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The Aryan Hindus, Dards, and Kafirs 17 2. The Baluches, Afghans, Persians, Kurds, and Ossetes . . .20 3. The Armenians 2c 4. The Skolots or Skythians . 26 5. The Kimmerians 28 6. The Phrygians, My.sians, and Lydians 29 7. The Thrakians ^q 8. The Cireeks ^j 9. The Albanians ^2 10. The Romans ^^ 1 1 . The Skvs, Letts, and Lithaanians 34 12. The Teutonic Peoples ^5 13. The Kelts ^g B. The Shemitic Stock 1 . The Syrians ^q 2. The Assyrians and Babylonians 30 3. The Jews ^2 4. The Ammonites .4^ 5. The Moabites . ^ 6. The Edomites . ^ 7. The Aral)ians .^ 8. The Abyssinians .x^ I IV. Contents. C. The Haniitic Stock. ,,a(;i. 1. The Ilaniathites 4^5 2. The Phoenikians 4-. 3. The Canaanites . ^'^ 4. The Philistines 40 5. The Libyans ^r, 6. The Egyptians cq 7. The Cushites o 8. The Flaniitic Peoples of the Present Day 5 ^ II. Thk Basko-American Division of riir-: Human Family. A. The Basko-Siberiati Subdivisiou. 1 . The Basques cr- 2. The Etruscans cq 3. The C'aucasians rn 4. The Moschians and Tiharenians 61 5. The Uranlians and Minnians 62 6. The Hittites 62 7. The Elamites 64 8. The Einno-Manchu Peoples 65 9. The Koreans %-^ 10. The Japanese 83 1 1. The Veniseians .84 12. The Yukaghirs 84 13. The Chukchees, Koriaks, and Itelms 85 B. The Tibeto-Sinican Subdivision. 1. The Tibeto-Burman Peoples 86 2. The Karens 90 3. The Ciyarungs, Miautze, &c 90 4. The Shan-Siamese Peoples 91 5. The Khasi-Annamite Peoples 93 6. The Chinese 95 C. The Malay- Polynesian Subdivision. I. The Malays and Malayans 98 Contents. I'A(,K u;i 2 46 3 47 4S . I 49 2 49 3 50 4 52 j 5- 5.^ 6. 1 '- 1 ^ 57 59 59 3- 4. 61 62 62 1 64 ' I. 6s . 83 ^1> 2. 3- 4- 84 j ....84 j I. .... 85 j 2. .....86 " ■ 90 ; 90 , 91 I. 93 2. 95 3- 98 4- The .Micnine.'ians 106 The Polynesians 108 1). TJie American Suhdivisioii. The Aleutian.s and Eskimos 1 13 The Western Tribes of North America 116 The ?]astern Tribes of North America 124 The Central Tril;es .... i^c The Western Tribes of South America 136 The Eastern Tribes of South America 140 III. The Indo-Australian Division. The Kolarians I ^^5 The I )ravi(lians The Ainu The Australians 147 148 150 IV. The Negro-Pai'uan Divlsion. A. The African Blacks. The Hamito-Negro Tribes 152 The Negroes 1 1-4 The Bantu Tribes i C7 The Batwa, Wamlmtti. Bushmen, and Hottentots 161 B, The Oceanic Blacks. The Negritos i(3i- The Papuans 155 PART II. Ve^i ILanguagES of tjjc SSEorHi. I. Origin, Structure, and Classification of Languages. The Origin of Language 171 The Origin of Languages 172 The Elements of which Languages are Made 175 The Structure of L^anguages : The Indo-Keltic Languages 178 n i ^ i ;f,)V i vi. Contents. I'AGK The Sheiiiltic Languages i8i The Haniitic Languages 183 The lias(jue 187 The Caucasian Languages 191 The Finno-Sil)erian Languages • 192 The Dravido- Australian Languages 197 The American Languages 200 The Tibeto-Sinican i^anguages 204 The Inter-Continental Languages 210 The Central African Languages 213 The Bantu Languages 215 5. Classijication of Languages 178 and 218 . IL The Original Unity OF THR Lndo-Keltic LaN(iua(;es. 1 . lutrodtictory Matters 221 2. Evidences of Linguistic Unity . 222 3. The Laivs of Sound-Shifting 225 4. Proofs of the Original Unity of Indo- Keltic LMngiiages . . .239 IIL Practical Value ok the Science of Lan(;ua(;e. Growth of the Science of Language 250 Its Value to the Ethnologist . 252 To the Historian 253 To the Student 254 PART I. Uhc |Jco|ilc$ aub ^liitions of the clorli). D Ftl II The origi hetvv l)0\Vi ditic belie hum of a divic plac( and in G were ence fruit subd THE PEOPLES AND NATIONS OF THE WORLD. The various peoples of the world had a coni.iion origin. This is clearly indicated by the res';, ibkirxe between all mer- in the structure of their bodies, the })Owers and actions of their minus, their morul con- dition and spiritual needs, and their aspirations nnd beliefs. It is also affirmed by the fact that the human race may be continued by the mixed offspring of any two of the several varieties into which it is divided. But the original unity of mankind is placed beyond all doubt by the general teachings and positive declarations of the Bible. We are told in Genesis that God blessed Adam and Eve, who were unquestionably the only human beings in exist- ence at the time ; and that He said unto them, " Be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it, and have dominion over the fish of the I t m *\l I o The Peoples and Nations of the World. sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth." This passage clear) v implies that the_ earth was to be peopled by the descendants of Adam and Eve. We are again told in Genesis that " God saw that the wickedness of man was great " — not the wickedness of some men, but of man, of the whole human race — and that he destroyed "all flesh," except Noah and his family. With regard to the re-peopling of the world we are informed that the sons of Noah that went out of the ark were Shem, Ham, and Japhet, and that " of these was the whole earth overspread." We are taught in Romans that "through one man" — the reference being undoubtedly to Adam — " sin entered into the world, and death through sin, and that so death passed unto all men, for that all sinned." We are also taught in First Corinthians that " by man came death," that "in Adam all die." These state- ments clearly imply that all men, at any rate all sinful and mortal men, have some connection with Adam. But if the Yellows and Blacks are not descended from him as well as the Whites what connection can they have with him ? We find the following statement in the Acts of the Apostles : — " God made of one every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the earth, having determined their appointed seasons, and the bounds of their habita- tion." This passage, especially when taken in The People li ill I! ^ i:i' 24 The Peoples and Nations of the World. W: Jn i! i.iMi and arrows as their only weapons. They were in the habit of turning and retiring as if in full flight, and discharging their arrows backwards, holding the bow behind the shoulder. They were thus as dangerous to their foes when fleeing as when attacking. The Parthians had been for a long time subject to Persian influence. It is quite certain, then, that the Parthians who founded the Parthian Empire were to a large extent an Aryan people. But to what stock the original Parthians belonged, we do not know. They may or may not have been Aryans. It is somewhat probable, however, that they were not. If not, they are more likely to have been Turks than anything else. Ardashir, a man of great energy and valor, suc- ceeded his father as King of Persis, or the original Persia, in 212, A. D. He conqu(;red Parthia in 224. He died in :;4i, leaving an extensive empire to his successor. This empire, which is known in history as the Sasanian Empire, was conquered by the Arabs in 642, A. D. The present inhabitants of Persia may be divided into two classes, the Tajiks and the lUyats. The Tajiks number about 6,000,000. They constitute the settled population of the country. They are the true representatives of the ancient Persians. They speak the Persian language and are in the main of Iranian descent. The lUyats number about The Peoples and Nations of the World. 25 2,000,000. They raise cattle and sheep, and lead a semi-nomadic life. They are almost wholly of Turkish origin. There is a large number of Tajiks in Afghanistan, Khiva, Bokhara, Ferghana, Badakshan, and Kash- garia. The Galchas, who are a people of the same origin, number about 380,000 in Karetegin. 4. The Kurds. The Kurds live between Kharput west of Lake Van and the Persian province of Liiristan. They are a wild and lawless people, but very hospitable. They number about 2,300,000. 5. The Ossetes. 'i'he Ossetes occupy the Gorge of Dariel and both its outlets. They call themselves Iron, a name which clearly points to an Iranian origin. ///. THE AIRMEN I AN BRANCH. The Armenians, according to their own legend- ary history, are descended from Haik, a son of Togarmah the son of Gomer. They ure equal in physical beauty to any people in the world, and have a high order of intellect. They were originally a brave and warlike people. Their chief gods were Ormuzd and Mithras, their chief goddess Anaitis. They embraced the Christian religion about 276, w\ ' If t < Ill; 26 T/ie Peoples and Nations of the World. A. D. They number about 1,000,000 in Armenia, and about 3,000,000 in other countries. They are brachykephalic, the index of breadth l>eing 85. ! i;!i' iilli! ■ I IV. THE SKOLOTS. The Skythians lived between the I>on and the Danube, in the country originally known as Kim- meria. They were as a general rule nomads. They had large flocks and herds, and lived chiefly on boiled flesh, milk, and cheese. They moved about from place to place in search of fresh pasture- grounds, the women and children in covered waggons drawn by oxen, and the men on horseback. They scarcely ever washed themselves. They were some- what fleshy, and had pretty full beards. They worshipped several gods and goddesses, such as Tahiti, Papaeus, Apia, Octosyrus, Artimpasa, and Thamimasadas. Their chief weapon was the bow and arrow. They scalped their enemies. Sometimes they made cloaks for themselves by sewing a number of scalps together. They converted the skulls of foes whom they especially hated into drinking-cups. When engaged in battle the Skythian generally drank a portion of the blood of the first man that he slew. When a king died among the Skythians they embalmed his body, and placing it on a waggon, carried it about through all the different tribes. As a sign of mourning every man chopped off a piece of his ear, cropped his hair close, made a cut all iiii; The Peoples and Nations of the World, 2 7 round his arm, lacerated his forehead and nose, and thrust an arrow through his left hand. When the king was buried one of his concubines, his cup- bearer, his cook, his groom, his lacquey, some of his horses, and some of his golden cups were buried with him. A huge mound was then raised over his grave. At the end of a year fifty of the best horses that had belonged to the king were strangled and placed, by means of strong stakes, in a standing position around his tomb. Fifty of his attendants were also strangled and mounted on the horses. The dead king was now left to shift for himself the best way he could. The living could do nothing more for him. Whilst the Skythians, or Skolots, were probably to some extent of Turko-Mongol origin there can be no reasonable doubt that as a whole they were Indo- Kelts. The few words of their language that have been preserved clearly belong to the Indo-Keltic family. So far as the custom of scalping is con- cerned the Skythians may have learned it from their Finno - Manchu neighbors. At the same time they were not of such refined manners that it might not have sprung up among themselves. We have no reason to conclude that the early Indo • Keltic warriors were all gentlemen. The Greeks applied the term Skythian, first to the Skolots, but afterwards to all nomadic peoples. Whilst, then, the Skythian Skolots are to be classed rH n \ •" 1 m m !iiiii;i fi i ! M. m 11 1 Ml I 1 1 iiiliii 28 The Peoples mid Nations of the World. ■m as Indo-Kelts the Skythian tribes of Northern Asia are not. These Skythians were unquestionably Turko-Mongols. The Sarmatians, or Sauromatae, lived originally be- tween the Caspian Sea and the river Don. Their language closely resembled that of the Skolots. We may safely conclude then that they were an Indo- Keltic people. F. THE KIMMERIANS. The Kimmerians lived along the northern coast of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. They are the Gomer of the Bible and the Gimirrai of the Assyrian inscriptions. They were at one tune very powerful, but became greatly reduced in strength from intestine wars in which they lost their principal men. Whilst in this enfeebled condition the Skolots entered their country and made themselves masters of it without any difficulty. A large number of Kimmerians, fleeing from the victorious Skolots, entered Armenia. They were under a chief "named Teispes, or Tiuspa. They were attacked by Esar-Haddon, King of Assyria, in 677 B. C, and driven into Asia Minor. For a long time they wandered at will through the most fertile districts of the country west of the Haiys. They ravaged Paphlagonia, Bithynia, Ionia, Lydia, Phrygia, and Kilikia. They were finally overpowered by Alyattes, King of Lydia. They formed a permanent settlement in Sinope. The Peoples and Nations of the World. 29 The Kimmerians had evidently been in Europe long before their conquest by the Skolots. It is probable then that some of them had moved much farther west than the Dneister. It may also be fairly assumed that whilst some of them fled from the Skolots into Asia others of them fled towards western Europe. It is thus at least possible that the Kimbri of later times were really Kimmerians. Still there are no valid grounds for afiirming that they were. The language of the Kimmerians has utterly perished. VI , THE PHRYGO-LYDIAN BRANCH. The Phrygo-Lydian branch included the Phry- gians, Mysians, and Lydians. - • I. The Phrygians. The Phrygians were an inland people living be- tween the river Halys, the modern Kizil-Irmak, on the east, and I-ydia and Mysia on the west. They were very numerous, but were split up into a large number of petty bribes. They founded a kingdom in the valley of the Sangarius at an early date. They were closely related to the Greeks. The Phrygian Kingdom was destroyed by the Kimmerians between 680 and 670 B. C. The Gauls formed a settlement in eastern Phrygia about the year 230 B. C. The district occupied by the Gauls came to be known a^ Galatia, Clkl N H id L If t m m I ii lU m 111 I! : iM iiiiini, IP' ' 30 T/ie Peoples and Nations of the World, 2. The Mysians. The Mysians lived between Phrygia and the Mediterranean Sea. Their language was a mixture of Phrygian and Lydian. » 3. The Lyuians. The Lydians lived in Asia Minor opposite Greece. They were a progressive and energetic people, and were evidently of mixed origin. They founded a strong empire in 690 B. C. The first ruler was Gyges, the Gugu of the Assyrian inscriptions, the second Ardys, the third Sadyattes, and the fourth and last, the renowned Crcesus. Croesus was a very powerful monarch. He exercised dominion over the whole of Asia Minor west of the river Halys. He was the wealthiest man of his day. He was defeated in a war with Kyrus, King of Persia, in 540 B. C. His dominions were annexed to the Persian Empire. That the Lydians of the time of Croesus were mainly an Indo-Keltic people may be regarded as a matter of certainty. At the same time the original Lydians may have belonged to some other stock. If they are the Lud of the tenth chapter of Genesis they must have been Shemites. VJ/. THE THRAKIANS. Thrake was bounded on the north by the Danube, pn the east by the Black Sea, on the south by the Sea i f- .; \ B^in'mi The Peoples and Nations of the World. 3 1 of Marmora and the Mediterranean, and on the west l)y Makedonia and Illyria. All the inhabitants of this region spoke the same language and belonged to the same ethnic stock. That they were Indo- Kelts is apparent from the fact that the Greeks looked upon the Phrygians and other Indo-Keltic peoples of Asia Minor as Thrakian colonists. The;' were a very numerous people. 'I'hey practised tatoo- ing ; they purchased their wives from their parents ; and they frequently sold their children to traders. They delighted in war, and regarded plundering as a highly honorable business. VIII. THE HELLENIC BRANCH. The Hellenes, or Greeks, occupied the peninsula of Greece and the adjoining islands. They planted colonies in Kyprus, Ivrete, and Rhodes ; along the coasts of Karia, Lydia, and Mysia ; all around the Black Sea ; in Thrake and Makedonia ; in Ivyrene and Africa ; on the coast of Illyria ; and in southern Italy, Sikily, Spain, and southern Gaul. They were a highly intellectual and cultivated people. Tliey were a great blessing to the world. The earliest inhabitants of Greece were known as Pelasgians. They had their national sanctuary at Dodona in Epirus. To what stock they belonged is a matter of uncertainty. The most eminent of all the Greek rulers was. D i; »r 71 lilt.*] m m 32 The Peoples and Nations oj the World. Alexander the Great. He became King of Make- donia and commander-in-chief of all the Hellenic forces in 336 B. C. He crossed over into Asia Minor in 334, defeated the King of Persia in three great battles, and made himself master of all his dominions. He died in Babylon 323 B. C. The empire which he established crumbled to pieces immediately after his death. IX. THE ALBANIANS. The Illyrians lived between the Adriatic Sea on the west and Skythia and Makedonia oil the east. They were a hardy and warlike people. They prac- tised tattooing and offered human beings as sacrifices to their gods. They were much addicted to piracy. They were conquered by the Romans in the year 168 B.C. They were undoubtedly the ancestors of the modern Albanians. Albania lies along the Adriatic coast north of Greece. It is about 280 miles long, and in some places about 100 miles wide. Its area is about 18,944 square miles. It includes the whole of ancient Epirus and parts of Makedonia and Illyria. It contains a population of 1,200,000. The inhabit- ants are partly Greeks and partly Turks, but chiefly Albanians proper. The Albanians, or Skipitars, are of middle stature, with a full and broad chest, a long neck, an The Peoples and Nations of the World. 33 • oval face, and high cheek-bones. They are brave, hardy, and active, and also gay and lively. They go about armed, and are always ready to take part in ])lundering expeditions. They treat their wives almost as slaves. X. THE ITALIC BRANCH. U'he Romans occupied central Italy. They derived their name from the city of Rome, which was founded in the year 753 B. C. They were from the beginning a warlike and aggressive people. By the year 365 B. C. they had made themselves masters of the whole of Italy south of the Macra and the Rubicon. At the beginning of the Christian Era they ruled over the most powerful empire that the world had yet seen. It included Portugal, Spain, France, Belgium, Western Holland, Rhenish Prussia, parts of Baden and Wirtemberg, most of Bavaria, Switzerland, Italy, the Tyrol, Austria proper, West- ern Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, Servia, Turkey in Europe, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, ' Palestine, Idumea, Egypt, the Kyrenaica, Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria and most of Morocco. Its length from Cape Finisterre to Erzeroum was about 2700 miles, and its average breadth about 1000 miles. It com- prised an area of about a million and a half square miles. The Romans possessed in an eminent degree the power of organizing various nations into one political ■m !'ll 34 T/tg Peoples and Nations of the World. community, and of building up an empire on a solid basis. They were instinctively opposed to disintegration. Consolidation was their chief aim. They were well-trained and faithful warriors. They were patriotic and sagacious statesmen. Their laws were admirable. They rendered services of incal- culable value to the world in reducing rude and turbulent tribes to subjection and introducing order and the arts of civilization among them. XL THE SLAVO-LITHUANIC BRANCH. 'Mill There are two divisions of the Slavo - l^ithuanic branch, the Slavonic and the Lithuanic. iil: 1 111 I. The Slavonic Division. The Shivonic division contains the Russians, Servo -Croats, Slovenes, Poles, Kashoubes, Slovaks, Moravians, Bohemians, and Wends. The Russians are divided into Great Russians, White Russians, and Little Russians. They number about 60,000,000. They contain a large proportion of Finno - Ugrian blood. The Servo-Croats live in Servia, Montenegro, Slavonia, and Croatia, The Slovenes live in Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. The Kashoubes live near the mouth -of the Vistula. The Slovaks live in the north-western corner of Hungary. The Moravians live in Moravia, and the Bohemians and Czechs, or Chekhs, in Bohemia. The Poles number about The Peoples and Nations of the World. 35 10,000,000. The Wends live partly in Saxony and ])artly in Prussia. The original Bulgarians were Finno-Ugrians, and lived on the Volga. 'I'hey settled among the Slavs of the Danube about 660, A. D.,and imposed their name upon the country which is now known as Bulgaria. In the course of a few years they gave up their own customs and language and became thoroughly Slavified. The present Bulgarians are thus a mixed people. They are in the main, how- ever, of Slavonic origin. They are scattered over Bulgaria, Rournania, Eastern Roumelia, Makedonia, a part of Austria, and a part of Russia. They number about 5,000,000. The early Pomeranians, the Obotrites in Mecklen- burg, the Polabians in Laiienburg, and the Linones in Luneburg were Slavs. Indeed a Slavonic tribe seems to have penetrated as far west as Utrecht. The total number of Slavs at the present day is about 90,000,000. 2. The Lithuanic Division. The Lithuanians are tall and well-built. They have fair hair, blue eyes, and a delicate skin. They have mesokephalic skulls, the index of breadth being 78. They consist of the Letts and Lithuanians proper. The Letts live in Livonia, Courland, and the adjoining parts of Russia. They number about [ m 36 The Peoples and Nations of the World. 1,100,000. 'I'he Lithuanians proper live west of the Letts, chiefly in Russia but partly in Prussia. They number about 2,000,000. They became Christian- ized about 1386. The Borussians, or early Prussians, were Lith- uanians. They lived along the Baltic Sea between the Lithuanians proper and the Vistula. They became wholly Germanized. The modern l^russians have derived their name from them, and also a portion of their blood. The Lithuanians worshipped their divinities in forests. They had a^igh priest who was known as the Krive-Kriveyto, or judge of judges. They kept a fire constantly burning. XII. THE GERMANIC BRANCH. ii The Germanic branch includes the Germans, the Western Swiss, the Flemings, the Dutch, the Danes, the Swedes, the Norwegians, the Icelanders, and the English. The first Germanic peoples that rose into promi- nence in the history of the world were the Goths, the Aiiemanni, the Thuringians, the Burgundians, and the Franks. The Goths appear in histor^' in 200, A. D. In 274 they lived north of the lower Danube. They were divided into two branches, the Visigoths west of the Pruth and the Ostrogoths east of it. They •.■':|l, The Peoples and Nations of the World. 37 were converted to Christianity under Ulphila, who lal)ored among them from 343 to 388. In 376 the great bulk of the Visigoths, or West- Goths, crossed the Danul)e and settled in Moesia. They plundered Athens in 395, and Rome in 410. They founded a kingdom in southern Gaul, with Toulouse for its capital, in 411. They crossed the Pyrenees in 412, and made themselves masters of the whole of Spain. The Goths of southern Gaul were conquered by the Franks in 507, and the Goths of Spain by the Saracens in 711. The Ostrogoths, or East-Goths, settled in Pan- nonia, or the part of Hungary west of the Danube, about the year 453. Shortly afterwards they made themselves rulers of the whole of Illyria. In 488, under Theodoric their greatest king, they conquered Italy. Ravenna now became their capital. They ruled over Italy until 552, when their povvcr was destroyed by Narses. The AUemanni lived originally in Eastern Ger- many. Thence they moved to north-western Bavaria. They settled finally in Baden, Wirtemberg, and north- eastern Switzerland. They were frequently engaged in war with the Romans. The Thuringians lived between the AUemanni on the south and the Hartz Mountains on the north. The Burgundians liyed on the Upper Rhine near Worms. In 407, A. D., they founded the Kingdom of Burgundy in France. The Saxons occupied the whole of north Germany w .s:- 38 T/ie Peoples and Nations of the World. from the Hartz Mountains to the North Sea, and from the Elbe almost to the Rhine. They planted colonies in South Britain, in Normandy, and at the mouth of the Loire. They were conquered by Charlemagne in 804, A. D. The Franks, or Free- men, lived on the Lower Rhine. During the period of the decline of the Roman Empire, they began to pour into Gaul. In course of time, they made themselves masters of the whole country"! , i Xni. THE KELTIC BRANCH. The Kelts occupied at one time the whole of the British Islands, Belgium, northern and central France, parts of Spain, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, and the Asiatic district of Galatia. They were a brave, warlike, and poetic people. The purest Kelts of the present day are the Irish, the Scottish Highlanders, the inhabitants of the Isle of Man, the Gallowegians, the Kymry or Welsh, the jjeople of Cornwall, and the Bretons of France. B. The Shemitic 5tock. The Shemitic, or Syro-Arabian, Stock, included the following branches r the Assyro-Babylonian, the Jewish, the Ammonite, the Moabite, the Edomite, the Arabian, and the Abyssinian. The Peoples and Nations of the World, 39 /. THE SYRIAN BRANCH. The Syrians, or x^ramaeans, lived to the north-east of Palestine. They founded two kingdoms, Zobah and Damascus. Hadarezer, the founder of the Kingdom of Zobah, and its only independent sov- ereign, was conquered by King David about the year 1038 B. C. Rezon, Benhadad I., Benhadad II., and Hazael were the most powerful rulers of Damascus. They had large armies under their command. The Kingdom of Damascus was con- quered by Tiglath-pilezer, King of Assyria, in 732 B. C, and came to an end. ri. THE ASSYRO-BAB .ONI AN BRANCH. BabylDuia was bounded on the east by the Tigris, on the south by the Persian Gulf, on the west by the Arabian Desert, and on the north by Assyria. It was an extremely fertile country. The region along the western bank of the Euphrates was originally termed Edinna, or the desert. The upper half of the district east of the Euphrates was called Akkad, and the lower half Sumer, the Shinar of the Bible. The latter was sometimes spoken of as the cou'itry of the black faces. Nimrod was the fourider of the Babylonian Kingdom. He was the first great conqueror after the flood. He was a man of ambition, energy, and talent. Hie kingdom founded by him lasted ^n ) . ■ , 40 The Peoples and Nations of the World. -I a short time. It broke up into a number of small states. The Kassites in course of time made themselves masters of Akkad and Sumer. They established their capital at Babylon and fused the various states into one kingdom. Their dominion lasted several centuries. About the year 1270 B. C. Tiglath-Adar, King of Assyria, captured Babylon and brought the rule of the Kassites to an end. The Babylonians were a mixed people. The Proto-Babylonians,or first inhabitants of the country, may have belonged to the Basko-American division of the human race. They belonged 10 the white type. The Nimrodians, as the followers ot Nimrod may be called, were Hamites, whilst the Kassites belonged, at least to some extent, to the same stock. That the Shemites formed a large propor- tion of the inhabitants of Babylon long before the Assyrian conquest is an admitted fact. In a very short time after that date the whole population became thoroughly Assyrianized. It is commonly maintained that the Proto- Babylonians were the real founders of the Baby- lonian civilization. This opinion may, or may not, be correct. It cannot, however, be looked upon as an established fact. The probability is that the founders of the distinctive type of civilization known as the Babylonian were the mixed people formed by the union of the Hamites and Proto-Babylonians. So far as the Babylonian Kingdom is concerned the The Peoples and Nations of the World. 41 credit of establishing it belongs chiefly to the Nimrodians and the Kassites. It is generally supposed that the Proto-Baby- lonians spoke an agglutinative language and that this language, which is called Akkadian, has been pre- served in the cuneiform inscriptions, This may be the case. At the same time, it is possible that what is regarded as an agglutinative language is simply Assyrian written in a peculiar manner. Assyria lay between the Euphrates on the west, and the Zagros Mountains on the east, and between Armenia on the north, and Babylonia on the south. It wn,s a compact and sti^ng kingdom at least as '.uiy as the year 1400 B.C. The famous city of Nineveh was its capital. The Assyrians were broad-shouldered, large- limbed, and strong - looking men. They had a straight forehead, a full brow, large eyes, an aquiline nose, heavy hair, and long thick curling beard. Their forehead was somewhat low and their lips somewhat thick. The Assyrians were by far the most powerful 01 the S- ro-Arabian nations. They possessed great energy a \? determination. They were able and successfu VI- i.fiors. They conquered nation after nation until at last their empire included, besides Assyria proper, parts of Armenia and Media, Matiene or the Zagros range of mountains, Elam, Babylonia, a portion of Arabia, Idumea, Egypt, 6 43 The Peoples and Nations of the World. Palestine, Phoenikia, Kilikia, and Cappadokia. They were the Romans of Asia. They were intensely religious, but at the same time proud and treacherous. In 625 B. C, Nabopolassar, the Viceroy of Babylonia, rebelled against Assyria, and made him- self an independent sovereign. Shortly afterwards the Medes, under Kaztarit, or Kyaxerxes, captured Nineveh, and utterly destroyed it. The Assyrian empire was now at an end. The Babylonian civilization was of a very high order, and may have been of an earlier date than that of Egypt. .' . .' ssyrian civilization was almost wholly of Babyloni. : origin. ///. THE JEWISH BRANCH. The Children of Israel were descended from Abraham. They lived in Egypt during two hundred and fifteen years. They left Egypt about the year 1317 B. C. The period of their greatest prosperity and power was during the reigns of David and Solomon, or from 1055 to 975 B. C. The kingdom of the ten tribes was destroyed by the Assyrians in 722 B.C., and the Kingdom of Judah by the Baby- lonians in 588 B. C. Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus in 70, A. D. At the present day there are about 200,000 Jews in Asia, 700,000 in Africa, 5,000,000 in Europe, 300,000 in America, and 20,000 in Australia. The ihe Peoples and Nations of the World. 43 total Jewish population of the world is thus about 6,220,000. The Jews, as a general rule, have a hooked or aquiline nose. IV. THE AMMONITES. The Ammonites lived north of the Moabites, between the Arnon and the Jabbok. They were bitter and constant foes of the Children of Israel. They were descended from Lot. V. THE MOABITES. The Moabites lived along the western shore of the Dead Sea and the lower course of the Jordan. They were an immoral people, and offered up human sacrifices. They were, like the Ammonites, descend- ed from Lot, VI. THE EDOMITES. The Edomites, or Idumeans, were descended from Esau. They lived south of the Dead Sea. Their chief cities were Bozrah, Maon, Selah or Petra, Ezion-geber, and Elath. They were brave warriors, and, like their progenitor, took great delight in hunting. VII. THE ARABIAN BRANCH. The ArabL^ns may be divided into two sections, the Northern and the Southern. The Northern t»l f 44 The Peoples and Nations of the World. iJ'-^ Arabs live chiefly north of a line drawn from the 1 8th parallel of north latitude on the coast of the Red Sea to the 25th parallel on the coast of the Persian Gulf. The Southern Arabs live almost wholly south of this line, in Yemen, Hadramaut, Oman, and the adjoining districts. The Sabseans dwelt in Yemen and the Himyarites in Hadramaut, The Arabs, taken as a whole, have a brownish- white skin; coarse, copious black hair; thin, black beards ; dark oval, or almond-shaped, eyes ; a small mouth ; a receding chin ; and as a general rule an. aquiline nose. I'heir forehead is well-shaped, but not very high. They are slightly undersized, and somewhat slender. They are wiry and active, but not strong The Southern Arabs are darker than the Northern Arabs ; whilst their lower limbs are slenderer, their hair less copious, and their beard much scantier. Many of them, owing to the large number of slaves imported from Africa and the readiness of the Arabians to marry African women, have argood deal of Negro blood in them. The Northern Arabs are as a whole descended from the Joktanites and Ishmaelites, and other ancient Syro-Arabian tribes. The Southern Arabs contain a large proportion of Syro-Arabian blood, but are no doubt, as a whole, Cushites rather than anything else. The inhabitants of Arabia number about 9,000,000. Of these about 7,000,000 are settled Arabs> and The Peoples and Nations of the World. 45 about 2,000,000 Bedouins, or nomadic Arabs. The Bedouins live in tents and move about from place to place with their herds and flocks. Camel meat is a favorite dish with them. They are nominally Mohammedans, but as a general rule they pay very little attention to the precepts of the Koran. They belong almost wholly to the* Northern branch of the Arabs. The Arabians were united under one supreme head by Mohammed, who was born in Mecca in 570, A. D., and died in 632. His successors, the Califs as they were called, founded an empire which surpassed in extent that of Rome. VI J I. THE ABYSSINIAN BRANCH. Abyssinia is bounded on the west by the regions of the Upper Nile, on the north-west and north by Nubia, on the east by the country of the Danakils, and on the south by Gallaland. Its area is about 200,000 square miles, and its population about 2,500,000. The inhabitants call themselves Ethi- opians and their country Ethiopia. The Abyssinians are a mixed people, formed by the inter-blending of Hamites and Shemites. The Agows and Sahos are Hamites, and were among the earliest inhabitants of the country. The Amharites, Tigranians, and Hararites are chiefly of Sabaeo- Himyarite origin. The Falashas are apparently i Mil •ii I «il I »i 1 m ft') ''•Hi 46 The Peoples and Nations of the World. Jews. The Gallas began to enter Abyssinia about 1550, A. D., and now constitute a large proportion of the population. As a general rule, the Abyssinians proper are of a light brown complexion. They have straight or wavy hair, large clear eyes, and a thin straight nose. They are vain and irritable, and semi-barbarous in their habits. They embraced the Christian religion about the year 330. They hold Monophysite views, circumcise their children, and observe the Mosaic laws with respect to food and purifications. They conquered South Arabia in 529, A. D. The Falashas adhere to the Jewish religion. The Gallas are partly Christians of the Abyssinian type, partly Pagans, but chiefly Mohammedans. C. The Hamitic 5tock, The Hamitic stock included the Hamathites, the Phoenikians, the Canaanites, the Philistines, the Egyptians, the Libyans, and the Cushites. To these ancient peoples we have to add the Hamitic peoples of the present day. /. THE HAMATHITES. The Hamathites were an inland people. They liver on the Upper Orontes. Their chief cities were Hamath and Riblah. Hamath was their The Peoples and Nations of the World. 47 capital. They were generally in alliance with the Hittites. It is evident tl.at in the time of King David they possed a large share of power. i //. THE PHCENIKIANS. Phoenikia lay between the Mediterranean Sea and the mountains of Lei anon, and between the Eleu- therus and Mount Carmel. It was about 150 miles long, and between 10 and 12 miles broad. It was a fertile country, producing wheat and fruiV3 of various kinds in great abundance. The Phcenikians founded the city of Carthage about the year 850 B. C. It rose up rapidly to wealth and power. It was for a long time the rival of Rome. It was the birthplace of the illustrious Hannibal. It was destroyed by the Romans in the year 146 B. C. Whilst the Phoenikians were as a whole un- questionably Hamites, it is certain that they con- tained a large Shemitic element. They bore a close resemblance to the Punites of Southern Arabia. It is indeed probable that that region was their original home. They spoke a Shemitic language. The inhabitants of Phoenikia called their country Canaan and themselves Canaanites. They were divided into Sidonians, Sinites, Arkites, and other tribes. Their chief cities were Tyre now Sur, Sidon now Saida, Berytus now Beyrut, Gebal or Byblus SBhk if 1 at' 48 The Peoples and Nations of the World. ii' w now Jel^ail, and Arka now Tel-Arka. Of these cities Zidon was the oldest. The Zemarites and Arvadites, north of the river Eleutherus, were of the same stock with the Canaan- ites of Phoenikia. The Zemarites were the inhabit- ants of the city known to the Assyrians as Tsimir, to the Greeks as Simyra, and at the present day as Sumra. The Arvadites occupied the city of Arvad, the Aradiis of the Greeks and the modern Ruad. The Phoenikians were the most daring navigators and the most enterprising traders of the ancient world. They planted colonies in Greece, in the islands of the Mediterranean, in northern Africa, in Spain, and in southern Gaul. They were excellent workmen. Their skill in architecture, metallurgy, the manufacture of glass, embroidery, and the art of dying was of a very high order. They were not a literary people, still the credit of inventing alpha- betic writing belongs to them. They amassed a great deal of wealth. They were at the height of their prosperity about the year looo B. C. d^ T ///. THE CANAANITES. The Canaanites lived east of Phoenikia, the Mediterranean Sea, and Philistia. They consisted of the Canaanites proper, the Amorites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites. The Canaanites proper, or the occupants of the lowlands, The Peoples and Nations of the IVorld. 49 dwelt by the sea and by the side of the Jordan. The Amorites lived between Mount Lebanon and Hamath and in central and southern Palestine. They were mountaineers, and were a fair-skinned, good-looking, and warlike people. /r. 7'HE PHILISTINES. The Philistines occupied a small district along the Mediterranean Sea in the southern part of Palestine. They possessed five large cities — Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron. They came originally from Caphtor, or Keft-ur, as the coast of the Delta of the Nile was called. V. THE LIBYANS. The Libyans occupied the northern part of Africa from the borders of Egypt to the shores of the Atlantic. They .were, at least to some extent, the Lehabim of the Bible. They were much lighter in color than the Egyptians. The Libyans were well advanced in civilization. They invaded Egypt by sea about the year 1350 B. C, but suffered a crushing defeat. They were accompanied by the Shardana, Tuirsha, and other peoples. By the Shardana we are probably to under- stand the Sardinians, and by the Tuirsha perhaps the Tyrseni, or Etruscans. The Libyans invaded Egypt a second time about the year 1250 B. C., but with no better success than on the first occasion. 50 The Peoples and Nations of the World. We meet with them at a later period as mercenary soldiers in the service of the Egyptian Kings. VI. THE EavrriANS. The Egyptians settled in the valley of the Nile shortly after the Hood. They carried along with them the religion and civilization of the ark. They were thus from the very beginning of their existence a highly civilized people. The Egyptians were of a reddish - brown com- plexion. Their hair was long and black, and somewhat crisp. Their cheek-bones were slightly prominent. Their eyes were large and long, and almost invariably black. The nose was of medium length, with a slight bridge and full nostrils. Egypt extended from the mouth of the Nile to the first cataract, it was divided into two districts, Upper and Lower Egypt. It is generally spoken of in the Bible as Mizraim or " the two Matsors." It is also called the Land of Ham. After an existence of several centuries as an independent and prosperous people, the Egyptians were attacked and conquered by nomadic tribes from western Asia. These tribes were known as the Hyksos, or Shepherd-Kings. They had long curling hair, a heavy beard, a broad sub-aquiline nose, and thickish lips. They were evidently Shemites, and seem to have come from northern Syria. The Hyksos, or Shepherd-Kings, held dominion The Peoples and Nations of the World. 5 i in Kgypt for a long time. They em!)raced its civili- zation, and came to resemble the native i)oi)ulation in almost every respect. 'I'hey were always looked upon, however, with feelings of hatred. At last the governor of 'I'hehes raised the standard of revolt against them. The war which he began was con- tinued by his successors. Eventually the Hyksos were completely overjjowered, and perhaps driven out of the country. Aahmes, or Amosis, the Theban ruler who com- pleted the conquest of the Hyksos, was an able warrior, a skilful administrator, and an exceedingly popular person. He was thus enabled to reduce all the i)etty kings of the country to the position of governors, and to make himself its sole monarch. Immediately after their political union under Aahmes the P^gyptians entered upon a brilliant career of prosperity and conquest. They founded a large and powerful empire. Their dominion extended over the whole of Ethiopia, and over western Asia as far as the Euphrates. Thebes, the capital of their kingdom, became really the capital of the world. Egypt was at the height of its splendor in the days of Moses. It was conquered by the Persians, and reduced to the position of a province of their empire, in the year 525 B. C. The Egyptians rendered invaluable services to the cause of civilization. They were the chief instructors of the world in the arts and sciences. 4}l I 5 2 The Peoples and Nations of the World. VI I. THE CUSHITES. TheCushites included the Ethiopians, the Punites, and the Kassites. I. The Ethiopians. The country called by the Egyptians Kash, by the Hebrews Cush, and by the Greeks Ethiopia, was bounded on the north by Egypt, and on the east by the Red Sea. It included Nubia, a part of Kordo- fan, Senaar, Abyssinia, and the territory of the Dana- kils. It was occupied chiefly by Ethiopians, but partly by Negroes. The Ethiopians dwelt in the northern valley of the Nile and the highland districts east of that region. The Negroes dwelt in the southern valley of the Nile. The Ethiopians were of a brownish complexion, tall, and good-looking. They founded a small king- dom at an early date. Their capital was Napata, the Greek Meroe, and the modern Jebel-Berkel. They ruled over the whole of Ethiopia. Azerch-Amen, or 2^rah as he is called in the Bible, King of Ethiopia, conquered Egypt about the year 940 B. C, and advanced against Syria and Judah. He suffered a severe defeat at the hands of Ring Asa, and was compelled to relinquish his con- quests and confine himself to his own country. Tahraka, the Tirhakah of the Bible, made himself master of the whole of Egypt about the year 692 The Peoples and Nations of the World. 53 B. C. None of his successors, however, ruled over that country. 2. The Punites. The coast of Africa from Suakim to Cape Guar- dafui and the southern coast of Arabia were known to the Egyptians as Pun, or Punt. The Hebrews included both of these districts under the name Cush. The Punites bore a very close resemblance to the Egyptians. 3. The Kassites. The Kassites lived east of the Persian Gulf. VIII. THE HA MI TIC PEOPLES OF PPE.SENT DA V. THE The Hamitic peoples of the present day consist of the Fellahs and Copts, the Berbers, the Northern Tibbus, the Bejas, Ababdeh, Agows, Sahos and Danakils, the Somali, and the Callas. I. The Fellahs AND Copts. The present population of Egyi)t is estimated at 5,000,000. It is composed partly of Europeans, jews, Armenians, Syrians, and Turks, but chietly of Fellahs and Coi)ts. The Fellahs, or Fellaheen, con- stitute the great bulk of the pO|)ulation. They are partly of Arabian, but chietly of Hamitic origin. They are Mohammedans, and speak Arabic. The Copts number abour 160,000. They have 'f' 54 The Peoples and Nations oj the World. more Hcmitic blood in them than the Fellahs. They are Christians, but speak Arabic. The last man who spoke Coptic, or the last Egyptian by language, died in 1633, A. D. The Fellahs and Copts are of medium stature, with slender and well-shaped limbs. They have black straight or curly hair, high cheek-bones, deeply-set, brown, brilliant eyes, a straight thick nose, and full lips. Their beard is black and curly, but scanty. Their kephalic index is about 75. The Fellahs have a yellowish- white skin, whilst the Copts are of a reddish - brown complexion. 2. The Berbers. The present inhabitants of Tripoli, Tunis, xMgeria, and Morocco consist of Europeans, Turks, Jews, Arabs, Moors, and Berbers. The Moors are a mixture of Arabs, Berbers, and Europeans. The Berbers, who constitute the great bulk of the popu- lation, are descended from the ancient Libyans. They include the Kabyles, Showiah, Shilhas, Ritians, Berbers proi)er, and the Tuaregs. The Berbers proper, or the people who are generally known as Berbers, live in North Morocco. The Tuaregs ex- tend over a large portion of the desert of Western Sahara. The Guanches of the Canary Islands were undoubtedly Ikrbers. They embalmed the bodies of their dead, and buried them in caves. The kephalic index of the Berbers is about 75. Some of The Peoples a fid Nations of the IVorld. 55 the Berbers, especially of the Kabyles, have a very fair skin, flaxen hair, and blue eyes. 3. The Northern Tibbus. The Tibbus' live between Fczzan on the north and Lake Tchad and Central Darfur on the south. They may be divided into Northern and Southern Tibbus. The Northern Tibbus, or Teda, bear a close resemblance to the Tuaregs and are evidently upon the whole a Hamitic people. The Southern Tibbus, including the Dasas, Baele, and Zoghawa, have become mixed up to a very large extent with Negroes. 4. The Bejas, Ababdeh, Agows, Sahos, AND Danakils. The Bejas, or Bishareen, and the Ababdeh live between the Nubian Nile and the Red Sea. They have a brownish skin, straight or wavy hair, a thin beard, and regular, or European features. 'I'he Agows and Sahos live in Abyssinia. The Danakils, Dankali, or Afars live between Abyssinia and the Red Sea. They resemble the Bejas in their looks, but have a blacker skin. Ill 4l 5. The Somali. The Somali live between the Ciulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. There is some Negro blood in 56 The Peoples and Nations of the World, them. They have as a general rule a reddish-brown skin, long black curly hair, a thin beard, and regular features. Some have a very black skin and Mulatto- like hair. A few of the women show a tendency to steatopyga. The Somali are a fierce, lawless, quick- tempered people. They are nearly all great talkers. They are fanatical Mohammedans. 6. The Gallas. The Gallas are scattered over the northern part of Abyssinia and the wide region between Abyssinia on the north and the Victoria Nyanza and the Zanzibar coast on the south. They number about 8,000,000. They are a tall, robust, and warlike people. They have a dark-brown skin, frizzled hair, a scanty beard, broad brows, small, deeply-set, lively eyes, a straight or aquiline nose, and thickish lips. They live on flesh, blood, milk, butter, and honey. Some of them are Mob: mmedans, but the great majority of them are Pagans. They entered Abyssinia about the year 1550. Their earliest known home was the southern portion of their present territory. Whilst they are upon the whole Cushites, it is clear that they contain a good share of Arabian and Negro blood. of II. THE BASKO-AMERICAN DIVISION. The Basko-American division embraces four sub- divisions ; the Basko-Siberian, the Tibeto-Sinican, the Malay-Polynesian, and the American. A. The Basko-Siberian Subdivision. The Basko-Siberian peoples are partly Whites, but chiefly Yellows. They speak agglutinative, postfixing languages. They include the Basques, Caucasians, Finno - Manchus, Koreans, Japanese, Yeniseians, Yukaghirs and Chekto - Itelems. The Etruscans, the Moschians and Tibarenians, the Urardians and Minnians, the later Hittites, and the Elamites also belonged to this subdivision. /. THE BASQUES. The Iberians were the earliest known inhabitants of Spain and Portugal. They belonged to the 58 The Peoples and Nations of the World. m White type. They averaged about 5 feet 4 inches in height. They had only slender limbs, but they vi^fQ hardy and active. They generally slept on the bare ground. Their principal drink was hydromel or m-^ad. They treated strangers with kindness and hospitality. They offered human beings as sacri- fices to their gods. The couvade was a common custom among them- According to this custom when a woman gave birth to a child she put her husband to bed and carefully waited upon him several days, as if he had been the mother of the child. Some Keltic tribes settled among the Iberians at a comparatively early date, and intermarried with them. The mixed people thus produced came to be known as Kiltiberians. They were superior to the Iberians, but not equal to the Kelts. They were proud and haughty, warlike and independent, but somewhat ferocious. The Basques call their country Euskerria, their language Euskara, and themselves Euskaldunac. They live partly in Spain and. partly in France, and number about 500,000. They are a brave, proud, and independent people, and are extremely fond of music, singing, and dancing. They have a dark and sallow skin, and mesokephalic skulls, the index of breadth in the Spanish Basques being 77 and in the French Basques 80. Their language shows a distant relationship to the Finnish both in its structure and The Peoples and Nations of the World. 59 Itheir [nac. and loud, dof and X of the tant and vocabulary. They have borrowed many words from the Kelts and Latins, but they could not, in their present home, have borrowed words from the Finns, It is probable, then, that the Finns and themselves had a common origin. It is tolerably certain that the majority of the Iberian tribes belonged to the same stock with the Basques. At the same time it is highly probable that some of them were Libyans from North Africa. //. THE ETRUSCANS. The Etruscans, Tyrrhenians, or Rasena lived in western Italy. They spoke an agglutinative lang- uage and were evidently a mixed people. They were highly advanced in civilization. ///. THE CAUCASIANS, The Caucasians, or inhabitants of the Caucasus, include the Georgians, the Circassians, the Tchet- chens, the Lesghians, and the Udes. I. The Georgians. The Georgians live between the Caspian and the Black Sea, south of the Caucasian Mountains. They are athletic, good-looking, and courageous, but fierce and cruel. They are passionately fond of music. They comprise the Georgians proper or Gruses, the Imeritians, the Mingrelians, the Lazes, c *5:»1 Mr DM- 11 6o The Peoples and Nations of the World. the Suanes, and the Mosoks. The Georgians proper, or Gruses, call themselves Karthalinians. They occupy the district known in ancient times as Asiatic Iberia. Strabo speaks of the Suanes as men of strength and courage, but of filthy habits. He says that they were very numerous. 2. The Circassians. The Circassians consist of the Circassians proper, the Abkhasians, and the Kabardans. The Circas- sians proper, or Tcherkesses, call themselves Adighe. They occupied originally the northern slopes of the Caucasian Mountains towards the Kuban River, and the coast of the Black Sea from Anapa to Pitsunta. They were conquered by the Russians in 1864. After their conquest, about 400,000 of them left their country and settled in the various provinces of the Turkish Empire. The Abkhasians live be- tween Pitsunta and Mingrelia. The Kabardans live between the valley of the Kuban and that of the Terek. The Circassians are slightly brachykephalic, the index of breadth being 81. 3. The Tchetchens. The Tchetchens, Mizjeji, or Nachtsuoi inhabit the northern slopes of the Caucasian Mountains down to the valley of the Terek. They number 105,000. They speak over twenty different dialects. The Peoples and Nations of the World. 6 1 4. The Lesghians. The Lesghians live east of Mount Kazbek. Their principal tribes are the Avares, Andians, Kasikumuks, Kurinians, and Akusha. Of these tribes the Avares have the highest culture and are the most powerful. 5. The Udes. The Udes are a very small tribe. They live chiefly in the villages of Wartashin and Nij. IV. THE MOSCHIANS AND TIBARENIANS. The Moschians lived in north-western Kappa- dokia. They are the Mesech of the Bible and the Muskai of the Assyrian inscriptions. Their chief city was Mazaka, the Roman Kaesarea, and the modern Kaisariyeh. They are mentioned by Tiglath- Pileser I., about the year iioo B. C. The Tibarenians lived in south-eastern Kappa- dokia. They are the Tubal of the Bible and the Tublai of the Assyrian inscriptions. Birnani, their king, paid tribute to the Egyptians about the year 1400 B. C. It is certain that the ruling classes among the later Moschians and the later Tibarenians spoke agglutinative languages, and that, consequently, these peoples were at least to some extent Basko-Siberians by blood. It is indeed probable that the whole of Si'' «' tl 63 The Peoples and Nations of the World. both peoples spoke agglutinative languages, and that they were to a very large extent Basko-Siherians. At the same time it is by no means certain that the early Moschians and the early Tibarenians spoke agglutinative languages. They may have spoken Indo-Keltic languages and have been Indo-Kelts by blood. V. THE URARDIANS AND MINNIANS. The Urardians, or Alarodians, lived in the district of Ararat, which lay between Lake Van and the Araxes. They founded a kingdom about the year 857 B. C. Their chief city was Dhuspas, the modern Van. They were conquered by the Medes about the year 610 B. C. The Minnians, or Minni, lived at Lake Van. They were, probably, closely related to the Urardians. Vl. THE HITTITES. The early Hittites were a Hamitic people. They were known to the Egyptians as Khata, to the Assyrians as Khatta, and to the Hebrews as Khitlim. They were divided into two sections, the Northern and Southern. The Northern Hittites lived north of Phoenikia and Harnath and the Southern Hittites in Palestine. The Northern Hittites founded a large and powerful empire. They extended their sway over The Peoples and Nations of the World. 63 the Hamathites, Arvadites, Zemarites and Arkites to the south of them, and over various peoples and tribes to the north and west of them. Indeed they seem to have ruled over a large })ortion of Asia Minor. Their monuments have b^^en found at Karchemish, at Hamath, at Aleppo, in Kappadokia, in Lycaonia, in Phrygia, and even in Lydia. They contended on equal terms with the Egyptians in the time of their greatest power, and were among the most formidable opponents of the Assyrians. They are first mentioned on the Egyptian monuments in 1600 B. C, and on the Assyrian monuments in 1400 B. C. They were conquered by the Assyrians in 717 B. C. Their chief cities were Kadesh on the Orontes and Karchemish near the Euphrates, the latter being the Hieropolis of the Greeks and the Jerablus of the present day. The later Hittites — the Hittites that contended with the Egyptians and Assyrians — spoke an agglu- tinative language and differed in type from the Egyptians, Canaanites, and Syrians. If we can trust the representations of them left us by the Egyptians and others, they had a long thin nose, a receding chin and forehead, long hair, and little or no beard. We must remember, however, that the early Hittites, like other Hamitic peoples, were in the habit of hiring foreign soldiers to carry on their wars for them, and that some of these soldiers may have been very ugly-looking men. The Egyptian sculptors 64 The Peoples and Nations oj the World. If would of course regard these soldiers as Hittites and represent them as such on their monuments. But whether we know what the later Hittites looked like or not, we may regard it as certain that they were a mixed people. It was impossible for them, owing to their surroundings, to be anything else. VII. THE EL A MITES. Elam was bounded on the west by Babylonia, on the north by Assyria and Media, on the east by Media and Persia, and on the south by the Persian Gulf. It was apparently inhabited by three distinct peoples, the Proto-Elamites, the Elamites proper, and the Kassites. The Proto-Elamites spoke agglu- tinative dialects, and may have belonged to the same stock with the Proto-Babylonians. The Elamites proper were Shemites, whilst the Kassites, or Cushites, were Hamites. The north - eastern part of the country seems to have been the district originally known as Elam. The south-western part of it was known as Anzan. The Kassites founded the Kingdom of Anzan at a very early date. They extended their authority in course of time over the whole of Elam. They were thus the founders not only of the Kingdom of Anzan, but of the Kingdom of Elam, of which Anzan was only a part. Their chief city was Susa, the Shusan of the Bible. C it The Peoples and Nations of the World. 65 The Kingdom of Elam became very powerful. Chedorlaomer, or Riidur-Lagamar, who ruled over it in the time of Abraham, exercised authority over liabylonia and other countries. Kudur-Nankhurdi ravaged the greater part of Jiabylonia about the year 1200 J). C. Sargon, King of Assyria, intlicted a severe defeat on the Elamites in 721 B. C. Assur- banipal reduced them to subjection in 640 13. C, and converted their country into an Assyrian province. Some of the Elamites had high cheek-bones, a thin i)rominent nose, and projecting jaws, whilst the hair was somewhat frizzly, and the beard short and thin. Others had regular features, a slightly aquiline nose, straight hair, and a light beard. VI IL I HE FINNO-MANCHUS. The Finno-Manchu stock includes the following branches ; the Finnic, the I^appic, the Ugrian, the Samoyedic, the Turkish, the Mongolian, and the Tunguso-Manchu. All the peoples of this stock have brachykephalic skulls. I. The Finnic Branch. V The Finnic Branch includes the Mordvinians, the Tcheremisses, the Permians, Votiaks, and Zyrianians, the Mescheriaks and Tepters, and the Finns proper. '1' Alani, an extinct people, evidently belonged to this branch. S.!, r* 66 The Peoples and Nations of the IVorld. ( I ). The Mordviniatis. The Mordvinians live in the Russian provinces of Samara, Saraloff, Tamboff, Penza, Simbirsk, and Nijni - Novgorod. They number about 1,000,000. There are three branches of them, the Aorses or Krzyas, the Mokshas, and the Karatays. They are tall, well-built, and strong men. They generally have dark hair and blue eyes. They live by farming and are good workers. They have become almost wholly Russified. Stral)o describes the Aorses as a power- ful and numerous nation. (2). The Tchere misses. '{'he Tcheremisses live in Kazan, Kostroma, and Viatka. (j). The Permians, Votiaks, and Zyrianians. The I^ermians, Votiaks, and Zyrianians live be- tween the Viatka River and the Ural Mour'ains. (4). The Mescheriaks and Tepters. The Mescheriaks live among the Bashkirs in Ufa and Perm. Their earliest known home was the valley of the Oka, from which they were expelled by the Russians. 'I'hey have become Tartarized in language and customs, and to a large extent in their physical characteristics. 'I'he Tepters live in Vyatka and Samara. (Hi The Peoples and Nations of the World. 67 (^). The Finns Proper. The Finns jiroper comprise the Kors, who live among the Letts, the Lives along the Gulf of Riga, the Ksthes in Esthonia and northern Livonia, the X'epps around the shores of Lake Onega, the Kar- elians between the Gulf of Finland atul the White Sea, and the Finns of Finland, who number alxnit 1 ,600,000. The Finnh call themselvtfs Suomi. They are short in stature, but strong and hardy. They have a fair skin, yellowish or redchsh hair, a reddish beard, prominent cheek-bones, a straight nose with small nostrils, narrow palpebral apertures, and grey or blue eyes. Some of them have black hair, dark eyes, a fiat nose, and slightly i)rotruding jaws. They are evidently a mi.xed peoj)le. Their kejjhalic index is between 80 and 83. Tiiey have a national poem of great excellence. It is entitled the Kalcvala. It was l)ublished in part in 1835, and in full in 1849. (6). TheAlant. The Alani api)ear in history in the year 30 W. C. 'I'hey lived north of the Sea of Azov. 'I'iiey wan tiered about from place to |)lace with their Ihx ks and herds, the young men on horses, and the old men, women, and children in covered waggons. They paid no attention to farming ; they lived solely on meat and milk. They had no houses ; they were ••f I • ft Hi, I'll w 68 T/ie Peoples and iVations oj the World. born in their waggons and lived in them. They were tall, handsome, yellow-haired men, with fierce- looking eyes. They used the scalps of the men whom they killed as trai)i)ings and ornaments on their horses. They worship])ed their god by plung- ing a naked sword into the ground with certain ceremonies. Their name is of Finnish origin and signifies men. 2. Thi: Lappic Branch. The ljai)ps live in the northern i)arts of Norway. Sweden, and Finland, and the western part of the Russian government of Archangel. They call their country Same, and themselves Samelats. They number about 27,000. They may be divided into settled Lapi)s and nomadic Lapps. The latter are the purest rei)resentatives of the Lapp type. The Lajjps are of short stature, their height being between 4 feet 9 inches and 5 feet. They are of a yellowish-brown complexion, with hard black short hair, and little or no beard. Their skulls are highly brachykephalic, the index of breadth being 85. The forehead is low, the cheek-bones prominent, the face broad and flat, the eyes large and hollow, and the nose short, flat, and wide at the root. Some ut the Lapps resemble the Finns ; they have fair or reddish hair, and l)lue or grey eyes. These Lapps, however, are largely of Finnish origin. The nomadic liapps live in round tents, which The Peoples and Nations of the World. 69 are covered with skins. Their storehouses are Iniilt high above the ground, either on i)iles or l)et\veen two or three trees. They live in winter on reindeer venison, and in summer chiefly on cheese and rein- deer milk. They are strong and hardy, and are excellent marksmen. They are of a mild and pacific disi)osition. They were looked upon at one time as having a wonderful knowledge of sorcery. Ivan the Terrible, the first Czar of Russia, sent to them for magicians to explain to him the cause of the appear- ance of a comet. 3. Thk Uorian Branch. The Ugrians comjirise the \'oguls, the Ostiaks, and early Magyars. The Voguls live on the eastern sloi)es of the Ural Afoun tains, in l*erm :\\\({ Tobolsk. They number about 7,000. They are of low stature. They have a yellowish skin, j)rominent (heck-bones, narrow i)alj)el)ral apertures, and a broad flat nose. 'I'heir hair is l)lack, but generally soft. They have no beard. 'I'he Ostiaks live east of the Voguls, on the middle Obi and the Irtisk. They number about 27,000. They bear a very close resemblance to the Voguls. The early Magyars lived in the neighbor- hood of the Ostiaks. They entered Kuro|)e in S84, A. I). They were for a long time a terrible scourge to all the countries along the Danube. In 955, A. D., Otho the Great, Kmperor of (Germany, inflicted a severe defeat upon them at the battle of the Lech, 7© The Peoples and Nations of the World. I It*; ■ " \^\\ ■ T> ' ' ' W : and forced them to confine themselves to Hungary. They seem to have contained a Mongolian element. Through intermixture with Slavs and other Euroi)eans they have lost their race characteristics. The Mag- yars of the present day are Whites. They are below the average height of Europeans, hut well-built and good-looking. They have black hair and eyes, and a full dark beard. Their language is closely related to the Finnish and Eappic. 4. The Samovkdic JJranch. Tlie Samoyedes are scattered in small communi- ties between the White Sea in Europe and the Khatanga in Siberia, and from the Arctic Ocean along the Obi and Yenisei to the vicinity of the Altai Mountains and Lake JJaikal. Their earliest known home was the Altai Mountains, whence ihey were driven northwards by the 'i'urks and Mongols. 'I'hey number in all about 25,000. Their best known tribes are the \'uraks, along the coast from the White Sea to the mouth of the Yenisei ; the 'I avghis, between the Yenisei and Khatanga ; and the Kama- sins, Kaibals, Jieltirs, Kaiagasses, and Soyots, in the southern i>arts of Tomsk and Yeniseisk. 'Ihe Samoyedes are short in stature and of a dark yellowish comjjlexion. They have long, coarse, black, glossy hair ; no beard ; prominent cheek- bones ; a broad, flat face ; long, narrow eyes ; a depressed nose, with wide and gaping nostrils; and large inoulhs. The eyes are slightly obli([ue. ol T ph ofl Til th( The Peoples and Nations of the World. 7 1 The Samoyedes, especially those along the coast of the Arctic Ocean, live hy hunting and fishing. They are kind-hearted, hospitable, and honest. 5. The Turkish Branch The Turkish branch includes the following peo- ples ; the Turks of the Turkish lunpire, the Turks of Persia, the Tartars, the Karakalpaks, Uzbeks, and Turkmans, the Kazaks and Kirghiz, the Uigurs, and the Yakuts. The Khazars were evidently Turks. The Huns, also, seem to have been a Turkish i)eoi)le. I ■-•'Jw ( i). The Turks of the Turkish Empire. About the year 552, A. D., the Turks, under a leader named Sinjibu, founded a strong empire east of the Oxus. In 977 Sebuktigen, originally a Turkish slave, became ruler of Ghazni in Afghanistan. He was a skilful and successful warrior, and succeeded in extending his authority over the greater part of Afghanistan and the Punjab, He was succeeded in 997 by his son Mahmud, a man of great ability and an enthusiastic Mohammedan. Mahmud led ex- peditions of conquest and devastation in various directions, and founded a large empire. H is authority was acknowledged from the Caspian Sea to the Ganges and from Samarkand to Kandahar. He died in 1030, and was succeeded by his son Musaud. ; m 7 2 The Peoples and Nations of the World. Shortly after the death of Mahmud the Seljuk Turks, who h'ved east of the Sea of Ural near the mouth of the Jaxartes, crossed the Oxus and ravaged the eastern provinces of Persia. Their leader, Alp Arslan, was seized and thrown into prison by Musaud, the ruler of Ghazni. Toghrul Beg, Chakir Reg, and Ibrahim Niyal, three brothers, and nephews of W\) Arslan, defeated Musaud at Merv in 1040, and wrested from him all his possessions west of Afghanistan. The Seljuks now elected Toghrul JJeg as their chief. In the course of a few years this energetic warrior made himself master of the whole of Persia from the Oxus to the Tigris. He died in 1063, and was succeeded by his nephew, Alj) Arslan, the son of Chakir Beg. In 1064 Alp Arslan added iVIesopotamia, Armenia, and (leorgia to his do- minions. In 1071 he defeated the (ireek emperor, Romanus Diogenes, and took him prisoner. In i J43 the Mongols destroyed the independence of the Seljuk Kmpire. The Seljuks who ruled after that date were t)nly puppets in tiie hands of their Mon- golian masters. About the year 1220 a Turkish tribe in central Asia tkd from the Mongols and came to Armenia. Their chief, Suleyman, was succeeded by his son Er-Toghrul, who, as a reward for his services in a battle, received from the Seljuk ruler of Asia Minor a small tract of land in Phrygia Kpictetus. El- Tqghrul was succeeded by his son Osman. Osman, The Peoples and Nations of the World. 73 who was born at Siigiit in 1258, was an able, prudent, and just ruler. He wrested town after town from the Byzantines and founded a strong kingdom, having Brusa for its ca})ital. He died in 1328. His followers, who were named after him, came to be known as Osmanlis or Osmanites. Orkhan, his sen and successor, carried on the war against the Byzantines. He captured Nicomedia, Nikaea, and other cities. In 1356, Suleyman, his eldest son, crossed the Hellespont and seized the town of Kaliopolis or Galii)oli. This was the first European possession of the Osmanlis. Suleyman prosecuted the war against the Byzantines with vigor, and ca])tured several towns and villages. He was killed by a fall from his horse, about 1358. Orkhan died in 1359. Murad I., his son and successor, captured Adrianople, Philippopolis, and other important cities, and made extensive additions to his European possessions. He defeated a large army of Servians, Bosnians, Hungarians, Albanians, and Walachians on the Plain of Kosovo in 1389. Whilst riding over the held in whicli the battle had been fought he was suddenly attacked by a wounded Servian and murdered. On the 29th of May, 1453, the Osmanlis took the city of Constantinople by storm, and made it the capital of their empire. The Turks had always a habit of marrying the prettiest girls of whom they could get hold. ( )wing to this fact and others the present Turks of the Ottoman O Mm •II ( jtl ■mv. m 10 74 The Peoples and Nations of tJic World. P^mj)ire are really Whites ; they have regular features and respectable beards. They number about 6,000,000. (2), The Turks of Persia. • 'I'he Turks of Persia number about 2,000,000. The most of them are semi-nomads. i w (j). T//e Tartars. The Tartars are sim])ly Turks under another name. They entered Europe through the prairie region north of the Caspian Sea. 'I'he Nogaian 'I'artars live in Bessarabia, the Crimea, the Delta of tlie Volga, Daghestan, and the valley of the Terek. 'I'he Kazan 'J'artars live in Kazan, Nijni-Novgorod, Tamboff, Penza, Simbirsk, Saratoff, and Samara. The Tchuvash 'lartars live west of the Volga in Kazan and Simbirsk. The Bashkir 'lartars live in north-eastern Samara, south- ern Perm, and the steppes of Ufa and Orenburg. The Siberian '^lartars are apparently merely Tartar- ized Finns. The Tartars number in all about 4,000,000. (4). The Karakalpaks^ Uzbeks, and Turkmans. The Karakalpaks live on the lower part of the Oxus. They are stock-breeders, and are nearly all nomads. The Peoples and Nations of the World. 75 The Uzbeks live in Kliiva, Ferghana, Bokhara, and Afghanistan. Tliey number about 2.000,000. 'I'he 'i'urknians Hve east of llie Casj)ian Sea. They are semi-nomads, and are addicted to i)Iunder- ing. They number about 1,000,000. The Russians are trying to teach them civiHty, and may succeed. (5)' The Kazaks and Kirghiz. he all The Kazaks, or Kirghiz-Kazaks. roam over the piflins between the lower Volga and Caspian Sea on the west and Lake Ualkash on the east, and between the Irtish on the north and the lower Oxus and Ust-Urt Plateau on the south. 'I'hey dwell in tents which they can easily tnke apart and carry with them on camels. They have horses, camels, sheep, goats, and cows. They live chiefly on mutton and horse flesh. Their drink at their meals is koumiss, which is said to be wholesome and nourishing. 'I'hey are honest and trustworthy, but sullen and un- frien(iiv. They number about 2.700,000. The Kirghiz, or Kara-Kirghiz, live in IJokhara and Ferghana ; in the valleys of the u])per Jaxartes, Tekes, and Chu ; on both sides of the Thian-Shan Mountains; and about Lake Issik-Kul. 'I'hey number about 400,000. They j^ay some attention to farming, but their chief occu])ation is that of raising horses, camels, cattle, sheej), and goats. The Kazaks and Kirghiz are the best existing c; "11 76 The Peoples and Nations of the World. representatives of the early Turks. They are middle- sized, strongly - built, stout men. They have a yellowish or swarthy skin, black hair, small oblique eyes, a broad face, a flat nose, and a small mouth. They have no beard. They are excellent r'ders, but poor walkers. They are very filthy in their habits. (6). The Uigurs. The Uigurs, or Eastern Turks, live in Yarkand, Kulja, and Kashgar. They number about 1,000,0^0. (y). The Yakuts. The Yakuts, or Sokhas, live on the River Lena and its tributaries. They number about 212,000. They are strong, healthy, and hardy, and frec^uently reach an advanced age. They have thick black hair, slightly oblique eyes, and a broad flat nose. They have horses and cattle, and are an energetic and industrious people. They live in small log-houses during the winter season, but in camps in the summer time. They always raise barley and carry on some trade wherever they settle. They live chiefly on flesh. Their principal drink is koumiss. Their summer camps are conical in shape, and made of poles covered with birch bark. They are nominally Christians, and belong to the Greek Church. They call themselves Sokhas, a name which reminds us of the Saka of the Persian inscriptions. They seem to XV th( kill th( The Peoples and Nations oj the World. 77 Illy ,^Hy eir of lly ey of to have lived at one time on the Baikal and Angur.i rivers, (8). The Kazars. The Kazars lived north of the Caucasus between the Volga and the Don. 'I'hey founded a strong kingdom, having as its cai)ital I til on the delta of the Volga. They made a raid into Armenia in 198, A. D. They were conquered by Attila in 448, but soon regained their independence. They were conquered by the Moslems in 737, and continued under their power until 861. 'I'heir kingdom was utterly destroyed by the Russians and Byzantines in 1 01 6. Some of the K bazars seem to have been related to the tribes of the Caucasus ; but the majority of them, the real founders of the kingdom, were evidently Turks. (g). The Huns. The Huns entered Europe about 372, A. 1). They conquered the Alani in 374. They drove the Goths into Thrake and Transylvania shortly after- wards. In the course of a few years they conquered nearly all the tribes north of the Danube and Jilack Sea. In 434 Attila and his brother Bleda became joint kings over them. About 444 Attila put his brother to death and thus became sole ruler of the Hunnic Empire. This renowned warrior ravaged a large portion of Europe. He was born about 406 m f, I * f r ill 78 llie PiopUs and Nations of the World. and (lied in 453. The vast cm|)irc over which he IkuI ruled, an enii)ire which extended fram the Rhine .nlmost to China, fell to pieces after his death. .\c<()r(ling to Anmiianus Marcellinus, the Huns had closely-knit and strong limbs, short legs, stout bodies, and plunip necks. They were destitute of beards, and e(iuany destitute of beauty. They e\i)ressed themselves with great ambiguity and obscurity. 'I'hey wore round cai)s on their heads and moccasins, or •' ujishapely shoes not made on lasts." on their feet. They scarcely ever changed their clolhes. 'I'hey transacted their business and look their meals on horseback. 'I'hey could remain on their horses day and night ; they coidd even sleej) on their necks. They never cultivated the soil, but wanderetl about from place to place with their herds and flocks. Their waggons were their only houses. Their wives sle])t in them and wove their garments there, and their children were born in them. None of them could name the place of his birth, 'i'hey lived on half-raw tlesh and such roots as they could get in the fields. They were irascible, inconstant, treachercnis. and extremely covetous. They i)lun- dered and slaughtered wherever they went. They were in fact savage beyond parallel. It is certain that the Huns belonged to the Turko- Mongol stock. They must have been Turks, or Mongols, or a mixture of both. The probability is that they were pure, unvarnished Turks. K; 11: bel iril th( an( dw M. llic Peoples and Xations oj the Wo rid. 79 6. 'I'lIK MoNflOMAN IlkA\( M. 'I'he Mongolian branch in( luclcs tlic Ha/.:ir.is. Kalniuks, IJuriats, and Ivislcrn Mongols. 'I'hr Ha/.aras wander about as herdsmen in Afghanislan. between Herat and Kabul. There are four leading tribes of Kalniuks, the Derbels on the Don and Hi. the Torgots on the \'olga, the Sungars in .Sungaria. and the Koshods around the Kokonor. The lUiriats dwell in the vicinity of I,ake Ilaikal. The Ivistern Mongols occupy the greater part of Mongolia. They are divided into three branches, the Khalkhas north of the Oobi, the Sharas south-east of the Gobi along the (ireat Wall, and the Shiraigols in Tangut and northern Tibet. 'J'he Mongols are of a j^ale yellow- ish complexion. Their hair is l)lack, straight, stiff, and somewhat long. They have no beard. 'I'he cheek-bones are i)rominent, the face broad and Hat. the eyes small and oblifjue, and the nose llat and very wide at the root. Their kephalic index is 8i. The early Mongols were a nomadic peo|)le. Their original camping -grounds seem to have been along the courses of the Kerulon, upper Nonni, and Argun rivers. They lived in round tents made of j)oles and covered with felt. The entrance to their tents was invariably towards the south. They had rough waggons drawn by horses or camels, in which they carried their v.ives and children, and the poles and coverings of their tents. They lived upon the 'f I r So T/i(' /'tf>/>/cs and Nations of the World. 1 \l |)mfliKe of their flocks and herds. They ate the tU'sh of horses, ("aniel.^, and dogs, and drank the milk of mares. They were excellent riders, and could sleej) in the saddle whilst their horses were grazing. They were extremely ferocious in war. Their chief weajjon wms the how and arrow. 'I'hey also used iron maces and spears. 'I ney followed the Parthian practice of |)retending to Hee from their enemies and shooting arrows backwards at their pursuers. When going with the hody of a chief to the place of burial they slew all whom they met on the way, so that they might wait ujion the sj)irit of the departed as servants in the next world. Thev also killed the best of the horses that he owned. They called their chief god Tengre or Tangara. They worshij)i)ed an inferior god whom they called Natigay. They made images representing him, and offered up incense and and i)rayer to him. Their women were chaste and obedient to their husbands. .\ man could have as many wives as he wanted. The hrst wife, however, was the real wife, the others being looked upon rather as concubines. A son could take to himself all tlie wives left by his father, except of course his own mother. jenghis Khan, originally the chiet'tain of a small tribe of Mongols, founded an emi)ire of enormous extent. 'I'his great warrior was born in a tent on the banks of the river Onan in 1162, A. D. Ky the year 1206 he had made himself supreme ruler of lie .Icj ("H ih'l br liisi I J The J\-(>pIi-s ami Natiotu oj tlw II 'orlii. 8i iK'Mily all the M()ii^M)ls, IJctwcon that time and his (IcMlli, w hicli ()( (lined in i 227. lie coiKiucrcd norllicni China, Turkislan, Tcrsia. and European Russia to the l)anks of tlie ])nie]>cT. Tlic work of conijucst iK'mm by jcn^Iiis Khan was ardently prosecuted l)y liis successors, ( )gliotai. Kuyuk. ManL,'ku, and Kuhlai Khan. Kuhlai Khan, who was a urandson of Jeniihis Klian. ]>ecanie supreme ruler of the Monj^jols in 1 -'5(;. In 12^)4 he transferred the (apital of his kingdom lo J'eking in Cliina. In 1 J76 he I ecanie tuKt of the whole of C;>ina. He died in 1 j<>.).. in the se\ enty-eii,duh year of his nge. At the time of his dcalli his authority was ncknowl- edge/1 fioin tiu' Strait of I'ormosa and the Sea of japan, on the east, to the Arabian I )esert and the fr(uuier ol Toland. on the west. 7. '1111. it M.tso ■ .M.v\( III' ilKANt 11. The I'linguso-MaiK iui hraiu h includes the Tun- guscs and the Manchus. ( I ). The T,.fr^itsi's, The Tungiises live 01, tlv.' Tpju'r, Middle, and Lower Timguska, .along the Amur River and its tributaries, and on the Pacific Coast between Korea and Kamchatka. The Chinese call them Tung hu. which is probably a corrupt form of 'J'onki. the men. J'heir total number is alK)Ul 80,000. I'hose on the If*'* *» 1 8; The Peoples a fid A'ear(l, piuuiinent ( heek bones, a broad face, heavy lirovvs, slightly obli(pie eyes, and a large moutli. In the I asi- of the most of them llu- nose is depressed, and wide at llie lool. Man\ of them, however, have the no>e narrow at ilic root. These' have a comparatively diarp jirofde. and friiinentl) a fairly strong beard. It i> thus certain ih.it the Koreans an- a mixed ]»e< iplc. The b>p''"<-"^'-' ^'I'y ''^ c()m|)lexion from a dark l)r()wn lo a duskv white. Thev iiave black hair, CHt, 84 The Peoples and iVations oj the World. little or no heard, an oval head and face, a high forehead, heavy arched brows, and slightly oblicjiic eyes. 'I'heir skulls are niesokephalie, the index ol !)rea(lth being 76. I'hey are an intelligent, honor able, and enteri)rising peojjle. 'Hiey are ra|)idly rising to a high position among ihe nations of the world. They nunil)er al)out 35,000,000, They are clearly a peo])le of mixed origin. The) seem, how- ever, to be more closely related to the Koreans than to any other [)eople. XI. rilli VEMSEIANS. The Veniseians, or Kenniyeng. li\e along the Venisei between Turakhansk and Krasnoyarsk. They number only about 1000. Ml. 71//: )rA'.l(;i/IA'S. 'Vhv V'ukaghirs, or Andon-domni, bve on the Arctic Coast between the Vaiuv and tl)c Kolmya. They number about 1600. 'I'hey are ver\ wcilful in making garments of skin. X///. / ///'. ( IIEK 101 /A /. . I/.s. The (^hekloTlelms include the C.'hukchees, the Koriaks, and the Kamchadales. I'hey are of u yellowish - brown < ()m[)lexion- The Pt'op/fs and Nations of the II 'orhl. Sq high I. Tmk Cm klhi;ks. 'Hie Chukchccs live l)ct\vccii the Kolyma niul llchriiii,' Strait. 'I'licy call ihcmsclvcs Chockto, a name which may possibl)' ha\c had the same origin as Choctaw. 'I'hev are tall, and well built, and have a jtrominent nose. 'Ihey are of an independent spirit, kind, and honest. They keep large herds of reindeer. 'I"he\ are excellent hunters. They catch foxes, lynxes, otters, he-ncrs. and martens, and sell their skins to tlu- Russians at ( )strownoje for l()l)acco, kettles, knives ;ind other ;irticles. The Namollos live along the coast from Cajie .Shelagskoi to I"',ast Cape. 'l'he\ are of ('hukchce origin. They are fislu-rmen. and are e\tremel\' jioor. There are some I''skimos ni;ir l^a^.l Ca|»e. That they went there from .\n\erica may he regarded as absolutely certain. 2. I'm: KokiAKs. The Koriaks live south tf the C'hukchees and along the Sea of (>khoisk. Iliosc who dwell in the interior keep leindci i .ind ari' ([uite (omfortnblc. Tlu).'>e who live along tlu coanl tire extremely |)oor, and lia\c become utterly degi.idcd through their intercourse with immoral and de|)rave(l Whiles. The Koriaks numb'-r in all about 5,000. 4? XM^t 86 The J\<>p/es and Nations of the World. 3. TiiK Kamciiaijales. 'I'Ik' Fvaincliadnlcs live in Kamtchatkn, 'I'hcy call themselves lleliii. They miuiber ubout 2,000. I'hey have, as a general rule, narrow sunken eyes and a depressed nose. They are very strong andOiartly. It is said that they are very kind to their wives, indeed ahnust sul»uiissive to them. They helieve tliat till' ri( h will he jioor in the ne\t woild and the j)oor rirh. Their language is closely related to the ( 'hukchee. B. The Tibeto-Sinican Subdivision. The Tihelo - Sinican subdivision includes the rullowing jieojiles : the Tihelo lUnnians, the Karens, the (lyarungs, Miaut/e, aiul Toungthus, the Shan- Siamese, the Khasi - Annamites, and the ('hmese, .\11 the i)eo|)les of this subdivision have a yellowish- brown skin, black hair, little or no beard, prominent cheek-bones, a wi/.e lace, small oblii|ue eyes, ami allal nose. Their languages behmg to tlu' isolating class. /. ruE rihi'.ro ihkmas si'iH k. The iibeto Ihirman stock includes the Tibetans, the Nepalese, the Lept has, the KachariT\och group, the AkaMikir group, the .Melam-Singpho grou|». the I,olo-Mut/e group, the I.uhupa-Tsak group, and the i Tlir Pt'oplt's ntui Xatiofis of tlw World. ^1 JliirnKiiis proijor. All tlio |i(.'()|>lcs of this stock have l)ra( h\ k(.'i»halic skulls. I . Thk Tii'.ki ws. 'I'hc 'I'ibctans iiicludf iIk" 'i'il)t'tnns in 'I'ihct, the Kiiiiawaris in Ikissahir, the llhutias in J»Iuitan and Ial|)aiguri, the Mant/.c in S/ctcluien, and the Sitans of Sunirj»an lini,'. The 'i'ihelans ot' Tiliet consist of the 'lihelans propiT. or l»lio(l])as, the Hor])as and the Sokpas. 'i'he Tihetans inoiier (onstitute the ^Ti-at liody (>r the inhal»it.inls. They live ( hielly in the southern parts of tlu- country. The liorpas li^■e between the 'I'ihelans |iro|)er and the Kuen-lun Mountains. They speak a Tihi'tan diak'( t, hut seem to ha\e more t)f Turkish than of Tibetan blood in them. The Sok|)as live in north-eastern Tibet. 'I'hey s|)eak a 'I'ii)etan ilialect, but are evidently to a \ery large extent of .Mon.u*)lian origin. The whole po|)ulation of 'I'ibel is about 6,000,000. 'I'he Tibetans liave a yellowisM brown skin, black hair, no beard, slightly obli(|ue eyes, and a large mouth. They are short in stature, their average height being only about 5 feet }^ inches. 'I'hey are of a mild disposition, kind, and true to their word. They are very sociable, and fond of music and dancing. Polyandria, or the custom of having more than one husband, is (juite common among them. The joint husl)ands are usually, but not always brothers. <|it.( 88 The /topics lUtd Naliotn of thr World. I ft' Ihc Chint'se conquered I'ihct. ;iiul nnncxcd it lo llicir empire in 1720, A. I). ITie ca|)ital is Lhasa, a city of al)()iit 60,000 inhal)itants. 2. Till Nl.PAl.KSK. 'I'lie Nepalese consist of llic Sinnvars. (liirungs, Mnrmis, Nfagars Kiismulas, CIu'j)angs, Thaksyas, Paliris. Newars, niiralnniis and Keratis in Ne|)al. 'l"o these Irihes may he added tin- Dhimals in east Sikhiin. The (lurklias, or (lorkhalis, concjuered Nepal in ly^S and ha\e been the rulinij; tribe in the country ever since. 'I1u'\- speak an Aryan (halect and are in the main of Ar\an oriiiin. The\ are a warbke peopK-. and use hmi^ knives widi which tiiey lii^^ht most sa\aL;ely. Sir Jnng I'ahfnhir. who ruled over Ne|)al from iS.p') to 1.S77 was a very able and intelligeiU man. He stood faithfully by the Jiritish in the time of the Indian Mutiny. The i)()pulation of Nej)al is about 4,000,000. 1)( of ^ 'I'iiK I,i:i'c:n.\.s. The Lei>chas live in Sikhim. They came from 'I'ibet, and do not seem to have been very long in their |)reseiu ( ountry. 4. 'I'm, KAciiAki Knni Groii'. The Kachari-I\o( h group includes the Kacharis, Ciiirus, and Kochs in the norlh-weslern corner of Assfin). The Peoples and Nations oj the World. 89 Din ii) 5. Thk Akha-Mikir Group. I'hc Akhii-Mikir group includes the Akhas, Deoria-Cluitias, Uophlas, Miris, and Mishmis north of Assam. 6. Thk iMklam-Singpho Group. The Melain-Singpho group includes the Melams, Arrus, Tel us, and Remepans in eastern Tibet, the Xagas and Abors is eastern Assam, and the Singphos or Kakhyens in eastern Assam and Burmah. 7. The Lolo-Mutzk Group. The Lolo-Mutze group includes the Lolos in S/etchuenand Yun-nan, and Kuis, Khos, and Mutze between the Salwin River and the Mekong. S. J'hk LuHUPA-TbAK Group. The Luhu|)a-Tsak group includes the Luhupas, Marams, Liyangs, Marings, Kupuis, Manipuris, Kukis, IwUshais, Tipperahs, Shendus, lianjogis, Ryans, and Tsaks or Chukmas in southern Assam, eastern Jiengal, and western Jiurmah. I m \ *• 1 IS, i)f 9. Thk JBurmans Propkr. The IJurmans proper live in iiurmah. They founded an empire some time before 1000, A. D. \i -.t Mr 90 T/ie Peoples and Nations of the World. This empire was shattered to pieces by tlie Mon^'ols in 1284. 'I'lie present empire was fouiuled l)y Alompra, the most celebrated of all the Burmese warriors, in 1753. Tlie JUirmans are of a brownish- yellow complexion. 'I'heir kej)halic index is 83. //. THE KANEXS. The Karens or Karcngs live in southern Burmah, along the mountains of north and west Siam, antl in Pegu and Tenasserim. They call the Chinese their younger brothers. A large jjortion of them have embraced the Christian religion, and belong to the Bai)tist Church. ///. THE GYAKUNGS, MIAUT/.E, ANt) TOUNGTIIUS. I. ThK (iVARL'NdS. The (iyarungs live in eastern Tibet, near the borders of China. 2. Thk Miaui/k. The Miautze, or Miao-tze, lived originally in central China. They were driven soutliwards gradually by the advancing C'hinese. At the i)resent day they occupy the mountain ranges in the provinces of Yun-nan, Kwang-se, and Kwang-lung. They are divided into a large number of tribes. The Peoph's and Nations of the World. 91 They are brave and hardy, but suspicious and rcvfiig efiil. I'he) have a ve ry dark skin. The IC ridic.idous custom known as the couvade exists jMiong some of them. Some tril)es dispose of their (lead l)y placing them in l>askets or boxes which tliey suspend between two trees. 3. Tmk ToUNr.THDS. The Toungtlnis Hve at I'hatom, thirty miles north of Martal)an, and also along the banks of the Sittang. tV. i III: SILIN-SIAMESE STOCK, The Shan - Siamese stock includes the Shans, Khamtis, Ahoms, Laos, and Siamese. 1. Thk Smans. The Shans seem to have lived originally north of Szetchuen. They removed from that region and settled in the valley of the Tapeng River and the districts west and south of it. They formed a jjowerful confederacy of nine or ten states, of which xMau, or Murang Mau, was the most important. They are found to-day in the south-west corner of Szetchuen, in Jiurmah, in the independent Shan States, and in the Siamese Shan States They are a very numerous peoi)le. «»' 1 19^ ■ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I VJ IIM IIIIIM IM m \M 12.2 M 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 - -* 6" ► V2 J^' '(^1 •-^a ■m 9M. o / / W Photographic Sciences Corporation ,\ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^^ \\ 'eoples apparently belong to the same family. I, The Aleutians. The Aleutians, or Aleuts, occupy the Aleutian Islands and the extremity of the Peninsula of Alaska. They call themselves Unangan, or people. They are of medium height, and have mesokephalic skulls, the index of breadth being 80. They are divided into two tribes, the Atkhas and Unalaskans. They number about 8,000. They are »5 I r4 T/if Peoples and Nations oj the World. cheerful, hospitable, and fond of dancing. They are active and expert seamen. They live on raw seal, sea-otter, whale, sea-lion, blubber, tish, roots, and berries. They have no marriage ceremony. Every man takes as many wives as he wants. Women who are well off may have two husbands. It is not an uncommon thing for men to exchange wives. Mothers frequently quiet their screaming children by plunging their heads under water. \m i l. ■:*!' ^/. IK :i :m. ■ '^t ^|! w '■ '! ^ffl^ 2. The Eskimos. The Eskimos, or Innuit, the men, as they call themselves, occupy the northern parts of North America from Behring's Strait to the eastern coast of Greenland. They are well-proportioned, short, thick-set, robust, and active. They have a yellowish skin, dolichokephalic skulls, black coarse hair, no beard, high cheek-bones, a broad face, a small llat nose, and a large mouth. Their feet and hands are delicately shaped. Their average height is about 5 feet 5 inches. Their kephalic index is generally between 71 and 73, but some of them are brachy- kephalic. They live near the sea, being scarcely anywhere one hundred miles from it. It is estimated that the seaboard occupied by them would form a straight line of about five thousand miles. They live during their long winters in half-underground huts. They eat everything that will sustain life. They are The Peoples and Nations of the World. 1 1 5 very filthy. Their mode of salutation is not by shaking hands, but by rubbing noses. A man can marry as many wives as he is able to support. Sometimes when women are scarce two men marry one woman. They do not bury their dead. They place the body on its side in a box, which is support- ed by four i)osts, at an elevation of three or four feet from the ground. They deposit in the box the clothes, arms, pipe, and other articles belonging to the deceased. This indicates their strong belief in the continued existence of man. The Koriaks, Malemutes, Kadiaks, Chugatshes, Ugalenzes, and other Eskimo tribes along the Pacific Coast between Kotzebue Sound and Prince William Sound, are dexterous and daring seamen. They have large boats, called by themselves oomiaks, and by the Russians baidars, in which they make long voyages, even crossing over to Asia for trading purposes. 'I'hese boats are generally thirty feet in length, six feet in extreme breadth, and three in depth. They are made of sticks or whale-ribs, fast- ened together with thongs, and covered over with oiled skins. They will carry fifteen or twenty persons. They are rendered comparatively safe by lashing inflated seal-skins to their sides. Sometimes in a storm two or three of them are tied together. The canoes, or small boats of the Western Eskimos, are about sixteen feet in length and two feet in width at the middle. They are called kyaks or baidarkas. •t-i; itIM ■ ml 1 1 6 The Peoples and Nations of the World. Iv We (*■■■■ i I' hi I 11 The Eskimos of the Paciric Coast, esi)ecially the Koriaks and Kadiaks, have extremel/ loose ideas with regard to morality and decency. They indulge in the most abominable jpractices. Some Eskimos have crossed over into Asia, They live around East Cape and along the shore south of it. These Eskimos are known as the Yuits. //. THE INDIANS OF 7 HE PACIFIC COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. The Indians of the North Pacific Coast include the Tlinkits, the Columbian tribes, the Californian tribes, the Yuma family, the Pueblo tribes, the Uto- Aztecan family, the Otomi family, the Tarascos, the Zapotec-Mixtec family, the Chinantecs, the Chap- anec family, and the Zoque-Mixe family. I. The Tlinkits. The Tlinkits, or Koloshes, inhabit the coast and islands of the Pacific from Mount St. Elias to the Simpson River. They are strong and well-built men. They have black stiff hair, horizontal eyes, and an aquiline nose. They are nearly as fair in the skin as the Dark -Whites. They are intelligent, brave, and warlike, and are fond of music. They live in villages, and have solidly constructed houses. Their canoes are formed by digging out large pine The Pfo/>/ts and Ahitions of the World. \ i 7 ideas idulge trees. They are from fifty to seventy feet in length, and will carry forty or fifty persons. The Tlinkits treat their wives and aged i)arents with great kindness. They display much skill in making ropes from sea-weed, water-tight baskets and mats from withes and grass, pipes and bowls from clay, and bracelets and rings from copper. They burn their dead, and preserve the ashes in a box. They are inveterate gamblers. They used to scalp and maim their prisoners. The Tlinkits are rigid exogamists. If a man wants a wife he must look for one outside of his own tribe. This law has no doubt been of i)enef)t to the Tlinkits physically and intellectually. The contin- ued intermarrying of relatives or peoples of the same blood tends to produce an enfeebled race. A people of comparatively unmixed origin has never risen to a high position in the world. If David had been a pure Jew we might never have heard of him. 2. The Columbian Tribes. The principal Columbian tribes are the Haidahs, the Nutkas, the Selish, the Sahaptins, and the Chinooks. The Haidahs live on Prince of Wales Islands and Queen Charlotte Islands. They are very skilf'd artists. They live chiefly on fish and sea animals. When they kill a bird they roast it without plucking it or even removing the entrails. :\ 1 r8 The Peoples and Nations of the World. W f ^- m \- ?;■ The Nutkas live on the west coast of Vancouver Island. The Salish, or Flatheads, occupied a large tract of country in British ColUinbia and northern Washington. The Sahaptins live on the middle affluents of the Columbia. Although they are called Nez Perces, or Pierced Noses, the habit of piercing the nose does not seem to have existed among them. They are keen traders. The Chinooks lived about the Columbia River in Oregon. There were nine tribes of them. They are now nearly extinct. !''?? i^W'\ |iW" iiii Hi 3. The Californian Tribes. Among the Californian tribes may be mentioned the Shastas on the Upper Klmath, the Madocs on Klamath Lake and Sprague River, the Yukians in Round Valley, the Pomos on Russian River, the Yokuts on King^ River, and the Esselenians at Monterey Bay. The Californians are very dark-skinned. They were in the habit of cutting off the heads of their enemies and carrying them away as tokens of victory. They eat cats, rats, mice, skunks, frogs, lizards, snakes, grasshoppers, crows, owls, hawks, in fact everything that can be eaten except rattlesnakes. When a woman is about to have a child, her husband goes to bed and remains there during several days after the birth of the child. He is as carefully waited upon by the women as if he were in a very The Peoples and Nations of the World. 1 1 9 feeble condition. The Californians regard death as a real being that goes about depriving people of the power of breathing. They expect to live in the next world in a place where they can have as many wives as they want, and be thoroughly happy, eating, drinking, and dancing. 4. The Vumas. The Yumas occupied the valley of the Colorado River in Arizona, Lower California, and parts of the eastern shore of the (julf of California. They average about 5 feet 9 inches in height. They are dark-skinned, but fairer than the Californian tribes. They have horizontal eyes, a large mouth, and heavy lips. They are as a general rule brachy- kephalic. Some of the Yuma tribes in Arizona raised corn and beans, whilst the tribes of Lower California were savages of the most degraded type. They went naked, and had neither houses nor camps. Tliey used rafts, but knew nothing about boats or canoes. They had bows and arrows. They lived by hunting and fishing, and on the spontaneous pro- ductions of the earth. They were notorious gluttons; but how could they be anything else ? A half- starved man is always likely to eat too much when he gets a good meal set before him. « <4' 1 20 The Peoples and Nations of the World, 5. The Pueblo Tribes. The Pueblos live in New Mexico. They are divided into diree distinct branches, the Kera, Tehna, and Zuni. They are Roman Catholics, and have schools among them. When a Pueblo girl wants to get married she fixes her mind upon a suitable person and makes known her wish to her father. Her father visits the father of the young man, and tells him that his daughter wants his son in marriage. As a general rule, there is no objection made and the marriage takes place. As girls have thus the privilege of asking in marriage the man of their choice, we may reasonably infer that old maids are somewhat scarce among the Pueblos. The Pueblos possessed the elements of civiliza- tion when first discovered. They lived in capacious houses made of adobe, or burnt bricks dried in the sun. They had some knowledge of metals ; they cultivated the soil ; they manufactured excellent pottery ; and they made clothing for themselves of grass and the fibres of bark. They always lived in villages, several families occupying the same house. ll- 6. The Uto-Aztecan Family. There are three branches of the Uto-Aztecan family, the Ute, the Sonoran, and Aztecan. The Peoples and Nations of the World. 121 (i). The Ute branch embraces the Wihinasht in Oregon ; the Shoshonees or Snakes in southern Oregon, Idaho, Colorado, and New Mexico ; the Pi-utes in Nevada, California, Utah, and Arizona ; the Cahuillos, Kauvuyas, Kechis, Kizh, and Netelas in southern California ; the Bannacks in Montana and southern Idaho; the Utes or Utahs in Utah, Colorado and New Mexico ; the Pa-vants south of Great Salt Lake ; the Moquis in Arizona ; and the Comanches in northern Texas, (2). The Sonoran branch includes the Pimas on the Gulf of California between the Rio Gila and the Rio Yaqui ; the Optatas and Cahitas in Sonora ; the Tubares in upper Sinoloa ; the Tarahumaras in Chi- huahua ; the Tepehuanis in Durango ; and the Coras in Jalisco. (3). To the Aztecan or Nahuan branch belonged the Cuitlatecos in Michoacan and Guerrero ; the Aztecs or Nahuas, and the Tezcucans in the valley of Mexico ; the Tlascalans east of the valley of Mexico ; the Pipiles in Socunosco and Guatemala ; the Alaguilacs in Guatemala ; the Tlascaltecans in San Salvador ; the Nicaraos or Nequirans in Nica- ragua ; and the Seguas near Chiriqui Lagoon, The Diggers, who are Utes, are among the lowest and most wretched of the human race. The Co- manches are tall, well-formed men with mesokephalic skulls and a light-brown skin. They were at one time numerous, and were dreaded as robbers. They 16 •!•< 0s\ € ) : Bill 1,1 ii Ur, Wlii- I 2 2 7"/^^ Peoples and Nations of the World. are now few in number, and lead peaceful lives. They are among the best riders in the world. They look with horror upon strong drink. They are hos- pitable to strangers. The tribes of the Sonoran group lived in villages, had fixed residences, and cultivated the soil. The buildings known as Casas Grandes, or great houses, were probably erected by the ancestors of the Pimas. The Aztecan tribes were highly civilized. They tilled the soil, and raised Indian corn, beans, and tomatoes. They used chocolate and pulque for drinks. They had cotton in abundance, and spun and wove it, and made it into clothing for themselves. They reared turkeys in large numbers. They manu- factured earthen vessels of various kinds. They also manufactured articles of copper, bronze, silver, and gold. They formed cutting tools of bronze, which were exceedingly hard and durable. They made roads and bridges, built cities, palaces and temples, and erected monuments of a substantial and permanent character. They constructed sun-dials, measured time by the solar year, and were acquainted with the cause of eclipses. They recorded events by means of pictures. The Aztecs or Nahuas were the most influential people in Mexico at the time of the discovery of America by Columbus. The City of Mexico was their capital. Cortes landed in Mexico on the 4th of March, 1520. The first place of which he took The Peoples and Nations of the World, 1 23 possession was the town of Tobasco. He made himself master of the whole country in a very short time. He was an able but unscrupulous man. He died in Spain in 1554. 7. The Otomi Family. The Otomi family embraces the Otomis in Quere- taro, Guanajuato, and Hidalgo ; the Mecos in Qiieretaro ; the Pames in Queretaro and Guana- juata; the Matlaltzincos or Perindas in the valley of Mexico and Michoacan ; and the Mazahuas south-west of the valley of Mexico. The Otomi tribes were among the earliest inhabitants of Mexico. They are dark-skinned, and have a short flat nose, and slightly oblique eyes. Their skulls are dolichoke- phalic, the index of breadth being 73. 'i 8. The Tarascos. The Tarascos lived in Michoacan. They were a civilized people. They were tall and good-looking. 9. The Zapotec-Mixtec Family. The Zapotecs lived in Oajaca, and the Mixtecs in Oajaca, Querrero, and Puebla. They were both well advanced in civilization. The Zapotecs number at present about 265,000. i T24 The Peoples and Nations of the World. lo. The Chinantecs. The Chinantecs lived in Chinantla in Oajaco. They were a barbarous and warlike people. flnl 1^ 1 Jf In Ml »»ii!, i»>iii. «ii|| IS". (11 It." ik- I ft**" •( * *1 rV I II. The Chapanec P'amily. The Chapanec family includes the Chapanecs in in central Chiapas ; the Mangues, or Chorotegans, and the Dirians about Lake Managua ; and the Guetares and Orotinians in Costa Rica 12. The Zoque-Mixe Family. The Zoques, Mixes, and other tribes of the same family live in Oajaca, Tehuantepec, and Chiapas. They were among the most savage peoples in Mexico, They were cannibals. ///. THE INDIANS OF THE ATLANTIC COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. The Indians of the North Atlantic Coast include the Athabascan family, the Algonkin family, the Beothuks, the Dakotah family, the Kioways, the Pawnee family, the Iroquois family, the Choctaw- Creek family, the Catawbas, the Cherokees, and the Yuchis, Timucuas, and other tribes. m: ^1 "*: ■! mm] 'd. The Peoples and Nations of the World. 1 25 I. The Athabascan Family. Oajaco. le. )anecs 111 'otegans, and the he same hiapas. Mexico. 'OAST include ly, the ys, the loctaw- md the The Athabascan, or Tinneh family covers an extensive area. Among the tribes belonging to it are the following : first, the Kenais on the Kenai Peninsula ; the Kutchins on the Yukon and Copper Rivers ; the Nahaunies on the Stickint and Talton Rivers ; and the Atnahs, or Yellowknives, on the Copper River ; secondly, the Hares or Slaves in the valley of the Mackenzie River ; the Dogribs and Tantsawhoots on the Coppermine River ; the Red Knives between the Coppermine and Great Fish Rivers; the Athabascans proper, Tinneh, or Chippe- wayans about Lake Athabasca, and extending east- wards to the Churchill River ; the Beavers or Sarcees on the Upper Saskatchewan ; the Strongbows about the Rocky Mountains ; and the Tacullies or Carriers in British Columbia ; thirdly, the Umpquas near Salem in Oregon ; and the Hoopas on Trinity River in California; fourthly, the Navajos in northern New Mexico and Arizona ; the Apaches in Arizona ; and the Lipans near the mouth of the Rio Grande. The Athabascans are tall and strong and pos- sessed of great powers of endurance. They have dolichokephalic skulls, a low forehead, prominent cheek-bones, a broad face, a large mouth, and small hands and feet. Their eyes are slightly obliqjie. The Kutchins are lively and cheerful and fond of dancing and singing. They are all inveterate talkers. If Pi. I!*W| f or' I ■€ i;>' ^!^. J ill •II. !■ tj «i 126 T/ie Peoples and Nations of the World. They pay a good deal of atter.tion to personal clean- liness. They take great delight in ornamental trinkets, especially in large white beads. The prin- cipal men among them have two or three wives each. Some of them burn their dead and dejjosit the ashes in a box. They are deadly enemies to the Eskimos. Among the Hares and Dogribs women are looked upon as inferior beings, and have to do all the work, except hunting and fishing. The Dog- ribs are notorious liars, but do not steal from the whites. The Tacullies perforate their nose, and sus- pend from it a brass, copper, shell, or wooden ornament. Among the Nateotetains, a tribe of the Tacullies, a woman cuts a joint off one of her fingers whenever a very near relation dies. Some old women may be seen having one or two joints off every finger of both hands. The Apaches are a powerful and warlike people. They are almost con- tinually at war with the whites since the latter entered their country. They roam about and fight on horseback. They live chiefly by hunting and robbing. 2. The Algonkin Family. The numerous tribes of the Algonkin family may be grouped together as follows : (i). The Crees, or Knisteneaux, from the Rocky Mountains to Hudson's Bay, and between Lake Athabasca and Lake Winnipeg ; the Chippewas, or ( The Peoples and Nations of the World. f2'j Ojibvvays, along the shores of Lake Superior; the Ottawas, on the Ottawa River ; the Montagnais, along the northern shore of the St. Lawrence from Montreal downwards ; and the Nasquapees, in the interior of Labrador. (2). The JJlackfeet, or Satiska, between the Sas- katchewan and the Yellowstone River in Montana ; the Cheyennes at Lake Winnipeg ; the Araphoes on the upper Arkansas and Platte Rivers ; the Sacs and Foxes on the middle course of the Mississippi ; the Miamis on the Oreat Miami River ; the Michigamies in Michigan ; the Illinois on the Illinois River ; the Kaskaskias on the Kaskia River ; and the Potta- wattomies south of Lake Michigan. (3). The Micmacs on the south side of the St. Lawrence River near its mouth, along the northern and eastern coasts of New Brunswick, and in Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Cape Breton ; the Tarratines in New Brunswick ; the Meliseets in New Brunswick and Maine ; the Abnakis and Passama- quoddies in Maine ; the Amariscoggins in New Hampshire ; the Massachusetts in Massachusetts ; the Narragansetts in Rhode Island ; the Pequods in Rhode Island and Connecticut ; the Mohegans on the lower Hudson ; the Manhattans about New York Bay ; the Wampanoags in Long Island ; and the Delawares or Lenapes on the banks of the Delaware. (4). The Powhatans in Maryland and Virginia ; Iff- 1 ill , .\ ■ • . V. 1, V, THE SOUTH PACIFIC TRIBES. The tribes of the South Pacific coast include the Colombian, Peruvian, Araucanian, and Patagonian tribes nd the Fuegians. I. The Colombian Tribes. The Colombian tribes include the Cunas of the Isthmus of Panama, the Chocos south of the Gulf of Darien, the Paniquitas east of the Cauca River, the Timotes south of Lake Maracaibo, and the Chibchas in central Colombia. Some of the Panama tribes build their dwelling- places in the branches of lofty trees, partly to be safe from the sudden floods which are so frequent in the country, and partly to be out of the reach of reptiles and wild beasts. The Chibchas proper, or Muyscas, lived about Bogota. They were a civilized people. They raised corn, potatoes, beans, yucca, and cotton. They were distinguished for their skill and taste in manu- facturing gold ornaments. They were inesokephalic. The Peoples and Nations of the World. 137 Their eyes were frequently slightly oblfque. The Talamancas in Costa Rica and Guaymis in Veraguas belonged to the Chibcha family. 2. The Peruvian Tribes. The Peruvian tribes comprehend the Kechuas, the Aymaras, the Yuncas, the Puquinas, the Ata- camenos, and the Changos. The Kechuas or Quichuas lived in the western parts of Ecuador and Peru. They constituted a large fan ily. Their language was spoken from Cape San Fr.' ncisco to Coquimbo. They cultivated the soil dijgently and skilfully. They raised corn, potatoes, yucca, beans, and cotton. They used the llama as a beast of burden. They displayed a high order of workmanship in cutting, polishing, and fit- ting stones together. Seme of the structures in Cuzco manifest building skill of which even the ancient I^gyptians might feel proud. The Kechuas proper had mesokephalic skulls, a brown skin, and a narrow prominent nose. Their average height was about 5 feet 3 inches. The Kechuas founded a very extensive empire, having Cuzco for its capital. Their rulers were known as Incas. Their first ruler, Manco Capac, is said to have begun his reign in 1042, A. D., and to have died in 1062. Their empire attained to its greatest extent and grandeur under Huayana Capac, 18 ■ V' •* 1 Ill i! II': \ I" IIMI tilliiri >1: I it n I" 138 77/^ Peoples and Natiotis of the World. \vho ascended the throne in 1475. It was conquered by Pizarro in 1533. The Aymaras lived at Lake Titicaca. They were conquered by the Kechuas. They buried their dead in a sitting position in large stone tombs. Accord- ing to their own traditions they were the instructors of the Kechuas in the arts of civilization. At the present day they number about 200,000. They have a dark-brown skin, and average about 5 feet 2 inches in height. The Yuncas lived along the Peruvian Coast between the 5th and loth parallels of south latitude. Their architectural skill was of a very high order. They affirm that their ancestors came from the north to Truxillo in canoes. 1 ho Aiacamenos, or Lican-Antais, lived in north- ern Atacama. The Changos live in the desert of Atacama. They are a half-starved people. Their average height is only 4 feet 9 inches. 3. The Araucanian Tribes. The Araucanian tribes include the Araucanians and the Pampeans. The Araucanians live in Chili. They are of a cinnamon - brown complexion and average about 5 feet 5 inches in height. They are mesokephalic, the index of breadth being 77. They are hospitable to strangers and faithful to their engagements. They are fierce and fearless warriors. The Peoples and Nations of the World. r39 The Pampeans roam over the Pampas south of the 35th ])arallel of latitude. They average about 5 feet 6 inches in height. They live chiefly on horse- flesh and mutton. 4. The Patagonians. The Patagonians are the tallest people in the world, their average height being 5 feet 11 inches. Their skin is of a reddish-brown color. They have large heads, dolichokephalic skulls, and an aquiline nose. Their kephalic index is 72. *ti» 5. The Fuegians. The Fuegians, or inhabitants of Terra del Fuego, are divided into three distinct groups, the Alacalufs in the West, the Onas in the East, and the Yahgans in the South. 'I'he Alacalufs seem to be of Arau- canian origin. The Onas are merely Patagonian emigrants. The Yahgans represent the original in- habitants. They number about 2,000. They are from 4 feet 10 inches to 5 feet 4 inches in height. They are of a leather-brown color, with coarse brown hair, low brows, black restless eyes, a flat nose, and large tumid lips. Their eyes are very wide apart. They are among the most debased savages in existence. It is said that they eat their women when they be- come too old to be of any use. 'I ; ill I: I*-*, H- k » f. |ii.r 111)1 1> III|I|k!| ■1 % Hill! ^\ t 1 i P Vm «< !. 'u'' ' 1 4^i 5,*' 1 40 77/^ Peoples and Nations of the World. At the present day there are about 304,000 Indians in the United States, and 104,000 in Canada. Of the Indians in Canada, 2,200 are in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, 1,500 in New Brunswick, and 300 in Prince Edward Island. The total Indian popula- tion of America is about 10,000,000. VI. THE SOUTH- ATLANTIC TRIBES. The South-Atlantic tribes embrace the Inland tribes, the Arawaks, the Caribs, the Guaraunos, the Tupi-Guarani tribes, the Tapuyas, and the Charruas. I. The Inland Tribes. By the inland tribes we mean the tribes that do not belong to any of the families that approach the ocean. They may be divided into three groups, the Northern, Central, and Southern. The Northern group included the Atures, Piaroas, Salivas, Oto- macas, Betois, Guaybas, Chiriocoas, Yaruras, and Chunyas on the head waters of the Orinoco \ and the Zaparos, Jivaros, Maynas, Ticunas, and Arauas on the head waters of the Amazon. The Central group embraces the Canichanas, Movimas, Cayubabas, Yuracares, Mosetanas, Tacanas, Chiquitos, and Samucus in the Bolivian highlands. The Southern group contains the Chalchaquis, the Lules, Matacos, The Peoples and Nations of the World. 1 4 1 Guaycurus, and Paraguas in the Gran Chaco, and the Guatos Ou the Rio San Lorenzo, an eastern branch of the Paraguay. The Atures are now extinct. They buried their dead in baskets made from the leafstalks of the palm tree. The last words of their language were heard from a parrot. The Piaroas look upon the taper as their ancestor. The Zaparos have oblique eyes and a large mouth. They are good boatmen. They use the blow-pipe. The Jivaros are a wild and warlike tribe. They are tall and fair-skinned and have an aquiline nose. They destroyed several Spanish settle- ments in 1599, and carried off the women as captives. The Cashibos are low savages. It is said that they eat their relatives when they die. The Yuracares have a very fair skin, and a straight or aquiline nose. They are tall and athletic, and are daring warriors. The Abipones, a tribe of the Guaycurus, were excel- lent horsemen. They are now extinct. The Lenguas who lived near Corrientes were a branch of the Chiquitos. The Morotocos were a tribe of the Samucu family. In this tribe the women ruled the men, and compelled them to perform all the house- work. They refused to bring up more than two children. If they happened to have more they put them to death. It is scarcely necessary to add that the Morotocos are extinct. »»k r \ •*1 i I :1 r 142 The Peoples and Nations of the Wand. 2. Thk Arawaks. The Arawaks occupied the Bahama Islands, Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica, and a large portion of So 'th America between Point Gallinas and the head waters of the Paraguay. Among their tribes may be men- tioned the Goajiros at Point Gallinas ; the Arawaks proper, the Amarpas, the Tarumas, and the Wajjisi- anas in Guiana ; the Maipures on the middle Orinoco ; the Bares on the Rio Negro ; the Baures and Moxos in the highlands of southern Bolivia ; and the Guanas on the head waters of the Paraguay. The Arawaks have brachykephalic skulls, a low fore- head, and a straight narrow nose. They are about 5 feet 4 inches in height. m 11; I- iir 'It I > i' 3. The Caribs. The Caribs occupied Barbadoes, Trinidad, the coast of South America from the Gulf of Maracaibo to the Essequibo River, a large portion of country along the Orinoco, and parts of Brazil. They constituted a very extensive family. They had brachykephalic heads. They were small, but strong and wiry. They were warlike and aggressive. They had large canoes and used sails. They were rigid observers of the Iberian custom known as the couvade. Among their tribes may be mentioned the Guayqueris in Cumana, the Marquiritares on the :!;■:;■ The Peoples atid Nations of the World. 143 Orinoco, the Macusis on the Rio Negro, the Apiacas on the Rio Tocantins, and the IJakairis on the upper XingLi. _ ■• 4. The Guaraunos. The Guaraunos, or Warraus, live on the delta of the Orinoco. 5. The Tupi-Guarani Tribes. The Tupi-Guarani tribes constitute a numerous and extensive family. They live between the Amazon and the Rio de la Plata. They went naked when the whites became first acquainted with them. They raised corn and manioc, but lived chiefly by hunting and fishing. They made good pottery. They had pipes, and smoked tobacco. They buried their dead in large urns. They are upon the whole a doli- chokephalic people. Among their tribes are the Amazonas on the lower Amazon, the Muras on the Madeira, the Tapaunas on the Rio Tocantins, the Yuranas on the Rio Xingu, the Mundrucas on the Rio Tapajoz, the Sirionos in Bolivia, the Bororos on the Rio Paraguay, and the Guaranis n Uruguay. 6. The Tapuyas. The Tapuyas live in eastern Brazil bci'' -en the Xingu River and the Atlantic, and between the 5th and 20th parallels of south latitude, They were iMi m »:i 144 The Peoples and Nations of the World. i; .i 1: IMP*"" mm I t m u.. «::: It among the earliest inhabitants of Brazil. They have dolichokephalic skulls, a low retreating forehead, a prominent nose, and projecting jaws. They are of medium stature. They do not wear any kind of clothing. Like the natives of Australia they build only temporary shelters. They shake a burning brand and shoot arrows towards the sky dv ' "a thunder-storm, their object being, not to defy uut to appease by imitation, the spirits that control the storm. They use tapers made of the fibres of barks and the wax of wild bees. They have bows and arrows, and are skilful hunters. They bury their dead. When first visited by the whites they were cannibals. They had no dogs. Their language, like that of the Otomis, has a strong tendency to isola- tion. Among their tribes are the Carahos on the Rio Tocantins, the Suyas on the upper Xing- he Ges in Goyaz, and the Botocudos on the Ric . ^oe and Rio Parde. The last mentioned tribe wear a block of wood in the lower lip and heavy wooden ornaments in their ears. 7. The Charruas. The Charruas lived between the Parana and the Atlantic. They had a very dark skin. Their princi- pal tribes were the Bohanes, Minuanes, and Charruas proper. The Charruas proper lived on the coast east of the Rio Uruguay. They were a haughty, war- like, and powerful tribe. They were almost wholly The Peoples and Nations of the World. 145 ey have ihead, a y are of kind of y build turning I a ■ uut to rol the ■ barks >vs and y their y were ^e, like isola- on the X he ' ^ ^ce kvear a ooden exterminated by Rivera, President of Uruguay, in 1 83 1 . They were taciturn and rc'dcent, but generous to their captives. They were in the habit of cutting off a joint of a hnger when a near relative died. •Mi W Pi. P* •Si. r .|u, id the )rinci- irruas coast , war- ^holly ip^ \<. »9 III. i l\ , It*!-' if THE INDO-AUSTRALIAN DIVISION, .11 •!!' I t 1^ The Indo-Australian division contains the Kol- arian . stock of peoples, the Dravidian stock, the Aiiui, and the Australians. The i)eoples belonging to this stock liave a brownish skin, straight or wavy hair, a good deal of beard, and more or less hair on the body. They speak agglutinative, post-tixing languages. A. The Kolarian Stock. The Kolarians have their home in India. They live in scattered communities between the lower Ganges and the Gulf of Cambay. They have slender limbs and are of a graceful shape. They are generally of a brownish comjjlexion, but frequently (piii.e black. Their average height is about 5 feet 4 inches. They have dolichokephalic skulls, the index of breadth being 72, the same as that of the Ikah- mans and Persians. Their hair is black, long, The Peoples and Nations of the World, 147 ON. lie Kol- )ck, ihe :longing 31" wavy hair on it-lixing They lower lender ey are uently feet 4 index Brah- long, coarse, and crimped or curly. Their l)eard grows to an average length. They have prominent cheek- bones, heavy eyebrows, a large mouth, and thick lips. 'I'hey are ap])arently a mixture of Blacks, Yellows, and Whites in various proportions. The Kolarian stock includes the Santals, Mun- daris, JJhumij, Hos or Igarka Kols, Kharias, Korwas, Kurs, Kurkus, Juangs, Snvars, Mehtos, Bhars, Jihuyas, and Jihils. The Bhils, Bhars, and Bhuyas have adopted Aryan dialects. B. The Dravidians. « The Dravidians live in India. They occupy several scattered districts south of the upper Ner- biidda and the Sone, the wliole of Southern India from Cajje Comorin to Honawar on the west and (janjam on the east, and also the northern half of C'cyion. They res jmble the Kolarians in their phys- ical characteristics, but s})eak a different language. The Dravidians consist of the Rajmahal tribes, the Oraons, the Gonds, the Khonds, the Telugus, the Kanarese, the Tulus, the Coorgs, the Kotu,s, the Todas, the Malabars, and the Tamils. 'I'he Tamils are a prominent peoi)le. They are the most highly cultivated and progressive of all the Dravidians. They are keen traders. Many of them have an aijuiline nose. They number about 12,500,000. The Todas are tall, athletic men, and are very hairy. lit •it) e;: X "'•^ . .;? 148 The People': atid Nations of the World. Iff,. 1^' imiit HIT" c: | Willi c if iltit! !l HI II! ' Ift ^-C 18. ' ■ >'' I It a' " I f 5 6 TVJ^' Peopl'cs and Nations of the World. They arc strongly built and are the most intelligent of all the Negro ])eoi;les. They are good agricul- turists, and make excellent cloth, mats, leather, and glass. 'I'hey are upon the whole an enterprising people. They are strong Mohammedans. The Baghirmi live south-east of Lake Tchad. 'I'hey are' skilful weavers and dyers. The Kanuris are partly of Tibu, but chieily of Negro origin. They have woolly hair, a broad nose, thick lii)s, and a higli fore- head. They constitute the ruling class in Uornu, a kingdom with a population of 5,000,000. They became Mohammedans about the year 1086. The Fur are the leading people in Dar-fur. The NubaS' live in Kordofan and Nubia. The Nubas of Nubia, or Nubians, are an extremely mixed jjcople. 'I'hey contain a large proportion of Hamhic, Shemitic, and. Bosnian blood. The Funj live in Senaar. They are mesokei)halic and prognathous, and have long crim})ed hair. They have become Arabian ized in language and customs. The Shilluks, Nuers, Baris^ and Jiongos live on the White Nile about the loth degree of north latitude. Their languages show some traces of grammatical gender. The Shilluks- are a large tribe, and possess immense herds of cattle. The Bongos are brachykephalic. The Niam-Nianv live between the 24th and 29th degrees of east longi- tude and between the 6th and 3rd degrees of north latitude. They are a very numerous people. They are of a dark-brown complexion, brachykephalic, and elligeni; agricul- icr, and ■prising The hey arc J parti}' ■y have ^h fore- ornii, a 'I'hey . The Niiha^y Nubia, They ic, and 'J1iey e long ^.ed in J>aris, e loth show liliiiks- cattle, -Nian> longi- north They 2, and TVh' Peoples and Nations of the World. i 5 7 '.lightly prognathous. They have a short nose, a long upper lip, and very long woolly hair. Some of them have a good deal of beard. They are cannibals of the worst kind. '1 liey smelt iron, and make scimitars, knives, spears, chains, nnd bracelets. They live jiarlly by cultivating the soil and partly by hunting. They are deeply attached to their women. ///. THE n.WTU TRlliES. 'Hk' l>antu tribes occui)y the greater portion of South Africa. They extend on the western coast from the Cameroon Mountains to Wallish J3ay, in the inland regions from the 4th degree of north latitude to the Kalahari Desert, and on the eastern coast from the equator to the (ireat Fish River. They are all fundamentally Negroes; but many of them con- tain a large infusion of Hamitic and Shemitic l)lood. They all have kinky and woolly hair. They may be divided into four geographical groups ; the Western, the Central, the Kastern, and the South-Eastern. The Western group includes all the tribes be- tween the Atlantic Coast and the i8th degree of east longitude. Among these are the Bakisk, Bafarami, Dualla, Bakalai, Ashango, and Mayombe north of Landana ; the Kabindas, Mussorongo, Bakongo, J^asundi, Babwende, Bateke, Wabuma, and Bayansi along the Congo ; and the Biinda, 1*4, » % 1 58 The I'eoptes and Nations of I lie World. i*' m t "Ki Mlik*i|| yirtiriii i«iir-'ii ' mm*. II jHIJ 1^ m Ji W 1| Mr;" I! Kelt i| I- II. ill I* I \ ii; i; m II * . * II '. 1 1 » I'll & ^ : t VMl ^#^ Ganguella, Ovambo, and Ova-Hcrero south of Loando. The Central group embraces the tribes between the i8th degree of east longitude and Lakes Albert, Albert-Edward, and Tanganyika. Among the tribes of this extensive region are the Bakumu, Baburu, Ababua, Mabode, Monvu, Balesse, Bavira, and Balegga between the mouth of the Aruwimi River and Lake Albert ; the Bakutu, Bassonge, VVavinza, Bakubu, Baluba, Bashilange, Kioko, Balunda, VVarua, Manyuema, and Marungu between the Kuango River and Lake Tanganyika ; and the JJataona, Bakuba, Marutse, Batoka, Inisluikulompo, Ba-nyai, Makalaka, and Mashona on the Zambezi. The Eastern group contains the tribes between Lakes Albert, Albert-Edward, 'J'anganyika, and Bangweolo on the west and the Indian Ocean on the east, and between the River Tana on the north and the Lower Limpopo on the south. Among the most important of these tribes are the Wahuma, Wanyoro, Wasoga, VVaganda between Lake Albert and Lake Victoria ; the Wakongu, Wasangora, Wanya-Ruanda. Warundi, and Wahha between Lake Albert and Lake Tanganyika ; the Warungu, Babemba, and Babisa south of Lake Tanganyika ; the Wafipa, VVakawendi, and Wagala east of Lake Tanganyika ; the Was kuma, Wanyamwezi, and Wyanzi souti of Lake Victoria; the VVapokomo, Wanika, VV. .»Da, VVa- sambara, Wasegua, Wa-swaheli, Wasuj., ra, and oiith of l)et\veen Albert, le tribes Baburii, ra, and i River ^ivinza, Id) II n da, en the nd the iIomi)o, imbezi. between I, and on the th and e most nyoro, Lake Lianda. Lake 3abisa vendi, ^'' IS Lake , Wa- md T//e Peoples and Nations of the World. \ 59 Wazaramo between the River Tana and the 8th parallel of south latitude; the ALing\vangara,\Vanindi, Wahiyao, Wnngindo, and Wamwera between Lake Nyassa and the ocean ; and the Makua and Umtetwa south of the Zambezi. The Southern group contains the Makololo, Bechwana, Basuto, and Zulu-Kaflirs. The Makololo were a branch of the Basutos. They have l)een almost wholly extirpated by the Marutse. Tlie Jiechwana live between the 22nd and 28th parallels of south latitude, and between the Kalahari Desert and the River Limpopo. They are divided into several large tribes, as the Batauana, Bamangwato, liakuena, liakatla, Bangwaketse, Barolong, and Batlapee. The Basuto live in the eastern part of Cape Colony and the Transvaal. The Zulu- Kaffir tribes consist of the Mangone west of Lake Nyassa ; the Maravi between Lake Nyassa and the Zambezi ; the Matabele between the Zambezi and the Limpopo ; the Zulus in Zululand and Natal ; and the Kaffirs in Kaffraria. The principal Kaffir tribes are the Ama-Chosa, Ama-Tembu, and Mponda or Kaffirs proper. The Wahuma, Watusi, or Wachwezi are to a large extent of Hamito-Shemitic origin. They have fairly regular features and are good-looking. They are herdsmen, and live chiefly on milk. •Previous to the year \ ^ \o the Zulu-Kaffirs proper occupied the region between the Lower Limpopo on %%^\ i«<, ' IHlltf II ! 1 6o T/it' Peoples and A^itions of the World. the north and the Cxamtoos on tlic soutli, and be- tween the Basuto and IJechwana on the west and tlie Indian Ocean on tlie east. 'I'he JUishmen and Hottentots were the original inha])itants of this region, l)Ut the Zulu- Kaffirs either killed them or compelled them to remove further west. It is evident, however, from tlie clicks in their lnngua no animals of any kind except dogs. 'I'hey disj)lay a great deal of skill in making drawings. They are more energetic than liie Hottentots. They occupied at one time tjuitc a large area. They were treated with shameful cruelly by the IJoers. I'hey were ])robably the earliest inhabitants of eastern etiuatorial Africa, perhaps indeed the first discoverers of the source of the Nile. -t ' I \ 1 If I I- ^ I i I I f *'|l 3. Thk HorrKNTor.s. The IfoUentots live in (\ipe Colony and along the western coast as '"ar as W'alfiS' h Ikiy. Previous to the year 1652 they occupied the whole of (^ape Colony west of the Cramtoos River, except some barren inland districts held bv the Bushmen. At an earlier dale ihey extended northwards along the eastern coa.sl lo ihe i,imi)ojio. This is evident from the fact that the geograi)hical names in the /ulu- Katlir country are largely of notlenlot origin. it is inileed almost certain that il was l)y the eastern d. The Peoples ami Nations of the World. 163 nomadic ts. Thcv )cing 72. lire, ihcir >. Their dwell in 1. 'i1iey s. They s. 'I'liev Irawings. s. 'i'hey 'hey were s. rhev eastern scoverers id aloHi; revious >r Cajje I some II. At m^ the e /ulii- Kin. It eastern coast that tliey entered Cape Colony. They inter- mixed i;rol)al)ly to a hirge extent with the lUishmen. They call themselves Koi-Koin or the NEen. 'I'he Hottentots are of a low stature with light limbs, and are of a leathery-brown color. They have long skulls, prominent i:heek-l)ones, small black eyes, a broad Hal nose with large nostrils, a large mouth with thick turned-uj) lii)S. Their hair is long and woolly. 'I'heir eyes are wide apart, and in some of them slightly obli([ue. 'I"he Hottentots are naturally of a cheerful, mild, and placable disjjosition and are very hosi)itable. Thev are indolent and unwillin'' to exert themselves. They kept cattle, previous to the arrival of Euro- peans among them. 'J'hey were also accjuainted with the art of smelling iron. There are probably about 50,000 real Hottentots in Cape Colony. Many of those who arc called Hottentots are only half-breeds. There are i)erhaj)s 20,000 Hottentots beyond the limits of Cape Colony. The |)rinci[)al Hottentot tribes are the Namatpias in (heat Namatpialand and Damaraland, or Hereroland ; the Korannas or Kora(pias about the middle and upper part of the Orange, \'aal, and Middle Rivers; and the Gonas or C/onaquas on the borders tjf Kaftirland. The (iri'pias are half-breeds. 'I'hey had Dutch fathers and Hottentot and lUishman mothers. I'lie element of gender-ilislinclion exists in the Hottentot language. 'I'his fact goes far to show «'*<. 1 64 The Peoples and Nations of the World. 1! pill III !g:"!ii r"'ii C:;,; c: iff I'.t J Hi » I'll ir *(| ill Ml that the Hottentots were originally Hamites, or else that they lived among a Hamitic ])eo[)le. If they were originally Hamites, the change in their physical type must be accounted for by intermixture with dwarfisli Negroids like the ]>akwa and Bushmen. The Hottentot and Bushmen women are noted for steatopyga, or a fatty protuberance constituting a natural bustle. Possibly the Hottentot woman who was taken to Paris, and who was known as the Hottentot Venus, may have suggested the idea of the bustle to the women of Europe and America. A model of this African beauty is preserved in the Paris Museum. The Dutch formed a settlement in Cape Colony in 1652. The first settlers, however, were not all Dutchmen. They consisted partly of Germans, Flemings, ^^oles, and Portuguese. About the year 1686 they were joined by a number of French Protestants, who left their own country owing to the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The Dutch, or rather the Whites, deprived the Hottentots of their lands, killed a large number of them, and reduced those left alive to slavery. About 1740 they began to pass the (iamtoos River and molest the Kaffirs. In 1780 they extended their frontier to the Great Fish River. In 1806 the British took possession of Cape Colony. In 1834 they emancipated the Hot- tentots and other slaves, a measure which gave great The Peoples and Nations of the World. 165 offence to tlic old white settlers, or IJoeis as they are commonly called. In 1835 ^ large number of Boers, dissatisfied with the slave-emancipaiion act, left Cape Colony and settled beyond the Orange River. In 1854 the country in which tbey settled was constituted into the Orange River Free State. By the year 1836 hundreds of Boers had settled beyond the Vaal R ver, where they laid the foundation of the Trans- vaal, or South African Republic. In 1S37 ^^'^^ l^oers formed a settlement in Natal, On tlie 8th of August, 1843, Natal became a British Colony. B. The Oceanic Blacks. :<»i| The Oceanic Blacks include the Negritos and the Papuans. /. THE NEGRITOS. The Negritos, or Little Blacks, consist of the Mincopies, Sakeis, and Aetas. The Mincojjies, or Andamaners, live on the Andaman Islands, in the Bay of ]>engal. They have a black glossy skin, brachykei)halic skulls, frizzly hair, a wide Hat nose, and thick lips. They average about 4 feet 7 inches in height. Their kephalic index is 82. They are totally beardless. They are utter savages. They build no houses, and wear no clothing. They are good swimmers and arc very Mt \ I ,|i».: x- ■ ^ I. IM 1 66 The Peoples and Nations of the IVoHd. %■ bx, i ••ill Ml* ' ill! nil 'III '1*1 i* f fi Si ii tl THE LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD. **i THE OKJCIN AND STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGES. Man differs from the lower animals in having a body more beautifully shaped and more intricately con- structed than ihey have, in having intellectual power of a vastly highc/ order than theirs, in having a moral nature, and in possessing the ability to express his thoughts and feelings by means of words. ^■ii i»«.i THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. Various theories have been propounded to account for the origin of language. According to one the first sounds used were merely imitations of certain sounds in nature ; according to another they were involuntary interjections ; whilst according to a third they were the natural ringings of a mental ^ ^ c if' m \ '»mv ill •u i* > »ii 1 7' iii' ' 0* i-'' ^y ife p S ft ■'# K i. * Eg jwy 1 ■ l; . 1 ■ ■' ' 172 TAe Languages of the IVorid. instinct. The first of these theories has been termed the bow-wow theory, the second the pooh-pooh theory, and the third the ding-dong theory. They are all utterly unsatisfactory. The Bible represents Adam and t)ve as convers- ing with one another from the moment in which they first met. It does not make known to us, however, how they came into possession of their language. God, having given them the power of speaking, may have guided them in forming their words in some such mysterious manner as that by which He after- wards guided the prophets and apostles to use the very words and expressions which He destined them to use ; or. He may have created them with a lan- guage. That the language in which Adam and Eve conversed in the Garden of Eden was not made by them, but given them in some way or other by their Creator, may be regarded as a fact. THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGES. The language of Paradise, developed by one generation ufter another, was the language of the ark, and thus became the language of the new world. What the outward form of this language was wc have no means of determining. All that we really know alK)ut it is that it existed, and that it was suffi- ciently copious to express all thfc thoughts of those who used it. The Languages of the World. '73 n term eel ooh-pooh ^. They convers- liich they however, anguage. ing, may in some He after- 3 use the led them th a lan- find Eve made by by their by one of the V world, was we e really as suffi- )f those Until men l>egan to build the city and tower of Habel, the whole world was of one lip and the same words. This implied not only that men employed the very same words to express their thoughts ; but also that they pronounced these words in the same manner. Whilst however the work of building was going on the Lord came down and confounded the language of the whole earth. That the act of confounding produced such dialectic differences that men could not readily understand one another is quite certain. But to what extent one dialect differed from another we have no means of knowing. Neither is it possible for us to determine how many dialects came into existence. The confounding of language was simply a means employed for dispersing the human family over the face of the earth. Had men dispersed of their own accord, and gone like sensible persons to till the ground, instead of crowding together into a dusty city, the act of confounding would never have taken place. I do not say that dialects of various kinds would not have come into existence ; it is quite certain that they would ; all I say is that they would not have been brought into existence by the direct act of the Almighty. Immediately after the confounding of Itnguage men came to their senses, and left off the foolish work of building a big city and a lofty tower. They ». «••«, 1*1,, 114 J: I »74 TAe An/7ji^nnj(es of the World. r.**' \ firill Hi* i.. i 1 " c ii »# ' If ' t* i-Ji"' l» s<» t ♦ • « ^•l l)cgan at onrc to emigrate in distinct groups in ail directions, eacii gronp taking with it its own dialect or language. I^ach distinct group of settlers would introduce changes into its Innguage. In the course of a few hundred years it would become so different from what it originally was that it would almost look like a different language. We know that the Knglish of King Alfred is to the |)resent generation of l\nglish- men almost an unknown tongue. It is only a few scholars, who study it as they do I.alin and Cireek, that are able to read it. Not only would each group of settlers introduce changes into its language, but each group would change its language in away i)eculiar to itself. One irroup would make chauL'es of one kind ; another group changes of another kind. iNo two groups would make the same changes. It thus follows that the languages of the several gr()U|)s would be diverg- ing farther and farther apart. There is a much greater difference between the I'.nglish and I he (lerman of the present day than there was between tlie English and tlie (ierman of the tenth century. As the various tribes who wandereil away from the Plain of Shinar increased in numbers, fresh mi- grations became ne In the >sition in John and ouse, l)ut ilong the nd \i\K) conjunc- 1 vowel- rds or to ind with like the 1 the ex- re a sign L sign of who term them empty words, have only very few of them. That part of a word which contains the funda- mental idea is called the root. Thus the root of sitting is sit, and of unloveliness love. The suffixes used in forming the cases and numbers of nouns, adjectives and pronouns, the comparatives and superlatives of adjectives, and the voices, moods, tenses, and persons of verbs, are termed inflexional suffixes. The part of a word to which the case suf- fixes or personal suffixes are added, is termed the stem, theme, or base. In Knglish, owing to the loss of most of its inflexions, a stem and a word mean practically the same. Such, however, is not the case in Latin, Sanskrit, and other highly inflexional languages. Thus in Latin the stem of fructus, fruit, is fruclu, the s being the sign of the nominative case. In the Sanskrit word bhavali, he is, the root is bhu, the stem or base, bhava, and the i)ersonal suffix ti. The root may be the stem even in Sans- krit, as in ad-mi, I eat. •«i I words ly con- Jhinese, mmmsmmtmmmmm 1 78 T/tf /,f///,i,7//7(^<\? 0/ the World. CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF LANGUAGES. T languages may be reduced to divisions, classes, or families. By a division is meant a number of languages that have some distinctive i)eculiarity in common. By a c:lass is meant a number of lan- guages that construct the sentence according to the same general plan. By a family is meant a numbei' of languages which give clear indications of having sprung from the same parent-speech. A class may consist of two or more families. All the members of a family belong to the same class : they can not l)olong to (lifTercnt classes. The most useful classification of languages is that which divides them into families. Dut the work of reducing languages to families is only going on ; it is very far from being tinished. We are thus under the necessity of dividing languages into families and groups of languages whicl: may or may not l)e related. rhen. there are a few languages which cannot be jtlaced either in a family or group. (. I'm L\i>()-KKi.'rn Lanc.i'acf.s. m u The Indo- Keltic family of l.mguaiBfc^ includes the following branches : the Keltic, the Teutonic, the Italic, the Albanic. the Hellenic, the Slavo-Lithuanic, The L(iN_i:^Nhava-lha Uliava-nti Bhavami means I l)ccome ; bhavavah, we two become, and lihavdmah, we become. I'he root is bhu, and the stem or base bhava. '''he suffixes end- ing in h originally ended in s. Thus bhavamah stands for l)havamas. Here we meet our old friend the I«itin termination, mus. ' T/i€ /aui!^N(1}^('s oj the World. iSi vowel is I h origin- naus and tivL' tliial vc plural loiins in 1, we- ll, you cy hey they erl) l)hu, Al, lUKlh -ilia mi we two root is Kes end- avaniah I friend The ini|)erfect leiise is fornietl by the prefix a, ns ill a-bhava-ni, I became, which is intlecled as follows: Abiiava-m Abhava-h Abhava-t DUAL Abhav-ava Abhava-tain Abhava-ulm I'Ll RAI, Abhav-ama Abhava-la Abhava-ii 'The future tense is formed by the suffix sya or ishya, as in bhav-ishya-mi, I will become. 2. Thk. Smkmftk: Lanc.uac.ks. The Shemilic family of languages includes the Hebrew and I'hiLMiikian ; the Assyrian ; the Arabic; the SabaMU, (iees, 'I'igre, and 'I'igrina ; and the Amharic. There are two peculiarities about the Sheinitic languages which sei)arate them from all the other languages on the {m\i of the earth and form them into a distinct class. In th(. first place, their root words contain as a general rule three consonants and only three. In the second i)lace, they inflect the verb to a very large extent by me:ins of internal vowel-changes. The nature of the Shemitic languages in general may be learned from the following brief account of the Hebrew language : There arc two genders in the Hebrew, the masculine and the feminine. The masculine has no •1 •><. p Wi W'} I ... 1 8: T/ie /urffi^f/as^t's of the World. ?l •0 .'* c; fi -Id*"' f »» «. si^n to indic.ilc it. The feminine is denoted by the siilVix ah or ih. originally la. There are three ninnbers, the singular, chial, and j)lural. The dual is formed by adding ayim to the singular, the maseidine plural by adding im and the feminine plural by adding oth. There were three ease-endings originally, u for the nominative, i for the genitive, and a for the accusative, but these endings dis- appeared at a comparatively early date. The personal pronouns are as follows : Anochi or ani, I Attah, thou masculine Att, thou feminine Hu, he Hi, she Anakhnu, we Attem, you inasculine Atten, you feminine Hem, they masculine lIcMi, they feminine The jjronouns are sulhxed in a fragmentary form to nouns and verbs. In susi, my horse, or horse of me, the i at the end stands for anochi. In katainu, we ki'led, the termination nu stands for anakhnu, we. The relationship between a noun and a noun or a noun and a i)ronoun is denoted by i)utting the delin- ing word in the construct state. The defining word invariably comes first. The construct slate is simply a shortened form of the word which is in that state. Davar, word, becomes in the construct slate d'var, as in d'var Klohim, the word of liod. There are seven verb-stems or distinct forms of the verb. 1 The /Aini^uai:;i's of the World. •8;, :c .%f 0^. 9 /a w -y m /A is '/ Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. -4S))0 (716) I72-A503 \ iV ^^ \ \ % .V O^ ^ '%'■ ..,<^^ MP.. s V Ux ■m i86 The Languages of the World. not listening to him, means I did not listen to him. The word for not is tem and for listening setem. Entuf pu nuk, literally he the same I, means I am he. The verb to be is generally omitted, as in nuk ua am-ten, I am one of you, literally I one of you. The word for one is ua and for of am. The persons of the verb are formed by pronominal suffixes. The verb au, to be, is inflected as follows : ^•iii !|!|1 v I ^ In •''"•il ^% f*«'*li! f Aua, I am Au nu, we are Auk, thod art, masculine Au ten, ye are Aut, thou art, feminine " " Auf, he is Au sen, they are Aus, she is u u The present tense of ^he verb mer, to love, is as follows : Mera, I love Mernen, we love Merk, thou lovest, masc. Merten, yc love Mert, thou lovest, fem. " " Merf, he loves Mersen or mersu, they love Mcrs, she loves u (( There are no case-signs. When two nouns which differ in signification come together the second is in the genitive case, as in su ra, son of the son. The adjective is always placed after the noun, as in neter nefer, a good god, neteru aau, great gods. The Egyptians made no distinction between 1 and r ; it treated them as if they were one and the same The Languages of the World. 187 n to him. ng setem. :ans I am as in nuk le of you. le persons I suffixes. are are y are u love, is as they love (( uns which 3ond is in on. The IS in neter een 1 and the same letter. The Coptic is simply old Egyptian iii its latest stage. It differs from Egyptian in forming the persons of the verb chiefly by pronominal prefixes. The present indicative of the Coptic verb tako, to destroy, is as follows : Ti-tako, I am destroying K-tako, thou art destroying, masculine Te-tako, " '' feminine F-tako, he is destroying Ten-tako, we are destroying Teten-tako, ye are destroying Se-tako, they are destroying The Egyptian agrees with the Shemitic languages in dividing nouns into two genders. It also agrees with them in some of its pronouns, but these pro- nouns may have been borrowed. So far as its general structure is concerned, it indicates no con- nection whatever with these languages. It is therefore utterly misleading to call it, as is sometimes done, a sub-Shemitic tongue. 4. The Basque. In joining words and suffixes the suffix may, for the sake of forming a euphonic connection, take a, e, i, or o, as in ginon-ez for gizon-z, by man. Final k of the root is changed into t or omitted, as in I, f ; Hi, "I ™ "W_jim^!^^^^!a!SSBSK I'd' 'ill ill '' i88 TAe Languages of the IVorld. Si li'll! H' |*»«f' «, 'r I Kb.. ''f'"l echeet-ara for echeak-ara, towards the houses ; gizon- en for gizonak-en, of the men. Final t of the root is dropped before k. Final n of the root is changed to m before b or p, and omitted before k, 1, r, t. Final z of the root is changed to t. The gap caused by an omitted letter is frequently filled up by insert- ing y, as in ayen for aeken, of them. The word for they is aek and for of n. In joining aek and n the letter e must be inserted before n. This gives aek-en. But k when not changed into t is omitted. We have now ae-en. To make ae-en sound well the letter y is inserted in place of k. This gives us aeyen or ayen. The transposition of letters is a very common thing in Basque. Thus bage, without, becomes gabe ; iduri, to appear, irudi ; and irago, to ascend, igaro. In forming compound words parts of the elements used are frequently dropped. Illabete, month, is from illargi-bete, full-moon, literally moon- full. Organz, thunder, is from orz, cloud, and ananz, noise. The word thus literally means cloud- noise, than which there could be no more appropriate name. The definite article is a or ar, which is really the demonstrative pronoun that. It is suffixed to the noun ; as in gizon, man, gizona, the man ; eche, house, echea, the house. The plural is formed by the suffix k, as in gizonak, the men ; echeak, the houses. The postpositions are suffixed to the nouns Tfu Languages of the World. 189 es ; gizon- f the root is changed I k, 1, r, t. jap caused by insert- The word aek and n rhis gives s omitted, d well the > gives us ■ common becomes to ascend, ts of the Illabete, illy moon- loud, and ms cloud- Dpropriate really the :ed to the in ; eche, ormed by ;heak, the the nouns and pronouns; as in echcko,. of house; echera, toward house ; echean, in the house ; echetik, out of house ; echeetako for echeak-ko, of the houses ; and echeetan for eche-k-n, in the houses. Ko means of, ra towards, n in, and tik out of. There are no case-signs. The personal pronouns are as follows : Neu or ni, I Geu or gu, we Eu, i, or hi, thou Zeu or zu, you The third person is expressed by the demon- strative pronoun. The following pronouns or parts of pronouns are used in forming the persons of the verb : AS THE SUnjEX:T OF THK VERB T,I H, thou — , he, she, or it Gu, we Zu, you — , they AS THE OBJECT N, from ni, one H, from hi, thee D, , him, her, it G, from gu, us Z, from zu, you D, , them There are two ways of conjugating the verb, the regular and the periphrastic. There are two kinds of verbs, transitive and intransitive. The moods and tenses are formed by suffixes and auxiliary words. It forms the persons by pronominal suffixes. In the present tense the objective pronoun is pre- tixed to the verb. -.J ■^^ SBflK !^nmm I go The Languages of the World. The verb ekar means bearing. The present and imperfect tenses of the indicative mood are inflected as follows : PRESENT INDICATIVE. Dakart, from d-ekar-t, I l)ear it Dakark, from d-ekar-hi, thou bearest it Dakar, from d-ekar, he bears it. Dakargu, from d-ekar-gu, we bear it Dakarzu, from d-ekar-zu, you bear it Dakarte, from d-ekar-te, they bear it The prefixed d means it, him, or her. The third person has no pronominal suffix. The suffixed te is the verb sign of plurality. THE IMPERFEC')'. Nekarren, I bore Gekarren, we bore Hekarren, thou borest Zekarren, you bore Ekarren, he bore Ekaren, they bore. Nekarren is from ni-ikar-n. The prefixed n stands for the pronoun ni, I. The suffixed n is the sign of the imperfect tense. Thus whilst dakart is literally it-bear-I, nekarren is literally I bore. The verb ikus means seeing. The principal parts of it, according to the periphrastic plan, are as follows : fri, present and re inflected sst it it it it The third ffixed te is The Languages of the World. ^ 9 1 Ikusten diit, I see it Ikusten nuen, I saw Ikusiren diit, I shall see it Ikusiren nuen, I should see Ikusi dezaket, 1 can see Ikusi nezake, I could see Ikusten is a verbal substantive and means in seeing or in sight. The verb eduk means having or holding. Dadukat, from d-eduk-t, means I have it. It was shortened first to daukat, then to daut, and finally to dut. The subject of a transitive verb is indicated by the sufiftx k, as in gizonak ekusten du, the man sees it. The object has no sign attached to it. I see the man is ikusten dut gizona. bore bore bore. d n stands he sign of is literally principal an, are as 5. The Caucasian Languages. The Caucasian group of languages includes the Georgian, the Circassian and Abkhasian, the Tchet- chenz and Lesgian, and the Ude. In Abkhasian the plural is formed by adding kwa to the singular, as in atsla, a tree, atsla-kwa, trees. The following are the personal pronouns : Sara, I VVara, thou Ui, he Hara, we, S'ara, ye Ubart, they m; ■ r> 192 The Languages of the World. if, I "ISi: 1'^ f 1^/ «» •■ ti 'Up •I ^'^ii. PT "in fr nil 'rl] The signs of the possessive pronouns are s, w, t, h, s', r, as in s-ab, my father ; w-ah, thy father ; t-ab, his or her father; h-ab, our father; s'-ab, )our father; and r-ab, their father. These signs are always prefixed to the noun. The root cwisl means to ride. The present tense is formed by adding oit to the root, the imperfect by adding an, the perfect by adding it, and the future by adding ast. The present indicative is as follows : Sara s-cwisl-oit, I am riding VVaru u-cwisl-oit, thou art riding Ui i-cwisl-oit, he is riding Hara ha-cwisl-oit, we are riding S'ava s'-cwisl-oit, ye are riding Ubart r-cwisl-oit, they are riding It will be noticed that the pronoun is represented in two ways, first in full, and secondly by a sign. Sara s-cwisloit, then, really means I I-am-riding. In Georgian the noun has case-suffixes. The plural is formed by adding bi or ni to the singular. Thavi means head, thavi-sa of a head, thave-bi heads, and thave-bi-sa of heads. The verb has personal suffixes. It incorporates the pronominal object. 6. The Finno-Siberian Languages. The Finno-Siberian group of languages includes the Finno-Manchu family, the Korean and Japanese, the Yeniseian or Yenisei Kotte, the Yukaghir, the The Languages of the World. ^93 e s, w, t, h, t-ab, his or ther ; and prefixed to sent tense perfect by t future by Hows : epresented by a sign, ling. xes. The le singular. £-bi heads, s personal bject. }ES. js includes Japanese, caghir, the Koriak, the Tchuktchi, the Kamtchatkan, and the Ainu. The Finno-Manchu or Ural-altaic family includes the following branches: the Finno-Hungarian, the Samoy- ed, the Turkish, the Mongol, and the Tunguso-Manchu, The Lappic belongs to'the Finno-Hungarian branch. Of the Finno-Siberian languages the most import- ant — at least from a political point of view — are the Turkish and Japanese. The Turkish divides its vowels into two kinds, heavy and light. A, o, u, and y are heavy vowels ; e and i are light vowels. In adding suffixes it is the invariable rule that the vowel of the suffix must be of the same class with the vowel of the root, or with that of the last syllable of the root-word if it contain more than one syllable. This rule is known as the law of vocalic harmony. The plural of baba, father, is babalar, whilst the plural of ev, a house, is evler. '{'here are two numbers in Turkish, the singular and plural. There are six cases, the nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, locative, and ablative. Bash, head, is declined as follows : SINGULAR NoM. Bash, head Gen. Bashyn, of the head Dat. Basha, to the head Ace. Bashy, the head Log. Bashda, on the head PLURAL Bashlar, heads Bashlaryn, of heads Bashlara, to heads Bashlary, the heads Bashlarda, on heads Abl. Bashdan, from the head Bashlardan, from heads M,j .1 35 194 The Lanio^ua^es of the World. Iff- 1 '"ii, I Si 1 ^ V J'" *m % 1 1 III Derivations are formed hy suffixes. Thus, quon- dura means boot, cjuondura-dshy boot-maker ; yemek means to eat, yemek-lik food ; jaghmur means rain, jaghmur-lu rainy ; jemish means fruit, jemish-li fruit- bearing. The genitive stands before the ncnm governing it, as in the following expression, babanyn baghtchesi, the father's garden. nal)a is the word for father and baghtche the word for garden. Nyn Ls the sign of the genitive case for nouns ending in vowels, and si the sign of the j^ronoun his. Baba-nyn baghtchc-si, then, literally means of the father his garden. The adjective stands before the noun. It under- goes no change. Guzel el means pretty hand, and guzel eller, pretty hands. The following are the i)ersonal pronouns : Ben, I Biz, we Sen, thou Siz, ye O, he, she, or it Onlar, they Ben and biz are inflected as follows : NoM. Ben, I Gen. Benim, of me, my Dat. Bana, to me Ace. Beni, me Abl. Benden, from me Biz, we Bizim, of us Bizeh, to us Bizi, us Bizden, from us The possessive pronouns are the genitives of the personal pronouns. I'hey are represented l)y the following suffixes : The Languages of the IVorld. »95 'hiis, ciiion- :er ; ycnick iieans rain, >ish-Ii fruil- )verning it, baghtchesi, father and I he sii^n of .vels, and si xaghtc he-si, sn. It under- hand, and IS : 11 us ves of the id l)y the My ; after vowels m ; after consonants ini, ym, or uni. Thy ; after vowels n ; after consonants in, yn, or un. His ; after vowels si, sy, or su ; after consonants i, y, or u. OuK ; after vowels miz or niyz ; after consonants imiz or yniyz. Your ; after vowels niz or nyz ; after consonants iniz or ynyz. Their ; si, sy, or su ; after consonants i, y, or u. Tchorba means sou|), tcliorba-m my soup. Kalam means a pen, kalam-imiz our pen. The stems, moods, tenses, and persons of the verb are formed by suffixes. The verb sev means love thou. Mek is the sign of the infinitive. Sevmek means to love ; sevilmek to be loved ; sevmemek, not to love; sevememek, not to be able to love; sevdirmek, to cause to love ; and sevishmek, to love one another. Severim means, I Icjve : severdim, I did love; sevdim, I have loved; sevmishidim, I had loved; and sevejeirn, I shall love. The present tense of the indicative mood is as follows : Severim, I love Severiz, we love Seversen, thou lovest Seversiz, you love Sever, he loves Severler, they love The preposition is invariably a post-position in Turkish. Dost means friend and siz without. Dost- siz means without a friend, literally friend-without. ..I T ^^m 196 T/ie Lan^iages of the World. ^■■0\ itriif- It is evident that the Turk does all his talking by means of roots and sutfixes. There are two numbers in Japanese, the singulai and {)lural. The plural is generally like the singular. It is formed when necessary by the suffixes ra, dr^-^.o, gata ; as in shoshei, a student, sboshei-ra, students ; ka, a child, ko-domo, children ; anata, thou, anata- gata, you. The nominative case is indicated by the particle wa, ga, or ma placed after the noun or prv)- 'noun ; the genitive by no ; and the accusative by wo, ni, or ga. A man has beaten a woman is otoko ga onna wo utimasita. The dress of a man is otoko no kimono. Otoko means man, onna woman, utimasita has beaten, and kimono dress. 'J'he following are the personal pronouns : Watakusi, I Watakusi domo, we Anata, thou Anatagata, you Are or kare, he, she, it Arera or karera, they Ik-irnasu means goes; ik-imasita, went ; ik-imasho, will go ; ik-emasu, can go ; ik-emasita, could go ; ik- emasho, will be able to go; ike, go thou; and iku koto, to go. 'I'he present indicative is as follows : Watakusi wa ik-imasu, 1 go Anata wa ik-imasu, thou goest Are wa ik-imasu, he, she, or it goes Watakusi domo wa ikimasu, we go The Lan^ta^es of the World. »97 talking by le singular e singular. , ra, d<"'"..o, , students ; lou, anata- ed by the jn or j)ro- ive by wo^ i otoko ga 5 otoko no , utimasita s : o, we a, they ik-imasho, d go ; ik- and iku Anataga \va ikiniasu, you go Arera wa ikiniasu, they go Post-positions ire used, but they are not joined to the noun. Kara means from and ni to. Watakusi wa London kara France ni ikimnsu means I go from London to France, literally I London from France If) go. 7. The Dravido-Austrai.ian Languaces. The Dravido-Australian group includes the Drnv- idian family, the Kolarian family, and the dialects 0/ the aborigines of Australia. The Dravidian family includes the folic, ing branches; the Ta*^''- Malayalim or Malabar, Telugu, Kanarese, ^^ulu, Kudugu, Toda or Tuda, Kota^ Gond, Khond, Uraon, and Rajmahali. Of these the most important are the Tamil, Telugu, Kanaiese, and Rajmahli. The Tamil may be taken as a type of the whole. The Tamil language divides its nouns into two classes, personal or high-caste and impersonal or low-caste. Personal nouns include the names of all rational beings, and impersonal nouns the names of all irrational creatures and inanimate objects. Personal nouns have two genders in the singular, masculine and feminine, but in the plural this dis- tinction is not observed. The gender of a noun .s frequently indicated by the suffix on for the mascu- .4 1 Si., 198 The Languages of the World. w line and the suffix al for the feminine, as in mag-an, a son, mag-al, a daughter. The plural of personal nouns and pronouns is formed by changing the gender termination an or al into ar. Thus the plural of av-an he and av-al she is av-ar, they. The plural of impersonal nouns is formed by means of the suffix gal or kal, as in kei, hand, kei-gal, hands and kar, stone, kar-kal, stones. In modern Tamil gal or kal is frequently used to form the plural of {personal nouns. Even double plurals are common, as in av-ar-gal, they. The noun is fitted into the sentence by means of suffixed particles and post-positions. The nomina- tive has no case-sign. The nominative, accusative, instrumental, and genitive of the word manei, a house, are as follows : m SINGULAR PLURAL NoM. Manei, a house Manei-gal, houses Ace. Manei-yci, a house Manei-gal-ei, houses Inst. Manei-yal, by a house Manei-gal-al, by houses Gen. Manei-yin, of a house Manei-gal-in, of houses Ik --f- ^ v^ '\ ■m r ' "t-M The y in yei, yal, and in yin is merely a euphonic letter, its object being to prevent a hiatus. Gal is the plural suffix. Nan or yan means I, nam or yan we ; nangal we, ni thou, and nir you. Avan means he or that man, aval she or that woman, and adu it or that The Languages of the World. '99 \ mag-an, >nouns is \ an or al av-al she nouns is as in kei, il, stones. ^ used to ni double means of e nomina- ccusative, manei, a juses louses jy houses of houses euphonic Gal is ; nangal le or that t or that thing. The plural of avan and aval is avar, and of adu avei. Nam is the plural inclusive and nangal the plural exclusive. The first includes the person speaking and those spoken to ; the second includes only the speaker and his party. The principal parts of the verb are formed by suffixes and auxiliary verbs. The persons are always suffixed. The root var means to flourish, var-gir-en means I flourish, var-nd-en I did flourish, var-v-en I will flourish, var-en I flourish not, and var-a to flourish. KoUa means to kill and patt-an he sufler- ed. Kolla-ppatt-an means he was killed, literally he suffered a killing or a to kill. The present tense of the verb iru, to be, is as follows : Yan iru-kkir-en, I am Ni iru-kkir-ai, thou art Avan iru-kkir-an, he is Yam iru-kkir-om, we are Nir iru-kkir-ir, ye are Avar iru-kkir-ar, they are Kkir is a hardened form of gir, the sign of the present tense. En, ai, an, 6m, ir, are the signs of the persons. Nouns and adjectives may be used as verbs by adding the personal suffixes to them. Kon means king and kon-en, I am a king, Periya means great and periy-om we are great. FTT 200 Tke Languages of the World. 'P \X. m ''%ii, ?*;^i 'I- if' > &■ '•■^ lib The following are the principal languages of the Kolarian family ; the Santali, the Mundari, Ho, and Bhumij, the Korwa, the Kharria, the Juang, the Kur and Kurku, the Savara, and the Mehto. They divide their nouns into two classes, animate and inanimate. They use suffixes and post-positions. The Australian dialects use suffixes and post- positions. Mute means an opossum, mute-ngu of an opossum, and mute-go to an opossum. Bun means to strike, bunkil to strike one's self, bunkilit to strike often, bunnanbi to permit to strike, and bunngalli to cause to strike. The first personal pronoun has, as in Tamil, an inclusive and exclusive form in the plural. 8. The American Languages. The American group contains the Eskimo, Atha- bascan, Algonkin, Dakota, Iroquois, Uto-Aztecan, Maya-Quiche, Peruvian, Carib, Tupi-Guarani, and other families, together with a large number of un- classified languages. The Algonkin family includes the Cree, Chippeway, Blackfoot, Shawnee, Micmic, and other languages. The Cree divides its nouns into two classes, animate and inanimate. The first class includes persons, living creatures of all kinds, living trees, and a few objects that possess some real or supposed excellence. The second class includes all inanimate objects except those indicated. The Languages of the World. 20T ;s of the Ho, and the Kur ly divide animate, id post- igu of an n means to strike ngalli to n has, as n in the o, Atha- Aztecan, ani, and r of un- includes Micmic, classes, indudes ig trees, upposed lanimate The distinction of sex is indicated in three different ways ; first, by different words, as napao, a man, iskwao, a woman ; secondly, by adding iskwao to the masculine in the case of persons, as okimow, as chief, okimaskwao, a female chief; and, thirdly, in the case of animals, by placing napa or nosha before the noun, as napa mistos, a bull, nosha mistos, a cow. There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. The plural of animate nouns is formed by adding k, uk, or wuk to the singular, and the plural of inanimate nouns by adding a or wa ; as in utim, a dog, utimwuk, dogs ; muskisin, a shoe, muskisina shoes. There are four cases, the nominative, accusative, vocative, and locative. The nominative has no sign. The sign of the accusative when used is either a or lew. The vocative plural is formed by adding tok or etok. The locative is formed by add- ing ik or k to the nominative, Owashish means a child ; nipe, water, and mekewam, a tent. He loves a child is sakehao owashish-a ; he poured out water is ke sekinum nipe-lew ; O children, is owashishetok; and in the tent, is mekewamik. Prepositions are used. They govern their nouns in the locative or accusative case. Tatawich means in the middle of and neki my house. In the middle of my house is tatawich neki-k. Adjectives are generally used in a verbalized form. Nuppuck-issu means he is flat \ nuppuck-ow, ■| : « ^ 1 \ «6 '•■ i- 202 T/ie Languages of the World. it is flat; milotwow, he is good ; and malotwat ililew, the good man, literally he-vvho-is-good the-man. Independent adjectives, such as milo good, mache bad, and kiche great, are very rare. The personal pronouns are as follows : Nela, I Nela-nan or kela-now, we Kela, thou Kela-wow, you Wela, he she, or it Wela-wow, they ha »♦'', The personal pronouns are connected with the verb in the following abbreviated forms ; N, ne, or net for nela ; k, he, or ket for kela ; and o or ot for wela. The possessive pronouns are the same as the personal pronouns. They are joined to the noun as follows : N'otawe, my father ; K'otawe, thy father ; o'tawea, his father ; k'otawe-wow, your father: n'otawe-uk, my fathers; k'otawe-owow-uk, your fathers. There are three kinds of verbs, impersonal, intransitive, and transitive. Impersonal verbs are used only in the third person singular. Intransitive and transitive verbs have two forms in the third person singular. The first form is used in connec- tion with animate nouns, and the second in connec- tion with inanimate nouns. The impersonal verb pipoon means it is winter. Pipoon-opun means it was winter ; ke pipoon, it has been winter ; ke pipoon-opun, it had been The Languages of the World. 203 '^at ililew, the-man. d, mache w^ we with the N, ne, or [ o or ot I same as the noun awe, thy w, your 3wovv-uk, personal, /"erbs are ;ransitive he third connec- connec- s winter, poon, it ad been winter; kutta pipoon, it will be winter; and kutta ke ))ii)oon-oi)un, it will have l)een winter. The intransitive verb nipow means he sleeps. The root is nip. Ne nipan means I sleep ; ne nipati, I slept ; ne nipan-apun, I was sleeping ; ne ke nipan, I have slept ; ne ke nipati, I had slept ; ne ke nipan-apun, I had been sleeping ; ne ka nipan, I shall sleep ; ne we nipan, I wish to sleep ; ne ge nipan, I can sleep ; ne ka ge nipan, I shall be able to sleep ; and nipa, sleep thou. The transitive verb incorporates the objective pronoun and sometimes nouns and particles. The present indicative of the animate form of the verb sakeh-ao, he loves him, is as follows : Ne sakeh-ow, I love him Ke sakeh-ow, thou lovest him Sakeh-ao, he loves him Ne sakeh-anan, we love him Ke sakeh-ananow, we love him Ke sakeh-owow, you love him Sakeh-awuk, they love him Sakeh-iko means he is loved by him ; ne sakeh- ittison, I love myself ; and sakeh-ittowuk, they love each other. In the inanimate form sakeh is changed to saket. I love it, is ne saket-an ; and he loves it, ne saket-ow. WT immgm P' '. 204 '.ii. Ke le plural- wow, the id, stand the verb el, thou ; ; kelow, als are ; naoo, seven ; e ; and llowing ly, the T/ie Lantritages of the World. 205 ICareng, and the Chinese ; secondly, the Gyarung, Miautze dialects, and Toungthu ; the Shan, Khamti, Ahom, Lao, and Siamese ; the Mon, Talaing, or Pcguan, the Paloung, the Cambojan or Khmer, and the Cochin-Chinese. The general plan of structure followed by the languages of this group may be learned from examining the structure of the Tibetan, Chinese, and Mon. In Tibetan the letters g, d, b, m, and 'h frequently occur at the beginning of words, but are scarcely ever pronounced at the present day. The sufifixes pa and nia indicate that the word to which they are added is to be regarded as a noun. They are also employed to distinguish one homo- l)honous word from another. The suffixes po and mo serve to indicate sex, as in gyal-po, king, gyal- mo, queen. The plural is denoted by adding nam or dag to the singular, or some noun which contains the idea of plurality. When the context clearly shows that the plural number is meant there is no sign of plurality used. The Tibetan would look upon it as labor in vain to say ten oxen ; he would simply say ten ox. There are seven cases in Tibetan ; the nomi- native, genitive, instrumental, dative, locative, abla- tive, and terminative. The accusative and vocative are like the nominative. The word lus, body, is declined as follows : ♦I }• 2o6 The Languages of the World. 'i\ H ' Pl! )*k ■ ^*,. < SINGULAR NoM. Lus, a body Gen. Lus-kyi, of a body Inst. Lus-kyis, by a body Dat. Lus-la, to a body Loc. Lus-na, in a body Abl. Lus-na, from a body Term. Lus-su, into a body PLURAL liUs-nam Lus-nam-kyi Lus-nam-kyis Lus-nam-la Lus-nam-na Lus-nam-na Lus-nam-sii The verb denotes neither being, doing, nor suffer- ing, but simply a coming to pass. If instead of saying I beat you, we were to say by-me regarding- you a-beating-happens we would be following the Tibetan mode of speaking. The moods and tenses are formed partly by unpronounced prefixed letters, partly by suffixes, partly by changing the vowel of the root, and partly by auxiliary verbs. The verb tsag means to filter. The present tense is 'h-tsag-pa, the perfect b-tsag-s, the future b-tsag, and the imperative mood tsog. There are about 500 monosyllabic roots in Chinese. Generally each of these roots has several distinct meanings. Yu, for instance, signifies me, agree, rejoice, measure, stupid, and black ox. There are three different ways of indicating the sense in which the root is to be taken. In the first place, the mean- ing may be indicated by the tone of voice in which the sound is uttered. Thus kwai uttered in the departing tone means honorable, whilst uttered in L 111 m-kyi n-kyis n-la m-na ii-na n-su nor suffer- instead of regarding- 3wing the ind tenses id letters, ) vowel of The verb i-tsag-pa, and the Chinese, distinct i, agree, 'here are in which le mean- in which in the ttered in T/ie Languages of the World. 207 the rising tone it means devil. There are eight distinct tones in the language ; of these, however, only four are in common use. In the second place, the meaning of the root may be indicated by placing after it a word having a meaning somewhat like tiie one intended. Thus, to denote that ting means to hear, the word keen, to see, is placed after it. In the third place, certain classifying words are used. For example, yih taou means one knife or a knife, a small boot, or a fringe. When a knife is meant the classifying word pa, which means something grasped with the hand is used, as in yih pa taou, a knife, literally a grasped knife or one grasped knife. The distinction of sex is indicated in the case of persons by prefixing the words nan man, and neu woman, and in the case of animals by prefixing the words kung noble and moo mother. Thus nan tsze means a man-child or boy, neu tsze a woman-child or girl, kung ma a horse, and moo ma a mare. The plural is sometimes formed by reduplication as in jin jin, men ; sometimes by prefixing the adjective chung, choo, keae, or fan, each of which means all ; and sometimes by suffixing tang or mun. When the context clearly indicates that the plural number is meant there is no sign of plurality used. The genitive case is indicated by the suffix che, or by placing the governed noun before the noun govern- ing it ; the accusative by such prefixed particles as ¥ •I 208 T/ie Lani^Hages of the World. y)a, i,7u, and hu ; the ablative in the sense of from by prepositions, such as tsze, yii, and tsung ; the instrumental by e, by, and yung, with, literally to employ. The following are the personal pronouns : Woo or wo, I Wo raun, we Urh or ne, thou Ne num, you Ke or ta, he, she, it Ta mun, they The past tense is indicated by the suffix leaou, to complete, or kwo, to pass over ; as in ta keu leaou or ta keu kwo, he went. The future tense is indi- cated by the prefixed particle tseang, to take, or yaou, to want ; an in ta tseang keu or ta yaou keu, he will go. The third person of the imperative mood is formed by prefixing the verb heu, to allow or permit, as in heu ta keu, allow him to go or let him go. When the tense is plainly indicated by the context there are no tense-signs used. Joo kin means now, shang yue last month, ming neen next year, and lai to come. Joo kin ta lai means now he is coming ; shang yue ta lai, last month he came ; and ming neen ta lai, next year he will come. The sentence is constructed by placing one word after another according to established rules. The subject precedes the verb and the verb the object. The adjective stands before the noun, the genitive before the word which governs it, and the adverb The Languages of the World. 209 ?e of from sung ; tlic iterally to ns : e DU ffix leaou, keu leaou ;e is indi- > take, or yaou keu, mperative , to allow go or let d by the Joo kin een next s now he le came ; le. 3ne word ^s. The I object, genitive : adverb before the verb. Prepositions are used, not post- positions. The Mon forms new words from its roots in two different ways. In the first place, it uses prefixes and changes the initial word of the root for the sake of euphony when necessary ; as, in t' mloo, dark- ness, from kloo, dark ; k' mlaut, a thief, from klaut, to steal ; layeh, light, from yeh, to shine ; papnik, merchandise, from pnik, to trade. In the second place, it places two roots or words side by side ; as, in tataumeh-chyat, death, from tataumeh, to be, and khyat, to die. It employs such classifying prefixes, as tnom, a tree, ka, a fish. Thus, tnom krout is the mango tree, tnom t5 the cotton tree, ka woa, a shark, and ka pan, an eel, literally the eel fish. The sexes are distinguished by the suffixes trong and prayer for persons and k' mat and buh for animals. Thus, kon trong is a boy or son, kon prayer, a girl or daughter ; klaer kmat, a bull, and klaer buh, a cow. The plural is indicated when necessary by suftixing taw, to increase, or k' mlung, many. Mneh means man and mneh taw or mneh k' mlung, men. The thing possessed is placed before the possessor, as in sgnee meh oa, house of father of me, literally house father I. Prepositions are used, as padoa sgnee, in the house. The adjective always follows the noun. The following are the personal pronouns : 27 210 The Languages of the World. Oa, I M' n^'h, thou Ny^li, he, she, it Pooey, we Bai or i)ay, you Nyeh taw, they The i)resent tense is denoted by the root. The past is indicated by i)lacing the word to-ey, done, after the root, and the future by placing the particle rcng after it. The negative is expressed by the particle hoo, as in oa hoo aa, I am not going, literally I not going. Prepositions are used. 10. The Inter-Continental Languages. The Inter-Continental languages consist of the languages spoken between Siam on the north and Australia on the south, and between Africa and Japan on the west and America on the east. It may be divided into five sub-groups, the Malayan, the Polynesian, the Micronesian, the Mel- anesian, and the Negrito. The Malayan sub-group contains the languages of the Malays and the various Malayan peoples. The Polynesian sub-group con- tains the languages of the Eastern Polynesians, or the Polynesians proper. The Micronesian sub-group includes the languages spoken by the natives of the Micronesian Islands. The Melanesian or Papuan sub-group includes, first, the dialects of the Papuans of New Guinea, and, secondly, the languages of all the other Melanesian Islands. The Negrito sub- The Languages of the World. 21 I you they oot. The i-ey, done, le particle id by the g, literally JAGES. ist of the lorth and .frica and t. Dups, the the Mel- sub-group le various oup con- esians, or ub-group es of the Papuan Papuans es of all :rito sub- group includes the dialects of the Aetas and a few other Negrito tribes. The Malayan and Polynesian languages are closely related and constitute the Malay-Polynesian family of languages. With regard to a large number of words in the Malay language, the part of speech to which they belong can be determined only by their position in the sentence. Thus, kasih may mean kindness, affectionate, or to love. Derivatives are formed by prefixes, suffixes, infixes, and reduplication. Ajar means to instruct, pengajar, instructor; makan, to eat, makanan, food ; guruh, a rumbling noise, gumuruh, to make a rumbling noise ; and ajar-ajar, a sainted person, x-louns have two numbers, the singular and the plural. The plural is indicated when necessary by placing the word banak, many, sumua or sagala, all, after the noun, or by repeating the noun. When the context makes it evident that the plural is meant there is nothing else to indicate it. The genitive case is generally indicated by plac- ing the word governed immediately after the word governing it ; as, in rumah sahaya, house of me, or my house. The adjective is invariably placed after the noun, as in orang baik, a good man ; orang jahat, a bad man. The personal pronouns are as follows : Aku or Sahaya, I Kita or kami, we Angkau, ang, or kau, thou Kamu, you Dia or iya, he, she, it Dia orang, they 1 1 > ■^^ 212 The Languages of the World. W' W\%. Kita means I and thou, and kami I and he. The possessive pronouns are formed by placing the word punya, owning, after the personal pronouns, or by placing the personal pronouns after the thing possessed. There are two classes of verbs, primitive and derivative. Primitive verbs are such as were originally verbs. Derivatives are such as have been formed from primitive verbs, nouns, and adjectives, or adverbs. Verb-stems are formed by prefixes and suffixes. Jalan means to walk ; ber- jalan, to be walking ; and men-jalan-kan. to cause to walk. The suffix lah is used in forming moods and tenses, and also the following auxiliaries ; ada, is or was ; sudah, was, did, or has been ; telah, was, did, or has been ; mahu, will, shall, would, or must; kandak, is about to. The following are the principal parts of the verb lari, to run : Sahaya lari, 1 run or was running Sahaya sudah lari, I have or had run Sahaya mahu lari, I will run Sahaya handak lari, I am about to run Lari-lah, run thou The passive voice is formed by the prefix di and the passive participle by the prefix ter. Pukul means to strike ; di-pukul, to be struck ; and ter- pukul, struck. W:,- -'S' The Languages of the World. 2r3 I and he. placing the pronouns, IX the thing s, primitive ch as were :h as have louns, and formed by walk j ber- to cause to moods and ; ada, is or was, did, or St; kandak, )al parts of un run II. The Central African Languages. The Central African group consists of the lang- uages spoken by the Hamito- Negro and Negro peoples. One of the best known of these languages is the Yoruba. In Yoruba the indefinite article is okan or kan, one. Okonri means one man or a man. Derivatives are formed from verbs and nouns almost wholly by prefixes. Peja means to fish, apeja, a fisherman ; lo, to go, atilo, a going ; legbe, to have support, elegbe, a supporter ; fo, to wash, ifo, the act of wash- ing ; lowo, to have money, olowo, a moneyed man ; igbo, belief, aigbo, unbelief. A few derivatives are formed by doubling the verb, as pej apeja, a fisher- man, or fishing-fishing man. Possession is denoted as in English. Ille means house, ti of, and babba father. The house of my father is ille te babba, literally the house of father. There are two kinds of adjectives ; the participial or verbal adjective, as kuru, to be short, and the adjective proper, as kukuru, short. The personal pronouns are as follows : sfix di and Pukul ; and ter- r. as the subject of a verb Emi, mo, ng, 1 Awa, we Iwo, o, aw, thou Enyin, ye On, o, aw, he, she, or it Awon, nwon, they ^^^ wmm 214 . The Languages of the World. AS THE OBJECT OF A VERB Mi, me Wa, us O, thee Nyin, you A, e, i, o, u, him, her, it Won, them W\t^'^\ The moods and tenses are formed partly by pre- fixes, but chiefly by such auxiliary words as the following : — ti, have, have been ; yio or o, shall, will, must ; jeki, let ; le, may or can. The persons are indicated by the pronouns. The principal parts of the verb ni, to have, are as follows : Emi ni, I have Emi ti ni, I had Emi o ni, I shall have Emi o ti ni, I shall have had Jeki emi ni, let me have Emi le mi, I may or can have Emi le ti ni, I may or can have had The following is the present tense in full : Emi ni, I have Awa ni, we have Iwo ni, thou hast Enyin ni, ye have On ni, he, she, or it has Awon ni, they have The present indicative of afe, to be loved, is as follows : 1!; : The Languages of the World. 215 i u m ly by pre- ds as the shall, will, jrsons are have, are ad 11 lave have sy have ^'ed, is as Afe mi, I am loved Afe wa, we are loved Afe o, thou art loved Afe nyin, ye are loved Afe e, he, she, or it is loved Afe won, they are loved A in a-fe is a shortened form of awon, they. Fe means to love. Mi is in the objective case and means me. A-fe mi, then, is literally they love me. The participial verb is formed by the prefix n or an; as in emi nni, I am having ; anfe mi, I am being loved, literally, they are loving me. The Yoriiba forms new words by placing prefix before prefix. Thus from she, to sin, it forms e-she, sin ; 1-eshe, to have sin ; i-leshe, the act of having sin ; a-ileshe, the not having sin ; 1-aileshe, to be in a sinless state ; and alai-leshe, one who has no sin. The Yoruba distinguishes homophones from one another by means of tones, of which it has three, high, low, and middle. It pays a good deal of attention to the principle of vocalic harmony. 12. The Bantu Languages. The Bantu languages constitute a large and important family. Their plan of structure may be learned from the Kisuahili. In Kisuahili the nouns are divided into several classes. Every class that pluralizes the noun has a prefix of its own for that purpose. The following are the most important classes : m i 216 T/ie Languages of the World. tisr lis- W in w I- ■if;:i' Nouns which begin with the prefix m and denote living beings, as mtu, a man, watu, men. Nouns which begin with the prefix m and denote inanimate objects, as mti, a tree, miti, trees. Nouns which have no prefix either in the singular or plural, and denote inanimate objects, as niumba, a house, niumba, houses. Nouns which have no prefix in the singular, but prefix ma in the plural, as kasha, a chest, makasha, chests. Nouns which have the prefix ch or ki in the singular or vi in the plural, as ch-ombo, a vessel, vi-ombo, vessels ; kitu, a thing, vitu, things ; janda, a finger, vianda, fingers. Nouns which begin with u in the singular and form the plural by dropping the u before a consonant and by changing it to ni before a vowel, as upanga, 3 sword, panga, swords ; uimbo, a song, nimbo, songs. Adjectives, pronouns, particles, and verbs are brought into agreement with the noun to which they belong either by having the prefix of the noun, a characteristic part of it, or some letter representing it inserted before them or by having their initial sound changed according to certain rules. Ema means good. A good man is mtu mu-ema ; good men, watu we-ma ; a good thing, kitu j-ema ; good things, vitu viema ; a good box, kasha j-ema ; good boxes, makasha m-ema. Mtu muema wa nti ya Waarabu means a good man of the land of the Arabs, the word for land being nti. The Languages of the World. 217 ,nd denote nd denote le singular niumba, a igular, but , makasha, be singular , vi-ombo, . a finger, r and form onant and a, a sword, verbs are lich they noun, a senting it :ial sound ;ans good, tu we-ma ; vienia ; a la m-ema. )d man of 3eing nti. Watu wema wa nti za Wazungu means a good man of the land of the Europeans. Chombo cha Waarabu means the vessel of the Arabs, and viombo via Waarabu the vessels of the Arabs. The personal pronouns are as follows : — Mimi or mi, I; wewe or we, thou; yee, he; sisui, we; nuinui, you ; wao, they. The possessive pronouns are as follows : — wangu, mine, plural viangu ; wako, thine, plural viako ; wakwe, his or her, plural viakwe ; wetu, ours, plural vietu ; wenu, yours, plural vienu ; and wao, theirs, plural viao. The verb has several distinct forms. Ku fania means to make ; ku faniza, to cause to make. Ku patu means to obtain ; ku-mpatia, to make him obtain, to procure for him. Ku tembea means to walk about; ku tembelea, to go to and fro. Ku penda means to love; ku ji-penda, to love one's self; ku pendana, to love one another, and ku pendoa, to be loved. The root-word is penda. I'he moods and tenses are formed as follows : — Penda, love thou ; ku penda, to love ; napenda, I love ; nipende, I may love, and nikipenda, if I love ; nimipenda, I have loved ; nalipenda, I had loved ; tapenda, I shall love ; ningei)enda, I should love ; and takua nikipenda, I shall be loving. Sipendi means I love not, and singependa, I would not love. The persons of the verb undergo initial changes to bring them into agreement with the prefix of their subject. The present indicative of the verb penda preceded by the pronouns is as follows : 28 lit I'-' t'sSf'^ il "#«• •■;«; 1 2 1 8 77/6' Languages of the World. Mimi napenda, I love Wcwe wapenda, thou lovest Yee apenda, he loves Suisui tuapenda, we love Nuinui nuapenda, ye love Wao wapenda, ihey love The Bushman and Hottentot are distinct lauGiuaGres. They are neither related to one another nor to the Bantu languages. The Hottentot seems to have some sort of connection with the Hamitic family. Languages may be reduced to two great divisions, the gender-distinguishing and gender-ignoring. The gender-distinguishing division includesthe Indo-Keltic, Shemitic, and Hamitic families ; the gender-ignoring division includes all the rest of the languages of the world. We must not confound grammatical with sexual gendei. Grammatical gender is an arbitrary distinction and applies to words only. When a Highlander refers to butter as e or he and to a knife as i or she, he has no thoughts of sex in his mind. Sexual gender is a natural distinction, and is attended to by all languages. It has nothing to do with words ; it applies simply to living beings. Languages may be divided into three great classes, the Introflexional, the Agglutinative, and the Isolating. The Introflexional or Intromutative class construct the sentence partly by suffixes and prefixes, but chiefly by internal vowel-changes. The Agglutinative class construct the sentence by joining suffixes or prefixes The Languages of the World. 219 languages. lor to the dave some divisions, ing. The do-Keltic, :r-ignoring ges of the tical with arbitrary When a to a knife lis mind. attended h words ; It classes, Isolating, construct ut chiefly ive class prefixes or both to their roots. The Isolating class construct the sentence chiefly by placing their primary words or roots side by side. They make little or no use of particles. They never weld two words together as we do when we say lov-d for love-did. The Intro-flexional class includes simply the languai^es of the Shemitic family. The Agglutinative class contains the following languages ; first, the Indo-Keltic languages ; secondly, the Finno-Siberian, Caucasian, and Dravido-Australian languages, together with the Basque ; thirdly, the American languages ; fourthly, the Malayo-Papuan languages ; fifthly, the Hamitic languages ; sixthly, the Negro, Bushman, and Hottentot languages ; and seventhly, the Bantu languages. The Isolating class embraces the languages spoken by the Tibeto-Sinican peoples. . The best known classification of languages is that which divides them into Inflexional, Agglutinative, and Isolating languages To this classification there are several objections. In the first j^lace, it puts the Indo- Keltic, Shemitic, and Hamitic languages, and these only, in the inflexional class. But these are not the only languages that use inflexions. Why then should we limit the term inflexional to them ? In the second place, the Indo-Keltic and Hamitic languages differ so much in their structure from the Shemitic languages that it seems utterly unscientific to put the three families into the same class. In the third place, it is impossible to draw a clear and practical distinction. 220 The Languages of the World. v. • lA f3- I, tfct (lit fir' with regard to their mode of structure, btf.veen an inflexional language of the Indo-Keltic type and an agglutinative language of the Finno-Turkish type. Of course we are told that the Indo-Keltic languages have used flexions or symbolic suffixes from the beginning of their existence, whilst the Finno-Turkish languages have not. But this is a mere supposition— a theory; it is not an established fact. Latin and Turkish are both agglutinative and both inflexional languages. Latin, however, is of a more highly inflexional character than Turkish. So far, then, as inflexions are concerned that is the only difl'erence between them. It is held by some writers that all the languages of the world belonged originally to the isolating class, and that the agglutinative and introflexif»nal classes have grown up out of the isolating class. This is a mere theory, and a theory without any real foundation. It is impossible to explain how an introflexional lanouase like Hebrew could have "rown out of a flexionless and isolating language like Chinese. The agglutinating languages might have developed into their present condition out of the root or isolating state, but did they ? The indications are that they did not. The fact is that instead of having reason to believe that isolating languages have grown into agglutinative or inflexional languages w(, have some reason to believe the very opposite. It is far more probable that a language like Turkish would sink The Languages of the World. 221 tt'veen an pe and an I type. Of uages have beginning languages -a theory ; iirkish are languages. inflexional inflexions i between nguages of ting class, tal classes This is a »undation. oflexional out of a se. The ped into isolating hat they reason to \vn into ve some far more Id sink down into Tibetan and I'ibetan into Chinese than it is that a language like Chinese would rise up into Tibetan and Tibetan into Turkish. We know that English was at one time a highly inflexional language ; but where are its inflexions to-day .-^ It is still an in- flexional language ; yet, so far as the structure of the sentence is concerned, it is far more like Chinese to- day than it was a thousand years ago. I'he real truth is that no matter how far back we trace the j^resent classes of languages we invariably find each class working according to its own laws, but never develop- ing into another class. English, with its prefixes, suffixes, fragments of flexions, and long derivatives, can never change into a language of the same type with the Chinese ; whilst Chinese with its mono- syllables, tones, and isolating tendencies can never become an agglutinative- inflexional language like English. THE ORIGINAL UNITY OF THE INDO- KELTIC LANGUAGES. The various Indo-Keltic peoples of the world were originally one people. They lived together in the same place and spoke the same language. The language spoken by them, — which we may term the Indo-Keltic or parent speech — became divided into several dialects, and these dialects grew up into distinct languages. Just as Italian, French, and Spanish are of Latin origin so are Keltic, Latin, Teutonic, and all WW 222 T/ie Languages of the World. \\ ..1 other Indo-Keltic languages of Indo-Keltic origin. Whilst, however, the parent-speech of Itahan, French, and Spanish has been preserved the parent-speech of the Indo-Keltic languages has utterly perished. There are books of Latin in existence, but not a single sentence of Indo-Keltic. Although the Indo-Keltic people spoke the same language it does not foNow that they pronounced their words in the same way. It is absolutely certain that they did not. It is indeed probable that when they began to separate they differed so much in their pro- nunciation that those of -them who lived furthest apart would find some difficulty in understanding one another. They must also have differed to some extent in the words they employed. When they had two words for the same thing som.e would use the one exclusively and some the other. 'I'he Indo-Keltic language was in a highly developed state. It had a comj)lete and excellent grammatical frame-work, whilst its vocabulary was quite extensive. As the Indo-Keltic languages had a common origin, it is evident that the farther we trace them back the closer will be the resemblance between them. It thus follows that in comparing them we must take them in the oldest form in which we can find them. Evidences of Linguistic Unity. The evidences that prove the original unity of two or more languages consist of two kinds, first, the The Languages of the World. 223 tic origin. ti, French, -speech of ?d. 'I'here a single \ the same need their srtain that when they their pro- d furthest nding one to some they had sc the one develo[)ed :immatical extensive, common hem back hem. It 11 List take i them. ty of two first, the evidence of grammatical structure ; and, secondly, the evidence of roots, symbolic elements, and words. When two or more languages construct their sentences according to the same i)lan we have some reason to assume that these languages had a common origin. It is at any rate more likely that they were originally one than that they had come by mere accident to adoi)t the same plan of structure. Of course we cannot utterly ignore geographical and ethnological considerations. Though we should find that a language spoken by a Negro tribe in Africa and a language spoken by an Indian tribe in America constructed their sentences in precisely the same way, we could scarcely even suppose that we had good grounds for assuming a special relationship between these languages. We would naturally — and properly, too — take for granted that their agree- ment in structure was a matter of mere accident. A language may borrow an isolated word, but it scarcely ever borrows a whole group of related words, or words that have the same root. When, then, we find that a root that underlies a group of words in one language also underlies a group of words in another language we have in this root an evidence in behalf of the formation of these lang- uages from the same original materials. When we find a large number of roots of this kind the evidence becomes thoroughly convincing. u f 1 I ) ■%\ s,\ T ! 224 The Languaji^cs of the World. Should a hundred persons that know nothing about the algebraic signs at present in use be asked to make four signs each — one .to denote addition, one subtraction, one multiplication, and one division —it is almost absolutely certain that no two of them would make the same four signs. But prefixes and suffixes are mere signs. When, then, we find that two or more languages employ to a large extent the same prefixes or the same sufiixes we cannot resist the conviction that these languages had a common origin. A people may have mixed words, or words partly belonging to their own language and partly to the language of another people, but ihey are not likely to have a mixed grammar. A Highlander might borrow the word fence from English ; but, as the pluralizing suffix s does not exist in Gaelic, he would never say na fens-es, the fences ; he would say na fens-ichean. We must not, however, lay it down as a philological axiom that one language never borrows any portion of the grammatical machinery of another language. The evidence of words requires to be handled with a good deal of care. Two or more languages may have a few words of the same ^ound and the same meaning purely by accident Again, two or more languages may have borrowca the words they have in. common either from one another or from some external source. But borrowed words possess The Languages of the World. 225 I nothing be asked addition, e division o of them ifixes and find that xtent the not resist . common rds partly ;ly to the lot likely ler might t, as the le would d say na d(nvn as borrows inery of handled inguages and the , two or )rds they or from possess no evidential value whatever. Thus, then, before words can be used as evidence we must be able to show that they are not borrowed words ; but this in some cases it may not be possible for us to do. As a general rule, however, borrowed words may be recognized without much difficulty. The Laws of Sound-Shifting. During the period which intervened between the formation of the Indo-Keltic language and the growth of the various dialects which sprang up from it there were laws at work which caused certain sound-shiftings to take place. We require to know what these sound-shiftings really were. This know- ledge is absolutely necessary for us ; it is the very alphabet of Indo-Keltic comparative philology. The sounds of the parent-speech are represented in the languages that have sprung from it as follows : A short. A short of the parent-speech is represented in Keltic, Teutonic, Latin, Greek, Lithuanic, and Armenian by S., in Slavonic by 6, and in Aryan generally by & but sometimes by \. Gaelic, anam, soul ; Latin, animus ; Greek, anemos, wind. German, achse, an axle ; Latin, axis ; Greek, axon ; Lithuanic, aszis j Slavonic, osi ; Sans- krit, akshas. Latin, ago, I lead j Armenian, acem. % It: ■I- y li 99 ■■ 226 The Languages of the World. pr m^ A long. A long is represented in Keltic, Latin, Greek, and Aryan by a, in Gothic and Lithuanic by 6, and in SVavonic and Armenian by a. Gael, faith, a prophet, a poet ; Lat. vates. Eng. nose ; Lith. nosis ; Sk. nasa. Gk. mater, mother ; Slavonic, mati ; Arm. mair. E short. E short is represented in Keltic, Latin, Greek, Lithuanic, and Slavonic by S, in Teutonic and Armenian by S or !, and in Aryan by &. Gael, teg now taigh, a house ; Lat. tectum ; Gk. tegos. Goth, sibun, seven ; Lith. septyni ; Slav, sedrni. Arm. es, I ; Sk. aham. E long. E long is represented in Keltic by i, in Latin, Gothic, Greek, Lithuanic, and Slavonic by e, in Old High German and Aryan by a, and in Armenian by a, 1 long in Gaelic is sounded like e in me. Gael, mi now mios, month ; Goth, menoths ; O. H. G. manod ; Lat. mensis ; Gk. men ; Arm. amis ; Sk. masa. Lith. menu, moon ; Slav, mesenci. O short. O short is represented in Keltic, Latin, Greek, and Slavonic by 6, in Teutonic and Lithuanic by a, in Armenian by o or u, and in Aryan by a or a. The Languages of the World. 227 !n, Greek, by o, and tes. Eng. •, mother ; in, Greek, tonic and turn ; Gk. ni ; Slav. in Latin, e, in Old lenian by e. nenoths ; 1 ; Arm. mesenci. I, Greek, ic by a, r a. G. nochd, night ; Goth, nahts ; Lat. nox ; Lith. naktis ; Slav, nasti ; Sk. nakta. Gk. okto, eight ; Arm. ut. long. long is represented in Keltic and Aryan by a, in Old High German and Lithuanic by uo, in Gothic, Latin, and Greek by 6, in Slavonic by a, and in Armenian by u. G. blath, a blossom ; O. H. G. bluot ; Goth, bloma ; Lat. flos. Gk, d5ron, a gift ; Lith. dos ; Slav, daru ; Arm. tur ; Sk. danam. 1 short. 1 short is represented in Keltic, Teutonic, and Latin by \ or ^, and in the other Indo-Keltic lan- guages by 1. In Gothic it is represented by ai before h and r. G. ith, corn ; Sk. pitu, food. Goth, widuwo, a widow ; Lat. vidua ; Slav, vidova. Gk. h-omichle, a fog, mist ; Lith. migla. Gael, fer, man ; Lat. vir , Goth. vair. I long. I long is represented in Keltic, Old High Ger- man, Latin, Greek, and Aryan by i, in Gothic by ei, in Lithuanic by y, and in Slavonic and Armenian by i. Gothic ei and Lithuanic y are sounded like i. G. fi, pc.'~n; Lat. virus; Gk. ios for fisos. S 228 The Languages of the World. t ''^N, Lith. gyvas, living ; Slav, zhivu ; Sk. jivas. Goth, wileima, we may be willing ; Lat. velimus. U short. U short is represented in Keltic and Teutonic by u or o ; in Latin by u, i, or o ; and in Greek, Lithu- anic, Slavonic, Armenian, and Aryan by u. It is represented in Gothic before h and r by au. G. sruthadh, flowing ; Gk. h-rutos ; Sk. srutas. G. bonn, bottom ; Lac. fundus ; Sk. budhnas. Goth. dauhtar, daughter ; Lith. dukte \ Slav, dusti ; Arm. dustr. U long. U long is represented in Keltic, Teutonic, Latin, Greek, Lithuanic, and Aryan by u, in Slavonic by y, and in Armenian by u. Slavonic y is sounded almost like u. G. dun, an enclosure, a fortress, a hill ; Gaulish, dunum ; Anglo-Saxon, tun, an enclosure, a town. O. H. G. su, a sow ; Lat. sus; Gk. h-us ; Zend hu, a boar. Slav, myshi, mouse ; Sk. mush. Vowel Lengthening. A short vowel is sometimes lengthened to com- pensate for the loss of a consonant. Gael, am for &gm, a band of men ; uan for ogn, a lamb ; cet for cent, a hundred ; der for dacr, a tear ; and set for sint, a path. The Languages of the World. 229 IS. Goth. eutonic by ;ek, Lithu- u. It is u. Ik. srutas. as. Goth. sti ; Arm. lie, Latin, Dnic by y, sounded Gaulish, a town, end hu, a Eng. rain for regn, rail for regel, tear for tagr, meed for mesd, may for mugan, and five for fimf. Lat. pilum for pinslom, a dart ; scala for scantsla, a ladder ; aenus for aesnos, brazen ; ala for axla, a wing ; nidus for nizdos, a nest. Gk. oulos for olfos, all ; eimi for esmi, I am ; gouna for gonna, a knee ; and kteino for ktenno, I kill. P. P of the parent-speech has been dropped in Keltic and changed to f in Teutonic. . It has been cha.iged to f also in Zend before consonants. It is genera'" 7 represented by h in Armenian. It remains unchanged in Latin, Greek, Lithuanic, Slavonic, and Sanskrit. It appears in Gothic in the middle of a few words as b, and in Gaelic before t as ch. G. athir, father ; Eng. father ; Sk. pita, father, pitarah, fathers. G. it, a feather ; Eng. feather ; Lat. penna for petna; Sk. pattra. G. secht now seachd, seven ; Welsh, saith ; Anglo-Saxon seofon ; Goth, sibun ;. Lnt. septem. to com- [for ogn, dacr, a B. B seems to have been a very rare letter in the parent-r.peech of the Indo-Keltic languages. Gothic changed it to p, and Old High German to f. The other languages made no change in it. G. ibhim, I drink ; Lat. bibo for pibo ; Sk. pibami. '.at. balbus, stammering ; Gk. barbaros, 230 The Languages of the World. strange, foreign ; Sk. barbara, stammering. Goth, diups, deep ; Lith. dubus ; Slav, dubri, ravine. Ibhim means I drink only in Irish Gaelic ; in Scottish Gaelic it means let me drink. IV? "ili BH. Bh is represented in Keltic, Teutonic, Lithuanic, Armenian, and Zend by b, in Latin by f, in Greek by ph, and in Sanskrit by bh. In the middle of Latin words it appears as b. G. berim, I bear Goth, baira ; Lat. fero ; Gk. phero ; Slav, bera ; / berem ; Sk. bharami. G. nel for nebl, a cloud ; L . H. G. nebul ; Lat. nebula. Gk. nephos, a cloud ; Lith. debesis for nebesis ; Sk. nabhas. W. VV is represented in Gaelic by f ; in Welsh by gw; in Gothic, Latin, Greek, Lithuanic, Slavonic, and Sanskrit by v ; in English by w ; and in Arme- nian apparently by g or v. It is omitted in Greek. G. fir now fior, true ; W. gwr ; Lat. verus. Goth, vait, he knows ; Gk. oide for foide ; Arm. gitem ; Sk. veda. Lith. valdau, I rule ; Slav, vlada ; G. flath, a ruler. T. T is represented in Teutonic by th or d and in all other Indo-Keltic languages by t. It was changed in Gaelic to th when standing between two vowels, The Languages of the World. 231 ig. Goth, ri, ravine, jaelic ; in Lithuania, , in Greek middle of fero ; Gk. rami. G. at. nebula, besis ; Sk. Welsh by Slavonic, in Arme- in Greek. IS. Goth. item; Sk. (j. flath, d and in ; changed vowels, and dropped in Armenian. It remains unchanged in Teutonic after s and n. G. tana, thin \ W. tenu ; Eng. thin ; O. H. G. dunni ; Lat. tenuis ; Lith. tenvas ; Slav, tiniku. G. tart, thirst ; German, durst ; Zend, tarshna ; Sk. tarshas. G. athir, father ; Arm. hair. Goth, strau- jan, to strew, to scatter ; Lat. sternere. O. H. G. reht, right ; Lat. rectus. D. D is represented in Teutonic and Armenian by t and in all other Indo-Jvcltic languages by d. In Gaelic vowel-flanked d was changed to dh. In Latin d was changed to 1 in about twelve words. G. des, right, as in right hand ; W. deheu ; Goth, taihswa ; Lat. dexter ; Gk. dexia ; Lith. deszine ; Zend, dashina ; Sk. dakshina. Lith. dirti, to skin ; Slav, dera, I skin ; Gk. dero. Arm. tiv, day ; Lat. dies ; G. di, as in di-luain, day of the moon or monday. Lat. lacryma for dacruma, a tear ; Gk. dakru ; G. der for deer ; Eng. tear. DH. Dh is represented in Keltic, Gothic, Lithuanic, Slavonic, Armenian and Zend by d ; in modern High German by t or th ; in Latin initially by f and medially by d or b ; in Greek by th ; and in Sanskrit by dh, but in some mstances by d. In modern Gaelic the d which represents dh is changed to dh between vowels. I 111.1 m 232 T/ie Languages of the World, G. dorus, a door ; W. dor, also drws ; A. S. duru ; Goth, daur ; O. H. G. tor ; Lat. foris ; Gk. thura ; Arm. durn. Lith. deti, to lay, to put ; Slav, deti ; Gk. theso, I will put. G. medon now meadhon, middle ; Goth, midjis ; Lat. medius ; Gk. mesos for mesthyos ; Slav, mezhda ; Sk. madhya. G. ruadh ; Eng. red ; Lat. ruber, i i& #1! K. K is 'represented in Keltic and Latin by c; in Greek by k ; in Teutonic by h ; in Lithuanic by sz ; in Slavonic and Armenian by s ; in Zend by s or sh ; and in Sanskrit by sh. In Gaelic vowel-flanked k became ch. K after s is now written g. In Teutonic sk, as a general rule, remained sk. In Gaelic and Latin c is always sor.nd.d like k, never like s. G. cluinnim, I hear ; Lat. cluo ; Gk. kluo ; Goth, hliuma, hearing ; Sk. shrutas, heard, renowned ; Gk. kardia, heart ; Lith. szirdis ; Slav, sridice ; Arm. sirt. G. caech now caoch, blind ; Lat. caecus ; Goth, haihs, blind of one eye. G. scar now sgar, separate, lop off; A. S. sceran, to shear. KW. Kw or q is represented as follows : — First : In Keltic and Latin by c ; in Gothic by k, h, or g ; in Greek, Lithuanic, and Albanic by k ; in Slavonic by k, c, or tsh ; in Armenian by k or g ; and in Aryan by k or c. The Languages of the World. 233 S. duru ; i. thura ; leti ; Gk. , middle ; lesthyos ; ing. red ; )y c; in lie by sz ; J s or sh ; lanked k Teutonic aelic and e s. Goth, ed ; Gk. \.rm. sirt. th. haihs, lop off; lie by k, >y k ; in g; and Secondly : In Gaelic by c ; in Welsh and Gaulish by p ; in Gothic by h, hw, or f ; in Latin by qu; in Umbrian and Oscan by p ; in Greek by p, t, or s ; in Lithuanic and Albanic by k ; in Slavonic by k, c, or tsh ; in Armenian by k or g ; and in Aryan by k or tsh. G. canim, I sing ; W. canu ; Lat. cano ; Goth, hana, a rooster, literally the singer ; Eng. hen. Lat. carpo, 1 pluck off, I crop, I gather ; Gk. karpoo ; Lith. kerpu, I shear. Gk. kreas for krcfas, flesh ; Sk. kravis, raw meat ; Slav, kruvi, blood. G. CO, who ? Welsh, pwy ? Goth, hwas ? Lat. quis ? Umbrian, pis ? Slav, kuto ? G. cruim now cruimh, a worm ; W. pryf ; Sk. kirmis. Lat. sequor, I follow ; Gk. h-epomai ; Lith. seku. G. G is represented in Keltic, Latin, and Greek by g ; in Gothic by k ; in English by k or ch ; in Lithu- anic by zh ; in Slavonic by z ; in Armenian by c ; in Zend by z ; and in Sanskrit by j. G. gineal, a race ; Eng. kin ; Lat. genus ; Gk. genos ; Zend, zan, to beget ; Sk. janas, a race. Lith. zhinoti, to know ; Slav, znati ; Sk. janati ; Goth, kann, I know ; Arm. calr, laughter ; Gk. gelao, I laugh. GW. Gw is represented as follows : — I % % \\ H •:: ill i 30 ■'I 234 The Languages of the World. First : In Keltic, Tjatin, Greek, Lithuanic, and Albanian by g ; in Gothic and Armenian by k ; in Slavonic by g or zh ; and in Aryan by g or j. Secondly : In Keltic by b ; in Gothic by kvv ; in English by qu or c ; in Latin by v before vowels, by g before consonants, and by gu after n ; in Oscan and Umbrian by b ; in Greek regularly by b, by d before e, and in a few instances by g ; in Lithuanic by g ; in Slavonic by g or zh ; in Armenian by k ; and in Aryan by g or j. G. gairm, call ; Lat. garrio, I chatter ; Sk. grnami, I call. A. S. cran, a crane ; Gk. geranos ; Lith. gerve ; Slav, zheravi ; Arm. krunk. Goth, kalds, cold ; Lat. gelu, cold, frost ; Slav, zhledica, sleet. Goth, aukan, to increase ; Lat. augeo, I increase ; Lith. augu, I grow ; Zend, aojo, strength ; Sk. ojas. G. beo, living, alive ; W. byw ; Goth, kwius ; Eng. quick ; Slav, zhivu; Gk. bios, life; Arm. keam, I live ; Lat. vivus, alive ; Sk. jivas. G. ben, a woman, a wife ; Goth, kwino ; Eng. queen ; Gk. gune, also bana ; Arm. kin. G. bo, a cow ; A. S. cu ; Eng. cow ; Arm. kov ; Sk. gauh, bull, cow. G. brage, neck ; M. H. G. krage ; Gk. brochthos, throat. w- * ^%i GH. Gh is represented in Keltic and Teutonic by g ; in Latin y h ; in Albanian by d ; in Greek by ch ; janic, and by k ; in r J- by k\v ; in )wels, by g in Oscan by b, by d Lithuanic ian by k ; k. grnami, OS ; Lith. )th. kalds, iica, sleet. increase ; Sk. ojas. h. kwius ; rm. keam, a woman, ^une, also :u; Eng. G. brage, roat. inic by g ; ek by ch ; The Languages of the World. 235 in Lithuanic by zh ; in Slavonic and Zend by z ; in Armenian by j or z ; and in Sanskrit by h. G. gam now geamh, winter, as in geamhradh, literally winter-state ; W. gaem ; Lat. hiems ; Gk. chion, snow ; Albanian, dimen, winter ; Lith. zhema, winter; Slav, zima, winter; Arm. jiun, snow ; Zend, zima, winter ; Sk. hima, cold, winter, snow. G. gort, standing corn, a field, a garden ; Lat. hortus, a garden ; Gk. chortos, grass, a court-yard. G. gabim now gabhim, I take, I seize ; Eng. gifan, to give ; Lat. habeo, I have. GHW. Ghw is represented as follows : — First : In Keltic, Teutonic, Lithuanic, and Al- banian by g ; in Latin by h or g ; in Greek by ch ; in Slavonic and Armenian by g or zh ; in Zend by g or j ; and In Sanskrit by gh, h, or j. ♦ Secondly : In Keltic by g or b ; in Teutonic by w or g ; in Latin by f initially and b medially before r, by gu after n, and by v between vowels ; in Greek by ph generally, by th before ^ and e, and by ch in a few instances ; in Lithuanic and Albanian by g ; in Slavonic and Armenian by g, j, or zh ; in Zend by g or j ; and in Sanskrit by gh, h, or j. Old Irish, in-grennim, I pursue ; Lat. gradior, I step ; Slav, greda, I come. Goth, gasts, a stranger ; Eng. guest ; Lat. hostis, a foreigner, an enemy; Slav, gosti, a guest, a friend. ^ I* ' 236 The Languages of the World. \^ I 'iJiii ■■ .. i!!l G. gar, to warm ; Lat. formiis, warm ; Gk. ther- mos ; Arm. jerm ; Sk. haras, heat. (i. bean, touch, strike ; Gk. pheno, I kill ; Slav, zhinja, 1 cut down ; Arm. gan, blows ; Zend, jainti, strikes ; Sk. hanti, strikes. M. M is regularly represented by m in all the Indo- Keltic languages. M appears in Gaelic in a few words as b. M between vowels became in Gaelic mh. G. mil, honey ; W. mel ; Goth, milith ; Lat. mel ; Gk. meli. Lat. mors, death ; Lith. mirtis. Slav, mati, mother ; Arm. mair ; Sk. mata. G. brecht now brechd for mrecht, spreckled ; Lith. margas, variegated. G. bleith for mleith, to grind ; Lat. molo, I grind. N. N is represented by n in all the Indo- Keltic languages. G. n{iadh for newdh, new ; W. newydd ; Goth, niujis ; A. S. niwe ; Lat. novus ; Gk. neos for nefos ; Lith. naujas ; Slav, novu ; Sk. nava. G. nead, a nest ; W. nyth ; Eng. nest ; Lat. nidus for nezdos ; Arm. nist ; Sk. nidas for nizdos. G. noct now nochd, night, as in an nochd, the night ; Goth, nahts ; Lat. nox, genitive noctis ; Gk. nux, genitive nuctos ; Lith. naktis ; Sk. nakta. The Languages of the World. 237 Gk. ther- Lii, touch, lit down ; 5k. hanti, the In do- in a few in Gaelic Lat. mel ; s. Slav. J. brecht margas, d ; Lat. Keltic Goth. [r nefos ; nead, a |nezdos ; )ct now nahts ; Inuctos ; R. R is regularly represented by r in Keltic, Teu- tor'c, Latin, Greek, Lithuanic, Slavonic, Armenian, and Zend, and in Sanskrit generally by r, but some- times by 1. G. righ, a king ; (^aulish, rix ; Lat. rex for regs ; Hindustani, raja. Goth, rauds, red ; Slav, rudru ; Sk. rudhiras. G. ruigheachd, reaching ; Gk. o-rego, I stretch out. Lith. rauda, plaint ; Slav, rydajan ; Sk. rudami, I weep. Gk. peri, about ; Zend, pairi, against ; Sk. pari. G. dan, a gift, a poem, genius ; Gk. doron, a gift ; Arm. tur. L. I^ is regularly represented in Keltic, Teutonic,. Latin, Greek, Lithuanic, Slavonic, and Armenian by 1, in Zend by r, and in Sanskrit by r or 1. G. luchd, people ; W. llwyth ; A. S. fclc, folk ; Lith. pulkas, a crowd. Goth, liuhath, light ; Lat. lux ; Gk. hike ; Lith. laukas, pale ; Slav, lutsha, beam, ray ; Arm. lois, a light ; Sk. roka, light. Old Irish, ligim for lingim, I lick ; Eng. lick ; Lat. lingo, I lick ; Gk. leicho ; Lith. leshiu ; Arm. lizum ; Sk. rehmi or lehmi. In Teutonic, Latin, Greek, Lithuanic, and Slav- onic r may take the place of 1, or 1 the place of r for the purpose of rendering two syllables in the same word dissimilar in sound. 238 The Languages of the World. Kt O. H. G. miirmulon for murmuron, to murmur ; Lat. carruleus for caeluleus ; Gk. kephalargia for kephal-algia ; Lith. katrul for katrur ; Slav, dateli for dateri. S is represented in Gaelic, Teutonic, Latin, Lithu- anic, and Slavonic by s ; in Welsh by h ; in Greek and Zend by s or h, or dropped ; in Armenian by s or dropped ; and in Sanskrit by s or sh. It appears in Latin and English in some words as r. G. sen, old ; W. hen ; "Goth, sins ; Lat. senex ; Gk. h-enos ; Lith. senas ; Arm. hin ; Sk. sanas. G. snechta now sneachda, snow ; Goth, snaivs ; Lat. nix for snix ; Lith. snegas ; Slav, snegu. G. snighe, dripping ; Lat. ningit for sninguit, it snows. G. sesg, dry, not giving milk ; VV. hysp ; Lat. siccus for secqus ; Lith. sausas ; Zend, huska ; Sk. shushka. G. sruth, flow ; Gk. h-reo, I flow ; Lith. srava, flow- ing ; Sk. sravati, it flows. G. samhail, like ; Goth, sama, same ; Lat. similis, like ; Zend, hama, equal ; Sk. sama, same. G. salann, salt ; W. halen ; Eng. salt ; Lat. sal ; Gk. h-als ; Slav, soli ; Arm. al ; Sk. sara. Lat. aurora for ausosa, the dawn ; Gk. eos ; Sk. ushasa. Eng. ore ; Goth, aiz ; Lat. aes. J AND Y. J and y are represented in Gaelic by i or dropped ; in Welsh by i ; in Goth, Latin, Lithuanic, and o murmur ; lalargia for Slav, dateli ,atin, Li'thu- ; in Greek nian by s or t appears in Lat. senex ; Sk. sanas. naivs ; Lat. G. snighe, snows. G. Lat. siccus )k. shushka. srava. flow- ike ; Goth, ima, equal ; len ; Eng. rm. al ; Sk. Gk. eos ; aes. »r dropped; uanic, and The La?ignages of the World. 239 Armenian by j ; in English by y ; in Slavonic by j or i ; and in Aryan by y. J is represented in Greek by 2, and y by h. J in Gothic, Latin, liithuanic, Slav- onic, and Armenian is only j in apj)earance, it is y in sound. G. iuchir, a key, that which joins together ; '^oth. juk, pronounced yuk ; Eng. yoke ; Lat. jugum, pronounced yugum; Lith.jungas, pronounced yungas; Slav, igo ; Gk. zugon, zeukteres, straps of the yoke ; Sk. yugam, a yoke. G. eo-rna, barley ; Gk. zeiai ; Lith. javai ; Sk. yavas. Lat. jus, broth ; Sk. yusha. (j. og for owanc, young ; W. ieuanc ; Breton, iaouank ; Eng. young ; Lat. juvencus ; Sk. yuvashas. G. iodh, a pain caused by a struggle, iodhna weapons ; Gk. h-usmine, a struggle ; Sk. yiulh, a battle, a struggle. Goth, jer, a year ; Eng. year ; k. h-5ros ; Zend, yar. PROOFS OF THE ORIGINAL UNITY OF THE INDO-KELTIC LANGUAGES. ■ The original unity of the Indo-Keltic languages is clearly shown by a number of facts. In the first place, the Indo-Keltic languages con- struct their sentences according to the same general plan. They inflect the noun, adjective, pronoun, and verb. They form the cases of the noun, adjective, and pronoun, and the moods and persons of the verb wholly by sufllixes. They form the m I 240 The Languages of the World. tenses of the verb chiefly by suffixes, but partly by reduplication. The verbal augment e, which appears in Greek, Armenian, Zend, and Sanskrit, looks very much like a prefix. It can scarcely, however, be a real prefix. The probability is that it was originally a significant word or else a reduplication of the first syllable of words which began with a vowel. It is true that it stands now before consonants, as in e- tupton, 1 struck. It may, however, have come to take its place before consonants simply through the influence of analogy. In the second place, the Indo-Keltic langifages divide their nouns, adjectives, and pronouns into three gender-classes, the masculine, feminine, and neuter. In the third place, the Indo-Keltic languages were governed in the early period of their history by certain laws of sound-shifting. These laws cannot be accounted for except on the supposition that the languages subject to them had a common origin. We must remember that they acted with perfect regularity ; they allowed no exceptions. The ap- parent exceptions are ihe result of the operation of other laws, such as assimilation, emphasis, and analogy or imitation. In the fourth place, the Indo-Keltic languages have a large number of roots in common. It is said that there are 310 roots in English which have come down to it from the parent-speech. The Languages of the World. 24T partly by ich appears looks very vever, be a ) originally of the first kvel. It is Its, as in e- e come to 1 rough the langifages nouns into inine, and languages history by ,ws cannot n that the n origin, h perfect The ap- eration of lasis, and [languages \. It is »ich have The following roots will be sufficient for ex- ami)les : ed, to eat ; bher, to carry ; men, to think ; and ten, to stretch out. G. ith, eat ; Eng. eat ; Lat. edo, I eat ; Gk. edo '•, Lith. ed-mi ; Sk. ad-mi. G. beir, bring forth ; O. I. ber-im, I bear ; Goth, bair-a ; Lat. fer-o ; Gk. pher-6 ; Slav, ber-an ; Arm. ber-em ; Sk. bhar-ami. G. men-mna, imagination, courage ; O. I. men- ma, mind ; O. H. G. min-na, memory ; Lat. men-s, mind ; Gk. men-os ; Sk. man-as. G. tan-a, thin, literally stretched out ; W. ten-eu ; Eng. thin ; Lat. ten-uis ; Lith. ten-vas ; Slav, tin-iku \ Sk. tan-ush ; Gk, tan-aos, stretched out. G. te-d for t^n-d, the string of a musical instrument ; W. tan-t ; Lat. ten-us, a cord ; Gk. ten-on, a sinew. G. tenn-ich, tighten ; W. tannu, stretch ; Lat. ten-do, I stretch ; Gk. tein-6 ; Sk. tan-omi. In the fifth place, the Indo-Keltic L.nguages have a number of stem-forming suffixes in common. Among these are the following : lo, no, ro, tlo or tro, ent, tu, to or ta, yes or iyes, ter, and mo or emo. Ci. coll for cos-lo, hazel ; O. H. G. has-al ; Lat. cor-ulus. Old G. tem-el, darkness ; Sk. tam-ra, darkening. Anglo- Saxon, sto-1, stool j Lith. sta-Ia, a table ; Gk. ste-le, a pillar. G. la-n, full ; Lat. ple-nu ; Lith. pil-na ; Slav, plu-nu ; Zend, i)ere-na ; Sk. pur-na. Gael, cor-n, a u «« 242 The Languages of the World. 3*1 ;|i 'I bH*i m •■H, % drinking-horn ; Gaulish, kar-no, a trumpet ; Eng. hor-n ; Lat. cor-nu. G. bod-ar now bodh-ar, deaf ; Sk. badh-ira. G. fe-r, a man, for fe-ro ; Lat. vi-ro ; Sk. vi-ra. Eng. feath-er ; O. H. G. fed-ara ; Gk. pt-ero-n. Old Irish, ce-tal, a song, forcan-tlo; Eng. needle for na-dla. Gk. pher-etro, a bier ; Sk. bhar-itra, the arm, that which bears or carries. G. carat for car-ant, of a friend ; Lat. ace. fer- ent-em, bearing ; Gk. pher-ont-a , Goth, bair-ands ; Sk. bhar-ant-am. Gaelic, I-th, corn ; Lith. pe-tiis, a midday meal ; Sk. pi-tush, sap, drink, food. G. bi-th, world ; Gaul- ish, bi-tu ; Lith. gy-tu, to revive ; Slav, zi-tu, to live. Eng. for-d ; Lat. por-tus, a harbor. G. can-te, said ; Lat. can-tus, sung ; Goth, niun- ds, thought ; Gk. gno-tos, known ; Lith. sek-tas, followed; Sk. da-tas, given. G. sin-iu now sine, older ; Lat. sen-ior for sen- ios ; Slav. Sen-esnis ; Sk. san-yas ; Goth, hard-iza, harder ; O. H. G. hart-Iro for hart-iso. Old Irish, luathi-ther, swifter ; Gk. omo-teros, more raw ; Sk. ama-taras ; Eng. o-ther ; Goth, an- thar ; Lith. an-tras ; Lat. al-ter. O. G. ness-am, next ; Lat. min-imus, least ; A. S, laet-em-est, latest ; Sk. av-amas, lowest. In the sixth place, the I ndo- Keltic languages use to a large extent the very same words and particles, changed in form, of course, by the law of The Langjiages of the World. 243 pet ; Eng. ili-ira. G. i-ra. Eng. ing. needle lar-itra, the It. ace. fer- bair-ands ; Iday meal ; rid ; Gaul- -tu, to live. sound-shifting and other forces which have been at work. The Pronouns. G. mi, me ; W. mi ; Eng. me ; Goth mik ; Lat. me ; Gk. me ; Zend, ma ; Sk. ma. G. tu ; Eng. thou ; Lat. tu ; Gk. tu or su ; Lith. tu ; Slav, tu ; Arm. du ; Zend, twem ; Sk. twam. G. e for eis, he ; Lat. is ; Sk. ayam. G. i, she ; Lat. ea ; Sk. iyam. O. ( J. ed, it ; Goth, ita ; Lat. id ; Sk. idam. G. CO, who ? Goth, hwas ; Lat. quis ; Lith. cas ; Sk. cas. G. ciod for ce ed, what } literally what it ? Eng. what ; Lat. quid. roth. nuin- sek-tas, T for sen- . hard-iza, >mo-teros, iGoth. an- LSt ; A. S. languages [ords and Ihe law of The Numerals. G. oen now aon, one ; W. un ; Goth, ains ; Eng. one ; I^at. unus for oinos. G. da ; W. dau ; Goth, twai ; Eng. two \ Lat. duo ; Gk. duo ; Lith. dwi ; Slav, dwa ; Zend, dva ; Sk. dva. G. tri ; Phig. three ; liat. trcs ; Gk. treis ; Lith. trys ; Slav, trije ; Zend, thrayo; Sk. trayas. G. ceithir ; VV. pcdwar ; Goth, fidwor ; Lat. quatuor ; Gk. pessares or tessares ; Lith. keturi ; vSlav. tshetyri ; Sk. catwaras. G. coig ; W. pump; Goth, fimf; Eng. five; Lat. quinque ; Gk. pempe ; Lith. penki ; Slav, pyaty ; Zend, panca ; Sk. panca. 244 The Languages of the World. v i G. se, six ; Goth, saihs ; Lat. sex ; Gk. h-ex ; Lith. szeszi ; Slav, sesti ; Sk. shash.. G. sechd, seven ; W. saith ; Goth, sibiin ; Lat. septem ; Gk. h-epta ; Lith. septyni ; Slav, sedmi ; Armenian, evtn ; Zend, hapta ; Sk. sapta. G. ocht now ochd ; VV. wyth ; Goth, ahtan ; Eng, eight ; Lat. octo ; Gk. okto ; Lith. asztuni ; Slav. Gsmi ; Arm. lit ; Zend, ashta ; Sk. ashta. G. noi now naoidh ; VV. naw ; Goth, niun ; Eng. nine ; T-^t. novem for noven ; Gk. ennea, also enfa; Lith. devyni for navyni. ; Slav, deveti for noveti : Arm. inn ; Zend, nava ; Sk. nava. G. deich ; W, deg ; Goth, taihun ; Eng. ten ; Lat. dekem ; Gk. deka ; Lith. deszimt ; Slav, deseti : Arm. tasn ; Zend, dasa ; Sk, dasha. G. fiche now fichead, twenty; Lat. viginti; Doric, fikati ; Zend, visaiti ; Sk. vinshatih. G. cet for cent, a hundred ; W.. cant ; Anglo- Saxon, hund ; Lat. kentum ; Gk. h-ekaton ; Lith. szimtas ; Slav, suto ; Zend, satem ; Sk. shatam. IH'i ll Names of Relationship. G. athir, father; Eng. father; Goth, fadar ; Lat. pater ; Gk. pater ; Arm, hayr ; Zend, pita ; Sk. pita, accusative pitar-am. G. mathair, mother; Anglo-Saxon, moder; Eng, mother ; Lat. mater ; Gk. meter ; Lith. mote ; Russ. mate ; Arm. mayr ; Sk. mata, accusative matar-am. Gk. h-ex ;, )un ; Lat. Lv. sedmi ; tan ; Eng, ini ; Slav. iun ; Eng. also enfa ; Dr noveti ; ten ; Lat. .V. deseti : ti ; Doric, ; Anglo- n ; Lith.. la tarn. The Languages of the World. 245 • ; Lat. Sk. pita,. |er; Eng. te ; Russ. hatar-am^ O. brathair, brother ; W. brawd ; Eng, brother ;. Lat. frater ; Lith. brolis ; Russ. brat"; Zend, brata ; Sk. bhrata, accusative bhra tar-am ; Gk. phrator, one of the same tribe. G. siur or fiur, sister, from swesor ; W. chwaer ; Goth, swistar ; Lat. soror for sosor ; Lith. sest^a ; Arm. koir; Sk.swasa, accusative svvasar-ani. Names of the Various Parts of the Bodv. O. L au or o, ear ; Goth, auso ; Gk. ous for ouas ; Lith. ausis ; Eng. ea-r ; Lat. au-ris. G. cluas, ear • Icelandic, hlust ; W. clust. G. det for dent, tooth ; W. dant ;: Lot. dens, gen. dentis ; Gk. o-dous, gen. o-dont-os ; Goth, tunthus ; Eng. tooth ; Lith. dantis; 8k. danta. Deud in modern Gaelic nieans the teeth as a whole. G. smeach, also smeig, the chin; Lith. smakra ; Sk. shmashru, moustache. O. L bra, eye-brow ; A. S. bru ; Eng. brow ; Gk, o-|)hrus ; Slav, bruvi ; Sk. bhrus. G. cridhe, heart ; W. craidd ; I^t. cor, genitive cord-is; Gk. kardia, also kradia ; Goth, hairto; Eng. heart ; Lith. szirdis ; Slav, sridice ; Arm. sirt ; Sk, hrid for krid. G. imblag, the navel ; O. L imbliu ; Gcr. nabel ; Lat. umbilicus ; Gk. omphalos ; Lettic, naba ; Sk, nabhi, nave, navel. r- ' Ei; ' 946 hi I vO 1^1^ T^e Languages of the World. Names of Animals. G. each, a horse; Lat. equus ; Gk. hippos or h-ikkos ; A. S. ehu ; Lith. aszva ; Zend, aspa ; Sk. ashwa ; Welsh, ebol for epol, a colt. G. bo, a cow ; W. bwch ; Gk. bous, an ox ; A. S. cu, a cow ; Sk. go, a cow. G. oi, a sheep ; Eng. ewe ; Lat. ovis ; Gk. ois for ofis ; Lith. avis ; Sk. avis. Oisg in (iaelic is from oi shesg, pronounced first oi hesg, and then oi-sg. Oisg thus literally means a dry sheep or ewe. G. ore now tore, a pig ; W. porch ; Lat. porcus ; Anglo-Saxon, fearh ; Lith. parszas ; Eng. farrow, a litter of pigs. Irish, suig, a pig ; A. S. sugu ; Eng. sow ; Lat. sus ; Gk. h-us ; Zend, hu, a boar. G. boc, a he-goat ; W. bwch ; Sk. bukka, a goat ; Eng. buck, the male of the fallow deer. G. cu, a dog, coin, of a dog; W. ci ; Goth, hunds ; Eng. hound ; Lat. canis ; Gk. kuon ; Lith. szu ; Zend, spa ; Sk. shvan. G. ge or giadh, a goose; O. L geis for gans, a swan ; A. S. gos for gans, a goose ; Lat. anser for hanser ; Gk. chen ; Russ. guse ; Sk. hamsa. Prepositions, Adverbs, and Particles. G. etar now eadar, between ; Lat. inter ; Sk. antar, within. G. o, out from, of; Goth, af, of; Eng. of; Gk. apo; Sk. apa. The Languages of the World. 247 lippos or aspa ; Sk. ox; A. S. Gk. ois for is from oi -sg. Oisg t. porcus ; farrow, a gu; Eng. G. do, to ; Eng. to ; Lith. do ; Gk. the sufifix de ; Zend, the sufifix da. G. na or ni, not ; Goth, ni ; Eng. no; Lat. ne ; Gk, ne ; Russ. ne ; Sk. na. G. an, a prefix signifying not ; Old Irish, in ; Eng, un ; Lat. in ; Gk. an ; Zend, ana ; Sk. an. G. il new iol, a prefix signifying much or many ; Goth, filu ; Gk. polu, used in Enghsh as poly ; Sk. puru. G. su or so, a prefix signifying possibility, facility, or excellency ; Gk. eu ; Zend, hu ; Sk. su. G. du or do, a prefix denoting impossibility, defec- tiveness, or badness; Goth, tuz ; Gk. dus ; Arm. t-; Sk. dush, dur. ca, a goat ; h. hunds ; zu ; Zend, iS, a swan ; >r hanser ; LES. Iter ; Sk. Gk. apo; Miscellaneous Words. G. Dia, God; W. Duw; A. S, tiw, a god; Lat. Deus, God ; Gk. zeus, genitive dios for difos, the supreme deity of the Greeks ; Sk. deva, bright, a god. G. dar-ach, oak ; O. L dair, genitive darach ; W. deru ; Eng. tree ; Russ. drevo ; Gk. drus, oak ; Sk, dru, tree, wood. G. ruadh for rewdh, red ; \V. rhudd ; Eng. red ; Lat. ruber; Gk. e-ruthros ; Sk. rudhira, red, blood. Goth, aiz, brass or bronze ; Lat. aes, copper, bronze ; Sk. ayas, copper, iron ; Eng. ore ; Gael, is in is-arn, iron. Gothic z appears in English and German as r, as in ai-z, o-re. S was dropped in Gaelic between vowels, as in.i-s-arn now jam. m m W ii H .1 ►H ... ,f 248 TAe Languages of the World. In the seventh place, the Indo-Keltic languages use to some extent the same word-forming sjffixes, that is, the same case-suffires and personal-sufifixes. Case-Suffixes. The Gtems of the following words ended in o in the parent-speech : SINGULAR. Norn. Old G. fer for firo-s, a man ; (ioth. wulf-s for wulfa-s, a wolf; I^t. lupu-s for lupo-s ; Gk. luko-s ; Lith. vilka-s ; Sk. vrika-s. Ace. O. G. fer-n for fira-n ; Lat, lupu-m ; Gk, iuko-n ; Lith, vilka-n ; Sk. vrika-m, PLURAL. Nom. O. G. fir for firi which was for an earlier firoi ; Goth, wulfos ; O. H. G. walfa-a ; Lat. lupi ; Gk. lukoi ; Sk. vrikas. Gen. O. G, fer-n for firon ; Goth, wulfe ; O. H. G. wolfo ; Gk. luko-n ; Sk. vrikam. The stems of the following words ended in u in the parent-speech : SINGULAR, Nom. G. bith for bitu-s, the world ; Lat. manu-s, the hand ; Gk. pechu-s, the lower arnj ; Goth, sunu-s, a son ; Lith. sunu-s ; Sk. sunu-sh Gen. G. betho for bitus; Lat. manus ; Gk. pechu-s ; Goth, sunau-s ; Lith. sunau-s ; Sk. sunosh. SMI m The Languages of the World, 249 Innguages \ sjffixes, jffixes. d in o in wulf-s for rk. luko-s ; j-m ; Ok. an earlier upi ; Gk. O. H. G. in u in the . manu-s, h. sunu-s, pechu-s ; Ace. bith-n for ])itu-n ; Lat. manu-ni ; Gk. pechu-n ; Sk. siinu-m. PLURAL. Gen. i)it]i-n for bitavem ; Lat. rnanuum ; Gk. pecbeon ; Sk. sunfmam. Dat. G. bethaib for bitubis ; Lat. manibiis ; Sk. in instrumental case, suniibhish. The present dative case in Gaelic was originally the instrumental case. The stems of the following feminine nouns ended in a in the parent-speech, and took no case-suffix in the nominative singular : SINGULAR. Nom. G. tuath for tota, people ; Goth, giba, a gift ; Lat. equa, a mare ; Gk. chora, land ; Lith. rauka, hand ; Sk. ashwa, a mare. Gen. G. tuaith-e for totes ; Goth, gibos ; Lat. familias, of a family ; Gk. choras ; Lith. rankos ; Sk. ashwayas. Dat. G. tuaith for toti ; Goth, gibai ; Lith. equae ; Gk. chorai j Lith. rankati ; Sk. aswayai. PLURAL. Nom. *G. tuatha for totas ; Goth, gibos ; Liili. raukos ; Sk. ashwas. Inst. G. tuathaib for totabis ; Sk. ashwabhish. Personal-Suffixes. First Person. — Old Gaelic, ber-im, I bear; Goth, bair-a ; Lat. fer-o ; Gk. pher-o ; Arm. ber-em ; Sk. 32 H -il.: 250 T/ie Languages of the IVorld. bhar-ami. O. G. a-m for as-mi, I am ; Goth, i-m ; Lat. s-iim for es-um ; Gk. ei-mi for es-mi ; Lith. es-mi ; Slav, yes-mt ; Zend, ali-mi ; Sk. as-mi. Second Person. — O. I. ber-i, thou bearest ; L. fer-s; Gk. pher-eis; Goth, bair-is; Zend, bar-ahi; Sk. bhar-asi. Lith. es-i, thou art ; Slav, ye-si, thou art. Third Person. — O. I. ber-id, he bears ; L. fer-t ; Goth, bair-ith ; Zend, bar-aiti ; Sk. bhar-ati. Gk. es- ti, he is ; Lith. esti ; Slav, yes-ti. PLURAL. First Person. — O. L ber-mme or ber-nimit ; modern Irish, beir-imid ; L. fer-imus ; Gk. pher- omes ; Goth, bair-am ; Zend, bar-amahi ; Sk. bhar- amas. Lith. es-me, we are ; Slav, yes-mi, we are. Second Person. — O. L ber-the, ye bear ; L. fer- tis ; Gk. pher-ete ; Goth, bair-ith ; Zend, bar-atha ; Sk. bhar-atha. Lith. es-te, ye are ; Slav, yes-te. Third Person. — O. L ber-it, they bear ; L. fer- unt ; Gk. pher-onti ; Goth, bair-and; Zend.bar-ainti; Sk. bhar-anti. Welsh, yd-ynt, they are ; Lith. es-ti ; Sk. s-anti ; modern Gaelic, Is iad, it is they. THE PRACTICAL VALUE OF THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE, In the year 1786 Sir William Jones stated before the Asiatic Society at Calcutta that Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin had undoubtedly sprung from some 0th. i-ni ; li ; Lith. •mi. irest ; L. ,r-ahi; Sk. , thou art. L. fer-t ; i. Gk. es- Thc Languai:^t\< of the World, 25' ber-mmit ; Gk. pher- Sk. bhar- vve are. r ; L. fer- bar-atha ; 'es-te. .r ; L. fer- i.bar-ainti; Uth. es-ti ; UENCE ted before •it, Greek, )m some common source, and tliat Gothic, Keltic, and Zend had evidently the same origin. This anjiouncement, coming from the most accomplished linguist of his day, had a ])o\verful influence in turning the attention of scholars to the work of examining and comi)aring the languages mentioned. In 1808 Friedrich Schlegel published a work on The La/i,i,^U(igc' and Wisdom of the Indians^ in which he showed that the languages of India, Persia, Greece, Italy, Cier- many, and Slavonia were members of the same family, dialects of the same mother tongue. In 18 16 Francis Bopp published an able and scholarly work in which he pointed out the close resemblance be- tween Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Persian, and German in their grammatical framework. In 1833 the same distinguished scholar published the first volume of his Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, /end, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Slavonic, Gothic, and German. The science of comparative philology was now laid upon 1 safe and solid basis. In 1831 Prichard published his Eastern Origin of the Keltic Nations, and showed that the Keltic languages belonged to the same family witb Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, and Teutonic. In 1839 l^opp published a small work in which he endorsed and expanded the views held by Pi. ''chard. In 1853 Zeuss published his Gram- matica Keltica, a work in which the views main- tained by Prichard and Bopp were established in the most scientific and thorough manner. W' 252 T/ie Laiigna^^es of the World. IJ W"''^ The science of language deals with the origin, nature, -xwiX i^rowth of languages, and the relationship between them. We have seen that it is onlv of recent origin. In judging of its capabilities and practical results we must bear this fact in mind. We must also remember that to study, analyze, and comi)are languages is a work of tremendous labor, and, besides, a work for which only a very few per- sons can l)e jjroperly qualified. When we consider these facts, we must necessarily come to the conclu- sion that, however great the achievements of the science of language may have been in the past, there remains for it a vast amount of work yet to do. It is far from having conquered the worlc with which it has to deal. The science of language has been the means of giving to the world a large amount of useful informa- tion o,bout the structure and growth of languages. It has proved the common origin of' languages si)oken so far apart as Finnic and Tungusic, Malay and Malagasy, Gaelic and Hindustani. It has estab- lished beyond the possibility of doubt a number of highly important linguistic families. It has likewise reduced the languages of the world to a few leading classes. The science of language is of great value to the ethnologist in helping him to classify the varion peoples of the world. When we find two dist peoples like the Gaidels of Scotland and Irelana The Languai^es of the World. 253 lie origin, lationshii) s only of ilities and in mind, alyze, and ous labor, •y few per- e consider :he conchi- nts of the past, there yet to do. ,vorlc with e means of 111 informa- languages. languages sic, Malay has es tab- number of las likewise ew leading alue to the he varioi' ;wo dist nd Irelanu and the Hindus of India speaking closely related dialects, we may fairly infer that the ancestors of these peoples belonged to the same stock, No one would say that all the ancestors of the Ciaidcls and all the ancestors of the Hindus belonged to the same stock. All that is affirmed is that the Cialdels who introduced Gaelic into Scotland and Ireland, and the Hindus who introduced Sanskrit into India, must have belonged upon the whole to the same family. To what extent the Gaidels and Hindus of the pres- ent day are not Indo-Kelts is a matter which the science of language does not pretend to determine. The languages of the American Indians have all a greater or less tendency towards i)olysynthesism. Now we may very reasonably regard this peculiarity as a proof of their original unity. If, then, the lan- guages of the Indians had a common origin, is it not altogether probable that the Indians themselves, taken as a whole, had likewise a common origin ? It is indeed fairly certain that such was the case. It is true that a few Indian languages have very short words ; but it is not true that a language with short words can have no tendency towards polysynthesism. Polysynthesism manifests itself, not in cutting up long words, but in striving to express a whole sen- tc ' in one word. The science of language throws a vast amount of ligh upon the early history of nations. When, for instance, we find that the ludo-Keltic peoples had T 254 T/ie Latiguages of the World. 'V . % the same names for king, father-in-law, horse, cow, sheep, dog, wagon, wheel, axle, boat, oar, house, door, flax, barley, mead, broth, fire, and copper or bronze, we know as a matter of absolute certainty that the persons, Animals, and things signified by these names existed among them before they left their original home. Our Indo-Keltic forefathers, then, were neither apes nor savages. An acquaintance with the science of language is of very great advantage to the student of languages. It helps him in his work by explaining to him the way in which languages are put together and the real points of difference between one language and another. It also brings him in contact with the laws according to which languages grow and change, and in this way gives him a mental training that he could never obtain from merely committing to memory a number of grammatical rules and exceptions. Then, again, it renders the study of languages a ■ ource of real pleasure to him. He knows what he is at, finds use for his understanding, and is growing in knowledge. horse, cow, 3ar, house, copper or e Certainty ignified by e they left 'orefathers, language is languages. to him the nd the real guage and th the laws hange, and It he could memory a ns. Then, I ' ource of he is at, growing in CORRECTIONS Kige i6, line i, for varities read varieties. " 47> " 3> f^^r possecl read possessed. " 72, .. 28, for El-Toghrul read Er-Toghrul. " 77, •• 3. f'^r Kazars read Khazars. •- 87, „ 25, for polyandria read polyandry. " loi, „ 3, for Javenese read Javanese. •• 118, .. 13, for Klniath read Klamath. •• 139. " 12, for Terra read Tierra. " 194. " I, for derivations read derivatives. " 197, " 17. for Rajmahli read Rajmahali. - 200, „ 21, for Micmic read Micmac.