FIRST LESSONS -IN— GRAMMAR, -AND- HOW TO TEACH THEM, ^BY— T. KRAZBR, FIRST-CLASS CERTIFICATE, TORONTO NORMAL ; PRINCIPAL OF THE PITBLIC AND MODEL SCHOOL, OWEN SOUND. " I had always a hatred of Grammar. Nature seemed to whisper me the folly of learning words instead o{ ideas." -^Disraeli. OWEN SOUND: J. Rl'THERFORD, StEAM Book AND JOB PRINTER. 1884. \ \ Entered according to the Act of Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand eight hundred and eighty-four, by T. Frazer, in the office of the Minister of Agriculture. " \\1 3 G PREFACE. This little book is an attempt to furnish hints on " How to teach first lessons in Grammar." Though more particularly intended for young teachers, or those about to enter the profession, it is hoped that even the general student will find it useful. To any who lack the advantage of having a teacher in studying this subject, it will, I think, be of pecuLar service. I have adopted, wherever the nature of the lesson will permit, the plan of illustrating by the aid of objects, which never fails to interest young pupils. Ideas should be first impressed, then the ierm^ and finally the definition should be drawn from the class, as a short exercise m composition ; the latter must be carefully criticised, and corrected if necessary, then written on the board for the pupils to copy and commit to memory. Each lesson taught in this way becomes a drill in reasoning as well as on Grammar. Though I have placed the Analysis of Sentences after Inflection for the sake of clearness, it should be taught simultaneously with the Parts of Speech. This work comprises all that is required in Grammar and Composition to pass the High School Entrance Examination. Owen Sound, May, 1884. INDEX. KINDS OF WORDS. Adjective . . Abstract Noun Adverb . . Conjunction . , Interjection Names i Case Comparison Conjugation Gender Infinitives Mood Page. 8 Pronoun . . 18 23 Preposition Sentenc;; . . 28 Uses of Words 29 Verbs 6 Words IKFLE 36 CTION. Numl)er 41 Person 49 33 54 Participle Parsing . . Tense 44 Voice Page. . 18 27 . 2 4 13 1 31 38 51 56 47 43 ANALYSIS AND COMPOSITION. Arrangement Composition Resolving Sentences Style of Writers 75 83 74 7S Sentences — Simple " Compound . . " Complex Variety of Expression . . .. 60 67 .. 68 77 RULES or ' SYNTAX. Adverbs and Prepobitions . . Case — Nominative 90 86 Capitals . . Pronouns .. 94 89 " Objective . . " Possessive 87 88 Prepositions, use of Verbs . 93 91 ERR ATA. Page 32, for "gasses," read "gase s." 33, for " 4th, names of persons," read " 4th, names of objects. 35, third line, for " of making," read "of marking." 80, paragraph No. 4, for *' are readily," read "are not readily." FIRST LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. Lesson I. WORDS THE MEDIUM OF EXPRESSING THOUGHT. Show a picture of some unknown person or object to the class. Teacher asks : How many know of whom this is a picture ? No answer. Teacher — How can you be informed ? Pupils — You must tell us. Could I inform you in any other way than by fe/Zing you ? Yes ; by writing or printing the name of the person. That is correct. I will tell you (giving the name), and I will also write the name on the board. Now, how many ways have we of expressing our thoughts to one another ? We express our tli oughts in two ways : By speaking or telling our thoughts ; By writing or printing them. ^Vhat CO we use in expressing our thoughts to others ? We use words or language. How many can tell what a word is ? Note. — If there is no answer to this question, the teacher may draw out their thoughts in the following manner : How many in passing a watchmaker's sliop, have observed a large circle of wood hung over the door, and painted so as to represent a watch ? All. What name is given to any object of this kind ? It is called a sign. - What is it used for ? It is used for the purpose of informing people that watches are made or sold within. Where are our thoughts formed ? They are formed in our minds. Can we see one another's thoughts ? No. How then do we make them known ? By speaking or writing them. 3 SENTENCES. ^ And what do we use in doing so ? We use words or language. Then what are words ? They are signs of our thoughts. In how many ways do we use them ? In two ways : By speaking or writing them. Draw definition of words from class, then write it neatly on the board for pupils to copy : Words are signs, spoken or written, used to express our thoughts to others. Lesson II. THE SENTENCE. A:ik class to recite the definition of words. Having ascertained that each pupil has learned it, take any object, such as an apple, show it to the pupils, and ask them to write something about it. Suppose one of them has written : " The apple is ripe." Write the following on the blackboard : The apple is ripe. The ripe apple. Ask them to observe carefully the two expressions. Draw from the class which of these expresses a complete thought or statement about the apple. They will see that in the first expression the ripeness of the a])ple is affirmed; in the other, the kind of apple is merely named. They may complete the thought in the second expression, as "The ripe apple hangs on the tree." Tell them to write com- plete thoughts about the following subjects : Horse, cow, wagon, sleigh, boy, &c. The term " Sentence " may now be given. Draw definition from class, writing it on the board, correcting where necessary for class to copy: A Sentence is a number of words expressing a complete thought about something. Can we express all our thoughts in a few words or sentences ? No. PABTS OF A SENTENCE. 3 \Miat name is applied to all the words used by people to con- vey their thoughts to one another ? Language. Definition drawn from class : Language is the expression of our thoughts by means of words spoken or written. Lesson III. THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Having tested the class on their knowledge of the previous definitions, ask them to write a sentence on some subject, as : map, slate, bell, Sue. Teacher — How many can tell how a sentence is formed ? Pupils — By speaking or writing about something. How many parts must a sentence contain ? Note. — If you fail to get the proper answer, write a subject on the board, as : The wild rose. Ask pupils to complete the sense, or complete it yourself, f.g.: The wild rose has a sweet smell. Teacher — In the sentence just formed what have I written about ? Class — About the rose. Then what is the subject of our thoughts ? Rose. What other part does the sentence contain ? It contains the siaiemeni about the rose. How many parts then has the sentence ? Two. What are they ? ist — The subject or name of that which we have in our thoughts. 2nd — The statement^ or what we have to say about <^he subject. . Now explain that ist is called the subject of the sentence, and 2nd is called the predicate of the sentence. Draw definitions from class, and write on board : The Subject of a sentence is the name of the person or object about which the statement is made. The Predicate is the part of the sentence which contains the statement about the subject USES OF WORDS. Write Subjects for Write Predicates for burns. The horse gives light. The cow swim. Little birds fly swiftly. The clouds learn fast. The apple-trees .... works hard. The winter Lesson IV. THE DIFFERENT USES OF WORDS. Write on the board some sentence, as : The boy ran home to tell what his companion had done. Teacher — What difference do you notice in the words of the sentence written on the board ? Class may perhaps answer — Some are short, others long. Yes ; some contain only a few letters, others six or seven, but there is another difference which I wish you to learn. How many have been in a carpenter's shop ? x\ll. Well, how many can name some of the tools he uses ? Some pupil is asked to reply, and the teacher will have no difficulty in getting a list of these, as axe, saw, chisel, h^.mmer, plane, &:c. Why does he keep so many different kinds of tools ? Because he has a diif event use for each. Right. What does he use a saw for ? To cut boards. What does he use a hammer for ? To drive nails. How many see that each tool has a different use ? All. Look at the sentence on the board. i How many see that each word has a different use ? What is "the "used for? To point out the person. What is " boy " used for ? To distinguish who is meant. * What is " ran " used for ? To tell what the boy did ; &c. REVIEW. The teacher may take up each word in a similar manner, and draw from the class its use in the sentence. 'I'ell the use of each word in the following sentences : Paul saddled his horse to ride to the town. The old church has fallen mto ruins. Do you see that horse in the meadow ? 'I'he owner of that house is a rich man. Lesson V. REVIEW WORK. Teacher — \\'hat did we notice about words in our last lesson ? Class - That they have different uses. How may we classify or arrange words ? We may classify them according to their use. Teacher now exnlons that words classified according to their use are called Parts of Speech. Define: Word, sentence, subject, predicate, part of speech. Write sentences on : apples. stars. island, wheat. lake. river, pears. boat. town. Write subjects for : is Governor-C ieneral is Member for Grey. Supply predicates for : The Amazon The Mississippi Little birds ' The sky ' Divide the following sentences into subject and predicate : Harry studies every day. The dog was shot by its owner. The river has risen during the night Paris is the capital of France. The storm was furious. The storm has ceased. New York is the largest city in America, By the river he wandered. Over the hills they ran. Round the world we go. O NOUNS Lesson VI. NAMES. How many remember any of the uses of words ? Some are used as names. Some to distinguish, or point out. Write on your slates the names of all the objects you see in the room. ^ Inform the clasb that all words used as names are called nouns, because the word nuun means a Jiame. Draw definition from class : A noun is a word used as a name. Next step — place before the class a number of different kinds of objects or pictures of objects. Arrange into groups of the same kind, e.g.: A group of books — of pencils — of pens. A class of boys. A class of girls. What name may be applied to each objeet or member of a group or class ? The class will now get the idea of a name common to each mem- ber of a class. What kind of nouns may we call them ? Common nouns. What are they used for ? They are names common to each member of a class, to mark or distinguish it from one of another class. Draw definition : A common noun is a word used as the name of each member of a class to mark it from some object of another class. Point out the nouns in the following : John has broken his slate. Henry goes to school. The tree was blown down by the wind. The sun is glancing through the leaves of the forest. Bring me the cup off the table. Jane has hurt her finger. DISTINCTION BETWEEN NAMES. ? Lesson VII. DISTINCTION BETWEEN NAMES— COMMON AND PROPER. Having ascertained that the pupils understand the previous lesson on the noun, arrange if necessary into classes or groups as before. What name is eommon to each member of this class 7 Boy. What name is conwion to each member of this class ? Girl. If I wish to speak to a particular boy in the class, how must I address him so that he and the others will know that I refer to him? You will have to name him. Very well. Theh each boy and girl has what kind of name ? Each boy and girl has a particular name. What use has this particular name? Its use is to distinguish each person from another when spoken of. How many kinds of names have all persons then? It^Or— common names and particular names. Name some objects that have two names — common and i)ar- ticular Towns, villages, rivers, capes, &c. Write particular names for these common names : village. ' river. boy. street, town. cape. girl. bay. What are particular names used for? They are used to distinguish one individual of a class from another. What difference do you observe in the writing of common and particular names ? I'he particular names are written with a capital, the others with- out a capital. Inform class that particular names are called proper nouns, meaning one's own name. Draw definition, and write it neatly on the board for pupils to copy : Proper nouns are names used to distinguish individuals of tfie same class from one another. Exercise on proper and common nouns. 8 ADJECTIVES. Lesson VIII. ADJECTIVES. Take a number of objects, such as rods, books, or apples, place them before the class. Write the names of these objects on the board, apple. short - rod. large yellow square dear sweet round cheap sour ^ thick well-bound book. Each pupil will be eager to give some property the object i)os- sesses. In drawing from pupils such qv lities as long, short, thick, thin, it will be necessary to compare one object with another. Having got all the qualities you can from class, ask what do these words written in columns before the names of the objects express. They will be able to answer that they express some property or quality of the object before whose name they are placed. Inform class that these words are called adjectives, which means cast or put to — a word put to a noun. Draw definition : An adjective is a word used to denote some quality which an object possesses. ADJECTIVES. 9 Lesson IX. KINDS OF ADJECTIVES. There are a number of different objects — books, pictures, &:c. — on my desk ; if I ask one of you to bring a book from the desk, what would this request signify ? That you wanted any book. If I ask you to bring the book, what is meant ? That you desire a particular book. Note. — Again, by taking two pictures, placing one at a distance and hold- ing the other, illustrate the use of " this " and " that." To which picture do I refer when I say " look at this picture ?" 'i'o which picture do I refer when I say " look at that picture ?" This picture denotes the one in your hand. Tfiat picture denotes the one more remote. If I refer to two or more pictures, what words should be used instead of this and that ? These and those. If I jjointed to an object at some distance, what word should I use in connection with its name? Yon or yonder. What is a or aji used for ? 'I'o point out any object of a class from that of any other class^ What is the used for ? To point out a particular object from others of the same class. Deal similarly with the other words. What are a^ the, this and that used for ? To distinguish or point out some person or object. Inform class that these are called I )emonstrativc Adjectives — "demonstrative" signifies to show or point out. 1 )efmition drawn from pupils : Demonstrative adjectives point out which person or object we are speaking of. 10 REVIEW. Lesson X. REVIEW ON PREVIOUS WORK. Define : Noun, common noun, proper noun. Write sentences containing proper and common nouns. Write adjectives qualifying or limiting : pear, tree. boy. street, box. man, house, river, hat, - soldier, palace, queen Complete the following sentences by inserting an adjective in place of each dash : It is day. The horse is a animal flowers grow in the garden. Oxen are animals. A hand- kerchief w^as bound around his arm. He had a countenance. A man knows no fear. The man will be rewarded. I'he sea swallows many ship. Honesty is jewel than that which adorns a king's head. The men are the most government will enforce the laws. An son is a disgrace to his parents. A. .... . friend wuU not desert us in adversity. Point out the adjectives in the fallowing : A tall dark-looking man rode past on a grey horse, in the bright blue sky there is not the smallest cloud I never saw be- fore so beautiful a simset. There is not in the wide world a valley so sweet. The French make fine soldiers, they are more impet- uous but not so steady as the British. ADJECnVES. 11 Lesson XI. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES, &c. Hold a book or any other object before the class and ask : How many books have I in my hand ? One. Write the name of the object on the board, as shewn in a former lesson, and draw other numbers from the class. one ^ u n first \ much \ two ( second f , , little > fire-wood, three f°r third ( °° ' less) many ) ^^"k^- fourth) To get the adjectives in the second column from class, arrange the objects in a series. Ask some one to number them as first, second, &c. Note.. — The adjectives denoting quantity, as given in the third column, may be drawn from class in a similar way. The pupils have now got the idea of number and qtmntity, and the term quantitative may be given. Write the definition neatly on the board after getting the sub- stance of it from class : Quantitative adjectives denote how much or how many of that for which the noun is the name. Supply numeral adjectives where a dash occurs : men were sentenced to die soldiers were ordered for China. Lake Superior is in length, in width, and feet deep. The Reader is not often used in our public schools. W ADJECnTES. Lesson XII. DRILL ON THE ADJECTIVE. Write the following kinds of adjectives in connection with names of objects : Six which point out or limit. Six denoting quality. Six denoting number. Six denoting quantity. Place of the Adjective in the Sentence. W'rite on board : A ripe apple hangs on the tree. The apple is ripe. I saw a ripe apple. Ask class to divide these sentences into subject and predicate. Example : SUBJECT : A ripe apple The apple I PREDICATE : hangs on the tree. is ripe. saw a ripe apple. What is the adjective in each of these sentences ? Ripe. I;n what part of sentence No. i is it used ? In the subject. In what part of sentence No. 2 is it used ? In the predicate. In what part of sentence No. 3 is it used ? In the predicate. Note. — Explain that in the yi>j/ sentence the adjective is used aflHfmfhely, and belongs to the attributes of the subject ; in the second it is employed in the predicate, and is used to complete the predicate, being used predicatively ; in tl>e third it is used atti-ibuliveiy. but forms part of the completion of the predicate. When is an adjective used attributively ? When predicatively ? VERBS. IS Lesson XIII. THE VERB. Write on the board the following sentences : John struck the desk. He walks quickly. They sat on the sofa. What word in first sentence tells what John did to the desk ? Struck. What word in second sentence tells what he did ? Walks. What word in third sentence tells wha): they did ? Sat. Then what work dd these words struck^ walk, sat, perform ? They tell or assert something about their subjects. Write on the board : Snow is white. Willie loves history. What word in the first sentence asserts the quality of whiteness to snow ? The word is. What word m the second sentence tells how Willie regards history ? The word loTes. What kind of words are is and loves 1 They are words that tell ox assert something about their subjects. Can we construct a sentence without a word that tells or asserts 1 No. Note. — Teacher now informs the class thai; words used for the purpose of telling or asserting are called verbs, because no seutence can be formed with- out one, and the word verb signifies a word. Draw definition from class ? A verb is a word which makes an assertion about some person or object whose name forms its subject. Lesson XIV. KINDS OF VERBS. Write on the board : John struck the ball. Henry walks. y 14 VERBS. N^me the verbs in these sentences : Sirikt's and walks. In whiv-h of these sentences does the action expressed by the verb pass from the doer to something else ? In the first sentence. Who is the doer ? John. What action does he perform ? He strikes. And what does the action pass to ? To the ball. Note. — Teacher may explain that ball is called the object of the verb because the action passes from the doer to it. , In the second sentence does the action pass from the doer to an object ? No ; the action is confined to the doer or subject. What kinds of verbs would this distinction give us ? Two kinds. First — Those in which the action expressed by the verb passes from the doer to an object. Second — Those in which the action expressed by the verb is confined to the doer or subject. Note. — Inform class that the first are called transitive verbs, and the second are called intransitivk verbs. Transitive signifies to go or pass across ; ijitransiiive signifies not passing across. Write transitive verbs to connect the following : John table. Harry ball. William nail. Mary letter. Write intransitive verbs to connect the following : • The ship on the sea. The cow under the tree. The horse along the road. The man on the sofa. REVIEW. 11^ Lesson XV. REVIEW WORK. Define an adjective. Define each kind of adjective. Define a verb. Point out the adjectives in the following sentences and classify them : Mysterious night ! when our first parent knew thee he did not tremble for this lovely frame, this glorious canopy. This contract of ancient and modern civilization is a remarkable feature in Egypt. The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear full many a gem of purest ray serene. A hundred bodies were dug out. It is a glorious lan'd with snowy, bold and magnificent mountains ; deep, narrow and well-wooded valleys ; large and superb glaciers, and numberless rivulets. Point out the verbs in the following : I saw him yesterday. He hurt his foot. She sang sweetly. • He ploughs the field. I walked home with him. He works hard. James writes with his left hand. Supply verbs where a dash occurs : James time away at school. The fire brightly. The chair * The horse away. The snow fast. The walls ...*... down. The elephant 1ft VERBS. Lesson XVI. TRANSITIVE VERBS. Write on the board : John gathers apples. John likes apples. What kind of verbs are gathers and likes i They are transitive. Why? Because the action expressed by these verbs passes to an object What do we gather with ? "^xt gather with our hands. What do we like with ? We like with our minds. Name some actions performed by the mind. We study, think, love, pity, rejoice, with our minds, &c. What name is given to such actions of the mind as love, pity, hate, &c.] Note. — If the answer is not forthcoming, teacher may explain that these are called feelings. How many can now inform me what transitive verbs express ? They express action or feeling. Draw definition and write on board : A transitive verb is one which denotes an action or feeling, which is directed towar Js some object. AV'rite transitive verbs in the following blanks, denoting action or feeling : The horse him. She us. The farmer the field. The miller wheat. John history. He the poor boy. We time. TBBB. 17 Lesson XVII. INTRANSITIVE VERBS. ^ Define a transitive verb. Write on board : Ice melts. Harry is sick. '' Robeit sleeps. Willie rejoices. Name the verbs in each sentence. Melts, is, sleeps and rejoices. What kind of verbs are these ? Intransitive. Why ? Because the action or feeling expressed by each verb does not pass over to an object but is confined to the doer. What does melts express ? It expresses action. What does rejoices express ? It expresses feeling. What does is express ? It asserts the condition of sickness with its subject Harry. What does sleeps denote ? It denotes the state or condition of Robert. And what kind of verbs are these ? Intransitive. W^hat may intransitive verbs express ? They may express action or feeling, state or condition. Definition : An intransitive verb is one which denotes an action or feeling, state or condition which is confined to the doer. Write intransitive verbs for the following subjects : The army The books The dog at the moon. There my mother's picture. The storm furious. 18 irOTTNS. Lesson XVIII. ABSTRACT NOUN. Write on the board : (a) Honest men are respected. (b) Honesty is respected. In sentence (a) what is said to be respected ? Honest men. In sentence (b) what is said to be respected ? Honesty is said to be respected What kind of men are spoken of in sentence {a) ? Honest men. What kind of word is honest? Honest is an adjective because it qualifies men. Then in sentence {a) the tjuality of being honest is used in connection with some individual. What kind of word is honesty ? A noun, because it is used as a name. What is it the name of? It is the name of a quality or property. Is this property used in connection with ?ixvs particular individual in sentence {b) ? No ; it is considered as the name of a prope*-'- -^r qual'ty apart from anything else. Note. — Explain that names of this kind are called abstract , ntns because the qualities are abstracted from the objects which possess these j-.o^ierties. Abstract nouns denoting action may be illustrated in a similar manner. Note. — Abstract nouns are mostly derived from adjectives and verbs. Derive abstract nouns from these adjectives : wide, square, hungry, foolish, round, high, virtuous, wise, regular, strong, fierce, wicked. Derive abstract nouns from the following verbs : occupy, confer, choose, walk, relieve, serve, talk, express, believe. Draw definition : An abstract noun is the name of some property, quality or action. PBONouir. 19 Lesson XIX. PRONOUN. Write on board : John struck John's dog. He struck his dog. Name the nouns in the first sentence. yohn and John's. What words have been used instead of these in the second sentence ? He and his. Supply other words for nouns in the following sentences : Mary studied Mary's lesson. Mary did not think the lesson too long. Mary's father will give Mary a nice book. H The book has many nice pictures in the book. Note. — Ask some one to read the sentences ; when class has finished, find liow many agree, and point out errors, iif any. Pupil reads : Mary studied her lessons. She did not think them too long. Her father will give her a nice book. It has many nice pictures in it. What words does her supply the place of? It supplies the place oi Mary. What word does them supply the place of? It supplies the place of lessons. What word does it supply the place of? It supplies the place of book. What kind of words have she^ her^ them^ ity &c., supplied the place of ? They have supplied the place of nouns. Teacher now informs the class that she, her. them, &c., are called pronouns. Pronoun signifies for a noun. Definition : A pronoun is a word which supplies the place of a noun. BIVIBW. Lesson XX. REVIEW. ' Define transitive and intransitive verbs. Define abstract noun and pronoun. Arrange the transitive and intransitive verbs in different columns in the following sentences; in the same manner arrange the pronouns and abstract nouns : She told me shame would never betide. With truth for my creed and God for my guide. She taught me music. V Brittania rules the waves. We cannot prize a good character too highly. Nothing is lovelier than virtue. The storm was at its heighth. Gratitude is a noble emotion. Hope, the balm of life, soothes under every misfortune. Supply pronouns where a dash occurs : I love friend companions are not to be trusted. are good boys climbed up the mountain walks in sleep call Harry have just seen , hope will come to see soon. Supply abstract nouns in the following : The of the lights blinded me. His was shaken. . . . .*is good exercise. He had no master, but was in- troduced into England by Caxton merits is despised. conquers all things leads to { { EEIATIYB PBONOUN. r 21 Lesson XXI. RELATIVE PRONOUN.i>-r Write on the board : I went to see the new house which John built. I know the man who bought the farm. I saw the man and the boy that took the goods. Ask clasjj to break up each into two sentences ; if they fail to do so, teacher may write them on the board as follows : a. I went to see the new house. b. John built the house. c. I know the man. • ^ d. The man bought the farm. I I saw the man and the boy. I They took the goods. In the first sentence, what word united the affirmations marked a and b ? Which. What word in sentence b is it used for } House. Then what two offices does which perform ? It is used instead of house^ and it also connects two affirmations so as to make one sentence. If it stands instead of house^ what kind of word is which ? It must be a pronoun. Right ; but it not only stands for a pronoun, but it connects sentences. Deal in a similar manner with the other words who and that. Now inform the class that these are ce,lled relative or conjunctive pronouns . Inform them that the word they stand instead of is called the antecedent. Ex- plain the meaning of the terms relative and conjutictive. Draw the definition from the class : A relative pronoun, in addition to being a substitute for a noun, connects sentences. Supply relative pronouns in the following blanks : I saw the man was taken prisoner. The man and the boy ..... I engaged have left. I saw the person she married. He does wrong deserves punishment. This is not the book I gave you. They seek me early shall fmd me. 22 mTBREOOATIVB PRONOUN. Lesson XXII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Write on the board : Who is at the door ? Which do you like best ? What did he bring ? What kind of sentences are these ? They ask questions. Inform them that all such sentences are called interrogative, which denotes asking a question. Name the words beginning each question. ^ Who, which, what. - What does 7v/io supply the place of ? The name of some person. What does which supply the place of? The name of some object or person. What does what supply the place of ? The name of some object. What kind of words are whi\ which and whcU ? They are pronouns. Why? Because they are used instead of nouns. How are they used ? They are used to ask questions. What name have we for sentences which ask questions ? They are called interrogatives. Then what kind of pronouns may we call who^ which and what ? They may be called interrogative pronouns. Definition : An interrogative pronoun is one which is used in asking questions. Supply interrogative pronouns where a dash occurs : do you like best ? is the shortest ? ol them is right ? did you ask for ? ADVERBS. Lesson XXIII. ADVERBS. Write on the board : The lamp burns with a clear flame. How does the lamp burn ? With a clear flame. How many could express the idea ivith a clear flame by a single word ? The lamp burns brightly. Very good. If you saw a bird fly past you in a moment, what word would express this rapidity of flight ? Swiftly or quickly. Right. 'i'hen what do the words brightly^ quickly^ swiftly express ? They express the manner of the action, or how it is done. Write words to express the manner of the action in the following sentences : John writes Mary sings VV'illie studies Henry talks Robert walks Edward acts Write on board : John rises early. Willie went away. I saw him here now. Draw from the class what each of the words early ^ away^ here^ now, express, e.%.: When does John rise ? Early. W^hat does early express ? Time of rising, S:c. What kind of verbs do brightly, swiftly, quickly, &c., modify ? They modify verbs. Yes, they are generally used with verbs, hence we call them adverbs. Point out the adverbs in the following : He plays too eagerly. He struck him very hard. He got up behind. I arrived yesterday. The earth turns round. M ADVERBS. ^* Lesson XXIV. " ADVERB— Con ftnued. Write : "^ The rose is very beautiful. What word expresses the degree of beauty ? The word very expresses the degree of beauty. What kind of word is beautiful ? An adjective. vv -t * Then the word very qualifies or modifies what kind of word ? It modifies an adjective. Teacher Qxplains that very is also an adverb. , ' Write : -' The eagle flies very swiftly, v . What kind of word is swiftly ? ' ^ ■ ^ • / An adverb. , ; Why? ■' ': ■X^''^^:'ivAr - r Because it tells how the eagle flies. /-[, ^ :.Lji;;i What word modifies ja////^ / . > i ,,; Very. ,,.'.:■::: , ■;;'"■"'' '-; Teacher, explain that very is an adverb also, '^v^ What kintf of words do adverbs modify ? They modify verbs, adjectives and other advert And what do they express ? They express manner, time, place, and actioi Definition : An adverb is a word used to modify verbs, some adjectives and adverbs. Where a dash occurs insert an adverb : I walked Mary sings The tree is high The horse trotted The lion roars The poor dog was hurt. He will go to Toronto. He is recovered yet. He speaks of his companions. She is free from the effects yet. I am glad to see you. Two minutes had elapsed when he came. ADVEBBS. Lesson XXV. KDW^KBS— Continued. Write on the board : He walked there. { Come here instantly. >? He leaves to-morrow. He is exceedingly strict. r He will certainly come. ( Perhaps he is delayed by storms. Why did he go ? They fought bravely. v Note. — Ask class to name each adverb in these sentences and tell what it expresses, ^,^; '-^''-^ v. ::?,:^^ r^ -?'■-: '■<':, -jV--'- What does there express ? Place. What does ^>wAj;«//y express ? Time. : >n;;? What does exceedingly express ? Degree. What does certainly express ? Affirmation, &c. What does why express? Cause (used interrogatively.) What does bravely express ? Manner. Name the different ideas adverbs express. They express idea of time, place, manner, cause, degree, affirmation, &c. Write sentences containing adverbs of time, place, degree, cause, effect, affirmation, negation, &c. 96 KBVUW. Lesson XXVI. REVIEW OF PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS. Define : Pronoun, relative and interrogative pronouns, and adverb. Point out or arrange the pronouns under their different kinds, and name the adverbs in the following sentences : I have not seen him lately. He is constantly at work. He went away yesterday. I'hey ran swiftly down the hill. She often walked three miles before breakfast. He is still not very old. I saw John, who told me about the accident. Which of you will go. What would you do in my place ? Who would have thought he was so old ? I know what you said. Which of them do you like best } I saw the dog which bit the little girl. He is a man who cannot defend himself I saw the tree that was struck by lightning. Supply pronouns or adverbs where you can in the following sentences where a dash occurs : horse threw him The house was built by parents taught to read project answered The boaster is doubted. Discoveries are made He came upon me . . . Bees build their hives The bird was secured. PBGF08ITI0N. 27 . Lesson XXVII. PREPOSITION. If convenient, take a small box, and with your pencil or any other object draw from class the following relations of the pencil to the box in regard to place or position, &c. Placing the pencil in the box, ask : Where is the i)encil ? It is in the box. Where now ? It is 0ver the box. Where now ? It is < ^t" ^''.?^ \ the box. * '/ ^ V ' Where now? \\.\s, outside \}[\- John may go. Harry may go. ^^ Ask class to combine these statements into one sentence so as to convey the idea — ist, That one may go, but not the other; 2nd, John may gc, and not Harry. John or Harry may go. John, but not Harry, may go. Name the words used in combining these statements. And, or, but. What are these words used for ? They are used to join statements. What name may be given them ? Joining words. Now explain that they are called conjunctions — meaning a word that joins. Defmition : Conjunction is a word used to join words or sentences. nrnuEUBcnoNs. 29 Lesson XXIX. : -^^..-a INTERJECTIONS. Write on the board : ,^ Hurrah ! our boys have won the game. Alas! he is dead. Mercy ! how you frighten me. Oh ! why did he leave us ? Hark ! did you hear that ? Adieu! my friend. What words in these sentences express joy, sorraaKyv ^v. INFLECTION. ' Lesson I. :, "■^ c_, ./.,.,:__, , . NUMBER. ., ^, _ , ^., ,!.\.r" Take a number of objects, such as books, pens, &c.: holding a dook before the class, ask for the word denoting one of these. Class gives the word book. ^ *''^" Write the word dook on the board in the first column, as shewn in the example given below ; next, by holding up ^wo or more books, get the word dooks, which denotes Morc than one of these objects ; write the word books in second column. Take another object and deal with it in a similar manner. Note. — In a lesson of this kind there are name« of objects or animals the plural form of which may be drawn from class after writing, the singular form on the board. Denoting one. Denoting more than one. i pen pens j ^°"^^^^ ^y adding s to the singular. { box boxes l ^°^"^^^ ^y adding es to the singular. { chi!d children } ^^^"^^^ by adding en to the singular. { JSo^h teeth } ^^^^^ ^y ^^^"g^"g '^' '^^'^' What change has been made in the word book in order to express more than one? The letter s has been added to it. Deal similarly with the other words given in the columns, draw- ing from class the different modes of changing words from those denoting one to those denoting more than one. How many ways are given here of changing from words defwtin^ one to those denoting more than one? There are four modes — first, by adding s to the singular form of the noim ; second, by adding es ; third, by adding en, and fourth, by changing the vowel of the singular. ■I KTMBBR. Lesson II. NUMBER. In our last lesson how did we classify names ? Into two classes — those denoting one and those denoting more than one. What word is applied to words like one, tu>o, three, &c.? Numbers. Well what name may be applied to this change in the word we have just been learning ? '/ Number. How many can define Number as applied in our lesson ? Number is a change in the form of nouns to denote whether we are speaking of one person or object or of more than one. Note. — Explain that names denoting one are called Singular, and names denoting more than one. Plural. Write on board the singular forms and draw from class the plural, e.g.: Singular. Plural. Nouns ending in Form plural by adding gas ., . gasses vjk" ' 8 es glass glasses 9S es bush bushes sh es church . churches ch soft es monarch monarchs ch hard s fox ''' ^ foxes X es topaz 1 , ; ;. topazes z es potato ^^ ' ' potatoes o es What kind of words form their plural by adding es ? Nouns ending in ss, s, sh, ch soft, x^ 2, &c., form their plural by adding es to the singular form. Words ending in y may be taught as follows : Write the singular on the board, asking class to spell the plural form. boy boys lady ladies bay bays sky skies toy toys penny pennies attorney, attorneys OKNDSK. 33 vVhat kind of letter comes before y m boy, toy, bay, &c.? A vowel. How do these words form their plural ? By adding s. , What kind of letter comes before y in lady, sky, &c.? Consonants. Draw the following rule from class : Words ending^ in (/, preceded by a vowel, form the plural by adding a. Words ending in . In column {a) how is the femii * e formed ? By different words. In column {b) how is the feminine formed ? By affixing ess and ine. In column {c) how is the feminine or masculine formed ? REVIEW. 35 By prefixing words of the different genders to those of common gender. How many ways or modes are there o^ making the gender of nouns ? There are three wavs of marking the gender of nouns — ist, by using different words ; 2nd, by a-lding the terminations gss and ine to the masculine ; 3rd, by prefixing words denoting the kind of sex to words of common gender, • Name the gender of the following words : book hart cattle fowl deer children house multitude paper pen bird animal arm head army . people REVIEW ON INFLECTION OF WORDS. Define Number and explain the terms singular and plural. Give the different modes of forming the plural. Give rule for forming the plural of words ending in y. Write exceptions to the rule of adding es to nouns ending in o. Define gender, and explain the terms masculine, feminine, common and neuter gender. Give all the rules for forming the feminine, &c. Write the plural of sister, brother, boy, foot, die, goose, foot, child, man, loaf, flagstaff, staff, leaf, wharf, eye, glass, mouse, pen, key, chief. Write the singular of sheep, chimneys, dice, selves, fifes, pianos, fathers-in-law. Frenchmen, lilies, dwarfs. Write words having the same form for both singular and plural. AVrite words which have a different meaning in the plural from the singular. ^. ,- :*, vi ^i Classify the words according to gender in the following list : John, boy, girl, cloud, bird, house, hare, hair, queen, king, uncle, coal, hero, nun, count, duchess, youth, goat, monk, abbess, nephew. Give words of the opposite gender to the following : Man, girl, wife, lady, goose, drake, wizard, father, sister, niece, mother, daughter, cow, friar, priace, &c. 36 CASH. :f_^/ .-;■-. Lesson VI. -''^v--'-^ ;■■'■■■■ CASE. - -- Write on the board the following sentences and ask the class to change the nouns to pronouns : (a) John tore John's book. (d) John's father will punish John. Changed by class to : {c) He tore his book. (^) His father will punish him. ^^ What is the subject of sentence (a)? , , . \ yohn is the subject. What other form of the word is given in the same sentence ? John's. What is meant by J(7^«'j ^i?^>4! ? '^ . ; That John owns it. In how many ways is the word yohn used in sentence {a) ? In two ways — first as the subject, second to denote ownership. Then how are these differetit uses of the word denoted ? They are denoted by a change of fortn in the word. What change has been made in the word John ? It has been changed to ^ohn^s. Ask class to spell the latter form. Next draw the attention of the class in a similar manner to the different forms of the pronouns, according as they are used or related to other word^, as the subject of a verb or the object of an nction. How many different forms of the word heaxt given in sentences {c) and {d) ? He^ his, him. r - . v; >, ; - - :^ ^j^ -.> ':^ Why do we use these different forms ? In order to express a change in their use or relation to other words. Now explain that this change in the noun or pronoun is called case, which means ^ falling away from the common form used in the subject. Definition : Case is the form in which a noun or pronoun is used to show its relation to some other word in the sentence. CASH. 37 > Lesson VII. Ch.^¥.— Continued. Write on the board : {a) John asked John's father to give John a knife. {b) He asked his father to give him a knife. How many forms has the word yohn in sentence {a) ? Two — 'J^o/in and y^ohn^s. ,- . , . How many forms has the pronoun used instead of John in sentence {b) ? Three — h€y his, him. What relation has y^ohn to the verb asked} It is its subject. What relation is expressed by yohn^s knife ? Possession or ownership. * What relation is expressed by the words to give a knife to yohn ? An objective relation. i : j^^ ,. . F v How many relations are expressed by ^^ position "of the word yohn in sentence {a)} . ^j. Three relations — the relation of the subject ^:o the verb, the relation of possession, or ownership, the relation ot the object of the action, or preposition. How many I'orms has the noun to express these relations ? Two. How many forms has the pronoun to express these relations ? Three. Now inform the class that the form for the subject of the verb is called the nominative case; the form tor denoting irwnership or possession is called the possessive case; ami the form «lenoting the object of a verl) or preposition is called the objective case. Draw definition ; •" Nominative case is the form of a noun or pronoun used as the subject of a sentence. Possessive case is the form of a noun, &c., used to denote ownership. Objective case is the form used as the object of a verb or preposition. 38 PBKSON. Lesson*V^II. V PERSON. Write on the board : ' -. I saw the man you spoke of. pii - ■ • How many different persons are mentioned in this senience ? Three are mentioned. Name them. 7, you and man. .' What does /denote ? /denotes the speaker. - t: '■ What does _>'f?« denote ? 2 Vou denotes the person spoken to. , ^ What does man denote? / ■ ^ Man denotes the person spoken of, -, . v^ .i!^: i Note. — Inform class that words denoting the speaker are said to be of the first person ; those denoting the person spoken to, of the second person j and those denoting the person spoken of, of the third person. Get all the pronouns of each person from class. ": ';; ,/ '»"" -,.:^. Lesson IX. ,' ;"_ ". T .I'ii^'." EXERCISE ON THE PRONOUN. Construct a table of pronouns according to person, gender, number and case, from the following sentences : I have hurt my fool, it gives me pain. Thou art he. Thy father spoke of thee to me. He, she and I went for a walk. We met his, Iier and your fiitliers. They asked us to accompany them back, and we agreed to their request. Our time is now fully occupied. He owes you and them its value twice over. i BEVISW. 89 How many numbers have pronouns or nouns ? Two — singular and plural. How many cases ? Three — nominative, possessive and objective. How many genders ? Three — masculine, feminine and neuter. How many persons ? •-- Three — first, second and third. 2 able of pronouns constructed by class M- GENDER. SINGULAR • PLURAL. NoM. Poss. Obj. NoM. Poss. Obj. com. I St person I my me we our us com. 2md " thou thy thee you your you masc. 3rd " he his him ) '' V '•' fem. " '• she her her } they their thei neut. " it its it ) . , ,.„. - ■ A.^- c i ■ -: ' -- ■ Why do we place /in the singular ? It denotes one. Why in the nominative? ■ \v ^/ -" Form used for subject. Why in the first person } Form used for speaker. .-.,,,' Why in the common gender ? Form used for either sex. Get the other forms in a similar manner from class. -'■:'"'' i:''.\-''^"''\ <■■■ Lesson X. '■ - ' "''" J REVIEW ON INFLECTIONS. Define : Case — nominative, possessive and objective. Point out the nouns and pronouns in the following sentences and tell the person, gender, number and case of each : We should improve our time. In youth all things seem pleasant. Hope is a great support in misfortune. I praised the scholars because they were attentive. The boys have lost their ball. I hung it on the nail. The girls have wasted their opportunities and they will never come again. 40 , . COMPABISON. Define : Person, gender and number. Write the possessive forms, singular and plural, of : I, thou, eagle, man, mother-in-law, John, James, sheep, rose, bee, river, sister, it, we. Write sentences containing : ^ ; -t- -. I, my, our, your, their, them, his, it, thy, ours, theirs, mine, &c. ■^■'' ' : '^ "' Lesson XL .■'.;^;;^.v ^,5 .i- INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. Take any three objects of the same kind, but differing in size, How many kinds of comparison does this give ? ^ Three — first, by using different forms of the word ; second, by adding er and est to the positive ; and third, by prefixing more and most to the positive. Inform class that the first is calletl irregular comparison ; the second, it'rminattonal \ and the third, t/tZ/rr^w/ comparison. List of adjectives that do not admit of comparison : Adjectives sometimes used as pronouns, as this, that, &c. Numerals, as one, two, &C., first, second, &c. Those denoting perfection, as sure, certain, universal. Those denoting position, shape, material, as circular, square, wooden. Proper adjectives, as English, Irish, ) When the subject of the verb is tlie object of the action described by it. . ,^ ^ ^\'hat do these two forms show ? They show whether the subject of the sentence stands for the doer, or for the object of the action expressed by the verb. 44 MUOD. Now give the ierm voice, and draw from class that — Voice is the form of the verb which shows whether the subject of the sentence stands for the doer or for /' the object of the action expressed by the verb. 'I'e.icher may explain that as the suhjert in ft)rm (a) is the actor or doer this fornx is called the ACTivt voice. Form (b) is called the passive voice. Draw definitions : ' The active voice is the form of the verb which shows that the subject is the doer of the action. The passive voice is the form of the verb which shows that the subject is the object of the action. V Lesson XIV. MOOD. >v Write on the board : (tz) I study grammar. v {b) If he study grammar he will become a correct speaker. --7-^- {c) Study grammar that you may learn to write correctly. ^/ :.-■? 4v.<;r' " •,. {d) To study grammar is useful. Draw from the class by judicious questioning the following : In sentence {a) the verb study is used to assert a fad ; in {b) it is ui;ed conditionally ; in {/) to command or entreat ; and in ( ; Mood is the manner of using the verb, as affirming a fact, expressing a condition, uttering a command, or simply as a name. Give the terms indicative, which signifies poijiting out ; subjunctive, because the verb is subjoined to another ; imperative, which means com- manding ; infinitive, without limit, because the verb is not limited by person, number or time. Note. — The teacher should give numerous examples in each of the different moods before getting the following definitions from class. Indicative mood comprises the forms of the verb v^hich point out or assert something as a fact, or ask a question about one. Imperative mood is the mode of using the verb in a command. ' Subjunctive mood is the manner of using the verb when subjoined to another verb or depending on some statement, question or supposition. Infinitive mood is the manner of using the verb merely as the name of the action without reference to time, &c. The subjunctive is used in the following : < / {a) When we express doubt or denial in a conditional clause, ns " If I were certain of that, I ivould be happy." / {b) When we express something contrary to what is known to (be a fact, as *' If I were he, I would try again." {c) When futurity and condition are both implied, as " If he come^ I will go." (//) When a wish is contrary to a fact, as "I wish I were rich." {e) A future intention or result, as " I will wait till he die^ 46 Riniw. *: /-;. -v ' ^ . Lesson XV. ' ; EXERCISE ON PREVIOUS WORK. Define comparison — positive, comparative and superlative de- grees of comparison. Give examples of three kinds of comparison. Classify and give examples of adjectives that do not admit of comparison. . ,i Write the definitions of voice and mood — each kind of voice and each kind of mood. Classify and compare the following adjectives where they admit of it : Good, wise, beautiful, larger, far, fair, rich, perpendicular, square, wooden, round, French, junior, enormous, eager. :> Give the voice of each verb in the following : ^ I saw John yesterday. ,;.-,. They ordered him to leave. >^--?.i-^ J The king issued a proclamation. They were beaten by the soldiers. The land was being settled by foreigners. The victory was won by the British. . ..^ Give the mood o{ each verb in the following : - Where have you laid the book ? -^ ■ ^^ I told you to be careful. , >• If this were a fme day I would take a walk. Do not stand idling there, go at once. I am sorry to see you look so unwell. Pay what you owe me. The order is that we charge. TBN8I. 47 Lesson XVI. TENSE. Write on the board : > , (a) I study my lessons. (If) I studied my lessons. (cj I shall study my lessons. What do the various forms of the verbs express in these sentences ? They express a di^erftice of time in the action. What does the verb in sentence (a) express ? It expresses present time. , What does the verb in sentence (h) express ? It expresses /^j"/ time. / "^ What does the verb in sentence (c) express ? It expresses future time. In how many ways can we speak of an action with reference to time? In three ways — as taking place nmv or in the present ; as having occurred in the past ; as about to take place in the future. Write on the board : •• ^ ' I -J-.-- J,. - I am studying my lesson. I was studying my lesson. I have studied my lesson. I shall have studied my lesson. How does the verb express the action in the first sentence ? It is spoken of PS being incomplete. How in the action expressed in the second ? As being incomplete in the past. How in the third ? As being completed now. How in the fourth ? \^ As being complete in the future. ^ How many ways may we regard an action with respect to time ? As present^ past or future. J / 48 TENSE. How may we speak of an action with respect to its progress ? As being complete or incomplete. Give the term tense, which signifies time, and draw the definition from class. - - ■ ** Tense is the form of the verb which expresses partly the time of an action or event, and partly its completeness or incompleteness at the time. Lesson XVII. TENSE. Write on the board : (l write a letter. Present J ^ ^^ Writing SL letter. - -present < j ^^^^ written a lette have written a letter. I have been writing a letter. What time is expressed in the first two ? : ; • ; ; /,;j4.w: Present time. Note. — In asking the class what time is expressed in the next two, the answer may be "They express the .iction in past thne." Write on the board : ^ ^ ' ;;:?>;:;'? i ; I have written a letter. , I had written a letter. Would we use /ia7'e wrf/fen to express an action occurring yesterday ? No. We would say : I have written a letter to-day or this morning. The pupils in this way will see that though '■'^havewritten^^ expresses the action as complete, it is complete at a time of which the present forms part. Sim- ilarly, ' 'had'" shows the action as complete in past time ; and ''have been writing'^ expresses an action as continuing at a time of which the present forms a psrrt but now completed. CONJUGATION. 40 The teacher may ask the class to form the past and future tenses. ._ ; f I wrote a letter. p ) I was writing a letter. j I had written a letter. I I had been writing a letter. I shall write a letter, P ) I shall be writing a letter i J I shall have written a letter. V I shall have been writing a letter. How many tenses do these four divisions of present^ past and fut:tre time give ? Twelve tenses. Teacher now gives the term for each tense. Present Indefinite speaks of an action in the present without regard to its progress. Present Imperfect speaks of an action in the present as being incomplete. Present Perfect, as complete in the present. Present Perfect of Continued Action, as continuing at a time of which the present forms a part, but now complete. The past and future tenses may be taken up in a similar manner. Give exercises on aii the persons in the singular and plural. Lesson XVIII. -- SCHEME FOR THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. Verb " to speak." . Indicative Mood PRESENT TENSES, Indefinite - - I speak. Imperfect - - - I am speaking. Perfect - - - I have spoken. Perfect of continued action I have been speaking. 60 CONJUGATION. PAST TBNSE. Indefinite Imperfect Perfect - - - Perfect of continued action I spoke. I was speaking. I had spoken. I had been speaking. FUTURE TENSE. Indefinite Imperfect Perfect - - - Perfect of continued action I shall speak. I shall be speaking. I shall have spoken. I shall have been speaking. Subjunctive Mood. PRESENT TENSES. Indefinite Imperfect Perfect - Perfect of continued action If] I speak. If J I be speaking. If] I have spoken. If] I have been speaking. PAST TENSES. Indefinite Imperfect Perfect Perfect of continued action If] I spoke. If] I were speaking. If] I had spoken. If] I had been speaking. FUTURE TENSES OR SECONDARY FORMS. Indefinite Imperfect - - - Perfect Perfect of continued action If If l{ If I should speak. I should be speaking. I should have spoken I should have been speaking. Imperative Mood. [Thou] speak. Indefinite - - Imperfect - *^ Perfect - *^ 7 Perfect of continued action Infinitive Mood. To To To To speak. be speaking. have spoken. have been speaking. PAKTICIPLB. ^ . Participles. Indefinite - - Speaking. Perfect - - - Having spoken. Perfect of continued action Having been speaking. NoTK. — I have not thought it necessary to give all the persons of the verb in this scheme. The pupils, however, should be drilled on all the moods, tenses and persons in both singular and plural. - ,-k':-. 'v Lesson XIX. ^ , ■/•-- ' __ :, PARTICIPLE. Write on the board : {a) I see a tall boy. VUT ('^i I see a little boy. {c) I see a boy walking. , / {d) I see a boy running. What words in sentences {a) and {b) enable you to tell which boy is referred to ? Tall and little. . What kind of words are tall and little ? Adjectives. W^hat words in sentence {c) and {d) mark or distinguish the particular boy ? Walking 2LnA running. - r;*^ ■ ^ They perform the work of what part of speech ? ■ . They perform the work of an adjective. Do these words perform any other duty than that of an adjective ? Yes ; they express what each boy does. What kind of words generally expresses what we do ? Verbs. Then these words running and walking participate in the nature of what kind of words ? .• They participate in the nature of verbs and adjectives. Give the term participle, which xi\^ds\.% participating in. A participle is a word which partakes partly of the nature of the verb and the adjective. Point out the participles in : I saw John throwing a stone. I heard him talking to himself. The ship sailing down the bay, ran ashore. A tree growing in front of the house is dying. 52 PARTICIPLE. Lesson XX. FARTICIFLE— Con fmued. . Write on the board : {a) He, ploughiTig the field, felt merry. (d) Having ploughed the field, he went home. {c) Having been ploughing all day, he felt tired. (each is : .--....;. x. _v .-^j>:v-t' .-'v. !' ;, Having defeated Harold, he marched to London. • ' Being badly beaten, the boys returned. - He having struck the mah first, was fined. The letter having been written with bad ink, could not be read. His house being burnt, he went to the country. The man having been nearly killed, was insensible. James, having been working all day, went early to bed. Note. — A verbal nolin is always the s\ibject of a v«rb or the object of a verb or a preposition — a participle is never used in this way. CONJUGATION. 53 Lesson XXI. CONJUGATION. Write on the board the present and past indefinite of the indicative mood and the perfect participle of two verbs, one belonging to the strong, the other to the weak conjugation. Example: ES. INDEF. PAST INDEF. PERF, PART. plough smite ploughed smote • ploughed smitten How are the past indefinite and perfect participle formed in the verb plough ? By adding ed to the present. How is the past formed in the verb smite ? . By changing the vowel of the present. How is the participle formed ? By adding en to the present. Where does the change take place in plough} From without. Where does the change take place in smite? From within, when changing from the present to the past. Inform class that verbs like plough which form their past tense and perfect participle by the addition of d or ed to the present are called weak verbs ; and verbs which form their past tense by modifying the vowel of the present are called strong verbs. A list of verbs of weak conjugation : flee fled fled . .^ deal ^ , dealt dealt hear heard heard *J' . feel "^ "^felt felt sell sold sold :, '.: kneel knelt knelt lay laid laid ": "::: teach taught taught have had had - ;- * beseech besought besought creep crept crept rend rent rent leave left left bleed bled bled lose lost lost ; ;-^ light lit lit Ue lay lain bet bet bet t INFINITIVES. Strong conjugation : awake awoke awoke bind bound bound wear wore worn wind wound wound shear shore shorn begin began begun choose chose chosen shrink shrank shrunk seethe sod sodden swim swam swum shoot shot shot arise arose arisen hang hung hung thrive throve thriven dig dug dug smite smote smitten sting stung stung fly flew flown win won won let let let wring wrung wrung Less go went gone ;oN XXII. • INFINITIVES. Write on the board : {a) To play is pleasant. (b) I love to play. (c) Something is pleasant. {d) I love something. USED AS A NOUN. What word in sentences {c) and {d) has been substituted for to //ty in the first two sentences ? Something. What part of speech is something ? A noun. Tell its relation in each sentence. It is the subject of is in {c), and the object of love in ( i ■, ■ - , ■ '■ :" ANALYSIS. .;';- J^TK : Ask the class to write sentences about map, Harry, &c., g.^.: The map hangs on the wall. Harry spilled the ink. The pupils should be required to separate each into subject and predicate. Supply predicates for : The water The queen Fire The sun . . . . Winter The laborer, Write subjects for the following predicates : is landed. fought bravely. were shining. are to be pitied .gives pleasure. * adorned the walls. Now write some sentence on the board, as ; The little birds build their nests in Spring. Ask the pupils to name the subject and predicate. The sentence may be fully analysed step by step, marking the divisions as they are understood by the pupils. Example : SUBJECT. PREDICATE. ATTRIBUTES (I. SUBJECT G. PRED. COMPLETION i EXTENSION 1 The little birds build their nests in spring. G. subject signifies grammatical subject. ANALYSIS. ei What do the words the little qualify? They qualify birds. Inform pupils that all words used to limit or qualify the subject are called the attributes of the subject. Next, take up the different parts of the predicate in a similar manner, illustrating that the object of transitive verbs, predicate adjectives, and nouns used to complete the sense after intransitive verbs, are placed in the completion ; all adverbs and phrases answering to how, when, why, whence, etc., are placed in the extension of the predicate. Lesson II. CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. The following form may be drawn on the board, and filled up by the pupils as follows : ATTRIBUTES 'SITBJECT'PREDICATEICOMPLBTIONI EXTENSION The ripe Little apple apple John John hangs hangs lost lost his book on the tree, yesterday. Ask some pupil to name a subject. Write it in the column marked subject. Ask another to supply a predicate for it, and place it in the predicate column. The other parts of the sentence should be got in a similar manner from the pupils. Drill on this exercise till each pupil is able to supply any part of the sentence .asked, as completion, extensions of time, place, manner, &c. How many subjects has each sentence ? One. How many predicates has each ? One. Give the term simple sentence. Definition drawn from class : A simple sentence contains one subject and one predicate. 62 CONSTRUCTION OF SBNTISNCBS. EXERCISES. Supply attributes for : flowers are blooming horse is lame house is on fire. The duty is to obey. Supply completions for: . The dog bit on the leg. Edward became They praised The master is Good boys study The boy is r^^ Supply extensions for : :t- V I saw him He went Mary talked Willie sings He wondered The snow fell He came home The wind blew The ship sails !''f . Lesson III. ATTRIBUTES OF THE SUBJECT. Write on the board : I. The large box is in the room. i John's hand is hurt. ( His book is torn. 3. A man of prudence will look to the future. 4. The steeds prancing, frightened the child. 5. William, the carpenter, is building a house. 6. Little John, the painter's son, being clever, took the prize. Ask the pupils to analyse each sentence. ATTRIBUTM OF THE SUBJECT. 63 Draw from class the kind of words forming the attributes in each sentence, e.g.: What kind of words are the and large? Adjectives. What kind pf word is JohtHs} ~ Noun in the possessive. V . \ What kind of word is his"? " r, ,., . . ^ Pronoun in the possessive, .. What kind of words are of prudence ? --'l Preposition, followed by its case. ^ What kind of word \s, prancing} Participle. • . What kind of word is carpenterl . Noun, in apposition. \ Now draw from class that— ^^ • ' ' ' '• « « « « (< dt The attributes ofthe subject may be: One or more adjectives. v% • A noun or pronoun in the poss. A prep., followed by its case. A participle. A noun in apposition. " " " A combination of some or all of these. Classify the attributes of the subject in the following sentences : The gallant soldier died for his country. Mary's book is torn. The student of history will understand why the Roman power decayed. Nelson, having given his orders, displayed the signal for battle. The stately homes of England, how beautiful they stand. The spirit of your fathers shall start irom every wave. The meteor flag of England shall yet terrific burn. Macauley, the historian, had a splendid memory. Frightened by the tumult and shivering with cold, the beautiful maiden stole away unobserved. 64 extension op the predicate. Lesson W. • EXTENSION OF THE PREDICATE. Write on the board : I. He works hard. He looks for help. He is fond of study. 3. James arrived last night. 4. He has gone to help his brother. I taught geography to them. Do me the favor, &c. 6. The sun having set, the stari: began to peep. '■{ M Having analyzed the above, draw from the pupils that the extensions may consist of : I St — An adverb, as : He works ^a*?/. 2nd — A preposition followed by '..s case, as : He looks /^r /le/p. 3rd — A phrase denoting time, distance, &c., as : James arrived /asi night. ,-,< 4th — Infinitive of purpose, as : He has gone to help, &c. 5th — The indirect object, as : I taught them geography. 6th — The nominative absolute, as : The sun having set, the stars began to peep. Classify the extensions in the following : Pleasantly next morn rose the sun o'er the town. John went to town yesterday by the morning train. Flow gently sweet Afton among thy green braes. They soared onward over immense forests and fertile islands. 1 shed tears for very joy. He went home to study his lessons. He walked three miles an hour. The farm is forty rods wide. Seaward, from east to west, a river rolled. Alone in the desert, I love to ride. Amid the tall ancestral trees they stand. Far and wide, by mountain, stream, and sea, their graves are severed. COMPLBTION OF THB PREDICATE. 65 Lesson V COMPLETION OF THE PREDICATE. Write on the board : ' - . V j John is a good boy. ^ ) Edward became king. (d) The sky is blue. (c) John struck the ball. f . . (d) He appears to be honest. ! Draw from the pupils the different kinds of words that fill up or complete the predicate in these sentences. Some pupil is required to answer that the predicate may be completed by : ' (a) A noun in the predicate nominative, as boy, king. (^) An adjective in the predicate, as blue, (r) A noun used as the object of a transitive verb. (d) By an infinitive, as to be, &c. Supply Completions for the followinpj verbs : They praised .... He seems I call He was made The defenders were doomed The light becomes I shall not He gro\\ Supply attributes for the subjects in the following : A man is respected. William defeated king James. Edward was the father of our queen. The troops could not march any further grass wili^ion be scorched with the hot sun. Write extensions for : He rode Lend your knife The eagle flies James arrived The fence measures ,.;.., 66 CONTRACTED SENTENCES. * ' ' Lesson VI. ' CONTRACTED SENTENCES. Write on the blackboard the name of some familiar object, or place the object itself before the class, and draw from pupils the various qualities it possf acs, writing on the boaid as follows : Glass is smooth. Glass is brittle. :. Glass is transparent. Glass is hard. Contracted : Glass is smooth, brittle, hard, and transj^arent. Pupils will notice that the subject and verb are used otily once in the contracted sentence. Write on the board : John, entering his room, after walking home from school, sat down to study. Change into three simple sentences, as : " - John walked home from school. John entered his room. John sat down to study. Ask the pupils what words have been changed or supplied. The pupils will answer that the participles have been changed to verbs, the word yohn has been repeated so as to form the subject of each sentence. Now reverse the process, asking what changes are required to form one subject and predicate from these three simple sentences. Class : {a) All the verbs but one must be changed to participles. , ,T {b) The subject is only used once. . >, \. .:-,vv. ^'T- •• >-■ --. EXERCISES. _. --.va^.vrurvi- Combine into simple sentences : Gold is heavy. Gold is yellow. Gold is ductile. Gold is malleable. Gold is fusible. No complete survey had been made. It is therefore impossible to state accurately the amount of land. He sent for Edward Montague. He became Chief Justice. He was then an influential member of the House. ^ COMPOUND SENTENCES. 67 Lesson VII. COMPOUND SENTENCES. Write on the board : ;' (a) John and Harry went to skate. r ' . (/f) He is happy, but I am not. . Draw from class the number of assertions in each sentence ; ask them to write them on slates, or on the board, as: s ■ ■■..'-■■ * / \ *! John went to skate. ■ ' I Harry went to skate. /m/ He is happy. , . ,,,,)f ■ ' ) I am not. ' .>,, /Mf Are each of these assertions complete when sei)arate from one another ? Yes. What doe? each assertion form ? • It forms a simple sentence. Then how are these sentences (a) and (d) formed ? They are formed Xvj joining simple sentences by means of con- junctions. Clive rhe term compound sentence. Draw definition : A compound sentence is one which contains two or more simple sentences, combined by co-ordinate conjunctions. Form compoimd sentences from the following : The way was long. The wind was cold. He is rich ; he is unhappy. The man is not wealthy ; the man is not wise. He felt my pulse ; he shook his head. Suddenly I started up. I rang the bell. The dog is remarkable for its attachment to man ; the dog is remarkable for its sagacity. The thunder roared ; the lightning flashed ; the wind tore up the pines by their roots ; it flung them into the valley ; the rain descended in inundating gusts. W COMFLKX NSMTEJNC'ES. Lesson VIII. , COMPLEX SENTENCES. Write on the board : - . (a) The prudent man looks to the future. (^) The man who is prudent looks to the future. Name the attributes of the subject in sentence (a). The and prudent. What words are used instead q{ prudent in sentence {b) ? Who is prudent is used as the attributes in {b). How many finite verbs has sentence {a) ? One — looks. \ ■ How many finite verbs has sentence (^) ? . ' Two — is 2iX^A looks. Which verb forms the principal predicate in both ? _.•, Looks. '■' To what part of the sentence does is belong.^ . To the attributes. What is the subject of Af ? ;^ IVho. : --. :-•':'" •' "^--r'' " "^ -' Inform class that the words who is prudent are called a clause. Definition : , a, A clause is any part of the sentence which contains a subject and predicate of its own apart from the principal subject and predicate. Give the term complex sentence. Definition : A complex sentence is one which besides having a principal subject and predicate, contains one or more clauses which have subjects and predicates also. Classify the following, and tell whether they are simple, com- pound or complex, and why : The forest has spells to enchant me. The mountain has power to enthrall. The philosopher and the peasant were called first. The man was innocent, but the woman was guilty. A vine-dresser who lay at the point of death, called his children around him. I will tell you a story which was told to me. I suppose you have been in the country. ADJECTIVK (XAUSE. 69 Lesson IX. THE ADJECTIVK CLAUSK. Write on the board : . '. (a) A faithful man shall abound with blessings. (d) A man (who is faithful) shall abound with blesr'.igs. Name the attributes of the subject in sentence (a) Faithful. What words are used instead oi faithful vci {b) ? ^ "" 'Xho. &\\x<>^ luho is faithful. ^ . .. .. What kind of word '\?> faithful} ; • - ; ' ^vl An adjective. . = v '? What kind of clause may we call {who is faithful)? = An adjective clause. Why? Because it supplies the place of an adjective. Definition : An adjective clause is one which supplies the place of an adjective. r - EXERCISES ON THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. The eye that mocketh at his father shall be plucked out. He that flatters his neighbor spreads a net for his feet. The king that faithfully judges the poor shall establish his throne. He that giveth to the poor shall not lack. The swiftest dog we have is the grey hound. There is perhaps no single animal which has been more useful to man than the dog. I will tell you a story which was told to me. The man who diligently attends to business is sure to succeed. The man whose son we saw has gone to Albany. Those who fled were killed. Where is the book that your father gave you ? 70 NOUX CLAUSE. Lesson X. NOUN CLAUSE. Write on the board : (a) I know something. (^) I know that he will not come back. What kind of sentence is (a) ? Simple. What kind of word is something'^ A noun. Where should it be placed in the analysis ? In the completion. Why ? Because it is the direct object of know. What words supply its place in sentence (/') ? The clause that he will not come back. What kind of clause may this 1^ called ? A noun clause. Why? Because it supplies the place of a noun. Draw definition from class : A noun clause is one which supplies the place of a noun. Write on the board : {a) That he loas a good man, is well known. {b) I hope you have studied your lessons. {c) His success depends upon ho7i.> he exerts himself'. (d) The fact is he is indolent. {e) The saying, " that truth is stranger than fiction," is often verified. {/) I am certain that you will win the prize. Draw from class that a noun clause may occupy the following positions : {a) The subject of a sentence. (6) The object of a verb, placed in the comj)letion. {c) The object of a preposition, placed in the extension {d) The predicate nominative, placed in the completion ( TS rt ■3 so rt c F 3 O U c c •- o — i o| * :2, C tfl o F > ^^ -- 13 ti rt ^ -s s ^ rt "-I c/3 ^ . o o o •5 y >- «: ?^ = c^ 5 1> > i3 *- >-■ ■«-• o o ::^ c S^ S r^ »— ( is -« N f*5 a C 9 1 S o 8 1 •a s |3 •: • ? •• o *V"' •i3 3 9 If 1 a •*1 s? -. < H M < C 35 •^ • ^ V f-< j3 tj c u » « A i ■ c •0 2 -a >^ •* % mm 0m < a, p 1— 1 .j; 1 1 1 a =* 1 3 O l-H o 0) ®W ^H- 5, >. c JS ■ X ^i« 1 o ♦i ■*; "TS H^ H «4 •a 1 s < S -1 "S a J 5 jfT3 if "i 2 S ^ •5 "i JL 2 Ai -fi * ^ Eh g 1 • - ' -■ ... - !;■>.:'.. 1 1i - - = 3 • m4 S :« <1 g -— .L^— », c3 .-| -_.< v:-f .. S rK ^* o o ■u^ - - ■ ' ... S ^4 'M •w 'w •*4 : ■ K^ < o 1-^ 1 • 1.5 If! =: St: • *•* f 5 J:< 5| 5 y ^ si 3 S. • = as > - 1^ "S* ~ 13 < — '—/r. x; < ^ S 3 c . s 5e 5 J * -fj ^ 1 ^ M ;< s s ~ S o sTST SJ 5 •6 ^ •5 -2 §§ t 2 ^ z • ^ .^ 11 2 = «# s 'A = : _ >» - ^ -i"^ a 4J "F "iSi ; < < « 0" # >f " ^p* ' I S.2; |a| 3 S a %\% sal -^'^ a .'S X > « 3 r a i: 3 =* -5 :s _ u A 4 »« ^ «« » " K 5 « -*» lis 3*0 X O 3 3> X " ~ 3 U ? « - £ - 3 X « ;, ~ 3*«*, 3 s 3-'- 'S.n 553^ £ ic2 * ?^ 3t3 « 3^^ be ^r* . -3 = ? X V 3J^ 74 SBNTENOEH. Lesson XIV. RESOLVINCx COMPLEX SENTENCES INTO SIMPLE. Example : Can the husbandman look forward with confidence to the increase, who has the promise of Ciod, that seed time and harvest shall not, fail ? Resolved : Can the husbandman look forward with confidence to the increase? "rsb'i'*' He has the promise of Ciod. ' VrbM"^ *■ The promise that seed time and harvest shall not fail. Resolve into smiple sentences : Christian charity is friendship expanded like the face of the sun when it mounts above the Eastern hills. An honorable friend of mine, who is now, I believe, near me, has told us that prudence can never be used in the cause of vice. :;_ Combining simple into complex sentences : I grant that brevity is very pleasing. Where not obscure it is pleasing. ; Where not defective it is pleasing. Even to the daintiest judgments it is pleasing. Combined: 1 grant that brevity, where it is neither obscure nor defective, is very pleiising, even to tiie daintiest judgments. (Joml)ine into a complex sentence ; John is building a new house. ^^„ _l^^ ^ ^ - He is building it v)f brick. - He is building it on the hill. .„__ The hill is West of the town. It will cost about a thousand dollars. VARIETY OF ARRANGEMENT. 75 Lesson XV. VARIETY OF ARRANGEMENT— GRAMMATICAL AND RHETORICAL FORMS. (a) All their bare sabres flashed. (d) Flashed all their sabres bare. (c) The term of all the race of earth is fixed. (ii) Fixed is the term of all the race of earth. Draw from the pupils the different modes of expressing the same sentence, by writing them on the board, as shown above. Which form is most commonly used ? The form used in the sentences (a) and (c). In what kind of writing or composition is the other form used ? In poetry and oratory. Explain that — The common form of speech is called the grammatical form. That used in poetry, etc., is called the rhetorical form. Draw from class that in the grammatical form the subject is generally placed yfrj^. In the rhetorical form t^>^ emphatic word comes first, and the verb generally before the subject. This may be an emphatic adjective, as : " Sweet is the hour of rest." " adverb, as : " Now 's the day and now 's the hour." " adverbial phrase, as : " Down in the water he sank." " object of a verb, as : " His throat the chieftain's gripe compressed." " infinitive, as : " Bent is his head of age." EXERCISES. Change from rhetorical to grammatical : 'i'hen outspake brave Horatius : To every^man upon this earth, death comcth. From thejiand where the roses of Sharon smile, we come. ixlotionless as a cloud the old man stood. Bei eath the sun the smiling daisies blow. Teacher may give other examples and also exercises in changing from grammatical to rhetorical. 76 VARIETY OF ARRANGEMENT. Lesson XVI. • VARIETY OF ARRANGEMENT— DIRECT AND INDIRECT FORMS. . . Write on the board : ,. ■ ■■ . ■-> Direct.— Then "I hope," added the Dial Plate, " we shall all immediately return to our duty, for the maidens will lie in bed till noon, if we stand idling thus." Indirect. — The Dial Plate added that he hoped they would all return to their duty, for the maidens would lie in bed till noon if they stood idling thus. Direct. — "I would give my right hand," he exclaimed, "if I could only repair the injury I have done that splendid fellow." Indirect. — He exclaimed that he would give his right arm if he could only repair the injury he had done that splendid fellow." Draw from class the dilTerence in the arrangement of the two forms. They will observe that in — 1. The direct form : The words of the speaker are given as they are spoken by himself. In the indirect form : They are given as recorded by another. 2. In changing from the d'rect to the indirect form : (a) The pronoun of the first person is changed to the third. (^) The pronoun of the second person is changed to the third. (c) The present tense is changed to the past tense. In changing from indirect to direct, the past is changed to the present, and the third to the first or second. Examples may be given by th^ cher frot . any reading book. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. , 77 Lesson XVII. VARIETY OI EXPRESSION. , AVrite on the board ; ■ * : i>j;i :• r - -;; - [rt] Integrity secures the esteem of the world. [d] The esteem of the world is secured by integrity. [c] Columbus was convinced that the world is round, and was resolved to test his theory by experiment. [//] Columbus, being convinced that the world is round, resolved to test his theory. ., Draw from class that the first two sentences convey the same idea in a different form, by changing from active to passive, or from passive to active. The second mode of attaining variety of expression is by changing some of the veri>s Xct participles and omitting conjunctions. exp:rcises on variety of expression. Change from active to passive : , ^ Caesar conquered Gaul. i ? :. The Eg}^ptians embalmed the bodies of the dead. Newton discovered the law of gravitation. , ^ The general ordered the troop to charge. They were preventing us from going through the field. Change from passive to active : Milton's ])oetry has been admired by the greatest minds. The jews were persecuted in the tenth century by the monarchs of Europe. Change one of the verbs into a participle, omitting the conjunctions: > ' '- ■ ' ;K «:- The battle was finished and the enemy fell back to the river. Hudson ascended the river which now bears his name, and founded Albany. The Romans had conquered all their enemies, and were, at the time of our Saviour's appearance, masters of the world. 78 VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. Lesson XVIII. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION— ^^«//>/7/«;. Write on the board : ' .-'. [a] Indolence is the cause of many evils. ll>] Laziness is the beginning of many troubles. How has the variety of expression been obtained in [a] and [d] ? By using dii^erent words having the same, or nearly the same, meaning. ^;, . , ■ , ., ., .,:rrr: v Explain that words having the same meaning are called sjrnonymes. Write on the board : ' V] His brother is dead. *//] His brother has departed this life. V] His brother has gone to that bourn whence no traveller returns. How has the variety of expression been obtained in [r], \(f\ and M? By using a greater number of words or phrascs to express the same idea. Give the term paraphrasing. Now d^aw from class that variety of expression may be obtained by changing from active to passive ; by changing some of the verbs to participles, and leaving out unnecessary conjunctions ; by using synonymes ; by paraphrasing. EXERCISE ON VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. Change 'ly using synonymes for words in italics : Idleness^ luxury and pleasure destroy many a youth. Wealth is desired by all. In many of the West India islands the earth is so productive and requires so little cultivation that plants may be said to grow spontaneously. C!hange by paraphrasing : . The sun shines. Sleep is refreshing. England expects every m?n to dc his duty. Punctuality is the soul of business. STYLE. IP Lesson XIX. - EXAMPLES OF STYLE. . Style is the manner in which a writer expresses his thoughts. No two writers are likely to express the same idea in exactly the same manner. The different kinds of style have been characterized as : [a] Simple style, in which our thoughts are expressed in the natural manner, without any attempt at effect, e.^.: I met a little cottage girl, She was eight years old, she said, Her hair was thick with many a curl That clustered round her head. [^] Florid, in which there is a great deal of ornament, ^.t,"^..- " I saw her just above the horizon, decorating and cheering the elevated sphere she had just begun to move in, glittering like the morning star, full of life and splender and joy." [c] Nervous, in which forcible sentences are employed, as : Charge ! Chester, charge ! On, Stanley, on I * ., The combat deepens. On ye brave, Who rush to glory or the grave ; - , , . , ;, Wave, Munich, all thy banners wave, ; ;<, And charge with all thy chivalry. [(/] Concise, in which our thoughts are expressed in as few words as ]X)ssil)le, as : I cjime, I saw, I conquered. 'I'he style of an author should be adapted to the subject on which he is writing. A light, frivolous, or lively style would not suit a solemn subject such as religion. A solemn style would be un- suitable to record the common affairs of life. T^ESSox XX. PKOPERTIKS OF STYLE. > The following properties are considered requisite in every style Purity, precision, clearness, strength, harmony and vividness. 80 STYLE. By PURITY OF STYLE is meant the use of words and modes of expression, warranted by the authority of the best writers and speakers, [a] Using foreign words or modes of construction where pure English is just as expressive, is a violation of this rule, [d] Obsolete words, or slang phrases are impurities of style which should be avoided, as : He is in a pretty bad fix. Precision or accuracy consists in the use of words that express exactly what is intended by the speaker or writer, hence the importance of acquiring the exac/ meanings of words. Very few words in English express exactly the same idea, and this is why our language admits of so many torms of expression, e.g.: Courage enables us to meet danger without shrinking. Bravery defies danger. Fortitude suffers without yielding. Clearness is the arranging of words, clauses and sentences so as to convey distinctly the meaning of the speaker. 1. To write with clearness we must have a knowledge of the rules of syntax, and how to apply them. 2. Avoid the use of ambiguous expressions. 3. Avoid using the same pronoun for different antecedents. 4. Never leave out words that are readily supplied by the mind of the reader. 5. Words or clauses closely related to one another should not be separated by other words or clauses. Lesson XXI. PROPERTIES OF STYLE. Examples of violations of these properties of style : 1, Ambiguity : I believe he likes me as well as you. should be : I believe he likes me as well as he likes you. or : I believe he likes me as well as you like me. or : I believe he likes us both. 2. The man told his master that whatever he did he could not please him. Use the direct form, as : Said the man to his master " whatever I do I cannot please you.'' 8TYLB. ffH 3. The worst can be said of him is he is sometimes lazy. Should be : The worst that can be said, &c. 4. Cedar is not so hard, but more durable than oak. Should be : Cedar is not so hard as oak, but it is more durable. This work, being afflicted with rheumatism, I am obliged to discontinue. Corrected : Being afflicted with rheumatism, I am obliged to discontinue this work. Strength is the use and arrangement of words in such a manner as to make a deep impression on the mind of the reader or hearer. Examples of violation of this property : 1. He gained the universal love and esteem of all. 2. The children are playing in the umbrageous shadow of a shady oak. 3. Idleness and luxury and pleasure destroy many a youth. 4. He plunged into every species of crime, and left the path of virtue. Corrected : 1. He gained the love of all. 2. The children are playing in the shadow of an oak. 3. Idleness, luxury and pleasure destroy many a youth. 4. He left the path of virtue and plunged into every species of crime. What were the errors in each sentence ? In sentence (i), the word universal contains the same idea as all^ and the sense only requires one of them. Using the same word or one of similar meaning oftener than the sense requires, is called TAUTOLOGY. In Sentence (2), the words utnbrai^eous and shady are unnecessary because they repeat the same idea oftener than is required; this is called redundancy. In sentence (3), the word and is used too often. In sentence (4), the weaker assertion follows the stronger, which is wrong. in eTTLE. Rules for securing strength in writing : 1. Avoid tautology and redundancy. • 2. Avoid using ^«^''i- RULES OF SYNTAX. Write on the board : (a) I walked down the street. (d) Me walked down the street. The class, when asked, will reply that sentence (a) is the correct ■mode of speaking. What relation has / to the verb ? It is its subject. What is the case of /? It is in the nominative case. ■"■ What case is ;;/,• She always appears very amiably. ■ Who do you allude to? • ; . ; - - Who are you speaking about. 3 ' I entreat of you to hear us. ---- . :^ ^ vv It is worthy your notice. Not only England, but all Europe was alarmed. Such expressions sound harshly. That is seldom or ever the case. Some persons can only distinguish black, white and grey. SULES OF SYNTAX. vf^ RULES FOR VERBS. 1. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person. 2. Two or more singular subjects connected by and referring to different persons or things require a plural \ erb. 3. When two nouns describe the same subject regarded as one, even though it have a plural form, the verb is singular. 4. A collective noun, when the idea of unity is prominent, takes a singular verb, and when the idea of plurality is prominent, a plural verb. 5. Subjects in the singular, connected by 'Str" or "nor,"' take a singular verb. 6. Nouns connected by "and "and preceded by "each," "every" or "no" take a verb in the singular. 7. When two nominatives are connected — one aifirmative, the other negative — the verb agrees with the affirmative. 8. When two nominatives of different numbers are found in different clauses of the sentence the verb should be repeated. 9. When a verb separates its nominatives it agrees with the first and is imderstood of the rest. '? Exercise on the foregoing rules : > . > : : -:i:i Hundreds was killed by the accident. John and James goes to school every day. Sickness and poverty is poor companions. Flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee. The hue and cry were raised. The Flowers of the Forest are an old and beautiful song. The Pleasures of Memory were published in 1792. The meeting have adjourned. The fleet were destroyed. The people is not to be depended upon. The jury was unanimous. Strength or courage do not always avail. Every man and woman h. the congregation were there. Our own conscience and not other men's opinions are our guide. Neither was their names nor their residence known. The farm are his and the implements too. W BULES OF SYNTAX. V RULES FOR THE Y^KB— Continued. 10. Active transitive verbs govern the objective case. 11. Some intransitive verba and the verb "to be," take the same case after them as before them. 12. The perfect participle should not be used for the past indefinite. 13. " Shall " is used in the first to denote intention or purpose, and in the second and third to denote obligation. " Will " in the first denotes determin- ation; in the second and third, affirmation. . . 14. Verbs connected by "and " or "nor," referri-ig to anything done by the same pexson, under the same circumstances and at the same time, agree in mood, tease and person. 15. When verbs are used in different voices, moods and tenses, the subject should be repeated. 16. Whatever is considered universally true is put in the present. 17. The subjunctive is used when futurity and doubt are implied, or when a supposition is made contrary to a fact. 18. The perfect participle is u^ed after " have " and " be." Exercises on the above rules : Let you and I go. - He remembered you and I well. * I thought it was them. What if it was him ? John has broke the window. Mary has wrote her letter. . - James done that. - He throwed the stone. r Mary sung last night. - .■;^.u ♦: I wall go if it does not rain to day. I shall go to-moirow whetlier it rains or not. I am determined he will stop at home. If he does succeed he would not be any happier. . If he should be successful he will aim still higher. it is while men slept the enemy has sown tares. They would not be persuaded though one rise from the 'Sr dead. I think he could come if he tries. If I was him, I would not go. If he comes, show him to my room. USB OF PRBPOSmONS. 18 THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS. Avoid the needless insertions of prepositions. Be careful to use them according to their sense. Between refers to two ; among or amid to ixitjre than twa Agree to a bargain, and agree viih an opinion. ' Attend to what is said ; attend upon a person. Call on the person to see him ; oaXXJor the person to go with you. Change bills_/&r silver ; change/ri?/// heat to cold. Confer or bestow a favor on ; confer or converse 7vith a person. Confide in your friend ; confid .; a secret to. -^ ' ^ Correspond w/^A your friend ; correspond /(? what was said. ' Die ^disease, or die by the sword. ' >■'- D\S^r Jrom a person in an argument. Dissent y^f'w an opinion. Expert at or in. . ir , ' Fall over a log ; fall under his displeasure. ' . ¥r&e/rom pain ; free