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CALKIN^, M.A. / ■ • Prescribed by the Board of Education for New Brunswick. T. l^onbon: NELSON AND SONS, PATEHNOSTER ROW. EDINBUROll; AND NEW YORK. J. & A. M c M T L L A N, ST. JO H N, N.B. 1888. Entered at StationcrH Hall. S 37^": 9/ -tfn^-.r^'a^'^ 'mi. ' aaji'^ ffrtiegseaaEaB Ix preparing this book, it has been a special aim to select such matter as will be intelligible and interesting, and to present it in a simple and familiar style. It is hoped that the facts communicated will be found instructive, and will also serve the important purj)Ose of awakening a spirit of in<|uiry — a desire to know more of the World in which we live. Care has been exercised to keep the book within as small compass as appeared consistent with a fair degree of completeness, and with avoidino: the baldness and dulness of bare outline. JOHN BURGESS CALKIN. Normal School, Tuubo, N.S. C O N T E N T S i PART T. Peru, .. 38 Afohamhtan and Beloochis- INTRODUCTORY. Bolivia, .. 30 tan, Gl Chili, .. 39 British I.nkia, 06 ;. The School District ok TlIK Aroentinr [Iepurlic. .. ;5a Indo-China, m Section, . ft Pakacuay, .. .. 40 The Chinese Empire 66 FI. A VOYAOK ROUND THK URlHiUAV, .. .. 40 .Iapan, 67 World, . 8 . 11 III What we havk Learned, . CHAPTER III.-EUROPE. CHAPTER v.- AFRICA. PAR T I I. History, Position, Etc. .. .. 40 History, Position, Etc. .. 68 CHAPTER I. NORTH AMERICA. The b. sn Isles, .. i:i Hgypt, 7-2 England and Wales, .. 44 The Barbarv States, 73 History, Position, Etc, .. . 12 Scotland, . . .. 46 The British Colon ik.s, .. 74 The Dominion of Canada, . 16 . 17 Ireland, Great Britain and Ireland, .. 48 .. 49 New Brunswick, . . Nova Scotia, . 20 Norway and Sweden, .. 49 CHAPTER VI. -OCEANIA. Quebec . 22 Denmark, .. .. 50 Ontario, . TA Russia, .. 50 Introductoky, 74 Manitoba,.. . 24 The German Empire, .. 51 Malaysia, .. 74 British Columbia, . 25 Au.STRO-HUNOARY, .. 52 AUSTKALASIA, 74 Prince Edward Islfind, ., . 2.'-. Holland, .. 53 Australia, .. 74 Districts and Territories, . 2t, Belgium .. 54 Polynesia, .. 76 [Newfoundland], .. . 27 . 28 France, Switzerland, .. 65 The United States, M.iiico . 31 Spain, .. 56 PART II I. Central America, . 32 Portugal, .. .. 66 The West Indies, . 32 Italy, .. 67 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Danish America, .. . 33 Greece .. 68 Introductory, 77 Turkey, .. 58 The Land, .. The Sf.a. 78 81 CHAPTER II.-SOUTH AMER ICA. •M. ^B mm »ji«da| *• tt ■« ■■ The Atmosphere, 83 History, Position, Etc. .. . 34 CHAPTER IV.-ASI A. Winds, 83 Columbia, .. . 37 History, Position, Etc. .. .. 60 Dew, Clouds, Rain, and Snow, 84 Ecuador, . 37 Arabia, .. 62 Climate, 84 Venezuela, . 38 Turkey .. 63 Plants, 86 Guiana . 38 Russia in Asia, .. 64 Animals, 86 Brazil, . 88 Persia, ,, 64 Man. 80 T i SCHOOL G E O (i li A P H Y. PART L-INTRODUOTORY. THE SCHOOL DISTRICT OR SECTION. The District or Section.— 1. 'J'his is a picture of a school-house in the country. The boys and girls are assembling for school. Around their homes, scattered here and there through the neighbourhood, are hills, valleys, level fields, and woodlands. It is summer, and the country is very beautifuL The farmers are busy NWth their hay-malcing in the meadows. Near by are patches of grain and potatoes ; and on the sunny slopes are orchards which, in the autumn, will be laden with apples and pears. Away up on the hill-sides are the pastures where the cows and sheep are quietly feeding. In the valleys, the brooks which have come down from the springs among the hills are winding their way, and hasting to the sea. Here, on holidays, the boys love to fish or to sail their tiny boats, and the girls love to stroll along the green banks and gather mld-flowera. 2. Some of tho children who read this book live in a place quite different from tliat which has been described. Their homes are perhaps by the ssa-side. The land is rocky and poor ; there are no grain-fields nor orchards. Far and wide stretches the boundless ocean of salt water ; whilst here and there ships may be seen, tossed up and down on the billows, their white sails filled with the wind. Alon^ the shore are rocky cliffs, against which the waves are ever beating : and 6 THE SCHOOL JISTHICT OR SECTION. down by the water's edKU is the hnach, wliore children love to wander when the tide is out, and gather cnriouB oliolls and smooth Atones. Some of the men hero are flsliermon, and go out on the sea in boats and vesKuls to catcli cod, lialibut, and other Ifinds of fish ; and some are slilp-builders, who get timber from tliu forests, and build sliips to saii far away over the sea. 3. In other parts of our Province, again, the cliildrcn have ."juito another Idnd of homo. Ttiey live in a town or city. There are no Holds, nor hills, nor brooks, nor forests ; but only houses and shops, with narrow streets lietwoen them. Many of the people are merchants, whoiie business is to l)uy and sell ; otliors are manufacturers, who make furniture, clothes, and many kinds of things ; others are printers, who print books and newspapers. 6. PLAN OF BCHOOL-HOirUB. 4. Again : it may be, your hom^s are near the coal mines, and the men are miners. All black with dust, they peck away at the coal seams, and take out the coal until they form large under-ground chambers, Into which the light of the sun neyer enters. Or, perhaps, you live where the men are lumbermen, who in winter go far into the forests, cut down large trees, and draw them to tlie banks of a river. Then, when spring comes, they float the logs to the millS; and saw them Into lumber. 6. Perhaps now, after all, I have failed to tell you wliat kind of place you live In ; and it is no great matter if I have, for you can find out for yourselves. After you have carefully observed all tho features of your home and the placus near it, you can write what you liavo learned, and you will then have a little geography of your neighbourhood. You may not be able to draw a picture of your school-house, but you can make a plan of it ; which, tliough not so pretty, is sometimes quite as u.seful. 6. Here is a plan of a school-liouse, sliowing the floor, and how everything is situated. The plan is not nearly so large OS the floor of the building, but everything must be in pro- portion. After you have drawn a plan of your school-hoiuio, make one of the play-ground, drawing lines to represent thu fence, the school-house, and any other objects around. You can then draw a plan of the neighl)ourhood in which you lire, marking tlio roads, the buildings, the brooks, the fields, and any other things wiiich you have observed. Such a plan of ■ portion of country is called a Map. The County.— 7. Your School District ia joined on different sides to other districts, and these again to others, ea a having its o^vn school-house and its own happy homes. Tf you were to travel from district to district, you would by-and-by go over the whole Courdy in which you live. Perhaps your county is up in the north ; or it may be on the east, by the Ghdf of St. juawrence; or on the south, by the Bay of Fundy; or on the west ; or in the interior, along the River St. John. Find it on the map ; observe where it is situ- ated, and what counties lie on different sides; now point out all the counties in the Province. The Province. — 8. The country or Province in which you live is called New Brunswick. In souio parts of New Brunswick there are well cultivated farms ; in other parts there are extensive forests, where the lumberman chops down the tall trees. In travelling through the Province, you would see many fine rivers. The St. John is the largest river in New Brunswick. On the east and south sides of New Brunswick we have the sea-coast. Bordering on New Bni.nswick are other countries. Thus, on the south, we have Nova Scotia, partly separated by the Bay of Fundy; on the north, we have Quebec; and on the east, across Northumberland Strait, Prince Edward Island. New Bruns\vick and Nova Scotia are often called the Sister Provinces. Maine, on the west, is not a Pro\nnce of Canada. The Dominion. — 9. New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, are situated near a large body of water called the Atlantic Ocean. These Pro- vinces are much alike in respect to soil, climate, and products of the field. Nova Scotia it about two-thirds as large as New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island NORTH AMERICA SOUTH AMERICA. i is only about one-thirteenth an hirjje. Crossing the Restigouche River, we enter the Province of- Quebec, which is nearly eight times larger than New Bruns- wick, stretching away westerly far into the interior. Its forests are more extensive than those of New Hrunswick ; and its great river, the St. Lawrence, is much larger than the St. John. Nearly three-fourths oi its inhabitants are descendants of Frenchmen, and speak the French language. On the west of Quebec is the Province of Ontario, which is nearly as large as Quebec, and is a much finer country. On its southern J)order are several large lakes; one of these, called Lake Superior, is larger than the whole of New Bruns- wick. Ontario is a very fertile country, yielding abundance of grain. Still further west, a long way from the sea, is the Province of Manitoba. West of this again, beyond the high Rocky Mountains, is IMtish Columbia, noted for its gold mines. On the west of this Province is a great ocean called the Pacific. On the north of the Provinces, extending to the frozen Arctic Ocean, is an immense country called The North- West Territory. A great part of this coun- try is very cold, and is valuable chiefly for the soft warm fur obtained from its wild animals. These seven Provinces and the North-West Terri- tory form the Dominion of Canada. North America. — 10. South of the Dominion is a large country, warmer than ours, called the United States; and farther south is a still warmer country, called Mexico. These countries, like the Dominion, extend from the Atlantic Ocean on the east to the Pacific Ocean on the west. The waters on the east and west now draw closer together, so that the country on the south of Mexico, called Central America, is very narrow. All this great land, from the far north of the Dominion to this narrow country, is called Noi'th America. South America. — 11. Beyond the narrowest part, called the Isthmus of Panama, the land spreads out again into another great country like North America. This is South America. The northern half of South America is very hot, and is noted for its vast forests, so dense with trees, shrubs, and vines, that one would need to cut a path to get through them. As we go south the country becomes cooler, and in the far south it is very cold. The World. — 12. Once, long ago, people thought that by travelling a long distance in any one direction they would come to the end of the world. This was a mintaken notion, for t!ie Karth is round like a ball ; and if you travel far enough in a straight course, yo\i will at last come to the place from which you started, just as a fly might do in crawling round an apple. 13. Men oftnn sail round the wnrhl. To do this tlioy niniit go either east or west. In fining nortii, they would And It tm- comlng colder and (bolder, until at Inst thuir way would bo wholly blocked up by Ico. Tlio far north, which nolmdy han yet been able to reacli, in nailed the \orth Pole. If they went south, they would by-and-l)y come to :x part of the Farth where the Sun is nearly overhead every day, as in the north of South America. This ia the hottest portion of the Karth, and is called the Torrid Zone. The Torrid Zone is ,i broad belt, and is divided by a line called the Et|iintor, whicli en circles the Earth, so that half the Torrid Zoiii! U on tlu> north ;ind half on tin; south of the Kt|uator " r ■ '< O R T H , ^ •^.^ /■ / / ' '\ - - 1 r t- N o H T H '^ ^' E H A T E Z ' T (' R H ID ZONE ,'^'^ \ \ ,. \ / V. ■ . \ ^ ZONE / ^' \'6. ZONKH. U. South of the Torrid Zone the countries become cooler, like our own, and are said to be in the Temptraie Zone, be- cause they are neither extremely hot nor cold. The seasons In the Temperate Zone on the south of the Equator are just the reverse of those of the Temperate Zone on the north. Thus, in the southern part of South America it is winter during our summer. Still further south the cold becomes more and more severe, until the way is blocked up by ice as in the north. The f.ir south is called the South Pole. 15. As the Earth is round, it is usual to represent the whole of it by two circular maps, just as a lx)y covers a ball with two circular pieces of leather. These two maps are called Hemispheren, the Western and the Eastern Hemisphcu. We shall make ar imaginary tour round the Earth. "\'ou may trace the course on the Map of the World. 8 A VOYAGE HOUND IIIK WORLD. CHAPTER II. A VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD. Crossing the Atlantic— 16. We Hhall take a Hteuin- iibip at Halifax, and Het out on our long voyage. We cannot go west, because the land of North America lies in our way; we therefore Hail east, across the Atlantic Ocep.n. In a few hours we lose sight of laud, and there is nothing to be seen but the sea, with here and there a distant sail. We see no patli, nor any sign to direct us ; but tlie captain, with his compass and chart, can take u.s iw directly across the pathless ocean as if he followed a beaten track. He needs to know his duty well, and to manage carefully ; for some- times we are surrounded by a dense fog, so that we «!an scarcely see from one end of the sliip to the other. In such a fog we might run against another ship, or against rocks, and be dashed in pieces, 17. You know that the Sun rises in the east, and sets in the west. If you stand witli your right hand to the east, the west will be at your left hand ; the north will be before you, and the south behind you. Half way between the north and east is north-east; half way between east and south is south-east ; half way between south and west is so'Mi-west ; and half way between west and north is north-west. If you were travelling in a strange place on a cloudy day, or in the night, yon could not tell in what direction you were going. The compass i.s ii curious instrument, containing a thin piece of magnetic steel, called a needle, turning on a pivot. No matter how the compass is moved, one end of the needle turns quickly to- wards the north, and remains pointing in that direction Sailors always take a compass and a chart with them. A chart is a map of the sea and the coasts, showing the har- bours and the dangerous places. 18. Above is a picture of a number of ships at sea, as seen through a telescope. The whole of the nearest ship is seen, less of the next, and less of the next, till the one furthest away is nearly hid from view. Noth- ing can be seen of it but a part of its masts. The rest of it is hid, becaxise the surface of the sea is not level, but curved like the surface of a ball, 19. Sometimes, away in the distance, we see a huge glittering object, like a mountain of glass. Tt is a great mass of ice, called an iceberg, which has floated doAvn from the frozen regions of the north. Many ships are dashed in pieces by running against icebergs in the fog. 20. The sea around the North Pole, called the Arctic Ocean, is all frozen over in the winter ; and during the short summer the ice breftlts up into cakes or ice-flona, whicb are brought ^ 18. ORAOrAL DI8APPKARANCX OF BHIPH AT HEA. d.iwu by currents into the warm waters of the Atlantic, where tliey melt. Bold navigators have made graat efforts to reach tlie North Pole. They sail past Greenland and Iceland a« fur as they can into the Arctic Ocean ; and when the ship can gn no further, they harness dogs to a sled, and drive over the ice. In this way Captain Hall of the I'olaria reached very near the North Pole. 21. It may seem very odd to be drawn by dogs over the sua ; but some of Captain Hall's party crossed these northern waters in a more singular way. The ship becoming leaky, nineteen persons — men, women, and children — wore placed on tlie ice. A storm came on in the night, the ship was driven off, and the ice broke up. These poor people, thus left on an ice-cake in the midst of the ocean, were tossed about for over six months, until their frail raft was so broken in pieces by storms that only a small portion of it remained Luckily some provisions had been placed on the ice with them ; they also killed seals and polar bears for food, and tliey burned their oil to keep themselves from freezing. Gradually they drifted towards the south, until at last they were picked up near the coast of Labrador by seal-hunters from Newfoundland. Europe. — 22. We have now come to land ; first Ire- land, and then Great Britain, consisting of England, Scotland, and Wales. Here is the home of our Queen, and the land from which our forefathers came. Eng- land is a beautiful country. It has rich green meadows, enclosed with pretty thorn hedges ; and all through the country are fine porks with shady trees, smooth walks, green lawns, and sparkling fountains. England has many large cities, celebrated for manu- factiires and trade. Our merchants come here to buy 1 i ) } .^^%-mrd-m:^':^^^, (Tfit/lgitrts 1000, 3000, 3000, dr., show tht distanet^/rtm Lfniim all «vtr tht globt. In tkt uparau Maps of tkt CoHtimnU the same diitances are repeated.) ^;^-]i-MISP>I^-^^^, (The/igures looo, aooo, 3000, dr.. show tht ditianeet/tatH I.endtn all ever the glei*. In Uu itparatt Maps o/tkt Continents the same dittancts are rtptattd. ) :*tri 1'^'- AFRICA ASIA. 9 21. nUIFTINO TO SKA OX FLOATING ICE. their cottons, woollens, crockery, cutlery, and many other things. At Liverpool, London, and Glasgow, we see ships from Halifax and St. John. We notice a strange circumstance here. It is noon, when, by our watches, it is about eight o'clock in the morning. 23. Great Britain and Ireland are islands. On the east and south is the continent of Europe, containing many coun- tries. We must sail southerly, pa.s8ing France, Spain, and Portugal, to get round the land. Passing through this narrow channel called the Strait of Gibraltar, we enter a sea called the Mediterranean, which lies south of Europe. On our left we pass Italy and Greece, which were in ancient times the most powerful countries in the world. Africa. — 24. On the south of the Mediterranean is another ! -ge body of land, called Africa, which stretches far away beyond the ]']quator into the tem- perate regions of the south. Along the north are the Barhary States, I'eyond is the Cheat Desert, where it never rains. Vast tracts of country produce only dry gra.ss and stunted shrubs, on which the hardy camel of the traveller subsists. In some places, for Imndreda of miles, there is not a drop of water, not a tree, nor flower, nor blade of grass, — nothing but burning sand and baxren rock on the earth, and a blazing sun in the lieavens. Beyond the Desert is the Land of the Negro. 25. In the north-east of Africa is Egypt, one of the oldest and strangest countries in the world. II ere, ages ago, the Nraelites served their hard task-masters, until Ood sent Mcscs to free them from bondage. It very seldom rains in }''Sypt. yet the land produces great crops of grain. It is made fruitful by its wonderful river, the Nile, which overflows its banks every year, and covers the whole country with water. We observe that as we go east our watches seem to be (,'oing more and more astray. By our time it is six o'clock in the morning, when it is noon in Egypt ■^^. • -_., , • A _ ^ '-Wf ^^^— ^- 27. THE MUKZ CANAL. Asia.— 26. Our course to the eastward is again ob- structed by land. Here, before us, is the great con- tinent of Asia, the largest of all the land divisions of the Earth. On the e.-ust roast of the Mediterranean is 10 A VOYAGE HOUND THE WORLD. •28. AIIAB TENTS. Palestine, which is quite a small country, but noted as the land which God gave the Israelites, and as the place where our Saviour lived when on Earth Indeed. most of the events spoken of in the Bible occurred in this country. 27. We shall be able to continue our voyage by turning to the south. Across this narrow neck of land called the Isthmus of Suet, which joins Africa and Asia, a canal has been cut, through which we can sail to the Red Sea. On our left we pass Arabia, a lahd abounding in deserts, and cele- brated for its fine horses. In the south of Asia we also find British India, Siam, and some other countries, which, with the islandr off the coast, are sailed the East Indies. These are hot countricj, yielding cotton, silk, rice, and all kinds of spice. China, the land from which we obtiMn our tea, is on the east of ^isia ; and ofiT the east coast are the Japan Islands. 28. Asia is said to contain two-thirds of the people in the world, and nearly all its inhabitants are heathens. The central countries are inhabited by shepherds, who live in tents, and are always roving about in search of pasturage. The Indian Ocean. -29. That part of the sea which lies south of Asia and east of Africa is called the Indian Ocean. It is sometimes visited by violent hurricanes called cyclones, which move in circles. South of the Indian Ocean, around the South Pole, is the Antarctic Ocean, which is full of ice like the Arctic Ocean. Australia. — 20. We are now about half way round the world. Before we proceed, we shall turn to the south to visit Australia, whioh is the largest island in the world. It t * S2. A OOKAL ISLAND. t WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. 11 belongs to Great Britain, and inimy people from the British Isles have come liere to live. The country abounds in excel- lont pasture, and it has the richest gold mines yet discovered. The island lies south of the Equator, so that the hottest season is near Christmas, and the coolest winds blow from the south. It is night here when we have day in our country. The Pacific Ocean.— 31. We have now to cross the Pacific Ocean, which is the largest of all the oceans. Indeed, it covers one-third of the Earth's surface. It is noted for its many groups of islands. Most of these islands lie in the hot belt called the Torrid Zone ; but they are fanned by sea breezes, which make the climate quite agreeable. The inhabitants of the Pacific Islands live mostly on fruits, which grow without the toil of cultivation. Many of them aie savages ; others have been converted to Christianity by mi.ssionaries. You see a group called the New Hebrides, where we shall meet mi.ssionaries from our own country. The inhabitants of the Feejee Islands, who formerly killed and ate human beings, and those of the Sandwich Islands, have also been instructed by missionaries 32. Man/ islands of tlie Pacific were formed by the coral polyp. These little animals are very numerous in the ocean near the Equator, and they extract lime from tlie sea water, forming it into a substance called coral. You have often seen rings and other ornaments made of coral. This kind of coral is quite rare, and is obtained by diving deep into the sea. The islands are formed of a coarser kind. The insects build up immense masses of it in branches like the limbs of a tree, and in many strange shapes, until a rock is formed, the top of which is on a level with the sea. The waves then beat against it, throwing up sea-weed and other substancer Soon mosses begin to grow on the rock; then some soil is formed ; which after hundreds of years becomes deep and rich, nour- ishing more beautiful and useful plants. Some of the coral islands are in the form of a broken ring, the great ocean outside dashing against the shores ; and in- side the ring of land is a peaceful lake or lagoon. Sometimes there is land In the middle, then a ring of smooth water, then a broken ring of land. Vessels can sail in through the open- ing in the ring, to seek shelter from storms. Sailing: round America.— 33. We have now come to land again. It is British Columbia, a province of the Dominion of Canada noted for its gold mines. We could return home by land across the Dominion, btit as we wish to go in the ship, we sail soutlierly thousands of miles along the west coast of North America and South America, until we reach Cape Horn. Then we sail northerly along the east coast of America, crossing the Equator again, and passing on our left the West India Islands, from which we obtain our sugar. Finally, we arrive at home, having com- pleted our long voyage round the world. CHAPTEK III. WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED. About the Land and Water.— 34. We have learned that the Earth is round like a ball, and that its surface is partly land and partly water. There is onl} about half as much land aa water. The land i.s principally in five great bodies — North America, South America, Europe, Africa, and Asia. Besides these, there are many islands, of which Australia is much the largest. The water is also in five great bodies or oceans —the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian, the Arctic, and the Antarctic. These oceans are all connected with one another. Day and Night.— 35. We have seen that all parts of the Earth have not day or night at the same time. Thus, when it is noon •with us, it is midnight half waj' round the p]arth, as in the East India Islands ; it is six o'clock in the evening one-fourth the way round towards the east, as in Egypt ; and it is six o'clock in the morning one-fourth the way round to- wards the west, as in the Sandwich Islands. This is because the Karth is always turning round, making one revolution every twenty-four hours. As the ilarth is a ball, the Sun can shine on only lialf of it at once. The middle of the half on which the Sun shines lias noon, the western edge of the light portion has morning, and the eastern edge has evening. Heat and Cold. — 36. The countries on the Earth differ much in respect to heat and cold. The hottest countries are in a belt called the ToiTid Zone, around the middle of the Earth. This is because the Sun is nearly overhead every day in the year. The coldest countries are far north and south, near the poles, be- cause the Sun is here always low, near the horizon, and its rays fall slanting, as in oivr \vinter. Midway between the hottest and coldest parts of the Earth are countries like New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, which have neither extreme heat nor cold, and are said to have a temperate climate. Summer and Winter.— 37. At one time of the j'ear the Sun comes up high at noon, giving us long, hot days ; at another time the Sun keeps far away in the south, and the days are short and cold. The temperate countries on the south of the Equator have their summer when we have our winter, anil they have winter during our summer. This happens because the northern part of the Earth is turned towards the Sun during one half the vcar. and the southern part during the other half. 12 NORTH AMERICA. PART II. CHAJ^TER I. NORTH AMERICA. History. —38. Four hundred years ago our fore- fathers were living far away to the eastward, beyond the Atlantic Ocean, in a part of the world called Europe. They did not know that there was such a country as America, the land in which we live. In- deed, most people at that time did not know that the Earth was round. The most distant country which they knew anything about was India, in the south of Asia. 39. As the merchants found it very profitable to trade in the spices and other valuable products of India, they were SO. COLUMBUS. anxious to find the shortest and best way to that country. A sailor named Columbus, who lived in tlie north of Italy, believing that the Earth was round, thought he could reach India more readily by sailing westerly, than by sailing southerly and easterly around Africa. Columbus was poor, and needed money to carry out his plans. When he stated his opinions and asked for asblct.uce, people shook their heads and thought he was crazy. Finally, having gained the favour and help of Isabella, Queen of Spain, Columbus set out over the unknown Western Ocean on his voyage of discovery. It was a sad diiy to the sailors when they left Spain, as they never eitpectfd to see their homes again. 40. After a long, weary voyage, Columbus arrived at a group of islands. Believing that he was on the border of India, he called the inhabitants Indians. This n-\me was afterwards given to all the natives of America; and when the islands were found to bo very far from India, they were called the West Indies. 41. There was great excitement in Europe over this won- derful discovery of land beyond the Atlantic Ocean. Many ships were sent over the sea, by different nations, to makn further discoveries. It was soon found that, besides the islands discovered by Columbus, th" New World consisted of two great bodies of land, one lying i j the north and the other to the south. One of the leading men in exploring the coasts was named Americus Vespucius. In honour of him, the New World was called Ainerica. Position. — 42. North America is nearly surroimdcd by the sea — the Arctic Ocean on the north, the Atlantic on the east, the Gulf of Mexico on the south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. North America is connected with South America by a nar- row neck of land, called the Isthmus of Panama. Behring Strait, on the north-west, separates America from Asia. Surface, — i3. On the east side of North America there is a low coast-region next the Atlantic, and then further inland are the Appalachian Mountains. Be- yond these highlands is a broad low plain, extending from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. Still further west, beyond the plain, are highlands again, much longer, broader, and higher than those near the Atlantic. Lofty mountains, called in the north the Rockrj Mountains, and in Mexico the Sierra Mad/re, extend along the eastern side of these highlands ; and other high ranges, called the Cascade Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, lie in the west. Between the Rocky Mountains and the western ranges are high table-lauds, divided into basin-like valleys by short mountains running crosswise. 44. The Appalachian Mountains are made up of different ranges — as the White Mountains, the Green Mountains, the Catskill, the Adirondack, the Alleghany, the Blue Ridge, and the Cumberland Mountains. They are generally of moderate height, and are covered with forests to their summits. Be- tween the different ranges are beautiful fertile valleys. In some places the ranges are broken by gaps, throug"> which the rivers find their way to the plains. Mount Washington, in the White Mountains, over a mile 1 I V9^A<2 ^^v A l{ r T 1 C~ O d E A^ H (ryividfd into Squares of looo MiUs.) ' I THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS CLIMATE AND PUODUCTS. 13 high, is one of the loftiest and most noted peaks of the eastern highlands. 45. The Rocky Mountains are wild and broken. On the lower slopes are dense forests ; further up are shrubs, coarse grass, and mountain-flowers ; still higher are barren, rugged rocks ; and the highest peaks are covered wth snow all the year. 46. The table-land between the Sierra Nevada and Roclcy Mountains has very little rain. Tliere are no forests here, and few plants of any kind, except near the streams which come down from the mountains. The cactus — a curious plant which we often see cultivated in the house, and which needs little moisture — is one of the most common native plants towards the south. There are many salt lakes on this table-land, much Salter than the ocean — so salt that fish cannoi live in them. The few streams that come down from the mountains flow Into these lakes. 47. Here and there in the Sierra Nevada are deep, narrow Korges, or clefts, called caiions, along which the rivers flow. The stream in some places covers the whole breadth at the bottom of the caflon — high walls of rock rising perpendicu- larly from the water's edge. In some places the rivers rush down terrible precipices. The western slopes and valleys of the Sierra Nevada are noted for their giant trees. The great pines and cypresses of California are 300 or 400 feet high, and 25 feet through. 48. Near the Pacific Ocean are low mountains, called the Coast Range. Between these and the Sierra Nevada lies the beautiful fertile valley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. 49. In Mexico and Central America there are many vol- canoes. Popocatepetl, a volcanic peak in Mexico, nearly 3^ miles high, is the highest mountain in North America. 50. The Great Plain between the eastern and western highlands is highest near the middle, from which it slopes towards the north and south. In the central parts of the plain there are rich prairies or meadows of great extent, which in their natural state are covered with tall graes, and when cultivated yield large crops of grain. Rivers. — .'51. The great rivers of North America are the Ynkon, Mackenzie, St. Laitn'encc, Mississippi, and Columbia. The St. Lawrence and Mississippi are grand highways by which vessels sail hundreds of miles into the interior, exchanging the products of different countries. 62. The Mackenzie flows through nearly the whole length of the northern slope of the central plain. It flows into seve- ral basin-shaped hollows along its course, and forms large lakes, as Great Slave Lake and Oreat Bear Lake. The other large rivers flowing northerly are the Churchill, Saskatchewan, Assiniboine, Red River, and Nelson. The rivers on this slope are frozen during a large part of the year. 63. The St. Lawrence, flowing easterly to the Gulf of 8t. Lawrence, d.ains five of the greatest lakes in the world Far back in the interior, many small rivers flow into large deep basins. In this way the lakes are formed. The first in the chain is called Lake Suiifrior, whicli is larger than the Province of New Brunsw'ck, and is the largest lake in the world. The others are Huron, Alichiga.i, Erie, and Ontario. 64. The Niagara River, between Lakes Erie and Ontario, is celebrated for its Falls. The river, half a mile wide, rushes headlong over the rocks, and falls perpendicularly 166 febt. 66. In the upper part of the St. Lawrence, near Lake Ontario, are many beautiful islands, called the Thousaiui Isles. Further down are the Rapids, where the water flows very swiftly. Boats going down stream dasii through the lapids with great velocity. They cannot sail up against so strong a current, but go round by the canals. On an island in the river, about 600 miles from the sea, is a large city called Montreal. Near this place, the Ottawa, a largo river from the north, joins the St. Lawrence. Further down is the mouth of the St. Maurice, another large tributary. Then we come to Quebec, a fortified city, built partly on the shore and partly on a high bluff overlooking the river. A few miles below Quebec are the Falls of Montmorency, where a small river rushes over high rocks and falls into the St. Lawrence Before we roach tli sea, wo pass the mouth of another iar^e tributary, called the Saguenay. 66. The other important rivers of North America, flowing easterly, are the St. John, Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, and Potomac. 67. The Mississippi flows through nearly the whole length of the southern slope of the central plain, and is one of the largest rivers in the world. In the upper part of its course, before it becomes large, it passes through forests, sometimes hurrying amid rapids, and sometimes dashing over falls. Then it comes to the prairie lands, with their tall grass and broad grain-fields. As it goes south it passes through warmer countries, which yield Indian corn, tobacco, cotton, and, in the far south, sugar-cane. 68. Many large rivers flow into the Mississippi. From the eastward come the waters of the Ohio, gathered along the slopes of the Allcghanies ; and from the Rocky Mountains, on the west, come the Missouri, the Arkansas, an<.i the Red River. The head of the Missouri is 4,000 miles from the Gulf, so that the little stream that starts from the mountain side would be nearly six weeks in reaching the sea, at a hundred miles a day. 69. Near the mouth of the Mississippi is a large city, called New Orleans; and up the river and its tributaries there are other cities, as St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Pittsburg. Steam- boats are constantly coming and going between these cities, bringing the products of one country, and carrying away those of another. 60. The Rio Grande is a large river west of the Missis.sippi. The Columbia, Fraser, Colorado, and the other rivers flow- ing into the Pacific, are so broken by rapids and falls that they are not navigable very far. Climate and Products.— 61. In travelling from the Isthmus of Panama to the Arctic Ocean, one should u NORTH AMERICA. M. THK MA«1AI1A ABOVK THE KALI.S. find every variety of climate and vegetation. 'l''he hot countries of the south, which have no winter, yield coffee, sngar-cane, cotton, rice, pine-apples, and many fine fruits ; a little further north, where the heat is less intense, the climate is suited to Indian corn, grapes, peaches, sweet i)otatoes, and tobacco ; then we come to the countries wliich have warm summers and cold winters, producing wheat and other Icinds of grain, potatoes, apples, and pears. In the far north it is too cold for forests or cultivated fields. The ground freezes very deep during the winter, and only a few inchea of the surface thaw during the short summer. Coarse grass, moss, and stunted shrubs ai"e the principal i)lants. The countries near the Pacific Ocean have milder winters than those near the Atlantic. Minerals.— 62. Coal and iron are foimd in New Brunswick, and are abiindant in Nova Scotia and Pennsylvania ; gold is most plentiful in California, Colorado, and British Columbia; the richest silver mines arc ^n ^lexico. New Lnmswick furnishes suiie- rior antimony. Animals.— 63. The large wild animals of North tVinerica are the bison or buffalo, the moose, deer, ;nusk-ox, grizzly bear, white bear, brown bear, wolf. and 04. HUNTINO THE BUFFALO. ()4. Buffaloes were formerly very numerous on the prairies of the great lowland plains, where they were much hunted by Indians both for their flesh and hide. As the country i i fc I i INHAHITANTS r.OVKUNMENT. 15 i. tincame nettled, these anlmalH retreated to the more f lcvatcrador, chiotly for their oil ; and off the cua.st of Alaska, for their valualile fur. The walrus sometimes comes U)i on tho land, where it is attacked by the hunter. Tiio Es- i|Uimaux use its oil botli for food and fuel. Inhabitants.— (>7. North Ainoricii cuntiiinn nvor 70,000,000 of inhabitants. TIu; grnator number of these are white peoi)le, whose fore- fathers lived in Europe. Indians are numerous in the western lii(,']ilands, on the northern part of the central plain, and in Mexico. A singular people, called Esquimaux, live on the coasts and islands of the Arctic Ocean. In the Southern States there are many Negroes, whose ancestors were brought from Africa as slaves. Divisions.— 68. Tlie principal great diW- rtions of North America are the JJuminion of Canada, the United Stales, and Mexico. The narrow country between Mexico and South America is called Central America. To the east of Central America are the West Indiex. The islands Oreenland and Iceland are sometimes called Dani.sh America. Towns. — 69. New York, the largest city in America, 65. WIIITK BKAU AND 8T:AU contains more people than tho I'lovinces of New r>runs\vick, Nova Scotia, and Prince lortaiit in trade and manufactures. It is also noted for its beautiful stone buildings. Near the city ia tlio groat Victoria Bridge, by whicii tlie rail-cars cross tlic Ht. Lawrence. 'I'iiin l)rl(lgc, made of pieces of iron strongly riveted togotiier, an. waters near the Jianksa,re si)ecially celebrated for cod-fish. The north coast, towards Labra- dor, abounds in seals, which are valuable for their skins and oil. The fisheries are the chief dependence of the people of Newfoundland. Fishermen from the United .States also, and even from France, come here, so that in the summer season hundreds of flsliing vessels may be seen oft" the coast. Icebergs.— 191. immense masses of ice, called iccberoinr ^" of Canada. Soon after the discos J' °^ America, the people of ^^ope found out that the l?^^ ^'^ Newfoundland was ve ^'»<— so NORTH AMERICA. i SOS. MassachuiettB, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, taken toKother, are about half as large as New Brunswick ; but they have more tlian seven times as many inhabitants. They are noted for their fine public schools, and for their manufactures. The most important cities are Boston, Lowell, Worcester, Springfield, New Bed/ord, and Salem, in Massa- chiuetts ; Providence and Newport in Rhode Island ; Hart- ford and New Haven, in Connecticut. Middle Statea.— 209. These are, New York, Penn- sylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and West Virginia. 210. New York ranks flr.st among the States in population, commerce, and wealth ; Pennsylvania ia first In iron and coal mining. Both States are among the first in manufac- tures and agriculture. The chief cities are New York, Brook- lyn, Buffalo, Oitueyo, Albany, Rochester, Troy, and Syracuse, in New York ; Philadelphia, Pittsburg, and Alleghany City, in Pennsylvania. Newark, Jersey City, and Trenton, are in New Jersey. Wilmington is In Delaware, and Baltimore in Maryland. South-Eastern States.— 211. These are, Virginia, North and South Carolimi, Geoiyia, and Florida. Southern States.— 212. This group lies on tho west of tlie South-Eastern States, including.ff'c/itMci//,?'cftneiisce, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, and 'Texas. 21i COTTON PLANTATION. These two groups have few harbours, manufactures, or large cities. The most important products are tobacco, cotton, Rugar- cane, rice, and Indian corn. The chief cities are Richmond. Norfolk, Wilmington, CharUston, Savannah, Atlanta, MobUu, Montgomery, Vicksburg, New Orleaju, Memphis, and NashvilU. Central States.— 213. This group lies wholly in the interior, between the Middle States and the Rocky Mountains. The mo.st important exports are wheat, Indian corn, beef, and pork. The principal cities are Louisville, Cindnruiti, Cleveland, Indianapolis, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, and St. Louis. Pacific States.— 214. These are, California, Oregon, and Na'ada. California ia noted as a great mining, agricultural, and grazing country. San Francisco is the largest city on the western side of America. Cities.— 215. Washington, in the district of Colum- bia, is the capital. There are ten very large cities in the United States, all beside ocean, river, or lake, and well situated for trade. We shall take them in order, beginning mth the one nearest our owti Province. 21G. Boston (3G2,000) is noted for the intelligence of its people and its excellent public schools. The shoes, cottons, and many other things manufactured in the smaller towns, are brought here to be sold. 217. New York (l,20,000), on the Mississippi, 100 miles from its mouth, is the greatest cotton market in the world. A terrible disea&e, called Yellow Fever, prevails here in the hot season. 222. St. Lonis (350,000), on the Mississippi, Cincinnati (255,000), on the Ohio, and Chicago (503,000), on Lake Michi- gan, export grain and other agricultural products. Sttn Francisco (234,000) is the great port of the Pacific coast. Government. — 2z3. The laws are made by the Presi' dent and Congress. The President is elected by the people for the term of four years, and lives at Washington. The members of Congress are elected by the various States, and meet in a fine building in ^Va8hington called the CapltoL A country in which the head officer is elected for a limited time, as in the United States, is called a Republic. t MEXICO. 31 216. TOE OITY or WASHINOTON. MEXICO. History. — 224. When the Spaniards came to Amer- ica they found the Indians of Mexico quite different from those further north. They had large cities, richly-ornamented temples, finely-wrought manufac- tures, and great wealth in gold and silver. 226. The Indian King Montezuma sent very rich presents to Cortez, the Spanish general, to induce him not to visit his capital But this only made the avaricious Spaniard the more eager to obtain the whole country. Cortez seized Montezuma, and, holding him as a prisoner, compelled bim to advise his people to submit to the Spaniards. The en- raged Indians let fly their arrows at the Spaniards, and unin- tentionally killed Montezuma as he stood addressing them. Position and Size. — 226. Mexico lies on the south of the United States, and extends southerly to the narrow and hottest portion of North America. It is about one-fourth the size of the Dominion of Canada. The Lowlands. — 227. Crossing the country from cast to west, we find first a plain, low, hot, and un- healthy, near the Gulf of Mexico, but rising as we go inland, and becoming cooler and more healthy. The cultivated lands yield cotton, sugar-cane, coffee, indigo, and tropical fruits. The forests contain palm-trees, mahogany, and dye-woods. Many plants which we cultivate in gardens and conservatories, such as dahlias, geraniums, and fuchsias, grow wild. The Highlands.— 228. On the west of the plain we come to mountains, high, steep, and difficult to climb. They are a continuation of the Rocky Mountains. From the summit we look down on a wonderful table- land half as high as the mountains. It is walled in, for far away on the Pacific side are other high mountains. Here and there over the plain rise cone-shaped mountains with openings at the top, like chimneys, sending out smoke, and sometimes flame, ashes, and melted stones. 229. The climate on the table-land is delightful, and the products are the grains and fruits of temperate countries. Towards the north are immense grassy plains, the pasture lands of many buffaloes, wild oxen, and horses. Minerals.— 230. The mountains of Mexico are rich in minerals, and mining is a leading occupation. Silver is the most important mineral. Towns. — 231. The large cities are all on the cool highlands. Mexico City (230,000), the capital, is near a beautiful lake in an oval valley, with high mountains all around. Vera Crnz is the principal port on the east ; Acapalco> on the west. Both are small places. Inhabitants. — 232. The inhabitants are Spaniards, Indians, and mixed races. They are generally indolent. The popula- tion is about 9,500,000. Ctovemment.— 233. The Government is republican, like that of the United States ; but it is very weak, and is unable to maintain order. Mexico has often been disturbed by civil war. CENTRAL AMERICA. Position. — 234. The narrow portion of America, between the broad continents of North and South America, is called Central America. General Features.— 235. Central America resembles Mexico in its coast plains and interior highlands, and also in climate and products. Mahogany and logwood are exported. 32 NORTH AMERICA. '"^ dfe^ ^^^-r^T^ :^ _^^.-.:. - - — „ - _-^:— ■■--:■■ . . . - -H I!HW^?:nnl ltfnrn^''T^^PE94Bfl f^yi^^TMtrWyyiV^^nS '^■*" nlfJfk^HhA^rti ^■^. \ui''''-'VV4'' '^'^SK'^ \\-\ 1 ' " T : . ..^ - ^ ■ :: — 11 IPS ^^^^^^^^m ^ft^^M^ w^ H|^H| T^m^M^M^^^S^^n RJ^^^^^nS^PI n ^^B ^^Pl^^pj^^^nHJJH ^^K^I^^^^^^M 1^^ HwS^ ^^^^"^^^§=^^^^^^^^§1^ iiSi^^^^^^^^^^^^ 245. AMONU THE SUGAR-CANES. 236. Volcanoes are numerous. The country is often visiteii by destructive earthquakes, during which the ground trembles and rocks, or is whirled violently around, and opens in wide chasms. Houses are thrown down, whole cities are destroyed, and thousands of people are killed. Inhabitants. — 237. The people are not industrious, and cousequently they have very little to send to foreign markets. Population, 2,543,000. Divisions. — 238. The country is divided into live Re- publics — Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaraiiua, and Costa Rica, and a small State on the east coast, called British Honduras, belonging to Great Britain. Towns.— 239. Guatemala is the largest city. San Sal- vador was destroyed by an earthquake in 1854, and again in 1873. THE WEST INDIES. Position. — 240. The West Indies are clusters of islands on the east of the Gulf of Mexico, between North and South America. It was here that Colum- bus landed after his first voyage across the Atlantic. 241. The islands are near tlie Equator, where the Sun's rays fall perpendicularly. Snow and frost are unknown, except on the mountains; and summer lasts all the year. The larger Islands have high mountains, and it is quite re- freshing to the inhabitar.t."., when almost exhausted by the intense heat, to retreat to the cooler highlands. Area. — 242. All the islands taken together contain about twice as much land as New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Products.— 243. The West Indies are very fertile, and in some of the islands nearly all the land is culti- vated. The most important product is sugar. The islands also yield tobacco, coffee, oranges, pine-apples, bananas, and other fruits. 244. The farms are called plantations. The owner of a plantation lives in a large, low house, with wide verandahs and polished uncarpeted floors. Thr there are many small cabins around for the labourers, who are mostly coloured people. 245. At a distance, the sugar-cane looks lik'i Indian corn. When it has gr.^wn tall, and is full of sweet juice, it is cut and taken to the sugar-milL Here the juice is pressed out and made into sugar, somewhat as we ra-i'-te sugar from the sap of tlie maple tree. 246. One of the most valuable and beautiful trees of the West Indies is the cocoa-nut palm. It grows straight and tall without branches or leaves ; only at the top a tuft of long broad leaves hangs over, often so as to conceal the fruit. The cocoa-nuts which we buy grow on these trees. 246. TOP OF COCOA-NUT PALM.' Inhabitants! — 247. A very large proportion of the in- habitants are Negroes and Mulattoes. The population is about equal to that of the Dominion of Canada. Greater Antilles. — 248. Four of the islands are much larger than the rest, — in fact, much larger than all the others taken together. These are Cuba and Porto Rico, belonging to Spain; Jamaicc belonging to Great Britain ; and Hayti, which is independent. 249. Cuba is larger than all the other West India Islands taken together, and it is said to yield one-third of the sugar produced in the world. Havana (230,000), on this island, is DANISH AMERICA 33 J In- is ,re an nd ng ids . '9 •J45. HU(1AR PLANTATION. the largest city in tlie AVost Indies. It is celebrated for its fine cigars. Its cathedral contains the remains of Columbus. '250. Jamaica is about one-half the size of New Brunswick. Kingston is its largest city and capital. •if)!. Hayti is the second in size of the West Indies. It is divided into two independent states. Nearly all the inlial)itants are negroes. Port an Prince and St. Dominiio are the capitals. The Small Islands.— 252. On the north of the Creater Antilles is a group of small islands, called the Piahamas, be- longing to (Jreat Britain ; and on the south-east are three groups, called tlio V'mjin Islns, the Leeward Isles, and the H'indward Isles. Nearly all of them belong to Great Britain, France, Denmark, and Holland. 2r)3. The Bermudas consist of a cluster of very small islands far away to the north-oa.st of the Bahamas, belonging to Great Britain. Tliey have a delightful climate. The cliief products are arrow-root and garden vegetables. DANISH AMERICA. 254. Tho two island.'*, Greenland and Iceland, far away on the north-eawt of America, on the borders of the frozen Arctic Ocean, belong to a country in Eiirope called Denmark. Greenland — 25.'). One might suppose from the name that this was a beautiful island, verdant with rank vegetation. It is, however, one of the coldest inhabited countries in the world, and a large part of it is constantly covered with ice and snow. The inhabitants are mostly Esquimaux, and live near the south-west coast. They depend chiefly on Ashing and seal-hunting. Upemavik is the most northerly settle- ment. It is often visited by Arctic navigators. Iceland.- -25C. This Lsland is not so cold as Greenland It has some very remarkable features There seem to be vast fires constantly burning deep in the earth. In some places there are hot springs, called gey.ifrs, which occasion- ally send boiling water high in the air, like a fountain. The fires break out in many places, causing volcanoes. Mount Hecla is one of the most celebrated volcanoes In the world. Potatoes and other vegetables are cultivated in the south, and there is plenty of grass, so tliat cattle and sheep are raised. Large flocks of sea-birds visit Iceland, among which is the eider-duck, valuable for its soft down (^:0 265. UHBKNLANUGKS riSBING. 34 SOUTH AMERICA. ^ 267. SCENE IN THE ANDES. CHAPTER 11. SOUTH AMERICA. History.— 257. When South America was discovered, it was inhabited by Indians, some of whom were highly civilized. They had large cities, mth fine buildings ornamented with gold and silver. These people were soon conquered, and robbed of their wealth by the Spaniards and Portuguese. 258. Portugal colonized Brazil ; Spain, nearly all the re- mainder of Soath America. The colonies gained their inde- pendence about fifty years ago. Position.— 259. South America is surrounded by the sea, except at the Isthmus of Panama, where it joins North America. The Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico are on the north ; the Atlantic Ocean lies on the east ; and the Pacific Ocean on the west. 260. The northern portion of South America, Including about three-fourths of the whole, is in the hottest part of the Kartfa, called the Torrid Zone. Coast. — 261. The coast of South America is very regular ; that is, there are no deep bays running into the land. The principal Coast Waters are, the Gicif of Darien, Gulf of Venezuela, Mouth of the Ainazon, Mouth of the La Plata, Strait of Magellan, Gulf of Guayaquil, and Hay of Panama. The Capes are GalUnas, St. Roque, Horn, and Blanco. 262. The principal Islands near the coast are Trinidad, Marajo, Falklands, Terra del Fuego, Chiloe, Juan Fernandez, and Galapagos. 203. Terra del Fuego is a cluster of rocky islands, separ- ated from the mainland by the Strait of Magellan. They are inhabited by a few degraded savages. 264. Juan Fernandez is noted as the island on which Alexander Selkirk spent four years. The story of " Kobinson Crusoe " was founded on his adventures. Area. — 265. South America is about four-fifths the size ol North America. Surface. — 266. A long high range of mountains, called the Andes, extends along the west side of South America, near the Pacific Ocean, somewhat like the mountains on the west side of North America. In- S©'0TII AM'illliltlA ARIBBKAN gSlEA }lN-iuidud I. jizo oi {Divided into Sfuarts 1. Rio Janeiro (275,000) is the largest city in South America. Government— 2!)2. Brazil is a liinitcd monnrehi/. All the other countries are republics, e.Kcept Guiana, which is divided amongst the Ent/Hnk, Dutc/i, and I French. COLUMBIA. 2!)3. Columbia includes the narrow Isthmus of Pan- ama, and extends southerly to the Ecpiator. In tlie western i)art of the country are mountains and high table-lands ; in the south-east are the hnv grassy plains of the Orinoco. The chief cxiiorts are cattle, hides, tropical fruits, coffee, dye-wood, indigo, emeralds, and gold. A railroad extends across the Isthmus from Aspinwall to Panama. 294. Bogota, tlio capital and largest city, is on a Mgh plateau in the midtlle of the country. Cartagena s the chief port. ECUADOR. 295. The west side of I'^cuador is crossed by two ridges of the Andes. Most of the inhabitants reside on the table-land between the.se ridges. The country east of the Andes forms part of the forest plains of the Amazon. Ecuador contains Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, and other lofty volcanoes. '1W>. Quito is a large city situated near the Equator, on table-land nearly two miles above the sea-level. Day arul niglit are always of eciual length at (^uito, each being twelve hours long. Guayaquil is the chief port. Cocoa, india-rubber, and Peruvian bark are exi)orted. 29C. QUITO. -r 38 SOUTH AMERICA. VENEZUELA. 297. Venezuela is crossed by mountain ridges and highlands in the north-west and south-east. Between these highlands are the llanos, coverinR a large part of the cotintry. •:98. The inhab- itants give little attention to the cultivatinu of the soil. They depend cliiefly upon their cattle, which feed on the plains. The hi'^'hland forests yield valuable products. Among the many useful trees is a kind of palm from which mgo is obtained ; and the fo«)-f Europe W3ve io'-med, England, France, Germany, and Soain at first taking the lead ; and the.i (Jreat Britain, France, Germany, Austr'a, and llus'sia. 342. MONT BLANC, THB HIGHEST UOUNTAIN IN BUKOPE. l'^. m TO'KDYl jdj ' lyividtd into Stuarts of xooa Milts. ) 3 laiK seal crof otA I Tei nor ten the T Moi ten( the Tl Sea, Both o/B Stra ofMi 33 Naze Finl venti 33' In In In Elba, nianj Ai of th Su the ] soutl the I whol Port BOUtl Mi Mow Cauc Pyre. Fran Italy iu Tl 3il. dong by de( 342. Many POSITION — iMOUNTAINS. 41 333. About four hundred years ago, Spain. I'ortuRal, Kng- land, and France began to send ships al)roiid over unltnown seas, on voyages of discovery. lirave and liardy sonnien crossed tlie Atlantic to America, and sailed round the south of Africa to 1 ndia. Still later, the Dutcli discovered A ustralia. Position. — .'i;W. Europe is principally in the North Temperate Zone. It haa the Arctic Ocean on the north, Asia on the east, the Black Sea and the Medi- terranean on the south, and the Atlantic Ocean on the west. The Ural Mountains, Ural River, Caspian Sea, and Caucasus Mountains form the boundary between Kurope and Asia. Coast. — 3.35. Europe has many seas and b.ays, ex- tending far into the land, by which a larj,'e portion of the continent has the adviantagea of shipping. The principal Coast Waters are — tlie White Sea, the North Sea, tho Skager Rack, the CntUgat, the Paltic Sea, the Gu{fof Bothnia, Gulf of Finland, Gulf of lliyn , English Channel, Bay of Biscay, Strait of Gibraltar, Gulf of Lionn, Gulf of Genoa, Strait ofOtranto, Adriatic Sea, Archipelago, Dardanelles, Sea of Marmora, Bosphorus, Black Sea, Sea of A zov, and Caspian Sea. 336. The principal Capes are — Nordkyn, Cape North, the Naze, Skaw, Cape Wrath, Cape Clear, Land's End, La Hague, Finisterre, Loca, St. Vincent, Tarifa Point, Pa^saro, Sparti- vento, Lcuca, and Matapan. 337. The principal Islands are : — In the Arctic Ocean, Lofoden, Spitzbergcn. and Nova Zeinbla. In the Atlantic, *'ie Faroe, the British Liles, and the Azores, In the Medit' ^an, the Balearic Isles, Sicily, Sardinia, Elba, Corsica, Malta, tlie Ionian Isles, Candia, Cyprus, and many small islands ea.st of Greece. Area. — 3o8. Eurojie contains about one-fourteenth of the land surface of the Earth. Surface.— 339. Europe consists of a lowland plain in the north-east, and a highland region in the west and south. The Lowlands extend from the North Sea to the Ural Mountains, including about two-thirds of the whole area. The Highlands include Norway, Spain, Portugal, the south of France, Italy, Switzerland, tho Bouth of Germany, Austria, Turkey, and Greece. 340. The principal Mountains are —the Scandinaidan Mountains, in Nonvay ; the Ural, in llussia ; the Caucasus, between the Casiuan and Black Seas ; the Pyrenees, between France and Spain ; the Alps, in France, Italy, and Switzerland ; the Apennines, in Italy; the Carpathian, in Austria; and the Balkan, iu Turkey. 341. The Scandinavian Mountains form an irregular wall wlong the Atlantic coast of Norway. They are much broken by deep ravines. 342. The Alps are the grandest mountains of Europe. Many of the high peaks are covered with snow throughout 342. ICE-llIVEH — OLACIEU oK TUE KIIUNK. the year. Mont Blanc, about tliree miles above the sca-leTel, is the highest of these peaks. In the valleys are vast masses of ice called glaciers. The great pressure from above causes the glaciers to move slowly down, until they reach the warmer levels, where they melt and give rise to rivers. 343. On the lower slopes of the Alps are large pine-forests. The most noted of these lies on the north, and is called the Black Forest. Narrow roads wind along the steep sides of the Alps lead- ing to pretty villages nestled high up among the hills, n ith lofty snow-capped peaks rising far above them. In some of the high valleys are beautiful lakes, fed by glaciers, with orchards and vineyards sloping down to their shores. 344. Many travellers visit the Alps every year, to enjoy the beautiful scenery, to hunt the wild deer in the forests and the chamois among the cliffs and crags, to examine the wonderful ice-rivers or glaciers ; and the bolder ones, to climb the icy steeps to the highest peaks. mmm (^ 42 EUROPE. 'MS. ALPINE LAKE. This mountain-climbing is very dangerous. Sometimes tlie traveller loses his footing on the ice, or an immense mass of snow slips from above and dashes him over a fearful i)reci- l)ice. There are deep crevasses, or openings in the ice, cov jred over with loose snow. Travellers reiiuire to take guides wlio know the way. Tliey go in ttle, one behind anotlier, tied to- gether with ropes ; and thus, if one slips, tlie others will hold him up. Sometimes they are overtaken by drifting, blind- ing snow-storms, and they lose tlieir way and are frozen to death. 345. High up on one of the mountains of Switzerland, nearly two miles above the sea-level, is a house called the Monaster]! of St. Bernard, founded nine hundred years ago. It is occupied by tlie monks of St. Bernard, wlio have long been noted for their kindness in saving travellers lost on the 345. MONA8TEUV OF ST. BERNARD. mountains. These monks have wonderfully sagacious dogs, wliich hunt out those who have fallen exhausted amid the snows. 34G. IJetween France and Italy are high carriivge-roads over the Alps. A wonderful railway-tunnel has also been made tlirough a high peak called Mmit CiniK. This tunnel, or passage-way, is about seven ami a half miles long, twenty-six feet wide, and twenty feet liigh. 347. Mount Vesuvius in Iti-.ly, and Mouut Etna in the island of Sicily, are remarkable volcanoes. Rivers.— IMS. The rivers of Europe arc not so long and large as tliose of the other gi-eat divisions of the J'^ai'th. If \vc stretc;h a line on the map from the Strait of (Gibraltar to the Ural Mountains, we shall divide the rivers into two gi-oups. Flowing toward the north and west are the Dwimt, Vixfuin, Oder, Elbe, Rhine, Seine, Lohr, iind Tugus ; flowing toward the east and south are the Volija, Don, Dnieper, Danube, and Rhone. 340. The Volga, over 2,000 miles long, and the Danube, about two-thirds as long, are tlie largest rivers of Europe. 3r)0. The Rhine, flowing from the Alps, is one of the most beautiful rivers in the world. Along its shores are pretty villages, large cities, charming valleys, and vine-clad hills. In some places it flows past high, rocky clitt's, crowned with grim stone castles, which were built long ago for defence in times of war. Lakes.— 3r)l. Tliere are many small lakes in the north of j'lurope. Lado{ia, 130 miles long, is the largest. The lakes in the Alpine valleys are celebrated for their beauty. Geneva and Constance are the largest. Climate. — 3.52. Euro|)e has a milder climate than any other part of the world at the same distance from PRODUCTS THE BRITISH ISLES. 43 the Equator. The western side, being near the warm waters of the ocean, has a milder chmate than the interior. Tlie winters in the north are intensely cold. Products. — 3.53. The southern countries prodtice olives,- figs, oranges, gi-apes, tobacco, and the nnil- berrj', which yields food for the silk-worm. The central countries produce the various kinds of grain and vegetables. The northern countries yield barley, oats, and i)asturage. Near the Arctic Ocean nothing will grow but lichens, mosses, and stiuited shrubs. Minerals. — 351. Kurojio docs not contain rich mines of golvhieh are most thickly i)eoi)led are Belgimn and ICngland. Most of the inhabitants of Europe believe in the Christian Nniiif. Population. riipit.ii. (iKKAT Britain 35,0(X),00<) (!,500,0(X) 2,IXX),0(X) 85,(XX),000 45,0(K),0(X) 37,SIX),(XX) London. Stockholm. Copenhagen. St. Petersburg. Borlin. Vienna. NcuiwAV andSwedkx Dkn.maiik KussiA (JkRMA.V 1']MI'IKE.. AlIHTHIA Hor.LAND 4,270,000 , Amsterdam. 5,500,(XX) Hnissids. Bkloium FRANC'K Switzerland 37,(>(X),000 2,S(X),0(X) l(i,400,(X)0 4,.'^«0,tH)0 28,400,000 5,(i00,000 2,000,000 5,37fi,000 1,7W,0()0 23(i,0(X) 2,000,(H)0 815,000 Paris. Berne. Madrid. lii.sbon. Rome. Constantinople. Athens. P.ucharest. Belgrade. Cettigno. Sophia. Philippopolis. Si'A.'N PoilTUdAL. . Italv Turkey Greece ROUMANIA Servia ... MoNTKNEdUO lilJI.OARIA East Koumelia. The most powerf ^ countries of Europe are Great liiitain, (Jermany, France, Russia, Austria, and Italy. These are sometimes called the Six Great Powcm of Europe, Government. — .VtS. Most of the countries of Europe are called limited monarchies, because tli»^ laws are made by the sovereigns assisted by parliament.s elected by the people. The (!zar of Russia and the Sultan of Turkey nile their dominions without the assistance of a parliament. Switzerland and France are republics. THE BRITISH ISLES. 359. The British Isles consist of two large islands, Great Britain and Ireland, and many neighbouring small islands. History.— :iG0. \\'hen Britain was first visited by tho Ro- ^ 44 EUROPE. mans, more than nineteen hundred years ago, the country was covered with forests, and inhabited by barbarous tribes, who lived by hunting and Ashing, clothed themselves with skins of wild animals, and stained their bodies with the juice of herbs. Position. — 361. The British Isles are in the northern part of the North Temperate Zone. The Atlantic Ocean lies on the north and west ; the North Sea, the Strait of Dover, and the English Channel, are on the east and south, separating Britain from the mainland of Enrope. 302. The Strait of Dover, at the narrowest part, is twenty- one miles wide. It has been proposed to make a tunnel here, so that rail-cars may pass under the sea from one side to the otlier. Climate.— 303. The prevailing winds come from the soutli-west, over the warm waters of the Atlantic, bringing heat and moisture. Hence the climate is milder and more humid than in most coTintries as far north. Area. — 304. Great Britain is about three times as large as New Brunswick. It is the largest European island. Ireland is about twice as large as the peninsula of Nova Scotia. 365. Great Britain includes three countries,— i??!^/- land, in the south ; Wales, in the west ; and Scotland in the north. ENGLAND AND WALES. History.— 366. The name Britain is derived from the Britons, the early inhabitants of the country. Twelve or tliirteen hundred years ago, several German tribes came from Denmark and took possession of the southern part of the island. The Britons were driven from their homes : some of them crossed to the north of Franr^, others took refuge on the mountains of Wales, where their descendants still live. The name England is derived from Angles, one of the Ger- man tribes which settled in the country. Coast. —367. The ]mncipal Coast Waters are— Mouth of the Humbcr, the Wash, and the Mouth of the Thames, on the east; the Spithead, Solent, Plymouth Sound, Falmouth Harbour, and Mount's Bay, on the south; Bristol Channel, Cardigan Bay, Menai Strait, Mouth of the Mersey, MorccambeBay, and Solway Firth, on the west. Near the mouth of the Thames are dangerous shoals called the Goodwin Sands, on which many ships are wrecked every year. 30S. The principal Capes are — Flamhorough Head, Spui-n Head, North Foreland, the Needles, Portland Point, Start Point, Lizard Point, Land's End, and St. David's Head. 300. The principal Islands on the coast are— the Isle of Wight, Scilly IsJcs, and Channel Isles, on the south ; and the Isle of Man and Anglesey, on the west. 370. The Isle of Wight, varied with high hills and rich valleys, is noted for its beauty. The Queen has here a favour- ite residence, called Osborne House. 371. The Channel Isles, Jersey, Guernsey, Aldcmey, and Sark, are near the coast of France. These islands yield apples, pears, peaches, and other fruits, in great abundance. 372. The Isle of Man, in the middle of the Irish Sea, con- tains valuable lead mines. The inhabitants are called Manx. 373. Anglesey is separated from the mainland by Menai Strait. The strait is crossed by two wonderful bridges— a Suspension Bridge for ordinary travel, and the Britannia Tubular Bridge for rail-cars. The Tubular Bridge consists of an immense tube of iron, over half a mile in length, resting on stone towers one hun- dred feet above the water. Anglesey is noted for its stone 377. WINUKJIMEKE. Jh ^T^fiLArfl) & 'WAL]^3 W EDUtBUROU Berwick a.(vA O R T H {Divided into Squares of loo MiUs.) wmmmm_ AUEA GENERAL FEATURES. 45 tables and other curious remains of a superstitious people called Druids. Tlie copper mines of the island have yielded immense wealth. Area. — 'M4. England and Wales together are rather more than twice as large as New Brunswick. Surface.— 375. The eastern side of England, includ- ing the greater part, is low and level or undulating ; the western side is niountain(Mis. A large part of the country slopes towards the east. The Mountains are —the Chcdut Hilh, tha Pennine Rangi:, and the ("'«?>i'i"i-'"/"' t'^f-'uptnhf, in tlie north ; the Cambrian Mo\intains, coverinR a large part of Wales ; and the Devonian Mountains, in the south-west. Snowdon, in the north-west of Wales, 3,590 feet higli. Is the liighe.st peait. Rivers. — 370. The principal rivers are — the Ti/ne, Ttcs, Number (Ouse, Treyit), Great Ouse, and Thames, on the east ; and the Severn and Mersey, on the west. Tlie Thames and Severn, the two largo.st rivers, are about 220 miles in lengtli. Lakes, — 377. The principal lakes are in the plens of the Cumberland Mountains. Tlie most important ariv— Winder- 384. PART OF WINUSOK CASTLE. mere, Derwentwater, and Ulleswater. They are celebrated for tlieir beauty, and are a favourite resort of tourists. Products. — 378. England owes much of her great- ness to her immense mineral wealth. The most im- portant minerals are, coni, iron, copper, tin, lead, and salt. They are found chielly in the north and west. 379. The soil in carefully cultivated, and yields large crops of grain and vegetables. The south-we.stern counties are celebrated for fine orcliards ; the south-east, for the culture of hops, which are used in the manufacture of beer. 380. A large part of the country is devoted to pasturage. Cattle, horses, and sheep, are very numerous, and groat at- tention is given to the improvement of breeds. 381. P'ngland exceeds every country in tlie world in tlio variety and v.alue of its manufactures These include cottons, woollens, silks, and all kinds of metallic goods. The manu- facturing towns are generally in the coal di.stricts. 382. The extensive manufactures give rise to trade, so that England is the greatest commercial country in the world. Cotton, silk, and ntlier raw materials, are brought from foreign countrius ; anil uianufactured goods are exported. General Features.— 3S3. A large part of England is owned by wealtliy noblemen, who rent their lands to tenants, or hire a large number of labourers to work them. The landlord lives in a splendid castle or pal- ace, and the labourers in Inimble cottages. 46 EUROPE. 884. The rich green fields are generally separated by hedges of shrubs, which add greatly to the beauty of the country. Large tracts are devoted to parks and forests, con- taining stately elms, oaks, an(i other trees, planted many hun- dred years ago. These beautiful woodlands are inhabited by deer, rabbits, foxes, and other wild animal*. The chase, or hunting on horseback, is a favourite sport. Windsor Forest, near the Queen's Castle at Windsor, is fifty-six miles in circuit. Inhahitants. — 385. The population of England and Wales in 1881 was about 2(5,000,000. Some of the inhabitants possess great wealth ; others are miserably poor, one in every twenty-three being a pauper. The wealthy and middle classes are generally well educated, but the poor are very ignorant. The most noted institutions of learning are the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Towns.— 386, England has many large and import- ant cities. The following are the largest : — London (3,800,000), Liverpool, Manchester, Birming- Imm, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, Newcastle, Bradford, Stoke, Hull, and Portsmouth. 387. London, the capital of the British Empire, is situated on both sides of the Kiver Thames, forty miles from the sea. It is the largest and wealthiest city in the world. The river load and unload, extend five or six miles along the river. Bristol and Hall rank next as commercial cities. 389. Portsmouth is the head-quarters of the British Navy. Its dock-yards cover one hundre d h^ THE ORKNEYS GLASGOW. 47 390. The Orkneys produce oats and vegetables. The Shet- land Isles are nuted for their wild ponies. Both groups are destitute of trees. 397. The Hebrides include about five hundred small Islands. Lewis is the largest. Skye is noted for its beautiful mountain scenery. Staffa is noted for Fingal's Cave, a large cavern opening from the sea, studded along its sides witli huge pillars of rock. Eigg is noted for a cave in which all the inhabitants of the island were smoked to death by a hostile clan. Area. — 398. Scotland is about as large as New Brunswick. Surface. — 399. Scotland is a mountainous country, especially in the north. The northern portions are called the Highlands ; the southern, the Lowlands. 400. The Highlands are rugged and wild. Tliey are broken in many pl.aces by fearful precipices and deep glens. When concealed by blinding snows or tliick fogs which often envelop the Highlands, these precipices are very dangerous to the mountain traveller. Glenmore, or "the Great Glen," extending from Moray Firth to Loch Linnhe, divides tlie Highlands into two sections. 401. The Orampians, on the south of (ilenmore, are th« highest mountains in tlie British Islands. They are so rocky and steep that they form an almost impassable wall, except along the narrow passes where the streams break through. Ben Nevia, 4400 feet high, is the highest point. 402. The Higlilands have often been a refuge in times of war and persecution. Olencoe, a valley in the Northern Highlands, is noted for the disgraceful massacre of its inhabi- tants, the MacDonalds, by a party of English soldiers, about two hundred years ago Rivers. — 403. The streams are generally short and rapid. The Tai/ and the Clyde (the latter noted for ship- building along its banks) are the most important rivers. Lakes. — 404. Small lakes, called lochs, arc numerous. They are generally in mountain glens, and are bordered by high cliffs. Loch Lomond, 20 miles long, is the largest lake in Groat Britain. Loch Leven is noted for its castle on an island, in wliich a Scottish Queen was once imprisoned. Products. — 405. The .soil in the Lowlands is care- fully cultivated, and yields large crops of grain and 404. liAKE SCENE IN THT! HTOHLANDS. vegetables. The Highlands are cold and rainy, and better suited for pasturage. Cattle and sheep are numerous, and many of the inhabitants are shepherds. Coal and iron are abundant in the central parts of Scot- land. The manufactures are similar to those of England. Inhabitants.— 40G. The population in 1881 was 3,734,441. The Scotch are generally intelligent and industrious. The Highlanders are hardy and brave, and speak a language called Gaelic. They were formerly divided into clans, as the Campbells, the MacDonalds. Each clan was governed by its own chief. Towns.— 407. The largest cities of Scotland are — Dundee, Aberdeen, Glasgow (.511,500), Edinburgh, Paisley, and Greenock. 408. Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, is one of the most beautiful cities in the world. Its chief feature consists of two ridges of hills, separated by a deep narrow valley, and connected by bridges. One ridge is occupied by the New Town, which has many broad streets and fine squares. The more elevated ridge has many large old buildings, and is called the Old Town. On a bold rock, at one extremity of this hill, is the Castle, so noted in Scottish history; at the other extremity is the equally celebrated Holyrood Hoxue. the palace of the Scottish Sovereigns. 409. Glasgow, on the Clyde, is noted for its manufactures, including cotton goods, engines, all kinds of machinery, and iron ships. It is here that the celebrated Cunard steamers 1 48 KUROPE. I ) aro built. James Watt, the inventor of the condensing iteatn-engine, made Iiih tlrst experiments at (ilasgow. 410. Paisley is noted for its shawl and thread manufac- tures ; Kilmarnock, for its carpets : Dundee, for its linen ; A,berdeen, for its ship-building; Peterhead, for its fine granite. Perth, once the capital of Scotland, is a beautiful city. The stone on whicii the kings sat during the coronation ceremony was removed many centuries ago to Westminster Abbey. WlCk is the head-tiuarters of the herring ttsliery. Dumbarton is noted for its ancient castle ; Bannockbum, for a victory gained by King Robert the Bruce over the Knglish. IRELAND. History. — 411. Ireland once comprised several small independent kingdoms. The (luarrels of the Icings led to the conquest of the country by the English, about seven hundred years ago. Ireland has often been dis- turbed by violent political agitation. Coast.— 412. Ireland has many bays and harbours. The most important are : — Lough Foyle, Belfast Lough, Dublin Bay, Cork Harbour, Bantry Bay, Kenmare Bay, Dingle Bay, Tralee Bay, Mouth of the Shannon, Gahcay Bay, Clew Ban, and Donegal Bay. 413. On the north coast, 10 miles from Coleraine, is the Oiants' Causeway, consisting of many thousands of closely- connected pillars of rock, which rise out of the sea, and ap- pear in the distance like a work of art. According to Irish legend, this natural wonder was the work of gia its, who were trying to make a road across the sea to Scotlan<\. Surface. — 414. Ireland is generally low and level. At various places near the coast are mountain masses. The most important are the Donegal Mountains, in the north ; the Mourne and the Wickloio Mountains, in the east ; and Magillicuddy Recks, in the south- vjrest. Cam Tual (3,400 feet), in the Magillicuddy Reeks, is the highest point. 415. Large bogs extend across the middle of the country. They are covered many foet deep with a black sutwtance called peat, formed from partially decayed mo.sses. Peat is cut into small blocks, dried in the sun, and used as fuel. Rivers. — 41G. The most important rivers are the Foyle, the Liffey, and the Shannon. The Shannon, 250 miles long, is much the largest river. It forms several lakes. Lakes. — 417. Small lakes, called loughs, are numerous. Lough Neagh, 17 miles long, is the largest lake. Its waters contain mineral substances which cause wood placed in them to assume the appearance of stone. Lough Derg has many small islands. One of these islands is noted as a place of pilgrimage, hundreds resorting here annually for fasting and prayer. The Lakes of Killamey, near Oarn Tual, aro noted for their beautiful scenery. They are often visited by travellers Products.— 418. Ireland has a moist clim.ate, which makes it better adapted to grazing than tillage. Its fields are so beautifully green, that it has been c.illed the Emerald Isle. Potatoes, vvhe.at, oats, and flax are cultivated. Much attention is given to the rearing of cattle, sheep, and swine. 419. Manufacturing is carried on mostly in the north. Linen goods are the most important manufactures. The exports consist of grain, butter, cheese, cattle, bacon, and linen. Inhabitants.— 420. The jiopulation of Ireland in 18.S1 was r),ir>!),839. In 1841 it was nearly double this number. Many of the Irish are very poor, live in miserable cabins, and rent their .small farms from ricii landlords ; but they aro cheerful and kind-hearted. Larcro numbers emigrate every year to America. Many of the landlords live in Er.gland. The Irish are generally Roman Catholics, except in the north. Divisions. — 421. Ireland is divided into four Province! : Ulster, in the north ; Leinstcr, in the east ; Munste.r, in the south ; and Connauglit, in the west. Towns.— 422. Dublin, the capital of Ireland, near the mouth of the Liftey, is a fine city, containing many magnificent public buildings. Near the city is a large enclosure called Phcenix Park, beautifidly or- namented with trees, ponds, and winding roads. Many deer and other .animals run wild among its thickets. 423. Belfast is the most important town in the north of Ireland, and is noted for its linen manufactures. Londonderry U celebrated for its resistance to the besieg- ing army of James II. Its inhabitants, tliough in a starving condition, refused to surrender. 424. Cork, the chief city in the south, has one of the best harbours in the world. The steamers between England and America call at Queenstown, in Cork Harbour, to land and receive the mails. Limerick, on the Shannon, is noted for the manufacture of lace. Galway is an important sea-port. Ballinasloe has the largest cattle and .shnop fair in Ireland. 42.'). Dundalk, Drogheda, and Wexford are important sea-port towns. At Youghal Sir Walter lialeigh intro- duced the cultuin of the potato. Near Trim the Duke of Wellington was l)orn. Not far distant is the Hill Of Tata, noted in ancient times for its palace, in which the kings, clergy, and bards met to deliberate on public atTairs. The Irish have great love for this spot. ■-Tj—i,. noted foi travellers ,te, which IH'^K. Its een c!illend cold, and THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 51 one of the ;ludes over lived about d unimport- Peter him- lld much to ;ountries in Wright, .an; that B took with build sliips, jught many become dis- us to beat art of their plains. It rgest river canals, so e country is mos.tly and other cold, and i R the summers are so short that grain will not ripen. The rivers and lakes abound wth fish and wil. !owl; and in the forests are many bears, wolves, and other wild animals, which yield valuable fur. The people liunt, fish, cut wood, make charcoal, tar, pitch, and [)otash. 450. In tlie south of llussia are rich lands, yielding grain, flax, and hemp. Large quantities of wheat are raised near the Black Sea. The land is mostly owned by the nobles. The labourers, called serfs, were, until a few years ago, bought and sold, liku cattle, with the estates on which they lived. In the south-east are large treeless plains, called steppes, which afford pasture to herds of wild horses. 451. Russia has not many railroads. Trade is carried on by the rivers and canals. The products of the country, and goods brought from Persia, China, and other countries, arc sold at fairs, held annually in certain cities, to which mer- chants resort. 452. In the winter seasot, men, warmly wrapped in furs, go on long journeys in large sleighs, (!.awn by swift horses. Sometimes, in passing through forests, they are pursued by hungry wolves, and are compelled to urge their horses to the utmost speed to save their lives. 453. St. Petersburg (700,000), the capital of Russia, is n vory large, splendid city. It has many beautiful churches, with tall spires and gilded domes. The Cathedral of St. Isaac is said to have cost $70,000,000. The Czar's Winter Palace is the largest palace in Europe, affording room for six thousand people. It is said that there are only two months in the year during which snow does not fall in St. Petersburg. 454. Moscow is a large city in the centre of Russia. Nap- oleon I. of France led a large army into Russia, intending to make his winter-quarters at Moscow, and in the spring to conquer the country. After much fatigue, at the beginning of winter ho arrived at the city, only to find it wrapped in flames; for the Russians had set it on fire, to deprive liim of a winter home. Napoleon was obliged to retreat, but before he got back to France the most of his army had perished of cold and hunger Riga, Nijni-Novgorod, and Odessa are important towns. Astrachan has a large trade with Western Asia. THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 4.55. The (Jcrman p]ini)iro lies between the Alps on the south, and the North Sea and the Baltic on the north. 4.5(5. The Empire includes the four kingdoms, Prus- sia, Saxoni/, Bavaria, and Wurtemburf/, and many small States. These countries wore united in 1871. under the King of Pi-ussia, who is styled the Emperor of Germany. 457. The south of Germany is elevated and moun- tainous, including the lower slopes of the Alps. Here are large dark forests, which yield ma- terial for the ship-builders, the charcoal-burners, and the wood-carvers. In this part of the country' are also large pastures, where cattle and sheep feed in great numbers. 458. Through this higiiland region flow the Danube a'^'l ae Rhine, two of tue m<- m- portant rivers of Europe. The Rhine breaks through tlie mountains along a narrow r.2 EUROPE. 1,'allerie.s, and other works of art. The people are \ery I intelligent, and the law compels them to send their children to school. 463. Berlin (1,118,000), the ciipital, is a large anrt beautiful city. Its university is one of the most celebrated in the world. 4C4. Hamburg, on the Elbe, is the most commercial city. Dantzic, near the mouth of the Vistula, ships large quan tities of grain. Its granaries are six or seven stories high. Bremen is an important port. Dresden is noted for its picture-gallery ; Cologne for its cathedral. Strassburg is a strongly fortified city taken from France in 1S71. It has a magnificent cathedral and a wonderful clock. 405. Leipsic is noted for its trade in books, and for ita great fairs held three times a year. Thousands of merchants attend these fairs, coming from all parts of Europe, and even from Asia. AUSTRO-HUNGARY. 466. Austria, now properly called the Aiistro- Hnngarian Monarchy, is one of the leading States of Kurope, It consists of several countries united under one sovereign. i I 464. CLOCK IN STKASBURO CATHEDRAL. gorge, which widens into a beautiful fertile valley, clothed with vineyards, orchards, and grain fields. Along tlie banks are many pretty villages and large cities ; and here and tliere on a high cliflf is one of those strong stone castles, built hundreds of years ago, and now clianged by the lapse of time into pic- turesque ruins. 459. The country towards the north is low and level, yielding grain, tobacco, and flax. 460. Germany produces wool of the finest quality, and its woollen maimfactures are very important. The Germans also excel in the manufacture of lace. 461. Germany is said to yield half the ziv/: used in the world ; it also yields iron and otlicr minerals. In the sands ' •iloug the shores of the Baltic is found a beautiful yellow substance called amber. 462. Germany has many large wealthy cities, which, contain magnificent cathedrals, universities, picture- en apki. MAI/r MINE Oir AUSTIUA. ■ 1. tU^ HOLLAND. 58 le are \'ery send their ifi beautiful 1 the world, lercial city, large quan- ;ories high. )ted for its isburg is a It has a and for its merchants e, and even ! Austro- r States of ted under 467. Austria has but little sea-coast. The western part of the country lies along the eastern slopes of the Alps. East of the Alps is a beautiful country of low hills and fertile valleys, watered by the Danube and its tributaries. Still further east, where the Danube turns to the south, are immense low plains, very fertile, except the swamps near the rivers, and certain tracts covered with deep sand. Beyond the plains, in the far east, are the Carpathian Mountains. 408. Austria has a mild climate. Grapes and all kinds of grain grow luxuriantly ; flax, tobacco, and silk are also important products. 409. Austria is also rich in minerals. Its salt mines are the richest in the world. The great salt mines are beyond the Carpathian Mountains, near the source of theVistnla. In some of the large underground chambers, formed by removing the salt, the miners have made curious pillars and statues of salt. One chamber is formed into a cliapel with decorated pillars and arches. It has a pulpit, figures of saints, and of priests kneeling before the altar, all cut out of rock salt. The miners attend service here once every year. 470. Vienna (1,021,000), the capital, is one of the largest and [finest cities of Europe. It is situated on the Danube, Ti'^ar the highlands. 471. Trieste is the chief sea-port. Budaand Pesth, on opposite sides of the Danube, are together the capital of Hun- gary. Prague is a large commercial city. HOLLAND. 472. Holland is a small country, but it has a most interesting history. By great bravery and hard fighting, Holland gained its freedom from Spanish tyranny about three hundred years ago. It soon became very prosperous, and sent its ships to all parts of the world, making discoveries, forming colonies, and carrying on trade. 473. Holland is a level, low country, lying along the North Sea, near the mouth of the Rhine. It has no mountains, forest.s, or rock.s. Cities, villages, and fertile meadows, in some parts of the country, arc below the sea-level. Tlie sea is fenced out, and the rivers are kept in their channels, by strong high dikes of earth and stone. Some- times the dikes break, causing great damage and loss of life. The rivers enter the sea by several mouths. 474. Large ditches or canals, with high banks, run through the country in all directions. In summer the canals are covered with boats, and in winter with sleighs and skaters. Women skate to market, carrying their baskets on their heads). 473. LANDSCAPE IN HOLLAND. 475. The land protected by the dikes requires to be drained, and, as the water cannot flow oui, it is taken out by large Vnmps worked by windmills. These windmills, with their broad sails, give a singular appearance to the country. 476. Holland has a rainy climate, so that it is not a good grain country. The pastiu-es are excellent, and large quantities of butter and cheese are exported. The fisheries are a source of much wealth. The trade with the East Indies is important. 477. The inhabitnnts of Holland are called Dutch. They are industrious, cleanly, and intelligent. They have great regard for the wading-birds called storks, and make nests for them on the roofs of their houses. These birds are considered very useful in destroying worms which eat holes in the dikes. 478. The Hag^e, near the mouth of the Rhine, is the .seat of the Court. Amsterdam, on the Y, is tlie capital and largest city. Rotterdam is also a large city. 479. Leyden is noted for bravely refusing to yield to the Spaniards, even when the .starving inhabitants were com- 54 EUROPE. pelled to eat horses and dogs. Finally, the Dutch broke down the dikes, and the Spaniards were driven off by the water. 480. Holland owns Java and other Islands in the East Indie.s. BELGIUM. 481. Belgium is one of the smallest, but one of the most prosperous kingdoms in Europe, So many battles were fought in Belgium in former times, that it has been called the Battle-Field of Europe; its soil is 80 carefully cultivated, that it has been called the Garden of Europe; and it is so crowded with houses and inhabitants, that a foreign king, in passing through it, said, " This is only one great city." 482. In the north the country is low and level, with many canals, like Holland. It is protected from the sea by hills of sand, which the winds have raised along the coast. The southern part of the country is more elevated and hilly. 483. The farms in Belgium are very small, but they yield large quantities of grain, flax, wool, butter, and cheese. The highlands of the interior have rich mines of poul, iron, and zinc. Belgium is noted for its manufactures, especially carpets, lace, and fire-arms. 4S4. Brussels, the capital, is a handsome city. It manu- factures a costly lace. A few miles to the south is Waterloo, where a great battle was once fought. Antwerp is noted for its commerce, its curious old houses, and its beautiful cathedral. Ghent is noted for its cotton manufactures and its hot- houses. Liege, noted for the manufacture of flrc-arms and hardware, is called the Birmingham of Belgium. FRANCE. 485. France is one of the Six Great Countries of Europe. It is noted for the frequent changes in its form of government. At one time it is a monarchy, with a king or an emperor ; and at another time a republic, with a president. 486. This country lies to the south of England, from which it is separated by the English Channel. The Bay of Biscay i.s on the west ; the Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Lion.-i are on the south. 487. France is generally a pretty level country, the north are large sanr'y plains. In The Pyrenees Mountains separate France from Spain ; the Alps separate it from Switzerland and Italy. 488. The principal Rivers are the Seine, Loire, Garonne. and Rhone. 489. The north of France is somewhat foggy; l)ut as we go south, it becomes clear, warm, and delightful. 490. In the centre and north are large fields of grain, flax, and sugar beet. In the warm south are vine- yards, olive and mulberry groves, and fig orchards. 491. Sugar is made from the sugar-beet. The grape-vines grow on stakes, as beans do in our country, only further apart; and wine is made from grapes somewhat as we make cider from apples. The berries from the olive-tree are pressed, and yield an oil called olive oil. The leaves of the mulberry- tree furnish food for the silk-worm, a kind of caterpillar which yields silk. The chestnut-tree is very common in the forests, and chest- nuts are an important article of food with many of the poor. France exports wine, brandy, oil, fruit, silks, gloves, and many kinds of fancy goods. 493. FOUNTAIN IN PARIS. 492. The French people are gay and fond of amuse- ment. They are also excitable, and like change. I IFIAHSI, ^TMM ks. Londc LisF)fi StVincedt .SVr. i>ei} ibra //'21. Tlie \ofly Alps form a curve around the north of Italy, and the Apenni7ie.t extend tlirougli the country from north to itouth. On the south of the Alps are several beautiful lakes. 522. Italy haHadeli^'htfiil climate, and a reuiarkahiy I line Hky and cle.ar atnutHphere. On the west coast is a low marsliy dintrict, in which tlio air is 80 poisonous tliat it is dangerous cvcu to pass tlirough it. .52.3. The jjlains, valleyK, and lower mountain slopes are well suited to a!,'riculture, yielding grain, tlie grai^e, mulberry, olive, and fig. The i)lainH of the Kiver To, on the south of the Alps, are exceedingly fertile, pro- ducing large crops of wheat and rice, Large herds of cows are j)a8tured liere ; and from their rich milk cheese of the best (luality is manufactured. In tho forests of the mountain slopes fjrow the oak, walnut, and chestnut Chestnuts are much uspd as food. 622. HOBNB IN ITALY. 624. Marble of the finest quality is obtained from the .Apennines. Many beautiful buildings, statues, and pillars iiro made from it in Italy, and large quantities of it are sent to other countries. I 628. VKNiot. 'm IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. £/ /j^^ '^.. 1.0 I.I 1.25 il^ mil 2.0 M 2.2 U 11.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation €3 N> 23 W£»T MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 '"% V "^ Vv"^Q^ •^Js % 38. The Turks believe in a false prophet named Mohammed. Their dress and manners are very odd. (ioth men and women wear long flow- ing dresses, with a belt around the waist. The men wind a long scarf, called a turban, about tlicir lieads ; and the women wear a thick white veil over their faces when they go out. They have no chairs or .sofas in their houses, but sit on the carpet or on cush- ions. In the large cities, the higher classes are beginning to adopt the customs of other European countries. .539. Constantinople, the capi- tal, is one of the largest cities of Europe. It has a beautiful har- bour, called the Golden Horn. The minarets of the Mohamme- dan mosques give the city a fine api)earance in the distance. Adrianople, on the Maritza, is the chief manufacturing city. Salonica has considerable trade. The sovereign of Turkey is called the Sultan. The Turkish Empire, or, as it is called, the Ottoman Empire, comprises large territories in Western Asia and several tributary states in Northern Africa. .540. EASTERN ROUMELIA AND BULQARIA for- merly belonged to Turkey, to which they still i)ay an annual tribute. They are situated on the south of the Danube, along the Black Sea, and are separated by the Balkan Mountains. The products are grain, tobacco, grapes, and other fruits, which, with wool, skins, and timber, are the chief exports. Phllippopolis is the capiUl of Eastern KoumeUa ; SopUa, of Bulgaria. .541. ROUMANIA is situated between the Pruth and the Danube. The Carpathian Mountains, on the west, slofie easterly and southerly to the treeless plains which comprise a large i)art of the country. The products are wlieat, maize, millet, flax, tobacco, and grapes ; but the wealth of the country consists chiefly in cattle, horses, sheep, and swine. . Bucharest, the capital, and Jassy are large cities, exports grain and wool. Oalatz 8ERVU country on the south of the 638. TURKS AT MKAT. ! Danube. The soil is fertile, yielding jrain and fruit. ! Horses, cattle, and sheep are numerous. The Servians ': are a brave, enterprising people, noted for love of [ country. Belgn^ade, on the Danube, is the capital, trade with Austria and (ireat Britain. It has a largo 543. MONTENEGRO is a small mountainous country on the east of the Adriatic Sea. The i)eople are brave, but rude and uneducated. Tliey live chiefly by agriculture, Cettigne, a small village, is tlie capital. Antivaxi ia u small town on the Adriatic 60 ASIA. 557. SCENE ON THE QANOES. CHAPTER IV. ASIA. Histvory. — 544. Some of the countries of Asia are very interesting, on account of the great events which have happened in them. It is supposed that the Garden of Eden, in which God placed Adam and Eve, was situated somewhere between the Black Sea and the Caspian. Most of the events which the Bible records occurred in Western Asia, in and around Pales- tine ; and the greater part of it was written there. Position. — 645. Asia lies on the east of Europe and Africa. Away in the north-eaat, at Beliring Strait, it approaches very near North America. It lias tlie Arctic Ocean on Uie north, the Pacific on the east, and the Indian Ocean on the uouth. Coaat.— 546. Tlie i)rinoipal Coast Waters are,— the Sea of Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea, China Sea, and the GtUf of Tonquin, (m the east; the Gulf of Siam, Strait of Malacca, Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman, Persian Gulf, and Gulf of Aden, on the south ; the Strait of Bab-el- Mandcb, Red Sea, Medi- terranean Sea, and Blnck Sea, on the west. Tlie coast waters on iihe nouth run up into the land, form- ing three great peninsulas. 547. The most important Islands near Asia are, — the Japan Islands, Formosa, Hainan, and the Philip- pine Island',, on the eatt; Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and Ceylon, on the south ; and Cyprus, on the west. Area. — 548. Asia is twice as large as North America, and includes one-third of the land in the world. Surface. — 549. Asia has the highest mountains, the lowest valleys, the broadest table-lands, and the most extensive plains in the world. In America the high- lands extend north and south, near the coasts ; in Asia we find them stretching east and west through the middle of the continent. The highlands of Central Asia consist of a broad table-land, with the Himalaya Mountaim on the south, the Altai Mountains on the north, and two other paral- lel nunmtain walls through the interior. 550. The Himalayas, on the north of Hindustan, are the highest mountains in the world. The highest peak, called Mount Everest, is Ave and a half miles above the level of the sea. In ascending these mountains from the south, we should first And dense forests, similar to those on the lower slopes of the Andes. Here are many kinds of palm trees, one of which is called the fan palm. It is remarkable for its broad leaves, a single leaf being large enough to cover a dozen men ! We should find here many large and ferocious wild beasts, such {DivuUd into Sftuwtt tf rooo MUtt.) I RIVERS — CLIMATE, 61 M lions, tigers, leopards, and hyenas. Beyond tlie forests are ■hrubs and bright-coloured flowers; then wild rough roclu and everlasting snows. 651. These mountains are more difllcult to climb than al- most any others, they are so steep and so rent by deep gorges, where the foaming streiims come rushing down towards the plains. Far up on the mountains, shut in on all sides, we find the beautiful valley of Cashmere, so celebrated for its goats, from whose flne hair costly shawls are manufactured. 652. North of the Himalaya Mountains is a highland country called Thibet. The lowest valleys here are two miles above the sea-level. This country is so near the Equator that it has warm summers ; l)ut on account of its great elevation the winters are extremely cold. 553. Further nortli, beyond the Kuenlun Mountains, is the great table-land, extending hundreds and liundreds of miles. In some parts it is covered with loose sand, and in others with rocks. 554. The most imi>ortant mountains in the west of Asia are the Caucasus, the Taurus, the Elburz, the Hindoo Koosh, and the Mountains of Lefxtnon. .555. On the north of the Altai Mountains is the vast low- land plain of Siberia, sloping towards the Arctic Ocean. Rivers. — 556. The largest rivers of Asia flow to the north and east. The Obi, the Yenisei, and the Lena, in Siberia, are, like the Mackenzie in North America, frozen over a large part of the year, and consequently of little use to trade. The Amoor, the Hoang Ho, and the Yanfi-tse-Kiarig, in China, are the most important rivers in Asia. The Yang-tse-Kiang equals the Mississippi in lengtli. The great rivers in the south of Asia are the Mekong, the Brahmapootra, the Ganges, the Indus, the Tigris, and the Euphrates. 557. The Ganges and Brahma- pootra rise far apart on the cold high Himalayas; but after rushing down the steep slopes, they wind along the hot lowlands, approaching nearer until they come together at their n\outh. The land here is low and fiat, and is overgrown with trees and vines. These jungles abound in tigers and rhinoceroses, and the waters swarm with crocodiles. 558. An ignorant people, called Hindus, who live in Hindustan, look upoi the Ganges as a holy river. Moiners who have not the Bible to teach them the way to eternal happi- ness, sometimes throw their children into its waters, believing that they will thus be borne to a land of bliss. 650. Long aguii 0^0 tlio city of A'i). ?i'e/t, to which the pro- phet Jonah was sent, stood on the banks of the Tigris ; and Babylon, where Daniel lived, was on the Euphrates. These cities were very large, and were stirrounded by high and broad walls. Tliey were destroyed many hundred years ago, and after a long time they became covered with sand and grass, so lu to appear like mounds of earth. Lately men Iiave been digging into these mounds, and many curious things liave been discovered. Lakes. — 500. Tlie fresh-water lakes of Asia are ail quite small, except Daikal and Balkaxh, in the south of Russian Asia. Salt lakes are numerous. The Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral are the larpest. Climate and Products.— 561. The southern countries of Asia have a hot climate, and produce cotton, silk, rice, coffee, and many kinds of fruit. The forests con- tain cinnamon trees, all kinds of spices, and fragrant gum trees, so that the air is filled with rich perfume. The most fertile countries of Asia are India, China, and the countries south of China. 662. The table-lands of the interior have cold winters and hot summers. The mountains here get all the rain, so that the plains are dry, and unsuited to agriculture. Even the streams whicl' flow from the mountains are soon dried up or lost in the sand. A vast region here is called the Desert oj Gobi; which is said to mean, "The country without trees and water." Towards the west, in Chinese Tartary, there are fertile valleys ; but as we go east into Mongolia, tiiere are no streams of water, cultivated fields, houses, nor cities. Only near the mountains we find water and pasture-lands. 563. The people who live near the desert plains dwell in tents; and their property consists of cattle, iiorses, camels, and sheep. Their food consists mostly of milk and flesh, and they are always roving about in search of fresh pasture. 5 h 62 Mil A. 6fl4. The northern p.\rt of Asia, called Siberia, ia a cold country, like the northern part of Aniorica. Animals. — 565. In the forests south of the Kimalayas the wild anini.\l8 are large and numerous, including clophants, lions, tigers, hyenas, and huge serpents. The animals in Siberia are similar to those in the north of America. Inhabitants.— 566. Asia is said to contain .^,000,000 of inhabitants, or three-fifths of all the people in the world. Nearly all are heathens, knowing nothing of the Bible, or the way of salvation which it teaches. In the western part of Asia most of the people are called Mohammedans, because they believe in a false prophet named Mohammed : in the east they worship idols. 667. Moliammed lived in Arabia over twelve hundred years ago. He told the people that God had spoken to him through an angel, and had sent him to teach them. He wrote a book called the Koran, which he said the angel gave him. When he had gained a few followers, he armed them and went from plare to place, compelling all to take him as their prophet and king, and the Koran as their Bible. 568. The people of Asia are much less intelligent than those of Europe and America. In most of the countries they have no schools, books, nor newspape. "nd know nothing of other parts of the world. Througliout the greater part of this large continent there are no railroads, nor even common roads or waggons. Merchants travel in large companies, called caravans, conveying their goods on camels and mules. In crossing the deserts they carry water with them. They re- quire also to go armed, and to keep a sharp look-out for robbers. 5G0. It is dangerous to travel in tlie countries inhabited by the roving shepherds. These lawless people not only rob and murder strangers, but they are always at war with one an- other. Som'^times a plundering company of horsemen come suddenly on an unsuspecting tribe, drive off their flocks, and seizing the women and children, sell them for slaves. Divisions.— 670. The principal countries of Asia lire, — Arabia, Turkey in Asia, Hussia in Asia, Persia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, Bcloochistan, India, Burmah, Siam, Anam, the Chinese Empire, and Japan. Towns. — 671. Asia contains many large cities. The largest are in China, Japan, and India. Damascus, on the east of the Mountains of Lebanon, is said to be the oldest city in the world. Government.— 672. The countries of Asia are generally very badly governed. The laws are not made by representa- tives chosen by the people, as in oiir own country. The Emperor, or chief ruler, who is often a selfish, ignorant tyrant, makes such laws as please himself, without considering or knowing what would be best for his subjects. ARABIA. 573. Arabia is an extensive country on the east of the Kcd Sea. A large portion of it is a parched desert 678. THK DATE PALM. land, with here and there a fertile spot called an oasis. The most useful tree on the borders of the deserts is the date-palm. Its fruit, called dates, is much used for food. The southern part of Arabia, which is very hot, and has heavy rains at certain seasons, yields the best cofifee in the world. Here also are forests of spice and gum trees. 574. The desert in which the Isiaelites wandered for forty years, and Mount Sinai, where God gave the Commandments to Moses, are in the north-west of Arabia. 575. Many of the inhabitants of Arabia are roving shepherds, whose property consists in camels, horses, and other animals. Arabian horses are swift and handsome, and an Arab is said to love his horse as much as his wife and children. The shepherds often quarrel %vith one another about theii* pasture-lands and wells of water, as the servants of Abraham and Lot quarrelled long ago. 676. Every year thousands of people in caravans visit •^fe TURKEY. 63 Arabia. These are Mohammedan pilgrims coming from dis- tant countries In Europe, Africa, and Asia, on a visit to Mecca, the birth-place of Mohammed. Every Mohammedan believes that a pilgrimage to tills city will secure the forgive- ness of all his sins. There is a temple in Mecca containing a black stone, which Mohammedans think very holy, and which is said to be worn quite smooth from being kissed so frequently. Only Alohammedans are allowed to enter the temple. That part of Arabia which borders on the Ued Sea, including the cities Mecca and Medina, belongs to Turkey. TURKEY. .'")77. Turkey in Asia forms a part of the large empire ruled by the Sultan, who lives at Constantinople in Europe. The ten'itory in Asia is made up of several diflferent countries, all of which have an interesting history, extending back to the earliest ages. It contains the niins of many ancient cities, — some of the first that were ever built. 578. The climate is warm, except on the mountains. In many parts there are extensive sandy deserts, on which rain seldom falls. Grain, tobacco, cotton, grapes, the mulberry, olive, and fig are cultivated ; but agriculture is greatly neglected, llobber shep- herds wander over the country in search of pasturage and plunder. 579. Asia Minor is that part of Turkey between the Black Sea .nd the Mediterranean. It is a highland country, with somu beautiful valleys in the west Its largest city is Smyrna. A small village near Smyrna occupies the site of ancient Ephesus, where in the days of the Apostle Paul the inhabi- tants made such an uproar about their goddess Diana. 630. Armenia is up in the north, among the roountalni. One of the high peaks is called Ararat, and is supposed to be the mountain on which Noah's ark rested. A curious city here, called Erteroum, has houses built of mud. The flat roofs overgrown with grass appear In the distance like a meadow. A part of Armenia belongs to Russia. r)81. Syria, another country in Turkey, is on the east of the Mediterranean. The Mountains of Lebanon are near the sea-coast, and beyond the mountains is a low plain. Daina»- aiH, where the Aimstle Paul was cured of his blindness, and the oldest city in the world, is situated in this plain. The country for many miles around consists of gardens and or- chards, lieyrout is an important port. 582. Palestine, the land of the ancient Israelites, situated in the south-west of Syria, is the most inter- esting part of Turkey. About forty years after the Jews had cnicified the Saviour, they were expelled by a Roman army from the country which their forefathers had occupied fifteen hundred years. Jerusalem, the capital of the country, had strong, high walls around it, and the Jews from all the land ran to this city for protection. The Eomans beat down the walls, de- stroyed the city, and burned the beautiful temple. The Jews are now scattered throughout almost all the countries of the world. 583. Palestine is quite a hilly country. The Jordan, a comparatively small stream, is the only river. It rises in the Mountains of Lebanon, flows southerly through the lowest valley in the world, and empties its waters into a remarkable lake called the Dead Sea. The waters of the Dead Sea con- tain so much salt and other mineral substances that they are very dense, and persons can lie on the surface without any danger of sinking. In the upper part of its course the Jordan forms a fresh-water lake, called the Sea of Galilee, or the Sea of Tiberias. 584. Palestine was once exceedingly fruitful ; but i^ 686. JBHUSALBU. I I 64 ASIA. except in sonio fertile valloyH, it in now an unproduc- tive country, and ajfriculture in greatly neglected. 585. ChristianH love to travel in Palestine, and visit the places in which occurred bo many of the great ovontH recorded in the Bible. But travelling in this land w toilsome and somewhat danj^orous. Travellers employ armed guides to show them the way and pro- tect them from robbers. There are no carriage roads, HO that they must journey on horseback, and the ani- mals to be obtained are generally very inferior. 580. Jerusalem is built on the ruins of tlie ancient city. Tlie streets are narrow and tlie houses gloomy. Half the people are Moliamniedans. Hix miles to the south is Ee.thleliem, where •Jesus was born ; about a mile oast of .Icrusalem, across a val- ley, is the Mount of (Hives, to which he went so frequently ; and a little farther east is Bethany, where the family lived that he loved. In the hilly country of the north is Naznreth, where he spent his early life ; and about twenty miles east of Nazareth is the Sea of Galilee, where ho stilled the winds and waves. RUSSIA IN ASIA. 587. Russia's Asiatic ixjssessions are Siberia, Tratw Caucasia, and Turkestan. 588. Siberia is situated on the north of the Altai Mountains, and extends entirely across the continent to the Pacific Ocean. It is a cold, cheerless country. The soil is cultivated a little in the south, yielding barley and vegetables. Large forests of spruce and fir abound in foxes, ermines, otters, and other animals which have valuable fur ; the rivers are full of fish ; and the mountains yield gold and precious stones. The rein-deer is a very useful animal in this country. Some of the natives own large herds, and they subsist chiefly on the milk and flesh. Many of tho inhabitants of Siberia are exiles from Russia, who have been banished for crime or some political offence. The ])rincipal tOWns are Ormk, Tomsk, Tobolsk, and Irkutsk. Kiachta is a small town near Lake Baikal, through which Russia carries on trade with China. 68!). Trans-Caucasla is a small country on the south of the Caucasus Mountains. It produces grapes, peaches, and other fruits. The men are noted for t'seir fine form, the women for their beauty. Tlflis, the capital, manufactures carpets and shawls. BatOUm is a fortified port on the Black Sea. Ears, a strong town in Armenia, was taken from Turkey. 590. Turkestan is on the east of the Caspian Sea, extending southerly to Persia and Afghanistan. It formerly included several amall states, governed by khans or chiefs ; but Russia has gained such control of the country that the native rulers have only nominal independence. Except the eastern part of the country, wliich is mountain- ous, Turkestan consists of sanily plains, called iteppes. These plains are occupied by wandering tribes, who live partly by plunder and partly on the products of their sheep, goats, and camels. The districts bordering on the rivers are fertile, yielding rice, cotton, and silk. Tashkend is the capital of Russian Turkestan. Bokhara and Khiva are important places. PERSIA. 591. Persia lies between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. A large part of the country is almost destitute of rain, and the soil is full of salt, so that it is quite barren. Hut there are many rich valleys watered by streams that flow from the mountains. The fruitful districts produce grain, silk, grapes, peaches, and melons. There are also many beautiful flowers,— hyacinths, >,ulipi>, crocuses, and primroses. Tlie Persians cultivate immense (luantities of roses, from which they extract a costly perfume. The pretty blue gem called turqtun»e is found in Persia. 502. Teheran is the capital, and Ispahan is the largest city. Bushire is an important port. 593. The Persians make beautiful cariwts and shawls. They are said to be very jKjlite, and to use rather ex- travagant langtjage. Thus one would tell you that ho was your slave, and that everything he had was at your service, when he would be astonished if you took him at his word. 594. The S/wi/i, or sovereign, is a despotic tyrant, treating his people as if they existed only to minister to his pleasure. When he wants money, ho demands it from his highest officers; these demand it from the lower officers; who, in turn, extort it from the people. No one likes to be thought rich, lest his property should be taken from him. AFGHANISTAN AND BELOOCHISTAN. 595. These countries, situated on the east of Persia, are high and mountainous, varied with fertile valleys and dry desert plains. The valleys yield grain, cot- ton, grapes, and peaches. The date-palm flourishes on the borders of the desert in the south of Beloochis- tan. The sandy deserts are bordered by grazing-lands, where barbarous, roving shepherds pasture their flocks. 596. A high mountain wall, separating British India from Afghanistan and Beloochistan, is cleft by deep gorges, called passes, which are used as roads by merchant caravans. An invading enemy from the north-west would seek to enter India through these passes ; hence Great Britain watchfully guards Afghanistan again.st the apjiroaches of Russia. 597. The inhabitants are chiefly Mohammedans, and, except in the towns, they depend on their flocks and herds U^ jMWtppM BRITISH INDIA. Qb 3 for their subnigtence. Tlicy are divided into different tribei ; hut in time of war they recognize the Amtrr of Caboo) ns their louder. 508. CabOOl, the capital and largest city of Afghanistan, has tin elevated imsition near a mountain pass. Herat and Can- dahar arc on the route of trade between i'ersia and India. Kolat, the chief town in Oeloochistan, is strongly fortified. BRITISH INDIA. 599. This large country, uituutud on the south uf the Flimalaya Mountains, forma part of the British Em- I lire. Am it ia near the Equator it hns a hot climate. Unlike many of the countries of Asia, it has abun- dance of rain, and is very productive. 600. India has long been famed for the rich products of its fields, its forests, and its mines ; and also for the Rkill of its inhabitants in the manufacture of costly nilks and shawls. GOl. Some of the most important products are rice, sugar, cotton, silk, opium, cinnamon, nutmegs, cloves, and other apices. Cinnamon is the inner bark of the cinnamon tree ; cloves I I opuim 18 a gum (KM. KHABMINS RHAOINO TBUa SAURKO BOOK. (575) 604. NATIVr. PKINOK. are the dried flower-buds of the clove tree obtained from a kind of poppy. 602. The forests aro dense ^7ith shrubbery, and the sun's rays are shut out by broad leaves ; so that the hot, damp air, mingled with poisonous gases from decaying plants, causes fevers and other diseases. 603. The diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and pearls of India, are sought after by the wealthy in all countries. Some of the diamonds are very costly, and adorn the crowns of the kings and queens of Europe. G04. Many English people live in India. Some come here to trade ; others are oflBcers and soldiers, sent by the British Government to preserve peace and order. The natives, called Hindus, are divided into four F 66 ASIA. ttOti. RIUINO THK ELEPHANT — A OUNTINU I'AUTV. ulasaeH, of different ranks. They do nut intenu:u-ry, eat together, or a.ssociate with one another ; and one must always remain in the same rank or caste as liis parents. The highest class is that of the Brahmins. I'here are many separate States in India, ruled by native princes, but, with one or two exceptions, they are all subject to the British Government. U06. The Hindus are idolaters, and they have many si.1en- did idol-temples. Several years ago they tried to drive the English from the country. They cruelly murdered many of them, and horribly mutilated others, cutting off their noses and ears ; but after a terrible war they were subdued. GOG. The people of India use elephants to carry heavy loads, and they sometimes ride on their backs. They also ride in an odd sort of conveyance called a palaiiquin; which is a covered seat placed on poles, and carried by men, who use the ends of the poles as handles. 607. Calcutta, the capital of India, is a great commercial city on the lowlands uear the mouth of the Ganges. Madras, on the east coast, and Bombay on the west, are also noted for trade. Benares is a sacred city of the Hindus, contain- ing over one thousand idol-temples. It is visited every year by crowds of pilgrims, uiany of whom come here to die. There are several other large cities. 608. The Island of Ceylon is south of British India. It forms a separate colony. It produces all kinds of spices, and in its dense forests are found elephants, lions, and tigers. INDO-OHINA. GUI), This country, souietinieH called Farther Indta, occupies the large i^ninsula in the south east of Asia. It includes several countrit's, the princpal of which are Jiurmah, Siam, and Anam. 'J'he west coast of nurnuih ))el()ngH to British India. The climate is hot and moist, as in British India. In the dense forests are sjiices, sandal-wood, rose-wood, and many kinds of palm. India-rubber, gutta-percha, and varnish are made from the juices and gums of the forest trees. 610. Among the wild animals are tlie flopbant, rhinoceros, tijer, buffalo, and monkey. 611. The peoi)le jire .all idolaters, and the idol tern- jiles are the finest buildings in the country. Sweet- scented wood is burned in the worship of the false gods. llice is the chief food, and in cultivated in large quantities. Siam. — 012. This is the most important country in Indo- china. The people here have customs which would appear exceedingly strange to us. They have two kings. In the presence of the king every one must lie flat on his face, ami approach him by creeping on Lis hands and knees. When the king dies, his body is dried by the application of certain drugs. It is then doubled up and placed in an urn, which is deposited in a splendidly decorated and costly funeral temple, built for this purpose. After the dried body has been kept a year it is burned. 613. Bangkok, tlie capital of Siam, is a large city on the Iliver Menam. Many of the inhabitants live on the river in floating houses made of bamboo. THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 614. The Chinese Erai>ire is as large as the Dominion of Canada and the United States together. It is made up of several countries. The most important of these is China, on the eastern slope, along the great rivers Yang-tse-Kiang and Hoang Ho. The other coimtries of the empire lie to the west and north of China, ' n the highlands. The principal are Tibet, Eastern Tun,, cstan, Mongolia, and Manchooria. China. — 615. This portion of the empiid has a mild climate and a fertile soil. Every little patch of land is cultivated. The steep, rocky hill-sides, are formed into terraces ; and the crops are carefully watered by hand. Nearly all the tea used in the world grows in China. It is the leaf of a low shrub. The leaves are l)icked, dried, rolled, and packed into tea-chests. China also produces much rice, cotton, and silk. THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 67 Idol tein- Sweet- the false 616. ENTRANCE TO A cniNRHR TBMPLE. 616. Cliina has a groat many inhabitants. Thoy .ire idolaters, and have largo temples all over the ompiro. llio people are so numerous tliat there is .scarcely room for all. In fact many of them live on the rivers. They make a raft of logs, spread earth over it for a garden, and build a little bamboo house in the middle. The ("iilnoBo are skilled in the manu- facture of porcelain, silks, and lacciuered ware ; also in carv- ing wood and ivory. <117. The Chinese have an odd way of catching flsh from tlie rivers. The fisherman goes out in his boat, taking with him a swimming-bird called a cormorant. The bird is very fond of fish, and dives into the water after them. The fisherman places a ring round the bird's neck, to prevent him from swallowing the fish until he has his basket full, when he allows him to catch some for himself. The ('hinese do not usually sit at table when they eat, but gather round the boiler, sitting on the floor or ground, each with his bowl and chop-sticks. Uico is their chief food ; but they also eat cats, dogs, and rats. The mer, in China keep their heads shaved quite bare ex- cept on the top, where they allow the hair to grow very long, and bra. Eastern 'i'urkestan, Mongolia, inul Man- Chooria comprise vawt deserts and pasture lands. For many centuries they have been <)('c>i[)ied by wandering whephords. An oxtensivo trade is carried on between China and Ru.ssia, and also between China and Persia, across these deserts. 6-20. China has many large cities. Pekln, in the north, is the capital ; Canton, in the soutli, is one of the greatest commercial cities of Asia. (i"21 . Corea, a peninsula on the east of the Yellow .Sea, is an indei)endent kingdom. Tho inhabitants arc very suspicious of foreigners. The products arc grain, hemp, tobacco, and ginseng. Kingkilao is the ca])ital. 68 AFRICA. I I I It II ' i 1 1 , JAPAN. 622. Japan coirprisoH the four large islands, Niphon, Shikoku, Kimhii' . and Yczo, and many hii:«11 islands on the east coast (.f Asia. Niphon, the largest island of the group, is about nine hundred miles in length. Tho islands are subject to earthquakes, and they contain some of the most remarkable volcanoes in the world. 624. JAPANESE AT HOME. 623, The climate is varied according to the posi- tion, being cold in the north and almost tropical in the south. The soil is generally fertile, yielding tea, rice, the mulberry, and various kinds of grain and vegetables. The bamboo grows in .Ta]mn, and is used for many purposes. Ja])an has great mineral wealth, including gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and coal. 624. There are more people in these islands than in the British Isles. The Japanese are intelligent and industrious. They carry on agriculture, mining, and manufactures with much success. They make beauti- ful silks, shawls, lacquer ware, and porcelain, and they have great skill in carving ivory. Formerly tho Japanese shut themselves out from the rest of the world, neither going abroad themselves nor allowing foreigners to enter their country. But lately they liavc taken great pains to become acquainted with civilized countries. They liave introduced many improvements, such as railroads, telegraphs, schools, colleges, and newspapers. Many of their young men have been educated in the colleges of Great Britain, the United .States, and Germany. 625. The Japanese carry on a large trade with Great Britain and the United States. Their chief exports are silk, tea, porcelain, and laccpiered ware ; and their imports are cotton and woollen goods. 26. Tokio, the capital of Japan, is a very large city on tlie ibiiind of Niphon. Yokohama, seventeen miles from Tokio, is noted for its foreign trade. Osaka, KagOSlma, and KoumamotOU, are very large cities. CHAPTER V. AFRICA. History. — 627. Excepting those coimtries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea, little was known of Africa in ancient times. About the time of the discovery of America, some bold navigators of Southern Eurojto kept sailing further and further south, until finally they went round the Cape of (Jood Hoiw, and foimd their way to India. It was a long time after this before the countries in the in- terior of Africa were visited by civilized people. Indeed, although many distinguished men liave lately travelled much among the negroes of Central and Houthern Africa, our know- ledge concerning this part of the world is yet quite limited. Travellers here are exjjosed to great hardships and dangers. There are no roads ; in many j 'aces the climate is unhealthy ; and some of the negroes arc fierce savages. Position. — 628. The greater part of Africa is in the Torrid Zone, and no part of it extends to the cold regions of the north or south. Africa is surrounded by the sea on all sides except at tlie north-cast, where it is connected with Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. It has the Mediterranean Sen on the north, the Red Sea and IndianOcean on tho east.and the Atlantic Ocean on the west Coast.— 629. We observe from the Map of Africa that there are no deep bays along the coast, as there are in Europe. This is a great disadvantage to trade. The Strait of Gibraltar, on the north-west, is a narrow passage connecting the Mediterranean Sea wiih tho Atlantic Ocean. The Red Sea and the Oulf of Aden arc on the east, and the Oulf of Oninea is on the west. The principal Capes are— Bon, Gnardafui, Oood Hope, and Verde. 630. The principal inlands on tli 3 coast are— Socotra, Madagmcar, Bourbon, ana mauritius, on the east; have taken I countries. IS railroads, iny of tlieir )s of Great vith Great ef exports ; and their e city on the from Tokio, oslma, and iK bordering -n of Africa, iiscovery of em Euro])© mtil fiJially 1, and found ries in the in- ple. Indeed, ravelled much ica, our know- qxute limited. I and dangers. I is unhealthy ; rica is in the to the cold I except at the the Isthmus oj th, the Red Sea !a?iontliewest ap of Africa aast, as there iage to trade. t, is a narrow ih the Atlantic ro on the east, i, Good Hope, are— /Socofra, on the east; AJU'lUA l.iiiiiliiii « Aior^fl ^ Madnrtt INDIA .N Hauritiiu IWi«i4>oii Ca|w C|y« of flood Ratal affrnn* {Prtfide^l ifito Sftsrtt ^rooo MiUt.) r ..3L. ISLANDS CLIMATE. 69 and the Madeira Islands, Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands, and St. Helena, on the weat. 631 Madagascar is one of the largest Islands in the world. It yields spices and other tropical products. Pop. 3,000,000. 632. St. Helena is a small, rocky island. Napoleon I. of France was so troublesome — disturbing all Europe with his wars— that after the Battle of Wateiioo the British Govern- ment banished him to St. Helena. Area. — 633. Africa is nearly one and a lialf times the size of North America. Surface — 634. That part of Africa which borders on the sea is generally quite low ; the interior is tableland. The mountains are not bo grand as thove in the other great divisions of the Earth. The Aii^s Mountains lie along the north ; the Kong " ountains are near the Gulf of Guinea ; the Snow Mountains are in the south ; and the Mountains of Abyssinia, and other mountains, extend along the east. Rivers and Lakes.— 03.5. Africp has only four largo rivers — the Nile, Zambesi, Comio, and Nii/cr, Tho large lakes are — Albert Ny^mza, Victoria Nyama, Tan- ganyika, and Nyassa. Lake Tchad is also an iini)ortant lake. 637. VICTOKIA FALLS, ON TUR ZAMBESL 636. The Nile is a very long river — as long as the Missis- sippi — and it is the most remarkable river in the world. Many ages ago, when only the northern part of Africa was known, people wondered where the waters of the Nile came from. It is strange to see so great a river flowing hundreds and hundreds of miles through countries in which it never rains. And then every year, in the month of June, with- out any rain or any streams flowing in, the river begins to rise, and for three months it rises higher and higher, until all Egypt is covered with water ! But in modern times tra- vellers have gone far into the middle of Africa, and have discovered the sources of this strange river. There, at the Equator, they have found two large lakes, which they have named the Victoria Nyama and the Albert Nyama, from which the river flows. They have discovered other rivers, also, which come from the mountains of Abyssinia, and help to form the great Nile. In the early summer months the rainc fall in torrents on the mountains, and the waters rush down until they como to Egypt, where the land is so level and the river-banks so low that they flow over all the country. 637. Zambesi, in Southern Africa — also a large river — is noted for Victoria Fall*, which are said to be as grand as those of Niagara. 638. The Niger, in AVestern Africa, flows through a hot, marshy country. The forests along its banks are very dense, and the air is so poisonous that it is dangerous for those not accustomed to the climate to visit the country. The Congo, in Southern Africa, has its source in Southern Africa. Next to the Amazon, it is the largest river in tho world. Climate and Frodacts.— 639. Africa is the hottest part of the Earth, and a large portion of it consists of rainless deserts. South of the Atlas Mountains is the great Sahara — the largest desert in the world, on which "I ' ■ •■; 70 AFRICA. 642. THE SAHARA. rain seldom falls, and where it is so hot that eggs can be cooked in the burning sand. 640. Travelling through Africa from north to south, we first cross the Barbary States, which have a tempe- |t I! '1 V. 1 rate climate, and yield gi'ain, olives, grapes, and mul- berries. On the Atlas Mountains are forests of oak, beech, and juniper. The snow lies deep on the cold summits through the winter, and in the spring it melts and sends streams to the lowlands. The streams on the southern slopes flow down to the borders of the Desert, forming many a cheerful spot on the margin of that dreary waste ; but they are soon lost in the hot rjand or in salt lakes. This region is occupied by wan- dering shepherds, just as we found near the deserts of Asia. In summer the shepherds drive their flocks far up into the mountain-valleys in search of pasture. 641. The Land of Dates lies on the south of tlie Atlas Mountains. In this country, which is watered a little by the streams from the mountains, and is moistened to some extent by springs of water here and there, and by deep wells made by boring into the earth, we find beautiful groves of the date- palm, which give food to the shepherds, and which shelter them and their flocks from the burning sun, 642. The Sahara is a dreary waste, almost as large as the Dominion of Canada. In some places, far as the eye can reach, not a tree, nor a blade of grass, nor a drop of water is to be seen ; nothing but burning sand and barren rock. In other parts of this great Desert there are vast tracts of firm soil, yielding only dry, stunted herbage. Here and there, far apart, are springs of water ; and all around are green gniss, shady palms. iiud inul- ts of oak, the cold ng it melts jtreams on iera of the he margin in the hot 3d by wan- I deserts of r flocks far istnre. of the Atlas little by the some extent • wells made i of the date- ,hich shelter 3St as large aces, far as grass, nor a aming sand freat Desert g only dry, , are springs hady palms. CENTRAL AFRICA — SOUTHERN AFRICA. 71 and fruitful vines. Such a fertile spot, called an oasis, must be very beautiful in the midst of the barren Desert. Travelling merchants cross the Sahara in large companies, carrying cottons and beads to the negroes of Central Africa; and bringing back gold dust, ivory, and ostrich feathers. They carry their goods on the back of the camel. This useful animal is sometimes called "the ship of the desert." 043. There is no road or beaten path across the Desert, for the sand drifts about in the wind as snow in our country. Sometimes the wind blows very strongly, and the air is filled with clouds of sand. When the traveller sees the sand-cloud coming he lies down, keeping his face close to the ground until the fearful storm has pas^^ed over. The camel also kneels and pats his nostrils down, so that he may not be suffocated with the driven sand. Travellers direct their course from one oasis lo another, taking fresh supplies of water along with them. 644. Central Africa and the coast regions near the Equator have two seasons in the year — a rainy season (when the rain pours in torrents during a part of every day), and a dry season. This part of Africa is highly fruitful, yielding all kinds of tropical products. Here are palms, oranges, figs, and cocoa-nuts. In some of the low marshy countries near the rivers the climate is very unhealthy, and travellers are almost sure to be seized with malignant fevers. The native negroes do not suffer so much, but they are said to be short- lived. Little is known of Central Africa south of N. ..y*^' 640 HIPPOPOTAMUS ANI» OROCODILB. 040. TUK GNU .*><>udan, except that it is extremely hot, and has dense forests aboimding in wild animals. 645. Southern Africa has less intense heat, and in the far south the climate is temperate, like that of the north. A great plain towards the south, called the Kalihari Desert, is (juite barren in the dry season ; but when the rains set in, it is soon covered with tall grass and beautiful flowers. Animals. — 646. In the dense forests south of the Great Desert, and in the thickets along the margins of the lakes and rivers, are many large wild animals — the largest in the world — as the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, crocodile, lion, and hyena. On the plains towards the south are beautiful antelopes and striped zebras. Here also is found a singular animal called the gnu, or homed horse. 647. The large lakes and rivers.abound in crocodiles, and it is very dangerous to bathe or swim in them, on account of these fierce reptiles. 648. Monkeys are numerous in the forests. The chimpan- zee and gorilla somewhat resemble man. 649. The ostrich, found in almost all parts of Africa, but particularly near the deaerta, is the largest bird in the world. It cannot fly, but it runs swiftly, spreading its wings as it runs. Its speed is said to bo twenty-flve miles an hour, and the length of its step twelve feet ! The feathers of thiu blril are brought to our country to adorn ladies' bonnets and hats. 650. In some parts of Central Africa there is a little Qy called the tsetse, which, although it is no larger than a home- fly, can do much harm. The horse, ox, dog, and some other animals, are so poisoned by its sting that they die iu a few daya. 'rTi 1; I ' 72 AFRICA. Inhabitants.— f''>1. We know so little of many parts of Africa, that it is difficult to find out how many people it contains. Some estimate the number at 100,000,000. 662. The northern countries are inhabited by white people, many of whom are Mohammedan Arabs, who came long ago from Arabia, and conquered the country. South of the Great Desert nearly all the people are Negroes. They are ignorant savages, and have many barbarous customs. They often go to war with one another. Some of them eat the prisoners whom they have captured, and others sell their captives for slaves. Nearly all the coloured people in America are de- scended from those who were brought from Africa as slaves. 653. The Hottentots, who live towards the south, are a most degraded race. One tribe, called Bushmen, are said to be only four feet high, and to be very ill shaped. They have flat heads, crooked backs, short noses, and little twists of wool on their heads in place of hair. They have no liouses or tents, but sleep under bushes, in the cleft of a rock, or in a hole which some wild animal has ma.de in the earth. They eat roots, grasshoppers, worms, and whatever comes to hand. When they get a large animal, they eat so much that they can take no more food for several days ! The Kaffirs, in the south-east, are quite a fine race of people, living principally by their flocks. C64. In the soutli are mai.y English people. Near the Orange and Vaal rivers are many Dutch, whose forefathers came from Holland. Countries. — 655. The mo.st important countries of Africa are Egypt and the Barbury States, in tho north ; and the British Colonies — Cape Ctlony, Natal, and Griqua Land Went — in the south. 656. Senegambia, Upper Ouinea, and Lower Guinea, in the west, and Soudan, and other parts of Central Africa, are divided into many Negro States. 657. Nubia, Kordofan, and other territories further south, belong to Egypt. Abyssinia is a mountainous country, in- cluding several small States. 658. The Orange River Free State and the Transvaal are two Republics. Some parts of these c.uatries, especially Griqua Land, have lately become celebrated for their diamonds. Towns. — 059. Tho cities of Africa are generally small Cairo, in Egypt, is the largest. Many of the Negro towns of Central Africa arc built of mud. (564. SCENE O.V THE NILE. EGYPT. 660. Three or four thousand years ago, when almost all other parts of the world were inhabited by barbar- ous tribes, Egypt was occupied by a powerful nation. We rer '1 of this country and its people in the Bible— particularly in the times of Joseph and Moses. The ancient P^gyptians were very learned in some things. They built large cities and idol -temples, which were adorned with immense stone columns and statues, many ruins of which are still to be seen in the country. Among the wonderful remains of ancient Egyptian art are the Pyramids. These are immense stone buildings, large at the bottom, and drawn in on all sides, as one stone rises above another, till they come to a point at the top. The largest pyramid is four hundred and sixty feet high 661. The ancient Egyptians did not bury their dead as we do. They first embalmed the body, by applying spices and EGYPT — THK BARBARY STATES. 73 drugs, so that it could not decay, and thoy then laid it in a sepulchre liewn in the roclts on the bon'.ors of the country. Many of these embalmed bodies, c"" i r.iuminien, have been brought to Europe and America, and are kept in museums as curiosities. On the sepulchres and sculptured rocks are found ancient inscriptions in picture - writing and curious characters. Ijcarned men in our times have discovered how to read these inscriptions, .and have thus gained much knowledge of the early history and customs of the country. ()()2. Egyi)t is a long narrow country by tho River Nile. It .seldom rain.s there, and the land would be a desert like the Sahara, if it were not for the rivor. Every year, for two or three uionth.'i, the whole coun- try is covered witii water. 'J'hin moiHtens the land, and leaves rich earth buhind. The fanners do not need to plouj^h thts land or manure it ; btit when the water has nm off they sow their grain in the mud. There are many canals throtigh the countiy, from which water is taken and applied to the growing crops. Egy])t has always been noted for its grain. It has no forests, but then; are many beautiful groves of tiie .^i!-.-: -*<^^ 663. CAIRO. date-palm, indigo. 663. Cairo largest city. It also produces cotton, sugar-cane, and (368,000), near the Nile, is the capital and Its numerous mosques are the most attractive feature of the city. The great pyramids are a few miles distant. Alexandria (208,000) is the largest sea -port in Africa. 664. The Suez Canal, extending from Port Said on the Mediterranean to Suez on the lied Sea, is a great highway for commerce between Western Europe and Southern Asia. 665. The ruler of Egypt is called the Khedive. He pays an annual tribute to Turkey. The government is largely con- trolled by Great Britain. 666. Egypt claims territories on the south as far as Lake Victoria Nyanza, including Nubia and the eastern portion nf Soudan. Kbartoum is noted for its connection with the history of f Jeneral Gordon. THE BARBARY STATES. 0(57. On the west of Kgyi)t, along the Mediter- ranean, are Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria, and Marocco, often called the Barbary States. 668. Tripoli and Tunls are provinces of the Turkish Em- pire ; Algeria belongs to France ; and Marocco is an inde- pendent State. The people in these countries are nearly all Mohammedans. I r Tl ■ 74 OCEANIA. THE BRITISH COLOl.IES. 0(!0. Cape Colony, Natal, and Qriqua Land West, in t!ie Haiitli of Africa, bolong to (ireat Brlcai. Tho iiioiHt warm lowlaiidB near tlio coaut yield grain, gra]M;H, tobacc«), cotton, and othor i)roductH of warm countrioH. Tho elevated jilains of the interior are too dry for agriculture ; but they are good paature-lands, so that cattle and sheep are kept in large numberH. (Jriqua Land West contains valuable diamond tieldw. The chief exports of Caj)e Colony are wool, wine, dia- monds, ami ostrich feathers. Natal is similar to Cai)e Colony in climate and i)ro- ducts. 070. Cape Town, the capital of (!ai»e Colony, Is on the coast, near a singular flat-toppcil mountain called 7'alde Monntaiii. This town is on tho way to India and Cliina, and ships call here, going and returniug. Pietermaxltzburg is the capital of Natal. CHAPTER VI. OCEANIA. 071. Oceania is the general name given to the islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is usually con- sidered in three divisions, — Malaysia, Australasia, and Polynesia. MALAYSIA. 072. The islands in this gi'oup lie near Asia, on the south. They are sometimes called the East India Islands. The most important islands are, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, the Moluccas, and the Philip- pine Islands. 673. The Philippine Islands belong to Spain ; the others belong principally to Holland, except the northern portions of Sumatra and Borneo, which are independent. 074. All the islands are near the Equator. The climate is hot and moist, and the soil is fertile. The products are, rice, sugar, coffee, tobacco, and various fruits of hot countries. The forests are dense like those of Brazil. They yield dye- woods, ebony, rose-wood, fragrant sandal-wood, camphor, cinnamon, and all kinds of spice. 075. The shores are covered with beautiful shells, and tlie coast waters yield valuable pearls. PearU are found in the oysters which are obtained among the rocks at the bottom of the sea. Men go out in boats an(i dive for tho oysters. This isdai gerous, hard work, and tliose who follow it are said to bo shori-lived. (570. Some of the islands are noted for volcanoes. They arc also often visited by destructive hurricanes and uaithquakes. 077. Borneo in about six and a half times larger than Nova Scotia and Now Brunswick togetlior, and, with the ex- ception of Australia, is the largest island in the world. 078. Sumatra and Java arc also large islands, liatavia, a large commercial city in .Fava, is tho capital of the Dutch possessions. The Moluccas yichl the finest spices. (179. The Philippines form an important Spanish colony. Manilla, the capital and the largest city of Malaysia, is cele- brated for its cigars. AUSTRALASIA. ()80. Australasia includes the islands on the south- oast of Malaysia. The principal islands are, New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania, .and New Zealand. The last three and a part of New Guinea belong to Great Britain. 081. The New Hebrides, the Feejee Islands, and many other small islands, belong to this division. AUSTRALIA. 082. Australia is the largest island in the world, having an area equal to the Dominion of Canada. 683. This island was discovered about two hundred and fifty years ago, and has been occupied by the British about one hundred years. (Jreat Britain first used portions of it as places of exile for criminals. Since it has been discovered to be a good agricultural country, well suited to the raising of cattle and sheep, and rich in gold, many colonists from the British Islands, and from other countries, liave settled in dif- ferent portions of the island. The population is now about 2,200,000. 684. Australia includes five British Colonies, which are here given :— Colony. Capital. Queensland Brisbane. New South Wales Sydney. Victoria Melbourne. South Australia Adelaide. West Australia Perth. 085. The interior of Australia is imperfectly known. Near the east side are low moimtains ; but the country generally consists of plains and table-lands. Tlie Murray, and its tributary the Darling, are the prin- cipal rivers. IM I iVflS'iT'J^AMA &«. {rHvidai into Stuarts ^looo MiUs.) r at Mi nu coi till Mj uni wh fill, erru bin POLYNESIA. 75 686. The northern half of the islaml is near thf K(iuator, and haa a hot climate; the southern half hiw a temi)erat« climate. Oratn, grapes, cotton, unci the various fniitaof warm conn- tries, are BUCceMfuUy cultivated. Cattle and sheep arc nuniurous, and immenso quantities of wool are exported. The forests are not tangled with vlnus a.s In most warm countries. The foliage Is scanty, and the leaves often present ti»elr edges to the sun, so that the light la not excluded. Many of the trees have l)i!,\utlful blossoms 087 KANOAROOS. 687. The largest wld animal is the kangaroo. This animal and many of the smaller ones have pouchcH in which they carry their young. The birda are beauti- ful, but they are not noted for richness of song. The emeu is a large bird resembling the ostrich. The lyre bird has a remarkabl tail. OSS. New Sonth Wales and Victoria have the most re nownod gold mines In tlio world. South Australia has rich copper mines. ti8l). The Inhabitants are for the most part colonists from tho Urltlsh islt-s and their doscondiints. The natives are degraded savages. They are hlaek, but have not features like tho Negroes of Africa. Their hair is not woolly, i.nr have tliey flat noses or thick lips (!D0. Sydney ami Melbourne are the tiirgest cities of A ustraliii. Tasmania.— GDI. This island, situated on the south- east of Australia, is about the si/e of Now Brunswick. The climate, native plants and animals, are like those ol South Australia. A^alciiiture and tho rearing of slieep arc the chief ocuupalions. llohurt Town U tl»o capital. New Zealand 692. This British Colony. Hit\iatef smaller size. The total area Is over three times as great as New Ilruns wick. C9'J The climatu in tempuratu and healthful, and tho soil Ih fertile. Wool and fl:ix are the chief exports. Tho hottest .season la near Chri.stm!ws. C04. The natives ,»ro a much liner ract! than those of Au.n- tralio. They were formerly llcrce cannibal.H, feasting on tho bodies of their eajitive enemies. Tlie Inhabitants are chiefly of lirltl.sii origin Wellington l.s the capital. New Guinea. —()'jr». Thi.-* island is nearly an lar^'e as I'.orneo. It is occupied wholly by degraded savages, resembling the natives of Australia. The tropical forests yield spices, cocoa-nuts, sago, camphor, and many tine fruit.s Tho beautiful bird of jtaradue Is n native of this island. COG. Tlie New Hebrides Include many small Islands. Some of tlie natives have been converted to Cliristlanlly by inlssioniiries from our Provinces. 607. Tho Fejec Islands yield cotton, cocoa-nuts, yams, and arrow-root. Wesleyan missionaries have converted many of the inhabitants to Christianity. These islands have lately, at the request of the natives, been annexed to Orc&» Itritain POLYNESIA. 098. Polynesia includes numerous groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean east of the Philippine and Fejef Islands. 609. Many of these Islands are but slightly elevated abovp the surface of the sea, and cannot be seen until you are close upon them. "When first coming into view, the trees seem to rise out of tho water. These are Coral Itlands. In some cases a coral island consi.sts of a rim; of land with a lake in 76 OCEANIA. 703. HOKNB IN TRB flANDWIOn IBLANnR. ihocentre. Along tho inner and outer shores is a bench of pure white sand. 700. Other islands, (oruicd by volcanoes, are elevated and mountainous. Some o( them are sur- rounded by a low coral island in the form of a broken ring or band. Vessels can sail through the openings of the ring into the peaceful waters within. 701. The Islands of Polynesi.'v enjoy perpet- nol summer, and many of them are remarkable for 701. BREAD-IfRUIT. their beauty. The natives subsist largely on the pro- ducts of the cocoa-nut palm, the bread-fruit tree, and on other fruits which cost them little labour. 702. The Society Islands, owned by France, are among the most important of Polynesia. One of the Kroup, called Taldti, has mountains nearly two miles high, and is cele- brated for its beautiful scenery. 703. The Sandwich Islands, of which Hawaii ia much the largest, have an independent government. About one hundred years ago the native., were fierce savages, who killed the celebrated navigator Captain Cook. Through the labours of missionaries these people are now greatly changed. Churulies and schools have been established, and the king and nearly all his subjects have embraced the Christian re- ligion. Honolulu, the capital, is frequently visited by ships crossing the Pacific betwenn America and Asia. II '! I THK EAUTH 8 SURFACE THE OLOBE. 77 PART [I I, PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. \ the pro- ; tree, and are amonc 'oup, called nd is cele- lii is much About one , who killed the lal>ourfl y changed, nd the king Christian re- ted by ship* The Earth' • Structure. -704. Neiir the surfatro of the Karth we usually find looHe earth or soil, ({ravel, and stones. On digging through these w«> cotne to solid rock. A A UNSTKATIFIBD ROCKS. n B STRATI riBD ROCKS. FOSSIL FISnKH. 705. The loose eartli called soil is formed from decayed vegetable and animal matter, mingled with particles of rocks lirokenupbyrain, frost, and other forces in the air 700. Uocks be- long to two great classes. If we ex- amine a deep rail- way cutting 01' a clifr, we shall And the rocks either arranged in layers (or strata) one above another, or in irregular masses. The flntt kind is called Stratified, the second Unttratified. When loose earth is carried by streams into lakes or seas, it settles at the bottom in layers or strata, and, by pressure, becomes solid rock. It is supposed that the stratified rocks have been formed in the same way ; hence they are also called Aqueotis (water-formed) and Sedimentary. Remains of animals and plants (fossils) are often found in these rocks. In volcanoes (flre-raountalns) vast masses of molten matter called lava are thrown out. When the Ibva cools, it takes the unstrati- fled form. Hence unstratifled rocks are sup- posed to have been formed by fire, and are sometimes called Igneous (fire-formed) rocks They contain no fossils. The Interior. — 707. We cannot speak \vith certainty respecting the condition of the in- terior of the Eartltt It is now generally be- liered that the Earth is a solid mass through- oat, but that there are scattered through It, especially near the surface, lakes of molten matter To this it is due that, in many places on the Karth's surface, vol- canoes send out flame, smoke, and molten lava. In othei places, too, there are hot springs, as the geysers at Iceland, from which issue boiling water and steam. The Globe. —708. If we could rise a few uiiltw above the Karth and l(K)k down ujion it, one of the first things to catch the eye would \t» the land and water surface. A glance at the hemi- spheres will show that about three-fourths of the surface is covered with water, and one-fourth wit' land ; also, that about t! ree-fourths of the land is on the north of the Equator. Further : it will be seen that the Earth's surface may be so divided that nearly all the land will be in one hemisphere, of which London t^ill be nearly the centre. 709. The boundary line between the land and the water — that is, the ahoi'e line, or coast line — is very irregular, the land jutting out into the sea, and the sea running up far into the land. 710. This mingling of the ocean with the land is one of the most important points to be noted in the physical fealu<"' i of a country. The sea lessens the extremes of heat and coid in those countries which are broken up by it. Another great benefit arising from the breaking up of the land by Inlets of the sea, is the ease thus afforded for ships passing from one country to another. LAND AND WATER IIKMIHPORRKH ni :i: ' I ■> 78 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. THE LAND. Divisiona.— 711. LAND. WATER. WATER. WATER. 'he land foriiiH about one-fourth of the Earth's surface, and is 1917 timea larger than New I>ruu8wick. The principal part of this area is found in two great bodies called Continents, the Western Continent and the Eastern Continent. The Eiistern Continent is about twice as large aa tlie Western. There is also a Large number of smaller portions of land, surrounded by water, which are called Islands. Australia is by far the Largest island, and is sometimes called a continent. The Continents.— 712. The Western Continent has its greatest length north and south, and consists of two divisions, — North America and South Ameinca, which are connected by a narrow neck of land called the Isthmus of Panama. (See Map 1. ) The Eastern Continent stretches furthest east and west, and consists oi three divisions — Europe, Asia, and Africa. {Sec Map 2.) Including ^HsiraHa, wehavethussix great divisions of land, each of which is sometimes called a continent. Islands. — 713. Islands differ from continents in being of smaller size. They usually occur in groups near the continents, as the West Indies and the British Isles. It is supposed that many islands so situated were once connected with the mainland. Islands are very numerous in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The groups in these oceans all t^ken to- gether are called Oceania. 714. Many islands, particularly in the tropical parts of the Pacific, have been made by the coral pclyp. These litUe c-eatures ^'aw lime and other substances from the water, and w'.Dh them form roclt. It used to be supposed that these islanis were formed only in shallow water, but great depths have lately been found around coral i-slands. {Seepage 10.) Surface. — 715. The land is very varied in respect to height above the sea. Sometimes the slope from the water's edge is gentle; in other places the shore line is steep, varying in height from a few feet to several hundred feet. The highest land is usually in the interior. Tracts of land are called plains, table- lands, hills, mountains, or valleys, according to their height. 716. The widest plains in the Western Continent are in the middle of North America from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, and on the east of South America; the greatest in the Eastern Continent are in the north of Europe and Asia. 717. Lofty mountains are found in all the great Kocky MounCains. Mississippi y alley. 718. NOUTH AMERICA. Alleghany Monntaim BRANCH WITH COHAL POLYPS. divisions, but those of Asia surpass the others in height. Mount Everest, a peak of the ^limalayas, 29,002 feet, is the highest known land. The mountains of America are more easily traced than those of the Eastern Continent. 718. Mountain r.anges generally form the parting ground or water-shed between streams flowing in oppo- site directions. The Rooky Mountains and the Andes are water-sheds. The above diagram shows the Rocky Mountains in the west and the Alleghany Mountains in the east of North America, with the great Missis- sippi Valley between. 719. On moimtains and table-lands the cold increases with the height above the sea. 720. The tops of lofty moimtains, even in the Torrid Zone, are covered with snow all the year round. The pressure of the snow massed on the upper regions causes frozen rivers, called glaciers, to flow down the sides of the mountains and through the valleys. Boulders (rounded blocks of stone) and the waste of the rocks are carried down on the surface of glaciers ; and THE LAND. 79 lOEBEKU. vvhen ti) r\v a warmer region is reached, the snow melts, giving rise ors. and the debris (rubbish) settles on the plains. 721. In the polar regions the glaciers go down to the sea, and there huge masses break off by their own weight and form icebergs, which are carried by ocean currents into warm lati- tudes, and there molt. An iceberg reflecting in dazzling colours tlie rays of tlie sun is one of the grandest objects in nature. 722. In various parts of the Earth the Interior ftres have broken through the crust in the furm of volcanoes, where vast quantities of lava arc poured out Volcanoes are usually near the sea, and often on islands Some of the most noted volcanoes are Cotopaxi, in South America ; Vcmivius, in Italy; and jUtna, in Sicily. 723. Earthquakes are movements of the ground, varying from slight tremblings to violent outbursts. They are most common in volcanic regions, and are supposed to be due tn the same causes as volcanoes. In the great eartliquake of 1757, which lasted about six minutes, almost every building in Lisbon was laid in ruins, and 00,000 persons lost tlieir lives. Caraccas was destroyed ill 1812, and 10,000 persons were killed in less than a minute. 724. Mountains and hills are of great use in aiding the drainage of a country, and in supplying it with streams. The rain which falls uj)on their higlier parts re-iippears in springs along their sides ; and instead of standing in pools and poisonous marshes, it flows down the slopes in brooks and rivers 72^. VB8UVIUB DURING THK EKUPTION OF 1868. 80 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. - Rivers.— 725. If all the rain which falls on the Earth were to run off at once from its surface, the low- land;) would in the wet season be flooded, and in seasons of drought we should have no water — neither streams, nor springs, nor wells. A large portion of the rain and melted snow sinks into the ground, and makes its way to the surface again in the form of springs. Springs give rise to brooks, and brooks to rivers. 726. " When water from rain or melted snow sinks below the surface into the soil, or into rock, it does not remain at rest there. If you were to dig a deep hole in the ground, you would soon find that the water which lies between the particles would begin to trickle out of the sides of your excavation, and gather into a pool in the bottom. If you baled the water out, it would still keep oozing from the sides, and the pool would ere long be filled again. This would show you that the under-ground water will readily flow into any open channel which it can reach. 727. " Now the rocks beneath us, besides being in many cases porous (full of small holes) in their tex- ture, such as sandstone, are all more or less traversed with cracks — sometimes mere lines, like those of a cracked window-pane, but sometimes wide and open clefts and tunnels. These numerous channels serve as passages for the under-ground water. Hence, although a rock may be so hard and close-grained that water does not soak through it at all, yet if that rock is plentifully supplied with these cracks, it may allow a large quantity of water to pass through. Limestone, for example, is a very hard rock, through the grains of which water can make but little way; yet it is so full of cracks or " joints," as they are called, and these joints are often so wide, that they give passage to a great deal of water. 728. " In hilly districts, where the surface of the ground has not been brought under the plough, you will notice that many places are marshy and wet, even when the weather has long been dry. The soil every- where around has perhaps been baked quite hard by the sun ; but these places remain still wet, in spite of the heat. Whence do they get their water? Plainly not directly from the air ; for in that case the rest of the ground would also be damp. They get it not from above, but from below. It is oozing out of the groimd ; and it is this constant outcome of water from below which keeps' the ground wet and marshy. In othe : places you will observe that the water does not merely soak through the ground, but gives rise tu a little runnel of clear water. If you follow such a runnel up to its source, you will see that it comes gushing out of the ground as a Spring. Springs are the natural outlets for the under-ground water. 729. "But it must happen that a great deal of the under- ground water descends far below the level of the valleys, and even below the level of the sea. And yet, though It should descend for several miles, it comes at last to the surface again. To realize clearly how this takes place, let us follow a par- ticular drop of water from the time when it sinks into the 729. ORIGIN OF SPKINGM. earth as rain, to the time when, after a long journeying up and down in the bowels of the Earth, it once more reaches the surface. It soaks through the soil together with other drops, and joins some feeble trickle, or some more ample flow of water, which works its way through crevices and tunnels of the rocks. It sinks in this way to perhaps a depth of several thousand feet, until it reaches some rock through which it cannot readily make further way. All this while it has been followed by other drops, coursing after it through its winding passage down to the same barrier at the bottom. The union of all these drops forms an accumula tion of water, which is coutinually pressed by what is de scending from the surface. Unable to work its way down ward, the pent-up water must try to find escape in some other direction. By the pressure from above it is driven through other cracks and passages, winding up and down until at last it comes to the surface again. It breaks out there as a gushing spring." — Geikie. 730. The course of a river depends on the slope of the land. The area drained by a river and its tributaries is called the river basin. The length of a river depends on the distance of the water-shed from the sea, and on the windings of the river. The volume or size of a river depends on the extent of its basin and the moisture of the country. The velocity or speed of a river depends on the slope along which it flows, on the depth of water, and on its windings. A very deep stream flows rapidly, driven forward by its own weight, although there may be little falL 731. Brooks and rivers are of great use to man. They sup- ply him with pure water, they make his fields fruitful, drive his machinery, and form a highway for the traveller and the merchant. The most fruitful soil is found along the margins of riven : here are the chief inland towns, and the most busy scenes of human industry. Lakes. — 732. Lakes are usually formed of fresh water gathered in basin-like hollows. 733. Some lakes have no outlet. Their excess of water is drawn up into the air, in the shape of vapour. They are all THE SEA. 81 Bait except Lake Tchad, in Africa. The Casjrian, Aral, and Dead Sens, In Asia, and Orcat Salt Lake of Nortli America, belong tu this r.las8. 734. Lakes are most numerous along the courses of rivers. The great lakes of North America and of Central Africa are the largest fresh-water lakes. The Dead Sea, 1312 feet below the sua level, is the lowest lake known. THE SEA. Extent. — 735. The sea covers about three-fourtha of the Earth's surface. {Sec Diagram, p. 7S.) Saltness. — 736. "Take a drop of sea- water, and allow it to evaporate. You find a little white point or film left behind ; and on placing that film under a microscope you see it to consist of delicate crystals of common or sea salt. There are some other things besides common salt in sea- water ; but the salt is the most abundant, and we need not trouble about the reat at present. Now, where did all this mineral matter in the sea come from? The salt of the sea is all derived from the waste of the rocks. 737. "Both under ground and on the surface of the land water is always dissolving out of the rocks various mineral substances, of which salt is one. Hence the water of springs and rivers contains salt, and this is borne away into the sea. So that all over the world there must be a vast quantity of salt carried into the ocean every year. 738. "The sea give.'? off again by evaporation as much water as it receives from rain and from the rivers of the land. But the salt carried into it remains behind. If you take some salt water and evaporate it, the pure water disappears, and the salt is left. So it is with the sea. Streams are every day carrying fresh supplies of salt into the sea. Every day, too, millions of tons of water are passing from the ocean into vapour in the atmosphere. The waters of the sea must, consequently, be getting salter by degrees. The process, however, is an extremely slow one." — Geikie. Depth. — 739. The bed of the sea consists of hills and plains, just like the surface of the land. Hence the depth varies greatly in different parts. The greatest depth found by the Challenger Expedition (1872-7G) was in the South Pacific : it was five miles and one-fifth. The average depth is two miles and three-quarters. The pressure on the lower waters of the sea is very great. If a corked bottle be let down empty, the cork will be forced in. Divisions. — 740. Although the sea forms one great body of water, it is usual to speak of it as separated into five oceans : — The Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans. 741. Branches of these oceans, extending into the 575) land, take various names, as seas, hays, gulfs, channels, and straits. 742. The Atlantic lies on the east of America, which it separates from Europe and Africa. The Polar Circles are its northern and southern limits, and the Equator divides it into North and South Atlantic. The Atlantic forms the great highway between America and Europe. A table-land under the North Atlantic forms the bed of the telegraph cables between Newfoundland and Ireland. 743. The Pacific Is on the west of America, separating it from Asia and Australia, and it extends from Behring Strait, on the north, to the Antarctic Circle. It is divided into North and South Pacific by the Equator. The extreme breadth of the Pacific is about 10,000 miles, or nearly half the measurement round the Earth. It is deeper than the Atlantic, and is noted for tlie number of its islands Magellan, who crossed this ocean in 1621, called it the Pacific, because he met with no storms on his voyage. 744. The Indian Ocean lies south of Asia, having Africa on the west and Australia on the east The Antarctic Circle is the southern limit. 745. The Arctic or Northern Ocean is on the north of America, Europe, and Asia, within the Arctic Circle. It is much broken by islands on the north of America. Throughout a long winter this ocean is covered with ice ol great thicknes.s, which breaks up in the spring and drifts down in vast masses, called icefloes, into the North Atlantic. The existence of an Arctic passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific was proved by Sir John Franklin and by Captain M'Clure; but it is always blocked up with ice, and no use can be made of it. Sailors have often tried to reach the North Pole, but they have never succeeded. The nearest point yet reached is S3° 20', by the English Polar Expedition under Captain Nares in 1876. 746. The Antarctic Ocean is situated within the Antarctic Circle. The cold is even more severe than in the Arctic, and the ice extends further from the pole. The highest latitude reached in this direction is 78° 4', by Sir James Iloss. The Arctic and Antarctic Oceans are the favourite resort of whales, in catching which many vessels are engaged. Motions of the Sea. — 747. The waters of the ocean have three kinds of movement, — waves, tides, and currents. By the unceasing motion of its waters the ocean is kept pure. Waves. — 748. Waves are movements of the surface water, usually caused by \vind. Except in shallow water, and when the wind is very strong, there is no onward flow of water, but each wave sets the next in motion. It is thought that even by the most violent winds the watei is not disturbed to a greater depth than 200 feet 749. "Great is the destruction which is worked by the waves of the sea. £v«ry year piers and sea-walls are broken 6 82 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. I Ml i down, pieces of the coast are waslied away, and the sliores are strewn with the wreck of ships. So that, besides all the waste which the surface of the land undergoes from rain, and frost, and streams, there is another form of destruction going on along the ^ coast-line. 750. "On rocky shores the different stages in the eating away of the land by the sea can sometimes be strikingly seen. Above the beach perhaps rises a cliff, sorely battered about its base by the ceaseless grinding of the waves. Hero and there a cavern has been drilled in the solid wall, or a tunnel has been driven through some projecting headland. Not far off we may note a tall buttress of rock, once a part of the main cliff, but now separated from it by the falling in and re- moval of the connecting archway. And then, further off from the cliff, isolated, half-tide rocks rise toC show where still older detached buttresses stood; while away out in the sea the dash of breakers marks the site of some sunken reef, in which we see the relics of a still more ancient coast-line. On such a sliore the whole process whereby the sea eats into the land seems to be laid open to our eyes. 751. " On some parts of the coast-line of the east of England, where the rock is easily worn away, the sea advances on the land at a rate of two or three feet every year. Towns and villages which existed a few centuries ago have, one by one, disappeared, and their sites are now a long way out under the restless waters of the North Sea. On the west coast of Ireland and Scotland, however, where the rocks are usually hard and resisting, the rate of waste has been comparatively small." — Geikie. SPIIINO TIDEH. Tides. — 752. The ocean is ever changing its level. The waters rise for about six hours, and then fall f)M 760. WA.STK OF ROCKS. 753. NEAP TIDES. for the same time. This rising and falling of the ocean is called ike tide. When the water is rising we call it flood tide; when it is falling, ebb tide. 753. The tides are caused chiefly by the attraction of the moon. They are also affected by the attraction of the sun. When the sun and the moon are on the same side of the Earth, and also when they are on opposite sides of the Earth, the tides are very high, and are called spring tides. (See Diagram above. ) At the moon's quarters the sun and the moon act at right angles. The tides are then low, and are called neap tides. [See Diagram, above.) Currents. — 754. Broad currents, like vast rivers, are ever flowing through the sea. An exchange of waters is thus kept up between the Equator and the poles, and among the different oceans. 755. Sailors are in the habit of throwing bottles into the sea, containing slips of paper stating where they were cast into it, and when. The bottles course along with the current. When a sailor falls in with one of them, he notes the place and time of finding it on the paper, and sends it on its voyage again. The products of the West Indies are often cast upon the shores of the Azores iind Ireland ; the products of China arc carried to the Aleutian Isles; and drift- wood is carried from Northern Europe to Iceland. These are some of the proofs of the existence and di- rection of ocean currents. 756. The Gulf Stream, flowing north-eastward from the Gulf of Mexico, is the most remarkable of all the currents. A volume of water, much warmer than the surrounding ocean, passes through Florida Strait at the rate of four miles an :CS);: ;s level, lien fall .M'\ allin,.:, and they have a great effect on climate. THE ATMOSPHERE. Extent. —758. The atmosphere, or air which we breathe, surrounds the Earth on all sides to the height of forty-five or fifty miles. It is wrapped round the Earth, and travels with it in its movements through space. Composition. — 759. The atmosphere consists chiefly of a mixture of two gases — nitrogen and oxygen — there being nearly four times as much of the former as of the latter. It also contains a small amount of carbonic acid gas, and a quan- tity of watery vapour which is always changing. Prop" rties.— 760. Air is easily displaced, and we n)ove about in it without feeling the slightest hin- drance. Except when laden with mists and clouds the at- mosphere is perfectly clear, so that objects are seen through it with the greatest distinctness. It is not, however, quite colourless ; for when we look through a large volume of it, as upwards into the sky, or at a distant mountain, it appears of a blue tint. If we draw off nearly the whole of the air from a closed vessel, the little that remains will spread out and till the wliole space. Air is therefore said to be very elastic. 701. The air has vxight. At the level of the sea it presses with a weight of nearly 15 pounds on every square inch. A column of air of the full height of the atmosphere is equal in weight to a column of water 34 feet high, or to a column of mercury 30 inches in height. 762. It is the oxygen of the air that makes things burn ; hence where there is a scanty supply of air, fire goes out or burns feebly. Air is also necessary to animal and vegetable life. The Creator has wonderfully provided that the two kinds of living things — animal and vegetable— shall each give to the atmosphere something of use to the other. Car- bonic acid, which is highly poisonous to animals, and is plentifully thrown from the lungs in breathing, is the most nourishing food of plants. Reflection.— 7C3 Objects become risible by the light whlcli passes from them to the eye. .Some bodies, like the sun, shine with their own light ; others are dark, and are seen by reflecting or throwing off the light which they receive from some light-giving bmly. The atmosphere reflects the light of the sun, and tints sheds its rays over the Earth. Were it not for tliis power of the atmosphere the sun would appear as a bright spot in the heavens, while all else would be as dark as night. Temperature.— 704. The air receives but little heat from the sun's rays in their passage through it, but is chiefly heated by contact with the Eartli, or by tlie heat thrown off from the land and water. The heat becomes less and less as wo rise above the sea-level. Vapour. — 765. Water, in the form of invisible vap- our, is constantly rising from the Earth into the atmosphere. In a hot day we sometimes sprinkle the floor with water to cool the room. In a short time the water has all disappeared, for its particles expanded with the heat and floated away. Very little watery vapour rises higher than five or six mlica above the sea-level. WINDS. Origin. — 766. Winds, or currents of air, are occa- sioned chiefly by heat. 707. " Hot or warm air is lighter than cold air. Heat ex- pands bodies. It is this expansion of air, or the separation of its particles further from each other, which makes it less dense or heavy than cold air, where the particles lie more closely together. As a consequence of this difference of den- sity, the light warm air rises, and the heavy cold air sinks You can easily satisfy yourselves of this by experiment. Take a poker, and heat the end of it in the Are until it is red-liot Withdraw it, and gently bring some small bits of very light paper or some other light substance a few inches above the heated surface. The bits of paper will be at once carried up into the air. This happens because the air heated by the poker immediately rises, and it place is taken by colder air, wliich, on getting warmed, likewise ascends. The upward currents of air grow feebler as the iron cools, until, when it is of the same temperature as the air around, they cease." — Geikie. 768. If the door be set open between two rooms, one of which is warmer than the other a current of cold air will be found near the bottom ot the door, flowing from the cold room into tl'e warm ; while near the top of the door a warm cunent will flow from the warm room into the cold one. A lighted taper held in the door-way will show the direction of the cur- rents. 84 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ] •i 1 In like manner, there are currents in the atmo- sphere. We often see clouds near the Earth moving one way, and others higher up moving the opposite way. Trade Winds.— 7G9, The trade winds prevail over the greater portion of the Torrid Zone, extending a few degrees on each side into the Temperate Zones. They are more regxilar N.h Irnf/ell'inds. J^ Equatorial Calms. '(_ m 7'39. TUAUE WINDS. on the ocean than on the land. On the north of the Equator they blow from the north-east, and on the south from the south-east. 770. The trade winds are due to the fact that the air in the Torrid Zone is more highly heated than elsewhere. Currents set in from the north and the south, which the spinning of the Earth turns into north-east and south-east winds. 771. Monsoons are periodical winds in the Indian Ocean. The south-west monsoon blows from March till September ; and the north-east monsoon from September till March. Land and Sea Breezes.— 772. Along the coast, particularly in tropical countries, about the middle of the forenoon, the air over the land becomes more highly heated than that over the sea, accordingly a sea-breeze sets in towards the land. In the evening, the land cools more rapidly than the sea, and a land breeze blows towards the sea. 773. Winds are aflfected by the region over which they blow. Those that have crossed large bodies of water are moist ; those that have crossed a continent or a high mountain are dry ; those that have come over frozen lands or seas of ice are cold ; and those from burning deserts are hot and dry. The deserts of Africa and Asia give rise to hot, suffocating winds — as the Simoom of A.rabia, and the Harmaltan of the west coast of Africa. DEW, CLOUDS, RAIN, AND SNOW. Dew.— 774. A cold pitcher or bottle placed in a warm room is soon covered with drops of water. The air of the room contains invisible vapour, which is turned into water by the cold surface of the pitcher or bottle. Dew is formed in much the same way. After sun-down the earth cools rapidly ; the air next the earth is cooled by meeting its cold surface, and it lets fall some of its vapour in the form of dew Clouds. — 775. When vapour is condensed in the upper parts of the air and becomes visible, it forms clouds. Clouds resting on the earth are called fogs. Rain, &c. — 776. When clouds are further condensed by currents of cold air, by mountain ridges, or by electricity, the particles become large and heavy, and they fall to the earth as rain, snow, or liail. Snow is frozen vapour, hail is frozen rain. 777. "The mist on the gla.ss 'par. 774) and the cloud in the sky are both formed of minute particles of water separated by air. It is the running together of these particles which gives rise to the drops. In the one case, the drops run down the cold glass : in the other case, they fall as drops of rain through the air. Rain, therefore, is thus a further stage in the condensation of the aqueous vapour of tlie atmospliere. The minute particles of tlie cloud, as condensation proceeds, gather more moisture round them, until at last they form drops of water too heavy to hang any longer suspended in the air. These then fall to the earth as rain-drops."— Geikie. 778. The sea is the great store-houss from which rain is drawn up. Some of the rain whicli falls on the land is turned into vapour. The rest feeds brooks and rivers, and is re- turned again to the sea. CLIMATE. 779. The climate of a country is the condition of its atmosphere, particularly in respect to heat, moisture, and healthiness. We thus speak of a hot climate, a dry climate, a healthy climate, &c. Climate has an important influence on the plants and animals of a country, as well as on the way of life and the habits of its people. Trees attract and condense the vapours of the atmosphere; hence the rain-fall is lessened by clearing away forests. In some countries destitute of forests rain has been increased by planting trees. 780. The climate of a place depends on a variety of circumstances, as its latitude, its height above and distance from the sea, the slope of the land, its drain- age, and cultivation, and winds. The hottest countries are those near the Equator, because they are most directly under the sun's rays. Height above the level of the sea has also a great effect on climate. The tops of high mountains are always cold. Even in the hottest regions, there is a line, called the snow-line, above which the snow never melts. (See par. 784. ) 781. The amount of rain varies greatly in different countries. In desert places, as in the Sahara, in the north of Arabia, and in the regions around Thibet, PLANTS. 35 4 781. RAIN MAF OF THE WORLD. rain hardly ever falls. There are also rainless districts in Mexico 8 nd Peru. In places near the Equator, as in the Web Indies, rain falls on most days of the year. In some other places, as in India, the rains are periodical, falling abundantly during the one half of the year, and not at all during the other half. In the North and South Temperate Zones, rain and sun- shine follow each other all the year round. In the above Rain Map, the dark shades show the regions where most rain falls; the light ones, countries where little or no rain falls. PLANTS. 782. Vegetation is richest and most varied in the Torrid Zone. The forests contain majestic ever- greens, whose trunks and branches support twin- ing plants or parasites in such abundance that it is sometimes ditficult to tell to which stem the leaves and blossoms belong. (See page 35. ) 783. Some of the most noted trees of the Torrid Zone are the huge baobab, with trunk 30 feet through ; the wide-spreading banyan; and the majestic palm, yield- ing food, drink, and clothing. Here also we find various ornamental woods, dye-woods, gums, drugs, Slices, and choice fniits. The chief food- plants are rice, durra, bananas, bread-fruit, dates, cocoa-nuts, and Indian corn. 784. In the Temperate Zones plants of a different kind are found. The oak, maple, beech, and other forest trees, cast their leaves in the autumn. The Limit of Vegetation Snow Lichen ; Mosses and Lichens '/(■■'■ Limit of Grasses Darlcy Rye Shrubs Limit of Great Trees Wheat IJi^i Limit of Vines i^ Limit of Ferns Limit of Palms 78d V£U£XAI1UK OF THE ANDKS. r" 8G PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. chief food-plants are wheat, rye, oats, and maize; potatoes and other vegetables ; and such fruits as the vine, apple, pear, and plum. 785. In the warmer parts of the Frigid Zone dif- ferent kinds of fir and dwarf birches are the principal trees ; and barley is the chief grain. As we near the pole we find shrubs of alder and willow, and finally the mosses and lichens, which bring us to the regions of eternal snow. Mountain Slope). — 786. Mountains in the Torrid Zone whose summits rise above the snow-line, present, within nar- row range, nearly all the variety of vegetation found be- tween the Equator and the poles. At the foot of the Andes are the tropical palms ; rising one stage, we find tree ferns ; then the vine ; next the grains and shrubs ; then the grasses ; and finally the mosses and lichens. A similar variety is found on the slopes of the Alps and other mountains in the Temperate Zones. ANIMALS. 787. Most animals can live only in a certain climate. A hot climate suits some ; a cold climate suits others. But the same kinds of climate in difTerent parts of the Earth have not always the same animals. 788. The Torrid Zone surpasses the other parts of the Earth in the number, size, and beauty of its ani- mals. Some of the most important are the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, camelopard, lion, tiger, leopard, panther, monkey, crocodile, alligator, boa, and ostrich. Insects are very numerous in this zone. There are two species of elephants ; the larger is confined to Asia, the smaller to Africa. The lion belongs to Asia and Africa ; the puma is the lion of America. The camel also belongs to Asia and Africa ; the llama of the Andes is the American camel. 789. The animals of the Temperate Zones are less fierce than those of the Torrid Zone. Some of the more important are the bison, deer, ox, sheep, horse, boar, wolf, bear, fox, beaver, and hare; and among the birds, the eagle, turkey, goose, and pheasant. 790. The animals of the Frigid Zones are generally of a dusky colour. There are but few species. The more important are the reindeer, musk-ox, polar bear. grisly bear, arctic fox, ermine, sable, sea otter, whale, walrus, and seal. The birds are generally waders and swimmers, found along the shores in summer. There are no reptiles, and but few insects. The grisly bear is peculiar to the Rocky Mountains of North America. MAN. 791. The total number of human beings on the Earth is now supposed to be 1400 million, Man can live on almost all kinds of food. In the tropical regions he lives principally on rice, cocoa-nuts, bananas, and various fruits ; in the temperate regions he lives on vegetables mixed with animal food; in the frozen regions, where the earth yields nothing, he betakes himself almost entirely to animal food. He thus flourishes under every condition of climate, and takes the whole Earth as his domain. 792. It is only in temperate climes, however, that man's powers appear in all their strength. Intense heat in the Torrid Zone renders him feeble ; pinched by cold in the Arctic regions, and requiring to exert all his strength to sustain the body, he makes but little progress in civilization ; in temperate climates activity is both needful and agreeable, a moderate amount of labour secures the necessaries of life, and there are leisure and desire for training the mind. 793. In the temperate regions of Europe les not iu-