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Un des symboles suivants apparaftra sur la dernlAre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbols —»> signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole y signifie "FIN". Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent Atre fiimAs A des taux de reduction diff Arents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reproduit en un seul clichA, 11 est filmA A partir de I'angia supArieur gauche, de gauche A droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'imaces nAcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mAthode. rata b leiure. 3 ax 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 EN £ -r GrK.-A.D^]^.A.H OF THE ENGLISH LANGDAGE TO WHICH IS ADDED AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON 003ii^:POSITIOIT- By B. C. S. r I m QUEBEC: ElZ. ViNCKNT, Printkk & BoOKSBLLESt 224, St. John Street. 1880. %//// o ^yz Enrogistre, conlormement a I'Acte du Parlement du Canada, en I'annee mil huit cent quatre-vingt, par J. P. N. Dubois, au Bureau du Ministre de I'Agriculture. i iti PREFACE. We trnst that, on examination, this work will be found to be plain and practical, simple in its outlines and details, and well adapted to the class-room. Our aim has been to pursue a course midway between the extremes of prolixity and conciseness. We hope to have sufficiently explained the subject by examples and models, and to have euforced it by numerous exercises involring the principles which they are designed to illustrate.. Each division of Grammar is treated of before the introduction of the succeeding part, because it is believed to be the experience of the best teachers that the pupil can acquire a knowledge of the subject more easily and [more thoroughly by having his attention directed to but I one thing at a time. Syntax is introduced with explanations of sentences and [of their different kinds and forms. A division of this )art into Analysts and Synthesis is then made. Under Synthesis, the Rules of Syntax, with accompanying notea ind exercises, are given in a form well adapted to didac- tic instruction. Although the analysis of sentences is re- i^arded as of paramount importance, it has been left to the discretion of the teacher whether parsing and anal- ^^sis shall be taught together, or shall be taught separately. The "Elementary Treatise on Composition" — a very Important branch— has been carefully prepared, and it will [loubtless commend itself to both Teachers and Pupils. We have made free use of the works of Goold Brown, iTawsiutth, Singer, Weld, Quackenbos, Wells, Hart, and IV PREl'ACB. I others; and we gladly avail ourselves of the opportunity of acknowledging the valuable assistance which we have derived from their respective Grammars. A separate Kut to the Exercises in Ana1ysi.6 Special Puopkutiks of Stylb IC7 Sublimity 167 Beauty '<^'8 Wit 170 Hu roor 171 Fjouuks, Figures of Ortliognipliy 172 Figures of Etymology 172 Figures of Syntax 173 Figures of Rlietorie 1 74 COMPOSITION. Lkttrrs, Private Letters 178 Public Letters 179 Form of Letters 1 80 Style and Specimens of Social Letters 183 Letters of Introduction 186 Letters of Corigratulatiou 187 Letters of Condolence 188 Style of Business Letters 189 Letters of Introduction (Business Form) 190 1 stters of Credit ■ 191 Letters of Application 191 Letters of Recommendation 192 Mercantile Letters 194 Miscellaneous Letters 196 Narration 197 Description 199 Essays 203 SuBjKCTS FOR Compositions 206 Reproductions 206 Translation of Poetry to Prose 207 Letter- writing, Exercises 207 List of Subjkcts for Compositions 212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Grammar is the science which treats of the principles of hinguage. English Grammar teaches the correct use of the English language, both in speaking and in writing. Grammar is divided into four parts; namely, Orthograj^Jit/, Etymology, Syntax, and Pros- ody, NoTK.— This fouifold diTision has been retained herein deference to Ion); etttablished ciis oiu. In the present Treatise, however Pros- I ody, which belougs so intinifestly to Rhetoric, has not been treated. ORTHOGRAPHY. Orthography treats of letters, and the (method of combining them to form syllables land words. LETTERiSf. A Letter is a mark or character used to [represent an elementary sound of the human Ivoice. 2 THE CLASSES OF LETTERS. .: ! I i The letters, in the English alphabet, are twenty-six; A a, Bh, Gc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg,\ Hh, li, Jf, KJc, LI, Mm, Nn., Oo, Pp ,Q q^ B r, Ss, TU Uu, V v, Ww, Xx, Yy, Zz. The names of the letters, as now commonly 8pokt,r» and written in English, are J., Bee, See, Dec, J^, Eff^Jee^ Aitch I, Jajf, Kay, Ell, Em, En, O, Fee, Kue, Ar, Ess, Tee, U, Vec, Double-u, Eks, Wy, Zee. _ -^ ,-^ THE CLASSES OF LETTERS. Letters are either Vowels or Consonants, A Vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered alone ; as, «, e, o. A Consonant is a letter \^iich cannot be perfectly uttered till joined to a vowel ; as, b, c, d. The vowels are a, e, i, o, w, and sometimes to and y. -'' ''■'"'' ''''''"''^'' " ''■ "■-■" ' '■"""'■" -^•■-'^'^•^- ■ TTor ris a vowel when it ends a word or a syllable; when it is not followed in the same syllable by a rowel ; or, when it is followed in the same syllable by a vowel not sounded ; as, hoy, lowly ; style, owe. In every other position, w or j^ is a consonant. The consonants are h, c, d,f, g, h,j\ 1c, I, m, 9?,p, q, r, s, i, V, x, z, and sometimes w, and y. Consonants are divided into Semi-vowels and Mutes. A Semi- vowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly souuded without the aid of a vowel. The semi-vowels are /, h, j, I, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, z, and c and g soft. Of these,. I, m, n, and r, are called liquids, on account of their smooth and flowing sound. .; f, <^. •, A Mute is a con sen ant which cannot be sounded without RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. the aid of a vowel. The mutes are b, d, JCf p, g, t, and o and g hard. FORMS OF THE LETTERS. The letters have severully two forms, by which they are distinguished as Capitals and Small letters. Small letters constitute the body of every work; and capitals are used for the sake of eminence and distinction. RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. Tlie following classes of words should commence with capita] letters : — 1. The first word of a sentence. 2. The first word of every line in poetry. 3. Proper names, and words derived from them j as, Canada, Canadian ; John Davis ; Broadway. 4. All names applied to the Deity j as, God, the Su- preme Being ; Providence. 5. Common nouns personified ; as, " Cease rude Winter.''^ 6. Words used as titles of office or honor, when prefixed to proper names J as. Chief Justice Duval } General BeaU' regard. . v vj . ; 7. The first word of a direct quotation j as, " Remember the ancient maxim, " ^^ Know thyself." 8. Words or expressions denoting remarkable events, or things long celebrated j as, the French Bevolution; the Middle Age ; ihe Crimean War. 9. Most adjectives derived from proper names, and per- sonal pronouns referring to the Deity ; as, " A Grecian edu- cation was considered necessary to form the Boman orator, poet, or artist ? — " All that we possess is God's, and we are under obligation to use it Jill as He wills, " 1. •*'#ft {m M MS SYLLABLES-WORDS. I'- i hi 1 ■ Title-pages, heads of chapters and pages, side titles, etc., are usnally composed wholly of capitals. The pronoun J, and the interjection 0, are always capi- tals. - SYLLABLES. A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one sound, and is either a word or part of I a word ; as, a, an, far, a-far, A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable ; one | of two syllaWes, a Dissyllable ; one of three, a Trisyl- lable ; and one of more than three, a Polysyllable ; as, in, intend, intention, intentionally. DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels 5I as, ou, in outy ea in meat. ' A Proper Diphthong is one in which both vowels are| sounded j as, oy in hoy, ou in mouse. An Improper Diphthong is one in which but one of| the vowels is sounded j as, ea in heat, oa in loaf. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels I in one syllable; as, eau in beauty, iew in view.\ A Proper Triphthong is one in which all three vowels! are sounded ; as, fi02( in &U02^. * An Improper Triphthong is one in which but one or | two of the vowels are sounded ; as, eye, ieu, in lieu, WORDS. - ,-, *--j,^^ ■ A Word is one or more syllables spoken or| written as the sign of an idea; as, /, marij army^ science. DEFINITIONS OF THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 6 Words are distinguished as Pnmitive or DerivaUvCf and I as Simple or Compound. A Primitive or Badioal word is one that is n'bt derived Ifrom any other word in the language j as, hill, tree, greatf [consider. A Derivative word is one that is formed from some I primitive word in the language j as, hillock, greatness j in- [considerate. A Simple word is one that is not formed by uniting I other words; aa, man, hand^ fortune, , A Compound word is one tbat is formed of two or I more simple words; aS; countryman, nevertheless, common' )lace hookt (IF ;4?l •/. *l . -J- J iu: ETYMOLOGY. Etymology treats of the classification of [words, their derivation, and their various mo- lifications. - «- THE CLASSES OP WORDS. Words are divided into ten classes, called ^arts of Speech. The Parts of Speeoh are the Article, the Toun, the Adjective, the Pronoun^ the Fcr&, the Participle, the Adverb, the Preposition, the 'conjunction, and the Interjection* THE DEFINITIONS OP THE PARTS OF SPEECH* > f. Ah Article is the word the (le, la, les,) a or m (un, une), used before a noun to limit its leaning ; as, Tlie stars, a man, an eagle. ■I5 % t PXTltS OF SPEECrt. Vi hi ' A Noun is a word used to express the name of any thing ; as, John, Canada, book, wisdom. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun, or a pronoun, to qualify or define its meaning ; as, Wise men ; Jive days; this pen. • A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun ; as, " Frank is a good boy ; he obeys Jiis teacher." A Verb is a word used to assert action, being, or state ; as, " John studies** — " I was there."—" He sleeps." A Participle is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the properties of a verb, and of | an adjective or a noun ; it is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb : thus, from the verb love, are formed three partici- ples, two simple and one compound ; as, lov* ing, loved, having loved. An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, a participle, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, " He is now here, work- ing very steadily T A Preposition is a word used to express the relation of a noun or pronoun depending upon it, to some other word in the sentence ; as, " He went from Quebec to Montreal in three days." A Conjunction is a word used to connect j words or sentences in construction ; as, " James and he are happy, because they are good." An Interjection is an exclamatory word, bense; as PARSlNG-EXERCISfi. . T ised merely to express some passion or emo- tion ; as, Oil ! Ah ! alas ! PARSING. Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence, iccording to the definitions and rules of grammar. A Sentence is an assemblage of words, making complete sense J as, " The tree bears fruit." — " A cheerful temper is , great blessing." Exercise. — Tell to which part of speech each word in the follow- ing sentences belongs, and give the reason : — Model. — " Alas ! how we miss the kind words and the gentle )uch of our dear mother !" Alas is an interjection, because it is an exclamatory word used to express an emotion. How is an adverb, because it is a word used to modify the mean- ig of the verb misa. We is a pronoun, because it is a word used in stead of a noun. Miss is a verb, because it is a word used to assert the action of u^e. Tlie is an article, because it is a word used before the noun words limit its meaning. Kind is an adjective, because it is a word joined to the noun words qualify its meaning. Words is a noun, because it is the name of a thing. ' *^ And is a conjunction, because it is the word used to connect the \wvoA words 9Xidi touch. The is an article, because it is a word used before the noun touch ) limit its meading. Gentle is an adjective, because it is a word joined to the noun mch to qualify its meaning. touch is a noun, because it is the name of a thing. Of is a preposition, because it is a word used before the noun fother, to show its relation to the n^uns words and touch. Our is a pronoun, because it is a word used in stead of a noun. Dear is an adjective, because it is a word joined to the noun pother to qualify its meaning. Mother is a noun, because it U the name uf a person. ^^.1 V''^ % i u' r. ■■■-'S 8 ARTICLK8 -EXERCISE. 1. History is a iiapful Mtutly. 2. A good boy obt-ys liis parents. 3. The earth is not flat ; it is round. 4. Men can sail round tlie world in ships. 5. John is a dishonest and idle lad. 6. The day was hot, 80 we sat in the cool shade of the trees. 7. The industrious and at- tentive scholar learns with great ease and rapidity. 8. A beau- tiful picture hung in the window of a print-shop in King Street. 1). The morning was bright, and, at an early hour, the driver of the sleigh-stage was at the door. 10. Hark! the trumpet sounds. 11. No man is truly great un'ess he is truly good. I'i. Virtuous youth gradually brings forward accomplished and flourishing manhood. 13. Oh ! how the bright sun pours its beams over hill and vale ! 14. Industry in brown clothes is better than idleness in splendid rags. 15. The bell rang, and they soon stopped their play and went to bed. i ARTICLES. An Article is a word used before a noun to limit its meaning ; as, The air, the winds, a man, an island. There are two articles. Tlie, and A or An, The is called the Definite Article, because it refers to a particular person or thing ; as, The boy, the apples. A is called the Indefinite Article, because it does not point out a particular person or thing ; as, A boy, an apple. An is use^ before a vowel, or sileut /t, and words begin* ning with h sounded, when the accent is on the second syl* lable ; as, An art, an hour, an lieroic action. H is used before a consonant, and e sounded, before w and y, and the long sound of « ; as, A magistrate, a hand, a week, a unit. , Exercise I. — State before wliich of the following words a stiould be used, and before which an should bo used, and give the reasons ;— NOUNS— CLASSES OF NOUNS. 9 Ear, honest, oyster, horse, onion, union, European, hundred, watch, humble, youth, order, unit, umbrella, use, orchard, iron, hour, his- tory, age, hero, truth, height, eye, dream, eagle, usurper, humane. Exercise II. — ^Write twelve sentences, each containing the indef- inite article a or an properly used. Parse the articles in the following sentences : — MODEL. — " The old general has won a victory." The is an article , '' An Article, is a word, etc." ; it is a definite article, because it refers to a particular person. ^ ia an article, "An Article is a word, etc."; it is an indefinite article, because it does not point out a particular thing. 1. The rose is a beautiful flower. 2. An amusing story was read to the children. 3. The crow built its nest in a high tree. 4. A peach, an apple, a pear, or an orange is very delicious. 5. The scholars are at play on the lawn. 6. The hunter shot a deer as it fed in an open plain. 7. An honest boy will never hesitate to tell the truth. A large vessel atruck upon the rocks, Fv;-'?^n ,•:,. V •if ' ■• • vl >'■'••• •■'■'!■[ m v'»";-v I^'^- r V ' ' ■ : NOUNS. A Noun is a word used to express the name of any thing ; as, John, Canada, desk, wisdom. CLASSES OP NOUNS. Nouns are divided into two general classes ; Proper and Common. A Proper Noun is a name used to distin- guish a particular object or collection of objects, from others of the same class ; as, James, Que" hec, Ontario, the Laurentides, A Common Noun is a name that may be applied to any object of the same class ; as, man, town, river, valleys. . '■■••■'/I ,. '.■■•■■ ■ •■'*.i I ■ '' ■'► •' ■ ■■'■- ■\'^?! ^■:^ 10 PROPERTIES OF NOUNS—GENDER. I NouDs embrace also the particular classes, termed Col- lective, Complex, and Compound. A Collectivo Noun is a name that denotes a collec- tion of beings or of things, regarded as a unit ; a8,jpco- plc, school, herd, committee. A noun is called Complex, ^hen it is formed of two or more words not united, but used together as one name ; as, Med Sea, Count of Dufferin. A noun is called ComTOimd, when it is formed of two or more words united, and used as one name j as, land- lord, spelling -hooi, man-of-war. Exercise I. — Tell to which class each of the following nonns belongs, and give the reason : — Henry, Bobin Hood, islands, flock, bird, fire-engine, Leo, March, mountain, corkscrew, Nova Scotia, word, Thomas, day, statesman, class, month, handkerchief, South America, regiment, the Indians, fractions, Laval University, cloud, Ottawa City, senate, strawberry, Duke of Clarencp, bookcase, meeting, navy, King Louis, Water- cress, steamboat. Exercise II. — Write six sentences, each containing a common noun ; — six, each containing tuprojyer noun ; —five, each containing a collective noun ; — five, each containing a compound noun ; — and five, each containing a complex noun. PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. The properties belonging to nouns are Gen- der, Person, Number, and Case. ^' .', GENDER. - ' ■ • Gender, in grammar, is the distinction of objects in regard to sex. There are three genders ; the Masculine, the Feminine, pnd the Neuter. The Masculine Gender is that which deno- ■ « I * GENDER— EXIiRCISES. tes beings of the male sex ; as man, brother , hing^stag. The Feminine Gender denotes bein■'''''■■ A '' '■■■: ;iJ i ■■:/' I.' •■."•■• !•■';;■ ■' ■ •■•'ij 12 PERSON-EXERCISES. more iu tho femiiiine gcuder ;— eight, each cuntaiaing one or more ii the neuter gender. PERSON. ' Person, in grammar, is that property which distinguishes the speaker or writer, the person or thing addressed, and the person or thing spoken of. » .^.« There are thnee persons; the Firstj the Sec- ond, and the Third. The First Person denotes the speaker or writer ; as, '^^ I, Peter, have done it." The Second Person denotes the person or thing addressed ; as, " John, who did this?'* The Third Person denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, " James studies his lesson.** Exercise I. — State to which class each twun in the following sentences belongs ; name its gender and its person, and give the reasons : — MODEji. — " Henry, never tell a lie." Henry. — is a noun, because, etc. ; it is a proper noun, because, etc. ; — of the masculine gender, because, etc. ; — in the 2nd pers., because, etc. 1. Dependence and obedience belong to youth. 2. The salutation of me, Paul, with mine own hand. 3. I, who command you, am the general. 4. Friends, Romans, countrymen ! lend me your ears. 5. The city is in a bowl of mountains. 6. We are strangers here. 7, The father and his sons were walking through the green fields. 8. That gentleman will not take an oath. 9. At an early hour, the group of children wore ready to start. 10. Boys, let me entreat you to avoid falsehood and profanity. Exercise II. — Write five sentences, each containing a noun in the first pers. ; — five, each containing a noun in the 2nd pers. ; — five, each containing one noun or more in the 3rd person. Number— ETC. NUMBER. IS t^" Number, in grammar, is the distinction of nn'Uy and plurality. ■... There are two numbers ; the Singular and the Plural, • • The Singular Number denotes one object, or a collection of objects considered as a unit; ns, tahle, bench, nation, JlocJc. The Plural Number denotes more than one object or collection of objects ; as, tables, benclies^ nations, THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. The plural of nouns is generally formed by adding s to the singular ; as, liome, homes ; Icey^ keys ; clock, clocks ; cameo, cameos. This rule always applies to nouns ending with o, «, or y immediately preceded by a vowel; as, day, days', folio, fo» lias ; purlieu, 'purlieus. Nouns ending in ch (not sonnded as Tc), 9, ah, x, or z, form the plural by adding es to the singular; as, henchf benches ; gaSy gases; sash, sashes ; fox, foxes; waltz, waltses. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, become plural by the change of y into i, and the adding of es ; as, fly, flies ; army, armies. The following nouns in/, change /into v, and add es, for the plural ; beef, calf, elf, half, leaf, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf thief, wolf; as, leaves, calves, etc. Knife, Tcnives ; life, lives; wife, wives ; are similar. The greater number of nouns in/,/e, and jf, are regular; Asflfes, chiefs, gulfs, strifes, muffs, etc. Staff h&B staves in the plural, but its compounds are regular ; nf^, flagstaffs. ' ♦I ;•■•■■■ I'.'*: ■ '•■•.'•■11 • .f : • . r 14 NOUNS— EXERCISES. NouuB endiDg with o, immediately preceded by acou- Bouant, differ iu tbeformutlon ot the plural. Some become plural by the adding of c»; as, hero, heroes ; potato, pota^ ioes) — others by the adding of » only; as, zero, geros ; solo, solos ; piano, pianos ; trio, trios . The followiyg nouusaro Htill more irregular: maUf men ; child, children ; woman, women ; foot, Jeet ; tooth, teeth ; ox, oxen ; goose, geese j louse, lice; mouse, mice. < ,, m». Many foreign nouns retain their original plural ; &»f radius, radii ; vortex, vortices ; axis, axes ; basis, bases y crisis, crises ; thesis, thests ; phenomenon, plienomena ; cherub, cherubim; focus, foci ; ellipsis, ellipses. Wheu proper uouus become plural, they follow the analogy of common nouurt; Si»,the Stuarts, the Catos. Some nouDS are always in the singular ; us, gold, good- ness, idleness, meekness, milk, pride, wisdom. Some nouns are plural only ', as, annals, ashes, cattle, drugs, goods, manners, morals, oats, scissors, tongs, victuals* I Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, apparatus, deer, fish, Jtose, news, odds, series, sheep, species, swine. Compounds consieting of a noun and an adjective connected by a hyphen take the sign of the plural upon the noun only; as, court-martial, courts -martial. EXERCIHK I. — Apply the rule for forming the plural of each of the following nouns : i MoDKL.— Glory. — ^The plural of glory is glories. '. "Glory" ia a noun ending in y preceded by the consonant r ; there- fore the plural i.^ torraed by the change of y into i and the adding of es, according to the Rule, " Nouns ending in y, etc. " Nyraph, church, brush, tax, echo, octavo, pony, mass, calf, valley, piano, ditch, wolf, folly, block, colony, sheaf, loss, strife, grief, grotto, street, alley, wish, muff, trio, scarf, pulley, ellipsis, peach, topaz, atlas, stratum, vespers, mis8, negro. EXKRCISG II. — Spell the singular of each of the following nouns : — Selv«i, porticos, cities, tomatoes, torches, tongues, crucifixes, NOUNS— CASE. rliyiui'H, yuchts, wivoa, geese, Iioi'shb, lailiuM, priestH, lico, cabbages, cuuntussuH, stoi'ioB, iHthinuses, lidtlvuH, oxni musklttot's teeth, beeves, lirlieR, axua, folios, paths. ExKitcisK III. — Name oacli noun in Mu; following sentences, and the clans to which it belongs ; also its gnuUr, pcvHon, and number, and ^nve the reaKons : — Model. — " He has lost his hook." Hook is a noun, because, etc ; it is a common noun, boeaiiHe, etc. ; — in the neuter gender, hecause, etc.; — in the 3rd peraou, because, etc.; — in the singular number, because, etc. 1. Lenses are glasses used for <*haiiplng tlie direction of the rays of light. 2. Mild words disarm anger. U. The handles of s(7the8 are called snaths. 4. Vast liords of buffaloes once roamed over the fertile prairies of Illinois. 5. Secret meetings are called juntos. 6. Benjamin West made his first drawings with charcoal. 7. Sweet potatoes were first brought from the Malayan peninsula. 8. The army passed over the river on pontoon bridges. I). Early in the morning, the fleet loft the harbor of Halifax. Exercise IV. — Write eight sentences, each containing one noun or more in the singular number ; — eight, each containing one noun or more in the plural. V. -dl ■■'■ ■'',. CASE. Case, in grammar, denotes the relation of nouns and pronouns to other words. There are three cases ; the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective. The Nominative Case denotes the subject of a verb ; as, The hoy plays ; / play. The swZyccf of a verb is that whidi answers to who or H7- Nom. yards, boxes, men, skies, glasses, Foss. yards'. boxes', men's, skieft', glasses' Ohj. yards. boxes. men. skies, glasses. Exercise I. — Decline each of the following nouns : — Army, bay, block, body, brother-in-law, brush, buffalo, Charles, child, chimney, KOUNS-EXERCISES-PARSING. 17 colony, dwarf, fife, folio, foot, goose, James, knife, lady, ladle, lash, loaf, miss, money, mouse, muff, page, peach, princess, sash, study, thief, torch, trio, waltz, wife, year. Exercise II. — ^Name the nouns in the nominative^ and those in tlie objective case in the following sentences, and give the reasons : — 1. The stars shone brightly in the quiet sky. 2. Eomulus found- ed the city of Rome. 3. The bad boy struck the dog. 4. The deer ran to the hills. 5. Genius lies buried on our mountains and in our valleys. 6. The men cut down the trees. 7. A tall, kind-looking man stepped up to the stranger. 8. The day for the commencement arrived, and they prepared to attend. 9. Tall maples crowned thel summit of the hiU. 10. The exercises were long and tiresome, and we were glad when they came to a close. Exercise III. — ^Write ten sentences, each containing one noun or more in the nominative case ; — ^ten, each containing one or more in the possessive ; — ten, each containing one or more in the ob- jective. ♦ , - ., . Exercise IV. — ^Parse the nouns in the following sentences :— Model. — " Philip has found a bird's nest in the hedge.*' Philip is a noun, " A noun is a word, etc." ; it is a proper noun, because, etc.;— of the masculine gender, because, etc. ; — ^in the 3rd pers., bf^cauae, etc. ; — in the singular number, because, etc. ; — in the nominative came, because it is the subj. of the verb has found. BirtCs is a noun, " A noun is a word, etc." ; it is a common noun, etc.; — of the masculi(!e or the feminine gender, because, etc.; — in the 3rd pers., because, etc. ; — in the singular number, because, etc. ; — in the possessive case, because, etc. \ Nest is a noun, " A noun is a word, etc." ; it is a common noun, be/^aiisf*, etc. ;— of the neuter gender, because, etc. ; — in the 3rd periton, because, etc. ; — in the singular number, because, etc. ; —in the objective case, because it denotes the object of the verb has \ found, and answers to what after it. Hedge is a noun, " A noun is a word, etc." ; it is a common noun, because, etc. ;— of the neuter gender, because, etc. ; — in the 3rd person, because, etc. ; — in the singular number, because, etc. ; — in the objective case, because it denotes the object of the prepo- sition in, and answers to what after it. '^^'^!l V.' "■•'v'' ■•.■•.■'>iM ;.•■* '••JM 1 1 ■■..If ■ m 18 ADJECTIVES— CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 1. Nova Scotia was settled at Port Royal. 2. The king's heart is in the hand of the Lord. 3. The wreck was washed upon the shore. 4. A gloomy house stood by the roadside. 5. The eagle has a strong and piercing eye. 6. Bleak winds whistled through the pines around the cabin. 7. A wise man's anger is of short contin- uance. 8. The broad flukes of snow soon hid the ground from view. 9. An ice-boat was rigged, and the wind blew the party across the pond. 10. The Indians' hunting grounds are now culti- vated. IL Travelers suffer from heat and thirst as they cross the desert. 12. The Falls of the Chaudiere are in the Ottawa River. Exercise V. — Parse also the articles in the preceding sentences. ADJECTIVES. ;. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun or a pronoun ; as, A good apple ; five diligent boys ; unhappy me. CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. Adjectives may be divided into four classes ; namely. Proper, Common, Numeral, and Pro- nominal. A Proper Adjective is one that is derived from a proper noun; as, Canadiaii, English, Ciceronian. ~, * v. A Common Adjective is one that qualifies or limits a noun oi^ a pronoun, but which is not derived from a proper noun ; as, good, had, honest, npper. A Numeral Adjective is one that is used to express number ; as, two, second, ticofold. CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 19 Numeral adjectives are of three kinds; Cardinal, Oi'din- al, and MttltipUcaiive, The Cardinals tell how many ; as, one, two, ten. The Ordinals tell which one ; as, first, second, tenth, Tlie Multiplicative tell how many fold ; as, single, dou- hle or twofold, triple or threefold, A Pronominal Adjective is a word which either limits a noun mentioned, or represents a noun understood ; as, " This boy is good." — " This is a good boy." In the first example, this " limits " the noun hoy, and is used as an adjective; in the second, this " represents" the noun hoy, and is used as a pronoun. The principal pronominal adjectives are : cf?/, another^ any^ both, each, either, enough, every, few, former, latter, little, less, least, much, many, more, most, none, neither, one, other, same, sever* al, some, such, this, that^ these, those. . Wliich and wlial, and their compounds, are pronominal adjectives when used to limit nouns, or placed before them to ask questions. ,v .».-'>•, i REMARKS. Adjectives, like noun^, may be compound in form ; as, ITome-made bread ; one-leaved ; the Anglo-Saxon race. A noun becomes an adjective, when it is used to qualify another nonn ; as, Gold chain, evening school, South-Sea dream. . Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, and, as such, they have all the properties of nouns; as, " The good will be rewarded." — '' They love their inferiors^ Exercise I. — Write ten seiitenceB, eaclj containing one or more ■■.■ '*1 \ '• » ',( . ^ ^ . ' I .I'-'K-'-". 'I • < '■■J 1 ., • It J: * ■ ■'l> ■ ■ ,,v...,V^ '"■ ' . ■ • ■:.■■.} ■: •' T •'*'.; :'•'■'"*'••'* t ■ , • ■ i' ! m 20 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. ■i "' ;i i 4 I ^ii proper adjectives ; — ten, containing, common adjectives ; — ten, con* taining numeral adjectives ; — ten, containing, pronominal adjectives. Exercise II. — Name the adjectives in the following sentences, state to which class eacli belongs, and give the reasons : — Model. — " This child is of French descent, and that, of English." French and English are adjectives, because, etc.; they are proper adj., because they derived from the proper nouns, France and IJngland. ; This is a pronominal adjective, because it limits the noun child. That is a pronominal adjective, because it represents the noun child, 1. Spain was once under the Moorish donunion. 3. The red squir- rel is a blithe creature. 3. He leaps among the topmost branches of the great oak. 4. Three heavy wagons passed atong tlie street. 5. The same duties were expected of each. 6. A single mis- take may cause a great loss. 7. Every spot to which these little ones would probably have strayed, was searched. 8. The brutal murderer had a low, narrow, and fiat forehead. 9. In such a peace- ful village there was no need of tliose precautions. 10. Kind words are light-winged messengers that soften the hardest hearts. 11. The Indian chief glared at him with a savage scowl. 12. They lay down to sleep, each clasping the other in his arms. 13. Remem- ber that a heedless, careless word may cause a bitter heart-pang. 14. Few of us do what we are able to do. 15. Many a poor, idle miserable, pitiable outcast owes his wretchedness to strong drink. COMPARISON OF XdJECTIVES. ^ The Comparison of adjectives is the varia- tion by which they express quality in differ- ent degrees; as, soft, softer, softest. •: There are three degrees ot comparison ; the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative, The Positive Degree is that which is ex- pressed by the adjective in ifs simple form j as good^ soft, wise. A COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVEa >-?^;. The Comparative Degree is that which exceeds the positive in a higher, or a lower decree ; as, letter, softer, wiser, less wise. The Superlative Degree is that which is not exceeded, either in the highest, or in the loAvest degree ; as, best, softest, wisest, least wise. Adjectives whose signification does not ad- mit of increase or diminution, canliot bo com- pared ; as, equal, two, second, total, all, blind, deaf, infinite, etc. The comparative of adjectives of one syl- lable is commonly formed by adding r or er to the positive; as, wide, wider; great, greater; and the superlative, by adding st or est ; wide^ wlded ; great, greatest^ Adjectives of more than one syllable, are generally compared by prefixing more and most to the positive; as, amiable, more amiable, most amiable, . ^ Diminution of quality is expressed by less and least, whether the adjective is of one syl- lable or more than one : as, good, less good, least good ; famous, less famous, least famous. Adjectives of two or more syllables ending in y or in le after a consonant, or accented on the second syllable, are generally compared by er and est ; as, happy, happAcr, happiest ;/66- bJe^ feebler ^feeblest. The following adjectives are compared ir- regularly : good, better, best ; had or ill, worse, worst ; far, farther cr further^ farthest or fur^ ihest; fore, former, foremost or first ; late, later, * .;■■ ["'., .*■ < ' .'■■ ■»■'•■'■ .'■■'''•^i ■ ■ ■' 'A] m 22 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES— EXERCISES. latest or last ; little, lest, least ; much or many^ more, most ; near, nearer, nearest or next ; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest. • ,- ^ : Numeral adjectives, most proper, and pronominal adjec- tives, those denotmg materialf poaiUon^ or shape, and a few others, such as whole, universal, exact, supreme, etc., by reason of their use and meaning, are not compared. Exercise I. — Compare such of the following adjectives as admit comparison : — a - / Pleasant, soft, ill, able, late, sour, noble, tough, American, Kus- sian, dry, many, supreme, cheerful, brave, English, preferable, good- natured, certain, old, thoughtless, lovely, evil-minded, perfect, ac- ceptable, juicy, sweet, few, ill-mannered, sad, round, humble, gener- ous, diligent, universal, handsome, far, warm, timid, sure. ExEiiOiSE II. — Use adjectives before the following nouns, and tell to what class each adjective belongs : — Senate, dollar, sun, navy, rock, moon, lake, soldiers, nation, com- mander, lily, Cartier, rose, tyrant, happiness, industry, tiger, deer, j life, pride, books, war, obedience, army, prairie, Champlaiu, mind, | pleasui'e, mountain, tree, river, ocean, valley, home, face, death. Exercise III. — Parse the adjectives in the following sentences : | Model. — " Two honest men were they." —"This question is less important than that (is)." , Ttvo is a numeral adjective, because it is one, etc. ; — cardinal, be- cause, etc. ; it cannot be compared ; it limits the noun men. Honest is an adjective, because, etc. ; — compared (pos. honest, j comp. more honest, sup. most honest), and qualities the noun men. This is a pronominal adjective, because, etc. ; it cannot be com- pared ; it limits the noun question. That is a pronominal adjective, because, etc. ; in this sentence it j represents the noun (/itcsh'on, and is, therefore, in the 3rd person,! singular number, and of the neuter gender; it is in the nomi':.in- (•use, because it is the subject of the verb is. , ; 1. The v^ind roars through the leafless forest. 2. The true lieioj appears in the great, wise man of duty. 3, Tall houses luuke tlie| PHONOUNS. 23 street gloomy. 4. Autumn winds strew the ground witli a soft car- pet of leaves. 5. A little flower sprang up amidst the coarse weeds of a long neglected garden. 6. These wishes bad long been in- dulged. 7. Either course is better than remaining in idleness. 8. The plant raised its beautiful head , and its delicate buds burst forth in gladness. 9. All honorable means rhould be used to advance. 10. Shakspenre stands above all othei poets, above all other human writers. 11. More than four thousand years have passed since this world was created. 12. An avaricious man uses every effort to make money, but he cannot enjoy his ill-gotten wealth. Exercise IY. — ^Farse the articles and the nouns in the preceding tentences. > • '■ yk'^M ■ . ^ JVM PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun ; as, *' The father and Jiis son cultivated the farm which they had purchased." In this sentence, the word his is used iu place of the ^om\ father's J which, in place of the noun /arm, and ihci/, in place ot father and son; the words hiSf which and they are, tliercfore, caUed pronouns, — a word which means "for nouns". A pronoun is used to avoid the unpleasant repetition of a noun. The word, for which a pronoun is used, is called it antecedent, because it usually precedes the pronoun. Pronouns often stand for persons or things not named, the antecedent being understood. Pronouns have the same properties as nouns j namely, Gender^ Person^ JSum' er^ and Cas^, f\'' ■ ;*• ■'C '■'''■ , ■r; • . W •■'' ■ A.'. . .' ■■. ■ »• ■• i- ' > , i :^---n III .t; 24 DECLENSION OF THE SIMP. PERS. PRONOUNS. CLASSES OP PRONOUNS. Pronouns are divided into three classes ; Per* ionaly Relative, and Interrogative. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. A Personal Pronoun is one that expresses person and number of itself. Personal pronouns are either Simple or Compound, ■ . The Simple Personal Pronouns are /, thou^ lie, she, and it, and their variations in the sin- gular and in the plural. /is of the first person ; tliou is of the second ; and Tie, she, and it, are of the third. THE DECLENSION OF THE SIMPLE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Singular. First Person. Second 2'erson. Maac. or Fern. Masc. or Fern. Masc. 2^om. I, Tliou He, Po88. my, or thy, or his mine, thinie, Obj, mo J thee ; him Plural. Third Pcnon, Fern NeiU. She, It, her, or its, hers, ?^ ' her ; it ; Norn, we you or ye they, they they, Po88. our, or your, or their, or their, or their, or ours, yours, theirs, theirs, theirs, Obj. us. you. them. them. them. In tlie possessive case, my, thj, her, our, your, their, are D osed^ tionec omittc Co ed by self tc him, j self to Thi self, il plural selves. THE D] ^om, Posa. Obj. U^om. GUI \Poss, \Ohj. ours The c( Iposscssii DECLENSION OF THE COMP. PERS. PRONOUNS. 26 nsed when the noun denoting the thing possessed is men- tioned; and minej thinCj hersy ours, yours, theirs, "when it is omitted j as, " This book is minc.^^ — '^ This is my book." COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Compound Personal Pronouns slxh form- ed by subjoining, in the singular, the word self to the simple personal pronouns mi/, thy, him, her, and it ; and, in the plural, the word self to our, your, and them. The Compound Personal Pronouns are my- self, thyself, himself, herself, and itself, a:ad their plural forms, ourselves, yourselves, and them.' selves. ilV ',.','< V .,1V ''I THE DECLENSION OP THE COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. . ' H!i t;>: >| .• 1 ■' ».' »■■• .5, 1 • . • 1. 4- •' ■ '.■■■f V ••■ U ,-.^ t* * rf •v V'v-rviJv *v'.i'' '■^i 4^^- .': ,i'.:.- w •!»•;;• * \ ^ ■' ''i. ;».•'. < fc. V ,• .'•■ ■■■ . f v.- A .' > ■ ■ . ■I r h- ■>■:.. . « * •*.,■•■ ■■'{ m r; v"/^.■. J^ ;;,•.■ '■ '- I ■ ' J,.'. "• . I ■ J r:'> : ■ i* i !!■• r w 28 HELATivfe aKd Interrogative pronouns. That is sometimes used in referring to persons, animals, or things without life j as, " The person Ihat we know." — " The last book ihat was sold." COMPOUND RELATIVES. The Compound Relative Pronouns are formed by subjoining the word ever and soever to the simple relatives to/io, which, and what. The compound relatives are whoever, who- soever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and ichatsoever, THE DECLENSION OF THE COMPOUND RELATIVES. Singular and Plural. Nominative. Whoever, Whosoever, Whichever, Whichsoever, Whatever, Whatsoever, Possessive. whosoever, whosesoever, Objective, whomever. whomsoever. whichever. whichsoever. whatever. whatsoever. A compound relative includes, in meaning, an ante- cedent and a simple relative. Whoever and whosoever mean any one who; whichever and whichsoever mean any one which ; whatever and whatsoever mean any thmg which, or all things which. ,. ..v.. , k INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. An Interrogative Pronoun is one used to REL AND INTER. PRONOUNS— EXERCISES. 29 ask a question j as, " Who came with you ? " — « What do you want ? " The Jnterrogativea arc who, which, and what. They ar declined like the simple relatives. Who is UBcd in asking about persons ; as, '' Who founded Quebec t Which and what are used in asking about persons^aui- mals, or things j as, " Wltich of the men fled i "— Wliioh of the horses won the race?" — " TT/mt is he? An orator J*^ Exercise I. — ^Write ten Bentencei each containing Rimple relative pronouns ; — ten, each containing compound relative pronouns ; — ten, each containing interrogatives. Exercise II. — l^arse the relative and the interrogative pro- moima in the following sentences : — Models. — 1. " The boy who studies, will learn." Who is a relative pronoun, because, etc. ; it is of the masculine gender, in tlio 3rd person, singular number ; — ^in the nom. case, hccause it is the subj. of the verb studies. 2. " Whose knife is this T Henry's." ' Whose is an interrogative pronoun, because, etc. ; it is of the neu- ter gender, 3rd person, uingular number ; — in the possessive case, because it denotes possession. 1. Nobody knows who invented the letters. 2. He was the soul which animated the party. 3.. Riches that are ill gotten, are seldom enjoyed. 4. I will take what you send. 5. Which of you will go xvjth me ? 6. Remember the good advice which is given to you. 7. The gardener whose flowers #e admired, plucked a few for us. 8. Po you know who broke the window T 9. All the money that was given to him, was lost. 10. To whom were they sent T To their un- cle. 11. There is in my carriage what has life, soul, and beauty. J ?. This is the hardest lesson that we have yet had. Exercise III. — Parse the articles, the nomis, and the personal pronouns in the preceding sentences. ;.*-*1 V ^ ^!.;. V'. *•• ' 1 I ', '■ . •■ . 'l i-'r-' * ' .1 ,.i : '■■•• VERBS— CLASSES OF VERBS. I . VERBS. A Verb is a word used to assert action, being, or state ; as, " John studies " — " I was there." — " He sleeps^ In these sentences, studies asserts action of the subject John; was asserts being of the subject J; and sleeps asserts state of the subject he ; studies, was, and sleeps are, there- fore, verbs. Verbs are the most important words in any language, because no sentence can be made to express complete sense without the use of a verb. Exercise I.— Name the vei'ha and their aubjeots in the follow- ing sentences, and give the reasons : — Model. — " Joliu writes well. Writes is a verb, because, etc. Its subj. is John, because the^aO' tiou expressed by the verb is asserted of John. ' 1. The moon now rose. 2. The sun shines brightly. 3. Winter passed, and spring came. 4. Thomas studies diligently. 5. It rained fast. 6. The man walks. 7. The boy told an untruth. 8. AH con- sented to the plan. 9. He followed good examples. 10. How far it flew ! 11, A wood five blazed upon the hearth. 12. She whis- pered in low tones. 13. Misfortune comes to all. 14. With the spring his health returned. 15. S\ve«t blooms the rose. " '' "'' .t■^■^^^■■ CLASSES OF VERBS. Verbs are divided into two general classes : Transitive and Intransitive. A Transitive verb is one that has an object or requires one to complete the sense ; as, " The garden has flowers.'' Tlie term transitive signifies passing over, * An Intransitive Verb is one that has no object, or does not require an object to com- .-ii -'t^;. KXERCISKS— PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 31 plete the sense; as, " The horse rims" — *' Truth is mighty." — " Experience teaches better than books." The term intransitive means not, passing over. A transitive verb asserts action only j as, '' Mary learns her lessons. " An intransitive verb asserts hcing or state ; as, '' The sky is cloudy. " — The book lies on the table. " Some verbs may be used either transitively or intransi- tively, the construction alone determining to which class they belong. Exercise I. — ^Name the verbs in tlie following sentences, state to which class, according to meaning, each belongs, and give the rea- sons : — Model. — " John wrote his exercise, while his brother remained idle." Tfrote is a verb, because, etc. ; it is transitive, because it has an object (exercise). Remained, is a verb, because, etc.jit is intransitive, because, it has no object. 1. The lightning struck the oak. 2. Martha learns fast. 3. He studies in the morning, and rides in the evening. 4. He is a bold speaker. 5. A good tree bears good fruit. 6. The camel carried him safely. 7. He died a miserable death. 8. Andrew always studies well his lessons. 9. The pulse fluttered, then stopped. 10. A storm gathered in the west. 11. A certain man had two sons. 12. Breezes played among the foliage. 13. The prince succeeds the king. 14. In every undertaking he succeeds. Exercise II. — Write ten sentences, each containing a transitive verb ; — ten, each containing an in fransi^'fe* verb. PROPERTIES OF VERBS.' The properties of verbs are Voice, Mode, Tense, Person and Number. Voice is that property of a transitive verb ••■■. ■s.'."i''' L ' , .■*■.- "I :.■■■ i"' '■.. i « ■ ■ - ■ ■'',''■• 0* A ■))■■' , ■ '■•' '■'• ''•1 'I" ' : • ; ■-i;-.- 32 PROPEETIES OF VERBS EXEKC18ES. i •"!• which shows whether the subject, or nomina- tive, does or receives the action asserted by the verb. J > Voice belongs to transitive verbs only. There are two voices ; the Active and the Passive. The Active Voice is that form of a transi- tive verb which shows that the subject does the action asserted by the verb. The Passive Voice is that form of a tran- sitive verb which shows that the subject re' ceives the action asserted by the verb. In the sentence, '^ Champlain founded Quebec ", the subject Champlain does the action asserted by the verb founded. " Founded " is, therefore, in the active voice. But in the expression, *' Quclcc was founded by Champlain," the subject Quebec does not act, but receives the action asserted by the verb tvas founded. " Was founded " is, therefore, in the passive voice. Although intransitive verbs have no voice, yet they have the form of the active voice. Exercise I. — Name the verbs in the following sentences, tell wliicli are imnsiiive and wliicli iufransitive ; tell in what voico each is, and give the reasons : — Model. — " The lightning liad no sooner struck the edifice than it fell, and many persons were buried in its ruins." Had struck is a verb, because, etc. ; it is transitive, because it has an object (edifice) ;— 'in the active voice, because it shows that the subject {lightning) does tlio action asserted by the verb. lell is a verb, because, etc. ; it is intransitive, because it has no object ; it has no voice, because it is an iniTansitive verb. Were buried is a verb, because, etc. ; it is transitive, because the action which it assorts, is exerted upon some object ; — in the pas- VEfiBS-MODE. 33 live voice, because it shows that the mljeot (persons) reoeivea the ao- tion asserted by the verb. -^ 1. The frost broke the pitcher. 2. To be ridiculed is unpleasant. 3. Heroes fought and bled. 4. The voyage was undertaken at an evil time. 5. The girls are learning their lessons. 6. Thick clouds obscured the sun. 7. I was awaked by a - loud knock at the door. 8. This field ploughs well. 9. My motives were slandered. 10. Actions are governed by circumstances. 11. The bayonet receives its name from Bayonne in France ; it was first used in 1603. 12. Old letters become very dear to us. ExERCiSB II. — ^Write ten or more sentences, each containing a verb in the active voice. Change the sentences just written, so that the verb shaU be in the passive voice ; Thus, Active Voice, " John killed a snake ; " Passive Voice. " A Snake was Mlled by John." MODE. Mode is a term used to denote the manner in which the verb is employed. Verbs have five modes ; the Infinitive, the Indicative, the Potential, the Imperative, and the Subjunctive. The Infinitive Mode is that form of the verb which is not limited to any particular per^ son or number ; as, to rest ; to learn. The Indicative Mode is that form of the verb which expresses, direct assertion or inter^ rogation ; as, he teaches ; do they teach ? The Potential Mode is that form of the verb which expresses assertions implying pos- sibility, liberty, or necessity ; as, •' I can loril?'' — " He may go*' — *' They must study'' The Imperative Mode is that form of the verb which is used to express entreaty, permis- ■, ■.• t Hr ^■' i\' '■ .'■• .■ ,*' ■ ••ft.'. ! ;-v.^- . ■; ■• f^k. •"■•.: II S4 MODE— EXERCISES -TENSE. ;,«(.> sion', command, or exhortation ; as, " Depart thou."—" Let us stay."—" Obey me." The Subjunctive Mode is that form of the verb which implies condition, supposition, or uncertainty ; as, "If he come, he will be re- ceived." — " that I were happy ! " The form of the Infinitive is usually denoted by the jiarticle to, which is to be regarded as a part of the verb. The Potential Mode is known by the signs may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. The Subjunctive Mode is always connected with an other verb. It is commonly denoted by a conjunction ; as, if, lest, though, that, unless. Exercise I. — Name eacli verb in the following sentences, the class to wliich it belongs, its voice and mode, and give the reasons : — Model. — " Cavtier discovered Canada." '- * Discovered is a verb, because, etc. ; it is transitive, because it has an object (Canada) ; — in the active voice, because it shows that the subj. (Cartier) does the action asserted by the verb ; — in the indie, ative mode, because it e ^presses a direct assertion. 1. Evil may befall us. 2. The bank has failed. 3. If he were studious he would excel. 4. He arose to speak. 5. Do come to see us. 6. The leer, having seen me, tried to escape. 7. I would go with you, if I could spare the time. 8. Employ time profitably. 9. They went to travel in foreign lands. 10. If he be respected, he will be contented. 11. A quiet tongue prevents strife. 12. "We should speak kindly to our friends of their faults. Exercise II. — ^Write sentences each containing verbs in the various modes. TENSE. ■^.\ Tense is the distinction of time. Verbs have six tenses ; the Present, the Im- ".•I TENSE -EXERCISES. 35 > " ( . • J I j^erfect, the Perfect^ the Pluperfect, the JFYrs^ -Fw- » ■4 .'•^aa 36 CLASSES OF VERBS ACCORD. TO FORMATION. •!l!| ;* '■ 4. Long icicleg glistened in the iunlight. 5. Trials will come to us all. 6.1 hear a noise ; somebody is coming. 7. Woes cluster ; they love a train. 8. His request has been granted. 9. Take caro of the pence, and the pounds will take care of themselves. 10. A cry was heard. 11. He who will make no effort to gain friends, can not expect sympathy. 12. They had been reproved often, before they ceased to annoy. Exercise IL — ^Write sentences containing verbs in the various tenses. I , W« »!. - l'- Ji PERSON AND NUMBER. H> i Verbs have two numbers and three persons. The person and number of a verb are always the same as the person and numberofits sub- ject or nominative. Singular. Plural. 1st per. T love, 1st per. We love, 2nd " thoulovest, 2nd " you love, 3rd " he loves; 3rd " they love. A verb in the infinitive mode has no number or person, because it has no subject. Some verbs can be used only in one person ; as, *Mt rains. " They are called Uni^ersonal Verbs. CLASSES OF VERBS ACCORDING TO FORMATION. Verbs are divided, according to their forma- tion, into two classes ; Regular smd Irregular. \ A Hegular Verb is one that forms its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed\ to the present; as, present, love; past, loved A perf part., loved. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREG. VERBS. 891 le varioug Regular verbs ending in Jlent e, form their past tense and perfect participle, by the addition of i '' C^eave^(^/d^^ |/en(7re- ' dov^, clfeft,,Gloveii, cleft (1) Those which are luaikcd thus * take also the regular form. ';'>'^. ■ '♦■I I;', ■'■■•■ . > . •"■■ ,, , ..';„•■■• . ■^:-ym • •.■■.•■■■ *3 I.: .'■,*. •. . 1 '• . * * * ■ . •:.'.■! 'jsT', •■•■ -IP ■ ' •■ • ^ >' M ■*■ ■>! f 38 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREO. VERBS. Present, In French. Fast. Per/. ])art. Pi To Cling, ., a'attacher, clung clung. To Go, " Clothe, haUller. . clad,* clad.* " Giind "Come, ventr. ; came, come. " Grow * " Coat, coilfer. cost, cost. " Hang, t: " Creep, rawper, He gliseer.crei^t, crept. " Have, Ilk *' Out, coti^er, cut, cut. « Hear, 1 " Dare {to) U venture.) J o«er. durst,* dared. 7 « Hide, li " Deal, U-- " Dig, ^y trafquer, dealt,* dealt.* '' Hit, ' hecher, dug,* dug.* " Hold, My ■ "Do, >--.^ faircj agir, did, done. " Hurt, ||r " Draw, t»>«r, dessiner. drew. drawiK " Keep, *il; " Dream, rever, songer. dreamt.* dreamt. " Kneel, ■ ,. " Drink, hoire. drank, drunk. " Knit, Cchasscr devant ^ " Kuow, jl; « Drive, < soi, canduire une > drove, driven. 7 "Lay, : « Lead, " Leave, *' Lend, 1'",. ■ " Dwell f voiiure. ) hahUer,demeurer. dwelt,* dwelt* m ' " Eat, manger, eat or ate, eat or eaten ll „::: " Fall, • tomher. fell. fallen. P,. " Feed, TOOMrnV. fed, ^ fed. « Let, W'. " Feel, -^^ sentirf tdter, felt, felt. " Lie {to " Fight. «e 6a«re. fought. fought. " Lose, ■;i"' " Fiiid, trov/ver. found. found. " Make, ';'•'■ « Flee, ^^" " Fling, " J se saiiver, s-en- } ^^ , Jeter. flung. fled, flung. '' Mean, " Meet, " Mow, " Pay, '' Put, " Read, " Rend, " Ride, " Ring, * Rise, " Fly, voZer e?i Vair. flew. flown. « Forget, ouhlier, forgot. forgotten. " Forgive, 2)ar(Zonncr. forgave. forgiven. " Forsake, o&ant?o»mcr. forbook, forsaken. " Freeze, ^e/er. froze. frozen. *' (>et. gagner, ohtenir. got, got, gotten. "Give, donwer. gave, given .t'KlNCIPAL PARTS OP IRREO. VERBS. 3« f. part. Present, In French. Fast. -Pe>/. 2)ar<, ■•%«:. ''"1 (• To Go, ., aller, went, gone. 'M » " Giind, , moudre. ground, ground. 1* " Grow, , croitref devenir. grew, grown. " Hang, pendre. ,, hung.* hUDg,*J. > '■•' , ■"• !• <' Have, « avoir. had. had. • I ' '-' 1 « Hear, 5 entendre (par ? t ^„„/i heard. d. « Hide, cacher, hid, hid, hiddeii. 1 . f * . ■ , '■ \ ' If ■ i t.« " Hit, frapper, ' hit. hit. , ,,. 'v • • '' Hold, . stuck, stuck. '' Sting, " Strike, •< String, " Strive, " Swear, " Sweep, ^' Swell, " Swim, " Swing, " Take, " Teach, " Tear, " Tell, •' Think, " Thrive, " Throw, " Thnisfc, " Tread, " Wear, " Weave, " W«ep, '' Win, I " Wind, 5 86 tenir clc- } ^ -, \ hout,8'arr^fcr. J ®^"""' C fuller, affi- 1 < cher, percer, I (s^ftacher. j piqvei'. stung, /rapper. struck, enjiler, strung, a'cfforccr, tdchcr. strove, jurer. swore, halwjer. swept, enfler. swelled, J swam, ( swum, [ natjer. s" balancer. prendre. cnseigner. il6cliirer. (lire, racontcr. Xmiscr. prospercr. Jeter. ^pousscr.faire) .. . ientrer. J mi use, marcher^ fou- ler auxpiecls. S porter dee ve- \ tements, user. trod, wore, tisser. wove. wopt. pleurer. gagner, emporlcr. won, 5 tourner, filer, ) , > deviderl < ^^^^^^^^^ «tung. struck.* strung. striven. sworn. swept. swollen.' swum. swung, taken, taught, torn, told. ' swung, took, taught, tore, told, thought, thought. thrived, thriven.* threw, thrown, thrust. J trod, ( trodden. worn. woven. "i ! wove, wept, won. Avound. .''.V,- ' ' i' >'. . > "I 1 ; ■ i' ■■■M Jy *..* ■' 'tV. 1 < • ■M:- •r"M.N 1 , ' "*■ * ii.->:; • 3 1 42 AUXILIAKY VKKUS-TIIEIK USES. ; f "M Present. lu Frencb. Fast. Pcrf. part. « Work, iravailler. wrought,' wrought.* " Wring, tonlre. . wrung, wrung. " Write, '.i. iA- '■■',.-■ -^-r w '•'fi *. It. i' 1^1; t'l. [4 - ..... ..*. 46 CONJUG. OF THE INTRANS. VERB "TO BE" -| f 1. We may have been, Nous pouvons, etc., avoir 6t6, S j 2. You may have been, Vous pouvez, etc., avoir 6t6, , S ( 3. They may have been. lis peuvent, etc., avoir 6t6. Flu])erfeot Tense. Je pouvais, etc., avoir et^, Tu pouvais, etc., avoir 6te, II pouvait, etc., avoir 6t6 j -• rl. We might have been, Nous pouvions, etc., avoir 6t^, s J 2. You might have been, Vous pouviez, etc., avoir 6t6, ^ la. They might have been. lis pouvaient, etc., avoir 6t6. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Fresent Tense. i (1. If, though, etc., I be, "3 J 2. If thou be. 1(3. Ifhebe; .-• f 1. If we be, S J 2. If you be, S (3. If they be. Si, quoique, etc., je sois, Si tu sois. Si il soit } ' i ■; Si nous soyons, . .'. Si vous soyez, ' Si Us soient. " * Imperfeci Tense. i fl. If I were, g, J 2. If thou wert, I 1 3. If he were ; .-• fl. If we were, * " '"you were, they were. ^ fl. If 5^2. If; S (3. If Si je fusse, Si tu fusses, S'ilfat, Si nous fussionsy Si vous fussiez^ SHls fussent. IMPERATIVE MODE. Singular. 2- | E^o'b":.^ ty'ou bcj SoIb, soi,-t«. !Be, or be you, ) • , - . .- Do be,or do thou /Soyez, soyez-vous. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE." PARTICIPLES. - 41 Imperfect. Being. Perfect. Been. Preperfect. Having been. I Exercise L — ^Mention tl o mo(?e tlio tense, the person, and the nttmfter of each part of the verb "to be", in the following expres- sions:— To have been. If he were. They might have been. We had been. Be. If I were. Do you be. The men have been. If he be. You shall have beeji. We were. Thou hast been. I may be. They will or shall have been. He will be. Thou art. We might be. If thou be. To be. She will have been. She may have been. Exercise II^ — ^Name the first persons singular, and the first persons plural, of the indicative mode ; — of the potential mode ;— of the subjunctr c i ode. The second pei si igular, and the second persons plural, of the imperative mode ;- ■' , lie potential ; — of the indicative j— of the sub- junctive. The third persons singular, and the third persons plural, of tlie indicative ;-— of the imperative ; — of the subjunctive ; — of the po- tential. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TOLOYE. ACTIVE VOICE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. ' Present Past. Imperfect Participle. Peif. Participle, Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. INFIXITIVE MODE. Present Tense. To love. French, — Aimer. V •...!», ' ■,«. ' ■t ' , • .■,•( ■■I.- ' ' ' '•• ■, I ■# '. t •- ,'• •'I Vfl ■••./•■I'- J ■- 1 .■ ■; \'r. >■■ <^. ":*:. fill ■ It \,u\ i ipii if ■iiii* 1;' h€ i»:i 48 CONJUGATION OF THE VE!lB "TO LOV^.'* Perfect Tense. To liaTC loved. French,— Avoiv aim6. INDICATIVE MODE. ' Present Tense. i n. I I] 2. 1 •a fl* fe p. Hove, Thou lovest, He loves ; 1. We love, You love, They love. J^aime, Tu aimes, II aime ; Nous aimons, Vous aimez, lis aiment. Im/perfect Tense. loved, Thou loved st. He loved ; -• f 1. We loved, You loved, They loved. in. I |J2. 1 jg 1 3. E J'aimais or j'aimai, Ta aimais or tu aimas, II aimait or il alma. Nous aimions or nous aimames, Vous aimiez or vous aimS,tes. lis aimaient or ils aimdrent. Perfect Tense. in. I have loved, g, -j 2. Thou hast loved, j| ( 3. He has loved ; We have loved. You have loved, They have loved J'ai aim^, Tu as aim^, 11 a aim6; Nous a von 8 aime, Vous avez aim6, lis ont aime. Pluperfect Tense. i (\. I had loved, ^J'avais or j'eus aime, 1) j 2, Thou hast loved, Tu avais or tu eus aim^, •J ( 3. He had loved j II avait or il eut aini6 ; ." f 1, We had loved, Nous avions or nous eftmes aim^', 5 j 2. You had loved, Vous aviez or vous efttes aim6, ^ 13. They had loved. lis avaient or ils eurent aim6. 1 1 '^"i'k'"-^ CONJUGATION OF THE VERB " TO LOVE." 4d limames, ns aime. First Future Tense. * 9 f 1. I shall love, 2. Thou shalt love, 3. He shall love ; ^- f 1. We shall love, You shall love. They shall love. S (3. J'aimerai, Tu aimeraSy II aimera j Nous aimeronSy Vous aimerez, lis aimeront. Second Future Tense. 3 W B !fl. I 5 (3. E shall have loved. Thou shalt have loved, He shall have loved } . ] . We shall have loved, 1 2. You shall have loved, 3. They shall have loved. J'aurai aim^, Tu auras aim^, II aura aim6 ; ' Nous aureus aim^, Vous aurez aim^, lis auront aim^. POTENTIAL MODE. Present Tense. ^ C 1. I may love, Je peux or jo pourrais aimer| 1, < 2. Thou mayst love, Tu peux, etc., aimer, 1(3. He may love ; II peut, etc., aimer ; ,,, 1 3. He may , -CI. We may love, 3 < 2. You may love, S ( 3. They may love. Tu peux, eic, aimc II peut, etc., aimer Nous ponvons, etc., aimer, Vous pouvez, etc., aimer, lis pouvent, etc., aimer. Imperfect Tense. i(i. I might love, " Je pouvais or je pourra: aimer; 1 -j 2. Thou mightst love, Tu pouvais, etc., aimer, I 1 3. He might love ; II pouvait, etc., aimer ; -; f 1 . We might love, You might love, liey might love. ^, fl. W S i 2. Yi S i 3. Tl Nous pouvions, etc., aimer, Vous pouviez, etc., aimer, lis pouvaient, etc., aimer. ■ . V •• '-Hi ■ ^ 1 . •A-:.. M ■ h ■J ■!.■ CONJUGATION OF THE VERB " TO LOVE » Perfect Tense. iis. ^2. Y ft U. T 1. I may liavo loved. Thou mayst have loved, He may have loved } 1. We may have loved, You may have loved, hey may have loved. Je peux, etc., avoir aime, Tu peux, etc., avoir aim^, II peut, etc., avoir aime, Nous pouvons,etc. Vous pouvez, etc. lis peuvent, etc. Pluperfect Tense. 1. I might have loved, Je pouvais, etc., avoir aim 6, Thou mightst have loved, Tu pouvais, etc. He might have loved ; II pouvait,etc. .j" f 1. Wo might have loved, Nous pouvions, etc. 5 •< 2. You might have loved, Vous ponviez, etc. ft 13. They might have loved. lis pouvaienti etc. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Tense. if I. If I love, a-j 2. If thou love, If he love ; .5 'i ^ I 1. If we love, S ■! 2. If vou love, ft 1 3. If they love. Si j'aime, Si tu aimes, S'il aime ; Si uous aimions, Si vous aimiez, S'ils aiment. Imperfect Tense. J (1. If I loved, '^ '" '"thou loved, he loved ; 1. If we loved, you loved, If they loved. S fl. If 1-^2. If I (. 3. If ..fl. If^ Si 2. If^ f^ (3. Ift Sij'aimasse, ,, Si tu aimasses, , S'il aimat } Si nous aimassions, Si vous aimassicz^ S'ils aimassent. I*- '• CONJITGATIOH OF THE VERB |VXO LQVE". 6J^ IMPERATIVE MODE. ■ Present Tense. «-"•«'• 2- 1 S:ToV^ IrioTou 'lore. ^ ^imez, aimez-voua. Imperfect Loving. ■j<- » PARTICIPLES. Perfect Loved. Prcpcrfect Having loved. Exercise I. — Conjugate the verbs to reward, to learn, ro rnlef to hide, to listen, to ohey, to fear, to leave, to begin, to take, to tointe, j to teach, and to sell, in the active voice in the same manner as the (verb ..,?••' . ^B '^ "•V ' \' "■ I Pel JtHf I'll, . Ci. Mil: H'li 1% CONJUGATION OF THE VERB " TO LOVE." Perfect Tense. To have been loved. Frencliy — Avoir 6t6 aim6* INDICATIVE MOD„. Prcfiowt Tense, , •; f 1, I am loved, Je suis aim6, g,-^ 2. Thou art loved, ;S ( 3. He i ' ' is loved ; .^ f 1. We are loved, You are loved. They are loved. S I 3. Tu es aim6, II est aira6 ; Nous sommes aim^s, Vous Ctes aim^s, lis sont aimes. Im/j^erfect Tense. i f 1 . I "was loved, '^ -j 2. Thou wast loved, 1 3. " ■ " s be a 05 V «. He was loved ; .J f 1. We were loved, rere loved, They were loved. 'i (1. We we i \ 2. You w< S ( 3. Thev T J'etais or je fus aimd, Tu 6tais, etc., aim4, 11 etait, etc., aim6 j Nous ^tious, etc., aim^s, Vous » CONJUGATION OP THE VERB " TO LOVE." 53 First Future Tense. 1. I shall be loved, Thou shalt be loved. He shall be loved ; -;• f 1. We shall be loved, ,You shall be loved, They shall be loved. Je serai aim^, Tu seras aim^, II sera aime; Nous serous aim^8| Vous sorez aimes, lis scront aim^s. ... . Second Future Tense. - .j 1. I shall have been loved, J'aurai et6 aimd, Thou shalt have been loved, Tu auras, etc. He shall have been loved ; II aura, etc. 1. We shall have been loved. Nous aurous, etc You shall have been loved, Vous aurez, etc. They shall have been loved. lis uurout etc. POTENTIAL MODE. . -' Present Tense. S* f 1. I may be loved, Je peux dtrei aim^, \\ 2. Thou mayst be loved, Tu peux etre aime, 1(3. He may be loved j II pent 6tre aim6 j -j r 1. We may be loved, Nous pouvons etrc 5 ■{ 2. You may be loved, Vous pouvez 6tre s Nous pouvons etre aini^s, Vous pouvez 6tre aimesi lis pen vent etre aim^s. Imperfect Tense. might be loved, Thou mightst be loved, He might beloved ; [-; ( I. We might be loved. You might be love. They might be loved. I; fl. I |l3. I si 3. Je pouvais etre aim^, Tu pouvais 6tre aim^, II pouvait ^tre aim6 ; Nous pouvions ^tre aim^'^, Vous pouviez etre aim^s. lis pouvaient fetre aimes. Perfect Tense. I J p . I may have been loved, Je peux avoir 4it6 aime, t g, j 2. Thou mayst have been loved, Tu peux, etc. (I 1 3. He may have been loved j II peut, etc. ■1.1 ■ '■■ •»1 1,- I 4' ^^■. t: •".» "■ )'. 1 1 h! ■ m%^ I',.. ,;0| CONJUGATION OP THE VERB "TO LOVE» C s P4 ri. w \ 2. Y i 3. T We may have been loved, Nouspouvons, etc. You mny have been loved, Voua pouvoz, etc. They may haye been loved. lis peuvent, etc. s r J. 1,^ 2. ^ r 1. s la I*luperfect Tense. 1. I might have been loved, Je pouvais avoir 6t4ainii,| Thou mightst have been loved, Tu pouvais, etc. Ho might have been loved ; 11 pouvait, etc. .^ f 1 . We might have been loved. You might have been loved They might have been loveii. Nous pouvions, etc, Vous pouviez, etc. lis pouvaient, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Tense. if I. If: 1^2. Ifi I 1 3. If 1. If I be loved, thou be loved, he be loved ; ^ f 1. If we beloved, S -I 2. If you be loved, S 1 3. If they be loved. Si je sois aim^, Si tu sois aim 6, SMI soit aim6 ; Si nous soyons aimds, Si vous soyez aim^s. SUls soiout aim^s. Imjyerfect fense. i f 1. If I were loved, g,-j 2. If thou were loved, "13. If he were loved j 1 . If we were loved, 2. If you were loved, 3. If they were loved. Si je fusse aim 6 Si tu fusses aim6, S'ilfiitaim^; Si nous fussions aimes,| Si vous fuGsiez aimos, S'ils fusscuw aimes. IMPERAT.VE MODE. Present Tense. c- 7^„ o S Be loved, be thou loved, ? Sois aim^, sois- ^^"Sf"^"'^- 2- } or do thou be loved. ] aime. Ph.vni o 5 B® loved, be you loved, \ Soyez aiiu^s, soyiz] 4. imai. ^. J ^j. ^j^ y^j^ ^p \o\ii({. \ vous aimes. ' •^J INTEKROOATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS. 55 ■^ ■- .. PARTICIPLES. Imperfect. Perfect. Preperfect* Being loved. Loved. Having been loved. THE INTERROGATIVE FORM. r»' .' ' I *y} The Interrogative Form of a verb is that which is used to ash a queatmi ; as, " Can they hear ? "-." Shall he "^e jjleased r The interrogative form is used only in the indicative and potential modes. A verb is conjugated interrogatively, by placing the sub- ject immediately after the verb, between the auxiliary and the verb, or after the first auxiliary when two or more auxiliaries are used ) as, — Ind. Do Hove? Did I love? Have I loved? Had I loved ? Shall I love ? Shall I have loved "i—Fot. May, can, or must I love? Might, could, would, or should I love? May, can, or must I have loved ? Might, could, would, or should I have loved ? THE NEGATIVE FORM. The Negative Form of a verb is that which is used to express negation or denial; as, '' He does not lieary A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adverb not immediately after it, or after the first auxiliary ; but the infinitive and the participles take the negative first j as, — I»f. Not to love, not to have loved.— JtitL I love not, or I do not love, I loved not, or I did not ?ove, I have not loved, I had not loved, I shall not love j J shall not have ■ i*" •.' a The imperfect participle, when simple, is always formed by adding ing to the radical verb ; as, telly telling : when componiid, it is formed by preJBxing being to some other simple participle ; as, being spcalcing, being spoJcen. The Perfect Part^^ciple represents an action a being, or a state, as coynpleie or fimsjied; aSj m-' t»ARTIClPLES— EXERCISilS. " Henry came, accompanied by Joseph." — " The army retired, defeated on all sides." The perfect participle is always simple, and ends com- monly by ed or en ; as, heen, loved, spoken. The Preperfect Participle represents an ac- tion, a being, or a state, as complete or finished hefore some other action, heing, or state ; as," Hav- ing reached the summit he sat down to rest. The preperfect participle is always compound, and is formed by prefixing having to the perfect, when the com- pound is do ^.ble, and having been to the perfect or the im- perfect, when the compound is triple ; as, having lovedj having been loved j having been writing, REMARKS. When a participle is used merely to describe a noun ot a pronoun, it is called a Participial Adjective; as, "A rerisetZ edition." — " A moving spectacle." When a participle receives a prefix not found in the verb from which it is formed, it becomes an adjective simply, and is to be parsed as such j as, beloved, tmhonored. When a participle ending with ing is used as the name of an action, a being, or a state, it is called a Participial Konn, and is parsed as a noun simply; as, ** Ills reading is very deficient." Exercise I. — Name the participles in the following sentencop, and tell to which class each belongs ; also, the participles used aa I (djectives, and those used as nouns, and tell the reasons : — Model.— " The general, having received orders calling for men, I sent them, by forced marches, to aid the besieging troops." Having received is a participle, because, etc. ; it is the preperfect [participle of the verb " to receive," because, etc. Calling is a participle, because, etc. ; it is the imperfect partici- [pie of the verb " to call ", because, etc. Si.-' '■'" 'J \\.:'m ■;■■•'.%., v ■ '■•■ ■ • ''n<-] . ' V ■■•■•, 'I'- ,■' :vi ¥ f ■{' .' •* '. SI iff' 1*1;: ' 60 '' , ' ADVERBSL ! Forced is a pai'ticipial adjective, because, etc. ,- « i Besieging is the imperf. part, of the verb " to besiege " ; it is used as an adjective, because it merely desci-ibes the noun troops. 1. The sentence of death pronounced upon the prisoner was re- ceived without emotion. 2. The old homestead, once so loved and treasured, was now deserted. 3. The whispering winds came through the raised window. 4. The canoe, borne into the seethivg rapids, was soon carried over the falls. 5. The lamps having been extinguished*, darkness enveloped all in its tliickeuing gloom. 6. He lay like a warrior taking his rest. 7. The sentinel, listening to the dashing waves, was lulled into an untroubled sleep. 8. Having convicted the prisoners by mock law, the council hurried them to undeserved punishment. 9. The unbounded prospect lay before us. 10. Emerging from the gorge, they found the enemy drawn up in battle array upon elevated ground. Exercise II. — Write sentences containing the different partici- ples ;— others containing participial adjectives ; — others containing participial nouns. i ADVERBS. An Adverb is a word used to modify tlie meaning of a v^rb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; as, ** He is noio Jiere, \vorking very sieadily." Adverbs generally express in one word what would otherwise re ^uire two or more. Thus, now, is used for at this time ; here, for in this place ; very, for in a high degree, steadily, for with constancy. CLASSES OF ADVERBS. Adverbs may be reduced to five general classes ; namely, adverbs of manner, of time, oi 'place, of degree, and of interrogation. B * ' • ; - COMPARISON OF AlJVEEBS. 61 I. Adverbs of Manner answer to the question Sow ? The principal adverbs of manner are ill, «a, thuSj wellf hadly, easily, somehow, lihewise, certainly, truly ^ yes, no, II. Adverbs of Time answer to the question When f Eow long ? How soon ? or How often ? The principal adverbs oHime ave already, alwa7j8, daily, ever, forthwith, lately, now, never, often, seldom, since, then, tiniil, yesterday, yet, etc, ; also, once, twice, and thrice. , III. Adverbs of Place answer to the question Were f Whither ? Whence ? or Who-eahout f The principal adverbs of place are anywhere, downward, hence, here, hither, noW' here, off, out, somewhere, thence, there, upward, where, wher- ever, yonder, etc.; qXbo, first, secondly, etc.; singly, doubly ^ etc. IV. Adverbs of Degree answer to the question How much ? or How little ? The principal adverbs of Degree are almost, altogether, as, enough, equally, even, much, more, most, little, less, least, only, quite, scarcely, so, very, wholly, etc. V. Adverbs of Interrogation are used in asking ques- tions. The principal adverbs of interrogation are how, when, whence, where, wherefore, whither, why, etc. Adverbs used to connect the parts of a sentence are called Conjunctive Adverbs. The principal are after, as, he/ore, hotv, then, till, until, when, where, why, etc. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. A few adverbs are compared after the man-, ner of adjectives: Oi^, soon, sooner^ soonest; — often^ oftener, oftenest\ — long, longer, longest. \ The following adverbs are compared irregu- larly ; — hadly or ill, xoorse, worst ; far, farther, farthest ; — little, less, least ; — much^ more^ most ; — v^ell, better, hest. nrV V." '. 1 ■ ■* ■ ■'. -I**' ■ "'I M 62 ADVERBS— EXERCISES. '■.i' ..' k: 'W :^:;lii!'> 1.;,. Most adverbs that end with the syllable Ip admit the form of comparison made by placing before the positive more or less to form the comparative, and most or least to form the superlative ; as, wisely, more wisely j most wisely ; •^frequently J less frequently, least frequently. Exercise I. — State to which class each of the following adverh belongs, give the reason, and compare such as can be compared :— Models. — Well. — "Well" is an adverb of manner, because it answers to the question Hoiv ? It can be compared, — pos. well, comp. better, sup. best. Here. — " Here " is an adverb of place, because it answers to the question Where ? It cannot be compared. Always, certainly, doubly, easily, enough, even, farther, henceforth, hither, homeward, indeed, lately, less, likewise, mobt, never, no, liow, nowhere, often, off, only, perhaps, quite, recently, seldom, singly, somehow, somewhere, sooner, then, thence, thricC) truly, twice, verily, very, when, wherever, wholly, why, yes, yet, yonder, Exercise II. — Write ten sentences containing adverbs of man- ner ; — ten, of time ;— live, of place ; —five, of degree ; —five, ol inter* rogation. Exercise III. — Parse the adoerhs in the following sentences ;-• MODEL — " They will soon be here. " Soon is an adverb, because, etc.; it is an adverb of time, because, *tc.. it can bo compared (pos. soon, comp. sooner, sup. soonest) ; it is in the positive degree, and modifies the verb tvill he. Here is an adverb, because, etc.; it is an adverb of place, because, etc.; it can not bo compared ; it modifies the verb will he. 1. Act promptly when necessity requires it. 2. He rose early and retired late. 3. Lament no more the past, but improve the present, 4. The air is very clear, very still, and tenderly sad in its serene brightness. 5. His friend went to Paris and thence took the cars, for Madrid . 0. They arose at a very early hour. 7. It is too late for repentance now. 8. Temptations are not always easily overcome, 9. How seldom a good man inherits honor and wealth I 10. They moved so gently that their footsteps were not heard. 11. There are few who fail when they apply themselves diligently. 12. We shcnild grasp at the shadow less eagerly, and we would prize the substance PREPOsrnoi^s. 63 more. 13. In the morning they spoke more calmly. 14. A train was ruBhing along at almost lightning speed. HxERCiSB IV. — ^Parse the articles, the nouns, the adjectives, the pronouns, and the verbs, in the preceding sentences. ;■■*' ■ f ■ PREPOSITIONS. A Preposition is a word used to express the relation of a noun or pronoun depending upon it, to some other word in the sentence ; as, "He went from Toronto to Montreal." — Champlain was the founder of Quebec. In the foregoing examples, from expresses the relation between went and Toronto -, and of, the relation between founder ^nd Quebec. . .. CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions are divided into three classes; Simple, Compound, and Complex. I. Simple Prepositions are nineteen, namely i—atf after, by^ down, for, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, since, through, till, to, under, up, with. II. Compound Prepositions are usually formed by prefixing a or be to some noun, adjective, adverb, or pre- position ; by uniting two prepositions and an adverb. ; The compound prepositions formed by prefixing a to some noun, adjective, adverb, or iDrepositiou, are abaft, aboard, about, above, across, against, along, amid, amidsty among, amongst, around, athwart. The compound prepositions formed by prefixing bo to some noun, adjective, adverb, or preposition, are before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixtj beyond. , . r ; . .1 •, ■■'■ "(-. ■ <•' ^'i| ;• '■■ .iS'i / IK' 64 PREPOSITIONS— EXERCISES. i ^H't' i ■tS'*'' 1 i'^ ■ u! h.. K ■■■ ii ''''■■ . la: The compound prepositions formed by uniting two pre- positions, or a preposition and an adverb, are into, throught- outj towards, underneath, until, unto, tipon, within, without. III. Complex Prepositions are composed of two or more prepositions, or of a preposition and some other part of speech, which together express one relation. Thus, " The spring flowed from between the rocks." Here, Jrom between is a complex preposition, and shows the relation between rocA;s and j^oi<;cdJ. ' ^ i,„ ,„ From before, from between, from over, over against, out p/, roMW(Z a&OM/, are complex prepositions. ^ Exercise I. — Write ten sentences containing simple preposU tions ; — ten, compound ; — six, complex. Exercise II. — Parse the prepositions in the following sentences ;- ; Models. — 1. " They sat on tlio ground." On is a preposition, because, etc,; it is a simple preposition ; it is used before the noun ground to show its relation to the verb sat. 2. " He wandered about the city." About is a preposition, because, etc.; it is used before the nouu city to show its relation to the verb tvandered. 3. "The water issued from within the cavern." From within is a preposition, because, etc.; it is a complex pre- position, because, etc.; it is used before the noun cavei'n to show its relation to the verb issued. I 1. "Wreaths of smoke ascend through the trees. 2. The songs of the birds struck upon his ear as they had in his boyhood. 3. Loud shouts of merriment burst from the happy group. 4. The or- ders of the officers were heard above the din of battle. 5. In the country, close by the road, stood a handsome house. 6. Guard against the sudden impulse af anger. 7. One man, eminent above the others for strength, was chosun to lead them. 8. Before the house, there was a garden with flowors, and a painted railing : and just outside of the railing, among beautiful green grass, grew a little daisy, I Exercise III. — Parse the articles, the nouns, the adjectives, the pronouns, the verbs, and the adverbs, in the preceding sentences. CONJUNCTIONS. CONJUNCTIONS. • A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction ; as, Jamea and John are happy because they are good." In the above example, and connecta the parts of tho sentence, James and John are happy, and they are good j the words and and hecaiise are, therefore, conjunctions. CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. .)■•:, Conjunctions may be divided into two gen- eral classes ; Copulative and Disjunctive. I. A Copulative Conjunction is one which denotes an additioUf a consequence, apurpose, a reason, or a supposition. The copulative conjunctions are also, and, as, because, both, even, for, if, seeing, since, so, that, then, and therefore, II. A Disjunctive Conjunction is one which denoten a choice, a compai'ison, a separation, or a restriction. The disjunctive conjunctions are although, hut, either, else, except, lest, neither, nevertheless, nor, notwithstanding, or, provided, than, though, unless, yet, whereas, and whether, £xERCiSE I. — Write eight sentenceg containing copulative con- junctions ; — eight, containing disjunctive conjunctions. . Exercise II. — Parse the conjunctions in the followmg sentences :- • Model. — " Edward and Frank are happy, because they are good.'*" And is a conjunction, because, etc.; it is a copulative conjunction^ because, etc.; it connects the two nouns Edward and Frank, ho- tween which it is placed. Because is a conjunction, because, etc.; it connects the two sen- tences Edward and Frank are happy, and they are good, between which it is placed. 1. It we cannot remove pain, we may at least alleviate it. 2. Let your character be pure and upright, that you may deserve tho . '■■-<■' ' n ^■ .' -' ;i:J;- -^^r- ■ • ■■ 7, ■■*■>., , t ■ .'i' 'if ' ■'ii «8 HfrEKJECTIONS. lore of your friends. 3. James came, but lie could not remain long. 4. Though truth and error each exerts great influence, yet truth iDust prevail, in as much as it is the greater power. 5. The minutei aire precious, therefore improve them. 6. Neither threat nor punish- ment moved him from his purpose. 7. The ancient philosopheri disputed whether the world was made by chauce or by a divine power. 8. No murmur of bees is around the hive, or among ^..j honeyed woodbines ; they have done their work, and lie close in tlieir waxen cells. ExsRCisu III.— Parse all the articles^ the nouns, the acyectivei, the pronouns, the verbs, the adverbs^ and the prepositions) in thepre< ceding sentences. : ' i, . '. »' INTERJECTIONS. An Interjection is an exclamatory word, used merely to express some passion or emo- tion ; as, Ha ! pshaw ! alas J luxlloo ! The following words are interjections : — Adieu, ah, ahoy, alas, hah, faugh, fie, fohj ha, halloo^ hist, ho, humph, hurrah, pslmw, tush, whist Exercise I.— Parse the interjectiona in the following sentences:— Model. — " Ah ! it grieves me." Ah is an interjeetiou, because, etc.; it has no grammatical con- nection. 1. Alas ! the way is weariaomo and long. 2. Adieu, I must go. 3. Pshaw! how careless you are! 4. Hurrah! the day is gamed. 5. O king, live forever ! 6. Bah ! can he be deceived by such stories! Hist! avoid all noise. • "_ Exercise II.— Compose sentences, each of which shall contain all the parts of speech. , Parse each word in the sentences composed. r- . T i SYNTAX. > . •..r.-t Syntax treats of tbe construction of sentences accord- iug to the established laws of speech. It may be considered under two divisions j namely, Analysis and Synthesis. Analysis, in grammar, is the process of resolving a sentence into its constituent parts. Synthesis is the construction or formation of sen- tences from words. A Sentence or Proposition, as already defined, is an assemblage of words, making complete sense j as, " The tree bears fruit." OBt». 1.— The subject of a simple sentence may itself be compouud ; as, ** Two and three are five. Obs. 2.— a verb in any other mode than the infinilive is said to be finite. A Simple Sentence is one that contains but one subject ai '1 one finite verb j as, ^' The sun rises in the east." ■ ■' "C 1 ANALYSIS, CLASSES OF SENTENCES. Sentences, as to their use, are divided into four classes ; namely. Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Ex- clamatory. A Declarative Sentence is one that is used simply to affirm or to deny ; as, " The day is cold."—" Dishonesty will not prosper." An Interrogative Sentence is one that is used to ask a question ; as, " Will he go to town ?" An Imperative Sentence is one that is used to com« 68 •TNTAX.— ANALTSIi. I '•''■ii'- U . 41' < -i,!"' mand, exliort, entreat, or permit; as, '< Study your lei. eon." — " Fatlier, forgive us." An Exclamatory Sentence is one that is used in excla- mation, or to express a strong emotion ] as, ^' Howcoiira< geous be is! " — *' Alas, they are no more ! " PARTS OF A SENTENCE, i The Essential Parts of a sentence are two ; the Suh ject (or nominative), and the Predicate (or verb). The Subject of a sentence is that of which something is said or asserted ; as, " The day dawns," day is the Sub- ject. The Predicate is that which is said or asserted of the subject J as, ** The day dawns," dawns is the Predicate. OBa. 1.— The predicate beinjc always a verb, the subject of the sen- tence is the subject of the verb. The Object of the verb, when the latter is the predicate of a sentence, m;iy be considered one of the principal parts of the sentenca. It properly, however, modifies the \evh, mid is not a primary element of the sontonce. In imperative Bentencep, the subject is the pronoun thoit or t/ow (understood). For the definition of the object of a verb, see page 16. Obs. 2. — There are sometimes used in connection with a sentence, words that form no part of its structure. Such words are said to be independent. The Subject and Predicate may be distinguished as either Gram- maiical or Logical. The Grammatical Subgectis simply the noun or pronoun which is nominative to the verb ; as, " Watertt flow." —" The Waters ot the Saint-Lawrence River flow." — " They flow." — " They, the waters of the Saint-Lawrence River, flow." In the first two examples, the Grummatinal Subject is icater^ ; in the other two, it is they. The Logical Subject is not simply the noun or pronoun which is nominative to the verb, but also includes all the attendant words which modify in any way the meaning of the nominative. .» In the second example above, the Logical Subject is, The waters of the Saint- Lawrence lUver ; in tlie fourth example, it is They, the icatcrs of the Saint-Lawrence River. IH:» BYKTAX.— ANALYSIS. er Obs.— The term Subject, unless otherwise speoifled will hereafter mean the Lop;ioal Subject. The Grammatical Predicate is simply the finite verb to which tlie iioun or pronoun forming tlio subject is nominative ; aw, " Tlie boy studlca." — " Malice often bears down truth."— " No genius teas blaslcd by the breath of critics." The grammatical predicates here are the verbs studies, hear, and was hlaatcd. The Log^ical Predicate is not simply the verb to which the noun ur pronoun is nominative, but includes also the attendant words which modify in any way the meaning of the verb. In the second example above, the Logical predicate is, ojten bean down truth ; in the third example, it is, was ever blasted by the heath of critics. Exercise. — Tell to which class each of the following sentences belongs, and mention the subject, the predicate, and the object thereof. Model I.—" William knows grammar".— This is a simple de- clarative sentence. The subject is William ; the predicate, Jcnotvs / the object, grammar. 2.—" Obey your parents." — This is a simple imperative sentence. The subject is thou or you (understood); the predicate, obey f the object, |)areMi«. ! ' niai:' 1. Crimes deserve punishment. — 2. Vice brings misery. — 3. Con- trol yourself.— 4. Can indolence bestow wealth ? — 5. Perseverance overcomes obstacles. — 6. Does John study book-keeping ? — 7- Lib- erty, it has fled ! — 8. Who can trust liars ? — 9. Generosity makes friends. — 10. Can liars respect themselves ? — 11. Could he have avoided disgrace ? — 12. Diligence should be rewarded. — 13. Has Paul returned ? — 14. Vanity excites disgust. — 15. Do they under- stand French? — 16. Charaplain founded Quebec. — 17. What did you say ? — 18. Will you give assistance f — 19. Mortal, prepare.— 20. Frank studieb Geography. .■^.■•.'^ . . «.• ATTRIBUTES AND ADJUNCTS. Words introduced to illustrate or add to tlie force of other words, are called Adjuncts j asj *' The History of the .'if'U iMm 70 SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS. B, n*' ■' t\<*- •ji!; . kr' ' If; 4 At ■ D omimon of Canada^ The words in Italics arc the ad- junct of History. Adjunct* are divided into two classes j namely, Pri- mary and Secondary Adjuncts. Primary A^imcts are those added directly to either of the principal parts ; as, " Pious boys never omit their morn- ing and evening prayers/^ Secondary Adjuncts are those added toother adjuncts; as, " So noble a conduct was very highly praised." Adjuncts are divided, with respect to their office, into three classes j namely, Adjective, Adverhialf and Explan- atory. An Adjective Adjunct is one used to modify or limit a noun or a pronoun ; as, *' Those two studious boys have obtained fine prizes." An Adrerbial Adjunct is one used like an adverb ; as, " Printing was invented in the fifteenth century.''^ An Explanatory Adjunct is one used to explain a pre* ceding noun or pronoun ; as, '* Queen Isabella was de- throned." — ** I, your friend, take great interest in your welfare." The Subject or tlie Object, in a sentence, may be modifled by Ad- jective or Explanatory Adjuncts of various forms ; as, — 1. By an ar* tide or an adjective ; as, " The last account is settled." — 2. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive case ; as, " Henry's brother knows /lis lessons." — 3. By a verb used as an adjective ; as, " The desire to excel is laudable." — 4. By a preposition and its object, used together as an adjective ; as, " Grammar teaches the right use of language." — r^. By a noun or pronoun used as an explana- tory adjunct; as, " He, your brother, is very negligent." i The Predicate may be modified ; — 1. By an adverb ; as, " John studies diligently." — 2. By a proposition and its object, used to- gether as an adverb ; as, " He came from Toronto," An adjective, participle, noun, or pronoun, modifying or completing the predicate of a sentence, and relating to 6TNTAX.— ANALYSIS. 71 the subject, is called an Attribute ; as, " Snow Is «?Ta7c." — The atmosphere is refreshing,''^ — " Bayard was a great Obs. 1.— All verbs, except to he, comprehend within themselres I both the predicate and the Attribute, into which thej may generally Ibe resolved. For example, in the sentence, " The boy sleeps," the I verb sleeps, is equivalent to i$ sleeping, is being the affirmative or [predicative word, and «/eepin£r, the attribute Ob8. 2.— The verb that connects the subject and the attribute, Imnst be intransitive. Obs. 3.— The attribute is often used indefinitivcly, that is, without Ireference to any particular object ; as, " To be good is to be happy. ^ |ln analyzing, this may be called the indefinite attribute. Obs. 4.— The attribute, when it is a noun or a pronoun, is in the Isame case as the sul^jeot to which it refers ; as, " It is /, be not ■afraid." In analyzing a sentence, the attribute should be con< 6ulered one of the ^rinc/pa^ paW*. * The Principal Parts of a sentence are, therefore, the Mjectf the Predicate^ and the Object or the Attributef if there be either. < « ' The other parts may be, 1. Primary or Secondary Ad- funds ; 2. Words used to express relation or connection ; Independent words. Obs. 1.— Of the four principal parts of a sentence enumerated, the ^nly two essential parts, as already said, page 68, are the Subject and the Predicate^ Ods. 2.— It has already been stated, in page 67, that a simple sen- tence may have a compound subject ; as, " Two and three are five/' p like manner, a simple sentence may have a compound predicate ; B," Brutus Joved and ^roP \th II . ' i; ■ -. In. !'..■. * £• tjii'ti ■ 72 SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS. rative sentence. — The subject is Pari* ; the predicate, is; the at-- tribute, dty. — The subject and the predicate have no adjuncts; the attribute is limited by the adjective adjunct a, and modified by the adjective adjunct ieauUfuL 2. " Tlie boy has carelessly torn Mary's large dictionary." — This is a sinaple declarative sentence. — The subject is hoy ; the predicate, Jiaa t ■ 74 SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS. l,'**^- h.iij(;»;i: 1:1 m :S he thinks.*'' The clause, as he thinks, is employed atlref- bially, and modifies the verb speaks. ' A Conditional Clause is one that expresses something contingent, or doubtful j as, " If he is in health, I am con- tent." — " I consent, on condition that you will come.'''' The clauses in Italics in the two foregoing examples, are Con- ditional Clauses. Ob8. — A Conditional Clause is connected with the leading propo- sition by some word or words implying a condition or supposition. A Phrase is a combination of two or more words used to express a certain relation of ideas, but no entire propo- sition ,♦ as, '' Of an obliging disposition." — " To be candid.'' — '' Seeing the danger." Phrases raa^- be distinguished as Substantive, Adjective, Adverhial, Explanatory, and Independent. A Substantive Phrase is one used instead of a noun ; as. *' Doinff nothing is laborious." — '* To do tjood is tlie duty of all."— '* John loves to study niathematies.^^ The phrase iu Italics, in each of tlie two first examples, is tlie subject of is ; and in the third example, to study mathematics, is the object of loves. Thoy arc called sithstantive phrases. An Adjective Phrase is one that performs the office of an adjective J as, " This is a scheme of his own devisluij'' The phrase in Italics modifies scheme, and is called an adjective phrase. An Adverbial Phrase performs the ollice of an ad verb; as, " He was anxious to ascertain tlie truth.'''' — '^ By at- tending to these directions, we shall save ourselves much trouble." The phrase in Italics in each of the two exam- ples, is adverhial, and modifies the predicate. An Explanatory Phrase is one that gives some expla- nation ; as, '^ Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles, -was he- headed at Rome." The phrase iu Italics explains wbo Paul -was, therefore it is called an explanatory phrase. 8TNTAX.— ANALTBI8. /D Loun ; as. An Independent Phrase is one that docs not relate to any word io the rest of the sentence; as, '* Considering the clrcuvisianccs, he deserves much credit." — " To be candid with you, I think you in fault." — '* Boast not, my dear friend, of to-morrow." The phrases in Italics, in the ex- amples given, do not relate to any word of the sentences, therefore tliey are independent. With regard to their construction, phrases are Simple ^ Complex, or Compound. A Simple Phrase is one tliat is not connected with any other : as, ** Seeing the danger." — " Of a good disposition." A Complex Phrase is one that contains a phrase as an adjunct of its principal part: as, " Hy the generosity of the King." — ** To amuse himself with, j^ou." Obs. — The principal pari of a phrase is that upon which all others depend. The words in Italics are the prirmpid parts of the phrases in the examples given above ; of the King and with you, are {i(!j)incts to these principal parts. A Compound Phrase is one composed of two or more simple phrases in succession ^ as, " Looking out and oh- sin-ving him." Exercise. — Clasni/y and analyze eacli sentenc ' ''.n in the pre- ceding exercises ; in addition, point out the componf .;t clauses, and classify and analyze each phrase. Model 1. — " Pupils who neglect their gtudies, iei^ijrve repri- inaiid." — This is a complex declarative Rente <'0 : the ^lincipal chutse is rvpils deserve reprimand, and the . ""pendent cia'i^e is who neglect their stndies, an adjective adjunct of j 'fvils ; the con- nective word is who. — The subject of the principal clause is pv- piln ; the predicate, deserve ; and the object, reprimand. — The adjunct of tlie subject is the dependeiit clause ; the other parts have no adjuncts. — The subject of the dependent clause is w/io ; the predicate, neglect; the obj«'ct, studies. — Tlie subject and the predi^-atc linve no adjuncts ; tlio adjuiTct of stndies is their ^' 2. — " lie that lovetli ])leasure. shall soon be a poor man. '-— 'I'his is a ex. decl. sent, consisting of two simple clauses, Jle sludl soon h a poor iiHin, and That loveth pleasure. — The sub, of tlie prin. cl. .'•'.%\t. ' ' ; T \, >' ■ -.! . • ,• J k 70 BYNTAi.— ANALYblS. If - .ri\ is lie ; the pied., shall he ; and the attribute, man. — The adjunct of the sub. is that loveth pleasure ; the adjunct of the pred. is aoon ; the adjuncts of the attribute are a andjjoor.—The sub. of the dep. cl. is tluit; the pred., loveth: and the oh}., pleasure. None of the three has adjuncts. :]. — «' Alas ! ho soon fell before the malignant tempter, thus los- ing his innocence." — This is a simple decl. sent. — The subj. is he ; the pred., fell ; there is no object or attribute. —The sub. is unmod.; the pred. is mod. by the adverbial adjunct soon and by the adver- bial phrase, 6f/orc V W t ' 1 ">■ i ■„ .; •" ; . 1 • " ■■ H^i 1 • : .u: ■ ■ if '*. ■ Iw i ** ' ' 1 ^m 80 nULES OF SYNTAX. SYNTHESIS. Synthesis, as already said, is that division of Syntax which treats of the construction of sentences from words. The leading principles to be observed in the con- struction of sentences are embraced in the following eiglitccn Bides qf Syntax. 4 RULES OF SYNTAX. I. Articles. — Articles relate to the nouns which they limit in meaning : as, ^' At a little distance from tlw walls of the citadel, stands an old tower ." II. Subiect of Finite Verb (l). — A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a linite verb, is put in the nominative case ; as. '^ The Moon shines with borrowed light." — ^' Tlion shalt not steal." III. Nominative Case Independent. — A noun or a pronoan whose case does not depend upon its connection with any other word, is in the nomi- native case independent ; as, " Oh, Frank, save me from these men ! " — ^' Youv fathers^ where are they ? and the iirophds^ do they live forever ? " IV. Possessive Case. — A noun or a pronoun which limits a word used as the name of the thing possessed, is in the possessive case ; as, " The hov's hat is lost." — My native land." V. Objective Case, — A noun or a pronoun which is t)ie object of an action or of a relation, is in the objective case ; as, " Cast thy hread upon the 'ivcdfrs'^ — ^' The judge heard hlmy VI. Apposition (2). — A noun or a pronoun used (1) A verb in any other mode than the infinitive, is caUecl a finite TOlb. (2) Apposition sipuifies adding to, and denotes that another naroo ia added for the same person or thiu>?. RULES OF SYNTAX. 8t in apposition with another, is in the same case ; as, " Champlain, the /omw(^ of Quebec, died in 1635." VII. Same Case after a Verb — When a noun or pronoun coming after an intransitive verb, means the same person or thing as the noun or pronoun pre- ceding the verb, it is in the same case, as, " He re- turned a friend who came a/oe. " — ^' We believed it to be him. "• — "The child was named Louis7 — It could not be JieJ^ — ^^ Napoleon Buonaparte became emperor y VIII. Adjectives — Adjectives relate to tlie nouns or pronouns which they qualify or limit ; as, ^^ A good manP " Two boys." " It is good. " IX. Pronominal Adjective —The pronomi- nal adjective either accompanies its noun, or repre- sents it understood ; as, " This Man." — ^^ All men." — *' All'ym. to guard what each desires to gain," i. e.. All [men] join to guard what each [man] desires to gain. " X. Pronouns. — A pronoun must agree with its ptecedent, or with the word for which it stands, in gender, number, and person ; as, " If a man takes a wroim step, lie should not conthme in his course. " — " Tliou wlm speakest, art the man. " XL Agreement of Finite Verbs — A finite verb agrees with its subject, or nominative, in num- ber and person; as, "I read\ thou rcadest] he reads " — " The boy writes] the boys ivrite.'''' Xri. Infinitives — The preposition to governs (1) I he Infinitive mode, and commonly connects it to a finite verb ; as, They wish to study. " XIII. Use of the tenses. — In using verbs, dif- ferent tenses should not be confounded, nor should any tense be employed, except in such connections as are consistent with the time it denotes. (1) To goveni, in graiumar, moans to determine some particular modification. ■' '.• ; t ' ' . - ■ * • ■' '! ... i ■-■■■! 82 SYNTAX.— RULE I. — AUTICLKS. ^i>.: ■:'i ■ XIV. Participles — Participles relate to nouns or pronouna, or are governed by prepositions; as, ''At one tmm pay imi his friend a visit, he found him cwpJoyed in rcadimj Bossuet." XV. Adverbs. — Adverbs modify a verb, a par- ticii»lc, an adjective, or another adverb; as, " He acted JHcUcioKsh/.^^ — " He is a truhj good man."— *' He was most kindly treated." XVI. Prepositions — Prepositions show the relation between the noun or the pronoun which folio vvs them and some preceding word; as, "He came from London to Florence in the company of two friends, and passed ivltk them through many cities." XVII. Conjunctions — Conjunctions connect the words or tlie parts of a sentence between which they are placed ; as, "John and James are very obe- dient." — "They fled hccatisc they were afraid." XVIII. Interjections — Interjections have no grammatical relation with the other words of a sei^. ^jnce ; j'.^, " These were delightful days; but, alas I tliev are no more." \4. ■ RULE I.-ARTICLES. Articles relate to the noims which they limit in meaning ; as, " At a little distance from the walls of the citadel, stands an old tower." NOTES. L The cleiiiiite article the, which denotes some particu- lar person or thing, is prefixed to nouns of both nam- bers; as, *' T/te life of an honest man, however short, J8 counted long iu the eyes of God." Obs. 1. — The sometimes relates to adjectivoa that are used as nouns ; as, " The pooryo have always wtli you." 8YNTAX.— RULE I. — ARTICLES. 88 i that are used as nbij. 2. — ^Vicbastlio force of au advorb when used beforo an adverb in the comparative or the Buporlative dn<;r»Hj ; as, '■ The more inteU'i. OX ^ ^. > IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) Z 1.0 I.I ■ 50 l^^" US us lAO 1^ — ||||l-4 1 1.6 ^ 6" ► % 7 Hiotographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4503 7.A \ 'm '■rim ■■■. ^ '-y ■■■Hi '.)» SYNTAX. ^RULB I.—ARtlCLfiS. 2. — " The study gives strength to the mind." This sentence is incorrect, because the article tlie is used before study, which is a noun taken in its widest sense, according to Not® 10 under Rule I. Therefore the should be omitted, and the sentence should be, " Study gives strength to the mind ." 3. — " I now suffer the iil consequences of a so foolish indulgence." This sentence is incorrect, becau&e, according to Note 22 under Rule I., the article a should be placed after the adjective foolish. The sentence should be, " I now suffer the ill consequences of so ioolish an indulgence." 1. The life is short, but the eternity is loDg.— 2. The lions are considered the strongest of the animals. — 3. Bayard, model of Knights, was mortally "wounded at Bomagnano, in 1524. — 4. The Mount Vesuvius is in Italy. — 5. The sun is the source of the heat and light for our earth. — 6. 1 despise not the doer, but deed. — 7. The hardness is a property of some bodies. — 8. Negroes who live on the coasts of Guinea are more civilized than those of the in- terior of Alrioa. — ^9. Mr. B. "was deputy ; now he is am- bassador. — 10. This is a too large house for a single man. — 11. I will take a great care that he may not be admitted. — 12. There were at least one thousand people at the concert. — 13. Carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy. — 14. He is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman. — 15. In keeping af his commandments, there is great reward. — 16. There is a species of an ani- mal called a seal. — 17. The light and the worthless ker- nels will float. — 18. Does Peru join the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean '? — 10. He was an abler mathematician than a lin- guist. — 20. A too great reward was given for a so slight service. — 21. Light travels at the rate of about a hun_ dred and ninety thousand miles per second. — 22. The old miser of landlord is always asking money of us. — 23. A red, a white, and a blue flag is the American emblem. — 24. Cincinnatus laid aside the powers granted to hira as a Dictator, and returned to his farm. — 25. Hardness of iron is not so great as that of diamond. - fttNTAX.— BTjLE I.— AET1CLB3. 87 26. The EusBians and Italians differ from eucli other in tkeir habits and customs. — 27. The word is a noun or verb according to its use.— 28. Study of languages is very useful and even necessary uow-a-days. — 29. The modesty of this youth is prepossessing. — 30. The negro is a black-colored man with curly hair and thick lips. — 31. The nightingales like to sing in retired places. — 32. Nouns have three cases j the nominative, the possessive, and objective. — 33. Great Antilles are Cuba, St. Domingo, Jamaica, and Porto-Rico. — 34. The Mount Blanc is much visited by travelers and tourists. — 35. The "VIediterranean sea bathes the three ancient Continents; the Europe, the Asia, and tlio Africa. — 36, Great many people were present at the reception of the new Governor-General. — 37. He pursued his scheme with a wonderful constancy. — 38. London, the capital of England, is the most populous city in the world. — 3t). Stars, with which God has studded the firmament, appear like gems, — 40. Best sailors in France come from Brittany. — 41. You will find an ewer in my dressing-ioom. — 42. What a rogue of servant you Lave ! Why don't you dismiss him ! — 43. How timid creature the squirrel is ! — 44. I am thinking of entering the army ; who knows but I may become general ? — 45. On hearing the uews of his arrival, thousand people rushed out to meet the hero. Model for Parsing. 'M "A rudely carved sione marked iJie place of Lis burial." A is the indefinite article, aud relates to the noun stone which it limits, according to Rrile 1., "An article relates, etc." Parse the articles in the two foregoing exercises. The pupils will give from memory ; — three or more sentences on false syntax taken from the above exercises on Rule 1, and two or more from elsewhere, but on the samo Rule. Nota.— Teachers will not fail to insist on a thorough performance of the above exercises. Rules may be recited very fluently without being understood 1 but an application of them in the construction of >;..^-'' ■S f ,' 5 ■ ''.'• 'V ''■«'■ -'v I '.-'■.'• 11,1 '/' .' f^ / . ♦% II . * ^ t '. .' ■ :: * % '1 •f \. ^•;;.. ■'^ '•■ '^ % •- ■'''pi ■'■• ■■'-•I '.•V.l '. ■■!■ m., ■:■■■:■'-}{ :..■ ri ■ ■ • ■'?. .F ■■'■ i. i )]« 88 SYNTAX.— RULE 1I.—8UBJKCT OF. FINITE VERB, sentences, requires careful attention to principles, while it also aids the learner in forming an accurate style of -writing. ! ; RULE II.— SUBJECT OF FINITE VERB. A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, is in the nominative case ; as, " The inoon shines with bon'owed light ," '* Thou shalt not steal. NOTES. 1. The subject of a verb may be a verb in the infinitive mode, a part of a sentence, or any word, used as a noun in the nominative case j as, *^ To err is human. " — " TJutt the earth is round, was denied by the ancients. " — ** Them should never be used for those. " — " i^Terer despair j is a good motto. " 2. Nouns in the first, or in the second person, are never the subjects of finite verbs. 3. A noun and the pronoun representing it are soibe- times improperly used as subjects of the same verb j as, ** The shj it was obscured with clouds ; " — omit it, and say, " The sly was obscured with clouds. " 4. Every nominative, except when used independently (Rule III.), or after the verb (Rule VII.), or in apposition (Rule VI. ), is the subject of some verb expressed or un- derstood. ..-.,, 5. The subject is generally placed before the verb;- as, " The SMJi s^mes upon the earth. " « .;.*...«...' The following are exceptions :— ^ •' • I. When a question is asked, without the nee of an interrogative pronoun in the nominative case; as, ** Whfcto is /tc about whom you spoke ? " • II. When the verb is in the imperative mode ;' as, ** Oo f^^/toit^ in peace. " '"" Jli. When a verb in the subjunctive mode is usetl without 'ii^ *■'!'} IB, Isoaida (SYNTAX.— RULE II.— EXERCiafiS. di) t of a "The i shalt afinitive a noun -« Tlmt -" Them i(>, is a ro never e sofne- erb; as, and say, endently )positlon id or un- 761 b ; ' as, BO of an < SYNTAX.— RULE II.— EXERCI6E8. i paths of viitue.— 7. When the ship struck, us sailor took to the long-boat and the vessel began to fill immedia- tely. — 8. Simple and innoceikt pleasures they alone are durable. — 9. He can write better than me, but I can draw as well as him. — 10. Who wishes to merit the praise of his teacher? Me.— 11, Whom dost thou think was there ? — 12. Let there be none but thee and I. — 13. The whole need not a physician, but them that are sick. — 14. " Point out the man " said the judge, '* whom you say committed the robbery. "—15. Our teachers said that she and me were seldoin disobedient. — IG. Alexander, whom by his genius had conquered nearly all the known world, he wept because there were no other worlds to conquer. — 17. He is taller than me, but I am as tall as her. — 18. The boat was pushed ofp from the shore, and him and his dog were left alone in the forest.— 19. To live soberly, righteously, and piously, arerequiredof allmen.— 20. This is the boy Whom we think deserved the reward. — ^21. Him who expects to succeed in life, must be industrious. — 22. Happy is him alone who depends not upon the pleasures of this world for his enjoyment. — 23. We are as good arithme- ticians as them, but they are better grammarians than us. — 24. Few persons would do as much for him as he and me have done.— 25. The man, he was disliked by his compan- ions, — 26. I cannot endure as much as thee. — ^27. Whom dost thee regard more blamable, him or his brother ?~28. Dishonesty however well it may prosper for a time, yet jus- tice ^ill finally prevail. — ^29. Them that honor me, I will lienor ; and thee that despise me, shall be lightly esteem- ed. — yo. All, save me, were at rest and enjoyment. — 31. He and they we know, but who art thou?— 32. Nobody said so but he. — "3. Justice it is represented as being blind. — 84. Many words they darken speech. — 35. He whom in that instance was deceived, is a man of sound judgement. — 30. To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in the open air, and to preserve the mind from tumultuous emotions, is the best preservatives of health. I-'. fitNTAX,— RUtE til.— NOMINAtlVE CASE. 91 Models for Parsikg. 1. — " The JewB were once very powerful. " " Jews " is a proper noun, in the plural numher, third person, and of the masculine gender ; in the nominative case, beiug the subject of the finite verb were, according to Rule II., " A noun or a pronoun, etc." X — " To die for one's country is noble." " To die " is a regular intransitive verb, in the infinitive mode ; it is used as a noun in the nominative case, being the subject of the finite verb is, according to Note ^ under Rule II., " The subject of a verb, etc." Parse all the subjects in the foregoing exercises. '1 The pupils vMl give from memory, — ^three or more sentences on false syntax taken from the above exercises on Rule II., and two or more from elsewhere, but on the same rule. {See Nota, p. 87.) • ',.MJ RULE III.— NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. A noun or a pronoun whose case does not depend upon its connection with any other word, is in the nominative case independent ; as, " Oh, Frank, save me from these men ! " — " Your fathers, where are they ? and the prophets, do they live forever? '' *» "if .'"••|TI • ■ P I mI H. Prescott's '' Conquest of Peru " is a very interesting work. — 6. The volume was printed at Lowell's, the pub- lishers' and booksellers'.— 7. The mistake was the gen- eral not the soldiers', — 8. The King of England's edict was revoked,— 9. The admiral's vessel's iuasts were shot away. — 10. Adopted by the Goths in their pronouncing the Greek. — 11. We all have talents committed to our charges . — 12. We met at my brother's partner's house.— 13. Were Cain's and Abel's occupations the same ? — 14. Sunday is also called the day of the Lord. — 15. It was nec- essary to have both the surgeon and the physician's ad- vice. — 16. The bill had the cashier, but not the presi- dent's signature. — 17. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures gifts for mans advantage. — 18. Mans chief good is an upright mind. — 19. The fire destroyed Lee, Taylor, and Lepage's store. — 20. Napoleon's and Welling- ton's armies deserved such commanders. — 21. No meand remained to prevent his escaping.— 22. Whose conduct was most praiseworthy ? Charles. — 23. The movements of the army gained the king, as well as the people's, approbation. — 24. The Representatives' assembled on the second of February. — 25. The world's government is not left to chance. — 26.By offending others, wo expose ourselves. — 27. The pious cheerfully submit to their lot. — 12. He was Louis the Fifteenth's son's heir. — 28. Six months' wages will then be due. — 29. The horse got away in conse- quence of me neglecting to fasten the gate. — 30. The si- tuation enabled him to earn something, without losing too much time from his studies. Models for Parsing. ; ( 1. — " Frank wiit'es a letter with hiafatlwr'a permission. '* " Father's " is a common noun, in the sing, number, third person, and of the masculine gender, it is in the possessive case, and limits the noun xjevrn'mion, according to Rule IV., " A noun or a pronoun which; etc." •YNTAX RULE V. — OBJECTIVE CASE. 97 2.—" George Washington^n Farewell Address has just been read. " " George Washington's " is a complex prop«r noun, in the sing, n., 3id pers., masc. gender ; it is in the poss. case, and limits Address, according to Rule IV., " A noun or a pronoun which, etc." Parse all the nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, in the foregoing exercises; also, all the subjects and nominative cases inde- pendent. The pupils will give from memory /—three or more sentenoes on false syntax taken from the above exercises on Rule IV., and two or more from elsewhere, but on the same Rule. (See Nota, p. 87.) ' '^■ ■ .:■!' 'i<.n '■{-!■ 12. The relative that always precedes the verb or the preposition by which it is governed ; ^* He is the best man tJiat 1 knowJ'^ — " Who, that we can appeal to, will de- cide differently ? " 13. Whom and which are sometimes placed before the preposition by which they are governed, but inelegantly ; thus, " Whom did you speak to ? " should be, " To whom did you speak ? " They usually precede the verb ; as^ ** The country which I «a«;." yxi'i'i i: ' * ■\..'\ 'A * : '• ;■■. % .- .'■•vjl Exercises. Correct orally tTi*)ib] lowing sentenoos, and apply tho rule or ihe note for each correction, •: .• ' ' .- Model I. — " Our uncle allowed my brother and I to accompany him. » Tills sentence is incorrect, because the pronoun /, which is in the nominative case, is need as one of the objects of the action expressed by the verb allowed. I should be me, and the sentence should be, " Our uncle allowed my brother and me to accompany him." 2. — " We were shown several beautiful pictures. " This sentence is incorrect, because the noun pictures is used as the object of tvere shoivn, a verb in the passive voice ; but, accor- ding to Note 4 under Rule V., " A verb in the passive voice should never be used, etc. " Therefore the sentence should be, " Several beautiful pictures were shown to us. " ■ • . , 3. — " The weary pilgrim sat liimsolt down by the way side. " This sentence is Incorrect, because the pronoun himself ia used as ■'; ¥[ ■■-•1 •' '-€1 J ,•1 M] ■.1 '■'m ■ ■*"'%i lOO SYNTAX.— RULF. V.— EXERCISBS. 11 ;. t <.^ ;•« - I m ** l*^ * 3^ • p 1 ! iv» r Wl'*' fu ' 1-'*- |! 1 1 ■K ' i" K ' i the object of the intranaitive verb sat ; it should be omitted, and the senteuce should be," The weary pUgrim sat down by the way side 2 .» 1. John was presented the highest prize as a reward for his proficiency in French. — 2. Pupils expelled from other colleges, are not admitted here. — 3. Who shall we send on this errand ? — 4. The ambitious are always seek- ing to aggrandize.— 5. We endeavored to agree the parties.— 6. The boy's parents resolved not to permit of such conduct.— 7. If it had been her, she would have told us. — 8. Let that remain a secret between you and I. — 9. It is our duty to feel for and to assist, those in want. — 10. He to whom much is given, much will be required of. — 11. False accusation cannot diminish from real merit. — 12. I fear thee wilt suflfer much if thee pursuest thy present course. — 13. This society does not allow of personal reflections. — 14. Napoleon was an emperor, whom if his ambition had not governed him, would have adorned the age which he lived in. — 15. He undertook as every one should do, his task, with a determination to suc- ceed.— 16. He that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. — 17. Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools. — 18. He was oflfered the control of the entire school. — li). Who did you accompany in your journey across the prairies ? — 20. The Indians have been deprived of and driven from their former hunting-grounds.— 21. Thou, who I am proud to include among my friends, I will always respect.— 22. The gentleman, who I was with, is a book-keeper in Hamel the jeweler and watch- maker's. — 23. Who did you desire to purchase the books? him or I ?— 24. 1 regret that it is not in my power to accept of your kind and generous offer. — 25. He was not allowed the privilege to debate the question the second time. — 26. They were refused the benefit of their recantation— 27. It is not I, that he is angry with.— 28. They were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven from the house, fiYNTA2C.-4lULE Vl«— AtPOBITIOlT. Model for PAnaiNa. 101 rr::^ifi' " They denied me this privilege. ** " Privilege" is a com. noun, in the alng. n., 3rd. person., and of the neuter gender ; it is in the objective case, being the object of the action asserted by the verb denied, according to Rule V., " A noun or a pronoun, etc. " " Me " is a pers. pron., in the sing, n., Ist pers., and of the masc. gender ; it is in the objective case, being the object of the relation denoted by the preposition to (understood), according to Note 7 under Rule V., " When a verb, etc." Parse the nouns and the pronouns in the objective case, in theTore- going exercises ; also, the subjects, nominative cases independent, and possessive cases. The pupils will give from wemory/— three or more sentences on false syntax ti^cen from the above exercises on Rule V., and Xkvq or more from elsewhere, and on the same Rule. tSee Nota, p. 87,) . .t.|» : <- ■' , f-M ■- ..'.'Vl " ..•■•/■ -'i.'.- . -J .■ .■.■^,' . . RULE VI.— APPOSITION. A noun or a pronoun used in opposition with another, is in the same case ; as, " Champlain, the founder of Quebec, died in 1 635. ^ NOTES. 1. A noun or a pronoun is used in apposition, when it is used with another noun or pronoun to explain it, or wlien it is added or repeated for the sake of emphasis; as, " Herschel, the astronomer, discovered the planet Uranus." — '• They liave forsaken me, the Fountain of living waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that can liold no water. " 2. The common and the proper name of an object arc often associated, the common name being in apposition "vvith the proper. They may be parsed together as a ■'''■■■'i| •: 1^1 ■>Mjiil 102 SYNTAX.— RULE VI. — APPOSITION. :4\ r. %' w** •i' ' %-i 'h f •11 p^f .?tl 'v*i i' 1 %'. 1 ■}■ iu IJi '■■ 111 ■I. 1. MMMg complex proper noun j as, " The Ship Albion is lost . " — " The city of Paris is on the Hiver Seine. " 3. The several proper names which distinguish an indi- vidual, are always in apposition, and should be parsed as one complex noun j as, " Louis Napoleon Bonaparte. " 4. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sen- tence or phrase J as, '^ He permitted me to make free use of his valuable library — a Jcindness which I shall always remember with gratitude." ' r^sur 5. When two nouns denoting the same object come together in the possessive case, the sign is omitted after the first J as, " John the Baptist" s head . " 6. A noun in apposition is sometimes used without the possessive sign, to limit a noun or pronoun in the posses- sive case J as, " His office adjudge must be responsible.'^ In this sentence, judge refers to his, and agrees with it in the possessive case, the sign of the possessive being omitted. 7. Transitive verbs of choosing, naming, etc., are some- times followed in the active voice by two objectives, the first of which is tl^ object of the action asserted by the verb, and the other is used in apposition with itj as, " They named the child John, " — '^ They elected him pres- ident. " 8. A plural term used for emphasis is sometimes used in apposition with the particulars which it represents ; as, " Happiness, honor, wealth, all were lost. " 9. A distributive term in the singular number, is fre- quently construed in apposition with a comprelieusive plural , as, '' They disputed every one with his neighbor. '* 10. In the expression, ^* They dislike each other, '* each is in apposition with they, the meaning being, *< They, each, dislike the other. " — Also in the sentence, ** They dislike one another, " one is in apposition with they, tha meaning being, " They, one, dislike the other. " 11. AVords ill apposition must ngrcc in oiiae, but not 8TNTAX.— Rnr.E Vt.— liXBRClSEa. io3 necessarily in number, person, or gender; as, " TTe^ the pcojp?e of this flourishing country. " ,^ ; ;■/.;- Exercises. .'-/- ■:-■_■. Correct orally the following senteiices, and apply the rule or the note for each conreotion, Model.—" I saw their friends, they that were here last week. " This sentence is incorrect, because they, which is a pronoun in the nominative case, is used in apposition with friends, which is in the objective case ; it should be in the objective. They should be tliem, and the sentence should be, '' I saw their friends, thorn that were here last week." 1. The book is from my brother Henry, he that keeps the bookstore.— 2. The purchased articles were leffc at Neil's, thejeweler's .—3. The gardener, him who brought those roses, has a beautiful collection of flowers. — 4. Rich- ard the Lion-hearted found the government of England in John's, his brother's, hands. — 5. The dress-maker, her whom you recommended, has disappointed me. — 6. The chief is here, him who was at the fort yesterday. — 7, Philip, the gardener, him that gaye me the tulips, has promised me a piony. — 3. Milton the poet lived during Cromwell's the Protector's administration. — 4. Be kind to your mother, she who loves you so dearly. j '^^ 1 ' Models FOR Parsing. ' 1. — " Alexander, th« coppersmith, did me great harm. '^ " Coppersmith " is a com. noun, in the sing, n., 3rd pers., masc. g. ; it is in the nominative case, being used in apposition with Alexander, which is in the nominative case, according to Rule VI., " A noun or a pronoun, etc. " 2. — " General, captain, private, all were hurried into the sanK? grave. " " All '^ is a pronominal adj., representing the nouns, general, caj)- tain^ and pi'ivate, in the plural number, Srd pers., and masc. g. ; it is in the nominative case, being used in apposition with gemral, captain, anAprivaie, whieli are the suiyects of the finite verb were "w^,' » 1- ■^-'•i»J ;-;::i^i I * . * ■: ^*--'i' •.■■■ M ' '^'■ ■ ■ ■' Ui • - ,ii ^ I n ■■'-! u ■1 r»i , ' >ii^i ?■ ip fe p .;ii m*' ,r 104 SYNTAX.— RUtfi VII.— SAMB CASE AFTER A VERB. hurriedf according to Note 8 under Rule VI, " A plural term used for emphasis, etc. ; and Rule VI., " A noun, etc. " Parse the nouns and pronouns in apposition in the foregoing exer- cises ; also, the subjects, Mminative cases independent, possessive, and oliective cases. The pupils will give from rAcmory ; — ^two or more sentences on false syntax taken from the above exercises on Rule VL, and two or more from elsewhere, on the same Rule. (See Nota, p. 87.) RItLE Vli.— SAME CASE AFTER A VERB. When a noun or pronoun coming after an intran- sitive verb, means the same person or thing as the noun or pronoun preceding the verb, it is in the same case ; as, " He returned a friend, who came a foe/^ — ^^ We believe it to be him that spoke to us. " — '^ The child was named LouisJ'^-^^^ It could not be he. " — " Napoleon Bonaparte became em* pcror ^ " .; 'ii-./^ . NOTES. ■ -.,•:.;■(] 1. A noun or pronoun is after pv he/ore a verb or a par- ticiple when it follows or precedes the verb or the parti- ciple in the natural order of thought or expression. Thus, " A man he was to all the country dear, " in the natural or usual order would be, " He was a man dear to all the country. " . 2. The verbs which most frequently separate nouns and pronouns meaning the same person or thing, are he, be- come, appear, grow, etc. ; and the verbs call, choosey con* sider, make, etc., in the passive voice. : * Exercises* Correct orally tlio following sentences, and apply the rule or the note for each correction, Model.— I. " Tlie man supposed that it was him that came last. " This spiitcnco is incorrect, because him is a personal pronoun in 5ame emr SYNTAX.— RULE VlI.—EXRRCISES. 105 tlie objective case, referring to the same person as {/, which is iu the nominative case, being the subject of the finite verb was; but, ac- cording to Eule VII., " A noun or pronoun placed after an intransi- tive verb, etc. " Therefore him should be he, and the sentence should be, ** The man supposed that it was he that came labt. " 2.—" The man supposed it to be ho that came last. " This sentence is incorrect, because he is a personal pronoun in the nominative case, referring to the same person as it, which is in the objective case, being the object of tlie action asserted by the verb euppoaed; but, according to Rule VII., "A noun or a pronoun, etc. ' Therefore he should be him, and ttie sentence should be, *' The man supposed it to be him that came la»t. " 1. Tbey did not know that it was him. — 2. They be- lieved it to be I. — 3. It was mo that did it, sir, said the lad. — 4. It matters little whom your associates may be, their influence has its effect upou you. — 5. It appears diffi- cult to determine whom it was, that first discovered the power of steam. — 6. If I Avere him or her, I would im- prove the opportunities presented to me. — 7. It was him that Issued the order, although the people for a long time disbelieved it to be he. — 8. We all thought it to be she. — 9. Whom did he think you were ? — 10. Thou art him whom they described. — 11. We can no longer doubt its beiug John who made the discorvery. — 18. It is not me, that he is angry with. Model for Parsing. ■'-NV-: 1 ■ * I 'I y-i'n 4 ' - t ,. ."••■ii'l •■ -v. I '. oose, con* rule or the " Joseph was made ruler over Egypt. " " Ruler " is a common noun, sing, n., 3rd pers., masc. g. ; it is In the nom. case after the iutr verb was made, because it denotes the same person as Joseph, which is in the nom. case, being the subject of the finite verb tvas made, according to Rule VII., " A noun or a pronoim placed after, etc. " Thepitpila toill give from memory; — three or more sentences on false syntax taken from the above exercises on Rule VII., and two or more firom elsewhere on the same Rule. {See Nota, p. 87.) -••■•fi ■ ■■ ■' ;ii 106 '' SYNTAX.— RULE VIII.— ADJECTIVES. I fe' I'.- ft lii' '1 RULE VIIL— ADJECTIVES. - , # An adjective relates to the noun or pronoun which it qualifies or limits j as, " A good man " — ^^ It is good.'* *^ Two boys." NOTES. 1. An aOjcctivo may be used to qualify or limit a phrase or sentence 5 as, "To see the sun is j^lcasant. "— '' That he shouhl refuse, is not atranffe,^^ 2. An adjective is sometimes used to modify another ad- jective; as, " Pale red silk." — Tliree hundred men. " 3. An adjective is often used to qualify a noun and an- other adjective, taken as one compound term. The most distinguishing quality should bo expressed next to the noun ; as, " A jioor old man, "—not, '* An old poor man." 4. An adjective is sometimes used abslraclhj after a par- ticiple, or a verb in the inf nitive mode, that is, without direct reference to any noun ori)ronoun ; as, *' Being hon- est is better than being wealthy.''^ — " To bo wise and good is to be great and noble.''^ * 5. Nouns are sometimes used to perform the oflice of ad- jectives, as, "A stone cistern." — *'A gold watch"; and adjectives, to perform the oflflce of nouns ; as, '^ The great and good of all ages." G. The comparative degree can only be used in reference to two objects, or classes of objects; as, " John is taller than Richard". The superlative compares one or more things with all others of the same class, whether few or many ; as, " Kichard is the tallest of my pupils." t The superlative is often used when only two objects are com- pared, but improperly ; as, " The wealceat (instead of weaker) of the two." 7. When the comparative degree is used, the latter term of comparison should never include the former ; as, '* Soc- rates was wiser than any Athenian, '' should be, " Socra* tes was wiser than any other Athenian ." SYNTAX.— RULE VIII.~ADJECT1VK8. 107 latter term >e, " Socra- 8. When the superlative degree is used, the latter term of comparison should never exclude the former; thus, <* Sirius is the brightest of all the other fixed stars, *^ should he Sirius is the brightest of all the fixed stars/' y. Comparative terminations, and adverbs of degree, should not be applied to adjectives that are not susceptible i)f com pari SOB ; thus, " A more iwySn/^e variety, " " There is no law so universal, "etc., should bo "A greater varie- ty." " There is no law so generalj etc." 10. Double comparatives and superlatives should be care- fully avoided j as, " ** A more serener temper, " " The moat straitest road," should be, " A more serene or a serener tem- per, " The straitest road." 11. In expressing a comparison, if both nouns relate to the same object, the article an or a, or the, should not be prefixed to the latter noun, if to different objects, it should not be omitted. II* we say, " Burke is a better tanner than currier, we refer to but one person, Burke, and declare that he is better in the capacity of a tanner than in that of a currier. If we say, ** Burke is a better tanner than a currier, " or " the currier, " we compare two persons, Burke and a currier, and declare that Burke is the better . tanner of the two. 12. Adjectives are sometimes improperly used for ad- verbs j thus, " JfiseraftZe poor," ^^ Excellent well," "He writes elegant j should be, '* Miserably poor" Excellently well, " "He writes elegantly. " 13. When an adjective follows a finite verb, and is not followed by a noun or a pronoun expressed or understood, it relates to the subject of the verb j as, " I am glad that the door is made wide ". — " He was pronounced guilty^K 14. When the adjective is necessarily plural, or necessa- rily singular, the nouu should be made so too j as, " He stood s/>/ 'l^j 110 SYNTAX. — RULE IX. — PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. that great bodies move slow. — 14. The preacher spoke earnest, and his works deeply inapressioned the young sinful man.— 15. That opinion is too general to be easily corrected.— 16. Tell him the two first classes have read, and all the pupils know their lessons. ' ' Models FOR Parsing. : ; 1.—" The atmosphere is mUd." " if " Mild " is an adjective in the positive degree {mild, milder, mila- est), and relates to the noun atmosphere, which it qualifies, according to Rule VIII., " An adjective relates, etc. " 2. — " They left behind them the half-hidden cottage." ' "Half-hidden " is a compound adj., not admitting of comparison j ^it relates to the noun cottage, which it qualifies, according to Note under Rule VIII., " An adjective, etc." Parse the oAjeetives in the foregoing exercises ; also, the nouns and pronouns in apposition, ind in the same case after the verb. The pupils will give from memory ; — three or more sentences on false syntax taken from the above exercises on Rule VIII., and three or more from elsewhere, on the same Rule. {See Nota, p. 87.) RULE IX.— PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. A pronominal adjective either accompanies its noun or represents it understood ; as '^ This man." — " All men.^' — " All join to guard what each desires to gain," i. e., J.ZZ(men)jointo guard what each (man) desires to gain." NOTES. f 1. Pronominal adjectives that imply unity or plurality* must agree with their nouns in number ; as, That book, those books. 2. This and that refer to nouns in the singular number ; these and those^ to nouns in the plural -, as, This hat ) these hats. SYNTAX.— liULE XI. — PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, 111 s man/' — 3. TJiis and these refer to what is near j as, " This wall is well bnilt. " That and tliose refer to what is distant, or to what is farther away, than something else j as, *' Tliose towers are very high. " 4. When this and that, or these and those, are contrasted, this or these should represent the latter of the antecedent terms, and thatoT those, the former; as, " Reason is superior to instinct ', this (instinct) belongs to the brute, that (reason), to man. " 5. TJiem should never be used as an adjective in lieu of those ) thus, '* I sold them goods," should be " I sold tlwse goods. " 6. Each refers singly to two or to more than two ob- jects J as, " Each pupil studied his lesson. " 7. Either and neither are used with reference to two things only J when more than two are referred to, any should take the place of either, and none of neither. We may say either of the two, neither of the two ; hu\, any of the three, none of the four.''^ Any and none, let it be remembered, imply either one or more than one. 8. Every refers to each of more than two objects, and includes all taken separately or singly ; it is never used without a noun expressed ; as, " Every tree is known by its fruit." • " Every is sometimes joined to a plural noun preceded by a numeral adjective ; as, " Every six iceeJcs ;" " every hundred years.'''' 9. The reciprocal expression, one an other, should not be applied to ttco objects, nor each other, or one the other to more than two : because reciprocity between two is some act or relation of each or one to the other, an object definite, and not of one to an other, which is indefinite ; but reciprocity among three or more is of one, each, or every one, not to one other solely, or the other definitely, but to others, a plurality, or to an other, taken indefinitely and implying this plurality. !* .' . , . ,.•'1 ■ . I...- . • ' -i .•■■ ■■ .- 'U • ' ■■..o.f ■:l lis Syntax.— RULE ix.— exercises* vi illi! if I ill 10. One is often used indefiuitely, to signify persons ill general J as, " One ought to pity the distresses of man- kind. " n. Which and ivhat, and the compounds formed from them, refer to nouns in tlie singular or in the phiral. 12. A pronominal adjective is parsed a? an adjective when the noun which it limits, is mentioned; as, " JSacU boy's conduct was deserving of praise." A pronominal adjective may be parsed as a pronoun, that is, as representing a noun, when it is correctly used ■without an article, and the noun is not mentioned jas, *' JiJach was praised for his good conduct." Exercises. ^ '" -*«& Correct orally tlio following sentences, and apply the rule or the note for each correction, Model 1. — " Those sort of words provoke harsh feelings. " This sentence is incorrect, because thosef which is a pronominal adjective in the plural, is used to refer to the noun sort, which is in the singular number ; but, according to Note under Rule IX., " Ihis and that refer, etc." Therefore those should be tlmt, and the sentence should be, " That sort of words provokes harsh feelings." 2—" Go and tell them boys to be still." This sentence is incorrect, because the pronoun them is used as an adjective; but, according to Note under Rule IX., " Them should never,'etc." Therefore them should be those, and the sentence should be, " Go and tell those boys to be still." . <=, ^ 1. Those molasses was brought from the West Indies. — 2. Either of the ten young men was considered quali- fied. — 3. Two negatives, in English, destroy one an other — 4. Hope is as strong an incentive to worthy action, as fear: this is the anticipation of good, that of evil.— 5. Are either of these men known ? No : neither of them have any connexion here. — 6. Here are seven ; but neither of them will answer. — 7. He bade farewell to his friends and foes ; with those he left his peace, and with these, his love. — 8. Any one of the two subjects would liave been fetNTAX.— RULE IX.— EXERCISES. 113 foes J with those he left his peace, and with these, his love. — 8. Any one of the two subjects would liave been very interesting. — 9. Teachers like to see their pupils po- lite to each other. — 10. That different species of reptiles are not found in the same latitude. — 11. On either side, the soldiers displayed the greatest courage. — 12. He has left his house this last three months. — 13. Every pebble and every blade of grass testify to the greatness of their Creator. — 14. David and Jonathan loved one an other tenderly. — 1.5. I bought those books at a very low price.— 10. Each stairs lead to the same room. — 17. Things of these sort are easily understood. — 18. The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy j but we should not therefore account those happy, and these miserable. •••■■■■ 't-l I.' \ '.M . » ■ Models for Parsing. 1. — " Those men only are great who are good. '* " Those " is a demonstrative pronominal ailjective ; it cannot be compared j it relates to the noun men, which it limits, according to Rule IX., " A pronominal adjective, etc. " 2. — '• Each of the candidates pret^ented his claims to the position." " Each " IS a distributive pronominal adj. ; it represents the noun candidate (understood), with which it agrees in the sing, num- ber, 3rd pers., masc. or fern, gender, according to Rule IX., " A pronominal adj., etc. " ; it is iu the nominative case, being the sub- ject of the finite verb presented, according to Rule II., " A noun or a pronoun, etc. " I'inse the pronominal adjectives in the preceding exercises ; also, the nouns and pronouns in apposition, in the same case after the verb, and the adjectives. The pupils will give from memory /— three or more sentences on false syntax taken from the above exercises on Rule IX., and two or more from elsewhere, on the same Rule. ^ if) 114 &■•.♦ 8TKTAX.— RULE X.— PRONOUNS. RULE X.— PRONOUNS. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or with the word for which it stands, in gender, number, and person ; as, " If a man takes a wrong step, he should not continue in Ids course. " — " Thou «t'7iO speakest, art the man. '^ ■ : NOTES. '• ^ .^' I. The following are exceptionB : — >.. z^ 1. 7J c, wliicli is a pronoun in the plural numT>er, is Rometimes used by authors, editors, reviewers, elc, to represent a noun in the sin- gular ; as, " We cheerfully admit the following communication into our columns, but do not hold ourself responsible for the sentiments which it embodies." II. low, etc., which i're iu the plural number, are generally used instead of thou, etc., to represent nouns in the singular ; as, " Louis, have you known your lesson ?" ^ III. It, which is of the neuter gender, is often used instead of he or she to represent the names of infants, animals, etc. ; as, " The ^hild had not yet recovered from its fright. " It is also used indefini- ely. IV. Ee or she is used instead of it, to represent the name of a thing without sex, which has been personified ; as, " Pleasure deludes /jCT' followers with many a flattering promise." 2. When tlie antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of unity, the pronoun should be in the singular number, and of the neuter j as, *' The nation will enforce Us lawB. " When it is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun should agree with it in the plural number ; as, " The party were quarreling among themselves at the time of their capture. " The collectives many, few, dozen, score, etc., preceded by a, are represented by pronouns in the plural ; as, " A great many lost their lives in their attempts to capture the fort, but a feto effected tlitir entrance ." 3. When a pronoun has two or more antecedents con- SYNTAX.— ROLE X.— PRONOUNS. 115 nccted by and, it must agree with them in the plural num- ber J as " Charles and Edward excel in their studies." 4. Two or more antecedents connected by and, do not require a plural noun : Ist When they express merely ' one person or thing, as, **The celebrated painter and artist died before he reached Rome j " 2nd When they are , emphatically distinguished, and in the singular, as, " The yood man, and the sinner too, shall have his reward ; " 3rd When they are preceded by each, ev6ry, no, or a sin- gular distributive, being then considered separately, as, " Every act, every word, every tliought, has its effect upon our character. " . • r i / ?;r, . 5. If two or more antecedents are connected by as well as, hut not, and also, etc., they belong to different proposi- tions, and a pronoun is used to represent the first noun only; as, ^'Franlc, but not his cousins, was there, for I saw him. " — " They, as well as he, are displeased with John. " 6. If the antecedents are of different persons, the first person is preferred to the second, and the second to the third ; as, *^ Thou, he, and I, excel in o«r studies. " " Thou and he excel in your studies. *' 7. A pronoun which has two or more antecedents in the singular connected by or or nor, should be in the singular j as, " John or William will not lose his time. '" 8. If one of the antecedents connected by or or nor is in the plural, the pronoun representing them should be plu- ral ; and the plural antecedent should be placed nearest to the pronoun ; as, " Neither the captain nor his men were aware of their danger, " 9. A singular antecedent with the adjective many is represented by a pronoun in the singular, as, " Many a hoy neglects his opportunities for improvement j " but such an antecedent sometimes admits a pronoun in the plural, when not in the same clause, or member, as, " Though many a warning was given, he disregarded them all." 10. An antecedent wliicli is either masculine or feminine is usual- '.•' %•■ '•■ ' > S ■ ■ . .."'I ' ■! M •*■■*> M ,11: I it il lie STTTTAX.— RtJLE X.— t»RONOUI^d. r> ly represented by a pronoun in the masctiliue ; as, " A jpormt corrects the child wliom lie loves. " li. Antecedents in the singular number, but of dilferent genders, connected by or or nor, cannot be represented hy a single pronoun ; a separate pronoun must bo used to represent each antecedent; as, " The boy or the girl has torn his or her book" j this is inelegant, and would be better thus : ''The boy has torn his book, or the girl has torn hers. " 12. /* is often used independently as the subject of a verb, re- ferring to some noun, pronoun, infinitive, or clause, in the predi- cate, without regard to the person, number, or gender of the latter ; as, " It i8 1."—" It i8 thouP—'' It is she."— It is Walter's cAi?- (Jre». " — " It is the mark of a generous spirit to forgive injuries." —It is strange that you have forgotten me- " 13. A pronoun should not be Introduced in connexion with words that belong more properly to the antecedent, or to an other pronoun ; as, " Many words they darken speech ." — Expunge they. 14. A change of number in the second person, is inele- gant and improper ; as, ♦' I cannot forget that thou wast my friend, and I will not repay you {thee) with ingrati- tude." . . Si 15. The relative who is applied only to persons, and to things personified ; as, '• The man who spoke to him ; " — Thou sun, who rulest the day !" 16. The relative which is applied to animals, to infants, and to inanimate things; as, " The horse w7wc^ Alexander rede ; " — '* The child lohich was lost, has been found " ; — ^^Tlm rain which fell." 17. Nouns of multitude, unless they express persons di- rectly as such, should not be represented by the relati\'o who ; to say, ** The family whom I visited, " would hardly be proper ; tlMt would here be better. When such nouns are strictly of the neuter gender, which may represent them ; as, " The mob wMch filled the streets, seemed bent on violence." SYNTAX.—RULE X.— PRONOUNS 117 18. When a proper name of a person is used merely as a word, or to denote a cliaractor, it is represented by tohicht and not by ivho ; as, " He alluded to Washington, which is a name dear to every American." 19. The relative that may be applied either to persons or to things. The following are the principal instances in which it is used preferably to %cho or which : — I. After an adjective or an adverb in the superlative degree ; as, " Hu- mility is one of the most amiable virtues that we can possess." — II. After the adjective same ; as, '* This is the same person that I met before." — III, After who used in- terrogatively ; as, ^' Who, that indulges in vice, can be happy ? " — IV. After two or more antecedents which sep- arately require ivho and which j as, *• He spoke of the men and tilings that he had seen." — V. After all, every, etc., and similar antecedents limited in meaning by the relative clause following j as, ** All that lieard him, were pleased." — VI. After the personal pronoun it used indef- initely J as, " It is you that command." — VII. And, in general, where the propriety of who or which is doubtful j as, " The little child that was placed in the midst." 20. When several relative clauses come in succession, and have a similar dependence in respect to the antecedent, the same pronoun must be employed in each; as, " The friend toho was here, and tvho entertained us so much, will never be able to visit us again." 21. The relative in the objective, should not be omitted, when it is necessary to give connexion to the sentence ; as, " The good which men do is often buried with them." — '* He is still in the situation in which you saw him.'.' 22. A rolativo having auteced^'iita of difi'ereut persons, agrees in person with the antecedent nearest to it ; as, " You are a man who has great power." — ** Yoa, who are a man of great mind, are re- spected." 23. To prevent ambiguity or obscurity, the relative should be placed as near as possible to the antecedent j > ■ 'm ** • 91 M '.:■■'■ '^\ ■ "•"'41 •■•■\;if: .-'■'■• '■•'.■li ■1 •■ rcference both the ;him." s subjects 2t them, connected jartily, to lalth.'' 1 the siu- 1 them iu SYNTAJC.— KULE XI.— AGKE£M£NT OF FINITK VEUB8. 123 the singular number j as, '' Neither tho time nor the cause of the accident t« knotcn.''^ 19. If one of the subjects connected by or or nor is plural, the verb shouhl be plural, and the plural subject should be placed next to the verb j as, '* Neither he nor his brothers «?«re there. ' 20. A verb having two or more subjects ot different persons connected by or or norf agrees in person with the subject nearest to it ; as, ** He or I am to go." 21. When the subjects require different forms of the verb, it is more elegant to express the verb, or its auxili- ary, in connexion with each of them ; as, " Neither were their numbers, nor was their destination known." 22. Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by or or nor, require a singular verb ; as, '* To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, is contemptible perfidy." 23. The speaker should generally mention himself last J as, " Thou or I must go to town," — But, in con- fessing a fault, he may assume the first place ; as, '' /and Edward tore the book." 24. A subject having a plural form, but forming a part of a complex noun, requires a verb in the singular j as, " Plutarch's complete Works has been translated into English." 25. When verbs are connected by a conjunction, they must either agree in mode, tense, and form, or have sep- arate subjects expressed : as, *' If he understands that business, and attends to it, wherein is he deficient ? "-— " She was proud, but she is now humble." 26. The past should not be employed to form the com- pound tenses, nor should the perfect participle be'used for the past. Thus : say, " To have 6ro/fe;i," — not, " To have broke ; " and, " I chose it," — not, *' I chosen it.'* 27. To every verb should be giveu its appropriate ^oim and signification. Thus : say, '• Go and lie down, my : '-A ' ■«« ,•■•.• 'i\ ■m ••-( i^on,"— not, " Go and hy down, my Ron '1 -*'TTo had m ■ ■ ill 4;. ]^' i^ * »* »- V STKTAX.— RULE XI.— EXERCISES. entered into the conspiracy «, " — not, " Ho was cnfcrceZ into the conspiracy ; " — *' I icould rather stay ."—not, ** 1 7t<»^ rather « ; ; a •! 2. — " He was, so to speak, a miracle of learning." *' To speak " is an intrans. v., irreg. (speak, spoke, spoken), in the int. m., pres. tense ; it is used independently, according to Note un- der Rule XII., " The infinitive is also used, etc." Parse all the infinitives in the foregoing exercises ; also, the finite verbs arA subjects. ^^ = ' ", ' , > .- > The ptipils will give from, memory y— three or more sentences on false syntax taken from the above exercises on Rule XII., and two or more from elsewhere, on the same Eule. RULE XIII.— USE OF THE TENSES. In using verbs, different tenses should not be con- founded, nor should any tense be employed except in such connections as are consistent with the time it denotes. m . ♦... h.:} •.!i'\ .V' syntax taken from the above exercises on Rule XIV., and two or more Irom elsevrhere, on the same Rule. 1' • ; .' RULE XV.— ADVERBS. An adverb modifies a verb, a participle, an adjec- tive, or an other adverb ; as, " He acted judicious- ly .V — "He is a truly good man j ^' — He was most kindly tvesited^-, , NOTES. 1. An Adverb sometimes modifies a preposition, an ad- junct, or a phrase; as, ''Just bek)w the surface. " — " Jh- dependently of these circumstances ." — '* Verily I say unto you, they have their reward ." 2. An adverb sometimes relates to a verb understood ; as, "The former has written correctly ; but the latter, ele- gantly " 3. A conjunctive adverb relates to two verbs whicli it modifies, one in one clause, and one in an other ; as, *' And [ the rest will I set in order, lOhen I come." 4. The adverbs yea, yes, nay, no, and amen, are generally used independently ; as, " Will you go ? " " iVo." — *• Has I the hour arrived." "Yes." 5. An adverb is sometimes used as a noitn ; as, " An eternal now does always last." — Cowley. ''From the ex- tjemest upward of thine head."— ^S//nA\9^)tvn'S. fl'l ,• (-1 13a SYNTAX.— RULB XV.— ADVKRBfl. '.if. 6. An adverb is soraetimes usotl iiiflteadof an adjective, to mndify a noun ; as, " Almost a dollar."—" Not qtiite a year." — "Not only a house, but also a farm." — "The a&ore discourse." 7. Adverbs should be placed in that situation which contributes most to the harmony and clearness of the sen- tence, and "which accords b(»at with the usage of the lan- guage ; as, " It not only lias form but life," should be, " It lias not only form but life." 8. An adverb, should not be used as an ac\jective, nor should it ever be employed to denote quality; thus, '• The alone idea," — " The soonest time," — It tastes hitterly,^^-^ should be, " The sole idea, " — " The earliest time, "— " It tastes hiiter:'' 9. Tiie preposition from is sometimes inelegantly used before the adverbs hence, thence, and ^vhence, which, in meaning, imply this preposition ; thus, *' From thence arose U\e misunderstanding," should be, " Thence arose the misunderstanding." i /, So also //'om here, from there, etc., aro incorrectly used for from this place, etc. 10. The adverbs here, there and where, which primarily denote position, may be used in common discourse for hither, thither and whither, after verbs implying motion, but exactness requires the use of the latter adverbs ; as, " Where are you going ? — but more properly, " Whither are you going ? " 11. The adverb how should not be placed before the con- junction that ; nor should as, how, or as how, be used for that : thus, " He said how (or, as hoiv) he would go, " should be, " He said \vas not welcome, " Bhould le, " There was no family in which, etc. " 13. The adverb there is oftcMi usimI for tlio sake of eu- l)hony, without reference io i)}are ; as, '< There is an hour of peaceful rest. " — There came to tlie beacli a poor exile of Erin." When iiaod in this sense, there is called an expletive adverb. 14. ^0, as an adverb, can modify comparatives only; as, '• The task no longer appeared difficult ". Therefore no should never bo used after or to modify a verb under- stood : thus, " Will you go, or no 1 " should be, "Will you go, or (will you) not (go) ? " 15. A negation, in £ugli.>h, admits but one negation word; as, ** I could not wait any longer," — not, " no longer." 16. The repetition uf a negative word or clause, strengtlieus the iH'gation ; as, " We will never, neven', never, Xay ^r a our arms." But two negatives, in the samo clause, destro} the negation, and render the meaning affirmative; as, " ^or did they not perceive their evil plight. That is, they did perceive it. 17. Never is sometimes improperly used for ever ; as, " They might be extirpated, wore they never so many, " should be, " They might be extirpated, were they ever so many ." Exercises. Correct orally the following sentences, and apply the rule or tho note for each correction, • Model 1. — " Velvet feels very smoothly. " Tliis Bentence is incorrect, because anwothly, which is an adverb, isu^dnsan adjective; but, according to Note under Rule XV., *' An adverb should not be used, etc. " Therefore smoothly should be amoothyfind the sentence should be, " Velvet feels very smooth. 2. — " The work will be never completed. " This sentence is incorrect, because the adverb never is not in the most suitable place ; but, according to Note under Rule XV., '' Ad- verbs should be placed in that situation, etc. Therefore the sen- tence should be, " The work will never be completed. " ;.. .,,•,! -ij .•••I 138 SYNTAX.— RULE XVI.— PREPOSITIONS. 3. I 1. The words must be generally separated from the con text. — 2. Give him a soon and decisive answer, shall go there again in a few days. — 4. During his fits of melancholy, he felt that every body was his enemy very often. — 5, From thence arose the misunderstanding. — G. I knew how that they had heard of his misfortunes. — 7. Whether he is in fault or no, I cannot tell. — 8. No body never invented nor discovered nothing in no way to be compared with this. — 9. When we left Ottawa, we in- tended to return there in a few days. — 10. Pleonasm is when a word more is added than is absolutely necessary to express the sense . — II. A barbarism is when a foreign or strange word is made use of. — 12. ** Ye know how that a good while ago God made choice among us, etc." — 13. There is nothing more admirable nor more useful.— 14. Last, remember that in science, as in morals, author- ity cannot make right, what in itself is wrong. Models for Parsing. " We seldom see very old men walking rapidly." i " Very " is an adverb of degree ; it modifies the adj. aid, accord- ing to Rule XV., "An adverb, &c." " Rapidly " is an adverb of manner ; it is compared (pos. rapidly, oomp. more rapidly, sup. most rapidly) ; it is in the positive degree, and modifies tcalking, according to Rule XV., " An advei'b, etc." The pupils toill give from memory ; — three or more sentences on false syntax taken from the above exercises on Kule XV., and two or more from elsewhere, on the same Rule. RULE XVI.— PREPOSITIONS. ,-. A preposition shows the relation between the noun or the pronoun which follows it, and some pre- ceding word ; as, " He came from London to Flor- ence, in the company of two friends, and passed with them through many cities ", SYNTAX.— RTLE XVI. — PBEPOBITtONS. IS9 wa, we in- ^leonasm is — '• •',. . ,,.^x. V NOTES. ■ ■ ■ ■ "^ : — J. The preposition is generally placed before the word •uhich it governs ; as, " He went to town ". 2. The preposition should not be omitted except where usage has sanctioned its omission ; thus, " The subject la worthy of, etc. "— " He fled the country"; — supply from, 'S. That, when used as a relative pronoun, always pre- cedes the preposition by which it is governed ; as, '* Every book that you have referred to, is mine". Here " that " is governed by the preposition " to ", and precedes it. If Ave were to use " wliich " here instead of '* that ", the ar- rangement would be different ; thus, " Every book to which you have referred, is mine." ., 4,, Whotn, which, and ivhat are sometimes placed before the prepositions by which they are governed, — but not elegantly; as, " TF/tom do you come/rom ? " — " WJiat wa,& lie guilty o/?"--bufc better, ''From whom do you comef** — " Of what was ho guilty ? " 5. The preposition and the word governed by it should be placed as near as possible to the preceding word to which they relate; as, " He was reading in a low voice, when I entered." This is better than saying, " He was reading, when I entered, in a low voice. " The words " in a low voice", relate to the act of " reading", and should not unnecessarily be separated from it. 6. It is a very objectionable mode of construction to make the same word govern jointly a transitive verb and a preposition ; as, " He was warned of, and urged to avoid, the danger. " It should be, *■' He was warned of the danger, and urged to avoid it. " 7. The preposition is trequently omitted particularly after verbs of glvinr/, procuring, etc. : as, " Give (to) me a book. "—*' Get (for) me an apple. "— " Like {to) hisfa- ijjcr.'' — '' Near {to) his home.'" — '' They travelled [through) :■'■'*■ Y. .■'■I " > • I 140 SYNTAX.— RULE XVI.— PREPOSITION8. sixty miles {in) a day ".— " A wall {of) six feet high ".— Books worth {of) a dollar ". The prepositions to be supplied in parsing may be hy, for, during, in, through, etc. 8. Care should be taken to employ such prepositions as express clearly and precisely the relations intended ; as, "I have need 0/ your assistance, " not — "y<^r your assis- tance. " 9. The place of the preposition should be such as will clearly show what terms are in relation ; thus, " The two parts are united under the Thames by a tunnel, " should be, " The two parts are united by a tunnel under the Thames. 10. In denoting situation j or meaning mthin, is often improperly used for into, denoting entrance ^ thus, "He came in the room, " should be, " He came into the room." " He came into the room, and remained in it," is correct usage. 11. At and to. At is used after a verb of rest ; as, *' He resides at Montreal." — " To is used after a verb of mo- tion ; as, "He came to Quebec. " » 12. Between or betivixt and amomj or amongst. Between refers to two objects, among to more than two ; as, '* Be- tween virtue and vice there is no middle path. " — " Among so many candidates, but one fulfilled all the conditions'' The proper use of other prepositions must be learned from dic- tioiarieSj.and by observation. Below are given a few words with their appropriate prepositions following : — Access to. Acquaint with. Acquit of. Agieeahlo to. Augry iv.iih a person, ut u tliiiiju'. Arrive at, in, not to. Averse to. Bestow upon. Call on a person, at a house, /or a thing. « Compare wi/A (in respect of qual- ity) ; to (for illustration). Contido. in (intrans.); to (trans.). Co])y after a i)erson :/rom a thing. Correspond with, to. Die of a disease ; hij an insti'u- nj, /or, duringt SYNTAX. — RULE XVI.— EXERCISES. 141 ment, or violence ; for another. Inseparable from. Dift'er until a person in opinion ; Martyr /or a cause ; to a disease. from, in quality. Need of. Difl'erent /row, not /o. Partake o/, tw. Disagree with a perscm ; to a pro- Prefer, preferable, to» posal. Reconcile a person to; a tiling Disappointed 0/ a thing n t ob- xvith. tained ; in a thing obtained. Expert at (before a noun) ; in (before an active participle). Independently of, not on. t ' '1 Ml Rid of, not from. Touch at a place. Unite to (transitive) ; tinth (in transitive). Exercises. . > o : I rst. Between Correct orally the following sentences, and apply the rule or the note for each correction. Model 1. — "■ He was accused for betraying his trust. " This sentence it, "o. correct, because the preposition for does not correctly expresb • I ''Nation intended between its two terfnsi, ac- cused and betrai t> • but, according to Note under Rule XVI., " Care should be taken to use, etc. " Therefore for should be of, and the sentence should be, " He was accused of betraying his trust." 2. — " A bridge connects the two towns across the river. " This sentence is incorrect, because the preposition across is eo placed as to show a relation between the two terms towns and river, whereas the proper terras of relation are bridge and river ; but, ac- cording to Note under Rule XVE., " The place of the preposition, etc. " Therefore the sentence should be, " A bridge across the river connects the two townp." 1. There was no water, and he died for thirst. — 2. They will bless God that he has peopled one half the world with a race of freemen. — 3, Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue, and unfits a man to the. dutie:" of life. — 4. If I oomp.are my penmanship to yours, mine v?ill suffer by the comparison. — 5. This supposition i* very different to tliat.— 6. Their efforts seemed to antic- ipate on the spirit, which became so general afterwards. —7. But how short are my expressions of its excellency ! ■ *.?■' :«' ;>iH •Ml-, -re ■! + '■ '.4: . ■ > 3- :!i: 1 ■Ji V ; .^ ■ 142 SYNTAX.— RULE XVI. — EXERCISE8. — 8. A shallow grave of only two feet deep, was hastily dug. — 9. A despatch has just been received fioiu the seat of war of great importance at the Gazette Office. — iO. The Indian diflPers with the Caucasian in color. — 11. There is a room in the second story suitable for a single gentleman with a fireplace. — 12. He is unacquainted with and cannot speak upon the subject. — 13. Confide to real friends only ; confide nothing in him who has once de- ceived you.— 14. Among a brother and a sister no strife should aiise. — 15. Though he was a child only five years old, he showed grown men an example worthy their imitation. — 16. His actions do not accord to his preach- ing- j we cannot accord our support with him. Models FOR Parsing. •.«^: ..f . 1. — " Tlie bcenes of my boyhood passed before me." " Of" is a preposition ; it is used before the noun ooyhood to show its relation with the noun scenes, according to Kule XVI,, " A pre- position shows the relation, etc." " Before" is a preposition ; it is used before the pronoun ine to show its relation to the verb passed, according to Eule XVI., " A preposition shows, etc." 2. — " Keep to the right as the law directs." " To" is a preposition ; it is used before the noun liand (under- stood) to show its relation with the verb Iceej^, according to Rule XVI., " A preposition shows, etc." Parse the prepositionn, and the nouns or pronouns governed by them in the foregoing exercises ; also, i\iQ participles and the adverhs. The pupils will give from memory ; — three or more sentences on false ■yutax taken from the above exercises on Rule XVI., and two or more from elsewhere, on the same Rule. U syntaX.—rule xvii.— conjunctions. RULE XVII.— CONJUNCTIONS. 143 A conjunction connects the words, the parts of a sentence, or the sentences, between which it is placed ; as, *^ John & James are very obedient". — They fled because they were afraid. " .t,, :>■ *<:»'/! r NOTES. H- 1. Words connected by conjunctions are of the same class (nouns and pronouns being regarded as one class), and are in the same construction^ as, " I shull see him and her. — " John and he are laboring steadily and faithfully ." — " He was condemned and (was) executed." • 2. Verbs connected by one or more conjunctions may have the same subject, if they agree in form, voice, mood, and tense ; as, •' The fort teas attacked and (was) captured." If they differ in form, if a contrast is made, or if strong emphasis is intended, they require a subject mentioned for each ; thus, " He may return, but he will not remain ." — Though he was rich, yet he became poor . " 3. When two terms connected refer jointly to a third, they must be adapted to it and to each other, both in sense and in form j thus, " He has made alterations and additions to the work, " should be, " He has made alter- ations in the work, and additions to it.'''' 4. After else^ other, othertvise, rather, and all compara- tives, the latter term of comparison should be introduced by the conjunction than ; as, " Fables or parables are no other than allegories ." — " I expected more than this ." 5. The disjunctive conjunction lest or but, should not be employed where the copulative that would be n'ore pro- per ; as, " I feared that I should be deserted", not, *' lest I should be deserted. " 6. As should not be used for who, whom, or which, or for that (whether a conjuuctiou or a relative) ; thus, " I know the man who witnessed tlie affair." 7. After the v(3rbs doubt, fear, etc., or their equivalents, whether should not bo used for if; — nor should but, but V-^1 . * Mlf ^f .¥- IM 144 SYNTAX.— RULE XVIt.—lXERCietS. ■tiiW' i liii^ *//a^, or ?tfs/, 1)6 used for that ; thus, " I donbt whether he ■will come to-morrow," should be, " I donbt iff etc. — " They were afraid lest he would be sick," should be, " They were afraid that he would be sick." 8. The words in each of the following pairs, are the pro- per correspondents to each other j and care must be taken, to give them their right place in the sentence. Both— and : as, " I am debtor both to the Greeks and tiie Barbarians. - *. * ' TJiough, although — yet^ still, nevertheless ; as, *' Tliough he were dead, 2/e* shall he live." • ♦ - Whether — or ; as, " He could not decide whether to go or id remain." Either— or) as " He was either ashamed or afraid." IN either — nor ; as, " Neither act nor promise hastily." Not only — hut, hut also ; as, " He was not only prudent^ hilt also industrious." Such — as; as, " An assembly such as earth saw never." Such — that ; as, "My health is such tliat I cannot go." As— as express equality when used with an adjective or an adverb ; as, " The accomplice is as bad as the thief." As — sOy with two verbs, express equality or proportion j as, '•' As he excels in virtue, so he rises in estimation. So— as, with an adjective or an adverb, express a lim- ited comparison ; as, ^^ Be so kind as to come this even- ing. 11 So — as deny equality when used with an adjective or an adverb ; as, " He is not so wise as his brother." So — that, expressing a consequence; as, '* I am so weak that I cannot walk ." ExERCisr . > w Correct orally the following sente' ..es, and apply the rule or tti9 note for each correction, MoDKL 1. — *' Hare yoii no otlu' • proof except this t " 6TNTAX.~RULE XTIt.— EXifiRCiSES. 145 This sentence is incorrect, because except is improperly nsed for than after other; but, according to Note under Rule XVII., " After else, other, etc." Therefore except uhould be than, and the sentence , should be, " Have you no other proof than this." 2. — " I do not deny but he has merit." This sentence is incorrect, because but is employed for the copu- lative that; but, according to Note under Rule XVII., "The disjunc- tive conjunction lest or hut, etc." Therefore hut should be that, and the Heiitence should be, " I do not deny that he has merit." 1. The latest posterity will listen with as much oi ' ,.a greater pleasure than their contemporaries. — 2. 1 doubt if the world ever saw such a fleet before. — 3. I am fearful lest the storm may overtake them. —4. Washington had nothing else at heart but his country's good. — 5. Frank is older but not so large, as Henry. — 6. You cannot bestow or bequeath it to a more deserving person. — 7. Neither youth or innocence availed as a protection. — 8. To pretend friendship and acting differently, is the worst kind of hypocrisy. — 9. He has been in no high position yet commands the respect of all. — 10. It is just so bad to act a lie as to tell one. — 11. The first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the second. — 12. We were apprehensive lest some accident had happened. — 13. It was no other but his own tather. — 14. He would not either do it himself nor let me do it. — 15. No error are so trivial but they deserve correction. — 16, I must be so candid to own that I do not understand it. Models FOR Parsing. 1.—" Frank and Henry are brothers." "And" is a conjunction, and connects the two nouns Henry and Frank, between which it is placed, according to Rule XVII., A conjunction connects, etc." I 2.—-" If ye do these things, ye «hall never fail." " If" is a conjunction, and connects the two parts of the sentence, ye 9hm never fail, and ye do these things, between which it would bo I**}- ' I .1- ^■y•^li / ' ^■^m •v^;r,. >A UG llflSOELLANEOUS BXERCISKS. placed, were the sentence not inverted ; as, ' Ye shall never fall, if ye do these things," — according to Rule XVII. 3. — " Both the time and the occasion were unsuitable." '' Both" is a conjunction corresponding to and. And Ib a con- junctiou wliich connects the two nouns time ard occasion, according to Rule XVII. The pupils will give from memory ; — three or more sentences on fiilse syntax taken from the preaeding exercises on Rule XVII.i and two or more from elsewhere, on the same Rule. RULE XVIII.— INTERJECTIONS. \ '* Au interjection has no grammatical relation to the other words of a sentence ; as, " These were de- lightful days, but, alas ! they are no more ." NOTES. Sometimes interjections Lave the appearance of govern- ing the objective casej as, "Ah we.'" — "Omy."' But such sentences are always elliptical, some verb or prepo- sition being understood; thus, ♦* Ah! (pity) me." — **0 my (fate)!" In parsing an interjection, all that is necessary is to tell what part of speech it is. , - (Mi Miscellaneous Exercises. To be Corrected and Parsed. I. — 1. I am as well as when you was here. — ^2. A man who lacks ceremony, has need for great merit. — 3. All the virtues of mankind are to bo counted upon a few fingers, but his follies and vices are innumerable. — 4. My people doth not consider* — 5. We choose rather lead than follow. — 6. "It is no more but justice," quoth the farmer. — ^7. Let him be whom he may, I shall not stop.-— 8. Wat there no difference, there would be no choice. — 9. A wise man avoid* yi MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 147 to tell what the showing any excellence in trifles. — 10. I saw a person that I took to be she. — 11. This is certainly an useful invention. — 12. Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as admiration. II. — 1. The nation is torn by feuds which tlireaten their ruin. — 2. The number of sufferers have not been a8(!ertained. — '3. This con- struction sounds rather harshly. — 4. Give every syllable and every letter their proper sound. — 5. It is undoubtedly true what I hare heard. — 6. There are one or more of them yet in confinement. — 7. We may add this observation, however. — 8. His conduct was surprising strange. — ^9. We have used every mean in our power continually. — 10. What is the cause of the leaves curling ? — 11. They know scarcely that temperance is a virtue. — 12. Let your promises be such that you can perform. . . -^i III. — 1. I am afraid lest I have labored in vain. — 2. Was it thee, that made the noise ? — 3. Mischief to itself doth back recoil. — 4. Let thy flock clothe upon the naked. — 5. This woman taught my brother and I to read. — 6. It must indeed be confessed that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in them i-obbery or murder. — 7. The king nor the queen were not at all deceived. — 8. I had rather have been informed. — 9. Godliness with contentment are great gain. — 10. We shall sell them in the state they now are. — 11. This came in fashion when I was young. — 12. Every leaf and every twig teem with life. IV. — 1. A man is the noblest work of creation. — 2. Lucy ran in, and told how John stood before the gate. — 3. Cicero was more elo- quent than any Roman. — 4. I wixs rejoiced at tiiis intelligence. — 5. They which despine instruction shall not be wise. — 6. At this stage of advancement, there is little difficulty in the pupil's understanding the passive and neuter verbs. — 7. Where are you all running so fast ? — 8. I intended to have transcribed it. — ^9. I and ray cousin are requested to attend. — 10. This is different from the conscience being made to feel. — 11. I was afraid that I should have lost the parcel. — 12. Shall a character made up of the very worst passions, pass under the name of a gentleman ? V. — 1. We have no more but five loaves and two fishes. — 2.'Thie rule is the best which can be given. — 3. Tell me whether you will do it or no. — 4. Many people never learn to speak correct. — 5. The audience was all very attentive. — 6. Some people are rash, and others timid : those apprehend too much, these too little. — 7. It was not worth while preserving any permanent enmity. — 8. The boy has or. *.•*»■ t."'-i M I4d MiSCELLAKEOUS EXERCISES. If 'J !.| . li^ been detected In stealing, that you thought bo dever. — 9. lie is not ■o sick, but what he cau luugh. — 10. Wiiich of all these patterns is the prettier I — 11. I no sooner saw ray face in it, hut I was startled at the Hhortness of it. — 12. Both thou and thy advisers have mis- taken th»!ir interest. VI. — 1. The tribes whom I visited, are partially civilized. — 2. There is no situation where he would be happy. — 3. These are poor amends for the men and treasures wliich we have h)8t. — 4. Was the master, or many of the scholars, in the room ? — 5. They are men that scorn a mean action, and who will exert themselves to servo you. — 6. His father's and mother's consent was a^ked. — 7. This is a part of my uncle's father's estate. — b. The stoics taught that all crimes were equal. —9. It is the learner only, and he that is in doubt, that this assistance is recommended.— 10. Every one of thes« theories are now exploded. — 11. It was then my purpose to have ▼isited Egypt. — 12. - Wert thou some star, which from the ruin'd roof ! Of shak'd Olympus by mischance didst fall ! — Milton. VII. — 1. He is an old venerable man. — 2. Opportunity to do good is the highest preferment which a noble mind desires.— 3. The year when he died, is not mentioned. — 4, 1 know not who it was who did it. 5. — The house is situated pleasantly. — 6. Words interwove with ■ighs found out their way. — 7. Well for us, if some such other men •hould rise I — 8. Like a father pitieth his chihl«-en, so the Lord pitieth them that fear him (Pa., c, iii.). — 9. Subduing our passions is the noblest of conquests. — 10. A man that is young in years, may be old in hours, if he have lost no time. — 11. The number of our days are with thee.— 12. The chief captain, fearing lest Paul should have been pulled in pieces of them, commanded the soluiers to go down, and to take them by force from among them (Acts, xxiii.). VIII. — 1. I have received a letter from my cousin, she that vvns here last week. — 2. If I can contribute to your and ray country's , Hlory. — 3. Doing, denotes all manner of action , as, to play, to write^ to read, etc. — 4. The order in which the two last words are placed should have been reversed — 5. Is there, then, more than one true religion f — 6. The Almighty cut oflF the family of Heli the high priest, lor its transgressions. — 7. The severity with which this denomination was treated, appeared rather to invite than to deter them from flocking to the colony. — 8. The laws of Lycurgus but substituted lIIfiCELLANEOUt) EZERCISS8. J40 0. Ho is not « patteriiB is was startled B have miti- civilized. — 2. lese ure poor -4. Was the ley are men Ives to serve -7. This is a ight that all le that is in one of thes* )08e to have m. by to do good -3. The year > it was who terwove with ch otlier men so the Lord if passions is ears, may be : of our days should have to go down, ii.). »he that vvns ny country's lay, to write Is are placed lan one true B high priest, lenomination • them from : substituted insensibility to enjoyment.— 9. My brother, I did not put the ques- tion to thee, for that I doubted of the truth of your belief.— 10. There is no one passion wliich all mankind so naturally give into ai pride. — 11. Hain is seldom or over seen at Lima. — 12. The moou ii orderly in her changes, which she could not be by accident. IX. — 1. The young bird raising its open mouth fur food, is a nat- ural indication ol corporeal want. — 2, And there was in the same country shepherds abiding in the field. — 3. His politeness and oblig- ing behavior were changed. — 4. Their vanity is awakened, and their passions exalted, by the irritation which their self-love receive* from contradiction. — 5. Struck with ^^^rror, as if Philip was some- thingmore than human. — 6. Tliere is much of truth in the observation of Ascham. — 7. Such subminion, together with the active principle of obedience, make up the temper and character in us which answers to his sovereignty. — 8. Universal Grammar can not be taught ab- stractedly, it must be done with reference to some language already known. — 9. In syntax, there is what grammarians call concord or agreement, and government.— 10. Prompt aid, and not promiees, are what we ought to give. — 11. Adopting the doctrine which he had been taught. — 12. Every auditory tfike in good part those marks of respect and awe, whicjj are paid them by one who addresses them. X. — 1. The Coptic alphabet was one of the latest formed of any. —2. People find themselves able without much study to write and speak the English intelligibly, and thus have been led to think rules of no utility.— 3. The youth was being consumed by a slow malady. —4. This mode has also been improperly used in the following places. ~5. This library exceeded half a million volumes.— 6. Does a and an mean the same thing ?— 7. If the student reflects, that the principal and the auxiliary forms but one verb, ho will have little or no diffi- culty, in the proper applicatiou of the present rule.— 8. Many evi- dences exist of the proneness of men to vice.— 9. It is strange he never commanded you to have dune it.— 10. History painters would liave found it difficult, to have invented such a species of beings.— 11. There is no neglecting it withcat falling into a dangerous error. —12. To perceive nothing, or not to perceive, is the same. XI. — 1. Propriety of pronunciation is giving to every word that sound, which tlie most polite udage of tlie language appropriates to it. — 2. And we might imagine, that if verbs had been so contrived, as simply to express these, no more was needful. — 3. By neglecting this circumstance, tlie folluwing example is defective in neatness. — ^.■•;^ ill v^-:^ CM n:^ m \\\ ino MISCliLLANF.uUS KXICUCISEB. , M '■ A. The king of Frftiice or EriRland was to bo tlie iimpire.--5. Immod- ernto grief i8| muto : complaining is struggling for consolation.— 0. Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned f<»r its having been so long postponed.—?. In conseqtienco of tlio dry rot's having been discovered, the mansion has und«rgono a tliorough repair.— H. Auxiliaries can not only be inserted, but are really understood.— 9. He may bo said to have saved the life of a citizen ; and, consequent- ly, entitled to the reward.— 10. I doubt much of the propriety of the following examples.— 11. The principle of duty takes naturally place f»f every other.--r2. Poetry admits of greater latitude than prose, with respect to coining, or at least, new compounding words. XII.— 1. The speculative relied no farther jon their own judgment, but to choose a leader, whom they implicitly followed.— 2. And they all turned their backs without almost drawing a sword.— .3. To crowd in a single member of a period different subjects, is still worse than to crowd them into one period.— 4. The men had made inquiry for Simon's house, and stood before the gate.— .5. For wo car not bear his shifting the scene every line.— 6. I could not give him an answer as early as he had desired. — 7. He readily comprehends tlio rules of Syntax, and their use and applicability in the examples before him. — 8. My opinion was given on a rather cursory perusal of the book.— 9. Give no more trouble than you can possibly help.— 10. The chief and fundamental rules of syntax are common to tlio English as well as the Latin tongue. — 11. The art of printing beiiit; then unknown, was a circumstance in some resj)ects favorable to freedom of the pen. — 12. These may be carried on progressively above any assignable limits. XIII.— 1. It thou provest this to be real, thou must be a smart lad, indeed. —2. Groves are never so agreeable as in the opening of the 8pring.-3. He will regret his having neglected opportunities of im- provement when it may be too late.— 4. Another passion which the present age is apt to run into, is to make children learn all things. 5. A Parenthesis is a clause inti oduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the grammat- ical construction. — 6. Especially if the subject require not ho much pomp.— 7. It requires few talents to which most men are not born. 01% at least, may not iu-qnire.— 8. However, the proper mixture of light and .shade, in such compositions; the exact adjustment of all tin- figurative circnmstances with the literal sense ; have ever been MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 151 have ever been coDiidered a» points of great nicety.— 9. Mankind never resemble each other so much as they do in the beginnings of society. — 10. I shall follow the same method here which I have all along piirsned. — 11. Neither of them are arbitrary nor local. — 12. The first thing, says he, which either a writer of fables, or of heroic poems, du«'H, is, to choose sorao maxim or point of morality. XIV. — I. There are a great variety of causes, which disqualify a witness from being received to testify in particular cases. — 2. There is here a fulness and grandeur of expression well suited to the sub- ject. — 3. Its being me needs make no diiferenoe in your determina- tion. — 4. I think it the best book of the kind which I have met with. — 5. Nor was Philip wanting in his endeavors to corrupt D mos- thenes, as he had most of the leading men in Greece. — 6. This is a rule not always observed, even by good writers, as strictly as it ought to be. — 7. And adding to that hissing in our language, which is taken so much notice of by foreigners. — 8. The crowding withal so many objects together, lessens the pleasure. — 9. Lyaander, having brought his army to Ephesus, erected an arsenal for building of gal- lies. — 10. Is this he that I am seeking of, or no 1 — 11. The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded on all sides, wheeled about and halted, with the river on their backs. — 12. James used to compare him to a cut, who always fell upon her legs. XV. — 1. A dispensary is the place where medicines are dispensed. — 2. Is it I or he whom you requested to go ? — 3. Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying of our wants ; and riches, upon enjoying our superfluities. — 4. In this manner, both as to parsing and correcting, all the rules of syntax should be treated, proceeding re- gularly according to their order. — 5. Without making this reflec- tion, he cannot enter into the spirit, nor relish the compof-'tion of the author. — 6. Naming the cases and numbers of a noun L: ^' v r order is called declining it. — 7. I will have learned my grammar before you learn your's. — 8. The chin has an important office to perform ; for upon its activity we either disclose a polite or vuigar pronuncia- tion. — 9. A man will be forgiven, even great eirors, in a foreign language ; but in his own, even the least slips are justly laid hold of, and ridiculed. — 10. They differ from thy saints recorded both in the Old and New Testaments. — 11. This is another use, that, in my opi- nion, contributes rather to make a man learned than wise ; and is neither capable of pleasing the understanding, or imagination. — 12. More rain fajls in the first two summer months, than in the first two i.. '•i»- > / ■ t-.J »■.' ^^■I ^'^ ^ ;\r ' 1 , ■» • ■■'■ i * . - 1 .{•sl ■>%:•; 1*4 : i.- LV <♦ 4* wfT 152 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. winter ones : but it makes a much greater bIiow upon the eartb, in these than in those ; because there is a much slower evaporation. XVI. — 1. I shall do all I can to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure which I have taken. — 2. It is the final pause wliich alone, on many occasions, marks the difference between prose aud verse ; which will be evident from the following arrangement ot a few poetical lines. — 3. Did ever man struggle more earnestly in a cause where both his honor and life are concerned f — 4. He will generally please most, when pleasing is not his sole nor cfdef aim. — 5. In languages which admit but two Genders, all Nouns are either Masculine or Feminine, even though they designate beings which are neither male or female. — 6. Adjectives may always be distinguished by their being the word, or words, made use of to describe the qua- lity, or condition, of whatever is mentioned. — 1. From hence, to such a man, arises naturally a sacred satisfaction and sense of secu- rity, and implicit hope of somewhat further. — 8. The nominative case is usually the agent or doer, and always the subject of the verb — 9. There is an originality, richness, and variety in his (Spencer's) allegorical personages, which almost vies with the splendor of the ancient mythology. — 10. In Pope's terrific maltreatment of the lat- ter simile, it is neither true to mind or eye. — 11. The declining' a word is the giving it different endings. — 13. Thus we see, that kill- ing a man with a sword or a hatchet, are looked upon as no distinct species of action . but if tlie point of the sword first enter the body, it passes for a distinct species, called stabbing, — 13. Accent dignifies the syllable on which it \9. laid, and makes it more distinguished by the ear than the rest. — 14. Figures exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain langnage.-~15. A train of sentences, constructed in the same manner, and with the same number of members, should never be allowed to succeed one another. — 16. The sense admits of no other pause than after the second syllable * sit,' which therefore must be the only pause made in the reading.— 17. The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscriminately. In order to distinguish the one from the other, some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave on the former, aud the acute on the latter. — IS. A note of interrogation Hhould not be employed, in cases where it is oiily said a question has been asked, and where the words are not used as a question. ''The Cyprians asked me why I wept."^ . • ' . . . * ' PUNCTUATION, PUNCTUATION. 153 Punctuat'On is the art of dividing written language by points, or marks, that its meaning may be readily under- stood. The following are the principal points, or marks j the Period [.], the Interrogation [?], tie Exclamation [!], the Colon[:], the Semicolon[;], the Comma[,], the Dash[ — ]., the Marks of Parenthesis [()], and the Brackets[]. THE period; ::}{ The Period is used after every complete declarative and imperative sentence, and every abbreviation} as, " The noblest vengeance is to forgive." — " Begin and end with God." — We write Jos. for Joseph, Dr. for Doctor, P. S. for Postcript, THE INTERROGATION POINT. The Interrogation Point is used after every inter- rogative sentence, member, or clause; also, cfter the interjections eh and hey, implying a question; as, " Is not nature beautiful 1 " — " Nature is beautiful j shall we not, then, enjoy it f '— '' You thought it right, hey H" THE EXLAMATION POINT. The Exclamation Point is used after every exclamatory sentence, member, clause, or phrase; as, "How madly have I talked!" — ** Life is short ; how careful we should be to use it aright !" — " For shame !" The Exclamation point is also used after every inter- jection, except 0, unless it is very closely connected with other words ; as, " Alas ! alas ! I am undone." — ** wretclted state !" — *' Ah me I" - ■ ■ t-i -M '■'i''**' i ".• .' m : :■ tj w T'il • •I •4- "*, i •;* -*:?!^ ■>■■ J54 PUNCTUAtlOlf. Exercise. Insert periods, interrogation and exclamation points, "wherever they are required, in the following sentences : — Do as I command you — Alas wliat hourly dangers rise- Am I safe now lie eagerly asked — Dr Jaa R Bardy has gone to Sorel, Richelieu Co, P Q — Were Mr Xeil and his son Chas at the party — Who spoke — I do not know who spoke — He is well, is he— Microscopes were first used in Germany — How true is the saying, ** Time flies " — The Alps abound in fine scenery j how I would like to visit them — If he go, will you accompany him — f«r I must stay THE COLON, • The Colon is the intermediate point between the Period and the Semicolon. A colon is used I. Between the great divisions of sentences, when minor divisions occur that are separated by semicolons; as, "Princes have courtiers, and merchants have partners; the voluptuous have companions, and the wicked have accomplices : none but the virtuous can have friends." II. Before a quotation or an enumeration of particulars, when referred to by the words thus, these, following, or as follows ; as, '' In his last moments he uttered these words: I fall a saciifice to sloth and luxury." — " Mr. S. rose, and began thus : " Ladies and Gentlemen, etc." III. Before a formal enumeration of particulars ; as, ** Grammar is divided into four parts: Ist, Orthography • 2nd, Etymology, &c." THE SEMICOLON. The Semicolon is used as intermediate between thd Comma and the Colon or Period, A semicolon is placed I. Between the ujembera of compound sentences, un- t»UNCtUATlOl^. 155 tfl, -wTierevei* between tlid iiteuces, un* less tliey are very closely cmrn cted ; ns, " Brutes are gov- erned by instinct j man, by iiis reasoning faculties." Obs. — If the merabera are short and connected by conjunctions, the comma is used in stead of the semicolon ; as, " Man proposes, but God disposes." II. Between the great divisions of sentences, even though closely connected, when divisions occur, separated by the comma; as, " That the world is overrun with vice, can not be denied j but vice, however predominant, has not yet gained unlimited dominion." III. Before an enumeration of particulars, when the nnmes of the objects merely are given, without any for- mal introductory words ; as, " There are three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. " IV. Before as, when it is followed by an illustration j as in the above paragraphs Exercise. Insert periods, interrogation and exclamation points, colons, and eemioolous, wlievever they are required. If I liave laid down my premises correctly if I have reavSoned clearly if I have proved my assertions how can you withhold your assent — That often means in order that as, " Live virtuously, that you may die happy "— I admire you, my friend — I love you — but you must not expect me to make this sacrifice — One thread does not make a rope one swallow does not make summer — He arose and said Mr Chairman, I propose, etc. — Can these words add vigor to your hearts — Yes they can do it — they have often done it — Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her operations that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve that knowledge will always be progressive and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries — The grant was absolute and exclu- sive it conceded the land and island* the rivers and the harbors the mines and the fisheries*— The works of Rev Wm J CunaU; DD, with an introduction. ■^:"! '''■■'% ''Mi ,.',•>,. f "••-'. .- >- 'ii m It -'i .1 V' ii.'s 150 PDNCTUATIOl^. THE COMMA. ■■ ■; '*■ .•;* ,' •'"I' The Comma indicates the least degree of separation de- noted by any point. The comma is used I. Between short members of compound sentences, con- nected by conjunctions j as, " There mountains rise, and circling oceans flow. " — " Beauty dazzles, but amiability charms. " II. Between clauses, phrases, adjuncts, and words, not essential to the meaning of a sente^ice, when introduced between a subject and its verb, or other parts that are closely connected ; as, '* Rome, which then ruled the world, was opposed to the measure ." — " We may, generalhj spedkingy depend upon this rule. " — " Thomas, hij the way, would like to hear from you. " — " France, meanwhile, was arming for tli4> struggle. " III. After or before clauses, phrases, adjuncts, and sin- gle words, standing, as the case may be, at the commeu- cemert or end of a sentence ; as, '' Of all vices, impurity is one of the most detestable. " — '* I dislike all misery, voluntary or involuntary.'''' Obs. — Restrictive adjuncts or clauses must not be set off with the comma ; as, " All must pay the debt of nature. " — " The men who persevere, are the men who succeed. " IV. To separate similar parts of speech, or similar ex- pressions constituting a series ; as, *' Sunshine, cloud, and storm, — all are sent for some wise purpose. " — " The good will form hereafter stronger, purer, liolier ties. " V. To separate from its predicate, a roniplex subject consisting of several parts which require commas between them, or one ending witli a verb ; as, '' Love for study, a desire to do right, and carefulness in the choice of friends, are important traits of character." — •' What ever breathes, lives. " VI. After each pair of words or phrases taken in pairs j PUNCTUITIOH. 157 1 111 pairs J as, " Anarchy and confusion, povertj and distress, deso- lation and ruin, are the consequences of civil war. " VII. Before or introducing an equivalent, or a clause defining the writer's meaning j as, " Spelter, or zinc, comes chiefly from Germany. " VJII. To take the place of a verb previously used or a conjunction omitted, for the sake of avoiding repetition j as, '' Beading makes a full man ; conference, a ready man ; and writing, an exact man. " — '* Tin is found in England, Bohemia, Saxony, Malacca, and Banca. " IX. To separate words or clauses denoting comparison, opposition of meaning, or contrast; as, "Return a kind- ness, not an injury". — " Brief, but decisive, was the struggle. " — " As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee." — Pa. X. To separate an oppositional phrase from the word or the words which it modifies; as, "Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, was defeated by Octavius." XI. To set off with their adjuncts, if they have any, words repeated for the sake of emphasis ; as, " Truth, truth, and nothiug but truth, will satisfy the candid inquirer." XII. To set off independent or absolute words or phrases; as, ^'Friend John, what is wanted'" — '* To say the least, it was unfair." — " And now, «r, what is your conclusion?" XIII. Before a short quotation, or a sentence resembling a quotation ; as, " It hurts a man's pride to say, ' I do not know.'" ^ .^v-^ ^ . - • XIV. To set off whatever clause, phrase, or word that would occasion ambiguity, if not set off by a comma; as, " I have seen brave sons, and daughters.''^ Exercise. ,< Insert periorls, interrogation and exclamation points, oolonf, fiemioolonB, and commas, where tliey are recjuired, .; F ir: • ^ ^ . ' 'j ■' * ■ ■ •• » ■': ■> .■.<', '•■,->»■ ^£^ l^v Itt FUKCTUATION. .' I*'"* ' ■■■''»•:' .:^-^ • :*;'.>> MA He who preserves me to whom I owe my being whose I am and whom I serve is eternal — In general the best men are the happiest — The clergy as it has been before remarked were the most intelligent portion of the popnla- tion — An aged venerable man — The authority of Plato and Aristotle of Zeno and Epicurus still reigned in the schools — The word Poet meaning a maker a creator is derived from the Greek — The greatest of poets among the ancients Homer like one of the greatest among the moderns Milton was blind — Show pity Lord — Lord forgive — A good rule in education is learn to be slow in forming your opinions — Crafty men though they may pretend otherwise contemn studies simple men though tJiey really care nothing about the matter yet pretend to admire them wise men use them — Sullivan commanded on the right flank Greene on the left — As a companion he was severe and satirical as a friend captious and danger- ous in his domestic sphere harsh jealous and irascible — The play writers where are they — and the poets are their fires extinguished — Here and here only lies the democrat- ic character of the revolution— let me listen to the words of life — Hail holy light offspring of heaven first- born — To foster industry to promote union to cherish religious peace these were the honest purposes of Lord Baltimore during his long supremacy — The following is a dialogue between Socrates the great Athenian philosopher and one Glaucon a private man — The truest mode of enlarging our benevolence is not to quicken our sensibility towards great masses or wide-spread evils but to approach comprehend sympathize with and act upon a continually increasing number of individuals. THE DASH. The dash is used. I. To denote that a sentence is unfinished from hesita- tion in the speaker or writer, or some sudden interruption; as, " Pardon me for wounding your feelings^ but-^" PDNCT0ATIOK. IS» II. To denote a break in the construction j as, " Glory —what is it ?" III. To denote a transition in the sentiment from grave to humorous ; as, ^' He had a manly bearing and — an ex-. ceedingly rod nose. " IV. To denote hesitation ; as, " Such a man is a — a — I ki]ow not what to call him. " V. To set off words and clauses used parenthetically , as, '• I have seen thousands — or, more properly, tens of thousands — feeding together on the rich grass of the prairies. " VI. To separate question and answer, when run into a paragraph ; as, " Who made you ?— God. What else did God make ? — God made all things. " VII. To mark the omiseions of letters or figures ; as, — " General W — defeated Napoleon at Waterloo." *' In the year 18 — , I stopped over night at the village of R.— " VIII. After as and thus, when the example following them begirs a new line. For example, see the preceding Rule. -'hi ♦ , THE PARENTHESIS. Marks of Parenthesis, or Curves, are used to inclose words which have little or no connection wdth the rest of the sentence j as, " The alligator ( so the American croccdile is called ) abounds in the bayous of Louisiana." Obs. — ^The parenthesis is now employed less frequently than formerly ; commas or dashes being used to supply its place ; as, " The colonists — such is human nature — desired to burn the town in which they had been so wretched." V THE BRACKETS. The Brackets, or Crotchets, generally enclose some correction or explanation, or the subject to be explained ; as, " Few good men [the author might have said none at all] can escape calumny." pi V'M !:■ *^^' 1 ■ 'i '■'X ••, V J^- 160 PUNCTUATION, ]^v£RCiSB. Insert colons, nemicolons, oominas, dashes, parenthesis, and brackets, wherever they are required. Tl\e boy oh ! where was lie 1 Honor 'tis an empty bubble. The disposition of our most eminent and most virtuous men alas! that it should be so to keep aloof from public affairs is a serious fact. Putting off the courtier he the king now puts on the philosopher. Revere thyself and yet thyself despise. The finder Henry has been rewarded. To be overlooked and misunderstood to be envied and persecuted such is too often the fate of genius. While the Christian desires the approbation of his fellow-men and why should he not desire it? he disdains to receive their good-willby dishonprable means. If we exercise right principles and we cannot have them unless we exercise them they must be perpetually on the increase. Are you still I fear you are far from being com- fortably settled ? The Egyptian style of architecture see Dr. P. not his discourses but his prints was apparently the mother of the Greek. **Know then this truth enough for man to know Virtue alone is happiness below." — Pope. OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITTEN AND PRINTED MATTER. The Apostrophe (') is used to denote either the pos* sessive case of nouus, or the elision of one or more letters of a word ; as, John's, hero's, men's, heroes'. — O'&r for over, donH for do not, tho'' for though. The Quo' ation Marks ('^ ") are used to enclose a pas- sage quoted from a writer or speaker in his own words. Ex. : Socrates said, " I believe the soul to be immortal. " A quotation within another quotation is marked with the single marks. Ex. : It has been well said, " The com- mand, * Thou shalt not kill,' forbids many crimes besides that of murder. " The Hyphen (-) is used after a part of a word, at th« PUNCTUATION. t6t •♦.. nthesis, and end of a line, to show that the remainder is at the bcgin- niug of the next line j and to connect the simple parts of acompound word j as, ill-natured, father-in-law. The Dicsresis (") is placed over tlie latter of two vowels to denote that they are separated ; as, aei ialy cooperate. The Ced Ua is a mark placed under the letter o (5), to show that it has the sound of s ; as, facade. Exercise. \>, ,. : V SD MATTER Qroe8\ — O'er Insert apostrophes, quotation marks, hyphen!), diooresi^, and oe^ dillas, wherever they are required. I was not only a shipboy on the high and giddy mast, but also in the cabin where every menial office fell to my lot. Een tho the heavens should fall, 111 have no fear. As we approached the citys gates on that never to be for- gotten day, my companions courage forsook him. Id not give a hapenny for such an ill tempered cur. The oft quoted passage, God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb, is taken from Sternes Sentimental Journey. A gem, say* a Chinese proverb, is not polished without rubbing j nor is a ir n perfected without trials. This is an all absorb- ing affair. In my first parliament, said James, I was a novice. Tired natures sweet restorer, as Young poetical- ly styles sleep, is oerpowering me. A good rule in edu- cation is learn to be slow in fo/ming your opinions. [For additional exercises iu punctuation, the teacher may write on a blackboard some portion of a well-pointed book, omitting all the points ; and then require the pupil to transcribe and punctuate it. When this is done, the several copies may be compared and corrected.The teacher may also read one or more paragraphs aloud, and require the pupils to write and punctuate what is read, without seeing the printed copy. Exercises of this description should bo repeated till the pupils become familiar with all the common priu- cipies (»f punctuation.] • "f I -4 •>',•' "-• « r -■ :• -.1 i,.». 1G2 LITESJLRY PRSCKPTI. APPENDIX. .t as ezpres- appropriate. words; as, imand, saidf ds as exact considered me meaning LiTERARr PKECBPnU 163 as discover, invent. We discover what existed before, but was uuknowu -, we invent what is new. In the following sentences, '^ Cartier invented Cumula." " Bacon discovered gunpowder," precision is violated. The words discovered and invented are uiwused, and the sentences should be, ''Carter discovered Canada; " Bacon tnvcnfddgnnpowder." II. By substituting for the proper word, another word formed from the same primitive, but which ought to be differently applied j as, conscience for consciousness, >hser- vationfoT observance. In such a sentence as this, " The far- mers of Ontario pay great attention to the culture of corn." there is a violation of precision in the use of eulture for cultivation ; the sentence should read, " The farmers of Ontario pay great attention to the cultivation of corn.*' III.— CLEARNESS. 7. Clearness consists in such a use and arrangement of words that the meaning cannot be mistaken. 8. The opposite of clearness is obscurity , 9. The most frequent causes of obscurity are the use of ambiguous or equivocal words, and the improper arrange- ment of words or clauses, 10. To promote clearness ; — I. Avoid ambiguous expressions. Example : " The re- proof of the erring is a duty. " In this sentence, the use of the word reproof makes the sentence ambiguous, the* meaning might be, that it is the duty of the erring to re- prove others. To be correct, it should be, " To reprove the erring is a duty. " 11. Do not make the same pronoun refer to different objects in the same sentence. Example : Loais promised hie father that he would never forget Us advice. This sentence is incorrect, because the first his refers to Louis, while the second refers to father. To be correct, it should read : Louis promised his father, " I wUl never forget your advice," *'!■ i.-. * *'',.«. /-^ii' '■ ■ - i 'A ' -^^^^^K ' • ■ -i • i-" * '_. _ • 164 I.ITliRART PRECEPTS. in. lusort words tbiit are wanting, when they cannot readily be supplied by the mind. Ex. •' Th«'y lovo wlio flattor tliom. " Tills Bwntonce in incorrect Ih'ciuisu tUo word that is omitted cannot readily be suppliod by tho mind, and we must thorofore insert it and road, " They love thou who flatter them. " 11. Words and cluusos inudt be placed as near as possi- ble to the words to whicli tliej'^ relate. 12. The words that are most frequently misplaced are adverbs j particularly only, and not only. By their being misplaced, they are made to modify a different word from the one intended, and the whole meaning of the sentence is changed. Ex. " By greatness, I do not only mean the bnlk of any single ob- ject, but the largeness of a whole view. " Here, only is so placed as to modify mmn, and might raise the question, What else does he intend to do If In like manner, if the adverb is placed after bulk, the qiiestion might be asked, If it is the bulk only that you ure speaking about 1 The proper order is, " By greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object only, but the largeness of a wliolo view. " 13. A relative clause should be placed immediately after its antecedent. . Ex. " It is my friend's son, whom I love so well." Change/ncMd'i to of my friend, and place sow before it ; thus, " It is the son of my . friend, whom I love so well." We thus bring the relative clause iujuicdiately after the antecedent, /riend. IV.— PROPRIETY. • ,, 14. Propriety of language or diction is the selection of sucli words as the best usage has appropriated to the ideas intended to be expressed. 15. To insure propriety, we must be careful to avoid low and vulgar exjtressions ; such as " They are in a bad fiXj " •'' As the noise disturbed me, I told him to hold his tongue " ; for " They are in difficulties,'^ " As the noiae disturbed me, I told him to he (luict. " tlTERART PRECEPTS. 105 leai' as possi- led lately after To attaia propriety of diction, the chief means are a frequent us© oi the Dictionary, and a constant observation of the way in which words arc used in good authors. v.— STRENGTH. Ifi. Strength consists iu such a use and arrangement of tlie several words and members of a sentence, as sliall bring out the sense to the best advantage, and give every word and every member its due weight and force. 17. To secure for a sentence its fall strength, several suhoidinate rules are to be observed. I. A sentence is made stronger by leaving out redundant words and members. Ex. ♦' The least tliat is said on the subject, the soonest it will be mended. " This sentence expresses the idea clearly enough, but not with half the force of the usual expression,'' Least said, soonest mended. " II. The strength of a sentence may often be increased by care in the use of the words employed to mark connection or transition. These are chiefly the relative pronouns, tlie conjunctions,^ and the prepositions. " These little words, but, and, which, whose, where, etc., are frequently the most important of any ; they are the joints or hinges upon which all sentences turn, and of course, much, both of the ^lucefulness and strength of sentences, must depend upon such par- ticles. "—Blair. III. The strength of a sentence is promoted by due care in bringing it to a conclusion. Avoid ending a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word, or phrase which may either be omitted or be introduced earlier. For instance, it in better to say, " Formerly bul'U thmgs were not allowed ; " " Avarice is a vice of which wise men are often guilty ", than to say, " Such things were not allow- ed /orwier?]/ ; " " Avarice is a vice which wise men are often guilty IV. When tiling^ ai'6 to be compared Or doiltrasted, . 'VJ ■-i\ ■ f ■ W'^ I -.■■ 1- ," rit' :1 It I r,*>;j • ■): )06 tlTERARY l*RECBHfl. their refiemblance or apposition will be rendered more striking, if pome resemblance in the language and con- strnction, be preserved. Ex. Tlte laughers will be for those who have most wit; iJie seriout part of mankind for t' ose who have most reason on their side ". Correct thus : " The laughers will be for tliose who have most wit ; the seriouSf for those who have most reason on their side. *' V. A weaker assertion or proposition should not follow a stronger; and wlien le sentence consists of two mem- bers, the longer should be the concluding one. Ex. " The power of man, his greatiH?88, his glory, depend on es- Retitial qualities." — " A word from his lips, a thought from his brain, might turn their hearts, might influence their passions, might change their opinions, might affect their destiny." — " When our passions have Srsaken us, we flatter ourselves with the belief that we liavfl fors iken them. " VI.— HARMONY. 18. The harmony of a sentence consists in that smooth and easy flow which pleases the ear. 19. The words, for the most part inharmenious are : Ist, Such as are derived from long compound words ; as mi- 8U< cesaf Illness, wrongheadness. 2nd, Such as contain a great number of consonants ; as, chroniclers, pJithisic* 3rd, Such as are composed of a number of phort syllables, with the accent on or near the first ; as, j?n'mrtr////, lowlily. 20. A succession of words of the same lengtli is inhar- monious ; thus, " No kind of joy can long please us, " is by no means as harmonious as, *' No species of joy can long delight us." 21. A succession of words that resemble each oth«r in the sound of any of their syllables, should be avoided; thus, ** A fair fairy," " a mild child," are less harmonious than, "J. handsome /rt/r?/," "a gentle childy Finally, the best guide for the general arrangcmeut of words and clauses, is the ear. !}■• that smootli tltERARY I*RECEPTa. SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE. 167 22. The Special Properties of Style may be considered under the following heads: Suhlimitif, Beauty f Wit, and Humor, l.~SUBLIMITY. 23. The term Sublimity is the quality applied to great and noble objects which produce a sort of internal eleva- tion and expansion. For instance, the highest commen- dation that can be given to any piece of composition, is to say that it is sublime. 24. The several qualities and circumstances which produce a feeling of the sublime are, vastness, power, awfulness, obscurity, loudness of sound, moral greatness. Vasiness. — Wide-extended plains, to which the eye discerns no limit; the firmament of heaven ; tlie boundless expanse of ocean, furnish us with familar examples of sublimity. Poiver. — Earthquakes, thunder and lightning, volcanoes, cata- racts', storms at sea, and nearly all unusual and violent commotions of the elements, give an impression of power that awakens a feeling of the sublime. Axi'f Illness. — Darkness, solitude, and silence, which have a ten- dency to fill the njind with awe, contribute nuicli to sublimity. Tiie scenes of external nature which awaken this feeling are not the gay landscape, the flowery mead<>w, or the busy and flourishing city ; but tlie hoary mountain, the solitary lake, the aged forest, or the deserted ruin. Ohncurity. — Tlie mysterious power attributed to ghosts, joined to t'ae awful obscurity attending their appearance, has always given them a stnmg hold upon the imagination. A good illustration of this is found in tlie book of Job, (4-13-17). Loudness of sound. — It is the deep bass of the ocean, the roar of the cataract and of the storm, of thunder and earthquake, the shout- ing of a multitude, or the bursting of cannon, not the shriek of the locomotive, that awakens a feeling of sublimity. Moral greatness. — When the pilot was afraid to put out to sea with Ceesar in .in o;n'n boat in time of storm, Ctfidur said, " Wiiy do you fear f " " You carry Caesar. " •.,«|B * ' ■ I i-i Al 1C8 LITERARY PRECEPTS. I'i-!. E:l.* i 25. The sublime in writing or discourse consists in the" Suhlimitij 6/ Subject, a Vivid Oonception of the Strong Points, the Suppression of JBelittling Details, and the Simplicity and Conciseness of Expression. SuhUmity of Suhjeci. — The first requisite, iii order that a piece of composition shall be sublirao, is that the subject of discourse sliall itself be sublime. A Vivid Conception of the Strong Points. — Napoleon in Egypt, wishing to inspire his army with enthusiasm for the battle, pointed to the Pyramids, and said : " Thirty centuries are looking down upon you ! " No one who was not himself of heroic mould would have thus conceived or spoken of tliose hoary monuments of antiquity. Stqjpj'emon of Belittling Details. — In Milton's battle of tlie an- gels, describing them as tearing up the mountains and throwing them at one another, there are many details which are belittling : From their foundations, loos'ning to and fro, They plucked the seated hills, with all their load, Rocks, waters, woods ; and by the sliaggy tops, Uplifting, bore them in their hands. Here no circumstance is mentioned which is not sublime. Simplicity and Conciseness of Expression. — This is one of the most important essentials of sublimity in writing. The greatest thoughts must be presented in the fewest words. " I love God and little children", says a German philosopher. In what more elevated terms could he have expressed his love for sinlessnesa and innocence. Most of the sayings and miracles of our Lord, as recorded in the Gospels, are expressed with the utmost simplicity and plainness, and yet they are in the highest degree sublime. For example, In describing the greatest of all his miracles, tlie record is simply, " Jesus said, Lazarus, come foi'th • and he that was dead came forth. " And to tiie leprous man, " Be thou clean : and immediately his leprosy was cleansed. " 11— BEAUTY. > , , t SG. Beauty, nest to Sublimity, affords the highest pleasure to the taste. The emotion it awakens is easily (listinguisliablc from that of sublimity. It is of a calmer kind ; more gentle and soothing,-; does not elevate the LlTlBEAUr PRRCEPT8. 169 mind bo mucli, but, on the contrary, produces an agreea- ble serenity. 27. The qualities which produce in us the emotion of beauty, in general, may be reduced under the following heads -.—Color, Figure, Motion, Complex Beauty^ Beauty of Countenance^ Moral Beauty. Color. — Color is one of the nhief elements of beauty. The struct- ure of the eye is such as to receive more pleasure from certain col- ors than others. The various traits that characteiize the beautiful colors which nature everywhere employs to render her works attractive, will be recognized in the blending shades or tints with which she painti the pJumage of the birds, the leaves of plants and flowers, the varied hues of the morning and evening sky, the wondrous shells of the ocean, the still more wondrous gems from tlm mine. In some cases, the pleasure derived from color is influenced by the association of ideas. Green, for instance, is more pleasing, because associated with rural scenes ; blue, with the serenity of the sky ; white, with innocence. Figure. — Regular figures, or such as we perceive to be formed according to fixed principles, are, as a general rule, beautiful. Such is the character of circles, squares, triangles, and ellipses. Motion. — Motion is a source of benuty. By this is meant that bodies in motion are for tliat reason more agreeable than bodies at rest. The first requisite to the agreeablenes«i of any motion is i\ii',t irS ihould be gentle. A bird gliding through the air is beaut :;1 tho lightning, on the contrary, darting from side to side of ^< > iieavenF> or a mighty river chafing against its banks, partakes rather of su- blimity. Complex Beauty. — Though color, figiire, and motion are Sbparate principles of beauty, yet in many beautiful objects they all meet, and thereby render the beauty both greater and more complex. Thus, in flowers, trees, and animals, we are entertained at once with the delicacy of the color, with the gracefulness of the figure, and sometimes also with to motion of the object. Different sensa- tions are produced by each of these c^ualitiea ; yet they blend in one {general perception of beauty. Beauty of Countenance.— T\m boauty of the human countenance 170 LITERARY PRECEPTS. m ■ » k.'-'- *!f ii more complex than any tliat we have yet considered. It mcludei the beauty of color, arising from the delicate shades of the complex- ion ; and the beauty of figure, arising from the lines which form the different features of the face. But the chief beauty of the counte- nance depends upon a mysterious expression which it conveys of the qualities of the mind; of good sense or good humor ;.of sprightlinesi, candor, benevolence, sensibility, or other amiable dispositions. What gives the human countenance its most distinguishing beauty is what is called its expression. Moral Beauty. — There are two great classes of mora,l qualities. One class characterizes the high and great virtues, among whitli, heroism, magnanimity, contempt of pleasures, and contempt of death. The other class belongs to the gentler virtues, among which, com- passion, mildness, friendship, and generosity. 28. The requisites to Beauty in composition are Beauty of Subject, Beauty of Expression, and Conciseness not Necessary. Beauty of Subject means that the subject of discourse, to be beau- tiful, must present to the mind beautiful subjects for thought. There is a difference between the beautiful and the sdent'fic. In scientific inquiry, our object is to obtain the exact facts, whether agreeable or disagreeable. But, in attempting to write what is beautiful, our object is to please. Beauty of Expression means that the subject be handled in an agreeable manner. It excludes low and vulgar expressions, slang phrases,and words which are harsh-sounding or difficult of utterance, when there are others more euphonious and equally expressive. It makes much use of simile, metaphor, and ol^er rhetorical figures, and pays great attention to the structure of sentences, so as to make them flowing and harmonious. Conciseness not Necessary means that Beauty, as an attribute cC ntyle, does not require the same degree of conciseness that sublimity does. A certain degree of diffuseuess is entirely compatible with that ease and grace of expression which is characteristic of beauty. III.-WIT. 29. Wit is that qualit}' of thoughts and expressious which excites in the mind an agreeable surprise, not by LITERARY FRECEfTS. 171 means of auy thiug marvellous in the subject, but merely by employing a peculiar imagery, or presenting in a novel and singular relation ideas remotely connected. Example. — Louis XIV., being molested by the sollicitatioiis of a certain general officer, cried out, loud enough to be overheard, " That gentleman is tlie most troublesome officer in the whole ar- my. '■ ** Your Majesty's enemies more than once have said the Slime thing, " was the witty reply. Here, that the man should assent to the royal invective, and that he should sliow it to be erroneous, are two distinct and apparently contradictory ideas. Yet the two ideas are expressed in such terms, that a relation between them is Been to exist, and the unexpected discovery of this relation consti- tutes the wit. '50. Whou witticism plays upon words, it is called a pun. Example, — '' You are a member of Parliament, and one of the majority which has doomed my country to distraction. You have begun to burn our towns and murder our people. Look upon your huiids ! They are stained with the blood of your relations ! You and I were long friends. You are now my enemy, and I am Yours y B. Fhaxklin. " Another Example, — " Beneath tliis stone my wife doth lie. She's now at rest, and so am I. " IV.-IICMOR. 31. Humor is, in many respects, like wit. Its object is to excite laughter, and it appeals accordingly to our senpe of the ridiculous. '^2. The subject of hnraor is character: not everything in character ; not its graver faults or vices ; but its peculiarities, itsfoibbs, caprices, exrravMganc«s, anxieties, jealousies, childish fondnesses, and weakiusses generally, — its alfettati(>Uj vanity, and selt-conceit. One wIki jjossef^scs a talent for the humorous finds the greatest scope for its tliography, Figures of Etymology, Figure, of Syntax, an(i Figures of Rhetoric. Wuen figures ai*e judiciously employed, they bo'ii strengthen and adrsnexpi'cssion. FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. ^J. •1 , n ■• J- A Figure of Orthography is an intentional devia- tion from the ordinary spelling of worus. 4. The fig. ires of orthography are two; — Mimesis and Archaism. 5. Mimesis is an imitation of some mistake or mis- pronunciation of a word, in which the error is mimicked by a false spelling ; '* Maister , " says he, " have you any tverij good %ceal m your ivdllet ! " t>. Archaism is the spelling of a word according to ancient usjv^e j as, " In my tyn)e my poore father was as diligent lo tench me to shote as to learne anye other thynge, and so I thyuke otlier menue did thyr children." FIGUKF.S OF ETYMOLOGY. 7. A Figure cf Etymology is an intentional deviation from tlie ordinary forui of words. 8. Tlie principal fignrcs of etymology are eight in number; — Aplicoresis, Prosthesis, Syncope, Apocope, Parugoge, Diccresis, Syuoeresis, and Tmesis. p. Aphce.esi^ is the elision of ^ letter or letters ffon) IITEBART PRECBPra. 173 nal deriation : letters from the beginning of a word; as, Against for against; ^neath, for bencalh. 10. P. osthesis is tlie prefixing of one or more letters to a word ; as, &down, for doivn ; beloved, for loved. J I . Syncope is the elision of one or more letters from the middle of a word; as, e'er for ever; ling'ring, for lingering. VI. Apocope is the elision of one or more letters from the end of a wordj as, tho\ for though ; tW for the } yon, for yonder. 13. Paragoge is the addition of one or more letters to the end of % word j as, vasty, for vast j awaken, for awalcc ; ftoMntZen, for hound. 14. Dioeres s is the separation of two vowels standing together, so as to connect them with different syllables; as, aeronaut, not aeronaut ; cooperate, not cooperate. 15. SynoBresis is the contraction of two syllables into one ; as, taWst, for talJcest ; thouWt, for thou art. 16. Tmesis is the separation of a compound word into two parts, by introducing another word or words between them J as, "Thy thoughts which are to us ward,'''' for, " Thy thoughts which are toward us j " — *^Row highsoever," for " Howsoever high." FIGURES OF SYNTAX. "^7. A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from the ordinary construction of words. 18. The principal figures of syntax are five in number; —Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Syllepsis, Enallage, and Hyperbaton. 19. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more w^ords neces- sary to complete the grammatical construction of a sen- tence, but not essential to its meaning ; as, " Bring {to) me the newspaper ; " — " I knew {that) he would not come." Ellipsis applies to all the pai'ts of speech, to phrases, and to clauses. 20. "Pleonasm is the use of more words than are m tlTERARV PRECEPTS. II I i «■'•■ ■r •• . • ' necessary to express an itiea ; as, ** What we Lave seen with our eyes, and heard with our ears." Ploonasm is often used to emphasize, to complete a line of poetry, or to round a sentence. The improper use of it, liowever, weakens the force of expression, and is a great blemish. 21. Syllepsis is the constrning of words according to the meaning they convey, and not by the Strict require- ments of grammatical rules ; as, *' He carried away captive the whole village, regardless of their suppliea- tions j" " the whole village," meauing all the inhabitants, is represented by their and not by its. 22. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another j as, *' Tbey tall successivcOy), and succc8sive{\j) rise." — Pope. ^' Sure some disaster has befell " (betiillen). — Gay. 23. Hjrperbaton, or Inversion, is tlie transposition of words; as, *' All price beyond," for ''Bejoudall price." FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 24. A Figure of Ehetoric is an intentional deviation from the ordinary application of words, or mode of ex- pression. 25. The principal figures of rhetoric are the following: — Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Antithesis, Hyperbole, I- rony, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Personification, Apostrophe, Interrogation, Exclamation, Vision, and Climax. Some of these figiu'es, namely, those wliich apply to words only are called tropes (from a Greek word meaning a iurn), because the word is turned from its usual application. 26. A Simile is a direct comparison, commonly shown by the nse of as, as — so, or like ; as, " Thy smile is as the dawn of the vernal day." — "He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water." — *' As cold water to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far country. 27. A Metaphor is a figure founded upon the resem- blance which one object bears to another. Hence it is nearly allied to Simile. A metaphor is. indeed, a sort of LITERARY PRKCEPTB. 175 ) have seen ete a Jine of f it, liowever, h. iccoi'ding to rict reqnire- irried away eir ftupplica- n1tahiiants,\6 for another j i;e(ly) rise." illeu). — Gay. isposition of id all price." lal deviation mode of ex- le following: lyperhole, I- , Apostrophe, iiax. r to words only •n), because tlie lily sliovsn hy lile is as the I tree planted • to a thirsty Q the leseni- Hence it is ed, a sort of abridged simile j as, The Lord ia ray roclCf and my for- tress. " — ** Nature was tohim a closed hooJc. " A simile is converted into a metaphor by the omission of the term of comparison ; on the other hand, a metaphor may become a sim- ile by the use of like, etc. 28. An Allegory is a succession of metaphors, or of sen- tences containing metaphorical language, the whole form- ing a narration of imaginary events, designed to repre- sent and illustrate important realities. Thus the Psal- mist represents the Jewish nation under the symbol of a vineyard : — *'Thou hast brought a vineyard out of Egypt: Thou hast cast out the gentiles, and planted it. Thou didst prepare the way for it : Thou plantedst the roots thereof, and it filled the land. The shadow of it covered the hills : and the branches thereof the cedars of God." Fables and parables are short allegories. 20. An Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition, to heighten their effect by contrast ; as, *' The prodigal robs his heir, the miser robs himself." — ^' The lyicfcedflee, when no man j>ursaeth, but the righteous are bold as a lion." 30. An Hyperbole is an exaggeration in the use of language, representing objects as greater or less, better or worse, than they really are j as, '' It is whiter tlian snow.'''' — Tliey (Saul and Jonathan) were swifter than eagles ; they were stronger than lions.''^ •31. Irony is a mode of speech expressing a sense con- trary to that which the speaker or writer intends to con- vey. The prophet Elias employed this figure when he said to the priests of Baal. " Cry with a louder voice : for he is a god, and perhaps 1)€ is talking, or is in an inn, or on a journey, or perhaps he is asleep, and must be awaked." o2. Metonymy means a change of name. This is a figure in which the name of one object is put for some other object, the two being so related that the mention a. 176 LITERARY PRKCEPtB. r^ m i4-.* M of one naturally fiuggests the other. Thus, when it Is said, *' The drunkard loves his bottle,''^ we know that it is not the bottle, but what it contains, that the drunkard loves. The bottle is put for the liquor, the contaiuei' for the thing contained, and this change of name is a Metony- my. Metonymies are very numerous in kind. Among the various relations which give rise to Metonymy are the following: cause and effect, subject and attribute, container and Ihiny contained, sign and thing signified, etc. I. Cau89 for the Effect. — '* They have Moses and the j^rophets,'''' that is, ** their writings. — " I am reading Milton,''^ that is, his works. II. Effect for cause. — " Gray hairs (old age) should bo respected. " — " There is death (a death— causing thing) iu the i^ot." III. Container for tiling contained, — "Our ^/(ips (sailors) next opened a lire. " — The l:ettle (the water in the kettle) boils." IV. The Sign for the tiling sigfiificd. — " The sceptre (the sovereignty) shall not depart from Juda." — " His stcd (sword) gleemed on high." US. S3mecdoche is the naming of a part for the whole, or of the whole for a part; as, "A sail (ship or vessel) jiassed at a distance. " — " They have seen twenty summers (j^ears)." 34. Personification or Prosopopeia is a figure by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects; or ascribe to irrational animals and objects without life, the actions and qualities of rational beings ; as, " The ground thirsts for rain." — " Has war trod o'er them with his foot of fire V' S5. Apostrophe is a sudden turning aside from the regu- lar course of the subject, to address some person or thing ; as, ''Death is swallowed up in victory, O death! where is thij sting ? O Grave! where is thy victory ? " iJ6. Interrogation is a mode of questioning, used, not to tlTKRART X>RECEPT8. 177 deck informatiouy but rather to express a strong atfiriua- tion or deuial ; as, '' He tliat planted the ear, shall he not bear t " — " Who feedeth a flock, and eateth not of tlie milk of flock r' f 37. Exclamation is a figure akin to Interrogation. It is employed to express some strong emotion ; as, ** What a piece of work is man ! how noble in reason I how infinite iu faculties ! " — " How is the gold become dim ! how is the most fine gold changed ! '' • .'38. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which past or future events are represented as passing before our eyes; as, ** I seem to myself to behold this city, the oi mentof the earth, and the capital of all nations, sudden uvolved in one conflagration. I see before me the shiughtered heaps of citizeus lying unburied in the midstof their ruined Country. The furious countenance of Cethegus rises to my view, while, with a savage joy, he is triumphing in your miseries." — Cicero. i '39. Climax is a figure in which the sentiment rises in regular gradation ; as, " They fought, they bled, they died for freedom." — "Add to your faith virtue; and to virtue, knowledge ; and to knowledge, continence ; and to continence, patience, etc." — 2. JPet. 1 : 5—7. % COMPOSITION. 1 Composition is the art of expressing one's thoughts by means of written language. It is divided into two great divisions ; — Prose and Poetry. 2. Prose comprises all those compositions in which a natural method of expression, and a natural order, are employed, without reference to the recurrence of certain sounds, or any exact arrangement of syllables. 3. Poetry comprises all those compositions in which there is a departure from the natural order, or mode of :t wvr IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 4 {./ <_ %.<.^ /. A <^ i.O 1.1 IL25 i 1.4 ■ii|2£ lU ■50 ■^" II^^H |22 1.6 $^ ^^. ^^ ^"^.♦."V ■v * '/ Hiotographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREfT WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 r<\^ v :\ \ 'f%. y" ^\ WrS ^^V^^ V , expression j or in which there is a recurrence of certain sounds, or an exact arrangement of syllables. We will consider hut prose only. 4. The principal divisions of prose composition may be classed under the following heads : — Letters, Narrations, Descriptions, Essays, and Argumentative Discourses. When a subject has been selected, no matter to which of these division 8 your composition is to belong, the first thing to be done is to reflect upon the various branches of the subject, to think what can be said about it, and then proceed to its outline. 5. The outline of a subject is the drawing out of the various heads under which it is intended to treat it. The heads will depend altogether on the subject. »i! ' T^^ 4>».«t. -»' LETTERS. 6. A Letter is a prose composition addressed to some person or persons. Letter-writing is commonly called Epistolary corre- Bpondence. It is one of the most important branches of composition, entering more largely than any other into the daily business of life. 7 1. 7. Letters may be divided into two general classes j — ^Private & Fiihlic. PRIVATE LETTERS. , 8. Private Letters are those that are intended only for those to whom they are addressed. They may be divided into three classes ; — Social^ JBusinesSf and Miscellaneous. 9. Social Letters are letters of sentiments. They in- clude the great mass of familiar correspondence, to which belong Domestic or Family letters, letters of Introduction, of Congratulation, of Condolence, of Advice, of Affection, and, in a word, all letters that are prompted by love or friendship. JO. A Business Letter; as its name implies, is a letter >'t- :>f certain 1 may be irrations, rses. ih. of these be done is think what it of the it. The LETTER-WRITINO. 179 L to some ry corre- branches iny other lasses ; — I only for >e divided %neou8. They in- to which eduction, Affection, y love or s a letter on business. In this, brevity and clearness are all-impor- tant. A business letter should be exclusively such. Matters of a social or domestic nature should generally be iu a separate letter. 11. Miscellaneous Letters include those letters ot an ac- cidental or unusual character, to which our complicated relations to society give rise. ,c~-. PUBLIC LETTERS. ' 12. Public Letters are letters in form only. They are essays or reports intended for the public, but addressed to some individual. To this class belong most of the letters published in the newspapers, addressed either to the editor orto some distinguished public maot FORM OF LETTER. 13. The points in the form of a letter requiring atten- tion are the Heading, the Introduction, the Subscrix)tion, and the Superscription. THE HEADING. 14. The Heading consists of the Place and the DaU, In other words, it is a statement of the place where, and time when, the letter is written. It the heading is l<>ng, it is often broken into two lines ; if short,' it is generally given in one. Thus : — St. Mary, Beauce Co., P. Q. -f V ^ March 14, 1880. Arthabaska, P. Q., June 1, 1880. Some letter- writers have a fancy for putting the time and place at tlie bottom of the letter in stead of the top, but the custom is not to be rocommeuded. ■H m ■:i. 1 1 -U 1: 180 lETTER-WRITINd. THE INTRODUCTION. 15. Tlie Introduction, wben complete, consists of two paits, — the Address^ and the Salutation. , V THE ADDRESS. 16. The Addre86t when complete, consists of the Nam9 and TMle of the person written to, and his Directions. NoTA. — Every important word of ihe address must begin with a capital ; also the first word and every noun in the salutation. 17. The Salutation is the term of politeness, respect, or affection, with which we introduce a letter; such as, Dear Sir^ My dear Friend^ My dear and honored Fatherf etc. In business letters, the term generally employed in writ- ing to a gentleman is Sir, Dear Sir, or My dear Sir (1). In writing to a firm, Sirs may be substituted for Sir in the above expressions, or the term, Gentlemenf may be em- ployed. . A military officer is saluted as Captain, Colonel, Oeneral, etc. ; a governor, as Tour Excellency; an archbishop, as Your Grace ; a bishop, as Your Lordship ; the mayor of a city, as Your Worship, etc., etc. In fc, business letter addressed to a married woman or a single woman not young, the proper salutation is Madam, Dear Madam, or My dear Madam j to two or more, mar- ried or single, Ladies. An unmarried lady is best addressed in a single line : Mis—) Dear Miss — ; or. My dear MiSS — . Most of the forms of salutation used in business letters are equally appropriate in many other letters. The par- ticular expression to be used depends upon the feelings or fancy of the writer, and his relation to the person ad- dressed. Strangers may be addressed as Sir, Miss Jones, or Madam j acquaintances, as Dear Sir, Dear Miss Nelson, (I) Dear Sir is more a familiar term than Sir, and implies previous aoquaintauoe or correspondence ; My Dear Sir is more familiar than Dear Sir, an«l implies not only acquaintance but fri«nd«hip. \u LETTEB- WRITING. }ei 8tS of two the N'ame ctions. begin vritix a itioa. iSf respect, r ; such as, FatheVf etc. "^ed in writ- 8ir (1). In Sir in the I ay be em- el, Oeneralf Lbisbop, as mayor of a roman or a is MadaiUf more, mar- ingle line : less letters The par- feelings or person ad- Mi88 Jones f 188 NelsoHy n lies previous kmiliar than hip, or Dear Madam ; friends, as Dear Friendf Friend Sarah, My dear Lauri8ton,etc. ; near relatives and other very dear friends, by such terms as My dear Father f My dear Daugh- ter, My dear Henry, Dearest Marj, etc., etc. •18. In writing business letter.^, the full address is placed at the beginning. Thus : — Messrs. Henry Marsan &. Brothers Elgin Street, Montreal J * Dear Sirs, Your favor, etc. NoTA. — The body of the letter usnally begins nnder the end of th« salutation, but 'when the address is long, as in the above, it may begin in the same line as the salutation, in which case a dash ninst precede it. Thfis : — p ;; Dear Sirs, — ^Your favor, etc. 19; In letters of courteny or affection, the method of placing the address at the end, is preferable. In the military service, this form is prescribed. THS SULSCRIPTION. 20. In closing a letter, the writer subscribes his name with more or less fulness, and in snch terms of respect or affection as the circurn.stances may seem to warrant. These terms, like those of the address, vary according to the varying relatioDs of the parties, so that no general rule for them can be given. Business letters very commonly close as follows t-^ '' Yours respectfully ; " or as to page 182. These may be emphasized by very; as, " Yours very truly j " or as, " Truly yours." " Your obedient servant," or, if it be a firm, '* Your obedient servants." Social letters admit of an almost infinite variety of forms of subscriptions. The following are a few out of many examples that might be given ;— .• your sincere friend j Ytjura witl^ esteem ) Yours very reipeot* 'ft •3 'm i * m 182 lETTER-WRITlNO. fully ; Your loving son ; Your affectionate father ; Ever yours ; Your« affectionately and for ever ; Ever, my dear Norris, faithfully yours ; Ever, your affectionate friend ; Yours heartily and affectionately ; Ever, my dear Mr. — most gratefully and faithfully yours ; Yours very sincerely ; Your ohliged and affectionate friend ; Sincerely and entirely yours. Official letters have a more stately and formal close than any other. Examples. — I have the honor to be, Sir, With the highest consiJeratioiiy Your obediert servant, •'■"• ''■■■*'■■' •^^" . .^ A.C.Burns. *i Or "I have the honor to be (or remain *), with much respect, Tour obedient servant ; " or " I have the honor to be (or remain), Very respectfully. Your most obedient servant;" or "lam, Sir, Your obedient servant." Business letters, p. 181) Yours truly, i'. James A. Martint. (Social letters, p. 18l) Your friend, L. Thomasi. THE SUPERSCRIPTION. 21. By the Superscription of a letter is meant the ad- dress which is written upon the envelope. The Superscription consists of three parts, the Name of the person addressed, the Title, and the Residence, 1. The Name. — It should be written with formal propriety and correctness. 2. The Title. — The greatest difficulty in addressing a letter is to know what title to give. Common Titles. — Every one now-a-days has some title. A young lad usually has the prefix Master, and any unmarried woman the prefix Miss. Every married woman or widow has the prefix Mis., and every man who has no higher title is Mr. {,*) Remain implies previous oorrespoudeuce. > ^ LETTER-WRITING. 183 ours ; Yourn hfully yours ; Sectionately ; ^oura; Yours Mncerely and »Be than any deration, ervant, /. Burns. mch respect, (or remain), "lam, Sir, ruly, Martin. iend, Ihomasi. mt the ad- he Name of nee, propriety and ng a letter is tie. iy unmarried idow has the klr. Profeeaional Titles. — Medical men have the title M. D. after their name, and le^tal gentlemen that of £8quire(i). Others, who belong to neither of these professions, but who are graduates of Colleges, have some academic title after their names, as, A. M. or Ph. D., etc. In such cases the Mr. before the name should be dropped. Higher and Lower Titles. — When one reaches D. D., or LL. D., he drops his A. B. or his A. M. It is customary, however, to retain both the two higher titles, D. D., LL. D., if one happens to reach them both, and the LL. D. in such a case is written last, as Henry Fraser, D. D., LL. D. Clergymen. — Clergymen always have the prefix Rev.; Bishops, that of Lordship or Rt. Rev. ; Archbishops that of Grace or Most. Rev., and this is usually retained even when they have D. D., or some other honorary title, after their name; as, Rev. Francis Hamel, D. D., LL. D. I Honorable^. — Judges, Senators, Members of the Privy, Executive, and Legislative Councils, the Lieutenant-Governors, and some other high officers of Government, have the prefix Honorable. Governor- General. — The GovernoiP General is addressed as His Excellency, and this is written in a separate line, with the full name in a second line, and the official title on a third line. 3. The Residence. — In writing upon the envelope of a letter the residence of the person addressed, the same general rules should be observed which have already been given for writing one's own residence at the top of the letter. STYLE AND SPECIMENS 2 OP SOCIAL LETTERS. 22. The social letters of most frequent use are the follow- ing: 1. Familiar Letters, under wnich we include Domes- (1) There is a ridiculous fashion among some ill-informed persona of appending Esq. to the name of every one who has no other title. To apply tbia title, as is often done, to boys fresh from school, to clerks and salesmen in stores, and to common day-laborers is a discourteous and uncivil mockery. (2) It will be noticed that in the printed specimens the body of the letter begins on the same line with the salutation. This xnent i» proper in print, but not in writing. arran^e<- ;■■(•» ,y«r 1 ■'iif''< 184 LETTER-WRITIim. tic or Family Letters, and ordinary Letters of Fricncl- ship i 2. Letters of Introduction ; 3. Letters of Congratula- tion ; 4. Letters of Condolence^ FAMILIAR LETTERS.~SPECIMEks. 1, J. Q. Adams, when seven years old, to his Father. Boston, Novembor 20, 1774, Sir, — I have been trying ever since you went away, to learn to write you a letter. I shall make poor work of it ; but, sir, mamma says yon will accept my endeavors, and that my duty to you may be expressed in poor writing as well as good. I hope I grow a better boy, and that you will have no occasion to be ashamed of me when you return. Mr. T. — says I learn my books well. He is a very good master. I read my books to mamma. We all long to see you. I am, sir, your dutiful son, « . J. Q. Apams. 2' A yowng lady in the country to her Mamma in town. G.—.., July 21, 188... Beak Mamma, — You will, I hope, pardon my not having written •ooner, as I have been waiting the departure of Mr. R., who is here on a visit, and who undertakes to deliver you this letter. I have the pleasure to inform jou that we are all in high spirits, and are going, next Monday, to spend a few days at Belleville, the delightful seat of Mr. C, who has sent a pressing invitation. I assure you I anticipate much pleasure, as it is one of the finest seats in the country. This visit will perhaps prevent my return to town as soon ;.8 I intended, because J understand we are to stay a fortnight at the manor. If however, my dear mamma, you wish me to return sooner, I will endeavor to excuse myself from going ; for I assure you that I would not, on any consideration, displease you. You have therefore only to let me know your wishes. Mrs. N. requests you will have the goodness to eend her Mr. Aubry's new works, as soon as it is pm, fi]]^ also a few Juvenile books for presents; she leaves thf LtTTER-WRlTINO. 185 of Friend- ongratula* ither. r 20, 1774. r, to learu to sir, mamma I) you may be [row a better of me when He is a very 1 long to see son, Adams. I tovm. y 21, 188... laving written l, who is here stter. I have pirits, and are , the delightful I assure yon I li seats in the > town as soon a fortnight at urn €Ooner, I are you that I have therefore you will have a soon as it is (he leaves thf choice to you, but would like one or two copied of Sclnuidt's Tales, the whole neatly bound. Adieu, dear rauiiiiQU. Mrs. N. and family present their luve, and bupe you will permit me'.to accompany them on their visit to Belleville. It I don't hear from you, I shall presume that you have no objection to my visiting Belleville Manor. Your dutiful and affectionate daughter, JUUA. VfjV*-^ 3. Tkomaa Jeffertson to hia daughter Martha. Toulon, April 7, 1787. My dear Patsy, — I leceived yesterday, at Marseilles, your letter of March 25th, and I received it with pleasure, because it announced to me that you were well. Experience learns [teaches] us to be always anxious about the health of those whom we love. * • • I have received letters which inform me that our dear Polly will certainly come to us this summer. When she arrives she will become a precious charge on your hands. The difference of your age, and your common loss of a mother, will put that office on you. Teach her above all thinga to be good, because without that we can neither be valued by others nor set any value on ourselves. Teach her to be always true ; no vice is so meau as the want of truth, and at the same time so useless. Teach her never to be angry; anger only serves to torment ourselves, to divert others, and to alienate their esteem. And teach her hidmlry and application to usetal pursuits. I will venture to assure you that, if you inculcate thi ii her mind, you will make her a huppy being in herself, a most esti- mable friend to you, and precious to all the world. Tu teaching her these dispositions of mind, you will be more Qxed in them yourself, and render yourself dear to all your acquaintances. Practice them, then, my dear, without ceasing. If ever you find yourself iu difficulty, and doubt how to extricate yourself, do what i« right, and you will find it the easiest way of getting out of the difficulty. Do it for the additional incitemeut of increasing the happiness of him who lovtjs you infinitely, and who is, my dear Patsy, " '■ '..■■^: i.. >-:i,^ I Yours affectionately, -' • TM. JfiFFEUSOJf, 't;| m 186 LETTER-WRITING. LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION. 23. A Letter of Introduction is one by which a person introduces a friend or acquaintance to a friend who is absent. . , : I Letters of Introduction are of two kindi, — Social and Bmineas, ' In the use of this kind of correspondence, the following eugges- tiona will be found useful : — 1. Be careful tvhom you introduce. — fey introducing an improper person, you rai«ht do an irreparable injury to your absent fri«nd. Never introduce socially any one with whom you would not be willing to have your mother, (wife), brother, or sister associate. ^ 2. Letiera of Introduction sliould he short.— They are often delivered in person, and it is embarrassing for a person to wait wliile a long letter is being read. 3. Do not over-praiae. — You may use the warm language of friendship, but extravagant eulogy is as much out of place in a written as it would be in an oral introduction. 4. Leave the letter unsealed. — To prevent the bearer from reading it by fastening the envelope, would be a breach of politeness, and might excite distrust and suspicion. The bearer may, however, seal it before delivery. . Specimens to illustrate the proper style to be used. v-l* ' Quebec, March 1, 1878. Dear Sir, — I have the honor of introducing to your acquaintance Mr. James Garneau, whom I commend to your kind attentions. ^ Very truly yours, ' Anna Ritchie. Mr. AnI>rew RyaN, Kingston, Out. £ Montreal, AprillO, 1877. Mr. Philip R. Lord) My dear Sir, — It gives me pleasure to introduce to yon my much esteemed friend, M. G. W. Kelly. Any attentions you may be able to show him will be gratefully acknowledge and cheerfully reciprocated by ' :< Your old friend. . . James Masson'* '_»'•'> :» 4- Letter writino. 187 1 a person nd who is Buaineas. ^ ving eugges* an improper bsent fri*)nd. ould not be Associate, y are often son to wait language of f place in a from reading liteness, and ly, however, ) used. arch 1, 1878. acquaintance ttentions. ^ urs, tiTCHIB. il 10, 1877. 9 to you my ons you may ;d cheerfully *nd. Iassox* t Ottawa, June 20, 1878. 'My dear Lucy.— This will be handed to you by Mrs. John Graham, who will remain in your city a few days, on her way to Toronto. It -giTes me much pleasure to make you known to her; for I am sure that the acquaintance of two friends who are so dear to me will enhance the happiness of both. Any attention that you may be able to pay to Mrs. Graham during her stay will add one more to my many reasons for being i^^. ... Your loving and grateful friend, Anna Walker. Miss Lucy Foley, St. Hyacinthe, P. Q. 4 Longueuil College, May 4, 1879. Dear Henry, — Open your house and heart to my dear old chum, Willy Brown, who is waiting to stick this in his pocket. He is going to make a raid on your town in search of health, and I don't want you to kill him by dragging him up those mountains, as you did me last summer. 1 have given him such glowing accounts of my sister's cooking as to make me as hungry as a cannibal. I Depending upon your brotherly love for my dear friend's kind reception, I am ^i Ever your affectionate brother, Jambs. Henry SiMMs, Sherbrooke, P. Q. *> LETTERS OF CONGRATULATION. 24. A Letter of Congratulation is one written to a friend who has experienced eome good fortune or great joy. Sach a letter should of coarse be written in a lively, cheerful style, suited to the occasion, and should be free from all admixture of envy or foreboding. It should be a rose tvithout a thorn. If there is any unpleasaut news to commnnicate, concerning yourself or any one else, or if you have any advice to give, leave it fi)r a subsequent letter. Exaggerated expressions of joy have an air of insincer- ity, and should therefoi:e be avoided. I .188 LETTKH- WRITING. ,: = SPECIMEN LETTERS, ' *' >1. To a friend who has jiut been appointed to an honorable poaition. . ■' » ' >• , Quebec, June 1, 1879. Dear Frirnd,— I learned witli sincere happineis your nomina- tiuu to the office of ; I congratulate you on it ; a better choice could not have been made ; you poBsess all that itt requisite to fill the position honorably. One could say that the favor was granted to merit. But I stop, I fear to displease you; I know you do not like praises, although you deserve more than anybody. I presume to hope this circumstance will alter in nothing our relations and that you will permit me, as usual, tu be honored with the title of your friend. I remain, etc. T. R. Maynard. Louis C. Langevin, Esq., Sorel, P. Q. *- . 8. To a Gentleman elected to the Commoru, Three Rivers, Nov. 4, 1878. Hurrah ! the battle is tought and the victory won ! Give me your hand, old friend, while I give it a good squeeze of congratulation on your election. The result has not surprised me in the least. I knew you would be elected, because I knew that you deserved to be, and that the people of your county had sense enough to know it too. Some aay, " Principles, not men " ; but I say " Principles and men." This honor is as much a tribute to your personal worth as to the con'ectness of your principles. Just such men as you are netrded in the Commons — never more than now ; and I believe you will fulfil every expectation, and honor yourself and your constit- uents. That such may be the case shall ever be the prayer ot Yours faithfully, ^ Peter S. BfiSSoN. F. S. DUYAL, Esq., Montreal. LETTERS OF CONDOLENCE. .■*-«..vlf 25. A Letter of CoDdoleDce is one written to a friend "who lias suffered some grievous loss or bereuyemeat* LF.TTER-WRITIN Answer, and Invoice } 6. Miscellaneous Letters. LETTERS OF INTRODUCTIOX.— BUSINESS FORM, ,■• ,■ ;^i ' 28. A business Letter of Introduction is an introduction for business purposes only, and entails no social obliga- tions. In style it should resemble other business letters; that is, it should be clear, accurate, and concise. In most other respects it resembles a social letter of intro- duction, and we therefore need only to refer to what is said under that head. (See p. 186.) H r./ SPECIMEN LETTER. ' ' _ , Commercial Academy, March 15, 1878. Messrs. James Morse & Co., Toronto. Gentlemen,— Allow me to introduce to you the bearer, Mr. Williara Simpson, a graduate of this institution, who visits your city for the purpose of seeking employment as a book-keeper. It gives me pleasure to assure you that he is a young man of good education, strict integrity, and superior ability, and is entirely worthy of your confidence. Any assistance you may find it iu your power to render him I shall esteem as a personal favor. Yours very truly, PHJUP MURPUT, liat are I BBS only, ission of business we sh^U etters of Eecom- rder for letters. FORM, roduction 1 obliga- s letters; icise. In of intro- > what is LETTER- WRITING. LETTERS OF CREDIT. 191 29. A Letter of Credit is one in which the writer loans bis credit to the bearer, to a limited extent. That is, John asks Joseph to let Paul have goods or other valua- bles to a certain amount, promising to be responsible for the same, should Paul fail to make payment. • ■ ■ V SPECIMEN LETTER. Quebec, October 2, 1878. Mr. S. A. Molaon, Montreal. ^', , ., ' i i Dear Sir, — Please allow Mr. Robert Lynch a credit for such goods as he may select, to an amount not exceeding fifteen hundred dollars ($1,500) for six mouths. ' I will become responsible to you for the payment of the same, should Mr. Lynch fail to make pay- ment at the proper time. You will please inform me of the amount for which you give credit, and, in default of payment, notify me immediately. • '■''' Very respectfully, Mr. Lynch's signature, (1), — Your obedient servant, Robert Lynch. ' Bernard Salmon. m 15, 1878. nearer, Mr. visits your eper. ing man of 1 is entirely 1 it iu your RPEtY, LETTERS OF APPLICATION. 30. A Letter of Application should be; — I. Very carefully written, as the letter itself is regarded as a part — often the principal part — of the evidence of the writer's fitness or'unfitness for the position applied for. II. Modest. It should not, however, be sycophantic. It should be not only respectful, but also se-Z/'iespectful ; for a genuine self-respect is one of the surest passports to the respect of others. (1) The signature of the baarer should be given so that ho may Uq identified as the person named in the letter. 3 M 'ft 1" 192 LETTER- WRITING. v». SPECIMEN LETTER. Levis, P. Q. October 3, 1877, Bon. C. N. Hampton, '. ' • Superintendent of Public Instruction, I ."' Toronto. Sir, — Having heard that there is a vacancy in a Grammar School of your city, I hen leave to offer myself as a candidate for the position. I graduated at the Laval Normal Scliool, in 1875, and have ever lince devoted myself to the work of teaching. Enclosed you will find testimonials from Mr. F. T. Richard, County School Inspector, and Rev. C. A. Lagace, Principal of the above-named institution ; and I am also permitted to refer to Rev. Father Rooney and Hon. H^nry Blanchet, ot this city. Should a personal interview be desired, I shall be glad to present myself at such time and place as may be most convenient to your- self. I am, Sir, with much respect. Your obedient servant, Wilfred Nelsow. * "*« '.f LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION. 30. Recoraraendations may be special or general. Those of the former class are addressed, like ordinary letters, to some particular person ; those of the latter are not limited as to person or occasion. Great care should be exercised in giving recommen- dations. • "^ - ^'•' Never recommend an unworthy person, and never recommend too highly. It may be hard to refuse a testi- monial, but it is base to give a false one. • . ■ri. :■'•? r 3, 1877, . 4-... '-jMnf a Grainniar landidate for id have ever T. Richard, ncipal of the refer to Rev. ad to present lientto your- '■■( ant, N£LSON. al. Those ' letters, to not limited .S' .u. .rt recommen- and never ise a testi- LETTEn-'.VPITINa. 1. SPECIAL RECOMMENDATION. (Befeired to in the Letter of Applioation on page 101) 103 f*;** Laval Normal School, Sept. 10, 1878. Hon. C. N. Hampton, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Toronto. > .^. ::. Sir, — It affords me pleasure to testify to the personal wortli and educational qualifications of Mr. Wilfrid Nelson, who, I am informed, is an applicant, for a position in one of your publie schools. He graduated at this institution, as his diploma will show, ia 1875. As a student, he was distinguished for dilisfence, accuracy, intejjrity, and a conscientious discharge of every duty ; and these qualities lie has carried with him into the school-room and into Mciety. Such elements of character, combined with aptness in teaching and tact in enforcing discipline, could not fail to render him what I have long known him to be, a very efficient and supe* rior teacher. I cordially recommend him for the position to which be aspires. ' Very respectfully yours, ' ' ■ ' ^ • u; ^ C. A.Lagac£ -7" a. GENERAL RECOMMENDATION. '^ , Levis, October 10, 18*8. Having learned that Mr. Wilfrid Nelson is desirous of leaving this city and engaging in the work of teaching elsewhere, I am pleased to say, that I have known him long and intimately ; that his personal character is above reproach ; and that he has shown himself to be possessed of tact, learning enthusiasm, — in short, all the highest elements of the successful teacher. I earnestly com- mend Jiim to good people everywhere, and especially to those to whom he may offer his services as an instructor. fi-j'. F. T. Richard, School Inspector, ^ 1D4 "if..'?. -.<.'^'-'k, LETTER'WRITINO. MERCANTILE LETTERS. iiii.?^^ ti liKw' I..,t--i. fS^\'f-, 31. Of tlie great variety of letters of this class we shall speak of ouly tvw^o: — Letters ordering Merchandise ; and the Answers to them, with enclosed invoices. ]. LETT£R ORDERING MERCHANDISE (Books). Three Rivera, July 2, 1878. Messrs. S. L. Sadlier &. Co., Notre-Dame Str., Montreal. '' Gentlemen, — Please send to me, by Canadian Express, as soon as convenient, the following : — 2 doz. Ciiristian Brothers' Commercial Arithmetio ,^ 2 ** Hart*B English Grammar, ,^ 3 copies Genius of Christianity, cloth, ,,. 4 grosses Gillott's pens, No. 104. .. .*;^^ When forwarded, please notify me by letter, with ouclosad invoice. ,; ,• -. --: --/^ --.,;:: '. ^,:.' c' >•■;■.; ^^f ■ - Very respectfully yours, ' - *'•' ' Louis C. Lebul, 8, Champlain Street. f KoTE 1. — ^If but few items are contained in the order, as in the above example, they may be given either in the body of the letter, or at the bottom. In the latter case, the letter may be written thus : — Gkntlemek, — Please send me by Canadian Express (or other- wise, as directed) the books named below. Yours very respectfully, etc. "^ Note 2. — If the order is long, it should be made out on a separate sheet ; in which ease the letter may be written thus : — Gentlemen,— -Please send me by Canadian Express (or other- wise) the articles detailed in the enclosed Uct, addressed as below. Yours very respectfully, etc. Note 3. — Always give the express or freight station, and state how goods shall be sent. The order, if separate, should be headed " Order of (stating Date)", and should be signed by the person or ^rm ordering. '.ii ■ ; i a we shall dise ; and )k8). y 2, 1878. re88, as soon ilh cuoloBod tKL, I street. ler, as in the »f the letter, be written ss (or other- etc. on a separate Bs (or other- ed as below. etc. m, and state Id be headed the person or LETTER- WRITIKO. 105 , . 2. ANSWER, ENCLOSING INVOICE. Notro-Dame Street, Montreal, July 5, 1878, Hr. Louis C. Lebel, Three Rivers. Sir, — We have this day sent -to your address, by Canadian Express, the books ordered in yuur favor, of July 2nd. Enclosed you will find an invoice of the same, amounting to twenty-six .^dollars. Hoping they may arrive in good condition and prove satisfactorji and soliciting further orders, we are, Very respectfully yours, , S. L. Saduer &. Co, perD. {** Per D." denotes the clerk by whom the letter was written.) THE INVOICE REFERRED TO ABOVE (i). Montreal, July 5, 1878. Mr. Louis C. Lebel, Bought of S. L. Sadlier Sc C 4.80 copies Genius of Christianity, cloth, *8> 75 grosses Gillott's pens. No. 104, <9 60 12 9 2 $26 00 60 25 40 25 Received Payment, S. L. Saduer & Oo. ' Note 1. — When the bill is paid, it should be receipted as above. If not paid at the time it is made out, the date of payment should be given wtth the receipt ; thus : — Received Payment, Aug. 9, 1878. S. L. Sadlier & Co. (i) An Invoice is a statement in detail of goods sold or consigned for sale. When applied to goods sold, it is frequently called a BUI Iff S&l€9 or, if it contains a variety of small items, a Bill of Parukt A IM 196 LETTER-WRITINO. ■i^'. ■« » i. ffi " .' » ll- Note 2. — Many firms encloie tbe invoice within a letter ; and, if there is any remaik to niuke, they write it on the same paper, A better method is to use printed blanks for this purpose, to be 61Ied out with the amount of the invoice, and mode and date of ship- ment, as in the following form : — | Quebec, , 18 , M.... Sir, — Enclosed please find invoice amounting to $ forwarded p^ , Bill of Lading accompanying, accord- ing to your order, dated Tlie goods leave us in good conditions, and we tnist will prove satisfactory. Should anything, however, appear objectionable, we iihall feel obliged if you will notify us promptly. *' ' ^ ■ "^ '' Yours very respectfully, Bradt & Marman. 5 "1 >*'• NoTA. — The pupils will read with profit the Series of Commer- cial Letters in the Cours de Langue Jnglaifte, second part, by the Brothers of the Christian Schools. MISCELLANEOUS LETTERS. > • 1. APPLICATION FOR A CATALOGUE. i * Kamouraska, P. Q., July 1, 1878. Rev. C. B . , Director of St. Mary's College, r * Beauce Co., P. Q. Sir, — Please send me a copy of your last prosppctus. I design attending school next winter, and wish to obtain information con- cerning your terms, course of study, etc. By complying with the above request jou will oblige, Tours very respectfully, '' Jos. CiMON. ijisii etter ; and, if ne paper, A e, to be Qlled date uf sbip" • ••••• J.O t to $ fiyiiig, accord- nist will prove ctionable, we ;fully, * I Marman. 8 of Commer- id part, by the JE. , i Ui{ July 1, 1878. ctus. I desif^n I formation con- >lying with the ctfully, >8. OlMOy. 2. SENDING A SUBSCRIPTION TO A NEWSPAPER. Sorel, P. Q., May 10, 1878. To the Publiaher of " The True Witness," .K' '". :. .i)'A. Montreal. Sir, — ^You will find enclosed two dollars ($2), for wliich you will please send to my address a copy of '* The True Witness" for one year, beginning with the first number of the present year. Yours respectfully. James Nolan. Kl .• .i^ '/■:\ IS ^ : f ' ,'. •;Jsj;:*v-^i>-7 -,,,f„ NARRATION. . ;•.;' -.-*.• J 32. Narration is the account of real or imaginary facts or events. Events should be related in the order of their occur- rence, and in such a :7a v that the interest of the reader may be kept aliye. NARRATION FROM DETACHED SENTENCES. Write a connected narrative from detached sentences, ■ ^.. :^»:.., ; -^ V* - ^' IDamon and Pythias were intimate friends. Damon, being 'eon^ demned to death by Dionysius the tyrant, demanded liberty to go home to set his affairs in order ; and his friend offered himself to bd his surety, and to submit to death, if Damon should not return, livery one was in expectatirm what would be the event, and every one began to condemn Pythias for ao rash an action ; but he, confi- dent of the integrity of his friend, waited the appointed time with DEficRiPtroK. 199 him. New tn gervantd offered his e 80 noble, of procured a 5UB only was r of 80 good a alacrity. Damon, strict to his engagement, ''returned at'the appoint- ed time. Dlony8iu8, admiring tlieir mutual fidelity, pardoned Da- mon, and prayed to have the friendship of two such worthy men. mbraced in the actions jciatioBS or individuala j^sins, obtained 'riend, pledging 5 faithlttUy re- nal attachment! into favor.'' f' '■■' "f ■ ' ' -' ; • /? ■ ion, teing 'con* ed liberty to go ed himself to b^ uld not return, ivent, and every I ; but he, confi- iuted time with :: . DESCRIPTION. 33. Description is a repreaentation of naraes^ natures, or properties, that give to another a view of the thing. It is, in fine, a picture, delineated, not by lines, but by words ; and it must be so presented as to convey a clear, definite, and exact semblance to the mind, such as the object described presents to the eye. To write a description, we must be familiar with what we are attempting to describe. The best process before commencing a description is to draw out the outline of the subject. All objects that meet the eye admit of description. Three classes of them are most frequently called on to describe, viz: — •• * I. Material objects; such as bridges, sliips, etc. II. Natural scenery. III. Persons. ' , DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL OBJECTS. 34. In the description of material ohjectSy all of the following heads may not be appropriate in each case, but a selection may be made of such as are :— I. The time when, and place where it exists, or was seen. II. The purpose for which it is designed, its qame, uses, and conveniences. III. Its figure or form, and position, together with an analysis of its parts. IV. Its resemblance to any other object. V. Its size, color, beauty, or want of it. I 200 DfiSCUlPIIOK* VI. The prrsous or artists by whom it was made, yil. Materiuls of which it was made, aud the manner iu which it ia constructed. VIII. Its efi'ccts on mankind, by increasing or abridging tiieir comfort, etc. IX. The feoliu? ^ ' mm if' ^B ■■i%.-i. ■ ^m ■it 'i m wi'V t-:'. J; pi:',; Wi w K| ■^:if.-li^.' 14 •i'. EL l' ::'t^' , -i *'v» .f ■'"i.. V. The Appeal to the Feelings, one of the most important divisions of the discourse. .', VI. The Feroration, in which the speaker summed up all tliiit had been said, and brought his discourse to a close. Some speakers adopt this arrangement and division in their discourses ; but others use less formil divisions. There are nianv excellent discourses, in which several of these parts .are alroge .le:- warning. SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITIONS. I. REPRODUCTIONS. The following methods of training pupils to composition wnting which sould receive as constant attention as read- ing or spelling, maybe profitably employed; others will suggest themselves to the experienced teacher. 1. Read a short selection to the class and require the pupils to state in their own language the important thoughts. 2. Assign a choice selection for the clas.s to study. a. Require them to reproduce the substance of the selec- tion, imitating the style, without referring to the book. b. Let the teacher compare, or require the pupils to compare their compositions ivith the original for the purpose of noting defects. c. Require the pupils to rewrite and perfect thc'w coni- positions. These lessons will afford the teaclier the most favorable opportunity of instructing the class in punctuation, in the vse of concise and grammatical language, and, more es- pecially, in the use of different expres.■ 1 208 SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITIONS* PLANS. 1 < 4;' V» * » 1' , I. Acknowledge receipt of a letter from Lome, and state tli« feelings it awakened. II. Describe the weather, its effects on tlio spirits and amuse- ments of the scholars. III. Give an account of the daily routine of exercises in the college. IV. Describe your teacher. V. State when the next holiday occurs ; how it is anticipated by the scholars ; how they will spend it ; state your feelings with » regard to your anticipated return home. 2. A scholar is chosen by his fellow-pupils to request their teacher to take them upon a short excursion. I. The scholars still remember quite well the pleasure they enjoyed during last summer's vacation in company with their teacher. II. They are very happy, therefore, to call to mind the promise, that this year also he would give them a similar opportunity lor enjoyment, provided they be diligent scholars. III. They believe that they have done their best to win hii approval, and now beg that they may in consequence realize his promise. IV. Name ot the place which the scholars wish to select for the excursion (reasons for choosing this place). V. They promise to conduct themselves during the trip in every respect as good scholars, and subscribe themselves, with much respect, his dear pupils. ! 'A. Write a letter from Quebec, to your grandmother at Montreal, according to the following plan, I. Express satisfaction at having heard through your father, who has just returned from Montreal, that her health continues good ; hope that you may see her before long, so as to judge for yourself. II. Tell how Quebec is situated. Describe the St. Lawrence River. Speak of the frequent communications with Montreal by means of the Nwrth Shore Kailroad, and the superior advantages tliuH afforded for travelling, when the river is frozen, etc. III. Give an account of the way in which you spend Sunday • id state th# and amuse- cises in the iticipated by eelings withi eqnest their easure they r with their the promise, lortunity ior to wiu his e realize his elect for the trip ill every I with much at Montreal, your father, th continues to judge for t. Lawrence Montreal by r advantages tc. nd Sunday ; SUBJECTS JtOti COMPOSITIONS. 209 parlHh describe the place of worship you attend. Describe your priest. Describe his sermon of last Sunday. IV. Ask your grandmother to write to you often, and to state in her next letter when she will come to Quebec ; state how glad you will be to see her, and what arauuements you have devised to interest her. 4. Louis proposes to write to his friend John, who has sent him a problem for solution. I. Both friends had agreed at their separation to write to each other occasionally. II. To give interest to their correspondence, it is necessary, that besides relating the news, they should also choose subjects for discussion : he is pleased, therefore, that John has sent him this problem. III. He is happy to inform his friend, that after severe study, he has been enabled to solve the problem : then states his manner of solution. IV. After relating such items of news as he thinks will be of inter- est to his friend, he proposes the the following question, and requests an answer in John's next letter : What are the dates of the births and deaths of tbe four most celebrated men in Canadian history ? (This question will test John's knowledge of the history of his country, and also show his judgment in selecting the greatest men of the land.) 5. Mary congratulates her friend Julia on the return of her birthday. I. A year ago, these two friends were together at a young ladies' academy : since then many things have changed, but their love has remained the same. i 1 *ro-day, on Julia's birthday, the remembrance of her dear friend is as lively as ever ; and Mary feels herself urged to express her affection by a letter and a gift. IIL She wishes Julia all happiness ; that she may often see this day, and enjoy it in health and pleasure. Her parents and sisters join in these good wishes IV. Mary has made a scarf, and sends it to her dear friend as a token of her affection and a sign of her kind remembrance. When, among the many presents with which she will be favored on her birthday, the gift of her friend will figure as an inferior one, she 111 m 210 SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITIONS. ■"i'' fc 1, 'i r i<- i begs lier to bear in mind that the gift, however small, has come from a loving heart. V. She hopes for her continued friendship, and the acceptance of the gift, and assures her of undying remembrance. 6. Frank requests liis friend Charles to purchase certain books for him. I. Frank's teacher has lately shown him his fine library; and the boy has been so delighted with it, that he is resolved to begin the collection of a small one for himself. II. Frank's father is pleased with hie son's resolution, and has given him a sum of money for the purpose of carrying it out. III. But Frank lives in a village where there is no bookstore ; and he wishes to engage his friend Charles, who resides in the city, to make the purchase of a few books for him, names the books, and encloses a money-order. IV. He hopes that he may soon be able to return the favor of his friend in some way, and assures him of his affectionate regard. 7. ^Vrit^ a letter from the Montmorency Falls, to a friend. I. Acknowledge the receipt of his letter, and offer to give an account of a summer tour which you are making. II. Preparations for leaving home. III. Incidents on the way to Quebec. IV. General remarks on the pleasure?, fatigues, and advantages of travelling. V. Description of the Falls and the surroundings. VI. Comparison with any other scene. VII. Emotions awakened by this sublime scenery. VIII. General remarks about returning, and the anticipated pleasure of rejoining friends. NoTA.— It -will be well for the teacher to insist that a plan or outline of the following subjects be drawn up, in all cases, before the pupils proceed to iheir composition. 8. Compose a familiar letter asking a friend for the loan of a book. 9. Write to some publisher for a book, to be sent by mail. 10. Write a note accepting a friend's invitation to dinner ; one to tea ; one to spend the evening. 11. Write a letter to your teacher, giving an account of the man- ner in which you spent your last vacation. 11, has come acceptance certain hooka library; and ved to begin tion, and has tout. o bookstore ; 38 in the city, he books, and e favor of his 5 regard. friend. er to give an id advantages lated pleasure at a plan or les, before the lie loan of a mail, dinner; one t of the man- SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITIONS. 211 12. Write a note reqtiesting a private interview on important business. 13. Write a note, inviting a friend to spend the holidays at your father's house. 14. Write u letter announcing the death of a friend, a brother, sister, father, mother, etc. ; and addressed to the same individuals respectively. 15. Write a letter of congratulation to a friend on his supposed graduation, recovery from sickness, or some other occasion of joy. 16. Write to a friend in the country, giving an account of a con- cert, an exhibition, the Museum, or any place of public amusement which you may have recently visited. t ; ■ u ■" 17. Write a letter describing a ride in the stage-coach, (mention- ing the passengers, etc., and their deportment,) to or from any town or city mentioned. 18. Write a letter of condolence to some real or imaginary friend who is supposed to be in grief on account of some painful event. 19. Write a letter informing a friend of the misfortunes of an- other. 20. Write a letter of thanks for some favor received. 21. Write to a parent, travelling in Europe, about domestic matters. 22. Write an answer to the preceding letter, in which the parent would naturally give some account of his travels in Europe. 23. Announce in a letter to a friend that his brother whom you knew, and who resided in the same place that you do, is dead. Give an account of his sickness. Offer such consolation as is in your power. 24. Write a note, regretting that prior engagements will compel you to decline a friend's invitation, 25. Write a letter to a fri*.nd in the city, from some country retreat which you may have lately visited. 2G. Write a letter to a merchant, applying for a situation as clerk, and stating your qualificatlcns. 27. Write an answer for the merchant. 28. Compose two recommendations— one special, the other gen- eral,— to accompany the above letter ot application. m t i\^ SUfi^tECTS tOR COStPOSltlOKS. 29. CompoMe a general recommendation of a liouee-servant, farm- laborer or mechanic. 30. Write in your own name, to S. Brown & Co. booksollers, 37, St. Paul street, Montreal, for the f4»llowing works, to be sent by Canadian Express: Robinson's Uniyersity Algebra, 3 copies ; Goold Brown's Grammar of English Grammars, 1 copy ; the Christian Brothers' Commercial Arithmetic, 4 copies ; Quacken- bo&'s French and English Dictionary, 1 copy. 31. Answer the above, stating that you have sent the books as ordered. Also make out a bill of the books and enclose it, charging for the first work $1.50 each ; for the second* $4.00 ; for the third, £0 ctf. each ; for the fourth, $5.00 A List of Subjects for Compositions. KoTA. — Our object, in exhibitingin outlines the following subjects^ has been to assist the young writer in these two essential points,— the formation of correct ideas, and their systematic arrange- ment. Several of the general outlines have divisions which, with their respective sub-divisions, afford ample range for single compositions. Therefore, if deemed advisable, certain parts of an outline may be taken as topics for separate and distinct treatment. •i 1.— A Boom. I. Definition, . ^ ' II. Inclosure,— a Four walls. — h. Floor and ceiling ; direc- tion, height. III. Openings in the walls.— a. Windows. Describe.— &. Doors. Describe. IV. Articles contaiDed in a room. — a. Stove. — h. Furni- ture ; uses of the same. V. Different kinds of rooms, according to their use.—' a. Schoolrooms.— h. Living rooms ; parlors, dining-rooms, kitchens, etc. — c. Bedrooms. — d. Offices, studies, libraries, etc. VI. Care necessary. — a. Painting, papering, or whitening.— b. Sweeping, dusting, etc. — c. Ventilating, BUBJECTS rOK COMPOSITIONS. 213 ervant, fann- oksollers, 37, o be sent by , 3 copieit ; I copy ; the B ; Quackeii- the books as 16 it, charging for the third, 08. --V- ■ >wing subjectSi sntial points,— latic arrange- ieh, with their 9 compositions, outline may be ceiling; direo- Describe. — 6. >. — h. Furui- their use.—' >oms, kitchens, t r whitening.— NoTA.—ThJs subject, as well as the 20th and SDth, is written out, as a model, in the ' Select Reading Lessons,'' or fourth Reader, of the Series in use iu the Schools of the Christian Brothers. ' 2.— A Garden. I. Situation. — Between the house and the front gate. — Be- hind the house, to the right or to the left. — By itself (in a large town or city), . • II. J»cZo«urc.— Walls.— Fences.— Hedges. • III. Contents. — Beds for flowers, kitchen, vegetables, etc. Divisions among the beds, paths, walks. — Sometimes summer- houses, bowers. — Trees. IV. Different kinds of gardens. — Flower.— Fruit.— Kitchen. VI. Work done in gardens. — Digging, plowing, manuring.— Planting and sowing.— Hoeing and weeding. — Sprinkling or watering. 3.— A Town. T. Situation. — In what country and state; on what river, or near what lake, mountain, or other noted natural object. How far, and in what direction, from what large city. II. Size. — a. Number of inhabitants, houses, markets. — h. Steamers, railroads, and other public means of conveyance. III. Streets and roadsy their direction. IV. NarneSf Jocation, and number of public buildings, — churches, schools, colleges, court-houses, halls, banks, hotels, etc. V. Occupations of the inhabitants, — teachers, clergy- men, mechanics, merchants, lawyers, physicianP,laborerg, farmers, %tc. VI. Surrounding scenery.-- a. The finest views,— forest, hills or mountuius, hikes, rivers, plains, farms, etc. — b. Any other object of note iu the vicinity ; as village, college, fine country- residence, nurseries, gurdeiiEi, niaimfuctories, eto. ■1 M ^'i 214 ■■?■.. 1^^ i- ■ *> Ji' !v^ \ ! iV J; lUBJECTfi POR COMPOSITIONS. 4.--Tho Teeth. .i a I. Tr/irt< \ver. II. Difl'erent ^arts. — a. Seeds. — h. Seed-cuveriiigd. 111. Kinds of fruit. — a. The uut j the seed being inclosed iu (thirty-two savity, with i r'.rink. — 6. r another. — o. — d. Cracking ess — nocesi-ity luuuls. (Puro plants, after lors, dust di* kutumD^ and each season, isons in your y Naturti, and fuud fur mauy he seed-ves- ■ingo- ing iucluijcJ iu ■UBJECTB FOn C01IP0SITI0N8. 215 a hard shell. — b. Stone-fruit ; the covering flesh-like, as tlie peach. — c. Seed-fruit ; the covering flesh-like, us the apple. Dcauribe the difl'erent kindH, and give other examples of each. IV. Use. — Wholesome food for mtm and beast. 7.— The Goat. I, Class of Animals to which it belongs, -mammiferous (milk-giving), ruminating (cud-chewing), domestic, a native of Persia. ^ II. Jbrw and general appearance. — a. Size; about four feet long, two and a half high. — b. Color ; white, black, or spotted. — c. Shape ; head short and small, with a beard ou the under lip ; often horns ; large yellow eyes ; neck long ; tail short and smooth ; legs thick, feet cloven (divided into two parts. III. Characteristics. — Lively, changeable, full of tricks, lives to the age of twelve years. The female bears two young goats every year, called kids. IV. Food and treatment.— Feeds upon nearly all kinds of herbs, as hay, straw, etc. Rose aud vine leaves are its dainties. 8alt and bread are good for its health. Its Btable should be clean and warm, and well ventilated. V. Uses of the goat. — a. Its milk is pleasant to the taste, and very wholesome. — 6. Its flesh makes very good food. — c.From its skin kid gloves are made. — d. Its huir is used for making hats, end the horn is manufactured into various articles, as kuifc-haa- dles, etc. 8.— A School-day. I. Forenoon, — a. At what hour do you rise, pray, breakfast, play ?— 6. When do you begin study ? — o. What branches do you pursue ? — d. Who are your teachers ? What interest do you take in your studies ? What progress do you make ? Give a true account. II. Afternoon. — Continue to narrate the events of the day till you retire for the night. 216 eUUJECTS FOR COMroSITIOKS. '%: p w $ii: : K; . ■A'.-i .. m .» t W^' w . '• ■ - " *•;'■■■■,• r .';■■' ■V ,••* h MA • .■*' ■'■* ni K ' £** i;V'' ■» m ;,»?...' »■<• 9.— The Prog. * I. 67a«8 to which it belongs,— amphibious, cold, red blood. II. Description. — Two to three inches long; color giccn, with bhick spots, and three loog yellow stripes on the back; the fore feet shorter than the hind ones, tho former having four, the latter five toes. III. Peculiarities. — a. Produces its yuung from eggs. — ft. Undergoes change of form. Tho young are called tadpoles, or polliwigs ; have a tail, and no legs ; and live only in water or mud. — c. Moves in the water by swimming ; on the land, by jump- ing, for which its hind legs are admirably adapted. IV. jltotZe.— Stagnant water, banks of ponds, lakes, rivers, and other moist places j and, in winter, in the mud. v. Uses. — a. Parts good for food.— &, Destroys flies aud other noxious insects, 10.— Birds' Ne«t». I. Purposes for which they are built. — a. For laying and hatching eggs. — l. For dwellings for the young. II. Materials. — a. Straw and feathers. — 6. Brushwood. — e. Hair, moss, or wool. — d. Clay and dirt. III. Form. — a. Round and hollow the prevailing form. Tho bird, in a sitting posture, turns round and round, rubbing the brink and sides smooth with her breast and neck. — b. Birds of prey have deep, flat nests, more coarsely made. IV. Places where they build.— a. On the ground (whippowil quail, thrush, lark, etc. : hens are not particular where or how they build). — 6. Upon rocks and high trees (birds of prey).— o. Under the eaves ot houses and barns, or other plp.ces in the neighbor- hood of man (swallows, martins). — d. In bushes, hedges, etc. V. Use of birds to man. — They preserve our gardens, orchards, and fields from numberless injurious insects which infest plants, trees, fruiw, and vegetables. We should therefore not kill birds, but rather protect them from the* attacks of others. BUBJKCT8 FOR C0MP08ITI0NH. . 10.— Time. 817 9| cold, red ong ; color 7 Stripes on (1 onesi the m eggs.— 6. tadpoles, or in water or ind, byjuinp> nds, lakes, ter, in tho leg aud other '■ * or laying and nishwood. — form. The ug the brink of prey have i. ■ >> 1 (whippowil lere or how f prey).— c he neighbor- >8, etc. ir gardens, lis insects bles. We >tcct them I. Fa/Me.— It in the most precious of all tliingrt.— o. It pailM quifkly.— b. Once lost, it raiiiiot be recovered. — c. It i* the nieaiiH of accoinplishiiif; our objfota in life. I!. Bow to be sijeni — a. Coiiicientiously, in Indrmtry.— ft. Not ill idleneMi. — o. Not jo to<» much play. — d. Not in t*." much •Ifep. 111. Tlie moat precious time, — the time of youth ; for it IM : a. Tlie time when we leurii moat eusilj. — 6. And the time of prepiirutton for future uscfnlnesH. We slioulii bear couHiuntly in mind that our Huccfss in munhood will depend upon the manner in which we spend our youth. , » . 12.— Courtesy. I. Meanitifj. — The quality of plensing oth rs by our propt-r eontjuct toward- iheiii. IJy foiirtesy is not iiieaiit any .thiiijir that concrrns p^•r^oual nppiJUiiuce, but ouly whni conr('in> niaiiuers, woida, and nctinus. II. Souice. — Lovt' lor God will inspire na with love for our follow men. — n love free from all selfishnes.s. , III. Value of Courtesy. — a It wina ua the esteem of othors and this Hweetenn lite. — b. h imitrB men in soci.il intercourse, and thuA prevents diKputi-ii and qu iirelti. IV. Courteous Acts. -Would that all were to act cour- teously cowiird one another; each one yielding a little for the sake of pence and liappiuess !— a. 8lionld we sunietiines yield in favor ot evil for the suhe of peace ? Never! That would be weakness aud sin, not courtesy. . . 13.— Thoughtless Persons. I. A thoughtless person is one who docs not reflect npon the consequences of what he does ; who acts with- out thinking. II.. Some of the actions of such a porpon. — a. Stu 1\ i i? without any object in view. — b. Speaki ia witliout nfleetion — c Drinking cold water, np b.itluny, wlim over-lieare;l. — d i.tiiiii,' um.pe truit. — «. Exposing huuself, wiihtut necessity, to tlieiao-'U' eucy of the weather, I 918 •OBJJICT* FOR COMrOSITlONf* III. What parents are obliged to do td Bucli children.— a. To advice. — b. And sometimes to puuish. IV. Uvil consequenees sure to result to those who will not improve in this respect. — a. They will never rise in the world ; never do much good for themselves or for others. — 6. They will remain thoughtless even in manhood. — c. They will be apt to contract habits which bring on consumption and other kinds of disease. lU' 'V rf ■ . '5! f . . 4 '■ 14. — How a Student may succeed in his Studies. I. During class -hours. — a. He must be attentive, giving all his thought to his recitation, aud to the instructions of his teach- er. — 6. He must answer promptly, and try to understand fully the meaning of what he says and does, alw^ays thinking for himself. II. In study-hours, — a. He should recall to mind what he has learned in class, and endeavor to comprehend it more under- standingly. — 6. He ought to prepare his lessons well for next class^ always trying to understand, as well as to commit to memory. — c. He should set apart a certain time for learning each lesson, so that none may be neglected. — d. He should hearken attentively wher. wise men speak, and try to put their good counsel into practice.-— e. He should read those books which give him valuable information or make him think on noble subjects. — /. He should keep the company of none but virtuous and diligent companions. 15.--mility of Wood. I. As fuel. — a. In dwelling-houses. — h. In furnaces, en- gines, workshops, etc, II. For building purposes, — to construct, — «. Houses, ohurohes, etc.<— b. Ships, railroad-.cars, wagons, and otb,-"". lU. Other causes which render the month beaatifuL— a. Farming and gardenings ^ b. Religious festivals, — Ascension of our Lori, Whitsunday, the mouth of Mary. — c. Pleasure, — May Day, walks, picnics, etc. IV. Unpleasantness. — o. The first days are often cold, wet, and otherwise diSiigreeable. — h. Yet even this is beneficial; fi»r it prevents the growth of noxious insects, and keeps the ground muieit. "i^t'^in '■ .''■ .-:"-': . ir 18.— CkftTiUnfmiii ■r^.. T. Cleanliness requires — a. That we should use pure lan- guage.— b. That we should keep our person free from impurity. — 0. That we should remove dirt trom every thing belonging to us, — dresH, books, utensils, etc. II. Advantages. — a. It tends to make us good and induhtriou&. Many wicked and idle persons are dirty, as drunkards, qua.rel- iome persons, swearers, and loafers, — b. It promotes health.— a I 920 BrBJRCTS rOR COMPjOBITIONS. M/C Iftf' •*sj;.. ■;■''' m m W J^-: f^^ii ,5,V> - ' ft M.. . « .' '' ' - Iv' ...;.;,-■. |'«» '.yv' '-' lit t'"' " L-' V 1* Iff.*. :;?%,•••': r t!*' It adds to our comfort and prosperity. Clean persons are not wasteful.— d. It wins for us the respect and love of others. 19 Compassion. , ^, f, Meamng,-~a feeling of sorrow for another^s mi8for« tuoe. II. Compassion prompts n& — a. To help others,— (. And to console them when they are in trouble. III. Eeasons for being comp■•>:.« er^s misfor- n,— >5. And is the duty of towards ui >ye of others. it.-->. They hence rains, > men; fdr- vinK them 1* f winter. 8. more tender m from injury necessary. flowers and the savor of its, £oul air, >rs, impuie r<.' ^ • .• ■•■« e faint and amnsemeiit SUBJECTS FOB OOMI JSITIOTTS. isai , II. Other objects. — a. Strengthening and developing the body, games of ball and other gymnastic exercises. — h. Improving the faculties of the mind,— chess, riddles, etc. — c. Seeking for gain, — cards and all games of chance. . III. In what Mnds we should engage.— T'lose whicli streugthen the body are best for persons whose occupation is mental or sedentary, — students, teachers, and others engaged in professional pursuits. Those which strength- en the mind are best for one whose daily occupation is chi«^fly of the body. No one should engage in vicious plays intend(Mi for gain : that would be gambling, and sure to end in the rnin of both mind and body. IV. Proper time for play. — Afrer finishing our regular occupation, when the overtasked mini or body needs rest or relaxation. ., . V. Conduct during play. — a. Peaceable, joyous.— J. No boasting, or very loud talking.— o. Most important rule, —AVOID ANOBK. 23.— Health. I. Definition. — That state of mind and body in which all their parts are in proper order; that is, the natural state. II. !Z%e greatest of earthly blessings j for — a. Only those who are healthy can enjoy life. — h. Witliout it, man can do no good for himself or others. III. Duties of those who are in good health. — a. To be thankful to God for their health. — b. To use it in the service of Ck>d, for their own good, and for the good of others. — c. To pre« serve it, 1st by temperance, 2nd by labor and exercise, and 3r be calm, keep mind and body free from all unuecos- sary agitutiuu. si .♦.* 322 f ,';■■':• 'r m W-^ ^p •lir ^^ ■i.*"'; ^^ '?;.. K^ ■W^' , ^ ^9 :#,>'■. i^ ■^, ■ ■■ ■ ' ' ' p #Y* f:;, ' |i . f"- Mi: v:!^': Kl •>/«■■•• ^'%' ■^r- ■ 1^1^ i' ,,.'«t( . . Kj, ; j ;;•*•" • " I^X .» '«- ^P^* '• '. ■ ' »-?v •■*■'■'. ', fm'A ■ ■ ; ; SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITIONfl. 24.— Dress. -n-ii! .-?t -I''' I. Objects or reason of dressing. — a. Protection against heat, cold, moisture, and all other external dangers. — &. Respect- able appearance. II. Making of dress. — a. Material, Ist animal kingdom, — wool, furs, skins, hair; 2nd vegetable kingdom, — cotton, linen, silk. — 6. Maker, Ist tailor, dress-maker ; 2nd shoemaker, stocking- weaver, or knitter ; 3rd hatter, milliner. III. Necessary qualities: it Hhonld be — a. Clean. — &. Not torn.— c. Well-fitting. — d. Comfortable, according to the season. — e. Not too expensive, but plain and good-looking. — /. In the fashion, not to appear odd ; but (for a man or boy especially) never too stylish or flashy in any way, which would be vulgar and foppish. 25.— A Wagfon. I . i' ^ K I. Cliief parts. — ^Wheels, axlea^ tongne or pole, box, rack, etc. II. Persons employed in making. — Wagon-maker, smith, painter. III. Utility. — To farmers, to merchants, etc. VI. Other wheel-vehicles. — Carriages, bnggies, carts, stage-coaches, etc. Describe their forms and uses. 26.— Rain. I. Meaning and cause. — Water falling from the clouds* Vapors rise from the earth, and form into clouds. II. Different hinds.-^ a. General rain throughout the country which may be 1. Heavy, with or without thunder and lightning, or 2. Light mist or drizzle. — h. Partial rain, confined to certain pla- ces. 1. A thunder-storm, sudden and bursting, wilh floods of rain. 2. A. sun-shower. \ • , III. Describe the rainbow. — Always seen opposite the sun after a rain or during a sun-shower j caused by the sun Ehining on the drops of rain. -. IV. Utility of rain. — a. Refreshes the earth and the atmot* phere, thus 1. Promoting the growtii of plants, and 2. Re-invigorat- Br EJECTS FOR COMPOSITIONS. 223 ♦ •f -I'-.-t ion against &. Respect- kingdom, — >tton, linen, r, stocljing- • ' V ' " n. — h. Not the season. — /. In the Bially) never and foppish. pole, box, ker, smith, es, carts, 368, "-' ;be clouds. the country ightning, or ;er1;ain pla- oda of rain. te tlie sun y the sun the atmoB* B-invigorat- Ing man and beast. — h. Renews tlie springs and streams. — c« Either excessive rain or long-continued drought is injurious to the growth of plants and the health oi animals. 27.--Tlie Earth-Worm. 1. Size. — A span or less in length, the thickness of a quill. • ' " II. Covering and color. — Moist and slimy skin of a flesh color. III. Form. — Long, stretched or contracted, round, pointed at each end, covered with a hundred and forty- five rings. ,,, ,,,,; IV. Abode. — Moist rich earth, into which it drills deep holes. In winter, it remains several feet under ground. V. Manner of living. — At night and during moist weather, it leaves its abode, feeding upon moist earth, foul substances, and fresh roots. VI. Jffurtfulness and utility. — a. Injures tender roots.— &. Serves as food for hens and other animals. .' 28.— Society. ' I. Definition. — An association of many families, form- ing, as it were, a great household ; their purposes being mutual aid in danger, security of person and property, mutual help in the acquisition of wealth and in the attain- ment of useful knowledge. ' •« '■ . -v •'* ? II. Belief in danger. — a. On the outbreak of a fire, — fire- men, fire-engines, relief for the sufferers. — &. In case of inunda- tions. — c Support of the poor and the unfortunate, —orphan asy- lums, free schools, asylums for insane, the deaf, dumb, and blind, etc. III. Security of person and property. — a. To settle dis- Dutes by proper authority, as by a judge, mayor, justice of the peace, arbitrator, etc. — 6. To protect the innocent, and detect criminals, — by policemen, constables, sheriffs, and the military.— c To punish the guilty,— magistrates, prisons, jails, etc. 224 SUlJjKCtS FOR eOMPOBlTlOWS* ■fe. iA 1id.'-\ . IV. Acquiring wealth. — a. Laying out and raakiim atrepts, walks, roads and bridges. — &. Constructing houses, cliurche-*, pub- lic works, etc. ; — c. Tlius giving «iniployni<*nt to ropchanicrf and laborers, and opening a market tor farmers, and — d. Securing a flourishing business for merchants and otiier tradesmen. V. Attaining knowledge, hj meana of — a. The clergy, sermons and lectures. — h. Teachers, private instruction, schools, and colleges. — c. Newspapers, public libraries, reading-rooms. — d. Daily intercourse, and interchange of thought, among persons of refinement and good sense. VI. The preservation of society requires for all tliese things various expenses ; hence — a. Taxes, and, — b. In order to enforce laws and good customs, moral, and, if need be, physical supports, — good advice, good example, police, armies, etc. 29.— The Benevolent Man. I. Name some misfortunes which may befall men. A child may lose its parents; a man, his house by fire. A poor mechanic, the father of a large family, may become Bick. II. Consequences. — The child is quite helpless, and obliged to beg ; the man who has lost his house becomes poor, and cannot shelter his family ; the mechanic, being nnable to provide food for his family, contracts debts. HI. Asmtance. — A rich person takes thechild to his own home, Hud sends him to school ; citizens collect money to build H house for him whose home was detitroyed by fire, meaijwhile one of them gives the family shelter until the house is built ; a kind physician heals the sick mechanic gnitis, and through his intercession the sick man is fur- nished wirli food and other necessaries which soon restore hiis strenjxth. IV. Oratitude of those who have received help. Tho child att<^uds to his studies, and leads a useful and vir- tuous life; the man, on beholding his new house, sheds tears of joy, and calls dt>wn the blessings of Heaven upon Ills kind neighbors; the childrtn oi the sick man surround itiflr streets, iirche<«, piib- chanicrt and Securing a he clergy, , tioii, 8chi)ols, riK>ni«. — d. g persona of all these id, — b. In if need be, lice, armiesi 11 men. A by fire. A tay become Ipless, and ise becomes ante. being ;s debts, d to his own St money to yed by fire, :er until the k mechanie man is far- ioon restore lieilp. Tho Ful and vir- ouse, theds 3:iveD upon a.u surround #t7BJ1£CTB ton dOlfPOBtTiONS. ^ the physician, ki8i> bis hnnd, and look gratefully upon him; the wife, full of emc^on, tbanks him in siieuce. -t" '..i 30.-The grateftil Person. I. A favor which one may do for anotlier. — A child may give a poor boy his dinner; a good-hearted man may clothe or 6nd employment for one in great need ; a boy may assist an old lady who slips and falls upon the icy road or sidewalk. • ^, ^ IL Opportunities of showing gratitude for these favors. — The charitable child may lose its way in the forest ; the kind-hearted man may be attacked by robbers, his house may be entered by thieves, or set on fire by wicked per- sona; the good boy may become an orphan and grow sick. Ill, Qratituds shown in these cases. — The poor boy may find the lost child, and lead it home ; the poor man may save the life or the property of his benefactor; the old lady mpy bring medicine, and wait upon the sick orphan, and find him a good home. V r 31.— For^vencss. I. Some offenses which one may commit against an- other. — A scholar may speak unkindly to another while at play ; a student may, without just cause, accuse an- other of some fault; a brother may wilfully break his sister's toys. - ■"•■ "'■■';•' .-'''-■,-••-':■■-■' '' ' ' IT. Forgiveness, — The offended scholar doe« not scold in ruturn, or inform against the ones who has spoken unkindly ; tlie student passes the fklse accusation over in silence, and continues to treat the wrong-doer generously ; the sister does not scold or revenge herself by breaking her brother's playthings, nor does she complain to her parents. III. Consequences.— The scholars become fast friends; the student fet* Is remorse for his wickedness, and endeavors to repair the wrong he has done; the bvother weeps in 226 BVBJICCTS FOR COMPOSITIONS. ft:; ■^ ^:- ^' i\.\'~ 3^rat.«' ■* » , - ^Rfitt ■• ' ! ' ■■■''•'. ' « i alSIJI^, »^V-- *■ ■ / r ' » '^1 i'is^!;' '. . f . -,&■-,• .'■■'f '' ♦'• v: * ,':■ • .-■i'V !-W, . ' . ■■.# f '' ; i, . --':|r': IS.;. •■^CK, mk ;'.'_ Bk; * . ■. *> - .4 Bsiv-j Hj^jpi ►> '%- uej^^ '- *. ' » K''''i • •'"> BB .■' wt H^ > IkM ' 1' sorrow for his nnkindness, and gives part of his toys to his sister ; joy of the parents, - , . „. 36.~On the arrangement of the Materials of a Compo- sition. I. Ihe division of the subject being of the greatest importance, the author, as well as the reader, is obliged to pay t^f closest attention to it. li. Hie naval fault of young writers is to compose without order, due reflection, and proper arrangement of thought. They write nt random, and, by doiug so, ob- scure their meaning. And make but a feeble impression upon the minds of their readers. III. JBy arrangement we are to understand the corre- sponding succession of the thoughts belonging to the sub- ject : this supposes — a. A collection of materials or thoughts, which is obtained by observation, reading, conversation, reflec- tion.— 0. We pi'oceed to arrange our thoughts, 1. By examining them separately, according to their character and importance . 2. By grouping those that are like, and putting them together under general heads; 3. And, finally, by placing the separate thoughts under each head in the order of their importance and mutual relation ; always remembering that each general heading must correspond with the subject, and serve for its development.— c. Having acquired a certain facility, we may aualyze the different division* of the subject, and introduce additional sentences, found by reflec- tion, until the whole subject is fully developed. IV. Such an arrangement is certainly not easy at first ; but it is complete, and will teach us to tliink out a subject in a more thorough manner; and, having by practice overcome the difficulties, we shall find ourselves enabled to set down our thoughts in a systematic manner, accord- ing to the requirements of good composition. . . J x >i 37.— Writing. , I. A young man who writes a poor hand complains to a friend that his teacher urges him to improve his pen* lis toys to Compo- le greatest obliged to o compose ngement of iug M>, ob- impression the corre- to the sab- I or thoughtfiy 'Batiun, refleo- By examining 1 importance, together under houghts under tual relation ; ist correspond — c. Having irent divisions und by reflec- asy at first; ut a subject by practice vea enabled ner, accord- otu plains td ve his pen* ftC6JECT8 Foil COMPOSltlOI^S. 227 tnanship. He finds this requc^st troublesome, thinks him- self unable to become a good penman, and, in order to justify himself, mentions the fact that some eminent men do not write a very legible hand. II. His friend, who thinks good hand-writing a valua- ble accomplishment, endeavors to convince him of his error, and uses the following reasons to induce him to follow the advice of his teacher : — a. A good hand-writing recomraends a person to a stranger. In this respect, it is like neatness of dress, wliich makes a favorable impression at first sight.— h. It is the preservative of language, the business man's security, the poor boy's capital, and the ready servant of the world of mind.— c. Bad writing requires no small amount of patience, on account of the time lost in making out the meaning.— d. Good hand-writing is an evidence of good taste and a love of the beautiful, and thus indtcatep the character of the writer. — e. It affords pleasure both to the writer and the reader. III. Writing is still turther worthy of our attention on account of its benefits to mankind. — a. Before its invention, the voice of wisdom perished; but little knowledge could be ac- quired or preserved. — h. With its invention, the mind of man may be almost said to have been re-created. — o. Before its invention, the voice of man only could communicate ideas, and but a few thousand could listen ; now, the whole world may read.— d. Before its in- vention, the mind of one country was estranged from that of an- other ; now, wisdom seems endowed with the gift of tongues, and, throueh her interpreters, speaks to all the nations.— e. Before its invention, history and thought faded from the minds of men ; since, they have become imperishable. IV. A practical Jcnmcledge of this elegant art, therefore, each one should gain : for, as long as he lives, it will be to him a source of pleasure, profit, and improvement ; and, after his death, it will remain a monument to his charac- ter. 38.— Heading!. - I. In iliese times, when nearly every one reads, and ^bon the number of books is legion, the taste for reading m fetBJtCCTR FOR COMP081TIOK9. r^ ■^^■ 'W: m 'I'- 0-^'' i- W'i W'ji ^•;' U ,- ■- V '■■ .*r ' ' '■"' . ■>( > r:,'- ■; '■';'"; ^•* '",' • t ■><•':■ l^-j fc't. .1 'A P :.•,■>;>'■ IJi*!;'. ■•'•• > S'* ^ I'i ■ J certainly deserves a chapter for its consulerntion. The subject hiiA its dark as well as its bright sidtt: reading may be profitable, and also injurious. II. BeaiHng is injttriona, — a. When we read for mere pas- time, and without any object in view. — 6. When we read, without choice, th»* (rood and tlie bad. III. What we should read. — a. Books which are instructive as well as interesting. — b. Bingrapliy, travt*l8, history, poetry, general literature, and religious books. — o. Scientific works, which enlaree the domain of our knowledge. IV. How we should rend. — a. With attention, to the sub- stance, to the style. — 6. With pen in hand, ever ready to copy choice extracts. — c. Never to lose sight of the end or design of the work. — d. After perusing a book, let us ask ourselveg, What benefit have we derived from it f what impression has it left on our mind f how much wiser and better are we T — e. It will be well for two friends to read the same book toge.her, and interrogate each other now and then concerning the vulistnnce of their reading, when each one may express his opinion upon this or that subject. This will give new intelligence and life to each mind ; fur ideas are like sparks, they kindle new firea. V. It would he well if every body, especially the young, were more careful in the choice of reading: for nnnibers of books contain, under a handsome appearance, the poi- son of the soul ; jnst as mpny flowers of enticing beauty have within them the poiso.i of thn body. Read, there- fore, only snch books as cultivate and ennoble the mind, but none that debase it. 39.— Lan^age. tu^ f ' ■ I. Introduction. — Language, which constitutes the glori us pieeniineuce of man over the brute, is the means by which we arrange our ideas, and reveal, by articulate sounds or sensible signs, our inmost thoughts and feelings. II. TJie influence exercised by language. — a. Language is a symbol of mental activity, and a medium of communication be- tween different minds. Man is a mirror of all objects : he digests and assimilates iu his miud the material furnished by his sensesi •TTBJEOTI wot COMPOSITIOlft. ution. The !e: reuding or mere pas* read, without re instnici^ve fcory, poetry, works, which to tlie suh- eady to copy design of the What benefit >n our mind f well for two be each other ig, wlien each It. This will leas are like ' the young, )r numbers Je, the pol- ing beauty ead, there- 3 the mind, '1 ou^i v' ; id" itntes the I the means T articulate )d feelings. Language is nication be- : he digest! f his sensesi and then communicates it by speech. — b. Every people, according tu its own genius, amalgamates the phonetic element with its own feelings and conceptions into organic unity. Our very thoughts are not clear and well defined ivtil united with the symbols of tfieech; for, 1. Thought crystallizes the momentum of the mind, and is then uttered by words. 2. Speech is as raucli a fuMction of thinking at breathing is of living. — o. Speech is developed only in society; and men can neither understand themselves, nor their own ideas fully, except by trying the intelligibility of their words on one an- other. — d. Mutual communication sharpens the intellectual powers ; so that, with the increase of social intercourse, lauguags gains in perfection. III. As languageiB of such importance, great care ahould be bestowed upon its cultivation — a. To endeavor to ao- quire a correct pronunciation.— 6. To learn to apply the principles of grammar in our conversation. — o. To attend to these five reouisites of purity and propriety in the choice of our words.-- 1. The words should belong to the language we use. 2. They should be arranged in ^'Itrases and sentences according to the syntax of our language. 3. They should be employed in that sense which usiigK. has annexed to them. 4. We should avoid obsolete terms. 5. W> should reject newly-coined words, as well as those that are I«>w and provincial, IV. Other means of improving our language.— a. Reading good authors. — b. Conversation with persons of refined taste. — o. Practical exercises, as loud reading, etc. — d. Attention to purity of heart and mind, by which we shall learn to prize noble words, refined ideas, pure thoughts, and despise what is vulgar in though! and conversation. V. Concltuion. — Such care will be richly rewarded by the advantages and pleasure we shall derive, by tttt esteem of our companions, and especially by the approba^ tion of Him who gave language to m;m, for no other pur* pose than that it should serve as an instruuientality to prouiote his temporal and eternal happiness. 40.— Good Books the best Companions. I. Man is by nature social. — He looks for his equals. 380 virhjf.6fM''fon coM»biiTioyi. t" m 4 either to amuao liimseU', or to enjoy th'\ . .'*■■■ TieiouB Bonge. — o. By its means, demagogues perveit the truth, and sow the infernal seed of discord in peaceful communities. IV. Be cauthtis, there forCf in usiug your toogue : it is the source of uiuch good, but also of much evil. Keep it in proper boundi*, and bear in miud that man has to render an account of every idle woid. *' Speak little, but think much ; *' for '* many words and gootl judgmeut Heldom go together/' and ** speaking is very different from thinking.'' 42.— The noblest Ei^oyment of Toutli. i'^^ I. Man is not created for continual work. — His mind it naturally inclined to partake of enjoyu.ent. — a. Thisei\)oy- ment uffurds strength ta miud and body. We should, therefore, not abstain from the delights oi innocent pleasure. Every age should partuke of them, — youth us well as manhood. — b. But we frequently commit faults in the pursuit of pleasure, either by excess or by wrong selection. II. Which are the noblest enjoyments of youth f — a. All pleusures do not fulHI their promise. Many leave a great emptiness behind them, and fill the soul, sooner or later, with deep remorse. These are the sensual pleasures, many of which are incompatible with innocence and virtue. — b. Among the noblest enjoyments of youth are reckoned, — 1. The joys whicli Nature afi'ords, — a pleasant eveni-ig's walk, or a walk — 5.' The Joys which the a|rprob&tionOf cfoadmen affords. III. These joys posseifs the- excellent qualities^ iihat,— a. Th»^y are attainable by all, poor and wealthy. — b. They leave after them no sorrow. Xiemember the golden maxim, — «' Jinjoy thyself, but siii not.** SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITIONS. 2.13 e truth, and • igue : it is Keep it s to render but think Heldoin go thinking." lis mind it . Tlu8tfi\)oy- d, therefure, Every age - h. But we ler by excesR f— a. All Bat eiuptinesa eep remorse, inouiopatible enjoyments of , — a pleasant 's mornftig, a -2. The joys ant conyeraa- vanoement in ore ease than er success,— Tcein virtue, B Of goad men HeSt thati— - K They leave , but sIq not.** -'" ■ 43. — Life is a Journey . I. The life of man is frequently compared to different things, — as, the seasons ; the divisions of the day ; a tree which grows, blosaoms, bears fruit, and decays j to a flower, a river, a sea- voyage, etc. II. Mail's life may also be compared to a journey. — a. In general,—!. As the traveler has a destination in view, so is there fixed before man during his earthly pilgrimage a tvvofuld object, — one planted by Nature ; namely, death : the other, by Lim- self; namely, the station which, by his exertions, he intends to reach. 2. The journey of one traveler is pleasant, and free from all cares ; that of another is quite the contrary. So in the life of man. On one, Fortune smiles from the very cradle ; on another, she always looks coldly. — 3. The traveler needs a guide : man needs laithtul friends. 1st The life of the child. — '«. Tiie traveler begins his jour- ney without knowing what awaits him : the child begins life in equal ignorance. — b. At the outset, every thing louks hopeful to the traveler: the child alsu enjoys the present, and indulges in glowing anticipations of the future. — c. Unacquainted with the road, the traveler at first needs way-marks : the child also needs help to guide him. 2nd The lite of the youth. — a. After a cheerful journey, the traveler inquires for the best and nearest route to the next station : so the youth, after the time of play has passed, enters a new state of. life, and tries to prepare himself for it. — 6. Relying more ou himself, the traveler tries to proceed without guides : the youth too, begins to rely on his own strength. — c. Striving to advance too quickly, the traveler becomes easily exhausted : so the youth, when ambition spurs him on. — d. The traveler grows lonesome : he looks for associates, but, from want of experience, often finds himself disappouited in his companions. The youth alsjo seeks for friends, but often finds flatterers and deceivtns, who take away his f.'Ood name and his virtue. 3rd The life of man in his prime. — a. More prudent by experience, the traveler goes forward, and, in spite of obstacles, never loses sight ot his destinuiiun, Man, too, meets difficulties : but, in stead of being disma^'cc} by them, he is rather stimulated t•:■ t 44.— Utility of traveling. it In onr day, people travel much more than formerly, — some CD buBincss, some to gain information, and some to recrnit their minds and bodie's. II. Tlie advantages of travel are manifold. — 1st In regard to the traveler himself, — a. He strengthens his mind and body by a change of air. — h. He learns to know men in their different modes of life, and thereby cultivates his mind and refines his taste. — c. It forms his character.— 1. He comes into contact with men of different dispositions and habits, and thus learns their peculiarities, draws compariRons, adopts the good, and rejects the bad. — 2. The more he ' • s of men, the more his prejudices dis- appear. — 3. He findii> t^o many men with good qualities, that he becomes convinced that mankind is not so depraved as some would have him believe. — 4. Frequent dangers and accidents, the usual accompaniments of travel, strengthen the character and fortify the mind. — 5. He becomes mure contented with his country, and more attached to its laws and iiibtitutions. — 6. It affords him pleasant recollections, and furnishes his mind with useful thought. Wlmt we learn from observation makes a deeper impression on our minds than what we learn from the narrations of others. 2nd. In regard to others. — a. Traveling has been the means of making important discoveries (instances). — b. The judicious traveler learns from foreign people many beautiful and useful things, with which he may acquaint his own countrymen ; as organizations, laws, manner of living, useful inventions, customs worthy of imi- tation (instances). — c. Promotion of general intercourse betweea ^ ., SUBJECTS FOR COMPOBItlONS. 235 ', a poidtioit 1, both for the toils of for rep«>Be. ce played U le reflection now he may leads him ■ '•*■ ■'' ' Q formerly, and some d.— Ist In 9ns his mind men in their id and refines I into contact 18 learns their nd rejects the )rejudice8 dis- lities, that he as 6ome would ints, the usual and fortify the ntry, and more B him pleafant bought. Wliat n on our minds teen the means The judicious d useful things, 8 organizations, worthy of imi- couTise between the inhabitants of different countries, and advantages of the same. ' 3rd. Particularly in regard to motives of travel. — o. On business, political negotiations, etc. — 1. By being present in person, business relating to commerce, the nation, or the family affairs, may be conducted with greater safety than by letter. — 2. The merchant derives pniticuliir advantage from it, in the extension of his trade, business connections, etc. — 5. By traveling, threatening dangers may be warded off,— bankruptcy, money-crises, etc. iji «it ;j:,', 45.— Different Kinds and Modes of TraveL I. Travels are journeys from place to place. Moat people are fond of traveling, particularly the young : in advanced age, this inclination seems to diminish. Why f II. Travels may be classified according to the purpose lor which they are undertaken. 1st Ttav ^R on business. — a. Merchants travel to sell or buy or to extei). r commercial relations. — b. Officers of the State, ambassadoi ., . .c, travel in the service of their governments.-<" e. Others travel on account of family relations ; as sickness or death of friends, inheritance of property, utc. 2nd Travels for mere pleasure, or for the sake of recrait* ing health.— a. To watering-places. — &. To hilly countries. — o» To warmer or more bracing climates, etc. 3rd Travels for intormation. — a. Scholars travel to consult libraries, examine monuments, etc.— b. Artists, to visit nCiuseums of paintings and sculpture, or other works of art. — o. These and others also desire to study man in his various modes of life, and to see the manifold charms of Nature, both in their own and in foreign countries. — d. Voyages are made Ob sea to obtain information con* cerning new places (Columbus, Cartier, Vasca de Gama, Magellan, Cook, La Peyrouse, Parry, Kane), and on land for the same purpose (Mungo Park, Bruce, Chateaubriand, Humbolt). III. Different modes of travel. — a. On water, 1. Inland navigation, — on rivers, lakes, and canals. — 2. Sea-voyages. — 6. On land. 1. Afoot. — 2. On horseback, or on camels.— 3. Riding in a carriage, stage, sleigh, reuideer-sledge, etc. — 4. On the railroad- cars.— 0. In the air. 1. In balloons.— 2. Flying-machines. IV. Escamim the excellence and Hie defects of these varioof 236 SUBJECTS FOB COMPOSITIONS. modes of travel, the fitness of each for the diflferent purpo- ses of travel, and the influence which they exercise upon the advancement of civilization. ft , ' .' 46.— On the force of Good Example. I. Instruction is indeed a great blessing. What would man be without it ? It serves to set the youth right in the path of life j and he will profit by it, for he feels that it makes him wiser and better for the time to come. But instruction, however good in itself, would be of little or no avail, if he who instructs did not support his tetching by setting forth a good example. According to the old proverb, '' Words teach, example wins." II. Difference between example 'and pattern. — a. Example comprehends what is either to be followed or avoided ; — b. Pattern, only that which is to be followed or copied. (Every one, let his age and station be what they may, can often afford a pattern of Christian virtue. The student may be a pattern of diligence and dutifulness to his fellow-students ; the citizen may be a pattern of sobriety and conformity to the laws.) III. Characteristics of a good example. — a. It shows the contrast between good and evil in a striking manner. 1. So that even the most indifferent becomes stirred up. 2. And the moral feeling is aroused with such force, that at least some degree of emulation is excited. — h. It instructs, 1. By bringing its lessons to the comprehension of the dullest intuition, 2. And conveying to the mind what language can scarcely express. — c. It convinces, by removing all doubts concerning the value of good actions. — d. It encourages. 1. By involuntary incitements to resolutions of amend- ment. 2. By afibrdiug strength in the combat with evil. (Give examples from history of those who have gained courage to suffer iu a just cause by calling to mind how others have suffered and died before them, — martyrs of religion, of liberty, etc.) 3. It inflamed the soul with enmlutiou of all that is good and noble. — e. It con- quers. 1. No power on earth is able to hinder its final triumph. 2. No length of time can prevent its fame from being handed down to posterity. ; r^ - v ' .rv • •. > : -■ SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITIONS. 237 intpurpo- 5ise upon hat woald gbt in the als that it )me. Bat >f little or » te tching to the old X. Example -6. Pattern, e, let his age of Christian I dutifulness sobriety and shows the 1. So that d the moral le degree of its lessons to reying to the jnvinces, by tions. — d. It lis of amend- evil. (Give ;e to suffer in red and died It inflamed , — f . It con- inal triumph. Iianded down :«rj 47.— The Life of the "Warrior. mi^ (Reflections of a young man after seeing a regiment of troops march by.) I. A beautiful sight : such a splendid regiment of fine- ly dressed soldiers, charming music, excellent order, pretty uniform, every where welcomed with bountiful receptions. One may well feel a desire to join. The out- side is indeed handsome and alluring II. TJie life of the soldier. — 1st The recruit. — a. Parting from home and friends. — &. vDrillinj;, fatigue, etc. ' *" ... 2nd The drilled soldier. — a. In time of peace,— 1. In gar- rison ; compelled to associate with men of different characters, etc 2. Days on duty ; how tedious I 3. Off duty ; how may this time be profitably spent ? — 6. Marching, — 1. Hardship, toil, etc. 2. O- bliged to compel men who consider him only an object of impo- sition to furnish him quarters. — c. In time of actual war, 1. Thoughts before the first deadly combat. (The honor of his coun- try, the preservation ot its laws and liberties. Personal considera- tions : Is he always prepared for death ?) 3id Marching to battle. — a. Through friendly country. — 6. Through hostile territory. — c. In camp. (Anxiety feJt by the^ people waiting for the result of the engagement.) 4tli During and after battle. — a. Victorious. — 6. Defeated (What different trains of reflection !) — c. Not wounded. Mirth, j oy, much blood shed ; but the price is not too great for the purchase. Peace is restored ; a new epoch begins. — d. Wounded. Ah I pain, hosj.itul, extreme anguish ; but the thought that he is suffering for his country nerves him to glory in his pain. Even if he should die, he will be reconciled to God, and prepare hopefully for his end ; for he has done his duty. — e. Perhaps an invalid for life, maimed, unable to work to make a living. But a grateful people will not forget him, who, in the hour of danger, advanced to the post ot peril, and acted manfully for his country. ; ,i;: = .iiiti ; 48.— Agpriculture as a Source of Civilization. 1. Introduction. —Every thing must have a cause whose influence continues while the effect remains. Man i»8 BUBJEOTS FOB COMPOBITIOKS. ^^|k possesses within him the germs of his own development; bat some external, favoring circumRtance is neceftsary before this development can take place, jnst as the seeds of plants will only germinate when favored with heat and moisture. II. Agriculture is one of the original sources of man's advancement in civilization. — a. It attached him to fixed habitations, thus weaning hink from nomadic life. — b. It drew his mind away from rude customs, the passionate love of hunting, etc., and directed him to turn the vast resources of Nature to his advan- tage. — c. It accustomed him to regulate his activity according to the demands of the season and the temperature of the air. He thus became gradually imbued with the love of order and regularity. — d. It afforded his mind greater tranquillity, and a taste for domestic life.— e. By becoming more acquainted with the powers of Nature, he became more acquainted with his own powers. '' Nature is man's best teacher. She unfolds / Her treasures to his search, unseals his eye, Illumes his mind, and purifies his heart : ■''^' An influence breathes from all the sights and sounds Of her existence. She is wisdom's self."— Strkut. /. Agriculture made it necessary for man to live according to fixed laws, which gave security to life, person, and property. The desire to have his own rights respected taught him to respect the rights of others. " A man ot law, a man of peace, •>^ 1) , :. . »jiy frame a contract or a leasc'^—URABBE. . ^ ...... g. Agriculture improved social habits ; the forming of associations for mutual defense against robbers, invaders, etc. III. Conclusion. — Thus it appears that agricultare was at the foundation of ail human improvement. Even now, it is considered necessary to the well-being of states, as well as the chief source of their happiness. What material for reflection have ,. in our own country ! Two hundred years ago, a mere t 'lerness, a hunting-ground for the red- man ; we now T .;hoid it as it has been trans- formed by agiiculture. ivsjrBCTt ton eoupounoin. 63d lopment; neceRsary the seeds heat and of man^a 1 to fixed [t drew Ms inting, etc., > his advan- Bcording to le air. He 1 regularity, a taste for the powert wers. ,nd Bounds -Strbwt. according to )pei'ty. The [) respect the E. [ associations jultare was Even now, ; of states, jss. What 3try I Two ting -ground been trans* •^tJ^Wt, 40.— Advantages of Commerce. I. Wealth, — 1st To the producer. — a. The farmer.— 5. The mjinufacturer. — 2nd To the merchant.— a. The wholesale shipper.— h. The retail dealer.— 3rd To those who transport merchandise. — a. Mariners, and owners of vessels. — b, Kallroad companies.— o. Carters, etc. II. Industry. — a. Disposes of merchandise. — h. Encourages, therefore, the fabrication of new goods. — o. Excites ~:"r«)etition, thus calling forth the energies of man. III. Intellectual advantages. — a. Brings men together fi^m different countries, thus causing an interchange of ideas, and an acquaintance with one an other's customs. — h. Promotes the study of languages. — o. Leads to discoveries in, — 1. Geography. 2 Astronomy. 3. Natural Philosophy. 4. Statistics. 50.— Bailroads and Steamboats. "' '' J. One of the most successful of inventions^ which keeps pace in importance with the art of printing, is the steam* engine. It is applied to the nses of travel and traffic on railroads and stenmboats, and has called forth a powerful revolution, whicli has found its opponents as well as its defenders. We shall therefore speak of the advantages and the disadvantages of these rapid modes of locomotion. 1st Disadvantages. — a. Many persons, as drivers, inn-keep> ers, etc., have lost their occupation.— b. Smaller towns have either become desolate, or have advanced very slowly ; while larger ones grow with amazing rapidity. In these latter is rushing to and fro a population not having the least interest at heart in the welfare of the city, speculating for money, and desecrating the place with immoral and iiTeliKiouR principles ; whence the sad state of a large portion of the population of our great dties.^^c TJie growing wealth of many of the citizens, may, in the course of time, be the means of making them hostile to our free institutions, and imbuing them with a spirit foreign to our Constitution and State organiza- tions. With increasing riches, luxury enters, which may in the end destroy all birapHcity of manners among the people. — d. The quicknesp of travel lessens the eiijuyment and information whicli^ should be derived from that sourco. P'. Uf ; -■? '.' ' ■'.'' ' w 'i. H .^ !.■ 1^0 BUBJECT9 FOR COMPOSITIONS. 2Dd Advantages. — a. Commerce tei'. 1 trade gaia exceedingly by the ease and qiiicknesi of intercourse. ''Time is money.'' The pec liar products of different places find new markets.— b. Agricul- ture is benefited ; the farmer is not compelled to sell his products in the nearest market; hence higher prices, and consequently increase of wealth with improved modes u/ cultivating the land, new machinery, fine stock. Famine, formerly so common, may now in moat cases be avoided by sending the surplus of one country to feed the suffering population of another. — o. General culture is diffused by the facility of communication : every one may see more in a day than formerly in a week. Not only is commerce rromoted but also ait and science. — d. By the growing wealth, enterprise receives constant stimulus, and opens new fields of industry ; the rich, instead of becoming dangnrous to our institutions, rather feel that, for the most, they owe their prosperity to those free institu- tions. Besides, public opinion has become such a power in our day, that even wealth is obliged to submit to it.— e. Even family ties are drawn more closely, and new ones are formed by means of easier intercourse. — /. In times of war, a more speedy concentra- tion of troopR takes place : hence, a quicker decision, and shorten- ing of the suffering produced by war. The Italian compaign of 1859, the civil war of thn United-States of 1861-63, the Prussian of 1870, would have had quite different results if these modern improvements had not been brought into requisition. II. Conclusion. — Which are greater, the advantages or the disadvantages? What would he the condition of the United States and Canada, with their great lakes and rivers, their broad expanse of territory, if the steam- engine had not been invented ? God brings about great revolutions in the affairs of men when they are most needed : look at the map of Europe and at that of America, and it will be apparent that there was design in reserving the great inventions of the steam-engine and the telegraph until the discovery of the western continent, with its broad inland territories, should render tl^efli jieoessary. . ^,^>^ •'- ^ •' ■■ " ■ ■ - ■ : . .. ,, .^M- f • ■ . • - :: \ ' ixoeedingly ley." The b' Agricul- i> products nsequently |g the land, I) may now country to culture is ly see more frorooted enterprise Instry; the rather feel Tree institu- wer in our 2ven family py means oif r concentra- Mid shorten- !ompai);n of be Prussian ese modern intakes or ion of the lakea and 16 steam - Dut great are most America, reserving telegraph its broad