2r'0.
Sebaslopol, fall of, 348.
Seducticm Tongue, 252.
Seemann, Dr., 440, 484.
Seguam Island, 247, 302.
.Seguani volcano, 4d7, 478.
Selawik R Iver, 269, 284 ; Lake, 269, 284, 407.
Seliverstoff, 296,
Selkirk, Fott, 517, 508.
Semichi Islands, 247.

624

INDEX.

Sciniili Islands, 250.

Seiiiiso|«ichii(ii Island, 247, jRo, 4f7, 471.

Semitic Iradilinns in ellinulipgy, J74.

Seniavine Strails, .^Sj.

Seniavine, tlic corvelle, 315.

SerebranikiifT, 272 ; ascends Copper River, 342.

Seven Craters, peak nf, sSq.

Seven I'eaks Island, 247.

Seward, W. II., vs? - .!7-'. f'o6.

Slialiclsky, Acliillc, cited, (k>(i.

SliaHeliik Slough, 220, 221, 2^2, 283,

Sliaktolik, 24, is:!. 2i'4i 288, 407.

Sliaman Mountain, 10, 41, 5'), 471.

Shamanism, Part I., ct passim.

Shantar Islands, 2 17.

Slieddcn, Robert, 344.

Sheep River, 2S0.

Sheerness, 34.".

Slielikoflr Company, its ciuclty, 316 ; organized,

317; opens schools, ju.
Slielikofl" receives ntedil, 309; inonopoli/.es fur

trade, 310, 3if> ; death of, 317 ; cited, f>o6.
ShelikofT Stiait, ..'5;; explored, .:,2<>; Lake, 273.
Slienardo.di, the pirate, 4S7.
SlieslakolT attack? the t liiikchees, 2i)S, 375.
Shillinglaw, John J, ; cited, 607.
Shishaldin volcano, 4^7, 469, 470, 478.
ShishmarelT Inlet, 26S, 331.
Sluihrick, revenne cntler, 358.
Shultz explores l.itiiya Hay, 317 ; death of, 319.
Shinna!;in Islands, 24S, 259. 2'<(\ 350 ; area, 290 ;

discovered by Lieutenant Wa.xel, 300.
Shydekin, I'eter, 326.
Siberia, convicts from, 11.
SieinenotT cited, (107.

Sierra Nevada range, 457 ; glaciers of, 45S.
Silliman's Journal cited, 52(1.
Simpson and Deasc's Kxpedition, 33S.
Simpson, Sir (Jeorge, 340, 481, 521.
Simpson, Thomas, 462 ; cited, 607.
Sinkinp; Point, 257.
Sirenia of Alaska, 578.
Sitignak volcano, 467, 473.
Sitka, 4, iSi ; Ceneral Rousseau arrives at, 184,

253, 254, 255: Hay, 319, 412; observations at,

337. 351. 35-'. 415. 4^5. 443 't S'-Q; 47-. 4^4:
schools at, 34T ; ship built at, 326, 332.

Sitka, the brig, 325.

Sitka-kwan Indians, 34^., 412, 437.

Sitkin Island, 247; volcano, 289.

Sitkinak Island, 248.

Sitzikiinlen River, 282.

Skoot River, 270.

Slavarassi Hay, 260 ; Colony, 321.

Slavery, 420.

Slaves freed by a chief, 339.

Slavianka River, 327.

Sledge Island, 13S, 268.

Sleds, Kskimo, 26 ; Innult, 165 ; Hudson Bay,
1O5 ; Ingalik, 1O6,

Small Houses, 27^., 277.

Small-pox at Sitka, V)**. 130-

Smith, I'aptain K. V.., S, (..,, 240, 2f>3, 175, 177, 406.

Smith, K. I'l'^hine, 370, 372.

Smith, V. M , acting surgeon, 25.

Smithsonian Inslitiiiion, 112, 114, 202, 475, 476.

Smoking, manner ol. 81.

.Snow-shoes, dilTerent kinds of, 190.

Snug Harbor, 2'.9, 513.

SokololT, cited, ^107.

Solfataras, 4(17.

.Solide, the ship, 313.

SolokolT, lather, arrives at Sitka. 330.

SoloviotT, I. M , expedition under, 304. 350.

Soonkakat River. 282.

Sopka, Koynkuk, 2S2 ; Vesolia, 3S, 77, 1S5, 2S9.

^orcery, pr.ittice of, 424.

ih Pacific Islands, 491.
>,iulh .Slu'lland, 492.
Sowlt's, taplain, 313.
Spanberi;. Lieutenant Martin, 297 ; explores the

Knrile Islands, 2. ,<;.
Spaniards claim northwest coast, ^a^ : interfeie

with traders, 310, 311 ; at San Francisco, 327.
Spanish expedition, 307.
SpavariefT Hay, 407.
Springs, 36.

Spruce Island, 259, 339, 349.
Squirt/.olT makes first telegraph pole, 59.
Stadukin, Michael, explores the Pogitcha, 29S1 509.
St.aehlin, J. M., cited, 607.
Stakhin-kwan tribe, 34^), 411,
Staniiikovich, Captain, 335.
StarichkolT River, 273.
Starry Rwikhpak vill.ige, 229.
Staten Land, 492.

Steele, Francis L., the schooner, 240.
Steller, ('.. W., 299; cited, (107.
Stepanoff, 12, 13, 122, 4)8; Dall's arrangement

with, 123.
Stephen's Pass, 250, 253. 271.
Stephen's Stiait, 340.
Sicrlingshire, 445.

Stewart, agent of Russian American Company, 341.
Stewart River, 279.
Stikine River, 252, 271, 291, 337, 342,348, 357,462,

464 ; gold deposits, 477.
Stockton. Commodore, 343.
Sloeckl, Edward de, negotiates treaty for Ahaska,

359 - 37-»-
Stop-a-bil River, ^(t.
Stoves, Russian, 9.
Strahlenberg, (107.

Straits of Fuca, 294, 308, 313. 314, 340,
Stuart, David, 327; Robert, 328.
Stuart Isliind, 4. 5, 24. 266.
Stuckenberg, J. C, 607.
Suboff Islands, 30S.
Suchitna River. 258 ; explored by MaKikofT, 273,

ay-!. 337. 34'. 4&4-

INDKX.

625

Sue, EiiBone, 1ih Wnndoriiig Jew, 511

Siilim.i Kivtr, i'D, J73.

.Sulphur, the ship, jjS.

Sulphur springs, 34^ : deposits of, 47.S.

Sumner, C'h.nrles, his speech on Al.isk.i, 607.

Superior, I..Tkc, 4S0.

Superior, the ship, 54^, 4S7.

Superstitions, SS-tjo.

SutherLiiul, in Scothiiul, st.ilistics of, 447.

Sutler, L'.ipt.iin John, buys Uoss settlement, 341,

Suw.itli.i, orij;in.il of Av.itch.i, 5^.

Suw.irrow, the ship, 321), 3)0.

.Swan, J. (i., liled, 607.

Swet/olT, expedition under, jji.

.Swift, Cipl.iin, 3.'5.

.Synd, l.ieutcn.mt, expedition under, 304.

T.ig.i!.iN.i Island, 247.

Tahco River, 271, 277, 35S, 441, 477, 50S ; Lake,
507; identicai wuh laku, OjS.

Takajaksen tribe, 4 jj.

'laku River, 340, OjS.

'I'anaBa Island, j6o.

'I'anaga Pass, 148.

Tanaga IVak, jS.), 4^,7.

Tanak-Angunakh, 4'i,j.

■lananah Indians, 107; h.ibits of, 108.

Tananali Kivcr joins the Yukon, 57, 8j, v3< iSi,
431-

Tannra Island, 247.

Tarakanoff, I'imothcus, 321, 325.

TarcnintT rescued by Kennicott, 70.

'I'atla Lake, 357.

'I'atsah Kntchin tribe, 431.

'J'atschei;no tribe, 432.

Tatsun-ikhtun River, yg.

Tattooinu nnionj; the Indi.ins, 140.

Tattooinc, praclite of, 3S1.

Tayakhonsiti Harbor, 251.

TcbenkolT, Michael, y; his cliart, 250, 336, 338,
342, 343, 34^ f«'7-

'I'ebenkoffs Cove, 11, 2W).

'reealiiik«ik River, 275.

Tekunka, (••^.

Telec/liik, the Interpreter, 3;, 52, 221.

'lelegraph, first pole erected, $^, (^ ; erecting poles,
72, 254, 264, 270, 290, 2<)i, 292; pl.m liir from
San Francisco to liering Strait, 355 ; organiza-
tion nf expeilition, 355, 35S, 457, 507, 511.

Tcnnuth-Kulchin, habits of, loS, 411.

TeiakanofT, expedition under, 321, 325.

Terra del Fuego, 492.

Terror, the ship, 343.

'J'hlin!;ets, 256 ; hostile to Russians, 320 ; battle
with, 321, 322 ; trade with Russians, 325, 342,
346, 348, 354 ; description of the tribe, 411 vi scq,

Thijegonchotana tribe, 432.

Thomas, Captain, 500.

'ihompson, laplain, 457.

J'hompson, |)avid, 527.

Thome, Captain, s.iils liir Aslor, 336.

Thoiiars, Unpelit, visits northwest co.ist, 338.

Three Saints' Hay, 251).

Three Saints, the ship, 317.

'Thiuider Mountain, 28<;.

Tiakinak, 24S.

Tigalda Island, 24"!, i(<o, 471.

Tikhmcnielf, Historian of llie Russian American
Company, <), 4S, doS.

Tinder, how made, 17.

Tinneh, family of,. 2S ; dialect of, 5 j, 41 1 il ieq.

I'ipping, Captain, 308.

Tobacco, 7S, Si.

'Tohwun-nukakat River, 101.

Tolstoi, .\ndrean, fits out a vessel, 302.

'I'olstoi I'oint, 20, 129: geology of, 135, 161, 1S4,
267.

Tongas, Fort, 251.

'Tongas Indians, 251.

'Toiupiin, the ship, lilted out by .\stor, 32^, 327.

'Topanika, 20, i'>i.

'Totems, system of, iij6 - 198.

'To/.ikakat River, 92, 2S2.

'Trade, annual Indian, iu6.

Trading by Hudson Day Company, 104 ; expedi-
tions, 307 ; by King George's Sound Company,
30S.

'Trapesnikoff's F.xpedition, 302.

'Treaty of (ihent. 329; with Japan, 347 : with Hud-
son l!ay Company, etc., 353 ; for Alaska, 245,

359 -37^-
'Trevor, the ship, 329.
Tristran d'.Acnnha Island, 492.
'Trollopc, Commodore, 3('i.
'T'satsunii, village of, 13 : houses in, 13, 14.
'Tschnagmnts. tribe of, 407.

Tseetoht River, 281.
'Tsulsin, aliits for Chukchces, 513.
'Tugidak Island, 24S.

Tukkulh Kutchin tribe, 430.

'Tulubieff, Captain, 333.

'Tiingusi tribe, 518, li}^.

'Tunguska River, 518.

'Tuski tribe, the, 374, 375 ; description of, 378, 510,

5>4.
Turanian family, 524.
'Turnagain Arm. 25'*, 272.
Tutchoiic Kutchin Indians, 429.
Tutsogemnt, 13.

I'gagiik River, 261, 273.
I'galakmnts, the tribe of, 401.
I'g.dentsi, tribe of, 430.
I'kamak Island, 248.
Uka-wutne River, 85.
Ukivuk Island, 2O3.

626

INDEX.

UliaRii Island, j^S.

UliikaKMiiits, tribe of, 411.

Ulukiik moiiiitaiiis, n) ; arrived at, 37, 41, tad, 133 ;

expedilion starts for, 1^14, JS4, j8S, iKi).
Umnak, 348, 3O0, jH^, 303, 333, 395, 4'i7, ^(>c,, 471,

47.?. 47"-
Unakhataiia Indians, 103,
Unalaslika, 348, 3^10, 381) ; expedition winters at,

304. Vh no. 314. 335. 350. 151 : scliool at, 353,

38'J. 4H. 444 ; rainfall at, 44s, 448, 4''7. 4f'-'<. 4^-».

471 ; copper fnnnd, 477, 4'W. S-')< 5.15-
I'nalaslikans, tribe of, 3S6.
Unaleet, tribe of, 13.
Unalga Island, 347.
Linaligmuts atlatk tlie Michaeloviki Redoubt, 9,

407.
I'nalaklik River, 8, 9, 136, 130, 157, 367, 384, 340.
Unalaklik, trip to, S, 14: cxpcililion starts for, 15:

description of, 34, 33, 57 ; scurvy at, (*), 135, 139,

133, 357. ^°\ •(**'•. 535-

Unga, inundation of, 310, 356, 466, 477, 479, 484.

Unga Island, 348, 359,

iMigulata of Alaska, 578.

L'nimak, 348, ifa, 3(5 ; 1 .i-,3, 461, 466, 470; volca-
noes, 467, 4fi9, 478, 484.

Union Strait, 345.

United States and k.. -^ia boundary questions, 333
et ieq.

United States Exploring Kxpedition, 339, 340; Ja-
pan, 347.

Uplioon, northern moulli of the V'nkon, 119, 333,

375. ^"^S-

Uprovalislia, olTiccr of Russian American Com-
pany, 350.

Ursid.r of Alaska, 576.

Ustiakoff, a navigator, 331, 400.

Usiingoff, cited, (o3.

Utensils, 216- 318.

Valdes, Lieutenant C, 314.
Valcrianos, Aposlolos, 394.
Vancouver, Captain (ieorgc, his chart, 250 ; dies,

314; his explorations, 315, 608
Vancouver Island, 475, 506.
Variag, the corvette, 357.
VasarofT, Captain, 396.
V.isiliefT, 336.

Vatchee Lake, 278 ; head of Yukon, 638.
VeniaminofT, Father, 334, 336, 337. 34°. 35^. 35.1.

377 ; his l.ibors, 385, 443, 444, 445 ; finds copper,

477 ; cited, 608.
VeniaminofT Mountain, 289, 470.
Vesolia Sopka, 38 ; description of, 39, 77, 1S5, 289.
Victoria Land, 345, 35^1, 338, 464.
Victoria, the brig, 465.
Vienna, climate of, 451.
Vincennes, the sloop of war, 339, 340.
Vizcaino, Sebasti.an, 294.
Volcanoes, list of, 286-290, 4O6-470.

Vose, the geologist, 4^3.
Vostovia Mountain, 254, 471.
Vunta Kntchin tribe, io<>, 430.
V^evill<ilT I'eak, 2H9 ; volcano, 467.
Vsevolnj.»ky, M. U. S., cited, 608.

Waddinglon, Mr , 4''.4.

Waiiuvrighl lidel, 385.

Walker Hay, 345.

Walrus Isl.ind, i<o

Walrus I'eak, jS), 4''.7.

Walrus vilLige, 4^>4.

Wappaens, J. K., (09.

Ward, death of, no

Washington (I). ('.. ), climate of, 451.

Washington Islands, 331.

Washington, ship, from Boston, 309 ; makes ex-
plorations, 311.

WasilielT, llaraiiofT Island described by, 336, 331,
3V. 33f>

Water, dilTicully in obtaining, 33.

Waxel, Lieutenant, discovers Shumagin Island,
300.

Weber River, 475.

Webster's l)iction.ary cited, 434.

Wesldahl, Mr., 14, 18.

Western exploring vessel, 331.

Western Union Telegraph Company, 355-358.

Whale l!ay, 478.

Whale Island, 370.

Whaling company organized, 345.

Wheildon, W. W., Ckx;.

White River, 279, 2.80.

Whitehaven, rainfall at, 44^

Whitney, Professor, his geological investigations,
4.'!7. 470. 53fi.

Whytnper, F., 8 ; artist, 35, 43 ; afcends the Yu-
kon, 56 ; makes sketches, 86, 205, 270, 277 :
travels in Alaska, 290, 291, 356, 609.

Whymper River, 99, 281.

Wilder, the steamer, 60.

Wilkes, Liei^t'uant Charles, 339, 340 ; his expe-
dition, 40i->, 6C9.

Williams, R., Adjutant-General, 369, 370.

Wilna River, 521.

Wilson, Joseph S., 368.

Windship, American vessel, 324.

Winter Harbor, 346.

Woiwodsky, as chief Director Russian American
Company, 343 ; superseded, 349.

Wolasatux, 50, 64, 170, 383.

Wolf, his drawing of sea-otter, 489.

Woody Island, ice depot at, 259, 355.

Woronkoffsky explores south co.ast of AIi.aska, 33S,

339-
Wossnessensky, Elia, 339 ; his collections, 457,

458.
Wrangell, Baron F. P., 265, 330, 332, 336, 337, 338,
354. 4<'. 4M. 508, 509, 609,

INDKX.

627

Wr.ingfll Land, 150, J5t, 1^0, 10.I. 14-4, 5o», 509.
WmkIh, Ccdrse M., i.-j, 155.
WriKlil, i'.emne S., the sleamer, 3, 356, 358.
Wyinaii, iJr., 376.

Y.ignr Ivamivlili, 45.

V.ij!iirk(itWiy vill.i(;e, 479.

\ .iRorsha, 45.

\.ik;ui, Cape, 509.

\.ikulal Hay, 256, 31^. ; fort at, 117, 321, 323, 333,
481.

\'.ikiitat tribe, 411, 42S, 4S4.

\.ikuls, the, 5ifi; llicir liahlts t,\<} et sei}.

V.ikutsk, 12, 27(1, 519; confouiulcj with Irkutsk,
53'. 535.

N.ikutikalatenik, 357.

V.iska, the interpreter, 229.

Vedcio Hay, 347.

Vellipw Knife Indians, 429.

Velowy Island, 24S.

Yenisei River, 519.

\'ertno!()flr, O09.

Vcsso-Aincis, houses of, 525.

Vesso Island, 347, 523.

\eterop Island, 523.

\'iirk Kaclory, 103, 344.

Vukagir tribe, 21/1, 519, 523.

Yukon, description of river and Icrrilory, i - 242.

Siikon, Kort, (> ; Kelchnm's journey to, 63, 69, 72,

86, 342, 34S, 498, 501, 502.
Yukon Indians, 47S, ,}i^s, ,^99, 525.
Yukon River, identity with the Kwikhpak, 4 ; first

-ii;lil of, 4t ; plain forascendinR, ^.h ■ chart of, 6j,
Wi; washing away of bank^, 71; descent of,
Chap. III. ; rapiils of, 97 ; plans for exploration
of Lower Niik.m, 122-11)2: •"ccncry about, 2o<) ;
first chart of, it^ ; nioutlis of, 264, 263 : dulia of,
275; head •«. Iters of, 27(1, (,28; identified wiih the
Kwiklipak, 277; explored, 27S: tribularies of,
278 ; descriplion of, 279 - 2S4 , lenKlh, 2.S4 , course
of, J92; explored by (llasunoff, 117; explored l)y
Malakoff, 339, 345 ; Jones descends, 155 ; ( Iran-
auH at the mouth, 373,411, 4''4 : eartlupuikes on,
47" ; gold, 477 ; fish, 484, 4S5 ; fur lr.ide, 492 ,1
tei}., 5o<j.

Yukon Territory, plan for exploration of, fi; soil,
71 ; populalidii of, 224 ; its value, 241, 242, 350;
schools, 352; delta, lunuit in, 407, 42S, 513; cli-
mate and resources of territory. Chap. XV., p.
435 <■' sfij. ; rainfall, 437; timber, 438 tt scq. ;
Keology, 472.

Yukutstharkut River, i/j, 2S1.

Yulak Island, 247.

Ynnaska volcano, 248, 4O8, 469, 471.

Y'urup Island, 523.

Zacharlns, the ship, 320.

Zagoskin, Lieutenant, 48, 276, 340, 341, 432, Cjog.

ZaikofT, I'otan, his explorations, 307.

Zaikoff, .Sieiiheii, makes explorations, 305.

Zapceski, cited, ^109.

Zaremba Island, 250.

Zaremba, Lieutenant P., 337, 340.

Zetland, 444, 445 ; agriculture of, 447.

NOTES AND CORRECTIONS ON THE MAP.

As these sheets arc leaving; the press I am alilc to a<hl the following notes. 'I'lic
examination of the original maps of the explorations of the Stikliic and Talico Rivers,
which were not aecessil)le when this map was compiled, show some corrections to In
neee-.iary. The imperfections of ihe pholoyraphie map (No. 4) alluded to in the le\i,
the only source of niformation ihen ucccssilile, are chiefly the cause of the error, ii
must be remendiered that the map here (,'iven is liascd upon approximate data to a
large extent, and, as explorations multiply, much revision in the smallei details will
be necessary. The principal and only important change now necessary is in regard lo
the head-waters of the l.ewi^, Stikiiie, and T.nhco Rivers. It apjiears that the true
position of Fort Muniford is 57^^ 54' N. I.at. and 131° lu' W. l,on. from (Ireenwidi.
This brings the true course of the river into agreement with the observations of Pro-
fessor \V. r. Hl.ake. The position of Lake Kennicott is 58° 30' N. I.at. .and 131° 4;'
\V. I,on. ; it is fed by a hot spring ; and of Lake Kelchum 58° 43' N. Lat. and 131"
50' \V. I.on. Wilchce Lake, with the streams from several small lakes falling into it,
proves to be the true head of the Lewis River, and is divided from the Tahc(j hy
a very low and narrow divide, some three miles oidy in width. The north and soutli
forks of the I alico join, in the main stream (in I.at. 59° 07' N. and I.on. 133' W.
(Ireenwich), which turns abruptly to the west and south, an<t without doubt (tho'igli
unexjdored) enters (ilacier Arm, where it is known as the Tdku River. All of tlii^
was incorrectly represented or omitted in the photographic map alluded to. Regret-
ting that this correction is necessary, I am only glad that I have li.ad the opportunity
of correcting it here at the last moment, though not in the text itself. The remaindei
of the map, from the late-t information, proves to be nearly correct, though future
revision will no doubt be n-cessary.

The map having been printed before the spelling was revised, the following changes
:"'e desirable in the orthography of the names : —

Fo>

Kinqef|uan

read

Kingcgan.

Cape Krleougoune

Ca|)e Kregugin.

Nounivak

Nunivak,

Youkon

Yukon.

Katniay

Katmdi.

Unalaska

Unaliishka.

Iliaminsk Pk.

Iliamna Peak.

Kuyck R.

Kncck R.

Chilcat

Chilkahf

C. St. I5artoloin

C. St. liartolomeo.

Chimsain Id,

Chinisyan Id.

Ch acorn

Chacon.

Etoline

fitolin.

N. H. — Cape St, Ilermogenes is the south point of Marmot Island, near Kadiak.
* This more accurately represents the sound, according to Mr. Davidson.

Oft^jtwi^f**

TAP.

iiiK notes. Tilt
<l Tiilico KiviTs
Lont'ctidiis to In
:d to in the tc\i,
)f tlie error, Ii
iiuati- (lata to u
allfi details will
y is in regard lo
rs tiiat tlic tiiic
roin (Mccnwic!:.
rvations of I'm.
;\t, and 151° 4;'

Lat. and iji"
i falling into it,
I the TaliC(j hy
lorth and soutli
1 I, on. 133' W.

doubt (tho'.igli
:r. All of ihi,
eil to. Regret-
he o|)|)ortunily
The remaindci
, though future

lowing changes

lear Kadiak.

«*"

I / •

' V

170*

100"

150"

ual

^-^.

'^-'^J..'!!:^"- ^-'^

c> ■'

»• , >'

•-«

._-..4.'

j::Jte.!d«7i*

A.L ASKA

IStU^nf^

♦-^..

'i*^«.
.^«i>.

AND

ADJ OIN IN G TKRH 1 TORY

1869.

Cbuiit line •oundii><« Ac ft-om U 6. Coaiil Kurv*.T

Tlio Y.uikon HrviT.Rnnj^H of Mount aiim Shore* of N«.ii«>n Sound Hr many
Ffatu:-.-» olthr luleiMor tVoin a Heconiirti«*au. «■ hv W M Uall, DirecUn of tlie
Si-icntifir (,or]ii», i.f Ums W. U T«l. £iip«*«itU<>ii IHti.'i - 18(18

-h

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-W

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